SANTA BARBARA CGLLEZE LIBIUIT
Ex Xibris
This book was presented to the Industrial Division
Library of Santa Barbara State College by
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Library Collection Sponsored by Pi SIGMA CHI
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TTeit-JBoofc Series in Education
EDITED BY PAUL MONROE, PH.D.
PRINCIPLES
OF
SECONDARY EDUCATION
TEXT-BOOK SERIES IN EDUCATION
THE HISTORY OF EDUCATION
By PAUL MONROE, Ph.D., Teachers College, Columbia University.
THE PRINCIPLES OF EDUCATION
By ERNEST N. HENDERSON, Ph.D., Adelphi College.
STATE AND COUNTY EDUCATIONAL REORGANIZATION
By ELLWOOD P. CuBBEKLEY,.Ph.D., Leland Stanford Junior Uni-
versity.
PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION
By a number of Specialists.
TO BE ISSUED
PRINCIPLES OF STATE AND COUNTY SCHOOL ADMIN-
ISTRATION
By ELLWOOD P. CUBBERLEY, Ph.D., Leland Stanford Junior
University, and EDWARD C. ELLIOTT, Ph.D., University of
Wisconsin.
PRINCIPLES OF CITY SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION
By ELLWOOD P. CUBBERLEY, Ph.D., and EDWARD C. ELLIOTT, Ph.D.
HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES
By PAUL MONROE, Ph.D.
SOURCE BOOK SERIES IN EDUCATION
A SOURCE BOOK IN THE HISTORY OF EDUCATION FOR
THE GREEK AND • ROMAN PERIODS
By PAUL MONROE, Ph.D., Teachers College, Columbia University.
TO BE ISSUED
A SOURCE BOOK IN • STATE AND COUNTY SCHOOL
ADMINISTRATION
By ELLWOOD P. CUBBKRLKY, Ph.D., and EDWARD C. ELLIOTT, Ph.D.
A SOURCE BOOK IN CITY SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION
By ELLWOOD P. CUBBERLEY, Ph.D., and EDWARD C. ELLIOTT, Ph.D.
A SOURCE BOOK IN THE HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN
THE UNITED STATES
BY PAUL MONROE, Ph.D.
PRINCIPLES
OF
SECONDARY EDUCATION
W^ritten by a Number of Specialists
EDITED BY
PAUL MONROE, PH.D.
PROFESSOR OF THE HISTORY OF EDUCATION, TEACHERS COLLEGE
COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY
THE MACM1LLAN COMPANY
1914
All rights reserved
COPYRIGHT, 1914,
BY THE MACMILLAN COMPANY.
Set up and electrotyped. Published October, 1914.
XortoooU
J. S. dishing Co. — Berwick & Smith Co.
Norwood, Mass., U.S.A.
PREFACE
THE scope of secondary education is now so broad, its
purpose and aim are so diversified, that no one specialist can
aspire to be accepted as an authority in the entire field.
The content of secondary education is so diverse, methods of
instruction and of administration are so varied, that no one
practitioner can hope to present views acceptable to all en-
gaged in the field. When unity of views or of practice does
not exist, it is impossible to express a unified philosophy or
to formulate a procedure universally valid. Under such cir-
cumstances, it seems best to prepare the prospective teacher
or administrator for his work by giving him the conclusions
representing the best thought and practice in this entire field.
Especially is this procedure advantageous if, as in the case
of this volume, the specialists writing have a broad acquaint-
ance with present practices, intelligent views and wide sym-
pathies in the whole field of education, and also a tolerance
of innovation justified by experience.
The insight which results from the consideration of views
of many specialists, thus animated by a common purpose and
possessing a wide experience in our secondary schools, is
superior to the unity which may come from the views of one
man no matter what his qualifications. Moreover, the prin-
ciples thus derived will be much more representative of
actual conditions, and hence will offer a more adequate
preparation for the novice.
Several of the chapters of this volume are taken wholly or
in part from the Cyclopedia of Education. The remaining
chapters are prepared for this volume alone. The author of
any chapter has no responsibility for the views expressed in
JUNTA SAEDAHA COLIEF UBRAflr
vi Preface
any other ; nor is the editor necessarily in sympathy with the
views expressed. At various points there may be conflict
between the views advanced by the various writers. The
unity of the volume is to be found in a common purpose, a
sympathetic and tolerant attitude, and the experience upon
which the views of each specialist are based.
The purpose of this volume is to furnish the student a
body of fact and opinion that through study and discussion he
may acquire some knowledge of the entire field of secondary
education, its purposes and its problems.
THE EDITOR.
CONTRIBUTORS
CHAPTER I. MEANING AND SCOPE OF SECONDARY EDUCATION.
The Editor.
CHAPTER II. HISTORIC SKETCH OF SECONDARY EDUCATION.
The Editor.
CHAPTER III. EUROPEAN SYSTEMS OF SECONDARY SCHOOLS.
Frederic E. Farrington, Ph.D., Associate Professor of Edu-
cation, Teachers College, Columbia University.
CHAPTER IV. THE HIGH SCHOOL SYSTEMS OF THE UNITED
STATES.
State Systems of High Schools :
Ellwood P. Cubberley, Ph.D., Professor of Educational
Administration, Leland Stanford Junior University,
Stanford University, Cal.
Rural High Schools :
Edwin R. Snyder, Ph.D., State Normal School, San
Jose, Cal.
Maintenance and Support :
Ellwood P. Cubberley, Ph.D.
Inspection and Accrediting of School :
W. Scott Thomas, University of California, Berkeley, Cal.
CHAPTER V. ORGANIZATION OF THE HIGH SCHOOL.
High School Administration :
W. D. Lewis, Principal, William Penn High School for
Girls, Philadelphia, Pa.
viii Contributors
The Curriculum :
David Snedden, Ph.D., Commissioner of Education, State
of Massachusetts.
The Elective System :
David Snedden, Ph.D.
Ttie Six -Year Course of Study :
David Snedden, Ph.D.
CHAPTER VI. THE PRIVATE SECONDARY SCHOOL.
James G. Crosswell, Head Master, The Brearley School,
New York City.
CHAPTER VII. PSYCHOLOGY AND HYGIENE OF ADOLESCENCE.
Guy Montrose Whipple, Ph.D., Assistant Professor of Edu-
cational Psychology, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y.
CHAPTER VIII. MORAL EDUCATION IN THE HIGH SCHOOL.
Edward 0. Sisson, Ph.D., Commissioner of Education,
Boise, Idaho.
CHAPTER IX. THE VERNACULAR.
English Literature :
Franklin T. Baker, Ph.D., Professor of English Language
and Literature, Teachers College, Columbia Uni-
versity.
George P. Krapp. Ph.D., Professor of English, Columbia
University.
Composition :
Franklin T. Baker, Ph.D.
Oral Speech :
Erastus Palmer. A.M., Professor of Public Speaking, Col-
lege of the City of New York.
CHAPTER X. THE CLASSICAL LANGUAGES AND LITERATURES.
Latin :
Gonzalez Lodge, Ph.D.. Professor of Latin and Greek,
Teachers College, Columbia University.
Contributors ix
Greek :
Thomas D. Goodell, Ph.D., Professor of Greek, Yale Uni-
versity, New Haven, Conn.
CHAPTER XI. MODERN LANGUAGES.
Elijah William Bagster- Collins, A.M., Associate Professor
of German, Teachers College, Columbia University.
CHAPTER XII. THE NATURAL SCIENCES.
George R. Twiss, B.Sc., State High School Inspector, and
Professor of the Principles and Practice of Secondary
Education, Ohio State University.
CHAPTER XIII. MATHEMATICS.
David Eugene Smith, Ph.D., Professor of Mathematics,
Teachers College, Columbia University.
CHAPTER XIV. THE SOCIAL SCIENCES.
History :
Henry E. Bourne, Ph.D., Professor of History, Western
Reserve University.
Civics :
James Sullivan, Ph.D., Principal of Boys' High School,
Brooklyn, N. Y.
Economics :
Edwin R. A. Seligman, Ph.D., Professor of Political Econ-
omy, Columbia University.
CHAPTER XV. THE FINE ARTS AND Music.
Art in Education :
John Dewey. Ph.D., Professor of Philosophy, Columbia
University.
Methods of Teaching A rt ; Design :
Arthur Wesley Dow, Professor of Fine Arts, Teachers
College, Columbia University.
Music :
Charles H. Farnsworth, Associate Professor of Music,
Teachers College, Columbia University.
x Contributors
CHAPTER XVI. THE HOUSEHOLD ARTS.
Ann Gilchrist Strong, Professor of Household Economics,
University of Cincinnati.
CHAPTER XVII. VOCATIONAL EDUCATION.
Industrial Education :
Charles R. Richards, S.B., Director Cooper Union for the
Advancement of Science and Art.
Commercial Education :
Joseph H. Johnson, D.C.S., Dean of School of Commerce,
New York City.
Agricultural Education :
Clarence H. Robison, Ph.D., Professor of Education, Nor-
mal School, Montclair, N. J.
CHAPTER XVIII. HYGIENE AND PHYSICAL EDUCATION.
Thomas A. Storey, M.D., Professor of Physical Education,
College of the City of New York.
George R. Meylan, M.D., Assistant Professor of Physical
Education, Columbia University.
CHAPTER XIX. ATHLETICS.
Clark W. Hetherington, A.B., Professor of Physical Educa-
tion, and Director of Athletics, University of Missouri.
CHAPTER XX. SOCIAL ASPECTS OF HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION.
Clarence A. Perry, Ph.D., Division of Recreation, Russell
Sage Foundation.
CHAPTER XXL RP:ORGANI/ATION OF SECONDARY EDUCATION.
David Snedden, Ph.D.
CONTENTS
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION: MEANING AND SCOPE OF SECONDARY
EDUCATION
PAGE
FUNDAMENTAL IMPORTANCE OF THE SECONDARY
SCHOOL i
NO .AGREEMENT AS TO SCOPE OR MEANING OF SEC-
ONDARY EDUCATION i
Reasons for this Diversity ........ 2
SECONDARY EDUCATION DETERMINED BY THE NATURE
OF THE PROCESS: TRAINING vs. INSTRUCTION . 3
SECONDARY EDUCATION BASED UPON SUBJECT MATTER 4
DISTINCTION BASED UPON PROFESSIONAL PREPARA-
TION 5
SECONDARY EDUCATION AS A CLASS DISTINCTION. . 6
SECONDARY EDUCATION AS A MEANS OF SOCIAL SE-
LECTION 7
SECONDARY EDUCATION BASED ON PHYSIOLOGICAL AND
PSYCHOLOGICAL AGE 9
SECONDARY EDUCATION DETERMINED BY THE STU-
DENT'S INTERESTS AND ABILITIES . . . .10
THE PRESENT IS A COMBINATION OF ALL THESE
FACTORS ii
SECONDARY EDUCATION AS A PREPARATION FOR SO-
CIAL SERVICE AND A TRAINING IN EFFICIENCY . 14
CHAPTER II
HISTORIC SKETCH OF SECONDARY EDUCATION
ORIGIN OF THE DISTINCTION BETWEEN ELEMENTARY
AND SECONDARY EDUCATION ..'... 16
Origin of the Practical Distinction 16
Origin of the Theoretical Distinction IQ
xii Contents
PAGE
THE SECONDARY SCHOOLS OF GREECE . . . .22
The Philosophical Schools 22
The Rhetorical Schools 22
THE ROMAN SECONDARY SCHOOL 24
The Grammar School 25
The Curriculum 25
The Roman Contribution to Method 27
THE MIDDLE AGES AND THE SECONDARY SCHOOL . 29
Types and Extent of these Schools 30
Free Schools and Endowments 31
The Curriculum 33
Method 34
THE SECONDARY SCHOOL IN THE RENAISSANCE-REF-
ORMATION PERIOD. THE LATIN GRAMMAR SCHOOL 36
The Establishment of Schools 37
Number and Type of Schools 38
Curriculum of the Latin Grammar Schools 40
Method of the Grammar Schools ....... 42
THE VARIANT TYPE. THE REALISTIC SCHOOL ... 44
Organization of the New Type of Education .... 45
The English Academies ........ 46
The German Rcahchulen ........ 47
Influence on the Curriculum 49
Influence on Method ......... 50
THE LATIN GRAMMAR SCHOOL IN AMERICA . . .51
Curriculum ........... 53
THE ACADEMY IN AMERICA 54
Curriculum and Method 57
THE AMERICAN HIGH SCHOOL 60
Origin . . . . . . . . . . . .61
Development of the High School System 64
CHAPTER III
SECONDARY EDUCATION IN EUROPE
FRANCE
POSITION OF SECONDARY EDUCATION ABROAD . .71
DEVELOPMENT OF THE SYSTEM OF SECONDARY SCHOOLS 72
THE SYSTEM 74
Centralization of Control 74
Secondary Education is nowhere compulsory in France . . 74
Types of Schools 75
Contents xiii
Unrest in Secondary Education 75
Primary and Secondary Schools Denned 76
Characteristics of the Course 78
Baccalaureate Degree 85
School Population 87
Boarding Schools 87
Teaching Force 88
Salaries 91
School Fees 93
Budget 93
EDUCATION OF GIRLS 94
Organization ........... 95
Program of Studies 96
School Population 98
Academic Distinctions 99
Standards of Teachers 99
General Characteristics 100
GERMANY
SOCIAL BACKGROUND 101
EDUCATIONAL CONTROL 102
PRIMARY AND SECONDARY SCHOOLS 105
BOYS' HIGHER SCHOOLS 108
Gymnasium 108
Realgymnasium .......... 109
Oberrealschule no
Number of Schools in
Fees 112
EARLY SPECIALIZATION DEFERRED 112
Reform Plan Schools 113
EDUCATION OF GIRLS. TYPES OF SCHOOLS . . .115
Reorganization of Girls' Schools . . . . . . .116
Program of Studies . . . . . . . . .118
TRAINING OF TEACHERS 120
Salaries . . . . . . . . . . . .121
ENGLAND
ENGLISH AND CONTINENTAL CONDITIONS CONTRASTED 122
"PUBLIC" SCHOOLS AND PUBLIC LIFE 123
Classical Influence 125
Organization . . . . . . . . . . .126
Programs of Studies . . . . . . . . .127
xiv Contents
Training for Leadership 128
School Life 129
Characteristics of the Public Schools 130
PREPARATORY SCHOOLS . . . - 130
OTHER TYPES OF SECONDARY SCHOOLS . . . .131
EFFECTS OF THE EDUCATION ACT OF 1899 . . .132
SECONDARY SCHOOL DEFINED 134
REGULATIONS OF THE BOARD OF EDUCATION . . .135
OPPORTUNITIES FOR FREE EDUCATION . . . .136
Present Conditions 137
PROGRAM OF STUDIES 138
COMPARATIVE FIGURES FOR SECONDARY SCHOOL POPU-
LATION 140
CHAPTER IV
THE HIGH SCHOOL SYSTEMS OF THE UNITED STATES
STATE SYSTEMS 146
Legal Provisions 146
The General Type 146
Organization of Control 148
Rural High Schools 149
Curriculum . . . . . . . . . -150
Statistical Summary . . . . . . . . .151
MAINTENANCE AND SUPPORT 154
Stages in Development . 155
Types of Highest Development 158
Basis of Apportionment . . . . . . . . .160
INSPECTION AND ACCREDITING OF SCHOOLS . . .161
CHAPTER V
THE ORGANIZATION OF THE HIGH SCHOOL
THE ADMINISTRATION OF THE HIGH SCHOOL DETER-
MINES ITS EFFICIENCY 174
The Principal is the Chief Factor in the Administration . .174
Full Support of the Faculty Necessary for the Best Results . 175
THE PROBLEM OF ADMINISTRATION 175
The Course of Study 175
THE DAILY ROSTER FOR PROMOTION BY SUBJECT . 177
Data Necessary as a Working Basis . . . . . .178
Non-conflicting Term Units are Necessary 180
Contents xv
PAGE
Regular and Irregular Students 180
Double Periods 180
Advantages of a Regular Roster Maker 182
ASSIGNMENT OF WORK TO TEACHERS 182
The Number of Periods required a Week from each Teacher 183
Special Duties 184
THE PRINCIPAL'S RELATION TO THE VARIOUS ACTIVI-
TIES OF THE SCHOOL 184
RELATION BETWEEN THE GRAMMAR SCHOOL AND THE
HIGH SCHOOL 186
Cooperation between the High School Principal and the Gram-
mar School Principal 186
Visits and Reports between the Schools . . . . .187
RELATION BETWEEN THE HIGH SCHOOLS AND THE
COLLEGES . 188
DISCIPLINE 188
Successful Discipline depends on Understanding the Adoles-
cent iSS
Public Sentiment of the School the most Important Factor . 189
Gradual Introduction of Student Participation in School Gov-
ernment 189
Social and Political Reasons for Student Participation in
School Government 191
HUMANIZING THE SCHOOL 193
Student Advisor System 193
ADAPTING THE SCHOOL TO COMMUNITY NEEDS . .194
The Changed Problem 194
Study of Conditions Essential as a Basis for Change in Pro-
cedure ............ 195
The Community Element 195
The Cooperation of Industry Necessary to the Fullest Service of
the Secondary School 199
This Broader Service demands Open-mindedness of the Princi-
pal ............ 200
THE PRINCIPAL AND THE TEACHER 201
Who shall Pass ? 202
Limitation of the Teacher whose Chief Interest is in his Sub-
ject 202
The Purpose of Teaching a Given Subject should determine
Content and Method ......... 203
An Illustration from History ........ 204
The Principal must visit Classes ....... 206
The Teachers' Meeting. It should be Democratic . . . 207
xvi Contents
SCIENTIFIC MEASUREMENT ESSENTIAL 208
Graph showing an Uneven Department 209
Typical Statement of Pupil-hours per Teacher . . . .210
THE PRINCIPAL AND THE BOARD OF EDUCATION . .211
HOW THE DIRECTION OF OUR HIGH SCHOOLS CAN BE
MADE MORE ATTRACTIVE TO FIRST-CLASS MEN .
THE CURRICULUM
Types of High School Curricula
THE ELECTIVE SYSTEM OF SECONDARY SCHOOLS .
SIX-YEAR COURSE OF STUDY
CHAPTER VI
THE PRIVATE SECONDARY SCHOOL
CHARACTERISTICS OF PRIVATE SCHOOLS . . . .233
VALUE OF PRIVATE SCHOOLS 235
PRIVATE SECONDARY SCHOOLS 235
Vocational Schools 237
Preparatory Schools 239
Military Schools 240
Denominational Schools 241
SOCIAL SELECTION 241
CHAPTER VII
PSYCHOLOGY AND HYGIENE OF ADOLESCENCE
PHYSIOLOGICAL SIGNIFICANCE OF THE ADOLESCENT
PERIOD 246
Variability is Itself Characteristic of the Period . . . 248
Physiological Age 248
The Concept of Retardation and Acceleration .... 248
Relation of Physiological Age to Success in High School . . 249
Growth in Height and Weight
Growth and Health
Growth by Parts
Growth of the Bones
Hygiene of Bone Growth .....••
Growth of the Muscles
Growth of Heart and Arteries
Circulatory Disturbances .....••
Growth of the Lungs
Training for Vital Capacity
Contents xvii
PAGE
Changes in the Voice 256
Period of Mutation ......... 256
Hygiene and Training of the Voice ...... 256
Growth of the Brain 257
THE PSYCHOLOGICAL PHENOMENA OF ADOLESCENCE . 257
Primary and Secondary Sex Characters 258
Ramifications of the Sex Instinct in Mental Life .... 259
Sensory Development 259
New Dermal Consciousness . . . . . . . .260
New Smell and Taste Interests . . . . . . .261
New Aural Interests ......... 261
The Sex Instinct 262
Sex Charms and Fetishes ........ 263
The Development of Love ........ 264
Instruction in Sex Hygiene ........ 266
The Migratory Instinct . . . . . . . . .270
THE SOCIAL ASPECTS OF ADOLESCENCE . . . .272
The Social Instincts 272
Gregariousness .......... 273
Sympathy ........... 273
Approbation .......... 274
Altruism ........... 275
Self-organized Groups 275
Maxims for organizing Societies 276
Variety of Adult-made Societies 277
School Organizations 278
High School Secret Societies 279
Alleged Merits 279
Alleged Faults .......... 280
Solutions of the Fraternity Problem ...... 281
Self-government Plans 282
The " School City ".........
Simpler Self-government Plans .......
Group Work in the Classroom
RELIGIOUS AND MORAL ASPECTS OF ADOLESCENCE
Religious Conversion in Adolescence
The Explanation .........
Tendencies toicard Conventionalizing Conversion ....
Periods of Intellectual Reconstruction
Studies of Ideals
Ideals depend on Age .........
Ideals depend on Sex .........
Ideals depend on Home Life and Social Station ....
xviii Contents
PAGE
Ideals depend on Type of School Instruction .... 290
The Variety of Occupational Ideals 291
Their Alterations . 291
Overambitious Ideals ......... 291
MENTAL PATHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE . . . .292
Developmental Retardation 292
Higher Retardations as a School Problem ..... 294
Adolescent Criminality 294
Causes ........... 294
Remedies ........... 296
INTELLECTUAL GROWTH IN ADOLESCENCE . . . .297
The Problem of Formal Discipline 298
The Older View 300
Arguments against It ........ 301
Experimental Studies of Transfer ...... 302
Conclusions based upon Adults may not apply to Children . . 304
Negative Transfer ......... 304
The Teacher as a Factor ........ 305
Alleged Inadequacies of High School Science .... 306
Linguistic Interests 307
Literary Interests 307
Art Interests 308
COEDUCATION 308
CHAPTER VIII
MORAL AND RELIGIOUS EDUCATION
HOW THE WILL GROWS 313
Will Development through Will Action 313
Intellectual Aspect 315
The Moral Element pervades All 316
The Will Exercises on Problems 317
The Sources of Energy 318
The Broadening of Sympathy 319
THE PROBLEMS OF YOUTH 320
What are the Problems ? 3-°
Sources of Information 321
The Larger Life 323
The Point of Contact 325
The Great Problems 325
THE GREAT DETERMINATIONS 327
The Realization of the Self 327
Physique 327
Contents xix
PAGE
Intellectual Initiative . -329
Personal Ideals . 330
Vocation 33!
Effect upon the Curriculum 333
Vocational Guidance 333
The Zest of Life .334
Mutual Relations of the Sexes 336
Honor and Ideals . . . . . . . . -336
A Gap in the Curriculum . . . . . . . .337
WAYS AND MEANS 338
School Life 338
School Government 339
School Work 341
Studies 342
Moral Values .......... 343
The Classics .......... 343
Heroes ........... 344
The New Order .......... 345
Moral Idealism .......... 346
RELIGION 347
The Secular School 347
Reaction . . 348
The Letter and the Spirit 349
Means ............ 350
THE HIGH SCHOOL TEACHER 350
Limitation by Conditions 350
Remedies 351
CHAPTER IX
THE VERNACULAR
THE TEACHING OF LITERATURE 356
ENGLISH LITERATURE IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS . .357
Literary Appreciation ......... 358
Study of the Vocabulary 358
The Literary Language 359
The Philological Method 360
Technique and Structure ........ 361
Moral and Cultural Value 362
Grading the Material 363
THE TEACHER AS AN INTERPRETER OF LITERATURE . 363
COMPOSITION 373
The Teaching of Composition 374
xx Contents
TRAINING IN ORAL SPEECH 379
COLLEGE ENTRANCE REQUIREMENTS IN ENGLISH . 382
CHAPTER X
THE CLASSICAL LANGUAGES AND LITERATURES
LATIN
PLACE IN THE CURRICULUM 387
THE VALUE OF LATIN 387
METHODS OF TEACHING 389
Difficulties of the Student 390
The Introductory Work ; the Customary Method . . . 391
The Oral or Direct Method 395
Pronunciation 396
The Later Reading 398
Transition to Caesar ......... 398
Cicero . . . . . . . . . . . 401
Ovid 403
Vergil 403
Other Selections .......... 405
GREEK
PURPOSE AND VALUE 406
The Approach to the Hellenic Spirit 407
METHOD FOR BEGINNERS 408
Pronunciation ........... 409
Oral Methods 410
Reading 411
Minor Principles of Method 413
PLACE IN SCHOOLS 415
VISUAL AIDS
LATIN AND GREEK 420
CHAPTER XI
MODERN LANGUAGES
PURPOSE OF STUDY OF MODERN LANGUAGE . . .424
METHOD 424
Pronunciation 424
Oral Practice 425
Grammar 427
Written Work 428
Reading 429
'Contents xxi
PAGE
RESULTS OF SCHOOL WORK 431
PLACE OF MODERN LANGUAGES IN THE CURRICULUM 431
United States 432
In Colleges ........... 432
College Entrance Requirements ....... 433
Reports on the Curriculum Requirements and Methods . . . 433
Distribution of Pupils ........ 435
Germany 436
Method ........... 437
France 439
England 442
CHAPTER XII
THE NATURAL SCIENCES
EDUCATIONAL FUNCTIONS AND VALUES OF THE
SCIENCES
WHAT SCIENTIFIC STUDY SHOULD DO FOR THE PUPILS 446
Specific Habits 448
The Law of Habit Formation ....... 449
Application of the Law of Association in Teaching . . . 450
Scientific Information ......... 450
The Choice of Subject Matter ....... 450
Criteria for the Choice of Subject Matter . . . . -451
The Mastery of Content . . . . . . . .452
Inspiration and Scientific Ideals 453
Mental Discipline 454
Applying the Principles of Transfer ...... 455
How Concepts of Method are built up . . . . . . 456
Precepts for the Conduct of Transferable Training . . -457
Developing Powers of Interpretation 458
THE TECHNIQUE OF INSTRUCTION IN THE SCIENCES
CURRENT METHODS 45Q
The Problem as the Center of Unification 459
THE CLASS CONFERENCE 460
THE FUNCTION OF THE LABORATORY 46-'
Number of Laboratory Exercises per Year 464
Size of Laboratory Divisions 464
Double Periods 465
Form of Notes 465
Inspection of Notes by the Teacher 466
xxii Contents
LECTURE DEMONSTRATIONS 467
FIELD OBSERVATION 467
REVIEWS 47°
The Topical Recitation 471
Written Reviews 472
THE SCIENCES AND THE CURRICULUM
COLLEGE ENTRANCE REQUIREMENTS 473
THE SCIENCE SUBJECTS 475
GEOGRAPHY
GEOGRAPHIC CONTROLS 476
BEGIN WITH LOCAL PROBLEMS 477
TEXTBOOKS 479
REPORTS OF NATIONAL COMMITTEES, BOOKS, AND
MAGAZINE ARTICLES 480
PHYSIOGRAPHIC PROCESSES 482
The Geographic Cycle 482
Physiographic Controls 483
PRINCIPLES OF SELECTION AND ORDER . . . .483
FIELD WORK, LABORATORY WORK, AND EQUIPMENT . 484
ORDER OF TOPICS 485
BIOLOGY
BIOLOGICAL PROBLEMS 486
POINTS OF VIEW FROM BIOLOGICAL STUDY . . .486
PRINCIPLES TO BE OBSERVED IN A BIOLOGICAL COURSE 488
GENERAL METHOD IN BIOLOGICAL STUDY . . . .493
SPECIAL METHODS 493
CORRELATION OF BOTANY, ZOOLOGY, AND PHYSIOLOGY 494
PHYSICS
COMMON-SENSE NOTIONS AND PHYSICAL PRINCIPLES 495
Intuitions and the Facts of Everyday Life as Starting Points . 496
Some Intuitive Notions Described 498
The Question of Tyndall's Boys 500
ECONOMY OF TIME AND EFFORT 503
FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS 504
SYLLABI 505
LABORATORY WORK 505
THE PROGRESSIVE PROGRAM
CHEMISTRY
THE PSYCHOLOGICAL BASIS 508
HOW TO BEGIN 509
Contents xxiii
PAGE
HOW TO USE THE TEXTBOOK 512
THE CONTENT OF CHEMISTRY 513
Chemical Laws 515
Type Reactions 516
Practical Applications 517
THE TEACHER
PERSONALITY 519
TRAINING 519
PROFESSIONAL SPIRIT 521
CHAPTER XIII
MATHEMATICS
NATURE AND USE OF THE SUBJECT 529
Reasons for its Study 530
Branches of the Subject ......... 530
Range of Secondary Mathematics 531
ALGEBRA 531
. General Nature of the Subject . 531
Reasons for Studying Algebra 532
Present Status in the Curriculum 534
In European Schools ......... 536
GEOMETRY 536
Reasons for Studying Geometry 537
Present Status of the Teaching of Geometry .... 538
Reforms and Improvements 539
ALGEBRA AND GEOMETRY IN THE GRAMMAR GRADES . 541
College Entrance Requirements in Mathematics .... 544
SPECIAL VISUAL AIDS TO TEACHING MATHEMATICS . 546
CHAPTER XIV
THE SOCIAL SCIENCES
HISTORY
NATURE OF HISTORY 549
MATERIALS OF HISTORY 550
PROBLEMS OF TEACHING HISTORY 551
THE CHOICE OF MATERIALS. ORGANIZATION OF THE
COURSE OF STUDY 552
Growth of History in College and School Curricula . . . 553
Report of the Committee of Ten 554
xxiv Contents
The Committee of Seven 555
Recent Modifications 557
Modification of Course in New Types of Schools .... 558
European Courses of Study and Programs ..... 558
METHODS OF TEACHING 560
VISUAL AIDS TO TEACHING HISTORY 564
CIVICS
THE TERM CIVICS 565
INTRODUCTION INTO THE SCHOOLS 565
PRESENT STATUS 567
METHODS OF TEACHING CIVICS 569
ECONOMICS
ECONOMICS IN THE SCHOOLS 573
CHAPTER XV
FIXE ARTS AND MUSIC
ART IN EDUCATION 578
Classification of the Arts . . . . . . . -578
Principles underlying Art in Education 579
Arts are Essentials in Education ...... 580
Expression precedes Appreciation ...... 580
Social Activities furnish the Starting Point ..... 581
Artistic Expression natural to Children- ..... 581
Literature the most General Art for School Purposes . . . 582
METHODS OF TEACHING ART 582
The Two Methods 583
The Academic Method . . . . . . . -58.3
The Structural Method 585
The Two Methods in the Schools ....... 587
DESIGN AS THE SUBJECT RELATING FINE ARTS TO
PRACTICAL ARTS 587
Industrial Design . . . . . . . . . -588
Design in the Fine Arts ......... 589
Relation of Design to the Arts of Representation . . . . 591
Place of Design in Education 592
Present School Conditions . . . . . . . . 592
MUSIC TEACHING IN THE SCHOOLS 594
Recent Tendencies towards a Broader Use and Appreciation of
Music in the School ......... 505
Instrumental Music ......... 595
596
Contents xxv
Methods in School Music 597
Interpretation .......... 598
Structure ........... 599
Key ............ 600
Interval . . . . . . . . . . .601
Rhythm ........... 602
Present Procedure . . . . . . . . .602
New Tendencies .......... 603
CHAPTER XVI
HOUSEHOLD ARTS
PRACTICAL ARTS IN EARLY EDUCATION . . . .608
BROAD CONTENT OF HOUSEHOLD ARTS . . . .609
The Purpose of the Household Arts 610
SCHOOL WORK SHOULD CONNECT CLOSELY WITH LIFE 611
CLOTHING AND HYGIENE 612
FOOD AND NUTRITION 613
Technical Skill to be Gained 614
Scientific Knowledge 615
Waste 615
HOUSING CONDITIONS, HOUSE PLANNING, AND HOME
KEEPING 616
Moral and Economic Values of Such Instruction . . . .617
EQUIPMENT 618
Elimination of the Artificial 619
Value and Results of Training in Housekeeping . . . .619
EXHIBITIONS 620
TEACHERS ' . 621
THE HOME IDEA MUST BE PRESERVED . . . .623
VOCATIONAL ASPECT OF HOUSEHOLD ARTS . . .624
The Trade School 624
The Girls' Technical High School 626
The Household Arts in the Academic High School . . .629
HOUSEHOLD ARTS IN SCHOOLS OF THE UNITED STATES 632
Massachusetts . . . . . . . . . -632
New York 633
Ohio 634
Iowa 635
Indiana ............ 636
Wisconsin ........... 636
Federal Subsidies 637
xxvi Contents
CHAPTER XVII
VOCATIONAL EDUCATION
PAGE
SCOPE OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 641
INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION
INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 642
General Definition 642
Origin of the Present Problem 643
Factors in the Problem 644
European Experience 645
United States 646
Evening Schools . . . 647
Technical Schools 648
Manual Training . 648
Trade Schools . . . . . . . . . . 649
Preparatory Trade Schools . . . . . . . .651
Part-time and Cooperative Plan . . . . . . .652
Apprenticeship and Corporation Schools ..... 654
Secondary Technical Schools ....... 655
Technical High Schools ........ 655
Legislation in the United States ....... 656
MANUAL TRAINING 658
Educational Value. Underlying Theory 658
Content of Course 660
Place of Manual Training in the Various National Systems . 660
Industrial Education and Manual Training 662
COMMERCIAL EDUCATION
ORIGIN AND NEED OF COMMERCIAL EDUCATION . . 663
Commercial Education in the Public High School . . . 664
AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION
DEVELOPMENT OF THE INTEREST IN AGRICULTURAL
EDUCATION 671
AGRICULTURAL INSTRUCTION IN THE SCHOOLS . .672
Agricultural High Schools 673
THE PRESENT PROBLEM 678
CHAPTER XVIII
HYGIENE AND PHYSICAL EDUCATION
HYGIENE 685
PERSONAL HYGIENE 685
The Scope of Personal Hygiene 687
Contents xxvii
TEACHING OF HYGIENE . . . . . . . .688
Instruction in Hygiene in the Schools 689
Scope of a Course in Hygiene 690
Methods of Instruction in Hygiene 692
The Teaching of Hygiene in the High School . . . .692
Legal Requirements 694
SCHOOL HYGIENE 694
Hygiene of the School Child 695
Hygiene of Instruction 696
The Construction and Sanitation of the Schoolhouse . . . 696
PHYSICAL EDUCATION 698
Early Conceptions 698
Modern Views .......... 699
Forms of Exercise 700
Gymnastics and Athletics 700
Educative Value 701
In Schools 703
Gymnastics for Girls 704
CHAPTER XIX
ATHLETICS
EDUCATIONAL VALUE OF ATHLETICS 709
CREATIVE FORCES IN ATHLETICS 711
The Contestant's Incentives 711
The Spectator's Incentives 714
EVILS OF ATHLETICS 716
CONTROL OF ATHLETICS 720
ATHLETICS IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS 724
Stages of Development ......... 724
Organized Athletics 725
Rules of Eligibility 725
Safeguards . . . . . . . . . . .726
Events 727
Summary of Values 727
Summary of Effects upon the School 727
Athletic Courtesy 728
CHAPTER XX
SOCIAL ASPECTS OF HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION
THE SOCIAL VIEWPOINT 732
INTERNAL VIEWPOINT 733
SOCIALIZED METHODS 735
xxviii Contents
PAGE
SOCIAL ELEMENT IN ORGANIZATION 736
HIGH SCHOOL EXTENSION 738
SUPPLEMENTARY ACTIVITIES DEMANDED BY SOCIETY . 739
CONTENT OF INSTRUCTION 734
CHAPTER XXI
THE REORGANIZATION OF SECONDARY EDUCATION
THE FORCES PRODUCING THE PRESENT REORGANIZA-
TION IN SOCIETY 745
THE REORGANIZATION ALREADY ACCOMPLISHED IN
SECONDARY EDUCATION 746
THE REORGANIZATION TO BE ACCOMPLISHED . . .746
UNIFORMITY IN EXISTING AIMS AND PRACTICES . . 747
RECENT SPECIALIZATION IN HIGH SCHOOLS . . .749
FUNDAMENTAL NEED FOR FURTHER ADVANCE IN THE
REORGANIZATION OF AIMS 750
REORGANIZATION IN METHODS OF TEACHING AND OF
PROCEDURE 753
EXISTING NEED FOR REORGANIZATION CAN BE UN-
DERSTOOD ONLY THROUGH A STUDY OF THE
EVOLUTION OF EXISTING PRACTICES . . . .755
CHARACTER OF PROSPECTIVE REORGANIZATION . . 756
AGENCIES OR INSTITUTIONS CONTRIBUTING TO EDU-
CATION 756
THE SCHOOL AS THE SPECIAL AGENCY OF EDUCATION 758
CLASSIFICATION OF THE AIMS AND PROCESSES OF
EDUCATION AS DETERMINING ITS REORGANIZA-
TION 759
Physical Education 760
Vocational Education ......... 761
Social Education 762
Cultural Education 764
Culture Primarily Based on Contemporary Life .... 766
Personal Culture and Achievement ...... 767
REORGANIZATION OF SECONDARY EDUCATION NECES-
SITATED BY FOREGOING ANALYSIS . . . .767
In Physical Education 768
In Vocational Education ......... 760
In Social Education . . . . . . . . -770
In Cultural Education 770
Effect on the Traditional Subjects 772
Administrative Changes Necessitated 773
THE FINAL WORD IS THIS .
PRINCIPLES
OF
SECONDARY EDUCATION
PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY
EDUCATION
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION: SCOPE OF SECONDARY EDUCATION
FUNDAMENTAL IMPORTANCE OF THE SECONDARY
SCHOOL. — The secondary school has been the bearer of
the dominant educational traditions from the time of the
Renaissance to the present. Until very recent times revo-
lutionary ideas and new methods in education have been
worked out in the secondary schools. Herbart formulated
and tested all his educational ideas in that phase of education
which we would call secondary. Froebel early taught in
a secondary school and later developed an experimental one;
from this experience he formulated his theories of education
a dozen years before he established the first kindergarten.
Until the middle of the nineteenth century the secondary
school was the dominant educational institution in most
countries, more influential in contributing ideas and shaping
policies than schools either preliminary or subsequent to it.
Even now in most countries except the United States the
secondary school is the most important and influential portion
of the educational system.
The secondary school has been established longer, in its
procedure, organization, curriculum, and method, than either
elementary school or university. It has been the most stable
as well as most enduring part of our educational system.-
NO AGREEMENT AS TO SCOPE OR MEANING OF
SECONDARY EDUCATION. — Notwithstanding these facts
there is now no consensus of opinion as to the scope or meaning
B I
2 Principles of Secondary Education
of secondary education. It has a local significance and a
peculiar purpose in each country. In our own country the
views con:;rning secondary education as to its purpose,
scope, curriculum, method, or organization are of the most
diverse character, even among those who are specialists in
this very field.
Reasons for this Diversity. — The reasons for this
unsettled condition lie in the nature of the case. Second-
ary education has meant different things in different ages and
to different peoples because of the divergences in social life
and structure. As the socially determining phase of education,
it has conformed to the varying needs of each stage of social
development and of each type of society. The indefiniteness
of present views as to the purpose and the scope is due to the
very great complexity of modern society and the greatly
multiplied needs of modern life ; to the enhanced responsi-
bility of the modern school ; to the assumption by the ele-
mentary school of the place of fundamental and initial im-
portance in the modern educational scheme ; and to the fact
that in America secondary education has become a super-
posed stage, not an alternative phase of education.
By passing in brief review the various conceptions of second-
ary education as these have been shaped by the varying needs
of different periods and peoples, an understanding of the
present situation may be reached. For the present is heir not
only to the achievements of all the ages but to many of their
problems. The social situation which secondary education
confronts to-day and which the secondary school attempts to
meet is a complex of these conditions of the past ; so the mean-
ing and scope of secondary education is a complex of these
various conceptions and procedures of the past.
The present state of affairs in secondary education is con-
fusing because the several problems of the various stages of
the past are now bound up in one situation. No one condition
is determining ; no statement of the problem of scope and
Introduction: Scope of Secondary Education 3
purpose in terms of a single factor or force or situation or aim
is sufficient. A variety of each of these is involved.
The following chapter will work out in greater detail these
typical forms of secondary education.
SECONDARY EDUCATION DETERMINED BY THE
NATURE OF THE PROCESS : TRAINING vs. INSTRUC-
TION. -The earliest distinction between primary and second-
ary stages of education to be worked out was that based upon
the nature of the process. When education became a con-
scious social process, its earliest stages were seen to consist
in that training in habit formation which produced the char-
acter demanded by the adult generation. These desired
social and moral qualities revealed themselves chiefly in types
of conduct and had little to do with attitudes of mind. But
it was soon seen that a different sort of education was necessary
for the dominant class of society, characterized by greater
intellectual alertness and a tendency to moral innovations.
This inquiring class needed an education which would make
clear the foundations of the habits formed, and which would
even allow a modification of conduct based upon an investi-
gation and consideration of such fundamental conditions.
In other words, this new type of education became intellectual
instead of moral ; its central process was that of instruction
as contrasted with training or habit-formation. Incidentally
it became restricted to a superior class, while the education
of character-formation remained general in its scope. This
was the distinction worked out by the Greeks, by whom it was
first attained.
This differentiation being accepted, secondary education
was seen to be a superior process, elaborated for, and capable
of assimilation only by, a superior class and resulting in
a superior social product. In its highest form it also assumed
a position of distinct superiority in the. educational scheme
and, with some further historical elaboration, became the
" liberal education " of many subsequent generations.
4 Principles of Secondary Education
SECONDARY EDUCATION BASED UPON SUBJECT
MATTER. —-The differentiation of secondary education on
the basis of the method used, involved also the choice of subject
matter. In its origin, however, this importance of subject
matter seemed to be of derivative, not of initial, value. With
the elaboration of processes of instruction, as opposed to
processes of training, the reflective consideration of human
experience became formulated. These formulations of ex-
perience were among the many achievements of the Greeks.
Thus grammar was developed as a conscious consideration
of human speech as a process of expressing experience ;
rhetoric as conscious consideration of speech as a form of social
control ; logic as a conscious consideration of human thought
as an instrument for the control of human experiences in
connection with the social or the physical or the spiritual
environment.
The profound emphasis upon the character of subject matter
as the determining factor in secondary education was given
in the Renaissance period. This emphasis resulted from the
realization that the most valuable account of human experience
and activities was to be found in the literature of past ages,
expressed in tongues which then had become foreign. Second-
ary education then came to be a matter of the mastery of these
foreign languages and literatures. This condition continued
to involve the difference in method. But the delimiting factors
of secondary education became much broader than method ;
for the general view of method now came to be not that of in-
struction as opposed to training, but the method of studying
and teaching foreign languages and literatures — • or to be more
specific, methods of studying Latin and Greek. In this stage
secondary education remained for several centuries. This
distinction based on subject matter, or on subject matter and
appropriate method, combined, remains the most important
factor in determining the scope and purpose of secondary
education. In more recent periods mathematics and science
Introduction: Scope of Secondary Education 5
either came to share with the classics this place as distinctive
subject matter or, with modern languages and literature,
replaced them altogether.
While subject matter and method have thus been most
influential, at least in determining the scope of secondary
education, its purpose with given peoples or in given periods
has often been determined by other considerations. And at
present the distinction furnished by subject matter and method
is conspicuously inadequate, even to determine scope.
DISTINCTION BASED UPON PROFESSIONAL PREP-
ARATION. — The separation of the secondary from the
lower stage in education was rendered saner as well as more
distinct by the condition which early developed, giving a
peculiar professional value to these specially selected methods
and subjects of study. Even among the Greeks those who
applied themselves to the mastery of grammar, rhetoric, and
logic soon formed a profession. This group was'made a social
class, not simply because its members possessed certain special
knowledge, but because they possessed valued powers developed
by use of the new methods. Such soon became the ruling
classes in society ; the rhetorician, the philosopher, or the
politician, replaced the soldier and those trained by the old
methods as the dominant factors in society.
Among the Romans, and especially during the Middle Ages,
secondary education was elaborated as a conscious social
process into this preparation for the professions dominant in
society. To produce the orator and lawyer became the chief
object of the Roman grammar and rhetorical schools. With
the medieval church in the ascendency, the higher clergy
came to perform practically all the professional services for
society. The Latin grammar school came to be the only
avenue for admission to these higher branches of the clergy.
While subject matter and method were still characteristics,
the predominant feature of secondary education was the fact
that it was the sole means of preparation for those activities
6 Principles of Secondary Education
which directed social forces and the sole entrance to those
professions.
With the development of the university the secondary school
ceased to be a direct preparation for the professions and became
preparatory to the training for these professions now given by
the higher schools. And such it has remained. Continuing
this peculiar professional privilege, though not fitting directly
for the professions, these schools have become more remote
from the immediate needs of society and more abstract in
their view of subject matter and method.
SECONDARY EDUCATION AS A CLASS DISTINC-
TION. — As secondary education changed from a professional
training to a preparatory stage to such training, it developed
another aspect. In losing its distinct professional cast it
made a much broader appeal and became a badge of class
distinction. This function of secondary education became
prominent in the Renaissance and post-Renaissance period.
It remains to-day a powerful factor in determining the char-
acter and scope of secondary education. Among certain
classes of people rather than at any period of history, the sig-
nificance of secondary education as a class distinction is
characteristic.
As the secondary schools, at least the great Public Schools
of England, lost their distinct function of preparing poor boys
for the university and thus for the clergy, they became popular
as training centers for the sons of the gentry. Intellectual
work became a subordinate part of the training ; subject
matter and method became stereotyped, formal, traditional.
It was the social stamp given by the peculiar conditions of
a highly artificial life that was prized.
This conception of secondary education was most influential
during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, though it
persisted well into the nineteenth as a view accepted not only
socially but also educationally. In furnishing the personal
motive it undoubtedly is widely operative to-day, though it is
Introduction: Scope of Secondary Kducation 7
hardly accepted as a social justification or by any group of
professional educators.
During the late seventeenth and the eighteenth century
this view affected elementary and higher education as well
as secondary. For large sections of people, education of any
type was the mark of the leisure class. Hence, as is the case
with dress or amusement or employment or any form of
distinction of the leisure class, the more remote from practical
use it was and the more completely it unfitted the possessor
for practical activities, the more highly was it valued. Un-
fortunately the early development of secondary education
for girls was entirely on this basis, and this view has largely
persisted. For a time any literary education outside of a pro-
fessional class was regarded as such a class distinction.
With the entrance of women in any numbers to the secondary
field, education as a class adornment lost much of its literary
cast, and incorporated a great variety of activities char-
acteristic of the leisure classes of those periods.
In European centers the social status of the family is still
quite clearly indicated by the type of secondary school to
which the children are sent, and it is frequently true that
secondary education of a given type is sought merely for
social reasons. While the American high school is so broad
and indefinite in its scope that it fails to possess much of this
peculiar social significance, yet it is true, partly because of its
very lack of definite purpose, that many attend because it is
an index of social class.
This factor of class significance is one of the causes for the
difficulty of developing in the United States a more strictly
vocational type of secondary schools similar to those in
European countries.
SECONDARY EDUCATION AS A MEANS OF SOCIAL
SELECTION. — Underneath all of the distinctions of the
secondary stage of education previously discussed, lies one
possessing the greatest significance and one operative over
8 Principles of Secondary Education
the longest period. This is the view of secondary education
as a means of selecting those most able and fit for social
leadership of any type. This characteristic is involved in one
of the distinctions already stated. It is really one way of
stating that education is a preparation for professional life.
But it is much broader than this professional conception, and
works independent of it. It is probable that neither social
nor educational leaders were conscious of this function until
education had broadened beyond professional training. This
greater breadth came definitely during the Renaissance-
Reformation period. It was expressed by our Puritan fore-
fathers in the phrase — " that learning might not be buried in
the grave of our fathers in church and in commonwealth."
To those who perpetuated the old Latin grammar school
though conscious of its narrow conception of education, the
institution was justified by its selective function. When the
democratic spirit was increasing in the period previous to the
nineteenth century, it was this function of the school that was
deemed of greatest significance. This selective system worked
somewhat ruthlessly, but nevertheless directly and efficiently,
to its end. The Jesuit system avowedly rejected those of
mediocre capacity and devoted its energies to those of superior
abilities. Most of the Protestant systems more or less un-
consciously and automatically did the same thing. Even in
those countries where the autocratic spirit was comparatively
wanting, as in Scotland, the entire attention of the secondary
school was directed to " the lad o' parts."
The democratic criticism of the secondary school of this
type is aimed not so much at its purpose of selecting only the
fittest, but at its very narrow conception of abilities. The
type of mind that responded to this peculiar discipline, rigid
and thorough, was tested in a very narrow range. It still
remains the accepted belief, both socially and educationally,
in most of the European countries, that the secondary edu-
cational system is designed to select, by elimination or by
Introduction: Scope of Secondary Education 9
segregation, the intellectually ablest of the younger generation
and to send them on, if not to prepare them directly for leader-
ship in the various institutions of society.
On the other hand, it is obviously true that the American
schools in emphasizing the democratic purpose have minimized
this selective function of the secondary school. The tendency
in our own schools is to devote more attention to the sub-
normal or to the mediocre than to the supernormal. It would
be entirely possible to preserve both the democratic and the
selective function of the secondary school if the false democ-
racy which demands uniform treatment for all were replaced
by the practice of differentiating students according to their
interests, subject matter according to its social significance
for the student taking it, and methods according to the in-
dividual abilities of the students.
SECONDARY EDUCATION BASED ON PHYSIOLOGI-
CAL AND PSYCHOLOGICAL AGE. — With the growth of
modern individualism and of the natural sciences, there came
into secondary education an entirely new consideration. It is
now known that during the adolescent period the child undergoes
such a radical change, physically and psychically, that education
can find in these changes the sufficient basis for a differentia-
tion between the earlier and the secondary stages of education.
To Rousseau belongs the credit of first definitely emphasizing
this fact. The European schools, based upon other traditions,
hardly take these facts into consideration — at least as a basis
for the differentiation of elementary and secondary education.
The secondary education period begins in practically all
European countries at about the ninth year of the pupil's
age ; that is, some four or six years before the American child
enters upon this stage of education, and some years before
adolescence.
Other reasons were more influential in setting the age limits
of the American secondary school, but the general recognition
of the peculiar interests, abilities, and characteristics of the
io Principles of Secondary Education
adolescent age has had much to do with determining these
limits. While the democratic feature of elementary education
is no doubt the determining factor in fixing the beginning of
the secondary school period at about the fourteenth year,
the recognition of the importance of the adolescent period has
grown in weight throughout the history of the American high
school. The old academies and the still older colonial Latin
grammar schools took the youth much earlier than does the
present high school.
That the influence of the adolescent factor has been stronger
than most others is shown by the fact that foreign languages,
science, and higher mathematics have been made to conform
to this distinction, when experience, the conditions in other
countries, and the interests of the child would dictate an earlier
approach.
The seventh chapter of this volume gives an elaborate
summary of the physical and psychical considerations which
enter into the adolescent period and which must receive
attention in determining the scope and character of secondary
school work. Such considerations are becoming more and
more influential and should be studied as a prominent, though
not the sole, factor in determining problems of secondary
education.
SECONDARY EDUCATION DETERMINED BY THE
STUDENT'S INTERESTS AND ABILITIES. — A factor of
increasing importance in determining the scope and purpose of
secondary education is that embodied in the interests and
abilities of the students. In considering its selective function
as the determining element in secondary education, it was noted
that the interests and abilities of only a very limited class of
students were considered. But as a result of the increased
attention given to the physical and psychical characteristics of
adolescence as well as of the growing diversification in the needs
of society, a wider range of student interests and abilities was
provided for. This was the characteristic contribution of the
Introduction: Scope of Secondary Education n
academies. The courtly academies of the continent, the non-
conformist academies of England, the early American acad-
emies, all catered to the interests of the students. So
marked a feature did this become, especially in the American
academies, that it resulted in what might be termed " local
option " or even " personal option " in education. " If you
do not see what you want in the curriculum, ask for it," was
practically the working basis of many of these institutions.
Such freedom and absence of standard could but be a pass-
ing phase, even though it emphasized a much-needed prin-
ciple of operation.
A more stable and socially serviceable form of response to
this same demand was made in the continental countries of
Europe, especially among the Teutons, by the development of
divergent types of secondary schools. Thus in time the Ger-
man states added to the gymnasium, the pro-gymnasium, the
real-gymnasium, the obcr-real schule, the fortbildung schule,
and the several forms of the technical and the commercial
schools. Scarcely an interest or an ability of the adolescent
fails to find an opportunity for expression and training in
this diversified system.
The American high schools attempt through a variety of
alternative courses to meet the same need. These courses,
however, are of such general nature that the schools do not
function so efficiently as do the continental ones.
THE PRESENT IS A COMBINATION OF ALL THESE
FACTORS. — At the present time all of these factors enter into
a determination of the scope and purpose of secondary educa-
tion. Hence arise the complexity of the problem, the lack of
agreement among those engaged in the work of secondary edu-
cation, the absence of a common procedure or organization.
Added to this fact is the other consideration that society is
much more complex, and the individual has much greater
liberty of choice and opportunity, than in any past stage.
Consequently it is impossible to state in simple terms the
12 Principles of Secondary Education
problem of secondary education or to delimit with any great
precision its scope and purpose. These are, or may be, as
varied as the needs of society and the interests and abilities
of the students. Any theoretical formulation of principles
and any practical organization of procedure must take account
of all these factors.
Some consideration must be given to the fundamental
difference in methods between the elementary and the higher
stages of education. While all school work has become
primarily a matter of instruction, yet the element of rational
interpretation of experience as a basis for future conduct
must be made the guiding principle of method in the secondary
stage. So to formulate the work of the secondary school that
such rationalized intelligence will result is now recognized as
one of the chief tasks of the educator. The stress placed upon
method in the chapters on the natural and the social sciences
as well as in the concluding chapter of this volume is in recogni-
tion of this fact.
The differentiation of subject matter is and must continue
to be one of the determining factors in secondary education.
But the practical demands that foreign languages, the higher
phases of mathematics for some children, and the natural
sciences taught by inductive methods for all children, should
be begun much earlier, will probably bring in the United
States a gradual lowering of the age of entrance to the second-
ary school.
In nearly all countries the completion of a secondary school
course is the prerequisite for admission into most professions
or professional schools. The present tendencies are all in the
direction of making this requirement more general. No doubt
in time such a requirement will become universal in the United
States as it has in the Teutonic countries of Europe. Any
consideration or any organization of secondary education must
include this as a definite factor.
The secondary stage of education continues to be a form of
Introduction: Scope of Secondary Education 13
class distinction. And the conservation of social forces may
well continue this influence. However, it should not be merely
the badge of a leisure class. It should rather become, through
a greater precision in the social functioning of the secondary
school system, an index of efficiency in the various classes and
groups in society.
In European countries the secondary school continues to
function as an instrument of social selection, and the tendency
in our own country is in that direction. Social selection may
work, however, not only by elimination, but by segregation.
It is with difficulty that a democracy realizes the fact that
social democracy and social stability depend upon specializa-
tion and upon efficient development of individual ability. The
guiding principle cannot be to treat all students alike, but
to develop as many specialized lines of training as the com-
munity can support. There is now in our country greater
need than ever for the training of leaders and for an instru-
ment of social selection. The haphazard methods of the past
are proving too wasteful to be long continued. National if
not individual competition will force such specialization and
definite training upon us. The intelligence which demands
the best training of the efficient must be joined to the pre-
vailing sentiment for the education of the subnormal if our
country is to hold its own as the advantages due to our un-
limited natural resources gradually disappear. The selection
and the training of the socially efficient or the supernormal
is probably the factor that needs most stressing in the present
state of our secondary education.
The psychical and physical factors influential in secondary
education have never before received so much consideration
as is now being given to them. The careful continuous study
of these factors cannot but throw light upon the whole problem,
despite the number and the importance of the other factors.
Similarly, students' interests and abilities are receiving un-
precedented attention. And this must be continued. Such
14 Principles of Secondary Education
consideration bids fair to bring about a much greater diver-
sification in our secondary education than we have ever had.
SECONDARY EDUCATION AS A PREPARATION FOR
SOCIAL SERVICE AND A TRAINING IN EFFICIENCY. -
All the factors of the past are now present and operative.
This fact in itself would seem to be sufficient to explain the
complexity and the importance of the present problem in
secondary education. But to these is added one other, an
entirely new one and a dominating one.
This fact is that there is a dawning perception that secondary
education must become universal as elementary education has
now become. This situation is not clearly recognized, but its
existence explains much of the uncertainty and much of the
difficulty of the present.
In all of the highly developed modern societies the inade-
quacy of the existing form of elementary education is being
recognized. In addition a special vocational training is needed
for the rank and file of society workers ; and the selected
leaders in professional or vocational activities of a higher social
and intellectual status should have a broader general education
as a basis for their subsequent vocational training.
Hence in European countries extended systems of diver-
sified secondary schools have developed, including not only
the varied forms of schools preparatory to the professions and
to scientific employments, but a like variety of technical vo-
cational schools for those engaged in common industry of any
form. Several German states and other Teutonic countries
make it incumbent on practically every individual entering
into industry or commerce to take such training. That for
the higher professional and scientific employments has long
been obligatory.
In English-speaking countries, more jealous of individual
initiative and of freedom from regulation, the development
has been much more tardy. In our own country the pressure
of complex social conditions has also been much less. Con-
Introduction: Scope of Secondary Education 15
sequently the development of a variety of vocational continu-
ation schools of secondary character has but just begun. The
demand for the universality of secondary education is indicated
by the growing recognition of the necessity for such schools
throughout our own country, as well as by the greatly increased
attendance upon our present secondary schools and by the
variety of attempts to diversify the course of study in the
traditional schools. If such diversification were adequately
provided for, both through varied courses and through new
types of schools less bound to traditional methods, the attend-
ance upon secondary schools would become vastly greater.
But our own country will realize in time, as the countries
of continental Europe have already done, that this matter
cannot be left to individual interest and choice. The in-
terests of society demand such advanced and more specialized
training for all its members. Granting that there are still
great numbers who are free from the necessity of a definite
vocational training, an advanced training for the benefit of
those possessing leisure is just as essential, if they are to be
socially efficient.
For women, whether in vocation, or responsible for the home,
or belonging to a leisure class, the same need is becoming evi-
dent. And no doubt the educational aspect of the present
" woman's movement " will become more and more distinct
as experience adds its influence to a priori arguments.
The concluding chapter of this volume presents this view
of the universalization of secondary education, not only in its
opportunities but in its realization, in the form of an argument
in terms of social efficiency and service. In time this argument
of expediency will become one of necessity, as society in America
becomes subject to somewhat more of the economic pressure
that exists in other countries, and as political, economic, and
social problems take a more definite and concrete form than
they now have.
CHAPTER II
HISTORIC SKETCH OF SECONDARY EDUCATION
ORIGIN OF THE DISTINCTION BETWEEN ELE-
MENTARY AND SECONDARY EDUCATION. — The dis-
tinction between secondary and elementary education first
arose with the Greeks. On the practical side this distinction
grew out of the transition from the simple life of the old Greeks
to the complex conditions of later Greek society. Increase
of wealth, of leisure, of luxuries, and of democratic political
power and the decline of military interests characterized the
latter and called for a new education. On the theoretical
side the distinction grew out of the reflective consideration
by the philosophers of educational processes. They recognized
the difference between the simple habit-formation in the home
life of their early generations and the artificial processes of
instruction necessary for skilled, and specialized participation
in a highly developed society.
Origin of the Practical Distinction. — Old Greek education,
like all other forms of education in early stages of historic
growth and in simple social life, was a training in habits of
conduct. The traits of character which the Greeks valued in
an individual were courage, temperance, reverence, and good
practical judgment. These traits when developed in an in-
dividual produced in him that marked personality which was
valued by the Greek. They gave to the individual possessing
them a social value which entitled him to become a member of
the group. In a simple society where agricultural or pastoral
pursuits were the chief occupation of private life and military
activities the chief public duties, and where slaves performed
most menial work, little differentiation of social classes would
16
Historic Sketch of Secondary Education 17
exist. Without any great distinction of social classes or of
economic and social activities, little differentiation in education
could take place. So long as education was conceived in terms
of the virtues of conduct, the processes of education were largely
those of a " doing " as opposed to those of a reflective kind.
The simple means which the early Greek used to secure these
several results in habit-formation were music and gymnastics.
It is a striking fact that the people commonly held to be the
most cultured and intellectual of all peoples had until late in
their history little if any of that linguistic or literary training
which in all subsequent schemes has been made the basis of
all cultural education. The culture elements which in the
Greek scheme were the products have been made the means
in all subsequent schemes.
Plato says of this stage, " Education has two branches :
one of gymnastics, which is concerned with the body, and the
other of music, which is designed for the improvement of the
soul." Gymnastics he then divides into wrestling and dancing.
The ordinary Greek curriculum was running, jumping, wres-
tling, throwing the javelin, and boxing. Music in the schools
was no less a " doing " process. It consisted in repeating
poetry to a musical improvisation which would express the
emotional content of the poem.
While this education in habit-formation through the use of
music and gymnastics flourished, the simple society which
gave it birth was giving way to a much more complex one.
In the political world the old aristocracy was passing away and
a democracy of free citizens, exercising very great direct powers
over the wealth, the individual liberties, and the personal
welfare of its members, was taking its place. On the economic
side trade and commerce had developed, and the classes pur-
suing these interests came to replace in power those whose
economic basis was in agricultural or pastoral interests.
Following a period of economic expansion and of division of
labor, a great variety of new social and industrial activities
1 8 Principles of Secondary Education
sprang up. A period of great military activity was followed
by one of expansion of national power, with its opportunities
for realization of personal aims, for revelation of political
ability, and for personal aggrandizement through the direction,
or manipulation of public affairs. . Small city-states now were
replaced by a great Grecian people with a common culture,
a broader horizon, and a larger social opportunity. This
meant a closer contact with foreign ideas and customs and
a consequent toleration. A reflective as well as a cultural
literature developed. Religious ideas changed, old customs
lost their compelling force, old ideals failed. The old theology
or mythology was completely undermined, with a resulting
change in philosophy and literature as well as in morals and
religion. In this new world the traditional education of train-
ing in habits of action in conformity with certain simple
fundamental moral ideals lost its force.
Out of this situation, secondary education as a practical
process evolved. Neither the old philosophy and religion nor
the old-fashioned training sufficed for the new needs. The
demands on education made by these social changes — political,
economic, ethical, literary, and the like — were twofold.
There was first a demand for greater freedom for the individual
in action and thought, to correspond with the growth of freedom
in the political sphere. Second, there was a demand for train-
ing or education that would enable the individual to take ad-
vantage of the unprecedented opportunities for personal
achievement and aggrandizement. Ability to discuss all
sorts of social, political, economic, and scientific or meta-
physical questions ; to argue in public in the market place
or in the law courts ; to declaim in a formal manner upon almost
any topic ; to amuse or to instruct the populace upon topics
of interest or questions of the day ; to take part in the many
diplomatic embassies and political missions of the times, — was
now demanded. In fact, the demand was for an ability to
acquire wealth or to command the approval and control the
Historic Sketch of Secondary Education 19
votes of an intelligent democratic society much like our own ;
where, however, the functions of printing press, telegraph,
railroad, and all modern means of communication were per-
formed through public speech and private discourse, and where
legal, ecclesiastical, and other professional classes of teachers
did not exist. The old Athenian state made no provision
whatever for higher intellectual training of a formal kind, but
it did offer opportunity for such development in the freedom
it gave to the individual during the period of his training in
the gymnasium and after the military training of the Ephebic
period.
Whether approached from the theoretical or from the practi-
cal side, the formal subjects of study became the basis of the
new education. Out of the social and intellectual changes
noted grew new subjects, foreign in character to the simple
music and gymnastics of the early period. Grammar, the form
and arrangement of language ; rhetoric, the form and arrange-
ment of written or oral speech ; logic or dialectic, the form and
arrangement of thought, — were the contributions of the soph-
ist, the rhetorician, and the philosopher of this period. These
formal or abstract studies, modifying or determining habits
of thought rather than habits of action, now became the basis
of education. Grammar and rhetoric, relating more directly
to everyday life as participated in by the orator, became the
practical aspect of secondary education. Logic or dialectic,
concerned with the reflective or thought life, became the basis
of the theoretical phase. Each produced its own type of school.
The rhetorical school and the dialectic or philosophical school
long persisted ; the grammar school remains to the present
day.
Origin of the Theoretical Distinction. — The theoretical dis-
tinction between elementary and secondary education arose
with those Greek thinkers who contemplated the conflict aris-
ing in this transition from a simple society to a complex one
wherein individualism had undermined most of the old social
2O Principles of Secondary Education
standards, and who also saw this conflict between the practical
and the theoretical aspects in the earliest differentiation of sec-
ondary education. In the Republic (Bk. VII) Plato seeks for a
scheme of education adequate to produce the rulers of society, a
scheme which would not only cultivate the virtues demanded
under the old regime, but which would also give knowledge and
develop virtue and disinterestedness. Music and gymnastics
he considered inadequate and the useful arts demeaning.
But he declares in favor of the " study of the kind which leads
naturally to reflection but which seems never to have been
rightfully used ; for the true use of it is to draw us towards
being (abstract thought)." He finds that arithmetic, geom-
etry, astronomy, and harmony comply with these require-
ments. These in turn are to be used primarily as an intro-
duction to the study of abstract ideas, " in which if one
perseveres, he attains by pure intelligence to the idea of good
and finds himself at the end of the intellectual world."
Aristotle first formulated this distinction in his psychologi-
cal analysis :
" There are three things which make men good and virtu-
ous : these are nature, habit, reason. In the first place,
every one must be born a man and not some other animal ;
in the second place, he must have a certain character, both
of body and of soul. But some qualities there is no use in
having at birth, for they are altered by habit, and there are
some gifts of nature which may be turned by habit to good
or bad. Most animals lead a life of nature, although in
lesser particulars some are influenced by habit as well. Man
has reason, in addition, and man only. Wherefore nature,
habit, reason, must be in harmony with one another — for
they do not always agree ; men do many things against
habit and nature, if reason persuades them that they ought.
We have already determined what natures are likely to be
most easily molded by the hands of the legislator. All
else is the work of education ; we learn some things by habit
and some by instruction."
Historic Sketch of Secondary Education 21
This distinction of Aristotle's brings out most clearly the
fundamental difference in practice between elementary and
secondary education with the Greeks. The former was pri-
marily the formation of habit through athletic activities, the
singing of songs, the memorizing and repetition of poetic
legends, and the improvisation of a musical accompaniment.
Gracefulness in movement, courage and quick decision in
danger, endurance under physical hardships, reverence for
elders and for things sacred, obedience to authority, devotion
to the state, good judgment in practical affairs, temperance
in all forms of personal pleasure or relaxation, were thus to be
obtained.
But the formation of such habits no longer sufficed to equip
a youth to enter the changed social life. He must have
guidance in adapting himself to new and changing condi-
tions. He needed not only to form such habits, adequate
under the old conditions, but to develop the power to modify
his habits or to form new and more complex ones, to meet new
and complex situations. Therefore he needed instruction as
well as training. Herein lies the fundamental distinction
between the two stages of education. Elementary education
looked to the formation of habits by the process of training ;
secondary education sought to develop general intelligence
by the process of instruction.
Aristotle further elaborates this distinction on the ethical
and philosophical side. In his ethical theory he has denned
goodness as the harmony between the organ or organism and
its purpose or function, and has discovered two kinds of good-
ness. There is goodness of being and goodness of doing ; good-
ness of thinking and goodness of acting ; goodness of intellect
and goodness of character. The special function of the higher
stage of education is to secure this goodness of intellect ; to
provide the rational basis for conduct ; to furnish the in-
tellectual preparation for the proper functioning of the in-
dividual in society.
22 Principles of Secondary Education
THE SECONDARY SCHOOLS OF GREECE. — The prac-
tical elaboration of these educational processes early evolved in
Greek experience the same problem which confronts the modern
educator. Are these needs of society and of the individual
best met by a process of instruction which deals wholly with
the interpretative aspect of experience more or less remotely
connected with the actual situations of everyday life? Or
is it better met by a schooling which contains large elements
of training in the actual application of the products of in-
struction through activities which closely resemble the or-
dinary social routine, if they are not actually a part of it?
Hence arose the two types of schools, the philosophical
or dialectic and the rhetorical.
The Philosophical Schools. — The more important of the
philosophical schools were the Academician, the Peripatetic,
the Stoic, and the Cynic. But there were others of less sig-
nificance. And of even greater importance to the youth
entering this stage of education were the numerous prepara-
tory schools either connected with these advanced schools of
philosophy or independent of them. They gave the gram-
matical training essential to entrance upon the logical or
philosophical discussions and gave also the rudimentary
training along these lines. The Platonic dialogues and the
Greek philosophical literature in general are the products
of these higher schools and represent their work at its best.
They also indicate the simplicity of organization in these
schools, the informality of method, the general vagueness
or abstractness of their content of instruction. That the
majority of such schools were inferior to these four more noted
ones is indicated by the variety of criticisms directed against
the work of the Sophists, most of whom after all belonged to
this group of teachers.
The Rhetorical Schools. — These were of a far more prac-
tical character. While they gave instruction in grammar
and literature, their characteristic work was the actual train-
Historic Sketch of Secondary Education 23
ing in declamation and in oratory. The ordinary school -
the grammar school or school of letters — also frequently
taught arithmetic and geometry. But a practical train-
ing in the use of language as a means of influencing one's
fellows, of defending one's rights, and of furthering one's
own interest in public and business life was the chief
aim. t
Of the method of procedure of these schools we have some
indications left. There were various types of oratory in
which the youth were trained. Chief of them were the fo-
rensic, the deliberative, the apologetic, the expository. Speci-
men subjects of such exercises are mentioned. The speeches
of the Sophists referred to in Plato, those of Socrates, and the
lectures of Aristotle furnish examples of these discourses in
their perfected form.
Little is known of the organization of these schools. In
the later period, in the flourishing period of the so-called
University of Athens, numerous tutors, some affiliated with
the professors of the University, some independent, were
found in connection with this crowning institution of the
Greek educational system. In other Greek cities similar
schools flourished.1 However numerous and prosperous the
schools of this type, it does not appear that the state ever
extended any support or supervision to them. To the Sophists,
the rhetoricians, and the philosophers of the University teach-
ing staff, the Greek state and later the Roman government
gave both oversight and financial assistance. In the long
transition period between the time when the Ephebic train-
ing was wholly military, physical, and civic to the time when
it had become wholly literary under the University faculty,
the Athenian government continued to exercise control over
the native youth who chose to strive for this type of education.
But as it took on a literary character, this stage of education
ceased to be compulsory. At the same time it came to be
'Sec Waklen, L'nhcrsitics of Ancient Greece.
24 Principles of Secondary Education
sought after by non-Athenian youth and so ceased to be
distinctive.
However, in the very early stages of the differentiation of
these two types of education, the defects which are yet attrib-
uted to them aroused criticism. The literary, philosophical
or dialectic education was held to be abstract, theoretic, and
impracticable. The rhetorical schools were regarded by the
advocates of the other type as materialistic, illiberal, or even
as tending to lower the whole moral tone of society.
Thus for both theoretic and practical aspects, Greek educa-
tion and Greek experience outlined the present problems of
secondary education.
THE ROMAN SECONDARY SCHOOL. — The Romans
accepted the Greek educational system, particularly that por-
tion of interest in this study, with little modification. They
added little to it of significance to modern times. They sys-
tematized and perfected curriculum and method ; and in the
latter period of their history they built up a system of schools,
some remnant of which persisted long into the Middle Ages.
The historian Suetonius, writing about 121 A.D., gives as
explicit an account of the beginnings of secondary education
in Rome as one can now give.
11 The science of grammar was in ancient times far from
being in vogue at Rome ; indeed, it was of little use in a rude
state of society, when the people were engaged in constant
wars, and had not much time to bestow on the cultivation
of the liberal arts. At the outset, its pretensions were very
slender, for the earliest men of learning, who were both poets
and orators, may be considered as half-Greek : I speak of
Livius and Ennius, who are acknowledged to have taught
both languages as well at Rome as in foreign parts. But
they only translated from the Greek, and if they composed
anything of their own in Latin, it was only from what they
had before read. . . . The appellation of grammarian was
borrowed from the Greeks ; but at first the Latins called
such persons literati. . . . The early grammarians taught
Historic Sketch of Secondary Education 25
rhetoric also, and we have many of their treatises which in-
clude both sciences ; whence it arose, I think, that in later
times, although the two professions had then become distinct,
the old custom was retained, or the grammarians introduced
into their teaching some of the elements required for public
speaking, such as the problem, the periphrasis, the choice
of words, description of character, and the like ; in order
that they might not transfer their pupils to the rhetoricians
no better than ill- taught boys."
The Grammar School then became the dominant type.
For while the rhetorical school was often added as a superior
school, yet more frequently, especially when preceded by
the Indus, or elementary school, the grammar school added
on the rudiments of rhetorical training, by giving the youth
practical training in declamation and oratory. The grammar
school was of two types : one teaching Greek, the other Latin.
About 161 B.C. the Senate decreed " that no philosophers or
rhetoricians be allowed in Rome." And in 92 B.C. a similar
action regarding Latin rhetoricians was taken by the Censors.
This indicates the foreign origin of the formal Roman educa-
tion, its effect in undermining old custom, and its purpose
in preparing youths to avail themselves of new opportunities.
By the close of the first Christian century the grammar school,
subsidized if not supported by the state or the municipality,
became a common feature. Before the decline of the Empire
their existence may be said to have been universal. In 376
the Emperor Gratian determined the schedule of salaries
and assigned the grammar teachers a place in the municipal
budgets. The grammar school master was to receive a stipend
20 times as great as the annual wage of the ordinary workman,
and the rhetoric master one 24 times as large.
The Curriculum was elaborated and crystallized in the
form which it retained until the Renaissance. The grammar
and the rhetoric of the early centuries were evidently very
simple. But when Cicero's DC Oratore was published (55 B.C.)
26 Principles of Secondary Education
- though Cicero represented a foreign training — grammar
and rhetoric had come to include all literature, or at least a
very broad literary training. With the De Oratore of Tacitus
(79 A.D.) and the Institutes of Quintilian (96 A.D.), this curric-
ulum, still literary, contained history, poetry, philosophy,
and the entire range of subjects then known. In fact the
liberal arts were not yet limited to seven, but included archi-
tecture, medicine, and philosophy, along with grammar,
rhetoric, dialectic, arithmetic, geometry, music, and astronomy.
While this wide range of subjects was held up as the proper
preparation of the true orator, it is evident even from these
treatises which expound the ideal, that the work of most, if
not all, secondary schools was confined to a very narrow though
thorough training in grammar and rhetoric. By the latter is
meant both the practical training in declamation and oratory
and the instruction underlying these. Of the scope of rhetori-
cal training Cicero says :
" In my opinion, indeed, no man can be an orator possessed
of every praiseworthy accomplishment, unless he has attained
the knowledge of everything important and of all liberal arts,
for his language must be ornate and copious from knowledge,
since, unless there be beneath the surface matter understood
and felt by the speaker, oratory becomes an empty and almost
puerile flow of words."
The views of Tacitus are similar :
" On the contrary, he alone can justly be deemed an orator,
who can speak on every subject gracefully, ornately, and
persuasively, in a manner suitable to the dignity of his subject,
and with pleasure to his hearers. . . . Accordingly the
ancient orators not only studied the civil laws, but also gram-
mar, poetry, music, and geometry. Indeed, there are few
cases (perhaps I might justly say there are none) wherein a
skill in the first is not absolutely necessary ; and there are
many in which an acquaintance with the last-mentioned
sciences is highly requisite."
Historic Sketch of Secondary Education 27
As to the elaboration of the content of rhetoric it is suffi-
cient to call to mind that Aristotle, Cicero, Quintilian, are
not only the originators of this science, but are among the
greatest authorities now quoted. The subject stands sub-
stantially to-day as it was elaborated by these writers. Nor
is this Quintilian's only contribution to education, for his
Institutes is not only the first but probably the most volu-
minous and detailed of the systematic treatises that have
yet appeared on the whole subject of education.
Donatus (c. 400 A.D.) and Priscian (c. 500 A.D.) completed
the systematization of the curriculum and organized the
elements of literary education in the form in which they were
transmitted to the Middle Ages. For several centuries their
work constituted almost the entire structure of literary educa-
tion. Boethius (c. 480-524) made a similar contribution in
dialectic and philosophy. The work of these men brought
the Roman epoch in education to a close, and epitomized its
contributions to the curriculum.
The Roman Contribution to Method. — The Romans sys-
tematized method as they did the curriculum. Their writers
have left concrete indications of methods used, from the
learning of the alphabet to the study of philosophy. In fact
Quintilian's treatise is chiefly a discussion of method. He
would have the idea acquired writh the form, would use means
to arouse interest, would avoid compulsion, would have the
study of Greek grammar precede that of Latin grammar.
The detail with which this greatest of Roman schoolmasters
treats the subject as well as the rational conclusions which
he usually reaches may be judged from the introductory para-
graph of the chapter on reading.
" Reading remains to be considered ; in which how a boy
may know when to take breath, where to divide a verse, where
the sense is concluded, where it begins, when the voice is to
be raised or lowered, what is to be uttered with any particular
inflection of sound, or what is to be pronounced with greater
28 Principles of Secondary Education
slowness or rapidity, with greater animation or gentleness
than other passages, can be taught only in practice. There
is but one direction, therefore, which I have to give in this
part of my work, namely, that he may be able to do all this
successfully, let him understand what he reads. . . . Other
points demand much admonition to be given on them ; and
care is to be taken, above all things, that tender minds, which
will imbibe deeply whatever has entered them while rude and
ignorant of everything, may learn, not only what is eloquent,
but, still more, what is morally good."
With great detail, the curriculum of literature, grammar,
rhetoric, music, philosophy, arithmetic, geometry, astronomy,
and the entire range of ancient learning is presented. The
content of these subjects, their educational value, the best
methods of study and presentation, are considered. All
these were essential for the orator ; and the orator constituted
the one type of educated man. He was the philosopher
active in the affairs of life. This one profession comprised
the entire range of the modern professions, — lawyer, states-
man, publicist, teacher, editor or molder of public opinion,
— even clergyman, for orators were the guardians of public
morals. Caesar's well-known fondness for the public address
is an evidence of the part which this ability played in the
equipment of a man of affairs.
The relation of the processes of instruction to the processes
of practical training in oratorical powers undertaken by the
higher schools, with the resulting problems of adjustments,
is thus stated by Quintilian :
" It has been a prevalent custom (which daily gains ground
more and more) for pupils to be sent to the teachers of elo-
quence, to the Latin teachers always, and to the Greeks
sometimes, at a more advanced age than reason requires.
Of this practice there are two causes : that the rhetoricians,
especially our own, have relinquished a part of their duties,
and that the grammarians have appropriated what does not
belong to them. The rhetoricians think it their business
Historic Sketch of Secondary Education 29
merely to declaim, and to teach the art and practice of de-
claiming, confining themselves, too, to deliberate and judicial
subjects (for others they despise as beneath their profession),
while the grammarians, on their part, do not deem it sufficient
to take what has been left them (on which account also
gratitude should be accorded them), but encroach even upon
expository and deliberative speeches, in which the very great-
est efforts of eloquence are displayed."
Thus we get a prevision of those problems of adjustment
of the secondary stage of education to advanced schools and
to practical professional demands which yet demand the
teacher's attention.
Lists of subjects for debate, methods of training, forms of
oratory, styles of address, are all given, indicating that greater
attention was paid to the concrete details of this education
than by modern law school or theological seminary, whose
work would more nearly approximate that of the Roman
schools of grammar and rhetoric than would that of the
modern secondary school.
This contribution of the Roman school to organization and
method, though its influence evidently pervaded the Empire
during the centuries of its decline, lapsed for the greater part
of the Middle Ages. But with the Renaissance, Quintilian's
Institutes became both the guide of the new teachers of litera-
ture and the authority commonly referred to and followed by
several generations of scholars and teachers, now recognized
as composing a new estate in society.
THE MIDDLE AGES AND THE SECONDARY SCHOOL.
- Little of permanent value was contributed by the Middle
Ages to the traditions of the secondary school. That little
was through the influences making the work of the grammar
school a direct vocational training. The rhetoric school
died out. Rhetoric came to be limited to a training in pre-
paring legal papers and records, conducting legal and polit-
ical or diplomatic correspondence, and in general for the
30 Principles of Secondary Education
secretarial work which included the genesis of many modern
professional activities. Such training was given in the gram-
mar schools under the title of rhetoric. Some little arith-
metic, sufficient to calculate the calendar, with its numerous
feast days, was also included. Logic or dialectic in the early
Middle Ages was of little or no importance, and during the
latter centuries of this period produced its own institution,
the university. So the grammar school came to be the
secondary school par excellence and continued to monopolize
this field until a very recent date.
As the scope of rhetoric broadened during the Roman
period to include the preparatory training for the wide range
of professions, so did grammar undergo a similar expansion
during the Middle Ages. Not only did it include rhetoric
and the training of the clerk and secretary, the embryonic
lawyer and diplomat ; it provided in a similar way the training
for the clergy, which profession then included the entire
literary or learned class.
Types and Extent of these Schools. — The most important
change which these schools underwent in the transition from
the Roman period to the Middle Ages was that they passed
from the control of the state to that of the church. This
process was a gradual one in the Romanized population and
occurred as the bishop gradually acquired the authority of
the civil magistrates. In the population largely composed
of the new Teutonic elements there were no schools to replace,
and the rudimentary training in grammar or letters was
sufficient, but at the same time essential. So the grammar
school, now the bishop's or the episcopal school, became general
throughout western Christendom.
This transfer took place during the sixth and seventh cen-
turies. Though there is evidence that there was opposition
upon the part of churchmen to the church's assuming this
authority and responsibility, yet by the seventh century it
seemed to be recognized as necessary, for as Isidore remarked.
Historic Sketch of Secondary Education 31
" It is better to have grammar than heresy." Under the
title of grammar schools they are found in England under
Augustine early in the seventh century. Alcuin's school at
York was a century later. A canon of 826, rescinded in 1073,
required the maintenance of such schools by all bishops.
By the latter period, however, a distinct officer of the bishopric,
the chancellor, had been evolved, in whose hands was placed
the direct responsibility for the bishop's school and also for
supervising all schools and licensing the schoolmasters.
Meanwhile schools in churches other than cathedrals were
growing up. In churches having a collegiate organization
or even in parochial churches with adequate chantry founda-
tions, grammar schools were to be established. A decretal
of 1215 indicates the application of this order to England
and the general papal authorization upon which it is based.
" In every cathedral or other church of sufficient means,
a master ought to be elected by the prelate or chapter, and
the income of a prebend assigned to him, and in every metro-
politan church a theologian also ought to be elected. And
if the church is not rich enough to provide a grammarian and
theologian, it shall provide for the theologian from the reve-
nues of his church, and cause provision to be made for the
grammarian in some church of his city or diocese."
Meanwhile the monastic orders had come into control of
many episcopal and collegiate churches and of the schools as
well. Similar schools wrere frequently added to the organiza-
tion of the monastic chapter. Schools were by no means a
universal feature of monastic organization and were probably
always inferior in importance to the bishops' schools. They
sometimes cared for boys outside their order, but oftener
limited their attention to their own novices.
Free Schools and Endowments. — Two other changes
occurred during this period which were of as fundamental
importance as the transfer of the schools to ecclesiastical
control. One was the growth of endowments for the support
32 Principles of Secondary Education
of the schools, a support now rendered essential by the with-
drawal of civil contributions. The other was that these
schools became free, at least to a select number of pupils.
This change was partially consequent upon the fact that
these were church schools for the training of prospective
members of the clergy, and partially consequent upon the
growth of endowments and the stress laid by the medieval
church upon the virtue of charity. Such endowments began
when the bishop set aside a portion of the cathedral endow-
ment for the support of the schoolmaster, who had been
recognized for several centuries as a distinct officer. Before
this the schoolmaster was maintained out of the general
revenues, as were the remaining clerks and the canons. Grad-
ually it became the custom for bishops and even for kings or
private parties to establish such foundations for the school-
master. The decretal quoted on page 31 is probably the
authority for the very general introduction of this custom.
This custom of endowing secondary education, which in
the early days of the universities did not extend to higher
education, was so extended when private parties came to
make such, gifts, either for the support, in whole or part, of
institutions already existing or of masters already at work,
or for the creation of entirely new foundations. A new epoch
in education was opened by one of these latter foundations, that
of William of Wykeham at Winchester in 1382. This foun-
dation was made on such a scale that the educational features
entirely overshadowed the ecclesiastical and the philanthropic,
and in consequence Winchester is commonly held to be the
oldest of the type of great Public Schools of England.
This feature of separate endowment was characteristic
chiefly of England. But the general endowment of the
grammar school or of the grammar school master through
cathedral or monastic chapter or chantry foundation was
found throughout Western Europe. Subsequent develop-
ment takes one into the Renaissance-Reformation period.
Historic Sketch of Secondary Education 33
It is presumably true that cathedral schools gave free in-
struction to the members of the bishop's entourage or to pro-
spective clergy. But there are numerous indications that
many masters taught grammar privately and that even the
ecclesiastical foundations also had fees. The licensing of
schoolmasters developed probably because of financial value
of the monopoly as well as to preserve orthodoxy. When
the period of endowments is reached, it is clear from the reading
of the many deeds of gifts that their chief purpose was to
furnish free educational opportunity, especially for poor youths.
One of the best illustrations of this was Eton, founded by
King Henry VI in 1440 for twenty-five " poor and indigent
scholars to learn grammar " with " one master or teacher in
grammar, whose duty it is to teach the said scholars and others
whatsoever and whencesoever from our realm of England
flocking to the said college in the rudiments of grammar,
gratis, without the exaction of money or anything." Sub-
sequent foundations of this type became more significant in
the Renaissance and the Reformation period, though they
were of great frequency in the closing centuries of the Middle
Ages.
The Curriculum. — Alcuin enumerates the studies pursued
at York in the eighth century, naming law, music, and theology
in addition to the seven liberal arts. But this was beyond
the range of most schools and of most scholars. Later, how-
ever, he calls the school a grammar school, distinguishing it
from the song school. In this, as in all schools, the great
emphasis was put upon grammatical texts with the numerous
commentaries. Throughout these centuries and until the
university period the chief distinction made was that between
the grammar school and the song school. The following
excerpt from an ordinance of 1477 will make this distinction
clear :
" Ordinance. And that the grammar schoolmaster shall
henceforth have the jurisdiction and government of all scholars
34 Principles of Secondary Education
in the liberty and precinct of this town, except the petties
called ABCs and song, taking only for his fees, from every
grammar scholar, psalter scholar, and primer scholar according
to the scale fixed by the lord Bishop of Norwich, viz. for a
grammarian iod., psalterian 8d. and primarian 6d. for quar-
terage."
The curriculum of the medieval grammar school was as
restricted as the term indicates. Dialectic or logic became
of importance only with the universities. Rhetoric, as in-
dicated above, was restricted to technical legal preparation
of a rudimentary character. The content of grammar school
education was the content of grammar. Fortunately that
was broader than the present use of the term indicates ; for
within its scope was included all that those periods knew of
literature. The advanced text most commonly used was
Priscian, which was quite a thesaurus of Latin literature,
particularly of Vergil.
Method. — The medieval school added little of permanent
value to method. The first months, or even years, were
devoted to Donatus — the " dry bones " of linguistic rules,
definitions, and paradigms. This was mastered by sheer
effort of memory. Later texts, for instance the Doctrinale
of Alexander de Villa Dei, attempted to lighten this work
through versification ; as the Distyches of Cato did, for ex-
ample, for vocabulary purposes. The catechetical form is
found in some texts and towards the close of this period was
widely used in the schools. The various texts written by
Alcuin offer an example of the crudest kind. The dialogue
form was also used as well as that of formal address woven
into literary text. When schools became well developed in
the latter part of the period, an elaboration of method occurred.
The favorite form became that of " apposition," wherein
teacher and pupil carried on a spirited debate concerning
rules, verbal forms, interpretation, etc. No doubt in its
earliest stages this was pure memory work upon the part of
Historic Sketch of Secondary Education 35
the pupil and scarcely differed from the catechetical method.
But skill and confidence developed with training, and the
contest became one of genuine " apposition." All teaching
was by individual instruction.
The refinement of method with advanced students was the
application of the various forms of interpretation to literary
passages or sentences or words. These forms of interpreta-
tion were the literal, the allegorical, the moral, and the mystical
or anagogical. The significance of these various types of
method can best be given in the words of the greatest intellect
and teacher of the Middle Ages. In The Banquet, Dante
says:
" I say then, as is narrated in the first chapter, that this
exposition must be literal and allegorical ; and to make this
explicit one should know that it is possible to understand a
book in four different ways, and that it ought to be explained
chiefly in this manner.
" The one is termed literal, and this is that which does not
extend beyond the text itself, such as is the fit narration of
that thing whereof you are discoursing, an appropriate ex-
ample of which is the third song, which discourses of nobility.
" Another is termed allegorical, and it is that which is con-
cealed under the veil of fables, and is a truth concealed under
a beautiful untruth ; as when Ovid says that Orpheus with
his lute made the wild beasts tame, and made the trees and
the stones to follow him, which signifies that the wise man
with the instrument of his voice makes cruel hearts gentle
and humble, and makes those follow his will who have not
the living force of knowledge and of art ; who, having not the
reasoning life of any knowledge whatever, are as the stones.
And in order that this hidden thing should be discovered by
the wise, it will be demonstrated in the last treatise. Verily
the theologians take this meaning otherwise than do the poets ;
but, because my intention here is to follow the way of the
poets, I shall take the allegorical sense according as it is used
by the poets.
" The third sense is termed moral ; and this is that which
36 Principles of Secondary Education
the readers ought intently to search for in books, for their
own advantage and for that of their descendants ; as one
can espy in the Gospel, when Christ ascended the Mount
for the transfiguration, that, of the twelve Apostles, He took
with Him only three. From which one can understand in
the moral sense that in the most secret things we ought to
have but little company.
" The fourth sense is termed mystical, that is, above sense,
supernatural ; and this it is, when spiritually one expounds a
writing which even in the literal sense by the things signified
bears express reference to the Divine things of eternal glory ;
as one can see in that song of the prophet which says that
by the exodus of the people of Israel from Egypt Judea is
made holy and free. That this happens to Ije true according
to the letter is evident. Not less true is that which it means
spiritually, that in the soul's liberation from sin (or in the
exodus of the soul from sin) it is made holy and free in its
powers.
" But in demonstrating these, the literal must always go
first, as that in whose sense the others are included, and with-
out which it would be impossible and irrational to understand
the others."
THE SECONDARY SCHOOL IN THE RENAISSANCE-
REFORMATION PERIOD. THE LATIN GRAMMAR
SCHOOL. — During this period there developed two types of
secondary school which persisted throughout the modern period
and with some changes form the leading types to-day. The
dominant type was the Latin grammar school, which took its
place in the developing national systems as the prevailing form
of this school. In the growing state systems it became the
central core. It made the most general appeal of all schools,
opened its opportunities to all who were competent to do its
work and, at least in the opinion of educators in its day, offered
an intellectual training which prepared for all the higher
activities of social life. While universally planned as the Latin
grammar school, it received different national titles : the
Ginnasio in Italy, the Gymnasium in Germany, the Lycee in
Historic Sketch of Secondary Education 37
France, the Public School in England, the Grammar School in
the American colonies. The term " college " was occasionally
used in each of these countries.
The Latin school remained the dominant type and the
bearer of educational traditions through the modern centuries.
It became the most stable, and socially and politically the
most significant, part of the national school system. Its
procedure was perfected, its method established, its curric-
ulum fixed, its prestige rendered all powerful and its con-
serving influence profound. For many generations, even for
many centuries, the Latin grammar school determined the
view of education held by the teaching profession and by the
public in general.
The Establishment of Schools. — The outstanding feature
of the Renaissance period was the creation of a very general
interest in literature, in culture in general, and in the develop-
ment of literary schools. It may be said, on the contrary,
that this new interest resulted at most in the creation of a
small group of literary men, who at best had slight influence
on the life of the community and the course of history. Pre-
vious to the Renaissance there had existed a literary educa-
tion for a small group of clerks including some of the clergy
and the secretarial profession, and a practical training in
military activity and in forms of courtesy for the gentry.
With the decay of feudalism and chivalry, the Renaissance
added the literary element to the education of the nobles and
gentry and enlarged this group capable of attaining a literary
education to include not only all the gentry, but even selected
boys of the burgher or of the poorer classes. It seems probable
that this proffered opportunity to the middle and lower classes,
received with enthusiastic approval in the early Renaissance,
later on came to be viewed with disappointment or with indiffer-
ence by the burgher class. It was expensive ; it consumed long
years ; it was of direct value only in limited spheres ; especially
in commercial fields, with the development of the vernacular,
38 Principles of Secondary Education
its use declined much earlier than in other phases of social
activity.
But the Reformation cooperated with the Renaissance in
fostering the linguistic type of education. Literary and
textual studies came to have unique importance because of
their bearing on religious belief. Scholastic ability, fostered
by grammatical and rhetorical as well as by dialectic studies,
was thus developed. A general dissemination of literary
ability now became a thing to be desired. The ideal of life
as a discipline held by the religious leaders coincided with both
the concept of education and the actual practices of the school.
Numerous formulations of the aim of these schools are to
be found in the literature of the time. Practically all of them
agree in including the elements . of knowledge, piety, and
eloquence. The first indicated an ability to read, write, and
speak the Latin language and perhaps a knowledge of the
content of Latin literature ; by piety was meant a familiarity
with the Scriptures, the catechism, credal forms, and eccle-
siastical ceremonies, all gained more or less directly through
the school; by eloquence was meant an ability to use the
Latin language effectively in public activities.
Number and Type of Schools. — As a general result of the
Renaissance-Reformation the control as well as the character
of the secondary school was changed, and the number of these
schools greatly increased.
In most continental countries, at least in occasional in-
stances, municipalities had assumed the support of secondary
schools and had acquired substantial control. In England
control by trusteeship, of fellows, usually ecclesiastics, was
the common form. In numerous instances gilds had es-
tablished such institutions. But the commoner form was that
of the cathedral or collegiate church, of chantry foundation,
or of monastic order. In all cases the church claimed the
right of licensing teachers and usually the right of visitation.
In substantially all cases it made good its claim.
Historic Sketch of Secondary Education 39
The humanistic school of the early Renaissance was attached
to the court of a royal or noble patron, or was held in the
home of the humanist scholar, as in the cases of Barzizza and
Guarino. The early ones in Germany were under municipal
or noble patronage, as were some in France. In England the
typical form continued to be that of control by independent
boards of feoffees, fellows, or tutors.
During the Reformation period those of Germany were
developed into state systems, beginning with Saxony in 1528.
The free cities continued as patrons of these schools, and
in the state systems the municipalities were largely respon-
sible for support and the church for supervision. In the
Calvinistic countries — Switzerland, Holland, and Scotland
— church and state cooperated. The provisions for these
schools are usually found in ecclesiastical ordinances. The
English system of control underwent but little change, though
there was much destruction attending the Reformation ; and
in the subsequent period there were many new foundations or
refoundations by private patrons and by monarchs.
It is contended that the facilities for education during the
sixteenth century were greater than they were until very
recent times. Mr. Leach in his study of the grammar schools
of England in the sixteenth century estimates that in 1546
there were at least 300 such schools. He indicates the rec-
ords of fully 200. The population of England at that time
is estimated at 2,500,000. This estimate would give one
grammar school for every 8300 inhabitants. In 1865 the
Parliamentary School Inquiry Commission found 830 second-
ary schools of all grades, which would give one school for
23,250 inhabitants.
In Germany, Professor Mertz found 342 Latin schools in
the German states during the sixteenth century. According
to the estimated population of Germany at this time, Germany
possessed one Latin school for every nine or ten thousand
inhabitants. In 1910 there were 371 gymnasia and pro-
40 Principles of Secondary Education
gymnasia in Prussia with population of 37,200,000, or one for
every 100,000 inhabitants.
Curriculum of the Latin Grammar Schools. — An abundance
of evidence concerning the course of study of the Latin schools
drawn from widely divergent areas is available. The most
striking characteristics of these courses of study are their
similarity and their narrowness or intensity. Brinsley in his
Ludus LUerarius (1612) refers to the universal neglect of
arithmetic in these schools : " Insomuch, as when they (the
people) hear the chapters named in the church, many of them
cannot turn to them, much less to the verse. . . . You shall
have scholars, almost ready to go to the University, who yet
can hardly tell you the numbers of pages, sections, chapters,
or other divisions in their books, to find what they should."
And almost as neglected is the art of \vriting. In the same
treatise he says : " You shall find very few good writers in
Grammar schools ; unless either they have been taught by
scriveners, or be themselves marvelous apt hereunto, and
very rare, or where the master doth apply himself chiefly to
teach to write."
If this was the case concerning the two practical subjects
of most immediate value and availability, no further question
needs to be raised concerning subjects as yet hardly possessing
an organized form. Many of these advocates would rule out
Greek ; many would add it. The vernacular has a place from
the method point of view, but not as a recognized part of the
course of study.
Sturm's curriculum at Strassburg in 1565 was as follows:
zoth Class : Latin alphabet ; reading.
pth Class : declensions ; conjugations ; irregular forms ;
vocabulary of common speech.
8th Class : Latin syntax ; Epistles of Cicero with gram-
matical construction ; exercises in style.
7th Class : Latin syntax ; Epistles of Cicero ; exercises
in style ; translation of catechism into Latin.
Historic Sketch of Secondary Education 41
6th Class : Epistles of Cicero ; Martial ; Horace ; cate-
chism ; Hieronymus ; begin Greek.
5th Class : Versification; Cicero; Vergil, Eclogues; Dona-
tus, ex tempore translation; Pauline Epistles; Greek.
4th Class : Cicero ; Horace ; Greek ; Pauline Epistles.
3d Class : Latin treatises on rhetoric ; Demosthenes ;
Homer; Pauline Epistles; double translations, Greek and
Latin ; Terence and Plautus to be acted.
2d Class : Comparison of Latin and Greek authors ;
logic; rhetoric; Epistle to Romans; acting of Aristophanes,
Euripides, Sophocles, Terence, and Plautus.
ist Class : logic, rhetoric, and oratory in Latin and Greek;
with more intensive study of above authors.
The curriculum of the Protestant School at Geneva, the
College de la Rive, 1559, was as follows :
Classis VII. In this class the pupils will learn the letters,
and write them to form syllables, using a Latin-French read-
ing book. Reading French, and afterwards Latin from a
French-Latin catechism : drawing, and writing letters of the
alphabet.
VI. Declensions and conjugations are begun. Parts of
speech learnt in French' and Latin : more practice in hand-
writing : easy Latin sentences learnt orally and repeated as
practice in conversation.
V. Parts of speech finished : elements of syntax : the
Eclogues of Vergil read : Latin composition : Latin and
French employed side by side.
IV. Latin syntax continued. Cicero's Letters begun ; com-
position exercises are based on these. Prosody, with reading
of Ovid. Greek begun : declension and conjugation ; ele-
mentary construing.
III. Greek grammar systematically learnt. Cicero, Letters,
De Amicitia, DC Scncctiite: these two treatises to be turned
into Greek. The sEncid, Caesar and Isocrates read.
II. Chief stress laid upon reading : Livy, Xenophon, Polyb-
ius, Herodian, and Homer. Logic begun : propositions,
syllogism : to be illustrated from Cicero's Orations. Once
a week the Gospel narrative in Greek.
42 Principles of Secondary Education
I. Melanchthon's Logic; the elements of rhetoric in con-
nection with it; and elocution. Cicero's Orations: De-
mosthenes (the Olynthiacs and Philippics}. Homer and
Vergil also analyzed for rhetorical purposes. Two original
" declamationes " are prepared monthly. Once a week an
Epistle of St. Paul or other apostle is read in Greek.
The curriculum of the College de Guyenne at Bordeaux
in 1572 was as follows:
loth Class: alphabet; Pater Noster; psalms; Ave Maria;
Libellus Puerulorum (a little summary of inflections of regu-
lar nouns and verbs).
gth Class : the two manuals referred to above, Cato's
Disticha ; Cordiers Exempla.
8th Class: Cicero's Letters; Cordiers Colloqida; Terence.
yth Class : Cicero's Letters ; Latin grammar, and as above.
6th Class : mainly as above.
5th Class : as above ; Terence ; Ovid.
4th Class: Cicero, Orations; Erasmus, DeCopia; Ovid;
composition, Greek.
3d Class : Cicero ; Terence ; Ovid ; composition ; dis-
putation.
2d Class : Cicero ; Ovid ; Vergil ; Lucan ; composition,
declamation ; rhetoric.
ist Class : as above ; Quintilian ; Livy ; Seneca ; Justin ;
Eutropius ; Vergil ; Lucan ; Juvenal ; Horace ; and a variety
of other classical and patristi-c authors.
Method of the Grammar Schools. — As there was a
general conformity and an elaboration of curriculum, so
was there of method also. The teaching of Latin attained
a perfection, or at least an efficiency, which it has not altogether
lost. No other subject was adequately organized. The
natural sciences were not even recognized by the schools ;
consequently they developed no method. The literature on
method is as extensive as that on the curriculum. But only
the essential characteristics need to be enumerated here. The
curricula abstracted above indicate thoroughness, procedure
Historic Sketch of Secondary Education 43
by slow steps and brief lessons, frequent reviews, and above
all else an actual use of the forms of the Latin language in
conversation, in writing, and in formal speech such as dec-
lamation and oration.
The writings of Erasmus, of Melanchthon, of Brinsley, of
Sturm, of Ascham, of Hoole, of Corderius, of Vives, and of a
great number of others give us details of method and many
suggestions pertinent and valuable for the teacher of
languages even at the present time. And yet it is evident
that in the teaching of the alphabet and of the first steps in
reading, they made no progress ; that grammatical forms
were taught in the barren deductive way ; that dreary me-
moriter work occupied a large portion of the school time.
On the other hand, the extensive use of colloquies gave a
vitality to the subject which it has not possessed in later cen-
turies. Declamations and orations as well as ordinary con-
versation made it a living speech and gave the student power
through use. The Latin play, of either classic or contemporary
origin, gave interest and facility in speech. Double transla-
tion and other methods brought in the use of the vernacular,
secured valuable training in its use, assisted in giving it liter-
ary form, and ultimately resulted in giving it a place in the
curriculum. Erasmus states the best contemporary view of
method as follows :
" But I must make my conviction clear that, whilst a
knowledge of the rules of accidence and syntax is most neces-
sary to every student, still they should be as few, as simple,
and as carefully framed as possible. I have no patience with
the stupidity of the average teacher of grammar who wastes
precious years in hammering rules into children's heads.
For it is not by learning rules that we acquire the power of
speaking a language, but by daily intercourse with those
accustomed to express themselves with 'exactness and re-
finement, and by the copious reading of the best authors. . . .
Some proficiency in expression being thus attained the student
devotes his attention to the content of the ancient literature.
44 Principles of Secondary Education
It is true, of course, that in reading an author for purposes
of vocabulary and style the student cannot fail to gather
something besides. But I have in my mind much more than
this when I speak of studying 'content.' For I affirm that
with slight qualification the whole of attainable knowledge
lies inclosed within the literary monuments of ancient Greece.
This great inheritance I will compare to a limpid spring of
whose undefiled waters it behooves all who truly thirst to
drink and be restored. . . .
" In reading the authors above mentioned for the purposes
of vocabulary, ornament, and style, you can have no better
guide than Lorenzo Valla. His Elegantice will show you
what to look for and note down in your Latin reading. But
do not merely echo his rules ; make headings for yourself as
well. Refer also to Donatus and Diomedes for syntax.
Rules of prosody, and the rudiments of rhetoric, such as the
method of direct statement, of proof, of ornament, of ex-
pansion, of transition, are important both for the intelligent
study of authors and for composition. Such grounding in
grammar and in style will enable you to note with precision
such matters as these : an unusual word, archaisms, and in-
novations, ingenuity in handling material, distinction of
style, historical or moral instances, proverbial expressions :
the notebook being ready to hand to record them. Notes
of this kind should not be jotted down at haphazard, but
carefully devised so as to recall to the mind the pith of what is
read."
Unfortunately the evidence goes to show that the school-
masters did not have as clear an insight as did the great
humanist, and that with them the means all too frequently
became the end. The too common practice seems to have
been that condemned in the second sentence of the above
quotation.
THE VARIANT TYPE : THE REALISTIC SCHOOL. -
The variant type was more commonly known as the academy,
though the name " school for nobles " was also used. Various
other local titles might be used, as Edelschulen, Furstenschulen,
seminaries, pcdagogia, Particularschulen, Modistenschulen.
Historic Sketch of Secondary Education 45
Characterized by a broader and far more liberal curriculum,
these schools attempted to prepare the children of the upper
classes of society for the multiform duties of their stations.
Rejecting the theory of the Latin grammar schools that a
narrow linguistic discipline afforded a general training suffi-
cient for all needs, they offered a study of the activities directly
involved.
Consequently it is through this type of schools, less stable
by far than the dominant type, that those variations have
come which have permitted the development of educational
ideas and practices. This type of education did not always
crystallize into schools. In fact for a long period its adherents
rejected the school and preferred the tutor or some other mod-
ification of the family relationship. But through this variable
type, no matter what particular shape it took, came the in-
troduction of the modern languages, the natural sciences, and
the practical semi- or non-professional studies which would
pertain to the life of a gentleman. Consequently through
the same source there arose much that made for the better-
ment of method, for the broadening of the concept of educa-
tion, and for the growing social significance of education.
Organization of the New Type of Education. — While this
new conception of education produced the variety of schools
indicated above, the more general attitude of the adherents
of this " realistic " view was in favor of the tutorial system.
In its earlier form this education was avowedly for the chosen
few of the aristocratic class. Its aim was to produce men of
the world, accomplished in those arts of government and
management of practical affairs valuable to the gentry —
those possessing wealth, entitled to the positions of influence
in society, and controlling its institutions. It had little regard
for the scholar, less for the pedant, little for schools, and none
at all for schoolmasters.
The tutor, or a series of tutors, must possess these accom-
plishments and impart them to his pupils. Besides the tutorial
46 Principles of Secondary Education
instruction in the home much was attained through attachment
to courts of nobles or entourages of officials or landed gentry.
Much more was accomplished through travel. The grand
tour was a part of the education of every such favored youth.
Thus were the modern languages acquired, as well as a knowl-
edge of history, geography, the popular aspects of science
and its practical applications. Agriculture, the art of fortifica-
tion and of military affairs, some knowledge of government
and of foreign relations, were presumed to be acquired. Ex-
tensive reading in the modern languages took the place of pro-
longed study of the classics. All this was to be accomplished
through the tutor. When we recall that Vittorino, /Eneas
Sylvius, Ascham, Locke, Herbart, Froebel, were tutors and
that a large number of others who wrote on education, as well
as the prominent men of affairs throughout the centuries, were
products of this type of education, its significance can be
realized. In time, however, this educational procedure re-
ceived a more definite institutional embodiment. The non-
conformist academies of England and the real schools of Ger-
many are the most important of these.
The English Academies. — In the middle of the sixteenth cen-
tury Sir Humphrey Gilbert drew up plans for an Elizabethan
Academy, for the instruction of the youth of the court and
the gentry. Modern languages were to replace the classics ;
mathematics in all its practical application to navigation,
surveying, and military affairs was given prominent place ;
government, management of estates, familiarity with public
affairs, were to receive attention ; the natural sciences were
stressed.
A century later John Milton again sketched an academy in
his Tractate on Education. The prodigious range of learning
here advocated as essential was clearly beyond ordinary at-
tainment, but it emphasized the limitations of the accepted
type. De Foe in 1697 extended the scope of the idea, and ad-
vocated an academy for the education of women.
Historic Sketch of Secondary Education 47
Meanwhile Milton's idea was attaining realization, though
in a modest form. After the restoration of the Stuart monarchy
(1661) nonconformists were excluded from English public
schools and universities. This created a large body of students,
not only desiring new institutions, but interested in a type of
education that was a variant from the old. The Act of Uni-
formity (1662) drove nearly 2000 clergymen from their parishes.
These furnished a ready supply of teachers. Further repres-
sive laws made it necessary that such work of instruction as
would bring these two classes together should be done furtively.
Hence much of it was in the tutorial form. But from these
conditions emerged a number of well-organized institutions
termed academies. Their attendance was small, but their
product was of high quality.
The number of these institutions which attained note was
considerable, but in the nature of the case they could not be
welded into a system. English educational thought and in-
tellectual life was not ripe for them as a permanent type.
While they flourished for a hundred years, the eighteenth
century tended to reduce all to a dead level of orthodoxy and
mediocrity. Yet they were able to pass on the torch of in-
spiration to America, and in England to keep the spark alive
into the early nineteenth century with its educational awaken-
ing.
The German Realscliulcn. — The Furstcnschiilcn in several
of the German states persisted through this period. In fact
some still flourish in the form of agricultural schools, of value
to the landed gentry. But with the dominance of French
culture in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries these so-
called Rittcracadcmien became more and more artificial and
exclusive, and with the decline of the French influence, the
new type of German schools, either gymnasium or real school,
took their place. The real school was the embodiment of
this type of education for the great middle classes. In fact
it originated in the attempt to adapt education to the lower
48 Principles of Secondary Education
classes. The pietist Francke in the last decade of the seven-
teenth century founded a series of institutions centered about
an orphan asylum in Halle. His effort was to give these
orphan children an education of literary merit which at the
same time would assist them in solving the practical problems
in life. Industrial processes, printing, training in teaching,
a practical interpretation of the sciences, and a rational
use of the common branches were the chief means which he
employed. The institution became the center of educational
advance in Germany. In 1739 one of his pupils advocated
a plan for the reorganization of a government school then
under way, entitling the reformed institution " A Mathemat-
ical, Mechanical and Agricultural Real School." This is said
to be the earliest use of this term. Another pupil, Hecker, in
1747, opened the first real school in Berlin in coordination
with a German school and a Latin school. Its similarity to
Franklin's plan, then in process of realization at Philadelphia,
is very striking. Other schools of this type followed. For
half a century, however, there was little difference between
the programs of this type and those of the Latin gymnasia,
except that a few realistic subjects were added. But in the
early nineteenth century, with the strengthening of the classical
studies and the requirement of Greek, the realistic subjects
were minimized and the value of this type of education for
the common people was greatly decreased. It was necessary
that proper technical instruction or the basis for it be given
in a special institution. Consequently the real schools with
a more distinctive program multiplied.
It was not until after the middle of the nineteenth century
that the real schools received full state recognition. By the
Prussian regulations of 1859 the real schools of the first rank,
requiring four years of Latin but no Greek, were accepted as
state schools. Those of lower rank were dependent on the
local communities. The demands of the industrial and com-
mercial communities were not fully met until 1882 with the
Historic Sketch of Secondary Education 49
Realgymnasium, the Obcrrealschule, and the Realschule. Sub-
sequent development is given in the following chapter.
The Influence on the Curriculum. — The very nature of
this movement precluded any definite course of study. The
point of view demanded a training in all those subjects which
related to the life activities of the pupil.
The widest possible range of topics is suggested. Milton
enumerates Latin, Greek, eloquence (rhetoric), religion, arith-
metic, geometry, agriculture, geography (maps and globes),
natural philosophy, physiology, astronomy, trigonometry,
fortification, architecture, " engineering or navigation,"
physics, poetry and literature, moral philosophy, law and
government, economics, politics, Italian, Hebrew, and possibly
Chaldee, history, logic, and a great variety of physical exercises.
The actual program of an eighteenth-century English
Academy included Latin, Greek, Hebrew, the Scriptures,
logic, history, geography, philosophy (metaphysics), divinity,
algebra, geometry.
Hecker's Berlin Realschule, later known as a Pedagogium
and after 1797 as the Friedrich Wilhelm Gymnasium, con-
tained in its program of studies, Latin, Greek, Hebrew, German,
French, religion, drawing, geography, arithmetic, algebra,
geometry, trigonometry, history, natural history (botany,
mineralogy), physics, and philosophy.
Illustrative curricula could be multiplied indefinitely. But
the principle underlying the curriculum in the views of
these educators is evident ; all the subjects then existing in
an organized form were to be pursued. In the cases of the
curricula given, the student body was a highly selected one,
devoting at least nine years to the course outlined.
Locke, De Foe, and practically all the writers on education
of this period who are not speaking from the point of view of
the Latin schoolmaster emphasize a list quite as extensive.
Obviously such a program is not intended for every child, but
as Milton says only for those " who can draw the long bow."
50 Principles of Secondary Education
Nor in every case were all of the subjects to be taken by every
child favored with such an education. But in all cases it is
the content subjects which are emphasized and especially
those which have direct bearing on life. The organization
of these into a school procedure was the result of a century
more of experience.
Influence on Method. — Method was no better formulated
than the course of study. But this very freedom gave it
vitality and permitted development. Locke disposes of
this question, as most of this group would, in a very summary
manner. " Learning may be had into the bargain, and that,
as I think, at a very easy rate by methods that may be thought
on." The essential point of method was that knowledge was
for use and learning was to be largely by practice. To quote
Locke again, speaking of this tutorial type of education,
" This method of teaching children by a repeated practice, and
the same action done over and over again, under the eye and
direction of the tutor, till they have got the habit of doing it
well, and not by relying on rules trusted to their memories,
has so many advantages, which way soever we consider it,
that I cannot but wonder (if ill customs could be wondered at
in any thing) how it could possibly be so much neglected."
Montaigne repeats this view in many forms. " A boy should
not so much memorize his lesson as practice it. Let him re-
peat it in his actions." Perhaps the most famous phrasing of
this view is his saying : " To know by heart is not to know
at all ; it is simply to keep what 6ne has committed to his
memory. What a man knows directly, that will he dispose of
without turning to his book or looking to his pattern."
The tutor, usually unconscious of their philosophical
basis, attempted to apply in an informal way the principles
of learning formulated by Bacon and Locke. When schools
of this type were organized, they attempted to do the same
thing consciously. However, the teacher with little insight
too frequently substituted an observation of natural phe-
Historic Sketch of Secondary Education 51
nomena or a verbal familiarity with them for that knowledge
which was demanded by the leader of thought. Comenius
viewed educational method from this standpoint, though he
was forced by circumstances to make his application chiefly
to the study of Latin. The Philanthropinists, led by Basedow,
made a more systematic attempt to reduce the new method
to school procedure.
The leading educational reformers, Rousseau, Pestalozzi,
Fellenberg, and Froebel, besides those previously mentioned,
are exponents of some phase of this variant type of secondary
education.
THE LATIN GRAMMAR SCHOOL IN THE AMERICAN
COLONIES. — The Latin grammar school of Renaissance-Ref-
ormation Europe was transplanted bodily to the American col-
onies. In all but one of the thirteen colonies, that of Georgia,
such schools were founded. The earliest schools in most of the
colonies were of this type. The first attempt at a school in
the thirteen colonies was assisted by a contribution from a
shipload of merchants from the East Indies in 1621, and
hence was named the East India School. The Virginia Com-
pany proposed a Latin grammar school, but the Indian
subjects of the Company disposed otherwise, and the massacre
of 1622 ended this attempt.
So far as extant records indicate, the first successful attempt,
resulting in the grammar school at Boston in 1635, was of the
Latin type. At least this school is the oldest permanent
foundation. In the same year a Virginian settler by the name
of Syms, following laudable English custom, left his estate in
land and cattle to found a free school. But it was seven years
before the grant was confirmed by the legislature. Subsequent
records refer to the school as in operation, and it is claimed
that some of this grant enters into the permanent funds of an
existing institution. Several other bequests of this kind
occurred in the southern colonies. Most of the resulting
foundations were of an ephemeral character.
52 Principles of Secondary Education
In Massachusetts, where also numerous bequests of this
character were made, the gifts were used to supplement
schools established by the towns. Consequently the founda-
tions were of a far more substantial character. The most
important of these private foundations was made by Edward
Hopkins, a London merchant who in 1657 bequeathed his
estate to found a system of such schools for Connecticut.
Schools at Hartford, Hadley, and New Haven resulted. The
Hopkins Grammar School of New Haven still flourishes.
In Massachusetts and Connecticut the towns built up such
schools. The early records of many of these towns indicate
a wonderful devotion on the part of these pioneers to the cause
of higher education. The sacrifices which these frontier
communities would make to maintain a Latin grammar school
in the face of a desperate struggle with savages, famine, and
hostile nature is indicated by the early town, court, and tax
records.
The legislative records of the remaining colonies indicate a
common belief in the necessity of at least one such school in
each colony. In some of them, however, as in New York,
the mixture of population and the dominance of commercial
interests delayed the establishment of such an institution
until well into the eighteenth century.
In several colonies, Massachusetts, Connecticut, New Hamp-
shire, and Maryland, systems of such schools were set up.
The unit area of the Maryland system and ultimately of that
of Connecticut was the county. But the basis of the Massa-
chusetts system, early copied by Connecticut and then by
New Hampshire, was the town.
The eighteenth century records of these New England
communities indicate that this type of school was ceasing to
serve any broad educational need. The struggle of most of
the communities to keep the schools going, the unwillingness
of many to make the attempt, the dwindling attendance, all
indicate a growing lack of adjustment between school and
Historic Sketch of Secondary Education 53
actual social needs. By the end of the eighteenth century a
new type of secondary school had arisen, replacing the Latin
grammar school, which had all but disappeared. Those that
still remained were but appanages to the colleges which had
sprung up meanwhile in most of the colonies.
While the colonial legislative records have much to say con-
cerning these schools, and there is considerable supplementary
material relating to their organization, evidence relating to
either curriculum or method is very scanty. Method is
indicated chiefly by the textbooks. The Latin Accidence
of Ezekiel Cheever shows no advance upon the European
texts. There are entries in the Boston town records of the
middle seventeenth century indicating an attempt to introduce
Comenian methods.
The curriculum was even narrower than those of Europe,
owing to the limiting circumstances of frontier life. To read
and write Latin and possibly to speak it was the chief if not
the sole aim. In instances the rudiments of Greek were added.
During the eighteenth century, in the commercial centers,
some mathematics for purposes of navigation and surveying
was added. The requirements for admission to the colonial
colleges do not indicate any wider preparatory training until
after the Revolution. The broad scope proposed by Franklin
for the University of Pennsylvania and its preparatory school
and by Dr. William Smith for Kings College and its pre-
paratory school do not seem to have had any permanent
influence. The most frequent references in colonial records
concerning the work of the grammar school relate to the ex-
tent to which such schools may do the work of the petty or
elementary school.
However circumscribed their influence, these schools did
accomplish their great purpose, announced in the early New
England legislation, " that learning may not be buried in
the graves of our forefathers in church and in common-
wealth."
54 Principles of Secondary Education
THE ACADEMY IN AMERICA. — The earliest proposed
academy in America was that sketched by Benjamin Franklin
in 1743. Six years later the school began operation. The
educational ideas operative are clearly indicated by the fol-
lowing statements from Franklin's proposals :
" As to their studies, it would be well if they could be
taught everything that is useful and everything that is orna-
mental. But art is long and their time is short. It is therefore
proposed, that they learn those things that are likely to be
most useful and most ornamental ; regard being had to the
several professions for which they are intended."
The institution was organized in three schools, — Latin,
Mathematical, and English. Soon after it grew into a col-
lege, the mathematical school was amalgamated with the new
philosophical school, while the English school fell into com-
parative neglect. From the troublous time of the American
Revolution the institution emerged as a university, with the
English school still further subordinated. Against this sub-
ordination and neglect Franklin protested, but the academy
had in this instance served its purpose.
Meanwhile the general force producing the academies was
operative in America. Nonconformity, which worked to this
end in England, served the same purpose in America, although
the established church here assumed a varying form in differ-
ent localities, and although the orthodox school — the Latin
grammar school — had never attained the commanding posi-
tion which it reached in all European countries. Through
the Great Awakening, which affected the middle and southern
colonies more than it did Xew England, numerous institutions
of this type were instituted. The " Log College " which pre-
ceded Princeton, though never given the name of academy,
was practically such a school. Many private institutions of
this type, some of which assumed the name of academies,
sprang up during the third quarter of the century. These
Historic Sketch of Secondary Education 55
all had a meager and local support and most of them an
ephemeral existence.
The institutions which gave standing to this new type of
secondary schools were those founded by the Phillips family,
the one at Andover, Massachusetts, in 1778, the other at
Exeter, New Hampshire, in 1781. The purpose of these
schools, as stated in the deed of gift of the earlier one, was
" to lay the foundation of a public free school or academy for
the purpose of instructing youth, not only in English and
Latin grammar, writing, arithmetic, and those sciences wherein
they are commonly taught ; but more especially to learn them
the great end and real business of living." Further on, " it
is again declared, that the first and principal object of this
Institution is the promotion of true piety and virtue ; the
second, instruction in the English, Latin, and Greek languages,
together with writing, arithmetic, music, and the art of speak-
ing ; the third, practical geometry, logic, and geography ; and
the fourth, such other of the liberal arts and sciences or lan-
guages, as opportunity and ability may hereafter admit, and
as the trustees shall direct.1'
During the early national period a number of the states
faced with serious effort the problem of national education.
Political views and practices were as yet aristocratic rather
than democratic, and the educational ideas were the same.
Consequently the efforts were directed chiefly towards the
building up of a type of schools which would provide for the
education of select youth of the better-to-do strata of society,
giving them a broad education in a variety of subjects. Edu-
cation for the masses was, for the most part, still in the form
of pauper schooling.
During the last quarter of the eighteenth century and the
first half of the nineteenth very many similar institutions were
founded, initiated, and partially supported by private parties.
Incorporation by act of legislature was given to numbers of
these institutions in almost every state. In many states the
56 Principles of Secondary Education
legislature granted financial support. Sometimes, as in Mary-
land, this was done by converting properties of earlier founda-
tions to the uses of these new institutions ; sometimes, as in
Pennsylvania, by making direct grants from the state treas-
ury ; sometimes, as in New York, by the establishment of
funds for the special benefit of this type of institution. In
several of these commonwealths there was thus built up a
genuine state system of secondary schools. Seldom did there
exist any unity of plan or organization in these systems, and
only in one case, that of New York, was there any adequate
central control and supervision.
In the organization of the University of the State of New
York in 1784 and 1787 these secondary institutions were made
component parts of the university. Grants of fixed sums
were early made and in 1813 a permanent fund, known as the
Literature Fund, was established for their encouragement
and support. Thus an effective control over expenditures
and some supervision of subjects of instruction were main-
tained. So efficient wras this system that its most flourishing
period did not pass until the second or third decade after the
Civil War. At times nearly 250 such institutions received
aid from the state. In no other state was so extensive a
system developed. And in none did such public systems post-
pone so long the development of the high school. In many
states, especially the southern ones, private academies sup-
plemented these public ones and postponed still further the
rise of the high school.
The characteristic feature of organization in the academy
was its private or quasi-public control. Neither state nor
local community exercised any control, except as the state
might require the teaching of certain subjects or the contribu-
tion of a certain amount from private sources before it would
permit an institution to share in the distribution of general
funds. Many of these institutions were merely private ad-
venture schools. Many were supported or controlled or
Historic Sketch of Secondary Education 57
supervised by religious denominations. The stronger ones
were usually under the control of self-perpetuating bodies of
trustees.
Many of the stronger academies developed into colleges and
retained their original form of organization. In the majority
of cases they died out with the development of a more popular
form of education meeting the same needs. In some instances
they grew into normal schools. The New York state system
of normal schools had for the most part such an origin. In a
substantial number of cases, academies developed directly
into high schools. Thus the academies in Maryland con-
tributed to the high school, as in New York they did to the
normal school system.
While it is not possible to give any quantitative estimate
of the extent of the academy system, it is evident that these
schools- existed in great numbers, and indeed were adequate
to the needs of the population so far as the opportunity for
education is concerned.
Curriculum and Method. — The characteristic educational
feature of the academies was the breadth of the curriculum.
As most of them depended for their chief support, even
their very existence, upon large attendance and popular
approval, they gave what people demanded. Consequently
some were little more than advanced elementary schools and
many, probably the great majority, included such subjects
in their offering. The reaction against the Latin grammar
school and the growth of democracy coincided with the rapid
development of the modern sciences and the formulation of a
great variety of new subjects of study. Many of the stronger'
of these institutions comprised two schools, the classical and
the English. Even in the classical course of the Phillips
Academies, geography, arithmetic, English grammar and
declamation, algebra, and geometry were required early in
the nineteenth century. Phillips Andover maintained for a
time during the third decade of the century not only an Eng-
58 Principles of Secondary Education
lish school, but also a department for the training of teachers.
The natural sciences received much attention. This fact
and the emphasis on the vernacular language and literature
were the determining features. The extent to which the
curriculum developed is indicated by the following list of sub-
jects reported by institutions of this type to the Regents of
the University of the State of New York in 1837 : arithmetic,
algebra, architecture, astronomy, botany, bookkeeping, Bib-
lical antiquities, biography, chemistry, composition, conic
sections, constitution of the United States, constitution of
New York, elements of criticism, declamation, drawing,
dialing, English grammar, evidences of Christianity, em-
broidery, civil engineering, extemporaneous speaking, French,
geography, physical geography, geology, plane geometry,
analytic geometry, Greek, Grecian antiquities, German,
general history, history of the United States, history of New
York, Hebrew, Italian, Latin, law (constitutional, select revised
statutes, criminal and mercantile, Blackstone's Commentaries),
logic, leveling, logarithms, vocal music, instrumental music,
mapping, mensuration, mineralogy, mythology, natural his-
tory, navigation, nautical astronomy, natural theology, or-
thography, natural philosophy, moral philosophy, intellectual
philosophy, penmanship, political economy, painting, per-
spective, physiology, English pronunciation, reading, rhetoric,
Roman antiquities, stenography, statistics, surveying, Spanish,
trigonometry, topography, technology, principles of teaching.
The gradual increase of the requirements for entrance to
the American college during this period is an indication of
the widening scope of the secondary curriculum. Arithmetic
is the only subject besides Latin and Greek that was required
before 1800, and that for only a few years preceding and
in only a few cases. During the first half of the nineteenth
century, English grammar, geography, algebra, geometry
and ancient history were quite generally added. Xo doubt
the fact that the academies were giving instruction along these
Historic Sketch of Secondary Education 59
various lines was quite as much a reason for their appearance
in the entrance requirements as the fact that the college au-
thorities wished them as part of the preliminary preparation
of students.
One other feature of the academy due to the broadening of
the curriculum is worthy of particular mention. That is the
admission of girls to the privileges of higher education. While
this feature was not characteristic of the earliest academies,
it became almost universal with the progress of the nineteenth
century. In the first decades of the nineteenth century, in a
few instances even earlier, many such schools were established
for girls only. With the founding of Troy Seminary (1821)
by Mrs. Willard and of Mt. Holyoke (1836) by Mary Lyon,
a new standard was attained. The Troy school was probably
the first institution for the higher education of women to re-
ceive government financial support. While the character of the
work of these institutions was equal to that of most of the
academies for boys, in very many, especially those under
private control, the standard of attainment was low. Here
the ideal of education as adornment prevailed. The follow-
ing advertisement of one such school from the late eighteenth
century is an extreme example of this type of education :
E. ARMSTON (or perhaps better known by the name of
Gardner) continues the School at Point Pleasant, Norfolk
Borough, where is a large and convenient House proper to
accommodate young Ladies as Boarders ; at which School is
taught Petit Point in Flowers, Fruit, Landscapes, and Sculp-
ture, Nun's Work, Embroidery in Silk, Gold, Silver, Pearls,
or embossed, Shading of all Kinds, in the various Works in
Vogue, Dresden Point Work, Lace Ditto, Catgut in different
Modes, flourishing Muslin, after the newest Taste, and most
elegant Pattern Waxwork in Figure, Fruit, or Flowers, Shell
Ditto, or grotesque, Painting in Water Colours and Mezzo-
tinto ; also the' Art of taking off Foliage, with several other
Embellishments necessary for the Amusement of Persons of
Fortune who have Taste. Specimens of the Subscriber's
60 Principles of Secondary Education
Work may be seen at her House, as also of her Scholars;
having taught several years in Norfolk, and elsewhere, to
general Satisfaction. She flatters herself that those Gentle-
men and Ladies who have hitherto employed her will grant
their further Indulgence, as no Endeavours shall be wanting
to complete what is above mentioned, with a first Attention
to the Behaviour of those Ladies intrusted to her Care.
Reading will be her peculiar Care ; Writing and Arithmetick
will be taught by a Master properly qualified; and, if de-
sired, will engage Proficients in Musick and Dancing.
In method also there was some development. At least
these institutions broke away from the rigid and formal pro-
cedure of the Latin schools. They showed little aversion to
innovation and they at least experimented with all the novel
educational methods imported from Europe. Many of them
adopted the Lancasterian monitorial plan of instruction.
Somewhat later the Fellenberg scheme of manual labor had
wide vogue. Pestalozzian methods were embodied in the
new texts, and vitalized instruction. The natural sciences
were taught through demonstration by the teacher with
elaborate paraphernalia. Attainments in the vernacular were
displayed through declamation, school exhibition, and public
oration. The test of " use " was applied far more generally
than the present-day public would tolerate. Even the educa-
tion of accomplishments had this to be said in its favor,—
the accomplishments had to be " shown off."
Much greater freedom was introduced not only in choice
of subjects, but in method ; and a closer correlation of studies
with actual needs and experiences was attempted. The fact
that a great proportion of academic students not passing on to
college entered the teaching profession made for the use of
the subjects studied in a more vital manner than had been
previously attained.
THE AMERICAN HIGH SCHOOL. — As the Latin
grammar school was the expression of European orthodoxy
Historic Sketch of Secondary Education 6 1
and conservatism, and the academy of the dawning nation-
alism of America, as yet cast in aristocratic rather than demo-
cratic form, so the high school is the first full expression of
American democracy in this phase of education. It was sup-
ported by taxation, with no tuition fees ; it was controlled by
public officials ; it offered a wide course of study ; it was artic-
ulated with the lower and the advanced phases of education.
Origin. — The origin of the term " high school " in the
American significance is not clear. The term " higher school "
in its European significance usually indicates all institutions
above the elementary grade. It had been applied in a few
instances to particular institutions, notably the Edinburgh
High School. This Scottish institution, essentially an acad-
emy, employed the monitorial system of instruction and had
achieved an international reputation. It is probable that
this school gave its name to the American institution. The
first institution of the new type to be founded in the states
was opened in Boston in 1821 under the name of the English
Classical School. It was avowedly a compliment to the
Latin School of long standing, and was to provide an educa-
tion in advance of the English grammar schools, recently
developed as a continuation of the primary school for those
boys who did not intend to proceed to college. The name
" high school " was not applied in public documents until
1824. Meanwhile in New York City an educational leader,
John Griscom, had been agitating for a high school. He had
published in 1820 a work containing a description of the Edin-
burgh High School. In 1825 under his leadership an incor-
porated private institution was opened under the name of
" Monitorial High School."
The general impetus which gave rise to the high schools
worked through three distinct channels. One of these was
the monitorial scheme of Lancaster and of Bell. This was a
very popular plan for the establishment of free schools, adopted
quite generally during the early decades of the nineteenth cen-
62 Principles of Secondary Education
tury. The great merit claimed for the scheme was that it
made free education for all possible by making it cheap. This
was accomplished by having the older boys teach those less
advanced. Lancaster argued that in this way one master
could teach 1000 boys and claimed to have attained this
ideal in his own experience. The first public school building
erected in New York City in 1809 contained a room for 500
boys. In England Lancaster had " educated " boys by this
plan at an annual cost per capita of $1.25. The early public
schools of New York City, as well as those of many other
American communities, were on this plan. It was introduced
also into many academies. With the development of the
schools of the Free School Society of New York City, advanced
grades were added, still taught by monitors. When the ad-
vanced grades were separated for the special purpose of train-
ing monitors, they became essentially a high school. This
institution, however, did not thrive, and in New York City
the form which the secondary school took was that of the
Free Academy. Meanwhile, De Witt Clinton, the leading
patron of the elementary system of monitorial schools in the
city, was now governor, advocating the establishment of a
system of monitorial high schools under state supervision and
with both state and local public support. One was to be
located in each county. But the academy system, with all
of its local influences, was too strongly intrenched, and the
general aversion to taxation for educational purposes was
too strong, for the proposed scheme to materialize.
Nevertheless, the monitorial scheme, by demonstrating
the possible cheapness of public education, led many com-
munities to give assistance to private or incorporated acade-
mies when run on this plan and to develop the higher grades
of the elementary school when based on public support.
This tended to force the development of high schools, though
the differentiation from the grades was slow.
A much more distinct origin of the hi";h schools was through
Historic Sketch of Secondary Education 63
the free academy. When the public contribution to acade-
mies became a more important factor in their support than
the private contributions, or even than the tuition, the public
began to demand a voice in the management of the institution
and the removal of restrictions on its privileges. The former
was occasionally secured through some right of appointment
to the board of trustees, the latter usually by the removal
of tuition requirements from students living in the area con-
tributing by taxation. Numerous academies were thus
transformed. The only step necessary to make these in-
stitutions high schools in the modern sense was to transfer
their control to an elected board of trustees. This step was
taken with the Free Academies such as developed in New
York, Baltimore, Philadelphia, and other cities. These were
high schools in all essentials. Later on they developed into
City Colleges — though the reality was usually not attained
until long after the name — or were merged into the city
system under the one school board.
The most important force in the development of high
schools, at least from the numerical viewpoint, though at
the same time the least conspicuous, was the Union School
District. During the late thirties and the two following
decades — the so-called " Horace Mann Period " — the de-
fects of the district school system had become conspicuous
and the educational needs of the democratic population ob-
vious. The effort to meet these needs, during this period or
a little later, developed in almost every state a tendency
toward the grouping of these small districts into larger units.
This resulted in the union school. Naturally this unification
took place first in the cities and towns. The advantages
becoming obvious, villages demanded the same privilege. As
this amalgamation proceeded a graded system developed
which culminated in all larger units of population where the
academy was not intrenched in a high school course full or
rudimentary.
64 Principles of Secondary Education
Development of the High School System. — The course of
development through the union school may be illustrated in
New York State. Beginning in 1837, there were numerous
acts of the legislature giving union school systems to the
smaller cities of the state. Most of these were free, several
included a high school. In 1853 a statute was enacted
giving the privilege of establishing such systems without
special act. A few years later an amendment required all
such schools to be free. The peculiar relations of the State
Regents to the Superintendents of Common Schools in this
state together with the dominant influence of the acade-
mies permitted no early or distinct development of the high
school.
The state which most clearly shows the development of
the high school is Massachusetts, as New York shows that
of the academy. The basis of the development is found
in the law of 1827, though the term " high school " did
not come into general use until a decade or so later. The
portion of the law which relates to secondary education is as
follows :
" And every city, town, or district, containing five hundred
families, or householders, shall be provided with such teacher
or teachers for such term of time as shall be equivalent to
twenty-four months, for one school in each year, and shall
also be provided with a master of good morals, competent
to instruct, in addition to the branches of learning aforesaid,
the history of the United States, bookkeeping by single
entry, geometry, surveying, and algebra ; and shall employ
such master to instruct a school, in such city, town, or dis-
trict, for the benefits of all the inhabitants thereof, at least
ten months in each year, exclusive of vacations, in such con-
venient place, or alternately at such places in such city, town,
or district, as the said inhabitants, at their meeting in March,
or April, annually, shall determine ; and in every city, or
town, containing four thousand inhabitants, such master
shall be competent, in addition to all the foregoing branches,
Historic Sketch of Secondary Education 65
to instruct the Latin and Greek languages, history, rhetoric,
and logic."
This is essentially a union school ; that is, a town school
superposed on the district schools. It is not created by
the union of old districts but is a revival of the old town
school, now of a higher grade than the constituent district
schools.
Two grades of high schools were defined in this law, the
higher one distinguished by the addition of Latin, Greek,
logic, and rhetoric to the curriculum. This law, with sub-
sequent amendments, developed the first state system of
high schools. Some of these amendments, especially that of
1840, were reactionary and lowered the standard. But by
the Civil War period a comprehensive and effective system of
high schools had been built up. In 1840 the term " high
school " first appeared on the statute books. While there
was no legal definition of the term, the following quotation
or extract from the Annual Report of the General School
Committee of Manchester in 1849 gives an excellent state-
ment of the popular view.
" A high school is no ambiguous thing. It is a term that
possesses an exact and well-defined meaning. It is neither
a primary or a grammar school, nor a compound of the two,
without any regard to age or attainment, but a school dis-
tinct by itself, to which there is no access, except through the
two first. Thus high school has been defined for years past
and this definition of them is recognized in our revised statutes
(1835) and wherever schools are spoken of ' for the whole
town/ as the saying is."
It has been frequently stated that there was no system of
high schools in this country before the Civil War, and that
no more than fifty or sixty scattered institutions existed.
True it is that the use of the term was not yet general and the
course of study not definitely fixed, yet by the standards we
use to-day, as well as by those of the earlier period, these state-
ments seem to be a gross underestimate. In his study of the
written reports of the Massachusetts towns, Dr. Inglis gives
the following summary :
66
Principles of Secondary Education
CENSUS
REQUIRED
BY LAW
ESTABLISHED
ACCORDING TO
LAW
PERCENTAGE
MEETING THE
LAW
ESTABLISHED
BUT NOT RE-
QUIRED
TOTAL
ESTABLISHED
1830 . .
35
3
8.6
O
3
1840 . .
44
16
36-4
2
18
1850 . .
76
42
55-3
5
47
1860 . .
128
86
67.2
16
IO2
Meanwhile the establishment of academies had declined.
During the decennium 1821-1830 there were three high
schools and thirty-two academies established. During that
from 1851 to 1860 there were sixty-five high schools estab-
lished and nineteen academies incorporated.
The same forces were at work in other states during this
period, commonly through a district union school law. The
usual procedure was for a city to obtain through special
enactment the privilege of establishing a union school com-
prising the higher grades. Then in the course of time the
legislature would extend the privilege by general enactment.
Thus the state of Ohio passed such a permissive law in 1848 ;
Iowa in 1849; New York in 1853; Michigan in 1857. Un-
like the Massachusetts plan, the compulsory feature was
usually attained long after.
The right was often given to communities to maintain out
of public funds schools whose benefits could be shared only
by a privileged part of the community. Popular approval of
the public high school came quite slowly in many regions.
The courts upheld the right to establish such schools, the
locus situ being the Kalamazoo case in the Michigan courts
of 1874.!
There were many minor steps in the building up of the high
school system, some of which have not yet been taken in many
commonwealths. The most important of these steps relate
1 See Cubberley and Elliott, Source Book in State School Administration.
Historic Sketch of Secondary Education 67
to the extension of the privilege of secondary education to
every child. This is attempted through several schemes ; by
state payment of tuition, by free transportation, and by sub-
sidizing poorer communities. The most significant of these
movements is the very recent one of developing the rural
high schools by a combination of all these means. The
broadening of the curriculum and the improvement of method,
together with this development of the rural high schools,
have brought about the most striking feature in the present
situation, namely, the great increase in the number of high
schools and in their attendance. In the decade between 1900
and 1910 the attendance increased over 60 per cent. The most
recent report of the United States Bureau of Education gives
the number of high schools in the United States (1912-13)
as 13,263 and the number of pupils attending as 1,246,827.
Next to this quantitative increase in importance, the changes
in curriculum and method are the most significant. There
was no essential difference in curriculum between the early
high school and the academy contemporaneous with it. The
chief distinction between these two types of secondary school
lay in organization and form of support. Public maintenance
tended to reduce the number of subjects offered and public
control and responsibility tended to greater unity in the curric-
ulum. But the high school made no great advance upon
the academy. The Massachusetts law of 1827, previously
quoted, gives the state curriculum. Many schools established
under this law did not offer all of these subjects. Many
offered others in addition. For example, the curriculum of
the English High School of Boston in the year the law was
enacted included fourteen subjects over and above those re-
quired. In smaller high schools the offering was naturally
much more meager. But however the sections of the country
or the institutions of the same section varied in their offering,
the principles involved in the selection did not change. It
was not until the last quarter of the century that educators
68 Principles of Secondary Education
became conscious of the great problems involved in the selec-
tion and organization of proper curricula for secondary schools
and in the elaboration of appropriate methods. And the
new century had dawned before this consciousness spread to
the public. The earlier realization found its expression in the
Report of the Committee of Ten in 1893. The later expresses
itself in the growing demand for a broadened and intensified
curriculum, a vitalized method, and an organization which
shall bring to every child the possibility of attaining those
elements of culture essential to the proper use of life's leisure,
and those practical elements essential to vocational and
economic success.
The remainder of this volume is devoted to the statement
of these problems and to the presentation of ways in which
they have been or may be met.
PROBLEMS FOR FURTHER STUDY
1. What similarity is there between the situation in early Greek
civilization and our own times, so far as the elements of the situation
determine the problems of secondary ..education ?
2. How far do we find in the theory of education as formulated by
the Greek philosophers elements of the problem as stated by present-
day writers ?
3. To what extent is the relation between the practical and the
theoretical types of schools in Greece the same that we have to-
day?
4. To what extent did the grammatical and rhetorical training of
Greek, Roman, or medieval schools meet their social needs ?
5. Have these subjects the same educative value now as then ?
6. Of what value to the modern secondary school teacher or adminis-
trator is Quintilian's treatise?
7. What were the chief Colloquies used as texts in the Latin grammar
schools of the post-Renaissance period ? What were their merits as
texts ? What principles of method were involved ?
8. What was the value of the Latin play from the point of view of
method ? What was its educative value in other respects ?
9. What were the merits and demerits of the study of Plautus and
Terence ? Of Cicero ?
Historic Sketch of Secondary Education 69
10. What were the chief characteristics of the extreme classicism
called Ciceronianism ? Make a study of the Ciceronian controversy.
11. In comparing the curricula of the Latin grammar schools of the
sixteenth century with those of the classical schools of the early or
middle nineteenth century and with those of the present time, what
progress is to be found ?
12. In the writings of the schoolmen of the sixteenth century, make
a comparative study of curricula. Of method.
13. What were the limitations of the free schools of England, judged
from the point of view of their actual service to contemporary society,
or from that of modern times ?
14. Make a comparative study of the various treatises on education
during the Renaissance and the subsequent period, either of the domi-
nant Latin school type or of the variant type, in regard to purpose, or-
ganization, method, of secondary education, or in regard to any one
subject of the curriculum.
15. What points of value for modern school work are to be found
in the Jesuit system regarding organization, method, discipline, curric-
ulum ?
1 6. Trace the development of any one subject in the secondary
curriculum.
17. Trace the method of study used in any one subject.
18. What are the respective merits of private and public or of tutorial
and school education ?
19. Trace the development of the academies in any one state.
20. Trace the development of the high schools in any one state.
21. What historical factors are involved in the present high school
situation in any one state ?
REFERENCES
ABELSON, PAUL. Seven Liberal Arts. New York, 1906.
ADAMSON, JOHN WILLIAM. Pioneers of Modern Education. Cambridge,
1905.
BOLTON, FREDERICK ELMER. Secondary School System of Germany.
New York, 1900.
BROWN, ELMER ELLSWORTH. Making of our Middle Schools. New York,
1903.
Secondary Education. Albany, 1900.
FARRINGTON, FREDERIC ERNEST. French Secondary Schools. New
York, 1910.
FICK, R. Auf Dcutschlands Hohcn Schulen. Berlin, 1900.
70 Principles of Secondary Education
GRAVES, FRANK PIERREPOXT. History of Education. 3 vols. New
York, 1909.
INGLIS, ALEXANDER JAMES. Rise of the High School in Massachusetts.
New York, 1911.
LEACH, ARTHUR FRANCIS. Educational Charters and Documents, 598
to 1909. Cambridge, 1911.
English Schools at the Reformation. Westminster, 1896.
LEXIS, W. Die Reform des hotter er Schulwesens in Pruessen. Berlin,
1904.
MERTZ, GEORGE KARL. Des Schulwesen der Deutschen Reformation
im 16. Jahrhundert. Heidelberg, 1902.
MONROE, PAUL. Textbook in the History of Education. New York,
1906.
MONTMORENCY, J. E. G. DE. State Intervention in English Education.
Cambridge, 1902.
PAULSEN. FRIEDRICH. Geschichte des Gelehrten Unterrichts auf den
Deutschen Schulen und Universitaten. Leipsig, 1885.
German Education, Past and Present. New York, 1908.
RUSSELL, JAMES EARL. German Higher Schools. New York, 1899.
WATSON, FOSTER. English Grammar Schools to 1660. Cambridge, 1908.
WOODWARD, WILLIAM HARRISON. Desiderius Erasmus concerning the
Aim and Method of Education. Cambridge, 1904.
Studies in Education during the Age of the Renaissance, 1400-1600.
Cambridge, 1906.
Vittorino da Feltre and other Humanist Educators. Cambridge, 1897.
Cyclopedia of Education. Free Schools, Endowed Schools, Grammar
Schools, Colloquies, Latin Language and Literature, articles on
various national systems and various academic subjects.
See the bibliographies in the above books and those appended to the
Cyclopedia articles mentioned above, and to the Cyclopedia articles
on the various national systems.
FRANCE
POSITION OF SECONDARY EDUCATION ABROAD.
— Secondary education has never been adequately and ac-
ceptably defined. In the United States, we usually arrive at
a working definition by a method of exclusion, segregating the
field of elementary education at one end of the scale, and
higher education, as represented by colleges and universities,
at the other. The first deals with the absolutely essential
educational processes, and the second with the purely cultural
and professional aspects, while the loosely delimited inter-
mediate area is commonly accepted as covering the field of
secondary education. In England and on the continent, even
this approximation is inadequate, for broadly speaking, the
secondary school does not form a transition stage between the
elementary school and the university. Although the sec-
ondary school is preparatory to the university, it is not neces-
sarily, or even generally for the mass of the pupils, comple-
mentary to the lower school. It is distinctly a school for the
classes, and not for the masses. For the major part of the
pupils of the secondary schools, then, the three R's are taught
either in elementary classes attached to these schools as in
France and Germany, or in special detached schools as in Eng-
land. In this last-named country, only a relatively small
number of the secondary school pupils receive their ground-
ing in the fundamentals in the regular elementary schools,
and the great majority of these cases, aside from the scholar-
ship holders, is found in the smaller towns and rural districts
72 Principles of Secondary Education
where the educational facilities are naturally limited, and where
the traditional class prejudice or caste feeling is perhaps less
strong. In the last analysis, on the continent at least, it is
the financial position of the parent that is the large determining
factor in deciding whether the child shall go to a primary school
or to a secondary school. Universal tuition fees in these for-
eign secondary schools operate to preserve the exclusiveness
of this intellectual aristocracy. Appreciation of the social
barrier between elementary and secondary schools is an abso-
lute prerequisite to any discussion of the position of the sec-
ondary school abroad.
DEVELOPMENT OF THE SYSTEM OF SECONDARY
SCHOOLS. — Of the four great civilized nations of the world,
France has the oldest system of secondary schools, for the
ancient College d'Harcourt, the first of a long line of illustrious
institutions of secondary grade, was founded away back in
1180, thus even antedating the venerable University of Paris
itself. In those early days, all schools were under clerical
control, with the seven liberal arts still influencing the cur-
riculum. Even at that time, the arts work of the university
was given in the colleges, or secondary schools, a characteristic
that still persists to a very marked degree in the secondary
schools of to-day. The Ratio studiorum of the Jesuits (1599)
embodied the most advanced pedagogical theory and practice
of the time, and served as a model for the organization of the
secondary school program of studies for nearly two centuries.
Indeed its influence was indirectly felt almost to within the
memory of men now alive, not only in France, but in Ger-
many, England, and the United States as well. It represented
the quintessence of humanistic culture, and embraced little out-
side classic and particularly Latin authors. The expulsion of
the Jesuits from France, and the subsequent suppression of
the order eliminated the form, but not the substance of Jesuit
influence in the secondary school program of studies. Hu-
manistic domination of the school program experienced but a
Secondary Education in Europe 73
temporary reverse in the great social and political upheaval of
the French Revolution. The succeeding " central schools "
(1795-1802) which reflected the modern temper of the revolu-
tionary governments exerted only a passing influence, but it
was, nevertheless, a precursor of what the nineteenth century
should bring to pass. With the tightening hold of Napoleon
upon the political organization of the nation, the old order
of things educational rose phcenix-like from the ashes of the
blasted hopes of popular self-government. The present
administrative organization of French secondary education
dates from the Napoleonic reforms of 1802 and 1808, but the
subject matter of the school curriculum throughout the nine-
teenth century was largely that of the old regime. In fact as
late as 1821, a ministerial order required the instruction in
philosophy to be given in Latin, and it was not until nine years
later (1830) that the examination in philosophy for the bach-
elor's degree could be held in French. Such was the persistence
of the humanistic tradition.
From the educational point of view, the nineteenth century
in France was marked by the struggle of two sets of conflicting
forces : humanism versus realism, and the church versus the
state. Both of these began long before the beginning of the
century, but during its closing years the strife became most
acute. In each instance the newcomer won out, but only
after a terrific contest. In the second, the state has absolutely
vanquished its opponent, the passage of the law suppressing
the teaching congregations (1904) and the abrogation of the
Concordat (1905) marking the closing acts of what has
proved a most dramatic struggle, and ending forever the
domination of the church in matters educational. In the
first instance, the old classical education has been forced to
share its time-honored prerogatives with its younger rival,
and realistic culture is officially at least on an exact equality
with humanistic culture. The new program of 1902 es-
tablished this parity.
74 Principles of Secondary Education
THE SYSTEM. — Centralization of Control. — French
education is noteworthy for the high degree of centralization
that prevails throughout the system. This results in a stand-
ardization of administrative details of organization, of quali-
fications of teachers, and of program, but not of method.
Most matters of control of secondary schools are regulated
from the ministry in Paris, while the responsibility for seeing
that these regulations are carried out devolves upon the
rectors (one for each academy), and the academy inspectors
(one for each department). Local or communal opinion en-
joys practically no recognition on the purely professional side
of secondary school administration. Such affairs are deter-
mined by the central educational authorities. The program
of studies is drawn up, the syllabus of work is arranged, the
qualifications of teachers are prescribed, the schools are in-
spected, and the leaving examinations are held by the central
authorities, or their accredited representatives, the rectors
and their deputies. Indeed, the control exercised by the
educational department at Paris over the whole of France is
as real as that exerted by any city school authorities in this
country over the schools of their own municipality. Such a
degree of centralization would be highly distasteful even in
the most extreme of our American commonwealths, but it
seems to succeed very satisfactorily in France. It is one of
the legacies that Napoleon left to the French people.
Secondary Education is nowhere compulsory in France. -
The citizens of a given community decide whether or not they
care to assume responsibility for a school of secondary grade,
which in every instance, whether or not it is a state school
includes the construction, equipment, and maintenance of a
suitable building, but after this everything else is determined
for them automatically. Such centralization naturally has
the defects of its merits. Undoubtedly it tends to strengthen
the weaker schools, and theoretically at the same time to
retard the most progressive. Unquestionably, it does prac-
Secondary Education in Europe 75
tically eliminate individual experimentation and initiative
in France, but the general standard is so high and the central
control so uniformly sane that this repression is not seriously
felt. Differentiation is recognized in the two general types of
secondary schools.
Types of Schools. — According to the law of 1802, " every
school established by the communes or conducted by private
individuals wherein are taught French, Latin, the first prin-
ciples of geography, of history, and of mathematics, will be
considered as a secondary school." This sentence gives us
the origin of the communal college. The lycees, devoting
themselves primarily to Latin and mathematics, were sup-
ported from the public treasury, and so formed a class of insti-
tutions somewhat higher than the communal colleges. This
old distinction persists to-day, and the nomenclature of a
century ago is still retained. The lycee is a state school, while
the college is a local institution. The outward distinction
between the two resolves itself into a question of the source
of the teachers' salaries. In the case of the lycee, the state
provides this money, while in the case of the college, the com-
munity pays the bills. In any event the other expenses must
be borne by the community. Nominally these two classes
of schools are of equal rank, but practically the lycee is of a
higher type. Nevertheless, the official program of studies
is in each instance the same. The standards of the teaching
force in the state schools are appreciably higher than in the
colleges, so that the best teachers are naturally attracted there
on account of the advantages of living in larger towns, the
better salaries, and the increased social prestige attached to an
appointment in a state school. Practically the difference
between these two types of schools is quite comparable to that
existing in this country between a metropolitan high school
and a high school in a city of twenty thousand inhabitants.
Unrest in Secondary Education. — Within the past twenty-
five years, probably no department of education has been
76 Principles of Secondary Education
beset with more unrest and at the same time been the subject
of more careful and systematic study than the field of second-
ary education. Germany took the initiative in the Con-
ference of 1890 which bore fruit in the reform of 1892. This
latter year saw the appointment of the Committee of Ten of
the National Education Association of the United States,
whose work is too well known to need further elaboration
here. England followed suit two years later by appointing a
Royal Commission under the chairmanship of Mr. James Bryce
to make an exhaustive study of the condition of secondary
education in that country. The voluminous report emanating
from this body contained many recommendations that have
since been incorporated into English law, the most important
of them resulting in the present school organization under the
control of the Board of Education (1900). The previous
year saw France undertaking a similar piece of work through
the medium of the Ribot Parliamentary Committee. Ger-
many had another Conference at work in 1900, and this re-
sulted in the new program of 1901. In the meantime, the
French commission was gathering evidence from every source
that seemed to promise any contribution to the solution of the
vexed problem of secondary education. The result Was the
reorganization of secondary education in 1902. These various
national inquiries and reforms followed so closely one after
the other that international suggestion and initiative can
scarcely have exerted much influence. They represent rather
the outcropping of a common spirit of unrest, a feeling of dis-
satisfaction with the existing order. The investigations in
England and France were productive of more significant edu-
cational changes than those in either Germany or the United
States, those in the first-named country being more specifically
confined to educational organization, and those in the second
being fundamental reorganizations of programs of studies.
Primary and Secondary Schools Defined — All this paves
the way for a more careful differentiation of the fields of
Secondary Education in Europe 77
primary and secondary education than has thus far been
vouchsafed. Although the terms " primary " and " second-
ary " are perfectly well known to every student of American
education, the connotation attached to them in France
is quite distinct from anything with which we are familiar.
In the United States, the relationship between the two
lower degrees of the educational scheme is a latitudinal
relationship, with one system superimposed upon the other,
whereas in France the two systems exist side by side, or rather
there is a longitudinal relationship existing between them.
In the United States, the youngster who goes to school at six
or eight years of age enters an elementary or primary school.
After completing the seven or eight years' course of the lower
school, he passes on to a higher grade of school known as a
secondary school. The lower school course is completed before
he enters the higher school. The line of cleavage between the
two types of schools is quite distinct and fixed, with relatively
little overlapping. In France, on the other hand, the pupil
who enters school at six years of age or younger may go to a
primary school, or he may go to a secondary school. Both
are state founded, state supported, state directed, and state
inspected. The former is a free school ; the latter is a fee
school. For the first two years, the programs followed are
substantially the same, differences of subject matter coming
to light in the succeeding three years in the form of the modern
language instruction- that is found in the elementary classes of
the secondary schools. The differentiation between the two
types of schools is social, or speaking broadly, economic.
Fundamentally, then, there is a sociological motive at work
which determines whether the parent shall send his child to a
primary or to a secondary school. The pupils of the secondary
school look forward to a professional or directive career, while
those in the elementary school can seldom rise above the posi-
tion of non-commissioned officers in the great industrial,
commercial, or agricultural army.
78 Principles of Secondary Education
Characteristics of the Course. — The French program of
1902, which has since been modified in only minor details,
presents certain unique features, among them, its flexibility,
the opportunity afforded for the pupil to change from one
course to another without serious loss of time, and the con-
scious effort to meet the leaving-school problem, made possible
by the concentric-circle method of instruction. Election of
parallel and equivalent courses, a novel feature in French
programs, is definitely attributable to the influence of Ameri-
can education, but in France it has been worked out in a more
satisfactory way than is ordinarily found in this country.
French secondary education proper begins when the boy
is about eleven years of age, although as has already been
indicated, the preliminary training is generally obtained in the
elementary classes attached to the same school. Up to the
beginning of the secondary course, it is perfectly possible for
the pupil to pass from the primary to the secondary school
system practically at will, but once beyond this point it is next
to impossible to make the transition.
In the terms of the official decree of 1902, " secondary in-
struction is given in a course of study which extends over seven
years, and is divided into two cycles : one of four years, and
one of three years." France thus distinguishes between a
secondary school and secondary instruction, the former being
applied to a class institution which receives the boy at the
time when his schooling begins and prepares him to enter the
university, and the latter referring to the instruction given
during the last seven years of that period, normally from the
eleventh to the eighteenth year.
At the moment when this secondary instruction begins, two
parallel courses open out before the lad, one with Latin
(division A), and the other without Latin (division B). Save
for the exception just noted, the subjects of instruction in the
two courses are the same, although the time devoted to Latin
in division A is occupied by additional hours in French and
Secondary Education in Europe 79
science in division B. The common subjects of instruction
are French, modern languages (English or German), history
and geography, mathematics, natural science, and drawing.
Two years later, division A pupils may elect Greek, giving up
two hours of modern language and drawing therefor. An-
other two years sees them at the end of the first cycle, four
years from the starting point. This forms a natural break
just about midway of the course and rounds out a complete
though elementary circle of intellectual achievement. If the
pupil is compelled to drop out here, he can do so without feel-
ing that he is leaving a piece of work half done. He can carry
away with him a definite unity of ideas. He has covered in
cursory fashion the whole range of the national literature,
paying considerable attention to the classic writers ; he has
studied from one to three foreign languages, according to the
course he has selected, for from two to four or more years ;
he has completed elementary arithmetic, with perhaps some
more advanced mathematics ; he has been introduced to
scientific lore ; he has studied the geography of the whole
world ; he is familiar with the great movements of history
from the very beginning down to 1889 ; and he has had two
years of elementary moral instruction, introduced to supply
the place of the former religious teaching ; in other words,
he has touched practically all the subjects of secondary school
study. The advantage of this scheme over the old program
of studies, which was laid out upon a seven-year basis, must be
readily apparent.
At this point, an entire realignment is possible, for four
parallel courses present themselves : section A, a strictly
classical course, with both Latin and Greek ; section B, a
Latin-modern-language course ; section C, a Latin-science
course ; and section D, a science-modern-language course.
Two years later, the pupil must choose again, this time be-
tween philosophy and mathematics. In this highest form
several of the subjects are relegated to the elective group,
8o Principles of Secondary Education
while the major part of the time is devoted to philosophy,
history, physical and natural sciences in the philosophy form,
and in the parallel mathematics form to those same subjects
together with mathematics and modern languages. In the
latter class, nineteen hours per week are devoted to realistic
subjects as against only about nine hours for the humanistic
group. Reference to the complete program of studies which
will be found on the following pages will clear up many ques-
tions with regard to the distribution of subjects.
It must not be forgotten that this does not represent the
whole work of the French secondary school, for most of the
important lycees have graduate courses on the letters or the
science side, known respectively as " higher rhetoric " or
" special mathematics," which train boys for the higher
normal school or some one of the various engineering schools
that are supported by the government. Entrance to these
schools is entirely through competitive examination, and
many of the foremost intellectual leaders of France during
the last century have issued through their portals.
FRENCH SECONDARY SCHOOLS — BOYS
WEEKLY PROGRAM — REGULATIONS OF 1902-1912
Preparatory Division
I YEAR II YEAR
HRS. HRS.
French 9 French 9
Moral and civic instruction 1 Moral and civic instruction x
Writing 2% Modern languages .... 2
Simple history stories . . . i Writing 2^
Geography i^ Simple history stories ... i
Arithmetic 3 Geography i^
Nature study i Arithmetic 3
Drawing i Nature study i
Singing i Drawing i
Singing i
Total 20 Total ^cT
1 This instruction will be given in connection with the instruction in French,
history, and geography, and is included in the time assigned to these subjects.
Secondary Education in Europe
81
Elementary Division
(Eighth and seventh forms)
Has.
7
French
Moral and civic instruction l
Modern languages 2
Writing i
History and geography 3
Arithmetic 4
Nature study i
Drawing i
Singing _r_
Total 20
1 This instruction will be given in connection with the instruction in French,
history, and geography, and is included in the time assigned to these subjects.
First Cycle
(Length, four years ; from the sixth to the third form inclusive)
DIVISION A
French and Latin . ,
Modern languages . .
History and geography
Arithmetic
Natural science
Drawing 2
Total 23
DIVISION B
Sixth Form
HRS. HRS.
10 French 6
5 Modern languages .... 5
3 History and geography . . 3
2 Arithmetic 3
i Natural science 2
Drawing 2
Writing i
Total 23"
Fifth Form
French and Latin
Modern languages .
History and geography
Arithmetic .
HRS.
10
5
3
2
HRS.
6
Natural science i
Drawing 2
Total . 23
French
Modern languages .... 5
History and geography ... 3
Mathematics and mechanical
drawing 4
Natural science i
Drawing 2
Writing _i
Total . 22
82
Principles of Secondary Education
DIVISION A
DIVISION B
Fourth Form
WITH WITHOUT
GREEK, GREEK,
HRS. HRS.
Literary instruction :
Ethics, French, Latin 10
Greek 3
Modern languages . . 3
History and geography 3
Mathematics .... 2
Natural science i
Drawing
Totals
Literary instruction :
10 Ethics, French
HRS.
6
4 Modern languages .... 4
3 History and geography . . 3
2 Mathematics, bookkeeping,
and geometrical drawing . 4^
1 Natural science .... i
Physics and chemistry . . i|
2 Drawing 2 l
22 Total 22
One hour for mechanical drawing.
Third Form
WITH WITHOUT
GREEK, GREEK,
HRS. HRS.
Literary instruction :
Ethics, French, Latin n
Greek 3
Modern languages . . 3
History and geography 3
Mathematical science . 3
Drawing i
Totals
Literary instruction :
Ethics, French
HRS.
7
Modern languages .... 5
History and geography . . 3
Mathematics and geometri-
cal drawing 4
Physics and chemistry . . 2\
Natural science .... i
Bookkeeping 1
Drawing 2
Total 24!
1 One hour optional for practical bookkeeping in schools where its local use-
fulness is recognized by formal vote of the regular teaching staff in general
assembly.
Secondary Education in Europe
Second Cycle
(Length, three years; from the second to the philosophy-mathe-
matics form inclusive)
Second Form
SECTION A
SECTION B
SECTION C
SECTION D
Latin-
Greek
Latin-
Modern
Languages
Latin-
Science
Science-
Modern
Languages
Hrs.
Hrs.
Hrs.
Hrs.
r ., . f French
Literary mstruc-
< Latin . .
tinn
4 1
4 } 13
4 }«
4 J
«}*
4 J
4
iiun •.-, i
( Greek . .
5 J
-
-
-
History ( Modern history .
2 1
2 1
21
2 1
and { Ancient history .
i*>4i
i*} 4
-3
3
geography { Geography . .
I J
i J
i J
I J
2 1
2 .}
Modern languages ....
2
it 7
2
ii 7
42J
42J
Mathematics
2
2
yl1 4
42
4l4
Physics and chemistry . . .
-
-
>!•
o1 5
22
Science laboratory ....
-
-
2
2
Drawing
2
2
2)43
2 U'
2 J 4
2 J4
Totals
23l
23£
26
27
1 One hour in Sections B and D for the language studied in the first cycle.
- Four hours for the second language.
3 Two hours for mechanical drawing.
4 Mathematics instruction occupies five hours up to February isth, and four
hours after that date.
5 Chemistry instruction occupies one hour up to February i5th, and two hours
after that date.
84
Principles of Secondary Education
First Form
SECTION A
SECTION B
SECTION C
SECTION D
Latin-
Greek
Latin-
Modern
Languages
Latin-
Science
Science-
Modern
Languages
Hrs.
Hrs.
Hrs.
Hrs.
French
4
4 1,
*U
4
Literary instruc-
Latin . .
Latin, extra
3
14
3 r
3l7
tion
hours
a
- 2*
_
_
Greek . .
sJ
-
-
-
History f Modern history
2)
2 1
2]
2 1
and { Ancient history
25
2 5
-3
3
geography 1 Geography . . .
ij
i J
ij
I j
2 1
2 1
Modern languages
2
iM 7
2
i1 > 7
i /
42J
1 '
42J
Mathematics
2+2*
2+2*
e
C
Physics and chemistry . . .
0
3
o
3
Science laboratory
-
-
2
2
Drawing .
- 2*
- 2*
21 3
2)4
Llk
Totals . .
23 +4*
21 +6*
26
28
* Optional.
1 One hour in Sections B and D for the language studied in the first cycle.
2 Four hours for the second language.
3 Two hours for mechanical drawing.
Secondary Education in Europe
Philosophy and Mathematics Forms
PHILOSOPHY
MATHEMATICS
Section A
Section B
Section A
Section B
Hrs.
Hrs.
Hrs.
Hrs.
Philosophy
89
gi
7
Greek-Latin
4*
Latin
2*
Modern languages . . .
2*
fl
2
(I
U1
U'
History and geography
at
32
3*
71
32
3*
Mathematics
2*
2*
8
82
Cosmography
1
2
^
-
-
Physics and chemistry . .
5
5
5
5
Natural science ....
2
2
2
2
Science laboratory . . .
-
-
2
2
Drawing
2*
2*
I2+ 2*3
I2 + 2*3
Hygiene (12 lectures of one
hour each 4) ....
-
-
-
-
Totals
IQ| + 10*
22| +6*
26£ + 2*
27I + 2*
* Optional.
1 The pupils have the right to select for themselves the distribution of these
two hours.
2 Mechanical drawing.
3 Ornamental design is optional.
4 These lectures are included in the natural science instruction.
Baccalaureate Degree. — The natural culmination of the
course at a French lycee or college is the baccalaureate. This
is purely a degree of secondary education, consequently differ-
ing materially from our corresponding degree. It is not easy
to evaluate the American and the French degrees on account
of the lack of standardization notorious in this country. The
French degree, however, stands for a very definite intellec-
tual attainment, the degree from Lille, Poitiers, or Marseille
being accounted as high as that from Paris. It represents a
86 Principles of Secondary Education
measure of attainment which would probably be reached
about midway of the course at the better American colleges.
In France, the bachelor's degree is the sole passport to the
university and so to all grades of higher education. Each
academy has its own baccalaureate examination commission
whose members are drawn from university and secondary
ranks in substantially equal numbers. Thus the examina-
tion fulfils the double purpose of checking up the work of the
schools and at the same time of determining the candidate's
fitness to undertake university study. It cannot be denied
that it is rather a serious ordeal, for the mortality is very
great, something over 40 per cent of the candidates suc-
ceeding at the first part of the examination, and about 60
per cent at the second. At the same time, it must be recog-
nized that the leaving- school problem is not so acute in the
French secondary schools as it is in America. With us there
is a considerable dropping out all along the line, while in
France the very great majority complete the course, and the
mortality is largely concentrated at the end at the time of the
baccalaureate examination.
Reference has already been made to the two parts of the
examination, which are separated by an academic year.
There are two sessions in each part per year, one in July and
the other in October. The candidate who fails in July may
come up again the next fall. Taking these facts into con-
sideration and remembering that the candidates at the second
part one year are restricted to those who were successful at
the previous session, it will appear that between 55 and 60
per cent of those who really come up for the examination
finally secure the coveted honor. The total number of bache-
lors in 1910 was 7063 and in 1912 was 7264. Since 1902
there has been only one baccalaureate, the former degrees
in letters and science being no longer granted. The certifi-
cate given for successful passage of the first part bears the
mention Latin-Greek, Latin-modern-language, Latin-science,
Secondary Education in Europe 87
or science-modern-language, but no one possesses any official
advantage over any other. Success in the second or final
part carries with it the baccalaureate degree, with the men-
tion philosophy, or mathematics, the chief point to note being
that there is only one degree. The value is the same for all,
whether the holder intends to enter the arts faculty, the
science faculty, the law school, the medical school, or an
engineering school.
School Population. — In the year 1913 there were in
lycees for boys and 236 communal colleges in France and Al-
geria, containing about 58,000 and 37,000 pupils, respectively.
Few of the former are outside the capitals of the departments,
while practically all the latter are in cities of less importance.
In fact, with the exception of Paris, no city has both a lycee and
a college. The number of the lycees as well as their population
is increasing slowly from year to year, rather more rapidly,
indeed, than the population of the country. In spite of the
dispersion of the congregations and the suppression of the
schools under control of the religious bodies, the successors
of these schools under private control still contain nearly as
many pupils as are to be found in the lycees. The graduates
of these private schools, however, must pass the baccalaureate
examination given by the state in order to enter the university
or any of the higher state institutions of learning.
Boarding Schools. — One striking characteristic that differ-
entiates the state secondary schools in France from those in
any other country is the fact that they are boarding schools.
This is another heritage from the Jesuit colleges, although,
as a matter of fact, the general scheme far antedates the
Jesuits themselves, for the original university colleges in
France were all boarding schools. Of late years, this resi-
dential feature has evidently been falling into disfavor, for
not only are the boarding pupils not keeping pace with the
growth of the schools, but their numbers are actually decreas-
ing. In 1885 there were 25,000 pupils living in the lycees,
88 Principles of Secondary Education
while by 1908, this number had fallen to 17,000, and to-day
they are probably fewer still. Boarding departments in the
colleges show the same tendency, although the losses here
have not been so striking. While boarding-school life has its
advantages, one can readily understand why French parents
should be less and less willing to subject their sons to the
almost cloistral seclusion in the cold stone " barracks " of a
city school. The more rural character of the college loca-
tions together with the opportunity of living a freer life is
partly responsible for the fact that the depopulation of the
residential departments of the colleges has not proceeded
so rapidly as in the case of the lycees. In addition to the
boarding pupils, one finds in each school half-boarders, super-
vised study pupils, and day pupils. The half-boarders are
subjected to the same regime as the residential pupils, save
that they have the evening meal and sleep at home. They
may come to school as early as six or half-past six in the morn-
ing. The supervised day pupils do all their studying in the
study halls of the school under the same supervision as the
first two classes of pupils. The day pupils are at the school
only for the regular class work.
Teaching Force. — The residential feature of French second-
ary schools necessitates an elaborate administrative organiza-
tion to meet this special condition. Each lycee is in charge of
a proviseur or headmaster, who is managing director as well
as educational head of the institution. He is assisted by a
censor whose official title is " censor of studies," but whose
chief function is that of discipline master. The censor looks
after attendance, transmits all reports from the class teachers
to the headmaster, and is in general charge of the boys while
they are within the school precincts. A third general adminis-
trative officer is the econome, or bursar, who is the business
manager and financial agent of the school.
The brunt of the teaching burden is borne by the regular
teaching force, professeurs, as well equipped a body of men on
Secondary Education in Europe 89
the whole as is to be found in any secondary system in the
world. This staff in the lycees is really of superior type, for
only agreges are appointed to these positions. The agregation
is a title, a kind of diploma, which not only stands for a high
degree of scholarship, but also indicates that the holder is one
of the ten or a dozen best men in his subject in France that
year, as proved by the fact that he has come out toward the
head of a list in a national competitive examination. There
are eight orders of agregation : philosophy, letters, grammar,
history and .geography, modern language, mathematics,
physical science (physics and chemistry), and natural science,
corresponding to the various departments of learning repre-
sented in the secondary school program of studies. Most
of these terms are sufficiently self-explanatory to need no
further comment. The work of the agreges in letters and
grammar is essentially the same, each one having to teach
French, Latin, and, when necessary, Greek. In the main,
the letters men receive appointments in the classes of the
first cycle, and the grammar men in those of the second cycle,
These eight orders of agreges delimit exactly the fields of
the departmental teaching. Such a high degree of specializa-
tion is provided for and observed in the French lycee that it
would be as unthinkable for the agrege in history and geography
to teach a class in elementary mathematics, as for the professor
in chemistry in an American state university to take a first-
grade class in the university practice school. It is largely by
differentiating the various fields of instruction and in keeping
them distinct that the French schools have been able to develop
such an effective teaching staff. They are careful, however,
not to run to too narrow specialization, for it is relatively rare
that even an agrege teaches but a single subject. This is
only true in the case of philosophy and modern languages. A
man is agrege in English, or German, or Italian, or Spanish,
and the like, and he must confine himself to his specialty.
It is immaterial how many teachers there may be in the school,
QO Principles of Secondary Education
one is never allowed to teach only Latin, or French, or history,
or geography. The letters or grammar man must have
French and Latin ; the history man must teach history and
geography ; the physical science man, physics and chemistry ;
the natural science man, botany, zoology, and geology ; and
the mathematics man must handle mathematics as a whole,
and not break it up arbitrarily into the smaller fields so familiar
in the United States, arithmetic, algebra, geometry, trigonom-
etry, and the like. In this way the French seem to have
limited the field of the teacher's work to a small enough area
to insure a mastery of the subject, and yet have avoided the
other extreme of narrow specialization. All agreges may
fairly be assumed to have covered an elementary and second-
ary course of twelve years ; to have spent from one to three
or more years in advanced study beyond the secondary school
course by way of preparation for the competitive examina-
tion for entrance to the higher normal school ; and then to
have studied for three years (four in the case of the science
men) in a professional school before coming up for the agrega-
tion. The quality of the men who have survived this ordeal,
with its various hazards, failure to negotiate any one of which
means disaster, cannot be gainsaid.
The regular teachers in the colleges do not measure up to
this high standard, for they are required to hold nothing more
than the master's degree, for which of course the element of
competition is lacking. In both lycees and colleges some of
the classes are intrusted to acting teachers, whose qualifica-
tions are somewhat inferior to those of the regular teachers
in the corresponding positions. There are roughly rather
more than five regular appointees to two acting teachers in
the secondary schools as a whole. In addition to these two
classes of teachers, there are instructors of the elementary
classes as well as special teachers of drawing and gymnastics.
The aforementioned groups constitute the teaching force
proper of the schools. Specialization in the French schools
Secondary Education in Europe 91
again comes to the fore to the extent that the teachers do
nothing but teach. They come to school to meet their classes,
and the moment the lessons are over, their responsibility
ceases. Supervision of study rooms and other work of a more
or less police-like character are not among their duties.
Special groups of people are employed for this exclusive pur-
pose. Tutors (repetiteurs) are on duty all day long to look
after the boys during recreations and meal times, and to
supervise them during the study hours in rooms set apart for
that purpose ; while from dinner time at night until after
breakfast the next morning, surveillants are constantly with
the boys. Every moment that the boy is in school, he is
under the personal charge of some regularly appointed officer.
Not only do the residential pupils lead lives of perfect regu-
larity, where the opportunity for wasting time is reduced to
a minimum, but thanks to the supervision of their study
periods they are able to attack their work intelligently and in
the most telling fashion.
Salaries. — The question of teachers' salaries is so com-
plicated as to make any generalization convey but an im-
perfect idea of the actual situation. Every order of teachers
in the entire system, whether it be headmasters in Paris, or
headmasters in the provinces, regular professors in either of
these two areas, acting professors, professors of drawing,
tutors, and the like, is divided into six classes. An appoint-
ment to any one of these orders means beginning in the lowest
class with the assurance of rising regularly in accordance with
a very definite scale of advancement. A new salary schedule
went into effect in 1911-1912 which raised salaries all along
the line about five hundred francs in each instance, but pro-
vided for the present incumbents reaching the new standard
in five or six years. Under this revised scale, the salaries
of regular professors in Paris range from 5500 to 9000 francs,
with an additional 500 francs to each agrege. The correspond-
ing figures in the provincial lycees run from 3700 to 6700
92 Principles of Secondary Education
francs. Headmasters are reckoned in the same category
with the regular professors, but they receive from 2000 to
4000 francs additional for their services as directors. Taking
everything into consideration, the highest salary it is possible
for a Paris headmaster to receive is 13,000 francs ($2700).
As a matter of fact, the highest salary actually paid in Paris
in 1910 was 11,000 francs. Even keeping in mind that the
headmaster has no house rent to pay and receives certain
allowances for light and heat, this income still falls far short of
what men in corresponding positions in this country receive.
When the different standards of living in the two countries
are evaluated, however, the American headmaster's advantage
begins to disappear, and when cognizance is taken of the social
and academic standing of the two men, the relative position
of the two as expressed in our first comparison becomes quite
reversed. Security of tenure together with the assurance
of a retiring pension makes the advantage in the case of the
French headmaster even more pronounced. The situation
of the regular professor is not quite so fortunate, for his salary
is less than that of his headmaster, and he must provide his
own living accommodations, but all things considered his lot
is a happy one. Secure in his position beyond the reach of
any political or other malignant influence, with certain though
perhaps slow promotion before him, possessed of sufficient
leisure to provide for his own spiritual and professional growth,
confident in the assurance of a retiring pension awaiting him,
and able to live comfortably within his means, the lot of a
French secondary teacher is almost to be envied. His school
duties are certainly not onerous. There is a regularly arranged
schedule showing the amount of teaching required of each
class of teacher. In Paris this varies from ten to sixteen hours
per week in the secondary classes proper, while in the provinces
it runs slightly higher. Two hours additional may be de-
manded of anybody, but for that extra remuneration is granted.
Further supplementary hours are entirely at the discretion of
Secondary Education in Europe 93
the teacher, but opportunities are not lacking to add to one's
income in this way.
School Fees. — Attention has already been called to the
fact that the secondary schools of France are all fee schools.
Instruction in every kind of a primary school is free, but in
all grades of secondary schools tuition is charged. This
varies so widely that averages would tell only partial truths.
The schools all over the country are carefully classified and
the charges graded for each of the four categories of pupils
in every form from the lowest to the highest. In Paris the
fees for the beginning pupils of the infant class range from
90 francs per annum for the day pupils to goo francs for the
boarding pupils, while in the highest forms the corresponding
figures run from 650 to 1650 francs. In the provincial lycees
the fees range from 40 francs to 700 francs for the infant
class, and from 320 to 1250 francs for the top form. The
highest figure quoted here, 1650 francs ($330), seems little
enough for the total yearly expense, including board, room,
tuition, and other fees, in the best secondary schools in
France.
Budget. — In view of the amount of the school fees, it is
not surprising that the expenses of the government are con-
siderably more than the receipts. It is interesting to note,
however, that the boarding department succeeds far better
than the day pupils' department, the former contributing
nearly 95 per cent of the boarding expense account, whereas
the day pupils pay only a little more than half of what they
cost the state. In 1903, the amount carried on the budget
to make up the deficit in the day-pupil department was seven
and a quarter millions of francs, as opposed to only one million
in the case of the residential pupils. In 1910, the former figure
had risen to 8,400,000 francs, while the latter had dropped to
584,000 francs. According to the budget of 1903, the total
expense to the state for secondary education over and above
what it received from fees and the like amounted to about
94 Principles of Secondary Education
25,800,500 francs — two and a quarter millions of francs
for girls' schools, eighteen and three quarters millions for
boys' schools, and the balance for administration, central
office charges, scholarships, and other allied expenses. From
time to time, attempts have been made to abolish fees in
secondary schools, but since under the present system sec-
ondary education is absorbing nearly 12 per cent of the
entire budget of the education department in addition to the
receipts from tuition fees, there is little probability of this
happening in the immediate future.
EDUCATION OF GIRLS. — Until within a single genera-
tion, public secondary education for girls has not figured in
French social life. The passage of the law providing for es-
tablishing secondary schools for girls at state expense was one
of the most significant acts of the period from 1879 to 1882,
which may fairly be called the French modern educational
renaissance. In May, 1907, the twenty-fifth anniversary of
the opening of the first lycee for girls was celebrated in Paris
with fitting ceremonial. This whole movement for girls'
education is distinctly modern in its character, and it has
therefore been free from the incubus of tradition which has
certainly more than once hampered the development of boys'
schools. M. Greard expressed this very suggestively when
he said : " Boys' secondary instruction had its traditions.
Girls' secondary education lent itself much more easily to
novelties, being itself a novelty." This situation became
apparent more than once during the parliamentary debates
upon the bill providing for the creation of these girls' schools.
In the first place, they are exclusively day schools, although
municipal or individual initiative not infrequently conducts
boarding departments in conjunction therewith. In the
second place, the whole constitution of the program of studies
reflects a decidedly " modern " educational point of view.
This latter characteristic will be more evident in the con-
sideration of the subjects of instruction.
Secondary Education in Europe 95
Girls' secondary schools fall into three general categories :
state lycees, communal colleges, and secondary courses es-
tablished by local authorities with the moral and in some cases
financial support of the state. These three categories represent
steps in the evolution of individual institutions, for practically
every new lycee created within the last few years has passed
through these three stages, beginning as a secondary course,
being transformed into a college, and thence into a lycee.
The secondary courses hardly merit the name " schools," for
they lack the organization that such a term implies, nor can
they be looked upon as permanent foundations. The appella-
tion " course " is sufficiently descriptive. They are ordinarily
in charge of directresses, with a teaching force drawn from
the staffs of the boys' lycees or colleges in the neighborhood.
No fixed program of study is prescribed for them, although
the government offers certain official recognition in granting
a diploma for successful completion of the work. This course
prepares specifically for the two lowest diplomas required for
teaching in elementary schools and for admission to the girls'
higher normal school at Sevres.
In 1913 there were 52 lycees for girls, 81 colleges, and 50
secondary courses in France and Algeria. Six years before
there were 49 lycees, 61 colleges, and 63 secondary courses.
The number of lycees has probably about reached a state of
equilibrium. Secondary courses have been steadily decreas-
ing in number since 1887, due to the fact that they are or-
dinarily looked upon as temporary expedients, but the loss
here has been more than balanced by the gain in the number
of colleges. Despite the fact that the lycees are the least
numerous, they are by far the largest, judged on the basis of
school population. The total number of girls in these three
types of schools is not far from 35,000 pupils.
Organization. — Girls' lycees and colleges bear the same
relation to each other that prevails in the case of the corre-
sponding boys' schools. They are organized much more
96 Principles of Secondary Education
effectively than are the girls' secondary courses, although they
are quite unlike the boys' schools. The course is arranged
on a five-year basis, instead of seven as in the case of the boys.
Preparatory training is provided in elementary classes attached
to the school, but the pupils do not enter here until they are
eight years of age. This defers admission to the secondary
school proper until twelve, and allows the whole course to be
completed by the time the girl has reached her seventeenth
year. The regular five-year course is divided into two parts,
one of three years and the other of two, with a sixth year, found
in only a few of the more important lycees, which prepares
specifically for the higher normal school for girls.
Program of Studies. — The subjects of instruction for the
first part of the course include : (i) ethics ; (2) French ;
(3) modern languages ; (4) history ; (5) geography ; (6) mathe-
matics ; (7) natural history ; (8) physics and chemistry ;
(9) domestic economy and hygiene; (10) sewing; (u) draw-
ing; (12) singing; and (13) gymnastics. To these must be
added in the second part of the course : (i) psychology ;
(2) ancient and modern foreign literatures ; (3) cosmography ;
and (4) elements of common law.
The program in full appears on the following pages.
Perhaps the most striking characteristic about this second-
ary school program is the absence of the classical influence.
Greek has never appeared as a subject of instruction in the
girls' schools, but Latin has been buffeted about in a rather
ruthless but interesting fashion. When the schools were first
established, Latin figured as an optional subject of study,
introduced largely out of deference to the prevailing human-
istic influence in secondary school affairs. In 1897 it was
abolished entirely, its cultural element being represented by
the study of Latin and Greek literary masterpieces read in
the vernacular. It has recently been restored as an optional
subject in a few lycees, largely in order to prepare girls for the
baccalaureate examination.
Secondary Education in Europe
97
WEEKLY PROGRAM
ELEMENTARY CLASSES OF THE GIRLS' SECONDARY SCHOOLS
(Hours per week)
SUBJECTS
INFANT
CLASS
8-9 YRS.
i
9-10 YRS.
II
io-ii YHS.
III
ii-iz YRS.
French
6*
6|
6J
6*
Modern languages
History
a|
i
a*
i
*J
i
4
i
Geography
i
i
i
i
Arithmetic
a4
ai
2-1
Nature study
Needlework
*
l
2
*
i
2
*
1
2
*
Drawing
*
*
*
*
* No definite amount of time specified.
GIRLS' SECONDARY SCHOOLS — FIRST, SECOND, AND THIRD YEARS
(Hours per week)
YEARS
i
II
III
Ethics
I
French language and literature
Modern languages ....
History
5
3
2
5
3
2
si
3
2
Geography
I
I
I
Mathematics
2
2
2
Natural history
Physics and chemistry . . .
Domestic economy and hygiene
Sewing
I
2
I
2
2
12
2
lectures of one
hour each
] minimum
Drawing
2
2
2
! time for
Singing
I
I
I
f each subject
Gymnastics
xi
I*
a
per year
Totals
2O|
2 of
21
98
Principles of Secondary Education
FOURTH AND FIFTH YEARS
REQUIRED SUBJECTS
YEARS
IV
Ethics i
Psychology applied to ethics and education ... 2
French language and literature 3 2
Ancient literatures i
Modern foreign literatures i
Modern languages 3 3
History 2 2
Geography i i
Mathematics J*
Common law
Physics it
Physics and chemistry 1 - 2
Animal and vegetable anatomy and physiology,
hygiene i i
Totals 14 15
OPTIONAL SUBJECTS
Mathematics 2 2
Additional modern language 2 2
Sewing 2
Drawing 2f 2J
Singing if if
Gymnastics i|
Totals 10^ 10-2
Grand totals 24^ 252
i hour for one semester.
f Minimum.
School Population. — The population of the girls' second-
ary schools represents a distinctly different cross section of
society from that of the boys', and in the main attends school
with a different purpose in view. For the boy, the secondary
school is a cultural institution, but one that has a distinctly
Secondary Education in Europe 99
professional bent. In other words, he goes there chiefly in
order that he may thereby pass into the law school, the medical
school, the arts or science faculty, or the government engineer-
ing schools, in nearly every case with a professional career
in prospect. With the girls, however, a relatively small
number has teaching or any other professional calling in mind.
Much less do the pupils of these girls' schools look forward
to entering the ranks of the industrial or commercial army.
Consequently, one is not surprised to find that the majority
of the girls in these secondary schools drop out at the end of
the first part of the course, having continued thus far with a
purely general cultural aim in view.
Academic Distinctions. — There are two academic rewards
in girls' secondary schools : the certificate of secondary studies
at the end of the third year ; and the diploma (diplome de fin
(T etudes} at the end of the fifth year. These are awarded on
passing set examinations at these times. The baccalaureate,
which crowns the work of the boys' secondary course, is a
state examination with which the teachers of the school have
nothing to do. The leaving examinations at the girls' schools,
on the other hand, are practically in the hands of the teachers
of the schools themselves. One reason for this perhaps is
that the possession of the certificate or the diploma of the
girls' schools carries with it no particular privilege, not even
opening the way to university study. To be sure, women
are admitted to the university, but they must pass through
the same portal as the men, namely, the baccalaureate.
Although the girls' schools as a whole do not prepare for this
degree, no special consideration is extended on that account.
Girls are held to exactly the same standards as boys, and they
must make up their short-comings as best they may on the
outside, by private tutoring or otherwise.
Standards of Teachers. — In order to acquire the right to
regular appointment to the teaching force of the girls' lycees,
the young woman must complete the work in the secondary
ioo Principles of Secondary Education
school system itself, leave with the diploma at the end of the
course, and then go on and secure the aggregation as in the
case of the boys' schools. This, too, is taken normally at
the conclusion of the course in the higher normal school,
although the standard here is materially lower than at the
corresponding boys' school. The requirements for regular
appointment in the colleges and for appointment as acting
teachers in the lycees are the same, namely, the possession of
the certificate for teaching in secondary schools, which may
be taken ordinarily at the close of the second year in the
normal school. This examination is competitive like that
for the agregation, a fact that goes far toward assuring a high
academic standard for the teaching staff.
Secondary education for girls is subject to tuition fees as
is the boys', although it does not constitute such a drain upon
the exchequer of the state. In fact some of the lycees are
nearly if not quite self-supporting. Nevertheless the state
is compelled annually to make a considerable appropriation
for the support of these girls' schools. In 1910 the sum thus
expended amounted to about three and a half million francs.
General Characteristics. — While the reform plan adopted
in 1902 and the modifications since effected have not given
universal satisfaction, the secondary school situation in
France is probably more nearly in a state of equilibrium
than in any one of the other four leading nations. Within
the last generation the progress achieved has been little
short of remarkable. To-day scarcely anybody is shut out
from enjoying its privileges on account of lack of school
facilities. It must be kept in mind, however, that the
presence of fees in all secondary schools puts them beyond
the reach of the great mass of the people, but this is delib-
erate on the part of the educational authorities. The United
States is the only nation in the world which offers univer-
sal free secondary education. The older nations are or-
ganized on a decidedly aristocratic basis, and France, al-
Secondary Education in Europe 101
though nominally a republic, is yet dominated by the old
monarchical traditions. The fact that there are scholarships
available for the brilliant children of the lower social classes
counts for relatively little in affecting the truth of this asser-
tion. France believes in giving everybody sufficient educa-
tion to make him a useful and contented participant in the
work of the world, but when it comes to training for leader-
ship, she proceeds with the utmost caution, assuming that
the great majority of the directing classes will be found among
those who are financially comfortable. Any others must
first prove their worth before she is willing to expend state
funds for their education. From a pecuniary point of view
alone, she is unalterably opposed to offering unlimited free
education, primary, secondary, and higher to all, with the
idea that qualified leaders will thereby be evolved. This
same statement might with equal truth be made of Germany,
and to a less extent of England as well. In France, however,
once an individual has demonstrated the unusual character of
his endowments, the state cannot do too much for him.
GERMANY
SOCIAL BACKGROUND. — Much of what has been said
of the social background of the French secondary school
system might well be repeated in the case of Germany with
only here and there slight modifications, although outwardly
the monarchical spirit is even more pronounced in Germany
than in France. One point, however, needs to be made clear
at the outset. As a factor in world politics, the empire pre-
sents a united front, but when one examines the situation
more closely, it is evident that this unity is not rooted deep
in the spiritual consciousness of the people. The foreigner
does not usually differentiate among the inhabitants of Ber-
lin, of Munich, and of Stuttgart, yet there is less similarity of
temperament between the North German and the South
SANTA BARBARA COLLE2E LIBRAOT
^L A. •? n Q
IO2 Principles of Secondary Education
German than between the French and the Belgian, or the
French and the Swiss of the Geneva district. In view of the
extreme difficulty of finding anything that might be called a
national type in Germany, the Prussian conditions are com-
monly taken as the standard. There is considerable justifi-
cation for this from the fact that Prussia, with approximately
three fourths of the area and the population, wields a pre-
ponderating influence in imperial affairs. Yet each state
has its individual school system directed and controlled by
its own educational authorities, exactly as in our own Ameri-
can states, and each state is entirely independent in its own
domestic affairs. There is no imperial minister of education,
nor does the imperial parliament attempt to impose any edu-
cational uniformity, save in exceptional instances, notably
in the uniform standards demanded of all who propose to
practice medicine, and in the general regulations prescribed
for all who expect to secure the privilege of the one-year
volunteer service in the army. In the absence of specific
indications to the contrary, the following account may be
assumed to describe conditions as they exist in Prussia.
EDUCATIONAL CONTROL. — As in the case of France,
education is a matter of public concern that is looked at from
a state point of view. Educational control in Prussia is
centered in a minister of education, whose official title is
Minister of Religious and Educational Affairs (Minister der
geistlichen und Unterrichts-Angelegenheiten}. As yet no Ger-
man state has any cabinet officer who devotes his attention
exclusively to educational affairs. Prussia seems tending
in that direction, for in January, IQII, public health, which
had formerly been a department of the above-named ministry,
was raised to an independent position, and there is a growing
demand for the separation of the departments of ecclesiastical
affairs and education. There is one fundamental difference
between the positions of the French and German educational
heads : in France, the minister is responsible to the parlia-
Secondary Education in Europe 103
ment, while in Prussia, the minister is responsible to the king
alone. As a consequence, the incumbency of the German
minister is considerably more stable than in the case of the
corresponding French official. Below the minister is an
under-secretary who acts as his deputy. The ministry is
furthermore divided into three departments : one depart-
ment for ecclesiastical affairs ; and two for education, the
first having charge of secondary and higher education, and
the second of elementary education. There is also a council
of some thirty members, mostly jurists, who aid the minister
with their advice, and divide the various administrative
duties that devolve upon so important a department. They
have little or no final power, however, for the minister must
assume responsibility for the entire conduct of his depart-
ment. Whenever fundamental changes of great moment
seemed desirable, he has been known to call a general con-
ference made up of prominent laymen as well as of leading
educators of the country to aid him further in his delibera-
tions. This has happened three times within the last genera-
tion: in 1890, in 1900, and again in 1907. The first two
resulted in the reforms of the boys' secondary schools of 1892
and 1901, and the last preceded the recent reorganization of
girls' secondary education. It must be clearly understood,
however, that no one of these conferences had any real power,
not even the right to make recommendations for public con-
sideration. They were merely deliberative bodies for the
convenience of the minister, nor was he even morally bound to
adopt their conclusions.
The Prussian state is composed of twelve provinces, each
of which is administered by a president. All secondary and
elementary educational affairs within each of these areas
are under the control of the provincial school board (Pro-
vincial Schulkollegium) , at whose head sits the above-men-
tioned president. The membership of these boards ranges
in number from four in the smaller provinces to fourteen in
IO4 Principles of Secondary Education
Brandenburg, the province in which Berlin is situated. All
save the president are professional educators, who have toiled
long and successfully in the educational service of the state,
and who bring to their work the ripeness of judgment and
sanity of mind that are so necessary in administrative work
of this nature. While nominally inspection of schools forms
a part of their duties, in practice they are chiefly occupied
with the larger problems of administration in their position
as intermediaries between the ministry at Berlin and the
schools. They come into direct relations with the secondary
schools of their province, being charged with the " super-
vision, direction, and inspection of schools which lead to the
universities ; and the appointment, promotion, discipline,
suspension, and dismissal of teachers in these institutions "
(except the directors). Thus these provincial school boards
have practically the entire professional control of all second-
ary schools within their domains, save only for the examina-
tion of teachers. This is intrusted to another set of boards
known as examining commissions (Wissenschaftliche Prufungs-
Kommissionen) , eleven in number for the whole state. The
advantages of the system will be at once apparent, for the
examination commission of subject matter specialists (uni-
versity professors are frequently members of these bodies)
passes upon the candidate's academic qualifications, other
experts judge of his teaching abilities, while the provincial
school board renders the final decision as to whether or not
the applicant should be placed upon the eligible list. In the
face of this series of tests, it is next to impossible for the un-
worthy candidate to secure an appointment.
The provincial school board has direct charge of the royal
schools (that is, those supported at state expense), while even
in the case of similar schools founded and maintained by the
municipalities the control of these boards is absolute over the
purely professional side of the administration, and extends
also in a supervisory capacity over the accounts, the budget,
Secondary Education in Europe 105
and the general external administration. Although munici-
palities may establish schools of their own, they must in
all cases conform to regulations laid down by these provincial
school boards. So, too, with the selection of teachers. This
is a prerogative of the communities, but inasmuch as their
choice is limited to an eligible list drawn up by the provincial
school board, they have little real power in the matter. The
hand of the state is thus everywhere in evidence, but it is
chiefly felt in the determination of standards — standards
of health and hygiene, standards of salaries, standards of
academic and professional fitness on the part of the teachers.
It should be observed that these are all minimum standards
and never maximum standards. If the community, for ex-
ample, desires to pay more than the regular salary schedules
(and in the cities of importance salaries in municipal schools
are frequently higher than in the corresponding state schools),
every encouragement is extended to such ambition. The
municipal board may determine what kind of a school it shall
have, nay is even left perfectly free to decide whether or not
it shall have any secondary school at all ; it may found the
school, provide the equipment, choose the teachers under
restrictions previously indicated, and do everything to put
the school in running order. Once this is done, however,
municipal prerogative ceases to be operative. The only
thing left for the local board is to pay the bills, and it may
not renounce this privilege at will, for it has absolutely no
control over the purely professional aspects of the adminis-
tration of its own school. This is all directed by the pro-
vincial boards. In this professional control by educational
experts of the higher schools in Germany, one finds the clue
to the marvelous efficiency of her secondary school system.
PRIMARY AND SECONDARY SCHOOLS. — The dis-
tinctions that we have already drawn between the secondary
and elementary schools in France will, to a very large extent,
hold true for Germany. In the last analysis, the fundamental
io6 Principles of Secondary Education
difference is a social difference. The stratification of the
continental life has been carried to such an extent that the
coming generation is reasonably sure to follow along in sub-
stantially the same social level as did the preceding genera-
tion. Any such rapid readjustments of social conditions as are
constantly recurring here in the United States are relatively
rare in the continental countries. Not that such changes
are impossible, but the presumption is always against them.
Furthermore, the conditions of industrial and commercial
life are so highly organized that the youth is reluctant to run
the risk of failure to " make good." The monarchical char-
acter of the German government, together with the relative
venerableness of the German civilization and its consequent
disinclination to change, tends to strengthen the stratification
of the social conditions, and to increase the likelihood that
the youth will not depart from the social groove of his father.
If the father went to a higher school, the probability is good
that the child will attend the same sort of a school. While
the German parent is undoubtedly ambitious for his offspring,
this ambition is not so unbridled as it is in this country. The
boldness of the American parent in this respect would be
characterized as rashness in Germany. In the United States,
Huxley's familiar expression with reference to the educational
ladder which should exist in every democracy with one end
in the gutter and the other in the university is undoubtedly
borne out by the facts in the case. It is possible for the
humblest American youth to start at the very bottom and
come out at the opposite end with no other assistance than
his own unaided efforts. Such a course is impossible in Ger-
many. No German state has a school system that permits
any similar passage. On the other hand, as in France, each
of the German states has two systems : the lower, or elemen-
tary, which is practically complete in itself ; and the higher
(or secondary, as we call it), which leads on to the university.
Between these two there is only one regularly recognized
Secondary Education in Europe 107
point of transition : at the close of the third or fourth school
year. Once beyond here, it is next to impossible to transfer
from the lower to the higher. Indeed one author has said
that not one boy in ten thousand who completes the elemen-
tary school course ever reaches the Gymnasium or in fact
any one of the " higher " schools.
This brings up the question : " What is a higher school? "
A higher school is one whose leaving certificate carries with
it the right to the one-year volunteer service privilege in the
army. In the last analysis this is a prize reserved for the
financially fit, for the tuition fees in the only schools that
can grant this right effectually exclude the children of the
proletariat from its enjoyment. It will be readily apparent
that the ten per cent of free places in the secondary schools
can have but little effect in alleviating this situation. Ger-
many is so dominated by militarism that every able-bodied
male looks upon his military service as a matter of course,
and proceeds to make the best of it. The ordinary young
man who comes up through the elementary school is con-
scripted for two or more years of service in the army. Grad-
uates of higher schools may offer their services for a single
year. During this time, in return for the honor, social posi-
tion, and opportunities for further advancement, the volunteer
relieves the government of all expense attendant upon his
army service — food, lodging, arms, and equipment. To the
American, this privilege would certainly seem of doubtful
value, especially in view of the fact that it entails an expense
of from three hundred and fifty to several thousand dollars
per year, but to the German this sacrifice is \vell worth making.
In the school that makes all this possible, the instruction goes
beyond the simple elements given in the lower schools ; it
gives a complete liberal education ; it leads on to the univer-
sity, and to other higher institutions. Such a school must in-
clude in its curriculum : geography, history, German literature,
mathematics, natural science, and at least two foreign languages.
io8 Principles of Secondary Education
BOYS' HIGHER SCHOOLS. — The category of boys'
higher schools embraces the following :
Gymnasien and Progymnasien;
Realgymnasien and Realprogymnasien ;
Oberrealschulen and Realschulen.
The first of each of these pairs of schools is a nine-year
school, while the second is a six-year school, identical in all
respects with the first two thirds of the course of its corre-
sponding relative. On the completion of the courses of the
Progymnasien and the Realprogymnasien, which are found
only in smaller communities, the pupils ordinarily seek the
respective full-course schools in the nearest large town. Thus
the advantages of secondary education are extended to a
much larger number of people without the expense of sup-
porting so many nine-year schools. In each of these instances,
the short-course school evolved from the full-course school.
The contrary is true in the case of the Oberrealschule and the
Realschule. Here the Realschule was the original type, which
in its turn was expanded into the Oberrealschule.
Nine years is the minimum age for entering any of these
higher schools, and the pupils must have already had at
least a three years' course in the elementary subjects of read-
ing, writing, arithmetic, and religion. Where the knowledge
shall have been gained, however, is quite immaterial. It is
offered in the first three or four years of the elementary school
( Volksschule) , as well as in the elementary classes ( Vorschulc]
frequently found in connection with the secondary school.
Gymnasium. - The Gymnasium is a classical school pure
and simple, with the study of the ancient languages forming
a dominant feature of the course. French is the required
modern language, although English appears as an elective,
as does also Hebrew. Its specific purpose is to give such a
broad humanistic culture as will prepare its pupils for sub-
sequent university specialization along either arts or science
Secondary Education in Europe
109
lines. The fact that nearly half of the 304 week hours in the
whole course is devoted to linguistic subjects demonstrates
conclusively the ultra-humanistic character of its work.
The detailed program follows :
GERMAN SECONDARY SCHOOLS
GYMNASIUM
VI
V
IV
UIII
OIII
UII
on
UI
OI
TOTAL
Required :
Religion . .
3
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
19
German . .
4
3
3
2
2
3
3
3
3
26
Latin . . .
8
8
8
8
8
7
7)
7)
7
68
Greek . . .
—
—
—
6
6
6
6J
6}
6
36
French . . .
—
—
4
2
2
3
3
3
3
20
History . .
—
—
2
2
2
2
3)
3(
3)
i7
Geography
2
2
2
I
I
I
J
-I
. |
9
Arithmetic and
mathematics
4
4
4
3
3
4
4}
4)
4)
34
Natural science
2
2
2
2
2
2
*)
a)
2 I
18
Writing . .
2
2
—
—
—
—
4
Drawing
2
2
2
2
—
—
—
8
Gymnastics
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
27
Singing l . .
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
18
30
3°
34
35
35
35
35
35
35
304
Optional :
Drawing . .
2
2
2
2
Hebrew . . .
2
2
2
English . . .
2
2
2
1 From IV onward only for pupils with vocal ability.
Brackets indicate that the time for subjects enclosed may be redistributed
if desired.
Realgymnasium. — The Realgymnasium likewise aims to
give a general culture in which the classical spirit is repre-
sented by Latin, but in which the modern languages, mathe-
matics, and the natural sciences figure largely. It represents
a compromise between the ideals of the classicists and the
ardent realists. This type of school was denominated a
no Principles of Secondary Education
hybrid by the Conference of 1890, and bade fair to go out of
existence. The tide turned during the latter part of the fol-
lowing decade, and after the Conference of 1900 the Real-
gymnasium began to develop rapidly. In this course, Greek
is replaced by English, while French and the sciences receive
more attention than in the Gymnasium.
The detailed program follows :
GERMAN SECONDARY SCHOOLS
REALGYMNASIUM
VI
V
IV
UIII
Required :
Religion . .
3
2
2
2
German . .
4
3
3
3
Latin . . .
8
8
7
5
French . .
—
—
5
4
English . . .
—
—
—
3
History . . .
—
—
2
2
Geography-
2
2
2
2
Arithmetic and
mathematics
4
4
4
5
Natural science
2
2
2
2
Writing . .
2
2
—
—
Drawing . .
2
2
2
Gymnastics
3
3
3
3
Singing l . .
2
2
2
2
3°
3°
34
35
Optional :
Geometrical
drawing . .
35
UII
Oil
UI
OI
TOTAL
2
2
2
2
19
3
3
3
3
28
4
4^
4
4
49
4
4
4
4
2Q
3
3
3
3
18
2
3
3
3
17
I
—
—
—
ii
5
5
5
5
42
4
5
5
5
29
—
—
—
—
4
2
2
2
2
16
3
3
3
3
27
2
2
2
2
18
35
36
36
36
3°7
2
2
2
2
1 From IV onward only for pupils with vocal ability.
Brackets indicate that the time for subjects enclosed may be redistributed
if desired.
Oberrealschule. — The Realschule is a six-year higher
school which is outside the pale of any direct classical in-
fluence whatsoever, for no ancient language appears in its
program of study. In many of these schools the course has
Secondary Ediication in Europe
1 1 1
been extended for three years more, and we have the Ober-
realschule, a school worthy to rank with the Gymnasium and
the Realgymnasium. This is more particularly a fitting
school for the present-day business life, in so far as the chil-
dren of the upper classes are looking forward to that field of
activity. Modern languages and the natural sciences, there-
fore, are the dominant elements in its program of study.
The detailed program follows :
GERMAN SECONDARY SCHOOLS
OBERREALSCHULE
VI
V
IV
UIII
Required :
Religion . .
3
2 2
2
German . .
5
4 4
3
French . . .
6
6 6
6
English . . .
—
— ; —
5
History . .
—
3
2
Geography
2
2 2
2
Arithmetic and
mathematics
5
5
6
6
Natural science
2
2
2
2
Writing ... 2
2
2
—
Freehand
drawing . . |
2
2
2
Gymnastics . 3
3
3
3
Singing ' . .
2
2
2
2
! 30
30
34
35
Optional :
Geometrical
drawing
OIII
UII
on
UI
01
TOTAL
2
2
2
2
2
10
3
3
4
4
4
34
6
5
4
4
4
47
4
4
4
4
4
2 5
2
2
3
3
3
1 8
2
I
i
i
i
14
5
5
5
5
5
47
4
6
6
6
6
36
2
2
2
2
2
1 6
3
3
3
3
3
27
2
2
2
2
2
18
35
35
36
36
36
307
2
2
2
2
1 From IV onward only for pupils with vocal ability.
Number of Schools. —On February i, 1912, there were in
Prussia 342 Gymnasien, 168 Realgymnasien, 102 Oberreal-
schulen, and 251 six-year schools, more than two thirds of
which were Rcalschulen. Of the 236,173 pupils in these
schools, nearly half, or, to be more accurate, 103,314, were in
112 Principles of Secondary Education
the Gymnasien, 50,319 were in the Realgymnasien, 41,986
were in the Oberrealschulen, and the others were in the short-
course schools. In 1911, with nearly the same total number
of pupils, the graduates numbered 12,820, of whom 8692 had
completed the course at the nine-year schools, and were con-
sequently elegible to enter the university.
Fees. — Reference has already been made to the fact that
there are no free secondary schools in Germany, although
the fees are not high, especially considering the character of
the instruction received. The maximum charges in Prussia
are less than one half the corresponding tuition figures in
France, amounting to 150 M. (837.50) in the three higher classes
of the nine-year schools, to 130 M. ($32.50) in the six lowest
classes, as well as in all the classes of the Progymnasien and
the Realprogymnasien. In the Realschulen, the charges are even
lower still, no M. ($22.50), unless the school is in connection
with a nine-year school, in which case the 130 M. schedule is
in force.
EARLY SPECIALIZATION DEFERRED. — Such an or-
ganization of secondary education as that in Germany, with
the added consideration that passage from the elementary to
any one of the higher schools was impossible beyond a certain
point, long practically forced the youngster to decide at nine
years of age personally or vicariously what his life work was
to be. As late as 1900, only Gymnasium graduates were
admitted to the university to prepare for law, medicine, or
most of the teaching positions. Naturally the Gymnasium
pupils on the whole selected that course because no other
opened the way to a professional or government career.
Finally the modern spirit that had been struggling for recog-
nition in the field of secondary education for years beat down
the guard of the conservative classicists, and the reform of
1901 in Prussia admitted the graduates of the three types of
schools, Gymnasien, Realgymnasien, and Oberrealschulen, to
practically equal privileges as far as university opportunity
Secondary Education in Europe 113
and civil service preferment were concerned. Theology, how-
ever, still remains a monopoly of the purely classical school,
and the study of medicine is reserved for those who have had
at least the Realgymnasium course in Latin.
Reform Plan Schools. — Meanwhile a new type of second-
ary school had been created, known as the Reform Gymna-
sium, or Frankfort-plan school. This was an attempt to solve
the premature specialization problem attendant upon com-
pelling the early choice of the child's future career. Under
the Frankfort system a single school has a Gymnasium and a
Realgymnasium side. For three years there is no differentia-
tion between them. Then the course bifurcates, one part
pursuing the Gymnasium studies, and the other part the
Realgymnasium studies. A comparison of the Frankfort
program with that of the two pure types will bring significant
differences to light. For example, Latin is not begun at all
until the fourth year of the course, foreign language study
in the meantime being represented by French. According
to a recent reform of a few years ago, the fourth and fifth
years under the Frankfort scheme have been made " almost
common," the only differences in time allotment being con-
fined to French and Latin. This practically makes it possible
to change from one course to another with but slight difficulty
as late as the end of the thirteenth year. At this point the
Gymnasium pupils begin Greek and the Realgymnasium pupils
begin English. Once beyond here any further change is im-
possible. Aside from deferring the final choice of course for
several years, until the youth shall have gone far enough to
make a correct decision more reasonably probable, this Frank-
fort scheme brings up an important pedagogical question as
to the relative value of beginning the study of the classics
comparatively late (at twelve instead of at nine) and pur-
suing them intensively, or beginning earlier and carrying
them on more discursively. So far as information is available,
the pupils at the reform Gymnasium do not seem to have
1 1 4 Principles of Secondary Education
suffered any handicap even when they have later pursued
their classical studies in the university.
In any event, the number of these schools is increasing
rapidly, having grown in Prussia from fifty-seven in 1904 to
one hundred and twenty-eight in 1912. If increase in num-
bers is any criterion, the Frankfort system has come to stay.
Another type of reform institution which takes its name
from Altona, the city of its birth, has attempted to do for
the Realgymnasium and the Realschule what the Frankfort
plan has for the other two types of higher schools. The
Altona plan has been but moderately successful, for only six
schools in Prussia followed it in 1912, and two of these had
already decided to go over to the Frankfort scheme. These
types of reform institution indicate in the first place that
centralization of educational control does not necessarily
mean permanency of form and structure, and in the second
place that Germany is beginning to repudiate a narrow, fixed
program of studies, and is turning toward the principle of
election — not a hasty and more or less random choice of
subjects of study, but a deliberate, intelligent selection of
courses. Within a given course, however, there is substan-
tially no election of subjects.
Although this reform plan has made marvelous progress
during the past twenty years, the great majority of the schools
still cling to the traditional forms. Germany, France, and
the United States thus present three different types of solu-
tion for the dissatisfaction with secondary programs of stud}-.
In Germany, the pupil selects his school, Gymnasium, Real-
gymnasium, or Oberrcalschule type. In France, he finds four
courses in the same school — Latin-Greek, Latin-modern
language, Latin-science, and science-modern language — from
which to choose. In all of these instances, once the course
is selected, the subjects of study are rather rigidly prescribed.
In the United States, on the other hand, it is very difficult
to suggest any general line of procedure, for the absence of
Secondary Education in Europe 115
any accepted philosophical background for the organization
of secondary education is all too painfully apparent. We
certainly have carried the unlimited and more or less irrational
election of subjects of study in our high schools to an extreme
not paralleled in any of the other great nations. We may
not agree with the principles controlling the organization of
secondary education in Germany and France, but at least we
must recognize the fact that there is some accepted educa-
tional philosophy back of it all, which is more than can be
said in general for the conditions to be found in our own
country.
EDUCATION OF GIRLS. TYPES OF SCHOOLS. -
Secondary education for girls in Germany suffers materially
in comparison with that of boys. In fact, it has never been
taken seriously until within the last few years. Much of
the recognition accorded it to-day is due to the effective
propaganda carried on by the " German Association for the
Secondary Education of Girls " and other similar organiza-
tions which have been struggling so valiantly for the past
thirty years. It may be unnecessary to observe in this con-
nection that coeducation in secondary schools is practically
unknown in Germany, although on rare occasions one
finds girls attending boys' higher schools. Woman is not
looked upon as an economic competitor of man in the work
of the world, nor is she ever considered as belonging to the
directing class. Since the program of studies in boys' schools
is definitely planned for the preliminary training of the country's
leaders, it will be readily patent that where opportunities for
education of a more advanced type than that found in the ele-
mentary schools is offered to girls, it must necessarily differ
widely from that provided for boys. Its aim is quite differ-
ent ; its organization is likewise quite different. In the main,
it is based upon the course in the Lyzeum, ten years in
length and extending from six to sixteen. The elementary
work is an integral part of the whole school, thus resembling
n6 Principles of Secondary Education
the organization of the French secondary schools for boys,
rather than the German. Superimposed upon the Lyzeum
is the Oberlyzeum, with a bifurcated course, one branch, the
Women's School (Die Frauenschule) , with its combination
housewifery and kindergarten training for two years, and
the other, the Higher Training School, with a four-year course
that prepares for teaching in a Lyzeum.
For those who look forward to university study (a privilege
but recently extended to women in Germany) there is another
type of school, Studienanstalt, entered from the Lyzeum at
the end of the seventh or the eighth year of the course, the
former if the pupil is to study classics, the latter if she wishes
to go in for a purely modern grouping of subjects. These
courses, six and five years respectively, correspond very
closely to the Gymnasium, Realgymnasium, and Oberreal-
schule courses of the boys' schools. Completion of the as-
signed work in any of these three lines and passage of the
leaving examination qualify for university entrance. Inas-
much as there are under three hundred (1911) public girls'
higher schools, as the term has been used heretofore, in Prussia,
and only about one tenth of them fit for the university (thirty
in 1911), many girls who might desire a higher education are
excluded from lack of preliminary training opportunity. One
is moved to observe that nowhere else in the world is the
young woman granted the facilities for secondary and higher
learning that are to be found in America.
Reorganization of Girls' Schools. — The following diagram,
including the minor changes in nomenclature to conform with
the ministerial order of February i, 1912, will throw consider-
able light on the organization of girls' schools. Lyzeum here
replaces the late Higher Girls' School, while the former Lyzeum
gives way to the name Oberlyzeum. A leaving examination
(Reiseprufung) has been introduced after the third year of
the training school course, and the fourth or Practical Year
of this course is henceforth to be known as the Seminar Class.
Secondary Education in Europe
117
ORGANIZATION OF HIGHER GIRLS' SCHOOLS-1912.
Oberlyzeum Studienanstalt
.Women's School and Teachers' Training School) (Unversity Preparation)
(a) Women's (b)Academ c and Training Classes' (a) (b) (c)
School Mn mum age Oberreal- Realgym- Gymna-
Teacher s examination, 20 years ^^ nM,iim s,,m
Seminar
SKL pi
OLI I . v, .. I .^s—, I
1 1
FSI ,__
, j 01 TT II . „ II • • II
inimum a
16 years
FSII j
ge OLIII HI v HI . III
Jpper Grades
[two foreign <
languages)
Middle Grades
one fore gn <
language)
.ower Grades
preparatory <
classes)
Lyz
eum
I
r^r TV IV Greek
IV begun
1
II
y , v ... .. .,. y
1
III
VI f;atin
begun
u<-i J yujij
English begun
IV
Horizonta brackets (*~*~>)
Indicate common instruction
in certain subjects
French begun
V
VI
VII
Entrance age, 6 years
VIII
IX
X
n8 Principles of Secondary Education
Program of Studies. — Appended will be found the de-
tailed programs of the Lyzeum and both divisions of the
Oberlyzeum. Those of the Studienanstalt resemble closely in
general outline the programs of the corresponding boys'
schools, save that the influence of the Frankfort reform plan
is strongly in evidence. Latin on the Gymnasium side suffers
most, but the loss in time here is compensated for by two
years of compulsory English, and other hours distributed
among French, geography, natural science, and drawing.
The girls' complete course extends over thirteen years in-
stead of twelve as in the case of the boys. This reduces
the number of week hours slightly, the possible saving on
account of optional work in singing and drawing making the
difference even more noticeable in individual instances. As
yet academic standards here are scarcely as high as in the
corresponding boys' schools, but one could hardly expect it
to be otherwise in view of the relatively recent admission of
girls to university privileges.
PROGRAM OF STUDIES IN THE LYZEUM (GIRLS')
LITERARY AND SCIENTIFIC SUBJECTS
LOWER GRADES
MIDDLE
GRADES
UPPER
GRADES
TOTAL
X
IX
VIII
VII VI
V
IV
III
11
I
VIM
i Religion
3
3
3
3 3
3
2
2
2
2
17
2 German ....
10
o
8
6 s
; 4
4
4
4
32
3 French
6 5
; 4
4
4
4
4 English ....
4
4
4
4
[6
5 History and art history
—
—
—
2
2
3
13
6 Geography ....
—
—
2
2 2
2 2
2
2
2
14
7 Arithmetic and mathe-
matics ....
2.
2.
2.
\ 2,
2,
2
2,
2
2,
21
8 Natural science
2 2
2 ! 3
3
3
2
17
1 6
IS
If) 22 22
22 24
24
-'4
24
162
Secondary Education in Europe
119
TECHNICAL SUBJECTS
9 Writing ....
_
3
2
i
i
I
_
_
_
_
3
10 Drawing ....
*
*
*
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
H
ii Needlework . . .
-
2
2
2
2
2
t
t
t
t
6(14)
12 Singing ....
2/2
2/2
2/2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
H
13 Gymnastics . . .
2/2
2/2
2
2
2
3
3
3
3
18
2
7
6
9
9
9
7 (9) 7 (9) 7 (9) 7(9)
55 (63)
* In classes X-VIII occasional drawing and clay modeling during the object
lessons in German.
t Needlework is optional in the upper classes.
PROGRAM OF STUDIES OF THE OBERLYZEUM (GIRLS')
A. WOMEN'S SCHOOL (Frauenschule)
n
TOTAL
1 Pedagogy
2 Household arts ' ...
3 Kindergarten teaching '
4 Hygiene and care of chil- 4
dren
5 Civics and economics . .
6 Household arithmetic
(bookkeeping)
7 Needlework
8 Religion
Q German
10 French, English, Latin,
or Italian
11 History, geography, natural
science
1 2 History of art
13 Gymnastics
14 Drawing and painting
15 Music
10 Including practice in cooking
and household management.
8 Including practice work.
8 Including practical work in
creches, day nurseries, and
nursing.
4 Including visits to philan-
thropic institutions and
missions.
Each subject according to cir-
cumstances and needs ; two
hours each per week.
1 Household arts and kindergarten teaching may be so arranged that in the
first year only the former, and in the second only the latter, may be taken with
9 hours per week.
I2O Principles of Secondary Education
PROGRAM OF STUDIES OF THE OBERLYZEUM (GIRLS')
B. TEACHERS' TRAINING SCHOOL (Hoheres Lehrerinnenseminar)
ACADEMI
c CLASSE
s
SEMINAR
in
II
I
Total
CLASS
i Religion
•2
-2.
•i
Q
I2
2 German
?
•2
-i
Q
I2
3 French
A
A
A
12 I
4 English
A
A
A
12
I2
5 History
6 Geography
2
2
2
I
2
I
61
4
I2
7 Mathematics
8 Natural science
Q Pedagogy .
4
2
2
4
3
2
4
3
2
12
8
6
I2
!3
-2
10 Method and model lessons
ii Practice teaching ....
12 Reports and discussions . .
(4)1
4
4-6
8
Totals
26
26
26
78
26
(25-27)
TECHNICAL SUBJECTS
13 Drawing . . .
14 Singing . . .
15 Gymnastics . .
Totals . .
Grand totals
2
2
i
5
—
I
I
i
3
—
3
3
3
9
3
6
6
-
17
3
32
32
3i
95
29
1 Method and model lessons in Class I are included in the periods given to
each subject and are given in place of the respective subjects rather than as
separate courses.
2 Method and introduction to professional literature.
3 Method and introduction to experimentation.
TRAINING OF TEACHERS. — The training of teachers
for the German secondary schools, together with the fact
that only adequately prepared persons can secure appoint-
ment therein, constitutes one of the strong points of the
Secondary Education in Europe 121
system. From principle, boys are taught exclusively by men,
while girls are taught partly by men and partly by women.
The former have almost invariably been trained at the uni-
versity, while an ever increasing number of the women teachers
are receiving the same university experience as the men, and
the others are prepared in the training classes of the girls'
schools mentioned before. Regular teachers (Oberlehrer) in
boys' schools must have completed the course at a higher
school, must have spent at least six semesters at a German
university, and must have passed the state examination,
which in itself occupies a full year of their time. Possession
of the university degree is not required, nor in fact is it of
any particular advantage to the man who intends to work
in secondary schools. Once safely by the state examination,
the candidate is assigned to a selected higher school for further
professional work and some practice teaching during his
seminar year. If successful here, he is advanced to his Probe-
jahr, or year of trial teaching. Throughout these two years,
the candidate is under constant strain, for in addition to an
ever increasing amount of teaching, sporadic in the first
year, but regular in the second year, he has his professional
study to pursue, the teachers' meetings of his school to at-
tend, papers and reports to prepare, as well as a more important
dissertation to write toward the end of each year, embodying
the results of his practical experience. Then only is he eligible
for his teaching certificate. Even after that he has to await
his turn for a specific appointment. The training of women
teachers is not quite so strenuous, and the rapidly expanding
opportunities for girls' education considerably increases the
woman's chances of an early appointment. In any case
the German teacher is prepared for his work through long
years of training, and he receives his appointment only after
he has proved his fitness for the position.
Salaries. — Salaries run about the same as those in France,
and consequently seem remarkably low by comparison with
122 Principles of Secondary Education
those paid in America, especially in view of the qualities de-
manded, the preparation required, and the responsibilities
to be discharged. Headmasters of nine-year schools receive
at the outset 5400 M. (6000 M. in Berlin), rising by regular
stages to 7200 M. ($1800) per year, together with lodging
or a compensating allowance ranging from 900 M. to 1800 M.
Headmasters of six-year schools start at 4800 M. and reach
the same maximum, but only after twelve years of service
as against nine and six respectively, in the two earlier cases.
Regular teachers who have gone through the preparation
previously described begin at 2700 M. ($675) and reach the
same maximum, but only after twenty-one years of service,
profiting in the meantime by residence allowances varying
from 560 M. to 1200 M. Special and other teachers, includ-
ing those in the elementary classes, receive from 1800 M. to
4500 M., depending upon grade and length of service, to-
gether with similar residence allowances of from 290 M. to
720 M., according to the size of the community in which they
live. Teachers in the girls' schools enjoy substantially the
same salary schedules. Security of tenure, professional and
social standing, and assurance of a retiring pension are factors
which must be reckoned with in attempting to evaluate the
income of the German secondary teacher.
ENGLAND
ENGLISH AND CONTINENTAL CONDITIONS CON-
TRASTED. -- The problem of presenting a clear and ac-
curate picture of secondary education conditions in England
is immeasurably more difficult than in the case of either
France or Germany. In the two latter countries, the whole
scheme is logically organized, and responsibility can readily
be determined. In England, on the contrary, the state has
consistently refrained from taking any dominant part in
educational organization or control until relatively recently.
Secondary Ed^icat^on in Europe 123
As a matter of fact, there has really been a state elementary
school system only since 1870, while the corresponding second-
ary system is practically the creation of the last dozen years.
Before the assumption of state control, the forces of instruc-
tion were organized and administered by church, corporate,
individual, or municipal authority. One writer offers a
plausible explanation of the apparently confused state of
this situation on the ground that : " The secondary school
system of England is the expression of Saxon individuality
and self-help." The Anglo-Saxon has carried his inherent
love of freedom from control over into the educational world,
and he has resented any and all government interference
with his " vested " rights. Until relatively recently the
Englishman has looked upon state attempts to control or
to direct education as unwarranted usurpation of personal
privileges. Fundamental conceptions of the right of the
social whole to determine the character of the education of
the individual with the attendant power of control, which
have been in force in Germany since the Allgemeine Landrecht
of 1794, and in France since the time of Napoleon, are not
universally accepted principles in England. In view of
these facts, one should not be surprised that the facilities
(" system " is almost a misnomer) for secondary education
in England in the past render extremely difficult all attempts
at generalization. Even now there is no " system " of sec-
ondary education in England ; there are various systems.
"PUBLIC" SCHOOLS AND PUBLIC LIFE. — For more
than five hundred years, secondary education, at least that
most worthy the name, was carried on in what are commonly
known as the great public schools — schools which have done
a work of incalculable importance in the development of the
leaders of English thought and action — but schools which are
far. from being " public " in the ordinary acceptance of the
word. Except for some of the earlier foundations in France
and Germany, these are the oldest existing secondary schools
124 Principles of Secondary Education
in the world, Winchester dating from 1382, Eton from 1440,
St. Paul's from 1509, Westminster from 1560, Rugby from
1567, and Harrow from 1571, names which are to-day almost
bywords throughout the Anglo-Saxon world. By 1660, this
institution of great public schools may be said to have be-
come established. All those mentioned above, as well as
others of the more famous schools existing to-day, were all
antecedent to that date, and they have been of immense in-
fluence in molding the traditions of English public life ever
since. The oft-quoted remark, attributed to Wellington, that
Waterloo was won on the playing fields of Eton, and Sir Max-
well Lyte's expression, "It is in her public schools and uni-
versities that the youth of England are, by a discipline which
shallow judgments have sometimes attempted to undervalue,
prepared for the duties of public life," represent something
of the place these venerable institutions occupy in English
public opinion. If one were to run over the long list of Eng-
lish public men for the past two centuries, there would be
few whose names are not to be found on the rolls, and in
many cases on the walls themselves, of the great public schools.
All told there are probably forty or more of these public
schools, but in practice this term is reserved for the nine
great public schools, Winchester, Eton, Westminster, Charter-
house, Rugby, Harrow, Shrewsbury, St. Paul's, and Merchant
Taylors'. These latter range in size from a few hundred up
to the rather more than a thousand pupils that one finds at
Eton, and account in all for upwards of five thousand boys.
At most, then, this type of education is restricted to a very
small portion of the total population, but these old schools
have long served as a standard to which most of the other
secondary schools strive to conform.
Nearly all these old schools owe their beginnings to the
generosity of some individual founder, whose original modest
endowment has in many cases grown to munificent propor-
tions. Their management is intrusted to a self-perpetuating
Secondary Education in Europe 125
board of governors, who appoint the headmaster and direct
the financial affairs of the foundation. In other respects,
the headmaster is entirely responsible for the conduct of
the school, choosing (and until the passage of the Endowed
Schools Act, dated August i, 1908, dismissing) his assistant
masters and other subordinates at will, determining the pro-
grams of study, and in general having free rein to develop the
institution in accordance with his own standards. Such free-
dom offers immense opportunities for the really great man,
especially when backed by the powerful inertia of centuries of
tradition, and some of the headmasters have risen nobly to the
occasion, as for instance in the striking cases of Arnold of Rugby
and Thring of Uppingham.
In outward characteristics these schools are all very much
alike, but when observed from within, each school has its
own individual peculiarities, and each succeeds in stamping
its influence on its boys to such a remarkable degree that
when they come up to the university, the " initiated " can
differentiate among Wykamists, Etonians, Rugbeians, Har-
rovians, and the like, as unerringly as the traveled American
can distinguish among Yankees, Southrons, and middle
westerners. Almost invariably these schools are boarding
schools, with the boys scattered in groups of not more than
forty among the houses of the assistant masters. Each
house master is directly responsible for the boys living with
him, physically, intellectually, and morally, so that the choice
of a house is only little less important than the choice of a
school.
Classical Influence. — With remarkable fidelity to tradi-
tion, these old public schools still conserve their classical
courses, although one usually finds " modern, science, and
engineering sides " listed in the school announcements. The
classical course emphasizes Latin and Greek, with mathe-
matics and French trailing along behind, while geography
and modern history bring up a poor third. On the modern
1 26 Principles of Secondary Education
side there is still a considerable amount of Latin, especially
in the lower classes, but French and German occupy a large
place, while the amount of mathematics, geography, and
history is considerably greater than in the case of the classi-
cal course. Some schools maintain special Army Classes for
prospective officers, but inasmuch as the differentiation of
" sides " is found only in the upper forms, one cannot get
away from the fact that the English public school boy is still
brought up in a decidedly classical atmosphere. On what-
ever " side " he may be enrolled, he is sure to have his daily
pabulum of Latin throughout the major part of his course,
for with the public school headmasters Latin still forms the
absolutely necessary foundation for all intellectual training,
aside entirely from the fact that it is a required subject for
university entrance and for most of the government examina-
tions for which the boys are likely to be preparing.
Organization. — Theoretically there are six forms (as the
classes are called), but the first is usually conspicuous by its
absence, and one or two of the others are frequently missing,
so that one runs across curious names for divisions and sub-
divisions of the forms in addition to the commonly found
"upper" and "lower," such as: "remove," "remove and
shell," " shell," and the " twenty." Boys enter at thirteen
or fourteen years of age, and must leave at the latest by the
time they are nineteen. On account of the desire to fix the
impress of the school on the boy, most headmasters refuse
to admit a boy after he is fifteen. Once in the school he is
allowed to go through as quickly as his abilities will permit.
There are three terms per year with examinations at the end
of each, so that it is theoretically possible for the boy to pass
through three classes per year, even without the double pro-
motion that he sometimes receives. Thus the fellow who
rushes along at top speed covering a couple of classes per year
finds himself in the sixth form relatively young, and then he
remains attached to this form until he is eighteen or nineteen.
Secondary Education in Europe
127
since it is hardly advisable for him to enter the university before
that time, even where university regulations permit. Mean-
while he is ripening and developing intellectually, for the
masters see to it that he has plenty to do, and he has addi-
tional opportunity to prepare for scholarship competitions.
From the foregoing, it is perfectly evident that grading and
promotion are much less rigid than one finds in America.
The amount of work expected of each class is not excessive,
for the English public school master takes up his teaching as
deliberately as he takes up his cricket or his billiards. Little
is done under high pressure, but he aims to teach his boys the
subject in question, as well as to develop them physically
and morally.
Programs of Studies. — The following programs may give
a little clearer notion of the nature of the work at two schools,
Eton, and the Perse School, Cambridge. Neither one is
typical of the public school programs as a whole, each merely
indicating the work at its own particular school. In fact
the " typical " public school program does not exist. Eton
is one of the oldest and most famous of the public schools.
The Perse School, although a very old foundation, may be
called a present-day school dominated by a modern program
with an extremely classical basis.
ETON
BLOCK
HOURS IN
SCHOOL
PER WEEK
DI-
VIN-
ITY
LATIN
GREEK
FRENCH
ENGLISH
MATHE-
MATICS
SCI-
ENCE
EX-
TRA
DRAW-
ING
A
22
I
I
s1
_
2
_
_
4
_
B
24
I
6
5
4
4
4
-
-
-
C
25
I
7
5
4
4
4
-
-
-
D
25
I
7
6
3
2
3
3
-
-
E
25
I
II C
>r 12
4
3 or 2
4
2
-
-
F
25
I
7
4
3
A
5
-
—
I
1 German m;iy be substituted here for Greek.
128 Principles of Secondary Education
At Eton there is a peculiar arrangement of classes whereby
the school is divided into " blocks." Block A includes the
sixth and part of the fifth form; block B, fifth form, upper
division ; block C, fifth form, middle division ; block D, fifth
form, lower division ; block E, " remove " ; block F, fourth
and third forms. There is a special Army Class composed
of boys looking forward to a military career, but there is no
regular modern " side." Although geography and history
do not figure in this schedule at all, the classical master con-
trives to find some time for them.
PERSE SCHOOL — CAMBRIDGE
ENGLISH COMPOSI-
GER-
FORM
TION AND LITERATURE
HISTORY AND GEOG-
FRENCH
LATIN
MAN'
AND
MATHE-
MATICS
SCI-
ENCE
DRAW-
ING
SING-
ING
DRILL
RAPHY
GREEK
V
6
6
8
6
6
4
_
-
3
IV
6
6
8
6
6
4
-
-
3
III
ii
6
6
-
6
6
I
-
3
II
13
6
6
-
6
3
I
I
3
I
IS
9
~~
—
6
4
I
I
3
1 Boys from the IV form upwards may take German or Greek or both as
their parents may deem most desirable.
Boys in the VI form specialize in classics, mathematics, history, modern
languages, or science, and then time-tables are varied accordingly.
Sports are compulsory two afternoons per week.
Training for Leadership. — Athletic sports still occupy a
very large place in the mind of the public school master as
well as of the boy. Few printed programs contain any
schedule for this time, but one can always count upon finding
two or three afternoons per week occupied in this manner,
and the exercise is as rigorously demanded of every boy in
the school as any of his studies. At an English public school,
every boy is an active and participating member of some
cricket or football team, of some tennis or rowing club. He
Secondary Education in Europe 129
is never allowed to take his athletics vicariously from the
spectators' benches, or even in homoeopathic doses. Such
large emphasis upon sport has of late given rise to no little un-
favorable criticism of the public schools, but it does develop
bodily vigor, good temper, self-control, the ability to obey
intelligently and to command. The average English public
school boy will undoubtedly suffer considerably when com-
pared intellectually with the graduate of the Gymnasium or
the lycee, but neither one of these continental schools is mak-
ing a deliberate effort to engender and develop any directive
ability among its boys. Intellectual attainment is the large
standard to which they strive to attain. It must be remem-
bered, furthermore, that the Gymnasium and the lycee are
both finishing schools, as far as a liberal education is con-
cerned. Their graduates are at the threshold of their pro-
fessional training. The English boy, on the other hand, has
still at least a part of his university course to complete before
his liberal education may be said to be ended. The American
high-school boy develops a considerable degree of independence
and initiative, but it is due to a certain laissez-faire system
that seems to pervade a large part of the American life, private
as well as institutional. There is no school system or school
type in the world to-day that is offering the opportunity for
discovering, and that is making the deliberate, organized
effort to develop the capacity for leadership among all its
membership that one finds in the English public school.
School Life. — Life at a public school is a rather expensive
luxury. Tuition alone at one of the less famous schools must
be reckoned at about £20 ($100) per year, while at Eton the
fees run up to £150 or £i 60 ($750 or $800). At a reasonable
estimate one must count on spending about £300 ($1500)
per year for the privilege of keeping a boy at Eton. The
fact that there are scholarships at all the schools does not by
any means open these schools to the boys of really humble
parents. The additional expenses that must be met in order
130 Principles of Secondary Education
to keep a boy at a public school are such as to deter any but
parents with relatively large incomes. The English public
school is unquestionably a class school, with entrance thereto
resting primarily upon a financial basis.
Characteristics of the Public Schools. — The English boy
of the public-school type leaves home when he is nine or ten
years old, remains three or four years at a preparatory school,
from four to six years at a public school, and finishes up with
three or four years at the university, throughout this whole
period spending only the various holidays under the family
roof. He associates entirely with those of his own sex ; he is
taught exclusively by men ; in fact, throughout the long terms
at school, the only direct feminine influence that comes into
his life is the contact with the wife or the family of his
house master. His is distinctly a masculine environment. It
would be too much to suggest that this is responsible for the
fine, manly, vigorous type of English public-school-university
man, but it certainly is a contributing factor of considerable
significance. Throughout it all, character building has
stood for more than intellectual attainment. Not that the
English system has not produced scholars, but its dominant
purpose withal has been the development of strong, healthy
boys, upright and noble, and with a highly skilled training
in leadership. Herein lies one great difference between the
English schools and the continental schools that we have been
considering. Of course the system has its evils, but it has
also developed its virtues.
PREPARATORY SCHOOLS. — Preparation for the pub-
lic school is provided chiefly in a number of private-venture
schools known as " preparatory schools." The English
preparatory school thus differs widely from the American
school of the same name. The former prepares for the Eng-
ligh public school ; the latter for the American college. The
English preparatory school is not a secondary school at all.
It obtains its pupils from dame schools, other private schools
Secondary Education in Europe 131
of an elementary grade, or from private tutors, keeps them
three or four years, and turns them over at the age of thirteen
or fourteen to the public schools. These preparatory schools
are likewise boarding schools which reproduce as nearly as
they can the life and conditions of their successors.
OTHER TYPES OF SECONDARY SCHOOLS. — Close
behind the nine great public schools follows another group of
public schools, including Marlborough, Clifton, Uppingham,
and the like, some of them schools upon very old founda-
tions, others dating from the last half of the nineteenth
century. They all imitate the great public schools more
or less closely but, whether on account of their youth or
otherwise, they have never succeeded in accumulating the
mass of traditions and the illustrious rolls of their more
famous fellows. On the basis of subjects taught, general
organization, subservience to the requirements of the older
universities and scholarship examinations, and dominance of
the classical influence, only an imaginary differentiation
exists between these schools and the great public schools.
Another representative type of the English secondary school
appears in the great day schools like Dulwich and the Man-
chester, Bradford, and Bedford Grammar Schools. Although
many of these are likewise foundation schools and are several
times centenarians, the non-resident character of their school
population has not been conducive to the accumulated tradi-
tion that centers around the boarding public schools. Never-
theless they are not handicapped by the narrow spirit of
classicism that still dominates so much of the public school
life, and they have thoroughly organized modern sides, with
well-equipped laboratories, museums, and shops.
A fourth class of secondary schools is the ordinary gram-
mar school, likewise on private foundation, but with a dis-
tinctly local following. These are largely imitators of the
public schools, as far as aims and programs are concerned,
save that they manage to have acquired most of the short-
132 Principles of Secondary Education
comings and but few of the virtues of the older institutions.
Their fees are lower ; probably two thirds or more of their
pupils are non-boarders ; their courses are fully as classical
as are those of the public schools ; their equipment is usually
most meager, with scanty facilities for science teaching, and
with the modern language instruction largely inadequate.
Aside from a very numerous and probably worse than
mediocre group of distinctly private-venture schools (es-
timated in 1898 to enroll 40 per cent of the boys, and 70 per
cent of the girls attending a secondary school), this practi-
cally covered the opportunities for secondary education in
England up to the reform act of 1902. Then for the first
time secondary education became a national concern. It is
true that various local authorities had provided scholarships
in the existing secondary schools previous to that period, but
in view of the fact that as late as 1900 the number of such
scholarships in secondary schools held by former pupils, both
boys and girls, of the public elementary schools was only
between 5000 and 5500 for all England, the opportunities
for any popular secondary education were relatively neg-
ligible. Such opportunities are still limited, but the progress
registered since 1902 is really remarkable.
EFFECTS OF THE EDUCATION ACT OF 1899. — The
education act of 1899 made an attempt to whip the various
conflicting educational interests into line and to reduce the
chaos to a semblance of order. Much indeed was accom-
plished at that time as well as by the supplementary legis-
lation of 1902 and more recent years. All efforts point to a
closer coordination between elementary and secondary schools,
and the next legislation, as already outlined by the responsible
authorities (1913), will undoubtedly make it more and more
possible for the humblest child who has the requisite intel-
lectual ability to finish his university course, and thus go far
toward a complete democratization of English education.
In accordance with the act of 1899, a national board of
Secondary Education in Europe 133
education was created in the spring of 1900, consisting of a
president and various other members of the cabinet as co-
adjutors. This has been facetiously called a " phantom "
board, inasmuch as the full board never meets, the president
alone constituting a quorum and therefore being empowered
to determine and to order the policy of the board. As such
this board has entire charge of public education in England
and Wales, including within its powers practically all those
that had previously been distributed among several educa-
tional and quasi-educational authorities. Below the president
is a permanent secretary with rather large powers. Al-
though the president is a member of the ministry with the
natural uncertainty of tenure attendant thereupon, a measur-
able continuity of policy is assured through the office of the
above-mentioned permanent secretary, but this is a guarantee
by grace rather than by right, such as may be said to exist in
the systems of France and Germany. The work of the central
office is further supplemented by a force of inspectors for
each branch of the service.
By the act of 1902, the old school boards were legislated
out of existence, and county councils and county borough
councils were made the sole authorities in matters of educa-
tion other than elementary. Thus there were in England and
Wales (July 31, 1911), London and forty-nine other adminis-
trative counties, as well as seventy-one county boroughs
(towns of 50,000 inhabitants and upwards) whose councils
exercise entire control over secondary education within their
respective limits. In each case the practical direction is
intrusted to an education committee of the larger body, but
the ultimate financial control is vested in the full council.
These local authorities are directed to consider the educational
needs of their districts and take such steps as may seem ad-
visable after consultation with the Board of Education, in
order to " supply or aid in supply of education other than
elementary." In some cases these various councils have
134 Principles of Secondary Education
established secondary schools of their own ; in some cases
they have made grants to or awarded scholarships for schools
already existing.
Submission to the control of the Board of Education by
any secondary school, whether municipal, private, or endowed,
is a thoroughly voluntary matter on the part of the governing
body of the school in question. If it desires government aid
or government recognition, it must conform to government
requirements and submit to government inspection. Gov-
ernment recognition is extended to two types of schools :
(i) those on the grant list ; and (2) those recognized as " effi-
cient " schools not on the grant list. The figures for Eng-
land and Wales (1911-1912) were 995 for the former and 102
for the latter, enrolling (January 31, 1912) 166,081 and
18,975 Pupils, respectively, 100,000 boys and 85,000 girls.
Of the 885 secondary schools in England proper eligible for
grants in 1911-1912, 381 were controlled by local authorities,
428 were endowed schools, and the remainder were adminis-
tered by religious or philanthropic organizations. Among
these schools falling within the jurisdiction of the Board of
Education are representatives of all types of secondary schools
save only the great public schools, which have thus far been
too jealous of their time-honored freedom to submit to any
semblance of control at the hands of the national educational
authority.
SECONDARY SCHOOL DEFINED. — According to the
regulations of the Board, a secondary school is one that
" offers to each of its pupils an education of a wider scope and
higher grade than that of an elementary school ... in the
subjects necessary to a good general education upon lines
suitable for pupils of an average age-range at least as wide
as from twelve to sixteen or seventeen." " A school will
not be recognized as a secondary school unless (i) an adequate
proportion of the pupils remain at least four years in the
school, and (2) an adequate proportion of the pupils remain
Secondary Education in Europe 135
in the school up to and beyond the age of sixteen." In rural
districts and small towns, this may be changed to three years
in place of four, and to fifteen instead of sixteen years of age.
REGULATIONS OF THE BOARD OF EDUCATION. -
Aside from regulations with respect to building and equip-
ment, approval of curriculum and time-table, length of school
day and year, adequacy and competence of the teaching staff,
permanency of salary,1 reasonableness of fees, reports to the
Board, opportunity for inspection, and various other details,
the Board insists upon entire freedom from denominational
tests, requirements as to religious observances or attendance
upon religious exercises of the school as far as day pupils are
concerned, and furthermore demands ordinarily that where
tuition is charged,2 25 per cent of the places shall be open to
qualified pupils from the public elementary schools without
1 In view of the wide variability in teachers' salaries, it is almost futile to
quote any figures. The average English assistant master's salary is said to be
£120 ($600) per year for non-resident teachers. When one finds a university
graduate living at school beginning on as little as £15 ($75) per year, the pitiful
condition of some of these unfortunates reminds one of the days of Dotheboys'
Hall. This same individual finally rose to £140, non-resident, after nine years
of service. In comparison with this the London County Council scale of £150
($750), rising by £10 annual increments to £300 ($1500), and in special cases to
£350 ($1750) appears positively munificent. Headmasters' salaries present
a pleasing contrast, for in some of the endowed schools they run as high as
£5000 ($25,000), the ordinary average amounting to ten times that of the assis-
tant masters. Even in municipally supported schools, the difference is con-
siderable, though probably never reaching this figure. Compared with conti-
nental salaries, the English assistant master is very much underpaid, and
the headmaster correspondingly overpaid.
2 Of the 862 secondary schools in England on the grant list of the Board in
1910-191 1, municipal as well as endowed, all but one charged fees for instruction
ranging from "not over one guinea" (85.25) to "over twenty guineas" per year,
the average for all schools amounting to between seven and eight guineas, with
the figure of greatest frequency for the municipal schools falling between six
and seven guineas, and the charges in the foundation and other schools averag-
ing about two guineas higher. In forty-six out of forty-nine schools under
Catholic auspices, the fees were not more than nine guineas per year, while in
twenty-seven out of twenty-nine schools administered by the " Girls' Day School
Trust," they were between seventeen and eighteen guineas.
136 Principles of Secondary Education
fee. When all these conditions have been complied with and
the instruction is otherwise satisfactory, the school is eligible
to annual per capita grants from the Board, £2 ($10) for each
pupil between ten and twelve who has previously attended a
public elementary school for two years, and £5 ($25) for each
pupil between twelve and eighteen years of age. Other extra
or special grants are accorded for conformity to certain specific
conditions. The total amount of such parliamentary grants
for current expenses (England alone) under the caption
" Secondary schools, preparatory classes, pupil-teachers,
and bursars" for 1910-1911 (almost all of which was for
secondary schools) amounted to £417,749, approximately
two millions of dollars. This sum represents only about
one quarter of the ordinary current expenses of those same
schools.
OPPORTUNITIES FOR FREE EDUCATION. — On Jan-
uary 31, 1912, the 995 secondary schools in England and
Wales on the grant list of the Board of Education enrolled
166,081 boys and girls, of whom 55,703, or 33 per cent, were
former public elementary school pupils on the free list. The
excess over the 25 per cent required by the Board is accounted
for by the inclusion of a number of foundation or other scholar-
ships offered by the governing bodies of endowed schools.
This represents an enormous expansion of the opportunity
for secondary education available for children of the working
classes when compared with the situation before the passage
of the act of 1902. In spite of the marvelous progress here
noted, the opportunities for free education in secondary
schools are not uniform the country over. In London there
is one free place for every 70 children over five years of age
in average attendance at the public elementary schools.
Westmoreland offers the most favorable opportunities of all
the English counties, the number of free places reaching as
high as one in 48, while Oxfordshire falls at the other end of
the list with only one for every 170 elementary school children.
Secondary Education in Europe
137
Present Conditions. — Despite the efforts of the Board of
Education to extend the secondary course by suggestion and
regulation and to hold the pupils in school, the results are
yet far from satisfactory. Pupils enter too young and leave
too young. The age distribution is thoroughly surprising
when one considers that the course of study is planned on
the assumption of a 12 to 17 year age range, and an " effi-
cient " school, according to the standard laid down by the
Board of Education, is supposed to hold " an adequate pro-
portion" of its pupils "up to and beyond the age of six-
teen." For 885 schools in England on the grant list in 1911-
1912, the sex and age distribution January 31, 1912, was as
follows :
SECONDARY SCHOOLS — FULL-TIME PUPILS
CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO AGE AT BEGINNING OF SCHOOL YEAR
1911-1912
BOYS
GIRLS
TOTAL
i Under 1 2 years of age ....
212 and under 16 years of age . .
3 1 6 and under 18 years of age . .
4 1 8 years of age and over . . .
21,752
54,833
4,441
357
17,675
43,79°
7,118
639
39,427
98,623
n,559
996
8i,3«3
69,222
150,605
Returns for the years 1908-1911 show that in schools on
the Board's grant list, the average school life after the age of
twelve of all boys who left during that period was only two
years and eight months, while for girls under the same con-
ditions it was one month longer, the average age at leaving
school being fifteen years and seven months, and sixteen
years, respectively. More efforts are evidently being made
to lower the age for scholarship eligibility than to retain the
pupils in school until a later age, considerable pressure being
brought to bear upon the Board to pay grants on all pupils
138 Principles of Secondary Education
between ten and twelve years of age instead of restricting
the basis to the former elementary pupils alone. Economic
conditions in general, the recent industrial prosperity that
England has enjoyed, and the large demand for cheap clerical
labor that young people of a yet tender age can perform satis-
factorily make it extremely difficult for the greater part of
the secondary schools over which the Board has jurisdiction
to hold their pupils beyond the age of fourteen or fifteen
years. They leave almost in mid-course, just at the time
when the instruction ought to be of greatest value to them.
PROGRAM OF STUDIES. — It would be more difficult
to select a type program for the grant schools or even for those
under municipal control than in the case of the public schools,
for the headmaster is given almost unlimited power in the
matter, the Board contenting itself with very general require-
ments. In accordance with the provisions of the code, the
subjects of the program of studies are as follows : English
language and literature, with at least one other language than
English. Special permission, however, may be obtained to
omit the foreign language if the English provides " adequate
linguistic and literary training." This rather vague expres-
sion is not defined, and it is left for the Board, or in practice
for its inspectors, to determine. Geography, history, mathe-
matics, science, and drawing must also appear in the program,
together with provision for " organized games, physical
exercises, manual instruction, and singing." Girls' schools
further offer " practical instruction in domestic subjects,
such as needlework, cookery, laundrywork, housekeeping,
and household hygiene ; and an approved course in a com-
bination of these subjects may for girls over fifteen years of
age be substituted partially or wholly for science and for
mathematics, other than arithmetic." If there are two
languages aside from English, the Board must be satisfied
that the omission of Latin, if such be done, is for the educa-
tional advantage of the school.
Secondary Education in Europe 139
Relatively little advantage has been taken of the possi-
bility of omitting Latin, for it still appears (1912) on the
programs of 85 per cent of the schools on the grant list. One
must not infer that this proportion of all the pupils in these
schools is studying Latin, but merely that the subject is found
somewhere in the course of that relative number of schools.
Two decades ago, the emphasis of the education authorities
was largely in the direction of encouraging science study ;
later literary instruction came to the fore, with the teaching
of English occupying the center of attention as far as schools
that end at the sixteenth year were concerned ; to-day adapta-
tion to local needs and specialization seem to have monopolized
the interest. " The school course may, under the elastic
provisions of the Board's regulations, be given a certain
bias throughout. Thus in a rural school instruction in all or
nearly all the subjects taken may have regard to the agricul-
tural or other rural occupations which the majority of the
pupils may be expected to take up ; the branches of physical
science taught may be so chosen and dealt with as to be
brought into clear connection with their application to such
occupations ; arithmetic and geometry may be applied in
practice to such matters as keeping of accounts and land
surveying, and even the instruction in English subjects and
in modern languages may keep the same object in view."
Furthermore, the " Board are prepared to approve suitable
schemes for specialization of higher work in classics, in mathe-
matics and physical science, in modern languages, taken
in connection with history or economics, in art, and as
regards girls in the important group of subjects included
within the general term of housecraft, such as cookery,
laundrywork, housekeeping, and household hygiene, dress-
making, and the care of the sick or of babies and young chil-
dren." In any event, this specialization can only take place
after a good general foundation has been laid, facilities for
such teaching must be adequate, and it may in no case trench
140 Principles of Secondary Education
upon the " proper sphere of the technical school or other
institution of specialized instruction."
Only by such indirect means as suggestions of this nature
are the English central educational authorities able to bring
about changes in the programs of the schools. The Board
is willing to approve programs of studies showing certain
characteristics ; approval of programs, other conditions being
met, means eligibility for grants; and this ultimately means
financial support and government backing. Thus is the
English system of secondary education growing and develop-
ing. As a system it is still far behind that in France or in
Germany, but it is yet young ; its opportunities are stretch-
ing out before ; it has already discarded the old scheme of
payment by results ; and although the ancient system of
tuition fees still prevails even in municipally supported schools,
the increasing number of scholarships available for public
elementary school pupils and the attention being devoted
to this subject by the present Board lead one to hope that
the time is not far distant when every child of proved intellec-
tual ability, whatever the financial condition of his family,
may find his educational opportunities limited only by his
own ambitions.
COMPARATIVE FIGURES FOR SECONDARY SCHOOL
POPULATION. — It may be interesting to append com-
parative statistics showing the secondary school population
of the three countries just considered, together with that of
the United States. One must be warned, however, that these
figures are not altogether parallel, the age limits differing
materially (England approximately n to 18 ; France, 6 to 18 ;
Prussia, 9 to 18; and the United States, 14 to 18 years), and
the nomenclature employed following the usage of the country
in question.
Secondary Education in Europe
SECONDARY SCHOOL POPULATION
141
COUNTRY
POPULATION
SECONDARY SCHOOL
PUPILS
Boys Girls
TOTALS
RATIO OF SCHOOL
POPULATION TO
TOTAL POPULATION
England
36,075,269
96,789 81,573
178,362
I : 2O2
and Wales
(iQIl)
Grant list and
"efficient" schools
(1911)
France
39,601,509
96,791 34,989
131,780
i : 300
(alone)
(1911)
Lycecs, colleges,
and secondary
courses, France
and Algeria
(1910)
Prussia
40,163,333
232,792 95,492
328,284
i : 122
(1910)
Public higher
schools (Hohere
Schulen)
(1911)
United
91,972,266
489,048 616,312
1,105,360
i: 83
States
(1910)
Public high
schools
(1911-1912)
TOPICS FOR FURTHER STUDY
1 . Compare the secondary school organization in France and Germany.
2. Compare compulsory attendance regulations in France, Germany,
and England.
3. Compare advantages and disadvantages of centralized school con-
trol.
4. Compare school athletics in France, Germany, and England.
5. Compare length of the school year in France, Germany, England,
and the United States.
6. Compare aims and methods of instruction of each subject of
secondary school study in any of the foreign school systems.
7. Compare influence of national ideals in determining aims and
methods of instruction of the various subjects of instruction.
8. Formal spelling docs not figure among the subjects of instruction
even in the elementary classes of the secondary schools abroad. How
is this subject taught ?
i_p Principles of Secondary Education
9. Make a diagram showing comparative lengths of secondary courses
in France, Germany, England, and the United States.
10. Compare the time allotment for any subject of instruction in a
foreign secondary school with that of the corresponding subject in the
United States.
11. In the French and German secondary schools most subjects con-
tinue throughout the course. Contrast the results of this method with
those obtained from the practice which prevails in the United States of
pursuing a few subjects intensively.
12. How do you account for the existence of the American practice
as noted above ?
13. The training of secondary teachers abroad.
14. The position of the teacher in any foreign school system in com-
parison with his position in the United States.
15. Teachers' pensions in France and Germany.
16. To what extent have the school organization, aims, or methods
of instruction in any foreign secondary school system influenced the
corresponding development in the United States ?
17. Contrast an English "Public" School with an American public
school. (Select a particular school in each instance.)
18. Evaluate the attainments of the French or German boy on leaving
the secondary school in terms of American educational progress.
REFERENCES — FRANCE
Assistant Masters' Association, England. Conditions of Service of
Teachers in English and Foreign Secondary Schools. London, 1910.
Documents :
Bulletin administratif du Ministcrc de I' instruction publique (weekly).
Official publication of the Education Department.
Enquete sur Vcnseigncment secondaire. Report of the Ribot Commis-
sion. Paris, 1899.
COMPAYRE, G. Education in France. In MOXROE, Cvclopedia of
Education. New York, IQII.
FARRIXGTON", F. E. French Secondary Schools. New York, 1910.
GIRARD, R. DE. Questions d'cnscignement secondaire. Paris, 1905.
Great Britain, Board of Education, Special Reports on Educational Sub-
jects. Vol. NXIY, Secondary and University Education in France.
Contains a complete English translation of the present secondary
school curriculum.
HUGHES. R. E. The Making of Citizens; a Study in Comparative Edu-
cation. New York, 1902.
Secondary Education in Europe 143
LANGLOIS, CH. V. La Question dc Venseignement sccondairc en France
ct a I'etranger. Paris, 1900.
PERKINS, H. A. The Educational System of France. Editc. Rev.,
March, 1911.
Plan d' etudes ct programmes d'enseignement dans les lycecs ct colleges de
garqons. Paris, 1913.
Plan d'etudcs ct programmes d'enseignement dans les lycecs ct colleges dc
jeuncs Jlllcs. Paris, 1913.
SADLER, M. E. The Unrest in Secondary Education in Germany and
Elsewhere. In Great Britain, Board of Education, Special Reports
on Educational Subjects. Vol. IX. London, 1902.
United States Bureau of Education. Reports of the Commissioner of
Education (annual). Especially. 1906, I, pp. 19-26 (discussion of
the "law of separation"); 1907, I, pp. 142-157; 1908, I, pp. 230-
238; 1909, I, pp. 420-432.
REFERENCES — GERMANY
Assistant Mast crs' Association, England. Conditions of Service of Teachers
in English and Foreign Secondary Schools. London, 1910.
BOLTOX, F. E. The Secondary School System of Germany. New York,
1 900.
BROWX, J. F. The Training of Teachers for Secondary Schools in Ger-
many and the United States. New York, 1911.
Great Britain, Board of Education, Special Reports on Educational Subjects.
Vol. I, The Realschulcn in Berlin. — The Oberrealschidcn of Prussia.
Vol. Ill, Problems in Prussian Secondary Education for Boys. —
Curricula and Programs. Yol. XX, Teaching of Classics in Prus-
sian Secondary Schools.
GULDXER, H. Die hohercn Lehranstalten fur die ivciblickc Jugcnd in
Preusscn. Halle, 1013.
HUGHES, R. E. The Making of Citizens ; a Study in Comparative Edu-
cation. New York, 1902.
LEXIS, W. Das Unterrichtswesen im deutschen Reich, Yol. II. Berlin,
1904.
NORWOOD, C., and HOPE, A. H. Higher Education of Boys in England.
London, 1909.
PAULSEX, F. German Education Past and Present. Trans, by Lorenz.
New York, 1008.
PRETTVMAX, C. \V. Higher Girls' Schools of Prussia. Teachers College
Record, May, 1911.
RUSSKLL. J. E. German Higher Schools. 2cl ed. New York, 1905.
144 Principles of Secondary Education
SADLER, M. E. The Unrest in Secondary Education in Germany and
Elsewhere. In Great Britain, Board of Education, Special Reports
on Educational Subjects. Vol. IX. London, 1902.
Statistisches Jahrbuch der hoheren Schulen (annual). Leipzig.
United States Bureau of Education. Reports of the Commissioner of
Education (annual). Articles usually appear under Education
in Central Europe.
ZIERTMANN, P. Education in Germany. In MONROE, Cyclopedia of
Education. New York, 1912.
REFERENCES — ENGLAND
Assistant Masters' Association, England. Conditions of Service of
Teachers in English and Foreign Secondary Schools. London, 1910.
BALFOUR, G. Educational Systems of Great Britain and Ireland. 2d
ed. Oxford, 1903.
Board of Education. Reports (annual). Latest 1911-1912.
Statistics of Public Education in England and Wales (annual).
Part I. Educational. Latest 1910-1911.
Part II. Financial. Latest 1910-1911-1912.
Office of Special Inquiries and Reports.
Educational Pamphlets. See particularly series on The Modern Side
at Secondary Schools.
Special Reports on Educational Subjects. Vols. I, XXII.
BURSTALL, S. A., and DOUGLAS, M. A. Public Schools for Girls. London,
1911.
CORBIN, J. Schoolboy Life in England. New York, 1898.
HUGHES, R. E. The Making of Citizens; a Study in Comparative Edu-
cation. New York, 1902.
MACLEAN, A. H. H. The Law of Secondary Schools. London, 1909.
MINCHIN, J. G. C. Our Public Schools; their Influence on English
History. London, 1901.
MONTMORENCY, J. E. G. DE. National Education and National Life.
London, 1906.
Progress of Education in England. English Educational Organization
from Early Times to 1904. London, 1904.
NORWOOD, C., and HOPE, A. H. Higher Education of Boys in England.
London, 1909.
Public Schools from Within. London, 1906.
Public Schools Yearbook (annual). London.
SANDIFORD, P. The Training of Teachers in England and Wales. New
York, 1910.
Secondary Education in Europe 145
Schoolmasters' Yearbook (annual). London.
SMITH, A. S. Education in England. In MONROE, Cyclopedia of Edu-
cation. New York, 191 1.
United States Bureau of Education. Reports of the Commissioner of
Education (annual). Chapters on Education in Great Britain and
Ireland. Especially 1911, I, pp. 541-550.
YOXALL, J. H., and GRAY, E. The Red Code (annual). London. Con-
tains official regulations of the Board of Education.
CHAPTER IV
THE HIGH SCHOOL SYSTEMS OF THE UNITED
STATES
STATE SYSTEMS. — The high school of the United States
has, upon the whole, evolved from the free elementary school.
Its development has followed that of its progenitor by ap-
proximately a quarter of a century, so that in many states
it remains as yet almost entirely unsystematized, so far as
the legal aspect is concerned.
Legal Provisions. — In a number of states, only the most
general legal provision is made for the establishment and
maintenance of such schools, while in a few of the Southern
and in at least one of the Northern states, New Jersey, no
special legal provision is made for them, such schools as exist
being considered merely as the higher grades of the public
schools. Most of the states have, however, made definite
legal provision for these' schools, and a large number, such
as Maine, Massachusetts, New York, Indiana, Wisconsin,
Minnesota, and California, have evolved comprehensive
independent laws governing the establishment, maintenance,
and management of such schools. But the legal provisions
even of these states differ widely among themselves, so that
the laws governing this institution in the United States range
from indefinite and badly denned codes in certain states to
clear and specific legislation in others.
The General Type. — Nevertheless the high schools in
the various states have a remarkable resemblance in external
and internal management and control, as well as in their
curricula. In general no greater differences exist internally
146
High School Systems of the United States 147
between the high schools of Maine and those of California
than may be found to exist between the different high schools
of any given commonwealth. This similarity is due to a
number of factors in American life and American educational
practices. In the first place, the elementary schools, the
feeders of the high schools, resemble one another even more
closely than do the high schools. The colleges, the universi-
ties, and particularly the state universities, the institutions
that largely receive the output of the high schools, also closely
resemble one another.
The explanation of this close resemblance of the various
types of schools in the American system of education is largely
due to imitation, brought about by the following facts and
conditions : (i) most of the states of the Union are relatively
new and their populations have been largely recruited from
the other older states ; (2) the Americans are a migrating
people, and recognize no state boundaries in their shifting
from place to place ; (3) there is wide communication through
travel, books, and periodicals ; (4) national and state con-
ventions of teachers, principals, and superintendents are held
annually, — the state conventions usually employing outside
instructors to present the work ; (5) teachers are to a con-
siderable extent recruited from the country at large rather
than from the local community and state alone ; (6) students
frequently leave their own communities and state to prepare
for their work of teaching. In addition the laws governing
the establishment, maintenance, and support of all of these
types of schools have been more or less influenced by the laws
and practices of other states.
In no point, however, do the high schools of the Union so
closely resemble one another as in their curricula. This is due
to the fact that this institution has been, and is to-day, fun-
damentally a preparatory school to the colleges and univer-
sities, which by association and concerted action have set a
more or less definite standard of requirement for entrance,
148 Principles of Secondary Education
and thus to a large degree have dictated a common curriculum
for these schools.
Ever since the rise of the high school in this country its
ablest advocates have dreamed of it as the finishing college
of the common people ; but as yet the fruition of this dream
has not been accomplished, — unless, indeed, the college pre-
paratory course can be considered the best preparation for
social efficiency. This condition has been no more the fault
of the college and the university than of those who have in-
sisted upon a different curriculum, but who in the past have
been unable to evolve one definite enough to be workable in
many of the thousands of high schools of the country. How-
ever, the present widespread interest in vocational, indus-
trial, technical, commercial, and economic training, and the
growing interest in the refinement of the other common aspects
of life, together with the practical experiments now going on,
give a renewed promise for the fruition of this dream of a
people's college. The American high school, then, in so far
as it is efficient, owes this efficiency in large measure to the
college and the university.
The systematizing of any series of schools of a given type
means their unification ; and this can be secured only through
the operation of one or more of the four following instrumen-
talities : similar laws governing their establishment, main-
tenance, and support ; like curricula ; supervision and in-
spection ; and teachers with similar ideals and training.
Organization of Control. — The most prevalent local politi-
cal unit of organization for the establishment, maintenance,
control, and support of high schools in the United States is
the district, which includes the city or parts of the city, the
town or small city, the village, the rural district, or a union
of such districts. This system prevails in all of the states
in so far as it applies to the cities and larger towns, and in
some states it is the only unit of organization for the estab-
lishment of such schools. In most instances the local board
High School Systems of the United States 149
of school directors or school trustees, which also has charge
of the local lower schools, controls these schools.
In the rural districts of many of the Eastern and Middle
Western states the township unit of organization prevails
both for elementary and for high school purposes. In cer-
tain of these states the district unit of organization prevails
for elementary school purposes, while the township unit
prevails for high school purposes. In most of them there
are also union or joint township high schools in existence.
The boards of education which are in control of these schools
are elected by the people of the territorial districts maintaining
them. In some of the Southern, Western, Rocky Mountain,
and Pacific Coast states many county high schools exist, and
in at least a few cases joint county high schools. These
schools are always under the control either of the county
boards of education, which have also duties relating to the
elementary schools, or of special county or joint county high
school boards. In a few states these boards are appointed by
the county courts, in others by the county commissioners
or supervisors, and in the remainder of the cases they are
elected by the people.
Rural High Schools. — - Since in general the towns and
villages of the United States with populations to exceed 2500
are able to maintain reputable high schools, and since they
have for years been doing so, the main problem of rural
secondary education has to do mostly with that part of the
population residing in the smaller villages and on the farms
of the country. The units of organization for rural high
school purposes vary widely in the different sections of the
country as well as in some of the states themselves, the small-
est of these units being the district. These district high
schools, in so far as they may be classed as rural, have largely
grown out of the elementary schools through the gradual
addition of high school subjects and high school grades.
This is particularly true in such states as have had the dis-
150 Principles of Secondary Education
trict unit of organization and control in matters of education.
In every state where the unit of control is such, and where
the law has failed to define the public school as a strictly
elementary school, rural high schools have grown up as dis-
trict schools. The union of districts for high school purposes
is also an outgrowth of the gradual extension of the elementary
school. As a type it is the result of combining two or more
advanced district schools that had already developed con-
siderable high school work in connection with their elementary
courses. The township unit of organization is more prevalent
than the district unit, in so far as the term applies to such
rural high schools as have state recognition as such. This is
a perfectly natural condition, since in most of the older and
wealthier states, the Eastern and Middle Western groups,
the township constitutes the unit of taxation and organization
for public school as well as other civil purposes. The method
of uniting townships into high school districts has also been
employed to a considerable extent, particularly where the
townships covered a small area, or where their most thickly
populated areas were adjacent. The county plan of organiza-
tion is quite largely practiced in the Western and in certain
of the Southern states. This plan of organization almost
always implies large local support, and is especially adaptable
to thinly populated districts. Village and town districts
sometimes unite with their counties or with their own town-
ships or with a group of adjacent townships in the establish-
ment and maintenance of union high schools. In fact, in a
large number of the states any combination of unit areas may
organize itself into a high school district.
Curriculum. -- The courses of study in the rural high schools
are very similar to those of the city high schools in the states
wherein they are located. The most notable difference is
that they offer a smaller number of courses, which is a direct
result of the small teaching force employed and of the small
number of pupils in attendance. Most of the states, recog-
High School Systems of the United States 151
nizing that these schools are at least in theory finishing in-
stitutions, have required one course of instruction other than
the classical, making the foreign languages elective, if offered
at all. In most cases, however, these schools give also a
college preparatory course, including at least one foreign
language, usually Latin, though the modern languages are
rapidly gaining ground.
The present tendency is to create for these schools courses
of a more practical nature. This is to be accomplished by
modifying the courses and instruction in the sciences, and
adding courses in agriculture, stock raising, dairying, horti-
culture, and other practical subjects, as demanded by the
particular school. So far little of a practical nature has been
accomplished in this line. In fact, in regard to practical
education, the cities are at the present time far in advance
of the rural districts. Some of the Middle Western states,
such as Wisconsin, Michigan, and Nebraska, have made
considerable progress in this line.
Another tendency worthy of note is that of recognizing and
aiding rural high schools which offer only a partial course of
study, particularly the two-year rural and small village high
school. Such schools are becoming common in the upper
Mississippi Valley, though as yet only a few states have granted
them any special financial encouragement. California, with
its two-year " Grammar-High " schools, is a notable exception
in this particular.
Statistical Summary. — A statistical statement of the
number and condition of the strictly rural high schools in
this country is not possible, because, as pointed out above.
the statistics of rural high schools proper are combined with
those of all villages and towns having populations that do
not exceed 8000 inhabitants. The increase in the number
of reputable non-urban high schools is a good index to the
vitality of the institution at the present time.
The following statistical summary is based on an extended
152 Principles of Secondary Education
study of twenty states selected because of their availability
for the purpose. These were Maine, Massachusetts, New
Jersey, California, Colorado, Washington, Connecticut, Ver-
mont, New Hampshire, Michigan, Wisconsin, Minnesota,
Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Iowa, Missouri, Texas, Kansas, and
Nebraska. The high school and other necessary statistics
for these states for the nine years ending 1906 were compiled,
and interpreted with the following general results :
(i) The average increase in the number of rural1 high schools
in the twenty states was, for the nine-year period, 50 per cent.
(2) The average relative 2 increase in the enrollment of pupils
in the urban 3 high schools of the twenty states was, for the
nine years, 46 per cent, while for the non-urban x high schools
it was, for the same period, 65 per cent. (3) The average in-
crease to the school in the number of teachers employed in
non-urban high schools was, for the nine years, more than
19 per cent. (4) The average decrease in the relative number
of one-teacher high schools was, for the nine years, more than
1 1 per cent. (5) The average decrease in the relative number
of two-teacher high schools was, for the nine years, more than
33 per cent.
The general methods employed by different states in ex-
tending financial aid to rural secondary education are varied,
and are discussed in the following section.
The influence of this aid upon the rural high schools of
these states is clearly shown by the following comparison of
the average development of rural secondary education during
a period of nine years, 1897-1906, in six states, Minnesota,
California, Massachusetts, Washington, Wisconsin, and Maine,
— all of which provided state subsidies to rural high schools
and two of which also provided for the reimbursement of
1 All high schools not located in cities with a population exceeding 8000
inhabitants.
2 Enrollment for each year compared with census, five to eighteen years.
3 High schools in cities with 8000 or more inhabitants.
High School Systems of the United States 153
tuitions, — with the average development of rural secondary
education during the same period in eleven states, Nebraska,
Ohio, Indiana, Kansas, Colorado, Michigan, Illinois, New
Jersey, Iowa, Missouri, and Texas, none of which provided
direct state aid to secondary education in any manner what-
ever. The results were as follows :
(i) The average increase in the number of non-urban high
schools was, for the six states, 68 per cent, for the eleven
states, 48 per cent. (2) The average increase in the number
of teachers employed to the school in non-urban districts
was, for the six states, 38 per cent, reckoned on an average
status of 2.4 teachers to the school in 1897 ; for the eleven
states 6.5 per cent, reckoned upon an average status of 2.5
teachers to the school in 1897. (3) During these nine years
the average relative proportion (.25) of one-teacher high
schools in the six states was reduced 63 per cent ; in the
eleven states the average relative proportion (.27) was in-
creased 15 per cent. (4) During the same period the average
relative proportion (.52) of two-teacher high schools in the
six states was reduced 53 per cent, while in the eleven states
the average relative proportion (.44) was increased 2 per cent.
(5) The average status of enrollment of pupils in all types of
secondary schools, 4.44 individuals to each 100 of census (5-
18), in the six states in 1897 was increased during the nine
years 57 per cent, while in the eleven states the average status
of enrollment, 3.68 individuals to each 100 of census (5-18),
was increased but 39 per cent. (6) The average status of
enrollment of pupils in city high schools, 4.81 individuals to
each 100 of census (5-18), in the six states in 1897, was in-
creased during the nine years 52 per cent, while in the eleven
states the average status of enrollment, 4.13 individuals to
each one hundred of census (5-18), was increased 49 per cent.
(7) The average status of enrollment of pupils in non-urban
high schools, 2.85 individuals to each 100 of census (5-18),
in the six states in 1897 was increased during the nine years
154 Principles of Secondary Education
100 per cent, while in the eleven states the average status of
enrollment, 2.49 individuals to each 100 of census (5-18), was
increased 49 per cent.
Thus it appears that the rapidly developing standard of
rural secondary education in the states that provide special
financial aid is slowly approaching the increasing standard of
the same in the cities of these states. On the other hand, it
appears that the rapidly increasing standard of rural second-
ary education in the states that offer no special aid is slowly
diverging from the constantly increasing standard of the same
in the cities of these states. On the whole the general in-
crease of standard of urban as well as non-urban secondary
education has been very rapid in recent years.
MAINTENANCE AND SUPPORT. — It is only within recent
years that any real attempt to aid in the maintenance of sec-
ondary schools has been made by the states or counties, and the
giving of such aid, though becoming more common each year,
is still not a general feature of our state school systems. In
some states no distinctions are made between common or
elementary schools and high or secondary schools, either in
statistics or in finance. Communities which maintain second-
ary schools are placed on the same footing as communities
that do not, with the result that the maintenance of a high
school is purely a local burden. Secondary education is,
comparatively speaking, so recent an undertaking that most
states have not as yet made any definite provision for the
equalization of its advantages. These schools, however, have
recently grown greatly in popular favor, due in part to the
need of increased education to meet the changed conditions
of life, to the introduction of new studies and methods of
instruction, and to the changed conception of the purpose
of secondary instruction. The result is that the high school
is destined soon to be a regular and a necessary part of our
systems of public instruction and that high school facilities
will be provided for all. This change in attitude is certain
High School Systems of the United States 155
to add force to the demand for some form of general aid for
secondary, as well as for elementary, instruction. The main-
tenance of elementary schools and a state university, and the
refusal to help in the maintenance of secondary schools, is
not a logical position for a state to assume.
The expense of maintaining secondary schools is so much
greater than that for elementary schools, due to the need of
better trained and more expensive teachers, smaller classes,
the smaller number enrolled, and more expensive teaching
equipment, that the need of some general aid is apparent, if
they are to be developed at all generally. This is accentuated
by the fact that the cost for elementary schools is also in-
creasing, and that the money now at hand and originally in-
tended for the support of elementary schools alone is rapidly
proving insufficient for the support of both classes of schools.
Many communities are at present trying to support a full
twelve-year school system with funds hardly sufficient to
maintain the elementary schools properly.
Such provision as has been made by the different states
extends from mere permission to communities to form such
schools and to tax themselves to pay for them, — which is
analogous to the first legislative permission to the people of
a community to organize a taxing district and tax every one
for the support of an elementary school, — to a general state
tax levied for the support of secondary education and appor-
tioned and used for that purpose alone. The first is the mere
beginning and the second is the culmination of the process,
and between the two are many intermediate plans for the
granting of some degree of aid to secondary schools.
Stages in Development. — Mere permission to cities, towns,
districts, and unions of districts to form a high school and to
tax themselves to pay for it must be regarded as the first
step in the process of the evolution of a system of general
aid to secondary education. A petition and an election are
the usual preliminary steps, and after the formation of the
156 Principles of Secondary Education
high school district an annual local tax, frequently of a limited
amount, is permitted for the support of the school. Some-
times such schools are under the control of a separate school
board, known as a high school board, and sometimes the board
which has control of the elementary schools merely takes
charge of the high school also. A number of states have
taken this first step, but have not gone further. The next
step is found where the principle of local support is re-
tained, but the taxing is extended to a larger area, as to the
county as a whole. In states which have taken this step,
common in the West, we find the county high school. The
common features of these permissive high school laws are
the necessity of a petition asking for the submission of the
question of the formation of a county high school to a vote
of the people, a special election to decide the question, the
appointment or election of a board of trustees for the school,
an annual county tax for support, free tuition in the school
to all residents of the county, and usually provision for the
dissolution of the school, after a time, if desired, by vote of
the people. With the formation of a second county high
school at some other place, or with the segregation of a cer-
tain district or districts to form a local high school separate
from the county high school, the process of subdivision of
the high school district has begun.
The next step in granting aid to high schools is taken when
the state begins to make a series of grants, or subsidies, to aid
secondary schools. A number of states have taken this step,
though the plan has been worked out but poorly in most of
the states. The granting of such aid naturally stimulates
the development of high schools, and if the appropriation to
pay the grants or subsidies is not of a flexible form, and one
that increases with the growth of the schools, the result will
be a failure to provide the aid intended. Where a definite
legislative appropriation has to be made to pay the grant,
as in a number of the states, the appropriation is likely to fail
High School Systems of the United States 157
to increase as fast as the schools do, and the result is a forced
scaling down of the grant. In Minnesota, for example, the
state aid determined upon was $1000 to each properly ap-
proved school, but the schools increased so much faster than
did the appropriation that the grants were scaled lower and
lower for a number of years. The same thing happened in
Pennsylvania. This gives an uncertainty to the value of the
grant which makes the method less desirable than other plans
that can be devised. The method, also, places all of the
premium on the mere existence of the school, but none on
the employment of a sufficient number of teachers to do the
work properly, or on the addition of such subjects of instruc-
tion as will make the school of greater worth. A school with
only a single " classical course " stands on the same footing,
so far as state aid is concerned, with another school which
employs relatively more teachers and offers two or three
courses of instruction. The second school will cost mucji
more per capita to maintain, assuming that the t\vo are
located in somewhat the same kind of communities, and will
attract more students and will render a much larger educa-
tional service, but under the lump subsidy plan of aid it will
receive no greater reward than the smaller and poorer school.
If it is worth while to aid secondary education at all, then
the state ought so to apportion its aid as to place a premium
on the giving of instruction under good educational conditions.
The subsidy method places no premium on growth or better
instruction, and makes the position of the state as to the im-
provement of existing conditions a purely negative one. The
subsidy method marks the beginnings of state aid, and ought
to be abandoned as soon as possible for a better form of
assistance. If the subsidy plan is to be used, it ought to be
graded both as to years and character of instruction offered,
and the power to grant, scale down, or withhold the grant
ought to be centralized in some responsible educational body
possessing powers of inspection. The one marked merit of
158 Principles of Secondary Education
the subsidy plan, where graded subsidies are employed based
on the number of years of instruction offered, is that it places
a premium on the development of two-year and three-year
high schools, as well as four-year schools. Any good instruc-
tion beyond the grammar school, even if for only one year
and given to only a few pupils, is a stimulating influence
which reacts most favorably on all lower instruction. Two-
year high schools frequently develop into four-year high
schools, and communities are usually able to provide two years
of instruction before they would be able to provide a fully
equipped four-year high school.
Types of Highest Development. — California and New
Jersey stand as examples of states which have reached the
culmination of the process. In both states the high school
has been adopted as a part of the state school system, though
by a somewhat different method in each. In California the
complete adoption of the high school has come through the
provision of separate and special taxation for the support of
high schools and by a constitutional provision that the in-
come from the state school fund, and the proceeds of all
previous taxation, can be used only for the support of ele-
mentary schools. This forever prevents the robbing of the
elementary schools to maintain high schools, a process which
goes on in many of our states. For the support of the high
schools of the state a special state tax for high schools is levied
and apportioned. To keep the income for this purpose con-
stantly up to the needs of the schools, it has been provided
that the tax to be levied shall be determined annually by
multiplying the number of high school pupils in average daily
attendance in the state the preceding year by 815, which re-
quires a state tax of approximately i\ mills. This is then
apportioned to all approved high schools in the state on the
following basis : one third equally to all schools, regardless
of size, and two thirds to all schools on the basis of aver-
age daily attendance. The apportionment plan could be im-
Hig/i School Systems of the United States 159
proved still further by making a partial apportionment on
the basis of the number of teachers actually employed.
Length of term is here a negligible factor, because all schools
are required to maintain a term of at least 180 days to receive
any aid. New Jersey offers an example of the complete in-
corporation of secondary education into the state school
system. Here the apportionment of school funds is made
to high schools as to elementary schools, on the teacher basis,
viz. $400 for every teacher actually employed in each high
school, and the remainder on a basis of so much per pupil per
day in actual attendance, in all kinds of schools. The ap-
portionment of state aid to a high school is thus made on a
plan similar to a kindergarten, primary school, or grammar
school. All belong to the same state school system, all share
in the apportionment of funds, and all are paid out of a com-
mon fund. The value of such a plan, if sufficient revenue
can be obtained, is at once evident. High schools cease to
be a separate part of the school system, and become an in-
tegral part of the system of public instruction. The state
then rewards a community's efforts according to the amount
of instruction provided, as measured by the number of teachers
employed, and according to the actual amount of work done,
as measured by the attendance upon the instruction offered.
If a rural union school will provide only the ninth-grade work,
and thus give the boys and girls in the rural districts a taste
of something beyond the common school branches, the state
will reward such an effort by a grant for both the teacher
employed and the extra attendance resulting. If a village
will employ one additional teacher and provide two years of
high school instruction, the state will similarly reward such
effort. To the large city school the state offers a similar
standing premium on additional effort, every new teacher
and line of work added receiving additional aid. The sim-
plicity, justice, and automatic adjustment of the plan to com-
munity needs and efforts are strong points in its favor. One
160 Principles of Secondary Education
thing, though, which ought always to accompany such a
complete incorporation of the high schools into the public
school system, is a proportional increase of available funds,
with provision for an automatic increase. There is no wis-
dom in incorporating high schools into the state school system
if the elementary schools are to be made to pay the bills.
Basis of Apportionment. — Such an incorporation of high
schools into the system of public instruction is not possible
if the census basis of apportionment is used. The essential
unit in higher, as in elementary, instruction, is the teacher
who must be employed to teach the pupils, and not the num-
ber of pupils alone. Under a combination of teachers-actually-
employed and attendance bases, as used in New Jersey, the
high school is placed on the same basis as any other school,
and thus becomes an integral part of the system of public
instruction. The California and the New Jersey plans are
the best that have been evolved for the support and incor-
poration of high schools. The California plan is especially
meritorious in that it provides a separate and a large fund for
aid to secondary education, and the New Jersey plan is es-
pecially commendable in that it establishes one organization.
In view of the possibility of a reorganization of the plans for
upper grammar grade and high school instruction this must
be considered an important gain. If in the future a six-year
high school should prove to be a desirable addition to our
school work, the present somewhat rigid classification in
some states would stand in the way.
Another form of support for high schools comes in the at-
tempt to abolish tuition fees for those children who do not
happen to live in high school districts. Children who live in
cities, towns, or districts which maintain high schools of
course have free high school tuition, but children who live in
adjoining districts which are not a part of some high school
district are almost invariably forced to pay a tuition charge,
and this is frequently made very high for the purpose of re-
High School Systems of the United States 161
during the attendance of such outside pupils. The unfair-
ness of such tuition charges is at once evident, and a number
of states have attempted to do away with them. The method
employed in doing so varies in different states. In Indiana
the pupil applies in person for a transfer, which, if granted,
carries with it the payment of fees ; in Ohio the township
from which the pupil comes is directed to assume the fees;
in Wisconsin a bill is presented by the school receiving the
pupil to the district from which he comes, and then a tax is
levied to pay the bill ; in Massachusetts the town in which
the pupil resides must pay the tuition charge, unless it is one
of a class of poorer and smaller towns, in which case the state
pays the bill ; and in Connecticut the state reimburses towns
for two thirds of the tuition paid, and will also pay one half
of the cost of transportation. In ^California a very simple
and very effective method has recently been worked out,
whereby every child in the state has free high school privileges.
The county superintendent of schools of each county is re-
quired to estimate annually the number of probable high school
pupils for the coming year who live in non-high-school terri-
tory, and then to have levied by the county authorities a
county high-school-tuition tax sufficient to pay the tuition
charge of all non-high-school district pupils in the nearest or
most convenient high school. As the state pays the high
schools for all pupils in average daily attendance, this includes
state aid to all. It remains purely optional with a district now
whether it will form a high school of its own, join a high school
district already in existence, or pay its tax for the tuition of
non-high-school pupils. In any case the cost is paid by general
taxation, levied on all property for high school purposes.
THE INSPECTION AND ACCREDITING OF SCHOOLS.
- This phase of high school administration is primarily one of
relationship between the secondary schools and the colleges,
and has to do chiefly with methods of transferring students
from high school to college.
1 62 Principles of Secondary Education
Considered historically and broadly there are found in the
United States but two methods of admission to college :
(a) personal examination of the applicant, — the Eastern
method ; (6) accrediting of the fitting school, — the Western
method.
The examination method is the older; but originally this
was a purely personal affair between the applicant and the
college teacher. The " examination," quite informal and
usually oral, was designed only incidentally to test the boy's
knowledge, but mainly to acquaint the college teacher with
his prospective student's tastes, habits, and antecedents.
However, as the number of applicants increased, this in-
formal, individual method became unwieldy, and was finally
superseded by formal, written examinations, set by the college.
Thus by and within this method the valuable element of
personal contact between college teacher and would-be stu-
dent was wholly lost.
Further, in the North Atlantic states, where the examina-
tion method began and found its fullest development, schools
and colleges were mainly private institutions, without any
feeling of institutional relationship, without the sense of
coherency and solidarity of a common educational pur-
pose. As for educational system — there was none. Each
college was a law unto itself ; independent and answerable
to none, it determined and defined its own entrance require-
ments and held its own entrance examinations upon its own
premises ; while the schools knew no law except that which
was laid upon them by the colleges. Too frequently this
law had little reference to the proper problems of secondary
education. The term " atomistic " best describes such an
educational condition.
While this condition of individualism continued with lit-
tle change until very recent times, one modification may be
noted. Some of the larger eastern colleges, which draw
students from a wide area, have come, in recent times, to
High School Systems of the United States 163
hold their examinations at various geographical centers, thus
relieving somewhat the hardship incident to long trips with
uncertain results.
The latest and only important development of the examina-
tion system is the establishment of an examination board.
Such a board, called the College Entrance Examination Board
of the Middle states and Maryland, was organized in New
York City in 1901. The organizers were representatives from
certain leading colleges and secondary schools of the Middle
Atlantic states. The chief purposes of the Board were : (a) to
hold at many points, here and abroad, uniform college entrance
examinations, the constituent colleges agreeing to discon-
tinue their own examinations and accept the Board's results ;
(b) to define and standardize the college entrance " units " in
the different subjects.
The plan was welcomed by both schools and colleges, es-
pecially in the East, as a vast improvement upon the old
methods ; and the operations of the Board have within the
decade of its existence greatly extended. Its examinations
are now held in practically all civilized countries, and the
results are accepted by every college and university in the
United States.
We come now to consider the " Western " system, which
is, instead, essentially an examination of the school. This is
commonly called the certification or accrediting of schools.
Stated broadly, according to this method the college, having
in some way satisfied itself as to the quality of the work done
in the school, agrees to accept, in lieu of examinations, a state-
ment from the school to the effect that the applicant has done
the required work satisfactorily and is qualified to do college
work.
The theoretic justification of each system, in so far as it
relates to fitness for admission to college, is as follows : (a) The
college is the best judge of what constitutes fitness to enter
college, and examination is the best test of fitness, (b) The
164 Principles of Secondary Education
teacher, knowing both the boy and his work and the college
requirements as well, is the best judge.
The merits of these two positions cannot be discussed here,
for, in its origin at least, the accrediting system had a deeper
justification. It came naturally with the recognition of the
solidarity of a state educational system wherein all members
have a unity of purpose and of which the state university is
the natural head. While this condition was characteristic
of the West generally, it reached its earliest practical recog-
nition in Michigan. In the annual catalogue of the Uni-
versity of Michigan for 1870-1871 appeared a " Special Notice
to Preparatory Schools," whereby the faculty agreed that,
under certain conditions, the holder of a diploma of graduation
from a school might be admitted to the University without
examination.
Chief among the conditions, as modified by the experience
of a few years, were in substance the following :
(i) The work of the school must be inspected by a com-
mittee of the university faculty and favorably reported ;
(2) Accrediting was granted for but one year at a time ;
(3) Applicant must present to the university diploma of
graduation from the school; (4) The school must apply to
the university yearly for the accrediting; (5) Only public
high schools within the state were accredited.
Here we find those principles clearly recognized which are
characteristic of the Western plan and in contrast with the
Eastern : (a) that there is an organic relationship between
the different parts of the state educational system ; (b) that
examination should be not of the candidate but of the school ;
(c) that the teacher is the best judge of what his pupil is, of
what he knows, and of what he can, and probably will, do in
college.
The theoretic reasonableness and the practical efficiency of
the Michigan plan, as it soon came to be called, appealed to
the West, which, being less hampered than the East by edu-
High School Systems of the United States 165
cational tradition, was freer to try out educational innova-
tions. So, as the states developed, the essential features of
the accrediting system, with individual state modilications,
were adopted by practically every state west of the Alleghanies.
While in a few cases the state department of education under-
took the accrediting of schools, as a rule that function was as-
sumed by the state university, as in Michigan.
In those states where the original plan was most fully and
typically carried out, e.g. in Michigan and in California, the
examination of the schools, which was the most essential
feature of the plan, was one of subject in the high school
and by corresponding departments of the university. Repre-
sentatives — preferably heads — of the various university
departments of instruction visited and inspected yearly the
corresponding subjects of instruction in the schools. Thus a
school might be accredited in some subjects and not in others.
So long as the schools of a state were few and small, with
narrow curricula, this plan was usually effectively carried
out. But in time difficulties arose. The first was of ad-
ministration from the university side. With the enormous
growth of the high schools of the past two decades in numbers,
size, and complexity of curricula, this feature of the plan
grew more and more unwieldy, difficult of execution, and
finally impracticable. Not enough experienced men could
be spared from the various university departments to do the
work ; so younger men, often unacquainted with secondary
school work, were sent ; later, even these could not be spared
in sufficient numbers to cover the field. Finally the cost,
which was borne by the university- became well-nigh pro-
hibitive. In 1905 one state university was expending in the
work over $10,000 per year and even then was not able to
cover the field adequately.
The second arose in the attitude of the schools ; for the
schools, which at first had warmly welcomed the accrediting
system and had been tremendously benefited by university
1 66 Principles of Secondary Education
cooperation, came in time to feel the hand of the university
heavy upon them and to chafe under it. And they had
reason. For with the changed conditions sketched above,
injustice was frequently — however unintentionally — done
to teacher, pupil, and school. Moreover, with the rapid ex-
pansion of the high schools, the conviction gained ground
that the larger purpose was to fit the many for life rather
than the few for college ; that the secondary school should
be considered as a whole as an institution with its own true
ends, rather than as a loose aggregation of unrelated subjects
of instruction leading to college admission. So there were
sent to the schools fewer departmental specialists and these
less frequently ; the minute yearly inspection of each subject
was given up, and the university came gradually to recognize
the school as an autonomy, to be judged rightly only as a
whole.
The next step was a logical one. Instead of the numerous
departmental specialists of former years, the university ap-
pointed one general examiner, who usually became a member
of the university department of education. Generally he
was to spend one part of the school year in university instruc-
tion and the other in visiting the schools. Officially he was
expected to view the school as a whole, to note in how far it
measured up to recognized standards of modern secondary
school efficiency. Upon his report, as a rule, the school was
accredited, if at all, as a whole and not by individual subjects
as heretofore. Such an accredited school was permitted to
enter its graduates at the university without examination on
the recommendation of the principal and a statement that
the applicant had satisfactorily completed the entrance re-
quirements.
As conducive to more intelligent cooperation between the
schools and the universities, some of the latter kept a detailed
scholarship record of the work done in the university by the
freshmen entering; from each school. These records were
High School Systems of the United States 167
sent to the principals of the corresponding schools at the close
of the first semester, and were also used as additional data
for determining the right of the school to be accredited the
following year.
So far we have sketched, by sample, the development of
the accrediting system of the West. In some states, especially
in the far West, the standards set by the state university
have been generally accepted by the private colleges of the
state ; but in the states of the Middle West this has not been
so generally true. In many of these states there are important
private colleges and universities, and the educational leader-
ship of the state universities has not been so unquestioned.
Under these circumstances, each of the more important in-
stitutions has sought to maintain its own admission require-
ments and its own accrediting system. This has resulted
in vast waste through duplication of effort on the part of
the colleges, and much needless annoyance on the part of
the schools. In such cases we find, though to a less degree,
an educational atomism akin to that of the East.
To render the accrediting system more widely effective
there was need of an organization which would act as a clear-
ing house, and do for many states and for all colleges within
those states what many of the individual states were already
doing effectively for their own territory.
An organization writh such an end in view came into existence
in 1901 when the North Central Association of Colleges and
Secondary Schools formed a " Commission of Accredited
Schools." Its chief purposes were: (i) to define and
describe " unit " high school courses of study in the different
subjects ; (2) to serve as a standing committee on uniform
college admission requirements; (3) to secure uniformity in
the standards and methods, and economy of labor and expense
in the work of high school inspection ; (4) to prepare and
publish a list of accredited schools.
In its first report, issued in 1902, the General Commission
1 68 Principles of Secondary Education
made certain recommendations. The important ones, as
slightly modified later, stand now as follows: (i) "A unit
course of study in a secondary school is defined as a course
covering an academic year that shall include in the aggregate
not less than the equivalent of one hundred and twenty
sixty-minute hours of classroom work, two hours of manual
training or laboratory work being equivalent to an hour of
classroom work." (2) High school graduation and college
admission would include fifteen units so defined. (3) All
high school curricula and all requirements for college en-
trance should include three units of English and two units of
mathematics.
The subcommittee on high school inspection recommended
the following criteria by which accrediting should be deter-
mined, the length of the accrediting term being one year :
(i) The minimum scholastic attainments of all high school
teachers shall be the equivalent of graduation from a college
belonging to the North Central Association, including special
training in the subjects they teach. (2) No teacher shall
have more than five daily recitations of forty-five minutes
each. (3) The school shall have adequate laboratory and
library facilities for handling properly the subjects taught.
(4) The location, construction, and sanitary arrangements
of the buildings " shall be such as to secure hygienic condi-
tions for both pupils and teachers." (5) Schools must rank
well in general efficiency of instruction, and in intellectual and
moral tone. (6) A school must have at least four teachers of
academic subjects ; the average number of pupils per teacher
must not be above thirty.
Visitation and examination of the schools was to be done
by a Board of Inspectors. From five, at first, the number
of inspectors had grown in 1912 to twenty-one. Seven of
these are the regular official inspectors, each representing
the department of education of his state ; fourteen are rep-
resentatives of the universities and colleges belonging to the
High School Systems of the United States 169
North Central Association. In one or other form fourteen
states are represented.
The Board intended from the first that its accredited
schools should constitute an honor list, and went to work very
conservatively. The first list of accredited schools was pub-
lished in 1904, and contained the names of 157 schools rep-
resenting ten states; on the list of 1912 there were 837
schools representing eighteen states.
The work of the Board has been extremely valuable. It
has proved to be, within its field, the greatest administrative
agency yet devised ; it is coordinating the different schools
and colleges throughout a wide area ; it is reducing to a
minimum of expenditure, with a maximum of efficiency, the
labor and cost involved in the former methods ; it is steadily
fostering and enhancing the growth of cordial relations be-
tween schools and colleges.
In 1911, the Southern Commission on Accredited Schools
was formed by the Association of Colleges and Secondary
Schools of the Southern States.
The commission was charged with preparing a " Southern
List of Accredited Schools for the use of the colleges of the
South and of other sections, and furthermore, to stimulate
and aid the high schools to reach higher standards of scholar-
ship and better conditions for teachers and pupils. . . . The
Southern list will be an honor list of schools for the entire
section."
This commission was largely influenced as to formation
and purposes by the North Central Association, so that
" practically the same standards and units will be recognized
by twenty-nine states, from Montana to Florida, and from
Michigan to Texas."
It seems probable that the operations of the Board, either
directly or by imitation, will ultimately embrace the whole
territory of the Union, except possibly the North Atlantic
states.
170 Principles of Secondary Education
Of Western origin, the accrediting system, radically modified
to be sure, found its way in the seventies into New England
and the East, where it was ultimately adopted, at least in
part, by all colleges except a few of the largest.
The two most fundamental modifications of the Western
plan of accrediting as it developed in the East were : (i) Ap-
plicants were admitted to college on certificate, i.e. a state-
ment made by a principal or a teacher. Graduation from
and recommendation by a standardized secondary school was
not required. (2) Schools were not inspected ; information
concerning them was obtained, if at all, mainly by corre-
spondence.
By these two modifications were abrogated the most valu-
able characteristics of the original accrediting system. Conse-
quently, while in the West, with its closer educational or-
ganization, the system grew constantly in favor, in the East,
where educational individualism was more prevalent, it sank,
under the pressure of college competition, to a very low degree
of efficiency.
The very evils of the situation, however, together with a
recognition of the evident advantages of accrediting when
properly managed, led to a wide-reaching reform. This re-
form took shape in 1902, when there was organized in Boston,
by delegates from certain colleges, the New England College
Entrance Certificate Board. The organization was formed
" for the purpose of receiving, examining, and acting upon
all applications of schools that should ask for the privilege of
certification."
The operations of the Board are confined to schools within
New England. Its means of securing information concerning
schools are mainly : (a) written information furnished by the
school ; (b] the scholarship records made in the colleges by
" certified " representatives of the schools.
It should be noted that in marked contrast with the
constitution of the Western accrediting commission this is
High School Systems of the United States 171
wholly a college organization ; the schools have no repre-
sentation on the Board and no voice in determining its policy.
Moreover, there is no provision for visiting the schools by
the college men, with the consequent better mutual under-
standing, which has proved so valuable a feature of the West-
ern plan. There seems to be no attempt to cooperate with
the schools with a view to helping to solve the ever more
pressing problems of secondary education. The Board re-
gards the schools only as factories for turning out college
student material. Thus : " The ability of pupils to pursue
their college work satisfactorily is the only evidence that the
Board can consider sufficient to warrant approval of the
school."
Among the most important rules of the Board governing
the " certification " of schools are : (a) Schools must apply
in writing and furnish detailed information upon blanks fur-
nished by the Board concerning courses of study, teachers, and
equipment, (b) A school must be able (i) to prepare for at
least one college of the Association ; (2) to show " by the
record of its students already admitted to college [by ex-
amination] its ability to give thorough preparation for college."
(c) Schools are approved for three years after one trial year.
Within its field and purpose, — to confine the issuance of
certificates to worthy students and by responsible schools,
and to establish the merits of the accrediting method of ad-
mitting to college, — the Board has been markedly successful.
For when the Board was organized, there were five hun-
dred and thirty-four New England schools on the approved
lists of one or more of the ten colleges which had been receiv-
ing students by certificate ; but the first year of the Board's
operations it approved only one hundred and seven schools ;
and nine years later (TQII), the approved list of schools num-
bered but three hundred and fifty-six. As to scholarship, in
all the more recent reports of the Board are given extensive
detailed comparisons of the relative standings of those students
172 Principles of Secondary Education
who entered by the Board's certificate plan and those who
entered by examination.
A few quotations from the Board's annual reports in order
of publication will give the gist of the conclusions : " It ap-
pears from the tables that the per cent of failures among
those who enter on certificate is much lower than among
those who enter on examination." (Sixth annual report.)
" The per cent of failures among those who enter on cer-
tificate continues much lower than among those who enter
on examination." (Seventh annual report.) " From this it
appears that the number of failures among those entering by
examination is relatively half as many again as among those
entering on certificate. This difference between the two
classes persists from whatever point of view we regard the
statistics." (Ninth annual report.)
TOPICS FOR FURTHER STUDY
1. What factors entered into the establishment and development of
the high school system in your own state ?
2. What relation exists or should exist between the high school and
the elementary school in your own state ?
3. Do better relations exist in other states ?
4. What variations exist between the high schools of your state and
of other states ?
5. To what extent are the high schools of your state college pre-
paratory schools and to what extent are they influenced or dominated
by the colleges ?
6. To what extent, as shown by statistical investigation and by
curricula, are they finishing schools ?
7. To what extent have they developed vocational characteristics?
8. What is the form of control exercised over the high schools ?
Can improvements be suggested ?
9. To what extent does your own state have a rural high school
system ? What are its characteristic features and the form of control ?
How may these rural high schools be improved ? How do the curricula
differ from the schools of towns and cities ?
10. How do the rural high schools of your state compare with those
of other states ?
High School Systems of the United States 173
11. Through what stages of financial support have the high schools
of your state passed ?
12. What is the basis of apportionment of funds to high schools in
your state ? What are the advantages and disadvantages of this system ?
13. What system of inspection and accrediting of schools exists in
your state ? What are the advantages and disadvantages of this system
as actually demonstrated ?
14. What are the advantages and disadvantages from the point of
view of the high school of the various methods of college entrance ?
15. What are the advantages and disadvantages of a state system
of inspection of high schools ?
REFERENCES
BOLTON, F. E. Special State Aid to High Schools. Ednc. Rev., Vol.
XXXI, pp. 141-166.
BROWN, E. E. The Making of our Middle Schools. New York, 1903.
BROWN, J. F. The American High School. New York, 1909.
CUBBERLEY, E. P. School Funds and their Apportionment, Ch. XIV.
New York, 1905.
DAVENPORT, E. Education for Efficiency. Boston, 1909.
England, Board of Education. Special Reports on Educational Subjects,
Vol. XI. Education in the United States of America. London, 1902.
HOLLISTER, H. A. High School Administration. Boston, 1909.
INGLIS, A. J. Rise of the High School in Massachusetts. New York,
1911.
JOHNSTON, C. H. High School Education. New York, 1912.
The Modern High School, its Administration and Extension. New
York, 1914.
Proceedings of the Association of College and Preparatory Schools of
the Middle States and Maryland.
Report of the Committee on Secondary School Studies, known as the
Report of the Committee of Ten. (Appointed by the N. E. A. in July,
1892.)
SNYDER, E. R. The Legal Status of Rural High Schools. New York,
1909.
See also Educational Review and School Review.
CHAPTER V
THE ORGANIZATION OF THE HIGH SCHOOL
THE ADMINISTRATION OF THE HIGH SCHOOL
DETERMINES ITS EFFICIENCY. — The administration
of a high school is the enacting clause for the whole in-
stitution. It is the executive department that must make
effective the legislation embodied in the curriculum. It is
the clearing house that must adjust the relations of the
various teachers and departments to each other and to
the school as a whole. It is the personal equation
between pupils and teachers and between school and
home. It is the prime minister that must interpret popular
needs to the people's legislators. Without efficient adminis-
tration a million-dollar school plant may become the splendid
mausoleum of the hopes and opportunities of youth and of
the self-devotion of a faculty. With efficient administration
a tumble-down brickery may become a temple of culture,
service, and democracy.
The Principal is the Chief Factor in the Administration. -
The principal must of course always be the chief administrative
officer of a school. Good administration, however, means
that he should not be a czar. Granted, for sake of argument,
that he is the wisest and most capable person in the organiza-
tion, he certainly is not wiser and more capable than himself
plus his faculty, by axiom. The genius of American institu-
tions is democratic, and if the American high school is to
develop in harmony with this genius it must embody the es-
sential elements of democracy.
174
The Organization of the High School. 175
Full Support of the Faculty Necessary for the Best Results.
- In small schools the teachers should all be advisers of the
principal. Important measures should command that sup-
port from the entire faculty that can come only from free
discussion and concurrent decision. In large schools that
have departmental organization the heads of departments
should form a cabinet that will give administrative measures
the representative support and advice of the faculty. The
department faculties will in turn discuss departmental matters
as well as general administrative policies so that the demo-
cratic principle may be maintained throughout.
Neither faculty, cabinet, nor department should, however,
degenerate into a mere debating or disputing society. The
relation of the official head to any of these units must be that
of any similar responsible officer in any executive body. He
may veto a measure generally approved or he may order a
course of action generally disapproved; but he will do neither
of these things without the most deliberate consideration
and the most weighty reasons. The principal who has the
personality, judgment, and training demanded by his position
will very seldom find it necessary to differ radically from the
combined opinion of his advisers.
THE PROBLEM OF ADMINISTRATION. — Given, then,
a more or less adequate high school building and equipment, the
high school pupils of a community, a more or less adequate
faculty; the first problem of the high school administrator
is to furnish the necessary systematization of details to en-
able the teachers and pupils to work together to the best
possible advantage.
The Course of Study. — Perhaps the first, as well as the most
important, question to be considered is, what subjects shall be
taught? The treatment of this topic in other chapters makes
its discussion hero unnecessary, yet the problem is so funda-
mental that certain aspects of it must necessarily creep into
any consideration of the high school. On no other subject
176 Principles of Secondary Education
are school men more likely to be dogmatic, and on none is
there so great need of a careful, scientific study of facts as a
basis for procedure. In determining the course of study for
any given group of students, the needs of the community,
the abilities and the social and industrial destinies of the pupils,
and the limitations imposed by the financial means at the
disposal of the school should be the deciding factors rather
than traditions or a priori theories as to what constitutes
" an education."
The school administrator of to-day must remember that
the problem of secondary education has grown infinitely more
complicated than it was when it was supposedly settled with
such amazing finality by the Committee of Ten. The
students outnumber those of twenty years ago by about four
to one. Congestion of population in the cities has brought
with it social problems undreamed of two decades ago. The
perfection of machinery has revolutionized industry within
that time. Organized society as represented by municipality,
state, and nation has been compelled to assert the rights of
the social whole in an infinite variety of relations at that time
only dimly apprehended. Then we believed that our natural
resources were inexhaustible ; to-day we know that the rights
of succeeding generations demand wise conservation. Then
we ignored political corruption, especially in our cities ; now
we recognize in the conspiracies of machine politics and unscru-
pulous business a challenge against the life of our democracy.
We have come to see that every economic question is funda-
mentally a moral and spiritual question. So child labor, a
living wage, safe and sanitary working conditions, public
health, infant mortality, the liquor problem, are all recog-
nized as the business of every good citizen.
The public school is the one completely socialized agency
for the improvement of society. The public high school is,
at present, the most advanced part of this institution. From
its product will come the vast majority of to-morrow's leaders.
The Organization of the High School 177
Obviously those charged with its administration must not
content themselves with pharisaical platitudes about culture
and discipline in place of open-minded response to obvious
public needs. The awakened social consciousness of the
school administrator will furnish guidance in almost every
problem that arises in his day's work. It will make him
question all the traditions of his craft, and if his attitude of
mind is backed by a powerful personality, such a principal
will completely transform the spirit of any high school whose
ideal has been the increase of the sum total of knowledge of
Latin and algebra.
THE DAILY ROSTER FOR PROMOTION BY SUB-
JECT. — After the course of study has been determined, the
next problem is the making of the daily roster. Under the sys-
tem of promotion by grades this was a comparatively simple
task. Pupils were platooned into approximately equal groups
and moved in mass. Unfortunately this procedure made it nec-
essary for a pupil failing in one or two subjects to repeat all
others, no matter how well they had been mastered, or else to
go ahead with his group when certain subjects had been so
poorly learned as to make further progress impossible. A third
evil, fully as great, although less apparent, was that it made
consideration of the individual needs of pupils practically
impossible. Even in the higher grammar grades this system
is now being abandoned in many progressive schools, and in
high schools it is tolerated in only a few communities.
Making the roster for promotion by subjects is the most
complicated task in the organization of a high school. Strange
as it may seem, the real difficulties become fewer, the larger
the school. This is true because in a larger school there
will be two or more classes in nearly every subject. There-
fore, the pupil who has in his roster a conflict with one period
of a certain subject will be able to recite another period. The
longer the school day, the fewer will be the number of con-
flicts, because each pupil will have more vacant periods. It
178 Principles of Secondary Education
is only because of their longer school -day that small schools
can make successful rosters for promotion by subjects.
Data Necessary as a Working Basis. — The first step in
making a roster is to determine the number of pupils likely
to require each subject to be offered. This can be ascertained
during the latter part of the term from some such card as the
one shown opposite. If the reports were sent out monthly, of
course additional columns like those designated " Marks "
would be required. After the next to the last report of the
term it is possible in the majority of cases to estimate with
a fair degree of accuracy the prospects of passing or failure
for each pupil in every subject. The experience of the school
as to percentage of passing in each subject furnishes a valuable
check on this estimate. From the estimate of numbers based
on a count of " Subjects next term," with due allowances for
failures, the number of classes in each subject can be deter-
mined.
The figure opposite shows the organization card of the William Penn high
school, Philadelphia. Early in the term the heading, and the data under "Studies
This Term" are filled out by the pupils, "Hrs." shows the number of recitations
per week, and the check mark in column "R" shows what the pupil is repeating,
D Geometry, for example, on this card. At report time teachers put in marks
and their own initials. The column "Studies Next Term" is filled in by the
counts before the final mark is entered. They are required to follow the course
of study in choice of studies for "next term" unless a change is authorized by
the principal. The "Record Teacher" is responsible for seeing that the course
of study is followed, that subjects failed are included in next term's list, that
counts are entered in the first column at the left, and that the pupil is correctly
graded for the coming term. The "Record Teacher's" name at the upper right-
hand corner indicates that she has passed the card as correct in all details.
The daily roster for next term is then entered by the organization committee.
The number above the faint line in each case indicates the room in which the
class is held. "400" is the study hall, and the letter and figure in the space
below indicate the pupil's seat for the period. This item is not entered until
the beginning of "next term," when a committee of the Student's Association
seats the pupils in strictly alphabetical order. The first day of "next term"
the pupil makes a copy of her roster from the bottom of this card and the organ-
ization card is returned to the office. This is the card of an irregular pupil
who had deferred Latin for one term so as to make up geometry.
Tlie Organization oj the High School 179
•• RECORD TEACHER," d.<o. /'fait.
. Grade /f. Bk. 21. Jat'l 19 1-7- .
Surname First
. Telephone
Entered
191__.
Address
"..'<?. ?if fi. Course. College or
d'w(.i.tt/iiiu>i£. . C'ts CO.
Ci A STI-DIES ,, ,, 3 TK'S
CLASS THIS TEKM INIIIALS
MAKKS CLASS XT
STUDIES
NEXT TERM
i €
ti.R.t.
/a5
B
13
Counts earned this term ? <5> Grade next term ? <g + #;
TUESDAY WEDNESDAY
THURSDAY
322
S'k
ui t£3'
302
H-25
. Si*.
302
105
'( r
L-5
K-3
H-15
R-27
2/
K-3
61
1
'25
(!• Latin
125
Latin
WILLIAM PENN HIGH SCHOOL. PHILADELPHIA.
180 Principles of Secondary Education
Non-conflicting Term Units are Necessary. — Then some
system of non-conflicting periods must be provided.1 The
simplest is to make the division by daily periods straight
through the week as shown on the bottom of the foregoing
organization card.
Regular and Irregular Students. — Next the subjects can
be placed on the roster. The first consideration, of course, is
to arrange so that a pupil taking the regular work of any
course shall be able to make his roster. Then provision must
be made for a pupil failing in one or in two subjects to repeat
the subjects failed. Usually it is comparatively easy to tell
where the failures are most likely to occur. For example,
in the first term the majority of failures will be in foreign
language and Algebra. Therefore, the roster should provide
amply for pupils who have failed in one of these subjects or
in both to go ahead with the subjects they have passed.
Double Periods. — The bete noir of the roster maker is
the double period. Science teachers always insist that they
cannot do their work without double periods for the labora-
tory. It is obvious also that cooking cannot be successfully
taught in a forty-five minute period. In many other subjects,
including all forms of manual training and shop work, double
periods at least a part of the time can be successfully used.
Some of the difficulties with double periods can be overcome
by combining two subjects in the same course so that their
time fits together. For example, if physics recites the first
period the first four days of the week and doubles to cover
the first and second Monday, any subject of the same term
which recites four times a week can be placed in the second
period for the last four days, or such a combination can be
made as is shown on the bottom of the organization card
(page 179). When there are many subjects requiring double
1 In an article, "Making a High School Program," in the School Review,
September, 1909, Myron M. Richardson describes a system of rotating the
daily periods.
The Organization of the High School 181
periods there should be a secondary non-conflicting arrange-
ment. For example, the first and second, the third and fourth,
and the fifth and sixth periods should be grouped together,
and no combination should be permitted across the dividing
lines, such as running a class from the second into the third,
or from the fourth into the fifth, period.
MONDAY
TUESDAY
WEDNESDAY
THURSDAY
;FRIDAY
I
I
I
I
I
4
2
I
I
I
I
4
3
4
2
2
2
2
4
4
2
2
2
2
5
3
3
4
3
3
6
3
3
4
3
3
7
4
4
An ingenious combination of four non-conflicting double-
period groups is used in some schools as indicated in the table
above. The ordinary pupil will have at least two or three
subjects that do not require double periods. If the curriculum
is based on a four-period-per-week unit, at least two of these
can be placed in one of the blocks, for example in the one
marked i. Then the double-period subjects can be arranged
in the three remaining blocks with less likelihood of conflict.
This device calls for a seven-period day. It also provides
three periods per week, namely, the seventh on Monday,
Wednesday, and Friday, when there are no classes. Of course
a rearrangement of the periods would place these general
periods wherever in the week they were desired. The value
of such periods will be immediately evident to any adminis-
trator. It will be possible at that time for any teacher to
1 82 Principles of Secondary Education
meet any pupil or any group of pupils in the school. Lectures
and other outside attractions can be brought in at that time
without disturbing the regular work. High school dramatics,
student government activities, and any other desirable feature
involving the whole or a part of the student body can be
placed in those periods.
Advantages of a Regular Roster Maker. — The variety
of schemes of roster making by different schools is almost
infinite, but the fundamentals enumerated above are prac-
tically uniform. In a small school it becomes necessary to
make a tabulated list of all pupils, particularly of those in
the higher classes, and to plan the roster so as to provide for
individual exigencies. Indeed the problem presents infinite
varieties of form in different schools. Fortunately there are
many ways around difficulties that to the uninitiated would
seem unsurmountable. These can, however, be learned only
by experience. The making of the roster presents a difficult
problem in permutations, but it is fundamental. In the
largest schools the principal may delegate it to a teacher who
has particular aptness for such tasks, making due allowance
in his or her teaching assignments. This is probably the best
way out of the difficulty, as the regular roster maker soon
acquires great skill in manipulating the details. After a
few reorganizations he will develop a roster that, with com-
paratively slight changes, will remain permanent from term
to term. However it may ultimately be managed, intimate
acquaintance with this roster problem is an absolute essential
in the equipment of a high school administrator.
ASSIGNMENT OF WORK TO TEACHERS. — Along with
the arrangement of the various classes on the roster must go of
course the assignment of work to teachers. The number of
periods and the number of different subjects allotted to each
teacher varies widely. In the smaller schools the require-
ment is so high, both in teaching hours and in variety of work,
that satisfactory work is impossible. The report on Educa-
The Organization of the High School 183
tion in Vermont, issued by the Carnegie Foundation, discusses
a situation that is more or less common throughout the country.
The Number of Periods required a Week from each
Teacher. — " A table in Part III ! gives the average number
of class recitations per week taught by the full-time teachers
in each school. The limits within which a teacher may be
expected to do a high grade of work naturally vary with the
character of the subjects taught, the amount of special
preparation necessary, the quantity of written work to be
reviewed and corrected, and the number of individual prob-
lems, the amount of bookkeeping, and the strain of class at-
tention which the size of the class involves. It is generally
agreed, however, that, with a normal class membership of
20 to 25, no teacher can hope to give successful secondary
instruction with a program of more than 25 class periods per
week, and 20 is much better. For teachers of English under
present methods even this latter number should be reduced.
Beyond 25 periods, quality deteriorates rapidly and gives
place to the merest hack work, however well meant. It is
assumed, furthermore, in setting up this maximum, that a
teacher is teaching one or two groups of subjects for which
he has had special preparation. Three classes of Latin and
two of German constitute a program preferable in all respects
to live classes of Latin; but good work cannot be done with
a program made up of senior Latin, junior physics, second-
year history, first-year English, and algebra. It is only
necessary to glance at the table mentioned to see how Ver-
mont high school requirements compare with this standard;
60 of the 77 schools are burdening their teachers with an
amount and variety of work which makes excellence impos-
sible. Unfortunately, a low quality of teaching is not readily
detected by the lay mind, and under such conditions formalism,
cant, and ignorance are likely to overcome the best intentions."
1 This table shows that teachers in Vermont high schools teach from 28 to
48 periods per week.
184 Principles of Secondary Education
Special Duties. — It will be found advisable in a large
school to make allowances on the teaching roster for various
special duties as well as for peculiar conditions in the work of
certain subjects. The necessity of thorough correction of
themes and personal conferences with pupils in English is
generally coming to be recognized as sufficient reason for a
somewhat lower requirement in teaching hours in this subject.
On the other hand, subjects like sewing, cooking, manual
training, and drawing, which call for less outside preparation,
may fairly permit a somewhat larger requirement in actual
teaching hours. In a large school certain administrative
duties must be delegated to teachers if the principal is to be
free to use his time to the best advantage in furthering the
growth of his school along the broader lines. A city school,
for example, needs a vocational bureau that will study the
opportunities of employment and make known to pupils
something of their scope. This bureau should also have
charge of the placement of graduates and of the part-time
placement of pupils who would be compelled to leave school
if some means of earning money could not be secured. The
supervision of student activities is another function that re-
quires much special attention. Teachers who assume such
important duties as this should not be required to carry full
teaching rosters.
THE PRINCIPAL'S RELATION TO THE VARIOUS AC-
TIVITIES OF THE SCHOOL. — The principal must be kept
in touch with all of these activities of his school by frequent
conferences with the teachers in charge of them. He should
show his vital interest by visits to the various groups of
students. He should have a clear and definite idea of the
place of every activity in the life of the school, and he should
of course exercise the greatest care in selecting faculty spon-
sors. No greater mistake can be made, however, than for
him to think that he is the only person in the school capable
of developing a line of action. The oft-quoted dictum of
The Organization of the High School 185
Miles Standish must be radically amended by any manager
of a large and complicated organization whether of school
or of business. It should be revised so as to read, — " If
you would have a thing well done, select the right person to
do it, keep your hands off, and require results." This is the
principle of functional management that has played so large
a part in the scientific management successes of Frederick
W. Taylor and his disciples. It is very generally applied in
business, but it is often ignored in school management. The
principal who feels it necessary to answer minute questions
and follow up all the petty details of a large school will find it
absolutely impossible to extend his vision beyond the pin-
points to which he is devoting his energy. Moreover, he
will neither utilize to the best advantage the various abilities
of his teachers nor develop their individuality and initiative.
In this way his school will be the loser, for he must be a rare
leader who can do each of the various kinds of task involved
in the management of a great school better than any one of
the dozen or hundred people in his faculty.
The attitude of mind of the principal on this particular
point is much more vital than might be seen at first. A
teacher to whom a task is given only with minute directions
for every detail naturally refuses to assume full responsibility
for results. If the principal habitually withholds or refuses
freedom to members of his faculty to work out in their own
way the problems he assigns to them, they soon come to look
upon the administration as none of their affair, and confine
their efforts as nearly as possible inside the walls of their
classrooms. Unless suggestions and criticisms are wel-
comed, the breach between administration and instruction
is widened. Perhaps \vorst of all, the spirit of the school
develops into a wooden response to authority without that
desire for cooperation for the general good that is essential
to the largest service of the institution that is forming the
subconscious basis of the citizenship of to-morrow.
1 86 Principles of Secondary Education
RELATION BETWEEN THE GRAMMAR SCHOOL
AND THE HIGH SCHOOL. — Some of the most vexatious
problems in high school administration are found in the rela-
tions of the school with the educational institutions below and
above it. The difficulty of articulation with the college has
been the subject of a long and bitter controversy. The need
of better articulation with the elementary school is now claim-
ing serious study. In the small towns where all of the educa-
tional facilities are supervised by one principal this adjust-
ment offers little difficulty. Generally speaking, it becomes
more and more of a problem the larger the city. In many
cities the authority of the superintendent of schools over the
high schools is vague and uncertain, and the direct coopera-
tion between the grammar and high schools almost nil. The
entire reorganization of the twelve years of the public school
into a six-year elementary school and either a six-year high
school or a junior and a senior high school of three years each
is doubtless the best solution of the problem of articulation
between the elementary and the secondary school. The
tendency towards this change seems to be rapid, but its pros-
pect should not keep other efforts at coordination from being
made.
Cooperation between the High School Principal and the
Grammar School Principal. — The most obvious point of
contact is between the high school and the grammar school
principal. A mutual understanding here will be of great
advantage to the pupils. The grammar school principal
should visit the high school, go into the classes where his
former pupils are working, learn the meaning of the high
school opportunities available for his pupils, and give much
personal attention to the selection of courses by individuals
before they enter. It is needless to say that his advice and
counsel should be welcomed by the high school principal.
Individual peculiarities that seem inexplicable are often ex-
plained by the closer personal knowledge of the workers in
The Organization of the High School 187
the lower school. Not infrequently the grammar school
principal can throw some most illuminating sidelights on the
high school. His boys arid girls are sure to go back to him,
particularly during their first term, with interesting comments
on things " at high." Weaknesses immediately evident to
their keen eyes are analyzed with all the intolerance of youth,
and usually with surprising accuracy. The high school
principal whose mind is open to possibilities of improvement
in his own school will cordially welcome the suggestions and
criticisms that he can never hear save through his confrere
in the lower school.
Visits and Reports between the Schools. — Nor should
the grammar school principal do all of the visiting. The
high school principal who has never visited the grammar
schools of his district will be surprised at the good results of
systematic visits to those who are preparing his raw material.
He will be much less likely to blame the lower school for the
obvious shortcomings of its product after he has visited its
classes and come into personal contact with its problems.
The pupils who are to go to the high school will feel that
they have a friend in their new principal if he has visited
them in their earlier habitat. This sense of familiarity will
impart a confidence that can be developed only after much
longer contact within the high school itself. It is perhaps
one of the surest ways to guard against the terrific loss during
the first term of high school. If the principal has the con-
fidence of the pupils, which he can get better from even a
slight previous acquaintance, he can more effectually guard
them against the danger of losing step with the procession
during their first month or two in the new and strange envi-
ronment.
The grammar school and the high school are owned and
financed by the same public; they are working with the same
boys and girls for the same ends. Each has a point of view
different from the other; each has information that would
1 88 Principles of Secondary Education
be valuable to the other. Neither can do its best work until
it is brought into the most harmonious cooperation with the
other. Very naturally the grammar school expects the high
school to take the initiative in establishing the most cordial
relations. The high school should profit by its own trials in
dealing with the few colleges that stand aloof in their dignified
pedantry, and lead the way in establishing the most friendly
cooperation with the grammar school.
RELATION BETWEEN THE HIGH; SCHOOLS AND
THE COLLEGES. — Relations between the high school
and the college are happily becoming better. Much remains
to be done before they are satisfactory, but the fine spirit of
a few of the greatest institutions of higher education is making
it possible for any pupil properly prepared to profit by college
advantages. The evil within the high school of a curriculum
based on college preparatory ideals is one that for many
years to come will continue to limit its service. The petty
demands of some institutions, particularly of the women's
colleges of the East, will suggest to progressive principals
the desirability of absent treatment. The whole question,
however, is one in which the individual principal is so well-
nigh helpless that he can have little hope for improvement in
conditions save from the national commission that is en-
deavoring to bring about more satisfactory relations.1
DISCIPLINE. Successful Discipline depends on Under-
standing the Adolescent. — By no single criterion is the
efficiency of school administration more frequently judged
than by its discipline. Like the social worker the good dis-
ciplinarian aims at the prevention rather than the cure of
evil. The secret of preventing the necessity of discipline
lies in building up the right spirit in the school. To do this
in a high school demands a sympathetic understanding of
1 The present writer has discussed the evils of college domination of the high
schools in Democracy's High School, Educational Monograph Series, Houghton
Mifflin & Co.
The Organization of the High School 189
the peculiarities of the adolescent. The appeals of previous
years are no longer efficacious. Insistence upon orders as
such only arouses antagonism. The adolescent wants to
see the reason for the rules and directions given, he wishes to
feel himself part of a cooperating group. He is profoundly
sensitive to public opinion. Hence he will usually join en-
thusiastically in any scheme that asks his help in doing the
things that are clearly for the benefit of all concerned. If,
on the other hand, the sentiment of the school favors disorder
and lionizes the wrongdoer, the discipline becomes a pitched
battle between the administration and the student body.
Public Sentiment of the School the most Important
Factor. — It makes little difference what system is used so
long as it enlists genuine cooperation on the part of the stu-
dents. A so-called self-government scheme has no merits
that will solve the problem of discipline if the spirit of the
school is not right. Elaborate organizations of a legislative
or judicial character are of questionable value. The one es-
sential is the development of an enthusiastic loyalty to the
best interests of the school that will express an unequivocal
disapproval of anything harmful to its welfare.
In securing this spirit the administration should never
abrogate its rightful authority. It is justly held responsible
to the community for satisfactory results, and it cannot se-
cure these unless its decisions are final. Moreover, the loss
of a wholesome respect for this authority on the part of the
student body is absolutely fatal. The autocratic rule of a
martinet is much more conducive to wholesome school work
than the loose and vacillating government of a principal whose
authority the pupils do not respect. Schemes of self-govern-
ment in a weakling's hands speedily become a huge joke,
and the discipline becomes a school of petty politics.
Gradual Introduction of Student Participation in School
Government. — Beginning, however, with a school well in
hand, it is comparatively easy to introduce student partici-
190 Principles of Secondary Education
pation in the responsibilities of discipline. The habitual
appeal to the better instincts of a class when a teacher is
absent is one easy approach that is familiar to all. The ap-
pointment of a student who is a real leader to take charge of
the assembly or to arrange certain details for graduation or
for a school function, or an invitation to students by classes
or groups to elect representatives to cooperate with the faculty
for certain ends will prepare the way for the gradual assump-
tion of certain functions of discipline by the students. The
moment that some of these cooperative activities are success-
ful is the one for further extension of the plan. " We have
succeeded in this. Can we do the next thing ? " Such an
appeal is sure of a hearty and genuine response. " Is it safe
for the school to remove teachers from police duty in corridors,
lunch room, assembly, and study hall ? " Any student body
that is permeated by a wholesome community spirit will
instantly assure the principal that it is. This does not mean
that all of these responsibilities should be thrown upon the
pupils at once, nor that the principal should start such a sys-
tem and then leave it to run itself. A much better plan
would be to take one problem, for example the lunch room,
and see how well the students can manage it. " Men and
women are accustomed to eat without police surveillance.
Eating is a social function, where we meet our friends with-
out restraint. Suppose we as a school assume full respon-
sibility for the order in the lunch room and for the appearance
of the room after we have finished." When one such respon-
sibility is satisfactorily met, another should be assumed if
possible. The spirit of cooperation, like a muscle, gains
strength by exercise. The power of public opinion is much
more compelling than any rules that can be made. If the
sentiment of the school is overwhelmingly in favor of right
action, there are few boys or girls who will stand against it.
Nothing does more to focalize this wholesome public senti-
ment than a sense of students and faculty working together
T/ic Organization of tJie High School 191
for a common end. As the student government develops, a
representative organization becomes necessary. Problems of
evident importance to the school should be freely discussed
by this body, and there should be ample opportunity for the
representatives to carry back to their respective groups the
ideas of the central body. The attitude of mind that sets a
whole student body to discussing such a problem as " how
can we eliminate unnecessary tardiness," is in itself most
wholesome and will go far toward securing the desired
result.
Social and Political Reasons for Student Participation in
School Government. — An experience in a school where the
cooperation of the students has been successfully enlisted il-
lustrates the effectiveness of their assistance. The manners
of the pupils at the daily assembly in this school had become
so careless that the principal announced one Thursday
morning that the school would meet in the hall at the close
of school on the following Monday to practice for the assembly.
The officers of the Student's Association took the matter up
that day with each group in the study hall where pupils not
in recitation \vere seated. On Friday and Monday mornings
the assembly manners were perfect. The president of the
Student's Association spoke for the student body Monday
morning and requested the principal to postpone the rehearsal
that he had announced. She requested that the students be
given an opportunity to show that they could improve their
behavior without any artificial means being employed to re-
mind them of the proprieties of the assembly. Of course, the
principal granted the request.
In this school the study hall in which from 250 to 400 pupils
are seated all the time is conducted entirely by the students.
One teacher who has peculiar fitness for the task has full
supervision of this and all other student activities. She is
not required to do any teaching, but even at that a consider-
able saving is effected, as the study hall alone formerly re-
192 Principles of Secondary Education
quired the constant supervision of two teachers. Not only
these two teachers but all others as well are now released
from police duty, and the spirit of the school is greatly im-
proved as a result of the absence of a jarring relation between
teachers and pupils.
It hardly needs to be said that the improvement of the be-
havior and the solution of problems of discipline are not the
chief reasons for enlisting the aid of students in the discipline
of the school. A recognition of the school as a social institu-
tion forming the habits of social thought of its young citizens
will furnish ample reason for developing in them the habit
of cooperation. If they were citizens of a despotism, they
should be governed by a despot in order that they might
develop the habit of immediate and unquestioning obedience.
Inasmuch as they are citizens of a republic that depends for
its success upon the thoughtful cooperation of its citizens it
seems clear that in the school where they have an unquestioned
community interest they should acquire the habit of thinking
in terms of community welfare.
Athletics, dramatics, the school paper, clubs devoted to
certain studies or interests, all form a point of contact for
student and faculty cooperation. One reason why the
athletics present such a vexatious problem in many a school
is that the school is run as a despotism and the athletics as
more or less of a democracy. The two spirits do not mix, and
the school has something of the same sort of troubles that arise
when primitive peoples who have not learned to assume the
responsibilities of democracy attempt to form a democratic
government. More democracy may not be the cure for the
evils of so-called democracy in Mexico and China, but in the
public high school of an American town where the govern-
ment of the city, the state, and the nation are democratic,
where the social traditions for centuries past are democratic,
it would seem that a properly guided democracy is the natural
and the appropriate form of government.
The Organization of the High School 193
HUMANIZING THE SCHOOL. — A democratic spirit
that secures the interest and cooperation of the students will
go far toward humanizing the school. In our large city schools
it is often extremely difficult to avoid so much system that
the whole school becomes mechanical. The necessity of
impartiality leads to the statement of definite rules whose
invariable application often works needless hardship. " Up-
holding the standard " : easily becomes the fetish of a small
mind, and the application of a rule or a precedent is an easy
way out of a difficulty for an administrator of the martinet
type. In a large city school the principal cannot possibly
know personally any considerable proportion of his students.
Home conditions, financial limitations, special abilities and
blind spots, ambitions, vocation opportunities, — these and
many other considerations demand individual treatment if
the school is to educate individuals as they are instead of
educating the " average " boy or girl, who of course does not
exist. Then there is the longing for sympathetic understand-
ing and for the counsel of older people that gives the teacher
of the adolescent his greatest opportunity. The organization
of the high school whereby a pupil recites to four or five differ-
ent teachers every term and possibly to an entirely different
group the next term or year makes it very difficult to human-
ize a large school so as to meet these evident needs.
Student Advisor System. — Any system of advisorship
is open to the objection of mechanizing a function that in its
very nature is intimately personal, but in the large school
such a system, plus those individual confidences that are
sure to grow up in a more or less haphazard way, is better
than the chance adjustments alone. In these important
relationships that often mean much more to the pupil than
any or all of his studies, the spirit of the school is the most
important single factor. Nearly all teachers are glad of an
opportunity to give themselves to their pupils. Where the
1 See "The Worship of the Standard," W. II. Mcarns, Proc. X. E. A., 1012.
194 Principles of Secondary Education
spirit is right, pupils respond cordially to the helpful attitude
of the teachers. A sour, censorious spirit on the part of the
administrator, however, is sure to spoil the good fellowship
between pupils and faculty that might be the most potent
influence for good in real education of his pupils.1
ADAPTING THE SCHOOL TO COMMUNITY NEEDS.
- The administration of a high school must keep the school
growing along all the lines in which it can be of service to its
pupils and its community. It is precisely because the vast
majority of high school administrators have failed at this
point that there has been so violent an outcry from shrewd
observers within the last few years. The high school has
been following the traditions it inherited from the English
so-called public school, which, of course, is not a public school
at all, until it is being jolted into an awakening to its demo-
cratic obligation to the community that is paying its bills.
So the tendency to-day is strongly toward a broadened cur-
riculum and a more liberal administration of the curriculum
that shall enable the school to give the various kinds of train-
ing that its largely increased clientage demands.
The Changed Problem. — It is needless to do more than
mention the changed conditions that have brought about the
tremendous change in the problem of the high school. When
it first grew out of the old academy, its chief service was the
secondary training of those who were to enter the professions.
The toilers gained the mysteries of their various crafts from
their immediate environment. The little red schoolhouse
taught the rudiments, and only the more fortunate of the
future farmers, mechanics, artisans, and tradesmen had a
year or so at the academy or high school. Nearly everybody
believed, as did the Committee of Ten as late as 1894, that the
best education for the college-bound youth was the best for
everybody. So the whole problem was simple. The revolu-
1 See "Advisory Systems in High Schools," J. W. Raymer, Ed. Rev.,
December, 1912.
The Organization of the High School 195
tion in our industry and in our living conditions has now
brought the high school face to face with the problem of pro-
viding secondary training for everybody. The real leaders
of our educational policy see this clearly, and the adminis-
trators of high schools must work out the problem or go the
way of the discards of the craft into truck farming and the
vending of life insurance.
Study of Conditions Essential as a Basis for Change in
Procedure. — This is the day of surveys. As never before,
changes in procedure are based upon a careful study of con-
ditions. So the high school should base its adjustment to
the demands of its community upon accurate data rather
than upon general theories. There are certain constants
such as proper attention to physical needs, training in the
use of the mother tongue, and in the fundamentals of citizen-
ship, about which there is no dispute. Beyond these the school
must be in a continual process of adjustment based on a study,
first, of its students, and, second, of the community it serves.
It would be comparatively easy to describe certain types
of pupils that are found in every high school. The studious
boy or girl finds ample provision in our present academic
regime. The motor-minded youths with infinite varieties of
instincts, ambitions, and possibilities are the ones who pre-
sent the serious problem. The coming of the vocational
counselor will help to determine what the school can do for
them. Minute discussion of details under this topic would be
out of place. The emphasis needs to be laid, however, on the
duty of the high school administration to study this problem
from the point of view of its pupils.
The Community Element. — The study of the other ele-
ment in the problem — the community — has many aspects.
Americans so easily move from place to place that the im-
mediate environment is no bar to the vocational aspirations
of any boy or girl. Financial limitations, however, will often
make it necessary to determine which of several types of train-
196 Principles of Secondary Education
ing any given school shall afford. Superintendent Spaulding,
formerly of Newton, Massachusetts, has given some most
valuable suggestions 1 of methods of approaching this problem.
Among other things he shows the relative success in the high
school of the pupils from the various grammar schools, the
cost of instruction in various subjects, the comparative num-
ber of pupils receiving training in various lines, and the dis-
tribution of workers in the principal skilled industries of
Boston as shown by the last census. In discussing the problem
of adjusting education to society's need of service he says:
''Just what we mean by preparing adequately our secondary
school pupils as a whole to meet the wide range of legitimate
service that society is demanding of the oncoming generation
can be shown more clearly if we direct our attention to a lim-
ited portion of the field of secondary education and to a few
types of service that society demands. In the Newton Voca-
tional School the boys are learning certain trades, known as
machine-shop, pattern-making, electrical, cabinet-making,
and printing. The proportionate distribution of the total
number of boys in the school among these several trades is
represented by the solid black bars on Chart IX. These
bars are drawn on the scale of one hundred ; that is, the total
of the four bars equals 100 per cent, or the total number of
boys in the school ; of these 44 per cent are learning machine-
shop and pattern-making trades, 25 per cent electrical trades,
and so on.
"Similarly there is represented on this chart by crossed
bars the distribution of workers in the principal skilled indus-
tries of Boston as shown by the last census ; for example,
the chart shows that 30 per cent of such workers are engaged
in the metal trades and 27 per cent in printing and publishing.
Note that each school trade is represented on the chart im-
mediately above that actual trade for which the school trade is
preparing its pupils.
" This chart is of no value in itself ; it has been prepared and
is presented solely to show the type of chart, or charts, that
both the educational and industrial, also the commercial
1 Education, December, 1913.
The Organization of the High School 197
and professional, worlds need. Similar to this chart, there
should be constructed a chart, or rather a series of charts,
based on adequate data, that would show, on the one hand,
the proportionate distribution of workers engaged in industrial,
commercial, and professional pursuits, and, on the other hand,
BCK5« TRAINING
WGE EARNLR5!
SUBJECT
the proportionate distribution of pupils, including those in
private as well as those in public institutions, among various
courses of training that definitely prepare for different types
of service. Such charts should include the data gathered
from a large area ; all New England would not be too large an
198 Principles of Secondary Education
area, anything less than the state would be too small, for the
output of any school may easily adjust itself to the demands
for service in a region extending far beyond the limits of the
community, even though that community be a large city, in
which the school is located.
" It would be highly desirable to have a series of charts of this
type national in their scope, and also a considerable number of
series, each covering a section of country somewhat unified
from the industrial and commercial standpoint ; state charts
would serve fairly well if all states, or all states in a unified
section, were charted.
" Just how could such charts be used to advantage ? Let us
illustrate concretely with this chart. Suppose this chart rep-
resented conditions in the skilled industries and in the trade
schools of all kinds, not of Boston and Newton, but of all New
England. It would show to the trade schools throughout
that region that training for the metal and wood-working
trades was being relatively overdone, that training for the
electrical trades was being enormously overdone, that training
for printing and publishing was underdone, while no training
at all was being provided for the remaining trades, boot and
shoe, sheet metal, and marble and stone. It would then be
incumbent on the schools to bring about a different distribu-
tion among their pupils just entering on their training, dis-
couraging entrance on trades likely to be oversupplied, and
encouraging entrance on trades likely to be undersupplied
with workers, perhaps establishing new courses of training in
order to turn out a skilled product capable of rendering the
greatest service.
" It is scarcely necessary to say that the value of these charts,
to be used in this way, would depend on their up-to-dateness.
In their educational features they should be revised every
year, for the effort of many schools to adjust their training to
the demands for service might, if long unchecked, result in a
maladjustment as bad as that which they had sought to cor-
rect ; for example, noting one year that training for electrical
trades was being greatly overdone, while that for printing and
publishing was being underdone, the correction of this malad-
justment might soon result in a reversal of these conditions.
In their industrial, commercial, and professional features, these
The Organization of the High School 199
charts should be revised as often as the necessary data become
available.
" If the state and the nation are really in earnest about voca-
tional education and vocational guidance, the incalculable
value of charts like these, both to education and to indus-
trial, commercial, and professional interests, becomes at once
apparent."
One of the most interesting features of Superintendent
Spaulding's study deals with the purchasing power of a dollar
as expressed in the number of pupil-hours of recitation it
would buy. He discovered that a dollar bought 5.9 pupil-
hours recitations in Greek, 23.8 in French, 19.2 in English,
41.7 in vocal music. Here is an interesting commentary on
the moot question of educational values. Every school ad-
ministrator is obliged to think of the financial aspects of his
problem, and doubtless many will agree with Superintendent
Spaulding when he says: " I was convinced, by very con-
crete and quite local considerations, that when the obligations
of the past year expired, we ought to purchase no more Greek
instruction at 5.9 pupil-recitations for a dollar. So this
year, for the first time in the history of the Newton high
school, we are buying no Greek; until last year's price can
be materially reduced, we shall continue to invest in other
subjects."
The Cooperation of Industry Necessary to the Full-
est Service of the Secondary School. — It may be ob-
jected that this view of the problem contemplates no dis-
tinction between the high school and the trade school. The
obvious answer is that if the public is to provide for the sec-
ondary education of all of its children, it must of necessity in-
clude the elements of the various lines of activity required
by any proportionately large number of pupils. If it is to
require school attendance to the age of sixteen, as now seems
probable, it must recognize the various types of mind that
become evident during the first half of adolescence. In this
2OO Principles of Secondary Education
extension of the scope of the school, industry must cooperate.
Such schemes as the half-time plan at the University of Cin-
cinnati and the schools of Fitchburg, Massachusetts, will
doubtless play an increasingly large part in this readjustment.
This Broader Service demands Open-mindedness of
the Principal. — In this broader service the administration
will find numerous opportunities. Every school tries to keep
track of the progress of its individual pupils term by term.
Every teacher is in some sense a personal and vocational
adviser. What is to be done with the pupil whom the course
he is taking fails to reach? To fail at this point is to fail in
the most important single duty of a principal. The distin-
guished success of a few pupils in college becomes a reproach
upon a public school that can show nothing but ignominious
dismissal or crowding out for pupils of a different type. The
principal who year after year permits teachers to fail from
20 to 40 per cent of their pupils would speedily walk the
streets in search of a job if, as superintendent of a manufac-
turing plant, he were throwing into the scrap heap a similar
percentage of his raw material.
This larger adjustment of the school to the needs of its
pupils and to the broader service of the community will not
be performed without the principal's leadership. Once the
spirit of social service is developed in a school, there will not
be lacking a wealth of suggestion and self-devotion on the
part of the faculty. Leadership, however, it must have, and
leadership it cannot receive from the rightful leader unless
his conception of the place of the school in society is broadened
by a vision that reaches far beyond the traditions of mere
inculcation of knowledge.
So the progressive administrator will not display the dog-
matic hostility to innovations that too often characterizes
the schoolman who has passed his fortieth birthday. Such
suggestions as Commissioner Claxton has recently made 1
1 School Review, March, 1914.
TJie Organization of the Pligh School 201
of a longer school day and a longer school year; the sixty-
minute period, half of which is given to preparation of the
lesson; the vocational guidance scheme of Principal Davis
of Grand Rapids, Michigan; the Gary scheme, the six-and-
six plan ; part-time classes, — all these will be given thought-
ful and sympathetic consideration. Probably none of them
will be adopted entire. Few will fail to furnish suggestions
that can be adapted to local conditions.
THE PRINCIPAL AND THE TEACHER. —As is the
principal, so is the school. The spirit of his administration
is sure to be reflected by both faculty and students. A heavy
responsibility of leadership rests upon him, and with it splen-
did possibilities of service. His relationship with his faculty
will not end with organization and discipline, but will be felt
in every classroom if the school is not too large. It stands
to reason that he can seldom lay claim to scholarship in all
the lines of study in the curriculum. If he is wise, he will be
very modest in asserting himself along purely scholarly lines,
because, if for no other reason, a frank admission of the ob-
vious fact that he knows less about a subject than the special-
ist who is teaching it is much more conducive to confidence
than the assumption of knowledge he does not possess. In
one particular, however, he may justly question the specialist
on his own ground. As principal he must have a very definite
idea why every subject is taught. Too often the specialist
has never asked himself this vital question. He has studied
his subject because he likes it. In it he finds the scholar's
joy of achievement. Only too often he is teaching his subject
rather than his boys and girls. Here should enter the prin-
cipal as an enacting clause for that particular specialist.
This is often a difficult, sometimes an impossible, task.
The unfortunate tendency of scholarship to view learning as
an end in itself, — to forget the distinction between knowl-
edge and wisdom, the tendency of teachers to live isolated
lives, the cloistered vanities of intellectual Pharisaism, all
UBRARf
202 Principles of Secondary Education
these make certain types of the " schoolmarm " —of both
sexes — not infrequently a pretty difficult proposition. Hap-
pily, the proportion of such incrusted personifications of text-
book learning are usually very small compared with the
whole faculty. Sometimes one can be made an office assist-
ant, sometimes a progressive school board or a pension fund
comes to the rescue, sometimes such an infliction has to be
endured as a limitation, like chronic appendicitis when the
surgeons refuse to operate.
Who shall Pass? — -An inevitable point of contact on
this question of the purpose of the various subjects in the
course will come in the grading of pupils. Professor George
Drayton Strayer * of Columbia University has made a study
of the markings given by various teachers in a subject and of
those given by the same teacher at different times. He has
shown that the standards of different teachers as well as those
of the same teacher at different times are exceedingly variable.
Who shall pass and who shall fail ? What is to be the attitude
of the administration on this question that is most vital to
the pupils ? What is the school to do with a condition that
shows such an appalling percentage of failure as is evidenced
by the New York Regents' examinations ? The report for
January and June, 1913, shows a failure of 28.8 per cent in all
subjects. In all Latin subjects the failures were 34.4 per
cent; in all mathematics, 32.9; in plane geometry, 40.2; in
science, 34.6; in commercial subjects, 37.2. Yet the passing
mark is only 60 per cent. Pupils are not permitted to take
the examinations unless they have spent the specified time in
class, and the majority of first-year subjects have been elimi-
nated from the examinations. All of these considerations
would tend to make the percentage of failure lower.
Limitation of the Teacher whose Chief Interest is in his
Subject. — If these figures represent the high school failures
throughout the country, it would seem that one of two things
1 Education, December. 1913.
The Organization of the High School 203
is true : either the tasks set for the pupils are badly adapted
or the teaching is poor. The schools of New York State are,
of course, compelled to follow the Regents' courses and take
the Regents' examinations, but schools under a less rigorous
regime should make it their business to see that their balance
sheets do not show nearly 30 per cent failures. This is a
plain duty of the administration, one that will not infrequently
bring him into sharp and decisive controversy with teachers
who are unduly strenuous in their devotion to their subjects.
" I always discover in the first two weeks which of my pupils
can do algebra," says one such teacher, " and then I teach
them. Usually they are about 25 per cent of the class. I
frankly tell the others that if they can't do the work, they
must take the consequences." If every pupil is to be com-
pelled to take algebra, a requirement that has little but tradi-
tion to support it, this teacher should be forced to change his
practice or leave the profession. His case is in much greater
need of discipline by the principal of the school than is that
of a boy who frankly refuses to prepare his lessons, because
the boy is injuring only himself, while the teacher, on his own
confession, is injuring 75 per cent of the pupils assigned him.
The Purpose of Teaching a Given Subject should determine
Content and Method. — In schools that have a fair degree
of freedom as to the interpretation of any unit of the
course there is an opportunity for the principal not only
to see that pupils are not given work that is beyond the reach
of the majority of the class, but also to see that the subjects
really contribute something of value after they are learned.
The following extracts from an editorial by M. V. O'Shea in
the School Review for January, 1913, indicates the progress
that is now well under way, but that has by no means reached
its goal.
"It ought to hearten any teacher to note the changes which
are taking place in our methods of teaching, particularly in the
secondary school. The writer has been observing the new
204 Principles of Secondary Education
order in a high school with which he is well acquainted. Five
years ago German was taught to beginners in this school very
largely from a grammatical textbook. After two years of
instruction, the typical pupil could read a little classical Ger-
man, but he could not read even this very readily or with
genuine enjoyment. But to-day, in this same high school,
pupils are at the outset introduced to spoken German, and
they are required to speak it, to read it, and to write it almost
from the beginning. They are now about as facile in the use
of the language after six weeks of instruction as they formerly
were after two years of grammatical drill.
"Five years ago the pupils in English classes memorized
rhetorical rules, and read over examples in which they were
embodied. Occasionally they would write a theme in the
attempt to apply the rules which they had learned. To-day
they are reading entire selections illustrating effective modes
of expression, and they are writing a good deal with a view to
expressing themselves on familiar subjects in a direct, clear,
and pleasing manner. Five years ago algebra was taught as
a purely formal, symbolical subject. But now there is con-
siderable improvement, since pupils are constantly solving
practical problems which have a more or less direct bearing
upon everyday affairs, though we think still further improve-
ment can be made in regard to this subject.
"We might go through with practically all of the subjects
taught in this high school and show radical and encouraging
reform in the way of employing vital and effective methods
of teaching. The aim of making teaching go to the mark, in
the sense that it will enable the pupil without waste of time
or energy to get a subject as it will be of service in real life, is
apparently coming to be accepted and generally practiced by
teachers in the high school."
An Illustration from History. — Perhaps no subject in
the curriculum has been worse taught than history. The
teacher has usually assigned so many pages of the textbook
and been entirely satisfied when they have been parroted
back to her. Professor John Dewey has shown the approach
to this subject in a way that illustrates the duty of the ad-
The Organization of the High School 205
ministration of a school to see that the subjects in the cur-
riculum really function in the educational process. Says
Professor Dewey: 1
"History is vital or dead to the child according as it is, or
is not, presented from the sociological standpoint. When
treated simply as a record of what has passed and gone, it
must be mechanical, because the past, as the past, is remote.
Simply as the past there is no motive for attending to it. The
ethical value of history teaching will be measured by the extent
to which past events are made the means of understanding the
present, — affording insight into what makes up the structure
and working of society to-day. Existing social structure is ex-
ceedingly complex. It is practically impossible for the child
to attack it en masse and get any definite mental image of it.
But type phases of historical development may be selected
which will exhibit, as through a telescope, the essential con-
stituents of the existing order."
********
"One reason historical teaching is usually not more effective
is that the student is set to acquire information in such a way
that no epochs or factors stand out in his mind as typical ;
everything is reduced to the same dead level. The way to
secure the necessary perspective is to treat the past as if it
were a projected present with some of its elements enlarged."
********
"History is equally available in teaching the methods of
social progress. It is commonly stated that history must be
studied from the standpoint of cause and effect. The truth of
this statement depends upon its interpretation. Social life
is so complex and the various parts of it are so organically
related to one another and to the natural environment, that it
is impossible to say that this or that thing is the cause of some
other particular thing. But the study of history can reveal
the main instruments in the discoveries, inventions, new
modes of life, etc., which have initiated the great epochs of
social advance ; and it can present to the child types of the
main lines of social progress, and can set before him what have
1 Moral Principals in Education, Houghton Mifflin Co., p. 36 ff.
206 Principles of Secondary Education
been the chief difficulties and obstructions in the way of prog-
ress. Once more this can be done only in so far as it is recog-
nized that social forces in themselves are always the same, —
that the same kind of influences were at work one hundred and
one thousand years ago that are now working, — and that
particular historical epochs afford illustration of the way in
which the fundamental forces work."
The Principal must visit Classes. — It follows, of course,
that if the principal is to give the proper direction to
the teaching in his school, he must visit classes. He must
carry with him a vital philosophy of education, a keen sense
of social values, a clear vision of his community and its needs,
as well as a thorough understanding of the political, industrial,
economic, and social forces that are shaping our civilization.
He will not be able to evaluate the methods of his teachers
unless he has this broader view of the place of the school in a
democracy.
His discussion of the class work must be specific. He can
point out to the younger members of his faculty many faults
in technique that they will be only too glad to correct. He
should be able to secure from all those not hopelessly prej-
udiced some response to his suggestion of the larger purpose
of their various lines of instruction. He should make his
ideals clear in his faculty meetings and follow them up with
frequent visits and with many informal personal conferences.
In the larger schools much of this detail work of supervision
and conference will have to be done by the heads of depart-
ments. Inevitably, the time of the principal of one of our
large city schools is largely taken up in meeting a great num-
ber of people — teachers, pupils, parents, and others — who, in
certain relations with the school, ought to meet the official
head himself. In such schools the leadership of the teaching
force must be exercised to a great extent through the heads
of departments. This will become much more efficient if
the cabinet system is used, and policies are inaugurated which
The Organization of the High School 207
represent the judgment of the cabinet rather than the ipse
dixit of the principal.
The Teachers' Meeting. It should be Democratic. -
The teachers' meeting, also, can be made a real force in the
school. The cabinet is, or should be, a representative body.
If the heads of departments really discuss matters with their
teachers rather than lecture to them, they will bring to this
cabinet meeting the composite judgment of their departments.
The teachers' meeting, on the other hand, more nearly rep-
resents a truly democratic assembly. It may only too easily
degenerate into a profitless debating society with a few lo-
quacious performers in star roles. To prevent this there
should always be a very clear understanding when, and un-
der what conditions, subjects are open to general discussion.
Matters of routine detail can best be handled by mimeographed
sheets of directions. These should be directions, not sugges-
tions. Just what order of procedure is to be followed in re-
organizing the school, for example, it is the province of the
administration to determine, with whatever previous counsel
it may seek. When the order is issued, it should be explained
so clearly in a teachers' meeting that it cannot be misunder-
stood, the explanation should be clinched by the direction
sheet, and then teachers should be held as rigorously to the
letter of the order as would employees in any well-directed
business.
But mere details should occupy relatively little of the
time of the teachers' meetings. The principal who has a
philosophy of education underlying his policies owes it to his
faculty to make them understand his ideas. He will, there-
fore, very frequently discuss in some detail the educational
questions involved in his program, and he will add a word of
comment and interpretation to the incidents of the day's
work whenever he can thereby make himself more clearly
understood. But he will carefully avoid the appearance of
continual lecturing, and he will endeavor to call out the best
208 Principles of Secondary Education
in his faculty. A successful piece of work done in the school
and explained in the teachers' meeting by the teacher re-
sponsible will often prove richer in suggestion than much of
the principal's own comment. The public approbation ac-
corded for good results is a powerful incentive to the faculty.
A definite problem announced beforehand for consideration
will often find ready solution from the discussion of those who
see it from an angle other than that of the principal. A volun-
tary meeting occasionally where those teachers most interested
contribute their ideas over a cup of tea will frequently reveal
unsuspected strength and resourcefulness that are available
for assistance to the administration. A committee report
on an important problem will bring out valuable discussion
and enlist greater interest in the general management of the
school. It will also help teachers to see the many-sidedness
of administrative problems. Too often the removal of a
chronic difficulty looks to them so simple that they pass un-
favorable judgments which would be withheld if they could
come to see the whirlpool they would steer into in avoiding
the rock they wish to shun. A reasonably variety in the
program, opportunity for teachers to contribute, an evident
purpose behind every meeting, live suggestions that can be
applied directly in the class instruction, efficient interpreta-
tion of the activities, aims, and achievements of school will
help to make the teachers' meeting one of the most vital
elements in the progress of a school.
SCIENTIFIC MEASUREMENT ESSENTIAL. — One
point of view of the utmost importance in all school manage-
ment is just beginning to claim the attention of high school
principals. For years we have gone on disputing about the
value of various subjects in the curriculum, about fundamental
theories of education, and about methods of organization,
without studying how our results can be measured scien-
tifically. Willy-nilly, we must compare the work of various
teachers, we must report one for promotion and perhaps
The Organization of ttie High School 209
another for dismissal. We must settle questions of curricu-
lum and method because there is no one else to decide, and
because we think that we are the ones best qualified to de-
cide. For the most part we have done so in the past with
comparatively little definite data. We have been obliged to
support our conclusions with a few incidents that are more
or less typical — or that we think are typical. We have
measured our results with the yardstick of our desires or
perhaps of our prejudices, and we have dogmatically an-
nounced our conclusion in universal affirmations. Fortunately
the trail is now being blazed for a surer path.
10 20 30 40 . 50 60 70 80 90 100
Graph showing an Uneven Department. -- While the
departments of education in our great universities are making
elaborate studies, formulating various units of measurement,
publishing the results of their experiments, and furnishing
data that can be used as a basis for comparison, every high
school principal who is not too heavily burdened can apply
some part of the method of these investigations in his own
school. If he will attempt to tabulate in graphic form some
of the records of his own school, he will be amazed at the
results. For example, the chart above shows the percentage
of pupils passed by various teachers in the same department
of one school.
Each line represents the work of one teacher in the depart-
2IO Principles of Secondary Education
ment. The blank portion shows the percentage of pupils
passed without examination. The shaded portion shows the
percentage examined and passed, and the black portion shows
the percentage failed. It is evident that there is very great
diversity of practice in this department. Some of this vari-
ability may be caused by excellent reasons. At least, how-
ever, it is subject to question why Teacher A should exempt
80 per cent of his pupils, while Teacher S exempts only 4 per
cent of his. Possibly conditions for this particular term
were unusual. Similar exhibits for several terms, however,
in which each teacher handled a variety of the subjects of
the department, would show conclusively whether or not
Teacher S habitually marked forty-five times as severely as
Teacher A. If he does, the chance of a pupil's passing this
subject in this school would seem to depend largely on his
good or ill fortune in the teacher to whom he is assigned.
Many other questions would be raised by an efficient adminis-
trator who found that a study of one of his departments
showed such results as these. One of the most evident
questions would concern the efficiency of the department
head.
Typical Statement of Pupil-hours per Teacher. — The
fundamental question of the allotment of teachers to depart-
ments too often depends on the skill of the head of the depart-
ment in presenting his claims to the principal or in some un-
fortunate cases to the superintendent or to members of the
Board of Education. A very simple study of the pupil-hours
per teacher will show at once where teachers are needed, or
at least raise the question clearly what special consideration
is to be given to the subjects that have to be handled in smaller
groups, or to those which, like English, make unusual demands
upon the teacher's time. A glance at the following statement
of pupil-hours per subject in a certain school removes the
question of the allotment of teachers from the realm of mere
dispute:
T/ie Organization of the High School 2 1 1
SUBJECT PUPIL-HOURS PER TEACHER
English 508
Latin 462
French 604
German 666
Science 691
History 681
Commerce 667
Mathematics 657
Domestic science and art 467
The method of a scientific statement of facts can be applied
to school administration in an infinite variety of ways. A
principal who has a grasp of the method can use it to the
great advantage of his school in ascertaining where the school
is efficient and where it is failing. He can also by this means
present facts in such a way as to transfer many disputed
questions from the realm of opinion to that of fact. He can
effectually meet many criticisms that have their origin in
insufficient data, snap judgments, or mere prejudice.
THE PRINCIPAL AND THE BOARD OF EDUCATION.
- The presentation of conclusions drawn from a study of
conditions belongs to the principal. He is the expert, and so
long as his conclusions are well-founded they should be ac-
cepted by the powers above him as the basis for the develop-
ment of the school. The Board of Education that continually
hampers its principal by meddling in affairs that belong to
him, is one of the most discouraging hindrances to educational
progress. Their proper relation to the executive head of a
school or of a system should be similar to that of the board of
directors of a corporation. Doctor Frederick W. Taylor, the
father of scientific management in America, has defined the
relations of such a board in a way that should be considered
by any school board that thinks it should exercise the function
of superintendent or principal. In a lecture before the Har-
vard School of Business Administration, Doctor Taylor
said:
212 Principles of Secondary Education
''The proper functions of the board of directors would be,
for instance, to select, after having proper evidence presented
to it, the broad and general type of management to be intro-
duced in the establishment. . . . After having done this, and
after having broadly stated the policy of the company, as to
payment of wages and salaries, they should not mess into the
detail of the personnel — by ordering the president to employ
this man, or discharge that man, or promote another man.
Nor should they vote a reduction of wages or an increase of
wages contrary to the leadership of their president.
"Other functions of the board of directors should be, for
example, dictating the broad policy to be followed in the sales
department ; namely, whether the sales are to be mainly con-
ducted through agencies or traveling salesmen, and the
extent and kind of advertising to be used. Again, however,
the details of the executive work should be left under the
direction of the president. The general financial policy of the
company should also be one of the functions of the board
of directors, as well as the broad lines along which progress is
to be made. That is, the decision as to the type of new prod-
uct to be manufactured and sold, and the volume of business
which is to be prepared for.
"The president should lead his board of directors rather
than be a tool to be guided by them in detail ; and when it
becomes impossible for the president to lead in the carrying
out of the general policy of the board, another man should be
selected for the head of the business who is in harmony with
the board's wishes and competent to lead them.
"The world's experience in all directions has demonstrated
the utter impracticability of doing successfully executive work
under the management of a body of men either large or small.
An executive committee of one is the best committee to have in
charge of executive work. The president should be free to
have as many advisers around him as he wants, and these
men can be called an executive committee as well as by any
other name ; but their duties should be those of advisers. In
all executive acts they should be under the orders of the presi-
dent and they should not be allowed to control his acts by a
majority vote. He should in principle occupy the same posi-
tion as the President of the United States. He should be free,
The Organization of the HigJi School 213
practically, to select his own cabinet, and then should be in
complete command of these men. The men under him should
be free to advise him in the most emphatic manner, but the
final decision in all matters should rest with him, and the
board of directors should not entertain nor act upon appeals
made to them from the cabinet officers beneath the president."1
HOW THE DIRECTION OF OUR HIGH SCHOOLS CAN
BE MADE MORE ATTRACTIVE TO FIRST-CLASS MEN.
- If our high schools are to be efficiently administered, the
principalship must be made sufficiently attractive to com-
mand the services of first-class men. No longer can the pub-
lic depend upon pure idealism as an incentive for young men
to become teachers. School-mastering is no longer a minis-
terial profession. The allurements of business are unques-
tionably taking from the schools many of the most efficient
men of experience as well as the vast majority of young men
of superior education and administrative ability. A prin-
cipal should have a good education, a strong moral sense, and
enthusiasm for social service. He must also have first-rate
executive ability. He must be able to meet people well, to
judge human nature keenly, and to present his views clearly
and convincingly. These are qualities that will command large
returns and large freedom in the business world. Yet the
public often demands such qualities at the price of a clerk or
a bookkeeper. It often gets a man worth double the salary
it pays and then requires him to do a large amount of clerical
work that could be performed by a ten-dollar-a-week assist-
ant. It very often expects him to do full service as a teacher,
supervise the work of the rest of the faculty, and serve in a
variety of public capacities classified under the omnibus
title of " the Perfesser." In addition to this, many of the
smaller towns subject him to carping criticism and inter-
ference that only too frequently either make him a petty
bulletin No. 5, Academic and Industrial Efficiency. Carnegie Founda-
tion, 1910, p. 15.
214 Principles of Secondary Education
schemer with his mind fixed on petty affairs or drive him in
disgust from the profession.
In the cities there are many principals who are charged
with the direction of from 1500 to 3000 pupils and the ex-
penditure of from $100,000 to $300,000 annually. A difference
in per-pupil cost of ten dollars a year would mean from $10,000
to $30,000 per year. Moreover, the difference in real efficiency
between a principal who grasps the full significance of his
task and one who sees it only in the light of academic tradition
cannot be measured, because it enters into the very lives of
the young people and through them into the communities
they will help to form. Business would insist upon the best
grade of ability in positions of similar importance, and it
would make such a return in salary and in freedom to develop
individual ideas that the best ability would be attracted to
the positions. When, the public exercises similar liberality
it will be able to insist on a larger social return for its school
budget.
THE CURRICULUM. —When the American high school
first arose, and during what may well be termed the period of
its struggle for existence, the need of higher education for any
large percentage of our people was relatively slight. With an
elementary school system of very meager proportions still in its
infancy; with the principle of general taxation for education
scarcely established; with little surplus national wealth; with
few of the pressing problems of government, industry, and
human relations, with which we of to-day are so familiar, not
as yet markedly in evidence; and with but a small portion of
our present organized knowledge as yet available for purposes
of instruction, it can readily be understood that the high school
of the earlier period was very limited in its scope, and was
demanded by but a very small percentage of the people.
Latin, Greek, and mathematics constituted the backbone
and the bulk of all instruction; the course of study was the
same for all; and the school was useful chiefly as a prepara-
The Organization of the High School 215
tion for entering some one of the denominational colleges of
the time.
The past fifty years, however, have witnessed very great
and very significant changes in every feature of our national
life, and the public secondary school has shared in these
changes. Everywhere such schools have been adopted as a
necessary part of a system of popular education, new classes
of people have been attracted to them, and new subjects of
instruction have been provided. The development of the
secondary school since 1890, and particularly since 1900, has
been marked. With the gradual evolution of the new con-
ceptions as to the purpose and function of public education,
there has been a gradually increasing demand that the second-
ary schools shall more thoroughly meet the needs of the new
classes in the population which have turned to them for help
and enlightenment. This has greatly changed the nature of
high school work.
First to be introduced were history and English literature,
and then the modern languages. In the seventies and eighties
came the sciences, first in book form and shortly afterward
as laboratory studies. Manual training and domestic arts
came to be recognized as teaching subjects for special schools
in the late eighties, and have since been incorporated as parts
of regular high school instruction. Business training, at
first introduced as a concession to public opinion and to meet
the competition of the private " business colleges," has since
been adopted as a useful addition, and, in the larger city high
schools, is being transformed into good, strong, commercial
or business courses. Still more recently agriculture has been
admitted as a useful subject of instruction, and the de-
velopment of the agricultural high school has been very
rapid.
These many additions have affected the high school cur-
riculum in two ways: (i) the old course has been expanded
and crowded, resulting in the introduction both of elective
2i 6 Principles of Secondary Education
studies and elective courses; and (2) new types of high schools
have arisen by the side of the old to minister to the new needs.
These changes may be illustrated by a few typical examples
of high school curricula, chosen from different types of Ameri-
can high schools, and by an enumeration of the different types
of high schools which have been formed.
Types of High School Curricula. — I. A small New Eng-
land high school, in which the one fixed, traditional course
of study, almost entirely based on book work, has had to
give way to changing demands and admit a few electives
during the last two years. This type of school is still very
common in conservative communities and among rural high
schools.
First Year, Third Year,
English Composition and Literature English Literature
Ancient History Modern English History
Latin Latin (or German)
Algebra Physics (or Bookkeeping and Busi-
ness Arithmetic)
Second Year, Fourth Year,
English Composition and Literature English Literature
Medieval History American History and Govern-
Latin ment
Geometry Latin (or German)
Chemistry (or Typewriting and
Shorthand)
II. A medium-sized city high school, located in the Missis-
sippi Valley. Here, by combinations, five different courses
of instruction have been arranged, supposedly to fit different
types of individuals. Such combinations are quite common,
though the tendency is to decrease the number of required
subjects and to increase the number of electives in each. In
the administration of the school this is usually done in indi-
vidual cases, though not indicated in the paper courses of
study.
The Organization of the High School 217
I. ANCIENT CLASSICAL II. MODERN LANGUAGE III. HISTORY-ENGLISH
COURSE COURSE COURSE
First Year,
Latin
Ancient History
English
Algebra
Second Year,
Latin
Greek
English
Geometry
Third Year,
Latin
Greek
English
Physics
Fourth Year,
Latin
Greek
English
(Elective)
First Year,
German
Ancient History
English
Algebra
Second Year,
German
Medieval History
English
Geometry
First Year,
Latin or German
Ancient History
English
Algebra
Second Year,
Latin or German
Medieval History
English
Geometry
Third Year, Third Year,
French (or Spanish) Modern History
Modern History English
English Physics
Physics Drawing
Fourth Year,
French (or Spanish)
American History
and Government
English
(Elective)
Fourth Year,
American History
and Government
English
(Elective)
(Elective)
IV. SCIENTIFIC COURSE
First Year,
German
Botany
English
Algebra
Second Year,
German
Zoology
English
Geometry
V. BUSINESS COURSE
First Year,
(any other course)
Second Year,
(any other course)
218 Principles of Secondary Education
IV. SCIENTIFIC COURSE (Cont.)
Third Year,
Physics
Drawing
Trigonometry
(Elective)
Fourth Year,
Chemistry
Drawing
American History and Govern-
ment
(Elective)
V. BUSINESS COURSE (Cont.)
Third Year,
Spanish
Business Arithmetic
Bookkeeping
Typewriting
Fourth Year,
Spanish
Business Practice
(Commercial Geography)
(Commercial Law)
(Shorthand)
III. A large city high school, located in the West, where
fixed courses have been abandoned. The school offers a wide
range of subjects, requires certain fixed units by groups, and
makes up a different course of study for each high school pupil.
The following studies are offered, the numbers in parenthesis
following each indicating the number of years of each subject
offered bv the school.
GROUP I. — LANGUAGES
Latin (4)
Greek (3)
German (4)
French (2)
Spanish (2)
GROUP II. — ENGLISH
English Composition (2)
English Literature (4)
Hist. Eng. & Am. Lit. (i)
GROUP III. — HISTORY
Ancient History (i)
Medieval History (i)
Modern English History (i)
General World History (i)
Am. Hist. & Govt. (i)
GROUP IV. — MATHEMATICS
Algebra (i, if)
Geometry (i, if)
Trigonometry (f)
Surveying (f)
Business Arithmetic (^)
GROUP V. — SCIENCE
Botany (i)
Zoology (i)
Biology (i)
Physical Geography (i)
Physics (i)
Chemistry (i)
Geology (f)
Astronomy (f )
GROUP VI. — MISCELLANEOUS
Music (2)
Freehand Drawing (2)
Vocal Expression (2)
Physical Training (4)
The Organization of tJie High School 219
GROUP VII. — VOCATIONAL Household Management (i)
Mechanical and Geometrical Bookkeeping (i)
Drawing (2) Business Practice (i)
Manual Training (3) Shorthand (i)
Domestic Science (2) Typewriting (i)
Rules governing combinations and graduation :
(i) Students, to graduate, must complete 15 years' work, viz., four
studies each year for three years, and three studies one year. (2) Students
may, on permission, take as many as five studies or as few as three studies
each half-year. (3) Students, to graduate, must have had two years'
work in groups I and II, one year's work in each of the other groups, and
four years' work in some one group. (4) Study cards must be made out
each half-year, and must be approved by the principal and the parent.
The three types of high school courses given above illustrate
the development which has taken place, and the tendency.
Excepting agriculture, all new forms of instruction are rep-
resented in the one school. The advantages to the pupil
are evident, while it is clear that such grouping of courses to
meet individual needs as is provided for in the third type has
advantages over that provided in the second type.
In some cities high school development has taken a different
direction, and instead of expanding the high school to meet the
many different needs, new types of high schools have been
founded, and type or class high schools have resulted. There
are to-day, in different places, the following different types
of secondary schools.
(i) The so-called cultural or general high school; offering
courses in the languages, literature, history, mathematics, and
some science. This is distinctively a college preparatory
high school. (2) The manual training high school ; offering
courses in science, mathematics, modern languages and his-
tory, English, and shopwork. This is preparatory for the
engineering colleges, and work in shops and trades. It often
includes the third type, for girls. (3) The household arts
school. While usually included under the manual training
school, a few such are being established separately. It offers
220 Principles of Secondary Education
courses in English, history, the sciences, and subjects relating to
household management, and is a technical school for women's
work. (4) The commercial high school. This is an intensi-
fication of the commercial course, and offers good courses in
modern languages, history, science, and office practice. It is
preparatory for commercial pursuits on a larger scale than the
old business course. (5) The agricultural high school. This
offers courses in English, mathematics, sciences, some manual
training and household science, and agricultural studies. It
is preparatory for farm life, or for the colleges of agriculture.
It is desirable both that these different types of high schools
should exist separately in some cases, and in many other cases
should be combined in one. In their beginnings all new types
of schools usually prosper better if provided for separately ;
but, after these new schools have established themselves and
their work has been accepted as a good and legitimate edu-
cational effort, it is wise then to combine a number of such
types in one school, and thus offer a larger range of choice to
each high school pupil. The American high school, if it is to
realize its highest educational purpose, should be preeminently
a place for the testing of capacity, the development of tastes,
and the opening up of vocational opportunities of many
kinds. This involves intelligent oversight and direction on
the part of teachers and principals, a rich and varied curricu-
lum from which to select, and freedom from hard and fast
prescriptions.
THE ELECTIVE SYSTEM OF SECONDARY SCHOOLS.
— In the course of its evolution, the high school has developed
an extensive program of studies, — four or five foreign lan-
guages; English for every grade; mathematics for three or
more years; two, three, or four sciences; history for two or
more grades; and, in addition, manual and commercial sub-
jects. These have contributed to the making of a program
far too extensive to be within the reach of any one pupil.
For a time, with the introduction of new subjects less and
The Organization of the High School 221
less time was assigned to each, with the result that when the
Report of the Committee of Ten was written, many large
high schools were giving twelve and. fourteen weeks' courses
in science, short courses in history, and smatterings of three
or more foreign tongues. The Report of the Committee of
Ten greatly emphasized the desirability of an intensive treat-
ment in the high school of relatively few subjects. The effect
of this Report was only rarely the complete elimination of
any subject from the high school, but generally resulted in a
tendency to intensify and extend the treatment of each one.
More than ever did it become necessary that the individual
student should take but a part, and frequently a small part,
of the entire range of subjects open to him. Another tendency
contributing to the flexible course of study was the increasing
range of capacity and interest found in the students of the
high school. A variety of studies in science, drawing, com-
mercial branches, and manual training were introduced to
meet these demands. A third element in the development
of the flexible course grew out of the conception in the Report
of the Committee of Ten that it was of less importance what
particular studies were pursued than what was the method
employed in teaching them. From the standpoint of the
majority of the Committee, each secondary school subject
was assumed to have equal value with any other, if properly
taught. It was, therefore, natural to assume, if a pupil mani-
fested a strong aversion to Latin or mathematics, that some
other equally well-taught subject could be substituted.
Not long after the appearance of the Report, students of
education began actively to question certain fundamental
assumptions implicit in it, and particularly the disciplinary
conception advocated by the Committee. It was commonly
asserted that Latin, better than any other subject, trained
faculties of observation, verbal discrimination, powers of
analytical thinking, etc. Equally, it was claimed that the
study of mathematics strengthened reasoning powers and
222 Principles of Secondary Education
greatly improved the capacity for systematic generalization.
A series of critical articles, as well as certain investigations
in psychological laboratories, tended during the last decade
of the nineteenth century to unsettle existing preconceptions
regarding mental discipline; in fact, there developed a tend-
ency to assert that mental training should be a secondary
consideration in the teaching of any subject, and that the
subject itself should involve a content of knowledge or other
power-producing material which should justify it, and that,
in the course of its presentation, mental training would follow
as an accompaniment.
Finally, in recent educational theory there has grown up
an increased belief in the wisdom of adapting education to the
individual. This represents a considerable departure from
an older theory of education, that the individual should be
fitted to a given field of subject matter. This change came
about, partly, from the causes already presented. It was
found that not only the interests, but the needs and capacities
of secondary school pupils vary greatly. Furthermore, it
was found that the important end of education was to prepare
individuals for some field of activity wherein that which was
learned in the high school would find application, either as
culture or in vocational power.
The foregoing influences resulted in the development of the
so-called elective system. It is true that, from its beginnings
in the academy, the secondary school program had been
somewhat elastic, but its elasticity had assumed the form
of alternative courses, each course, however, representing a
fixed and unvarying demand on the pupil. Naturally, al-
ternative courses varied mainly in their demands for foreign
language and for science; English and mathematics were
usually prescribed subjects.
The elective system, however, carried the matter of al-
ternative subjects to the point of allowing each pupil, within
the limits of the range of subjects presented by the school
The Organization of the High ScJiool 223
and the other inherent restrictions of program, substantially
to make up his own course. From the standpoint of the school
or the pupil, the important consideration was not always so
much the subjects which could be taken as those which could
be omitted. During the last years of the nineteenth century
and the first decade of the twentieth, the literature of secondary
education was tilled with discussions of the elective system.
It was felt by some that it represented a demoralizing tendency
in that it weakened the educational conception of discipline
through the more difficult subjects. Educational conser-
vatives feared that it meant a persistent discounting of classics
and mathematics. They apprehended a rapid development
of the more vocational studies, and denied that the individual
pupil had any capacity for self-direction in the choice of a
program of studies. They asserted that, from the standpoint
of the best development of the individual, it was highly im-
portant that certain fields of culture should be opened to him,
even by compulsory methods. In only a few schools did the
theory of free election of subjects make much progress. In
these instances the graduation of the pupil was made to de-
pend upon the accomplishment of a certain number of units
of work, but without reference to any specific subjects. He
might omit history or mathematics, no less than a foreign
language or a branch of science. More commonly the system
took the form of a certain number of prescribed studies, with
a considerable range of alternatives or options from which the
pupil could choose. In the case of some large high schools,
for the requirement of specific subjects there was substituted
the demand that, for graduation, a minimum number of units
of accomplishment in foreign language, science, history, etc.,
should be presented, the pupil, however, retaining the privilege
of electing among the various subjects in science or history
as the case might be.
As a rule, few of the apprehended evils of the elective system
have developed in practice. There has been an increased
224 Principles of Secondary Education
tendency to induce the pupil to make his selections not only
with the approval of some advisory teacher, but of parents
as well. The limitations of the school curriculum, even in
the larger schools, have acted as an important barrier to free
election. Furthermore, the fact that a considerable number of
students anticipate entering college, where the entrance re-
quirements are more or less prescribed, has prevented anything
like a free use of possible electives.
While the tendency is still to extend the possibilities of
election of secondary school subjects, it is nevertheless true
that important underlying problems must be solved before
an adequate discussion of election is possible. There yet
exists no satisfactory theory regarding educational values,
especially of secondary school subjects. Quite universally,
for example, algebra and geometry are prescribed for both
boys and girls in secondary schools. Neither experience
nor the tests of educational laboratories serve yet to demon-
strate the superior value of these subjects. The same may
be said to be true of the foreign languages so far as their train-
ing value is concerned. The science subjects have undergone
steady modification in modern education, becoming more
formal and rigid. There is yet no satisfactory evidence that,
as now taught, these sciences contribute in an important
way to either culture or practical capacity in greater degree
than other possible subjects.
In prescribed programs it is the tendency to require subjects
such as foreign language, mathematics, and science, which
are most fully organized and which lend themselves most
satisfactorily to traditional methods of pedagogic treatment.
Until, however, there exists more satisfactory knowledge re-
garding educational values, it will be difficult to treat the
subject of the elective system with anything like finality.
It can be easily seen that the arguments for and against
election hinge upon the theory of educational values and the
capacity of a school to effect individual programs adapted
Tlie Organization of the High School 225
to the various pupils. If we believe that a limited number
of well-organized secondary school subjects give either prac-
tical capacity, cultural insight, or mental training to be
equaled in no other way, then it is a fair assumption that the
school program should make these subjects prescriptive.
There is little place for election, since the self-knowledge of
the pupil and the experience of his parents are altogether in-
sufficient to offset the results of the constructive effort which
has gone to the making of the programs. If, on the other
hand, we are inclined to believe that the educational values
of certain subjects have been greatly exaggerated, and that
what the pupil shall study is of less importance than his
interest in the subject and the methods employed in teaching
it, then it can easily be seen that satisfactory arguments can
be made for allowing a part selection on the part of the pupil
himself.
Other factors naturally enter into the discussion. Freedom
of election means, naturally, that popular teachers will be
sought and unpopular ones avoided, — a result which may
tend to demoralize administration, and may or may not tend
to promote more effective pedagogical methods on the part
of the teachers themselves. It is believed that free election
would tend to promote the study of practical subjects, at the
expense of the more cultural, but again the relative educational
values of the two types will be disputed. It is highly probable
that a more extended analysis of the subject of election will
have to wait a fuller and more scientific formulation of educa-
tional theory, as applied to secondary school studies.
There are many reasons for believing that the high school
as at present organized contributes certain types of definite
training more effectively than it develops culture and appre-
ciation. On the other hand, the greatest deficiency of existing
high school programs seems to be their incapacity to produce
results of a persistent nature; for example, the study of a
foreign language or of mathematics, even when well carried
Q
226 Principles of Secondary Education
on, fails largely in the face of later demands; the general goal
aimed at is not realized. Distinctions will have to be made
among various high school studies, with a view to determining
the specific principles or purpose which each should serve in
a program of fairly well-defined educational ends, and in
adapting to each subject its' own suitable method. This may
be illustrated in the case of English. One object of the teach-
ing of English in the high schools is undoubtedly efficiency
of expression, both oral and written. Another object, how-
ever, and quite distinct from the above, is appreciation of
good literature. It seems highly probable that these two
ends will have to be attained by radically different methods.
The same distinction will apply to certain of the sciences,
when pursued from the standpoint of application in voca-
tion on the one hand, or service in general culture on the
other.
The general discussion of the elective system has probably
greatly promoted interest in the problems of educational
values. It brought subjects into competition, as it were, in
a definite way. Until, however, more knowledge is available,
many educators will assume that the choices made by the
pupil, even when dictated by him and caprice, may, and, so
far as he is concerned, will be no worse than the choice made
by a more or less inflexible system which not only fails to take
account of him as an individual, but which, to a large extent,
has had its origin independently of the study of any group
whatever of actual living individuals.
SIX- YEAR COURSE OF STUDY. »- The fact that the
American secondary school, unlike similar schools in Europe,
takes the pupil at fourteen, or on the completion of an ele-
mentary course extending over eight years, is to a certain
extent one of the effects of the historical development of
American education. The common school or the elemen-
tary school was first established, and, in order to accomplish
a full measure of general education, it involved eight or nine,
The Organization of the High School 227
and sometimes ten grades, each a year in length. The typical
American elementary school of to-day consists of eight grades,
and carries the average pupil from the age of six to the age
of fourteen. The first secondary schools — the Latin gram-
mar school and then the academy — took on something of
the character of European secondary schools, in that they
maintained preparatory classes in which attention was early
given to some secondary school studies. The public high
school, however, was almost universally designed to succeed
the elementary school course, and to build on it. As a
consequence, admission to the high school everywhere re-
quires the completion of an eight-year elementary course,
and brings the pupil in at approximately fourteen or fifteen
years of age.
This situation has obvious defects. It cannot be insisted,
of course, that all American children, or even any consider-
able number of them, should complete the high school course
of study. For those who do, however, the postponement
of the beginning of foreign language study, as well as of algebra
and geometry, works undoubted harm. For the boy who is
to go through high school and into college, there can be little
doubt but that the years between twelve and fourteen under
the present system of schooling are largely wasted, at least,
when viewed from the standpoint of the mastery of particular
studies which should assist in the higher schools. The atten-
tion given to this subject in recent years has led to a fairly
widespread demand for a six-year course of study in the high
school, which should take pupils at approximately the age
which is becoming customary in some European countries,
and which especially should aid them to begin the study of
foreign language at a time when the vocal and auditory organs
are still plastic. The administrative difficulties have been so
great, however, that only in rare instances has the experiment
been made. The chief difficulty is found in the unwillingness
of the American people to permit either a differentiation of
228 Principles of Secondary Education
schools or a differentiation of classes of studies before the
elementary school course has been completed. On the other
hand, there is little tolerance for the prescription of foreign
language study for all pupils in the upper grades of the ele-
mentary school. The result has been that, while a consider-
able literature has been produced bearing on the desirability
of extending high school studies and high school methods
downward, very little of a practical nature has been accom-
plished.
The problem is now being approached in some cities in a
different way. It is recognized that the boys and girls from
twelve to fourteen years of age possess certain distinctive
characteristics and educational needs, which should separate
them from the primary school which has preceded. In not
a few cities it is now customary to group the upper grades in
what are sometimes called intermediate schools, where favora-
ble opportunities may be given for manual training, domestic
science for girls, commercial studies, and, in a few instances,
foreign languages. While few of these schools have reached
the point of differentiating their courses, there can be no doubt
that in a large number of instances they are ready to do so, if
public opinion responds favorably. One of these schools in a
Massachusetts city (Fitchburg) now receives pupils on the
completion of the sixth grade, and admits them to any one of
four courses. Certain studies, such as English, history, geog-
raphy, and music are common for all, and are taken jointly
in the classes. Certain other studies are alternative, and it
is on the basis of these that the courses are distinguished.
For example, boys who wish it may take two hours of manual
training per day, and thereby become members of the industrial
arts course; for them the arithmetic and drawing will also be
somewhat specialized along the lines of the industrial arts.
Another group of boys and girls, instead of manual arts, may
take a foreign language, the beginnings of algebra, geometry,
and English history. This is obviously a high school prepara-
The Organization of the High School 229
tory course, and may legitimately be regarded as part of a six-
year high school course, which it is hoped in time may be-
come five years in length, thus admitting pupils to college one
year earlier. A third course offers to girls two hours per day
of household arts, the subject being treated very broadly,
with related history and science. A fourth course, known as
the commercial course, offers opportunities in typewriting,
commercial arithmetic, the beginnings of bookkeeping, and a
line of work wherein commercial geography and industrial
history are combined.
It is not intended that any of the above courses shall be vo-
cational, but that some of them shall draw from the world of
vocational activities studies and problems that are significant
and vital to the pupils concerned. Neither is it intended that
any of the above courses shall be a blind alley, in the sense that
it leads to no higher work. Nevertheless, it is obvious that
a pupil from the industrial arts course who wishes to go through
high school will have to take additional time in order to meet
the language requirements.
The above represents a type of development in educational
administration which will probably realize the purposes of
the so-called six-year course of study, without involving
premature differentiation of classes of pupils on the basis of
their ability or economic state in life. It will afford an op-
portunity to make of foreign language study something more
effective than is possible at the present time. It will promote
departmental teaching, and the introduction of college-trained
teachers in the higher grades.
TOPICS FOR FURTHER STUDY
1. How do principals and heads of departments spend their time?
Classify under: (i) instructing classes, (2) visiting classes of other
teachers, (3) assisting in the general administration of the school.
2. What is the relative efficiency of pupils from various grammar
schools as measured by: (i) attendance, (2) remaining in school, (3)
success in various subjects of instruction ?
230 Principles of Secondary Education
3. What is the relation of the size of classes to efficiency in instruction ?
4. What is the earning power of graduates in relation to : (i) scholar-
ship in various lines, (2) activity in student affairs ?
5. Classify pupils' time allotment to the preparation of the various
subjects of the curriculum.
6. Classify causes of leaving school. Compare studies of Ayers,
Van Denburg, and Strayer and Thorndike.
7. What percentage of the total cost of the school is devoted to in-
struction in work that has once been pursued unsuccessfully ?
8. Study failures and eliminations from school in relation to: (i)
outside social activities, (2) misfits in course of study, (3) vocational
ambitions, (4) financial pressure.
9. To what extent does the community life affect the high school in
respect to : (i) courses offered, (2) the social life of the school, (3) prep-
aration for higher education ?
10. To what extent does the high school affect the life of the
community ?
1 1 . What is the average percentage of absence and tardiness ?
12. Classify causes of absence and tardiness.
13. How much does this absence cost in money ?
14. How is the total time of the course in English divided between :
(i) English literature, (2) oral composition, (3) written composition ?
15. Experiment with ico pupils taking foreign languages for a certain
number of years and an approximately equal group taking no foreign
language, but giving half as much time to English etymology and com-
position in addition to the regular English course. Test by written
composition, spelling, and examinations in word derivation. Classify
for comparison, sentence and paragraph structure, correctness in diction,
ease and facility of expression.
1 6. What are pupils reading outside the work of the school?
17. What relation is there between pupils' outside reading and their
success in various school subjects ?
18. To what extent is there correlation between the departments as
shown by questions like the following : To what extent are teachers in
other departments teaching English ? To what extent does drawing
help in science, manual training, household arts? To what extent does
history illustrate current problems ?
19. What is the percentage of whole number entering who go to
college ? Percentage of graduates who go to college ?
20. What is the relation of success in college to scholarship in high
school ? To participation in student activities ?
The Organization of the High School 231
21. How far is the outside reading of college students affected by the
high school course in literature ?
22. Classify college entrance examination questions in science and
mathematics under, (i) questions having a practical application, (2) pure
theory.
REFERENCES
BROWN, J. F. The American High School. New York, 1909.
BURSTALL, S. A. English High Schools for Girls; their Aims, Organiza-
tion, and Management. New York, 1907.
DAVENPORT, EUGENE. Education for Efficiency. Boston, 1910.
DEWEY, JOHN. Moral Principles in Education. Boston, 1909. (River-
side Educational Monographs.)
The School and Society. Chicago, University of Chicago Press, 1900.
GRAY, C. T. Variations in the Grades of High School Pupils. Baltimore,
1913. (Educational Psychology Monographs.)
HOLLISTER, H. A. High School Administration. Boston, 1909.
JOHNSTON, C. H., ed. High School Education; Professional Treatment of
the Administrative, Supervisory, and Specifically Pedagogical Functions
of Secondary Education. New York, 1912.
MORRISON, H. C., et al. Some Aspects of High-School Instruction and
Administration. (National Society for the Study of Education.
1914, Vol. 13, Pt. i.)
PERRY, C. A. Wider Use of the School Plant. New York Charities
Publication Committee, 1910. (Russell Sage Foundation.)
SACHS, JULIUS. The American Secondary School and Some of its Problems.
New York, 1912. (Teachers' Professional Library.)
STRAYER, G. D., and THORNDIKE, E. L. Educational Administration;
Quantitative Studies. New York 1913.
VAN DENBURG, J. K. Causes of the Elimination of Students in Public
Secondary Schools of New York City. Teachers College Publications,
1911.
Periodicals: —
Academic and Industrial Efficiency. M. L. Cooke. Carnegie Founda-
tion, Bulletin No. 5. 1009.
Advisory Systems in High Schools. J. \V. Raymer. Educational
Review, 44:466-491. December, 1912.
Better Articulation of the Parts of the Public School System. F. F.
Bunker. Educational Review, 47 : 249-268. March, 1914.
Committee on the Articulation of High School and College. N. E. A.
Proceedings and Addresses. 1912, pp. 667-673.
232 Principles of Secondary Education
The Distribution of Pupils in the Public High Schools. A. J. Inglis.
Ed ucatio nal Review, 46 : 344-350. November, 1913.
The Gap between the Elementary and the Secondary School. T. L.
Wilson. Educational Review, 46 : 295-299. October, 1913.
Is Scientific Accuracy possible in the Measurement of the Efficiency
of Instruction? G. D. Strayer. Education, 34:249-258. De-
cember, 1913.
Junior College ; or Upward Extension of the High School. C. L. McLane,
School Review, 21 : 161-170. March, 1913.
Making a High School Programme. M. W. Richardson. School
Review, 17:449-466. September, 1909.
Measurement of Efficiency in Elementary and Secondary Schools. F.
E. Spaulding. Education, 34:225-248. December, 1913.
Organization of a Large High School. J. A. Bole. School Review,
22: i-n. January, 1914.
Plan for the Reorganization of the American Public High School.
Henry E. Brown. School Review, 22 : 289-301. May, 1914.
Progressive High School Reorganization. R. A. Mackie. Education,
33:420-427. March, 1913.
Reorganization of our School System. J. H. Francis. N. E. A. Pro-
ceedings and Addresses. 1912, pp. 368-376.
Reorganization of Secondary Education in New Hampshire. H. A.
Brown. School Review, 22 : 145-156; 235-248. March, April, 1914.
Reorganization of the Grades and the High School. E. V. Robinson.
School Review, 20:665-688. December, 1912.
Six-year High School. George Wheeler. School Review, 22 : 239-245.
April, 1913.
Studies in Secondary Education — Salaries and Teaching Conditions,
Educational Bi-Monthly. February, 1914.
A Study of Education in Vermont. Carnegie Foundation, Bulletin No. /.
1914.
Teaching High School Pupils how to Study. E. R. Breslich. School
Review, 20: 505-515. October, 1912.
The Worship of the Standard. W. H. Mearns. N. E. A. Proceedings
and Addresses. 1912, pp. 193-200.
Report of the Committee on School Inquiry, Board of Estimate and Ap-
portionment of New York City, Vol. 2, pp. 61-219. I9I4-
U. S. Bureau of Education. Economy of Time in Education ; Report of
the Committee of the National Council of Education. Bulletin
No. 38, 1913.
CHAPTER VI
THE PRIVATE SECONDARY SCHOOL
CHARACTERISTICS OF PRIVATE SCHOOLS. — A
working definition of the term "private school" would be
generally given and generally accepted in some such form as
this: That while public schools are supported and controlled
by the state government, private schools are self-supported
and free of government control. As a corollary they are not
open to all comers, but tend to be schools attended by a group
or class. More is made of questions of personality and of special
aim.
The self-support characteristic of private schools may take
either one of two forms. A private school may be a com-
mercial venture supported by direct payments to the manager
or " owner," or it may be supported by subscription or en-
dowment, so that the element of profit is more or less elim-
inated. The first form has comprehended, perhaps, the
larger part of the private school group. Its characteristics
are of course well known, and the sentiment of Socrates
against it generally prevails. Commercial processes introduce
self-advertising, often cunningly concealed but often very
blatant; commercial attitudes of bargain and dicker encourage
mutual hostilities and the taking of advantages on both sides.
These things are unwholesome between teacher and taught.
Moreover, commercial patronage is hardly the attitude for a
true seeker of instruction. Yet these dangers are in practice
not so great as they seem. In the first place, there are saving
and antiseptic influences in the occupation itself which meet
and repel these infections. Just as, in the modem world, the
233
234 Principles of Secondary Education
publication of books and newspapers, or the production of
art and music, is left solely to the support and judgment of
the market, so churches, museums, schools, theaters may
and do appeal to direct patronage without ruinous results.
And there are also many counteracting advantages in this
form of organization. Private- venture schools are always
very close to the true demand of the public; what people
want, they know. They tend, moreover, to collect about
interesting and effective personalities. Private schools get
more than their share of good as well as of bad teachers. The
relation between teacher and taught, being a matter of free
choice, and not controlled by a system of appointment, tends
to be personal and endearing. Probably the most permanent
service of private schools, since they are thus flexible, lies in
their utility as experimental schools. Their experiences
serve as models or warnings to the community. Among
what may be called the " marginal activities " of the school
organization, private effort will always play a valued part ;
for no step to advance in education has ever been taken with-
out the leadership of private schools. They are not the home
of lost causes and impossible loyalties; they work in advance
of the main body.
Bat though at present all lists of private schools are domi-
nated by this type, yet the endowed schools seem to be in-
creasing and are perhaps destined to play a leading role among
private schools in the future. They are more permanent
than private-venture schools, they have longer and riper
tradition, they have generally more capital and resources,
and they harmonize \vith the modern tendencies to com-
bination and to large enterprises. The endowed private
school may be a stately institution, indistinguishable in struc-
ture and character from a large public school. It may have
a long-descended pedigree; it may represent a religious tradi-
tion, or a much-loved social tradition; it may have an honor-
able history of educational attainment. It is by its per-
The Private Secondary School 235
manence emancipated from dangerous commercial traits,
while on the other hand it is free to follow, without confusion
or control, its special task or special aim. Like a voluntary
religious organization, such schools " enjoy the immense
advantages of freedom of association, of personal initiative,
of individual growth." They are important beyond their
number.
VALUE OF PRIVATE SCHOOLS. — Self-support, per-
sonal freedom and personal care, flexibility of organization,
and prompt adjustments being the virtues of the private
school, it will soon appear that the private school counts
much more in some parts of the educational field than in others.
It is not too much to say that in all elementary education, in
comparison with the public school, the argument for the pri-
vate school amounts to very little, and the tendency of modern
educational evolution is all against it. In the Report of the
United States Commissioner of Education for 1910 it is stated
93 per cent of all children attending school in the United
States are attending elementary schools and that 92.6 per
cent of them are in public schools. The same observation
might be made of Germany or France. To find any con-
siderable amount of private elementary work one must look
to the more or less tolerated religious schools. But even in
countries where this kind of school exists as a significant part
of the public system of elementary education, it is more and
more coming under government control. This is the only
important type of private elementary school. Other motives
for private elementary work produce little result.
PRIVATE SECONDARY SCHOOLS. — A brief survey
of the field of education will show that secondary education
is the special home of the private school. Among private
schools originated every form of what is now known as high-
school work in America. A large fraction of it is still done
by them, probably from a. fifth to a quarter. Nearly the
whole of secondary education in England up to 1902 was of
236 Principles of Secondary Education
the private-school type. Even in Germany and France, the
secondary schools, though under strict government control,
are class schools, receiving fees, and belonging to the bourgeoisie
in type.
In Denmark and Norway, in Sweden and Finland, the
private schools are of special importance and influence, more
particularly as regards secondary education. In all these
countries the state leaving examination which is passed at
or about the age of eighteen is the only portal to the university.
Candidates are prepared for it either (i) in state schools, in
municipal schools, and in recognized private schools, or (2) in
schools which have not gained or perhaps have not sought
recognition, in private courses, and by private tuition. In
the latter cases they are called privatists, and are subjected
to a somewhat severer test.
These two leaving examinations are the medium by which
the recognition of private schools is effected. If, in buildings
and equipment, in curriculum, efficiency of staff, and salaries,
a school reach a satisfactory standard, it is allowed to hold
the leaving examination within its walls, just like a state
school ; and its masters, in the presence and under the guidance
of a government-appointed censor from outside, conduct the
viva wee part of the examination (a specially interesting and
important feature in all these countries), whereas privatists
have their examinations both written and oral conducted by
an examination board who are strangers to the candidates.
Such private recognized schools are regarded as helping to
make up the national provision of secondary education; their
statistics are found alongside those of the state schools ;
masters or mistresses from the one kind of school easily pass
into service of the other — from the private school to the
public or (less frequently) from the public to the private, -
and not unfrequently a teacher may be found engaged in
both kinds of schools at the same time. Teachers from a
public school are as often as not found acting as government
The Private Secondary School 237
censors at the examinations in a private school; and just as
often teachers in a private school act as government censors
at a public school. Thus the two kinds of school are per-
petually acting and reacting on one another, to the good of
both; each tends to impart to the other its characteristic
virtues and excellences; and the two, by varying methods,
work harmoniously and effectively towards the same goal —
are indeed, so far as it is desirable, welded into one.
Even if in time more of our American work goes to the pub-
lic high schools, still there are some legitimate demands for
variety in secondary school life which various forms of private
school must always be called upon to satisfy. Some things
the public high schools would not do, if they could, or could
not, if they would. Some of these demands will necessarily
create private schools. And at any rate, looking at the matter
from another angle, as long as there are private schools, for
any reason, the larger part, the stronger part, and the best
part of them will be secondary schools.
Vocational Schools. — The needs of the adolescent are
various to infinity. The possibilities of secondary work are
therefore legion. They may be roughly classed as vital, i.e.
concerned with the development of personality, or vocational,
i.e. concerned with the conservation of that personality to its
life work. Of these, to the children, the most conscious, the
most imperative, the most educating are the vocational pre-
occupations. But these have been, however, for several
generations in our public schools strangely misunderstood,
misappreciated, and neglected. Children have been obliged
to seek their vocational training in America out of school.
The effect is naturally the well-known early departure of
American children from schools of the state. Only 5 per cent
of the school population is reported to the Commissioner in
1909-1910, as attending public high schools.
Now private vocational schools not so reported have made
up for a large amount of this neglected work. For example,
238 Principles of Secondary Education
the " business colleges " and schools have accomplished much
good vocational work. Generally they have been" private
ventures, originating spontaneously out of the pressing need.
Most of these are still of this sort. But there are beginning
to be private endowed schools which promise still more in the
future. And the college and university courses of this sort
must soon be reckoned with. Other occupations are repre-
sented in the community by private schools. The schools of
music and other arts, whose names fill up the educational
directories of our cities, are mainly such. They originate in the
demands of the locality and are private ventures, though there
are some with private endowments, and some are affiliated
with colleges and schools with endowments not under govern-
ment control. They are exceedingly numerous and well
attended. Handicrafts are taught in this way in an increas-
ing number of schools, e.g. schools of telegraphy, dressmaking,
cooking, pharmacy, and schools with a more comprehensive
sweep like " mothercraft " and " philanthropy." There are
advanced schools, under private management, but growing in
publicity. We find the vocational trade schools and manual
training schools of a general type, originating in private en-
dowment and charging fees, but of great public power and
value. We find great schools connected with special indus-
tries. We find trade schools connected with churches. The
whole field of secondary training is filled with vocational
private schools, setting an example to the public schools,
nowadays gravitating themselves toward the public school
system, but to be reckoned distinctly as part of the creditable
result of the American individuality in education which would
be seriously missed, if lost in the future, and which is embodied
in private schools.
Among the vocational occupations of secondary schools is
preparation of candidates for entrance not directly into the
markets of life but into higher institutions of learning. In
this class one might reckon candidates for government service
The Private Secondary School 239
and other occupations protected by examination or certifica-
tion. No public school system can cover this ground com-
pletely. Army, navy, civil service, professional and technical
schools, scientific work, have so many varying needs as to
create a large body to give private preparation. Special
dexterities imply special schooling. Hence the need here
of private schools.
Preparatory Schools. — A most significant group of schools
in America, called " preparatory schools," or " fitting schools,"
has originated in the need of previous preparation for the
college and universities, until recently themselves private
schools. These schools have many special intellectual and
social ideals; but this work, though actually, for historical
reasons, rather specially linguistic and theoretical, has been
accepted as representing several essential requirements for
secondary culture. They have thus enjoyed a great prestige ;
and have been used to determine the course of public as well
as private secondary education. They have been discussed
and standardized by committees and other bodies appointed
for this purpose, and doubtless exercise a great and whole-
some influence over American education.
The participation of the public high schools developed in
the last fifty years in the work of the preparatory or fitting
schools of America has been of great service to education in
the standardization of college requirements, and in the move
for uniformity as against the somewhat capricious and con-
fused diversity of different college demands. Private and
public schools have worked side by side, and the massive
power of the public school has made itself felt. In the im-
mediate future public schools may be even more useful in a
similar way ; speaking in the name of the general public, they
can assure the colleges and universities, as private schools
cannot, that they may now safely admit to their work, with-
out too much distinction among subjects prepared in school,
any person of suitable intellectual stature and competency.
240 Principles of Secondary Education
But great as are the hopes for the public school, nevertheless,
as far as special preparation demanded by higher institutions
is concerned, this will probably in the end remain a factor
most stimulating chiefly to the creation of appropriate private
schools, as it is now a leading interest among them.
Another form of usefulness of the preparatory schools has
been collateral among the groups of secondary schools in
general. Not only is their work in their own task a significant
part of the sum total of secondary education; but they have
also influenced the theory and practice of all other secondary
schools about- them. This influence counts among the services
of private schools to the country. Even where the public
high schools have outdone their models, the private schools
have after all many times set the fashion.
Military Schools. — Another special form of training
deserves mention by itself, among the activities of private
schools. In Europe the educational effects of universal
military service have often been favorably commented upon.
Even where, however, this service is universal and compul-
sory, there are special schools for vocational training of officers.
In England, with certain brilliant exceptions, this work is
left to volunteer effort. In America we have always had
West Point and Annapolis, our only special schools to look
up to for models and leadership. But, with some exceptions
in the matter of drill and organization, the private schools in
this country have taken over this matter entirely. The
military schools of this country are private schools. Like
all private schools they vary in efficiency; but the best of
them show the great effects of a vocational ideal of a high
code pursued with devotion. It is maintained in a recent
article that the military situation in the United States is
distinctly benefited by these military schools. Whether
this belief be justified or not, the effects of their training on
the schools and pupils are justly valued. The only criticism
offered against them has been their tendency, owing to the
The Private Secondary School 241
superior efficiency of their moral training, to collect difficult
cases in them, a criticism which has been made also of board-
ing schools, small colleges, and all private schools.
Denominational Schools. — The forms of private school
hitherto considered contemplate school chiefly as preparation
for life. This ideal, however, does not contain the whole
case. There must be motives for the creation of schools in
which vocational preparation plays a less prominent part.
School years are branches of the Tree of Life not less than of
the Tree of Knowledge, and in their ethical and spiritual
experiences must be reflected ideals of great influence and
worth. There is, for example, the religious life, very hard
to provide for in governmental schools. Governments can
in modern times recognize no religious body above another;
the religious experience must be left to church and home.
Here is a most powerful and apparently most permanent
argument for the creation of private schools. All religious
bodies feel this impulse. Of the private high schools dealt
with in the Report of the Commissioners of Education, two
thirds are conducted by religious bodies. A large part of the
colleges and universities in the United States are either under
direct control of some religious body or in close affiliation
with it. The Catholic Education Association, for example,
has on its roll 67 colleges, 16 seminaries, 980 schools. The
Protestant denominations are not backward. There are even
schools intended not merely to be non-sectarian, but carefully
to diminish religion as life experience. All this is necessarily
private school work. Modern government schools must ap-
parently be secular.
SOCIAL SELECTION. — But there are other life expe-
riences than religion which governmental schools cannot for-
mally recognize except as incidents and by-products of their
history. Among them arc the experiences, the ideals, the
habits, associated with family life and the life of social groups.
On the basis of social selection there are reared the most
242 Principles of Secondary Education
famous and perhaps the best of the private schools. The
great English schools represent a social class. There are
such schools, though closely under government supervision,
in France and Germany, representing social distinction as
well as religion. In America, while we recognize that our
ideals, our ethics, even our manners and customs, must in the
main be such as to fit us to belong to the great public family
of which we are all proud, yet even here there are family
groups of a more private character, which seek for separateness
and distinction, especially in education. How valuable such
things may be is a matter of some dispute. The doctrinaire
democrat is apt to denounce such ambitions ; the parent face
to face with the problem of his son's life is perhaps apt to
overvalue exactly such distinctions as are cherished in private
schools in some quarters.
The discreet American need not take sides. He will re-
member the federal constitution and the country's motto.
At any rate, in the ebbing tide of family life, especially in the
great cities, artificial family experiences seem now called for
in school life; in many situations public schools may and do
efficiently perform this function, yet there are situations, un-
solvable by schools open to all comers, which must be met by
schools of private effort. Many schools, even in America,
must exist which intend no more and profess nothing else
than social and domestic privacy. These schools are not
necessarily objectionable or of no service to the state. " We
begin," says Burke, " our public affections in our families."
We certainly may begin them in such a private and secluded
school, which is after all full of corporate spirit. There is
no evidence that the academies of the eighteenth century or
the boarding schools or private day schools of our own time
have not produced their share of public servants.
The scouting parties and forlorn hopes in the warfare of
the Liberation of Humanity belong to private schools. It
should be remembered that there is an ambiguity in the phrase
The Private Secondary ScJiool 243
" public service " ; it connotes both what is done for the public
and what is done by it. The main question about any educa-
tional institution therefore is not, who pays for it, but what it
is worth to the common good. " Modern states," says the
Commissioner, " shall certainly see to it that any citizen of
any age who seeks instruction in any subject shall find in-
struction provided for him, not necessarily at the public ex-
pense, but made actually available for him by ways that are
in his reach." In aiding citizens to forms of education not
yet or not at all within reach of the public school, the private
school has its permanent meaning.
TOPICS FOR FURTHER STUDY
1 . How did private schools originate in Continental Europe ? How
in England ? How in America ?
2. What justification of private schools is given by educational
theorists, beginning with Quintilian ?
3. To what extent were the academies, especially those of the first
half of the nineteenth century, private schools ?
4. Was there greater justification or need of private schools in the
United States in the last half of the nineteenth century than there is in
the twentieth ?
5. What influence has the private school exerted on the development
of the curriculum ? Of method ?
6. What value does the private school have for the pupil ?
7. What value does it have for society ?
8. What are the chief defects or difficulties in the work of the private
school ?
Q. Is there greater need for private secondary schools than for private
elementary schools ?
10. Is the government justified in demanding the right of inspection
of private schools ?
11. Is the government ever to be justified in demanding the suppression
of private schools as a type ?
12. Would the standardization of private schools on the same basis
as that of public schools be an advantage ?
13. Is there a greater justification for private schools in countries
like Germany and France than there is in the United States ? In Eng-
land than in the United States?
244 Principles of Secondary Education
REFERENCES
BROWN, E. E. The Making of our Middle Schools. (Historical.) New
York, 1903.
BURSTALL, S. A. Education of Girls in America, Chap. III. New York,
1894.
English High School for Girls. New York, 1907.
Impressions of American Education, Chap. II. New York, 1909.
CHANCELLOR, W. E. Our Schools, Chap. X. Boston, 1904.
JACKSON, G. L. History of Secondary Curriculum since the Renaissance,
in Johnson's High School Education, Chap. III. Applicable to
private school curricula. (Historical.) New York, 1912.
Journal of Education, May, 1893. The number of private schools was
estimated at from 10,000 to 20,000.
Loos, J. Enzyklopddischcs Handbuch dcr Erzienhungskundc, s.v. Pri-
vatschulen. Also Lander ziehungsheime.
LYTTLETON, REV. HON. CANON. How State Organizations will a/ect the
Interest of existing Public and Private Schools. Paper at Conference
of the Teachers' Guild, Oxford, 1893.
NORWOOD, C., and HOPE, A. H. Higher Education of Boys in England.
(English Public Schools.) London, 1909.
PHELPS, W. L. Teaching in School and College, pp. 41-50, on Private
School Teaching and Scholarship. New York, 1912.
Report of Commissioner of Education for 1911, Vol. II, Chap. XXXI.
Public and Private High Schools ; also each annual Report.
Report of the Royal Commission on Secondary Education, Vol. VII,
p. 455. London, 1895.
SACHS, J. The American Secondary School, Part II. New York,
1912.
SCOTT, R. P., and others. What is Secondary Education? Chap. XIX.
London, 1899.
The Private Schoolmaster. A monthly published in London.
THORNTON, J. S. Education in Northern Europe ; The State and the
Private School. Educational Times, Vol. LVIII, pp. 482-483.
Facts and Opinions from Public Men on Private Schools, 1893-1894.
A paper compiled for the Private Schools Association.
Public Schools and Private in the North of Europe. English Special
Reports, Vol. XVII, 1907.
TWING, C. F. History of Higher Education in America. New York,
1906.
U. S. Bureau of Education. Public and Private High Schools. Bulletin
No. 22, 1912. Washington.
The Private Secondary School 245
WATSON, FOSTER. English Grammar Schools to 1660, p. 156 sqq.
Cambridge, 1,908.
Beginnings of the Teaching of Modern Subjects in England. London,
1909.
Unlicensed Nonconformist Schoolmasters, 1662 onwards. Gentle-
man's Magazine, September, 1902.
CHAPTER VII
PSYCHOLOGY AND HYGIENE OF ADOLESCENCE
PHYSIOLOGICAL SIGNIFICANCE OF THE ADOLES-
CENT PERIOD. — The period of secondary education coin-
cides very closely with the first half of that term of years
between the ages 12 to 14 and maturity, which is known as the
period of adolescence (Latin, adolescere, to grow up). The
initial stage of adolescence, the period of puberty (Latin,
puber, pubes, grown up), is that stage of physical development
at which an individual first becomes capable of begetting or
bearing children, and this maturing of sex functions affords
the essential and salient cue for the interpretation, not only
of the physical but also of the mental and moral development
of the entire adolescent period. Adolescence is, then, to be
regarded as a period of marked and significant developmental
growth — a growth both of body and of mind.
Biologically, then, the individual becomes, during the
period from puberty to maturity, capable of undertaking his
part in the perpetuation of the race. So rapid and so far-
reaching are the alterations effected in bodily structure and
in mental traits that they may be fitly compared with those
still more rapid and significant developmental phenomena
observable during gestation and early infancy, so that it
may be said, as Rousseau has phrased it, that " We are born
twice, once to exist and again to live; once as to species and
again with regard to sex." 1 And it follows that it is quite
impossible to understand the high school pupil or to elaborate
any interpretative theory of adolescence save by reference
to this fundamental underlying fact that adolescence is the
period of life when sex functions mature.
1 Emilc, Book IV.
246
Psychology and Hygiene of Adolescence 247
The onset of puberty varies in time. Chronologically, it
is customary to assign the appearance of puberty to the
twelfth or thirteenth year in girls and to the fourteenth year
in boys. However, every extended investigation that has been
conducted has shown that these are but average figures. Thus,
some boys are pubescent as early as the tenth year, others not
until as late as the eighteenth year (Table i).1 Analogous
figures for the first time of the first appearance of puberty
in girls (Table 2) 2 reveal much the same range of variability.
TABLE i
VARIATION IN PUBESCENCE or 4800 BOYS IN A NEW YORK
HIGH SCHOOL (CRAMPTON)
MEDIAN AGE
(APPROX.)
IMMATURE OR
PREPUBESCENT
MATURING OR
PUBESCENT
MATURE OR
POSTPUBESCENT
12.75
I3-25
13-75
69%
55
4i
25%
26
28
6%
18
31
I4-25
14-75
26
16
28
24
46
60
I5-25
9
2O
70
15-75
16.25
16.75
5
2
I
IO
4
4
85
93
95
I7-25
0
2
98
17-75
o
O
100
1 See particularly the results published by C. W. Crampton, M.D. The In-
fluence of Physiological Age on Scholarship, Psych. Clinic, i : 1907, 115-120;
also Anatomical or Physiological Age versus Chronological Age, Pcd. Sem., 15 :
1908, 230-237, and Physiological Age — A Fundamental Principle, Amcr. Phys.
Ed uc. Rev., 13: 1908, 141-154, 214-227, 268-283, 345-358.
2 A. Marro, La Pubcrlc clic: I'Homnie d chcz la Femme. (Translated from the
2d Italian edition), Paris, 1902. See especially p. 22.
248 Principles of Secondary Education
TABLE 2
DATE OF ONSET OF PUBERTY IN 261 GIRLS, OBSERVED BY
MARRO
Year . . 10
Number i
ii
6
12
16
13
34
14
61
15
54
16
40
17
29
18
12
19
4
20
2
21
2
Variability is itself Characteristic of the Period. — The
individual variability here revealed in the date of entrance
into the adolescent period is a phenomenon that is equally
evident in the other physical and mental changes of the
period. That is to say, the range of differences between in-
dividuals with respect to any trait is much greater during
adolescence than during childhood. Indeed, so variable are
many of the signs of adolescence as to render generalization
about them either difficult or at least perplexing] when the
individual pupil is under consideration. This accentuation
of individual differences during the high school period has
led to the conviction that the educational machinery of the
secondary school should possess a reasonable amount of flexi-
bility, that more heed must be given than in the elementary
school to the needs of the individual pupil in curriculum,
method, pace of work, and in similar matters.
Physiological Age. — The variability just cited in the date
of onset of puberty affords us the concept of " physio-
logical age." A pupil's physiological age is determined by
the stage of physiological development he has attained. We
have already seen that his physiological age may or may not
correspond with his chronological age. In a similar manner,
a pupil's psychological age corresponds to the stage of mental
development he has attained. Finally, his " pedagogical
age " is given by his status or grade in the school system.
The Concept of Retardation and Acceleration. — One of the
most interesting problems raised by recent investigation
relates to the correspondence or correlation between these
Psychology and Hygiene of Adolescence 249
several " ages." A pupil may, for example, exhibit either
" retardation " or "acceleration " in any one of these ages when
it is related to any other one of them. It has been common
to speak of retardation when pedagogical age is behind chrono-
logical age, but we may also find other forms of retardation —
physiological, for instance, in the case of pupils who enter
puberty after 15.
Relation of Physiological Age to Success in High School.
- The relation of physiological age to success or fail-
ure in high school work has been investigated of late,
though with somewhat conflicting results. Crampton 1 as-
serts that in the high school the immature (prepubescent)
boys at all ages exhibit many more instances of failure in
school work than do the mature boys.2 The more recent
work of Dr. W. L. Foster 3 shows that one third of the boys
entering New York high schools are discharged during the
first term, but that these discharges are reduced by from 7
to n per cent when entering pupils are placed in sections or
groups of like physiological age, based on degree of pubescence.
The explanation offered by Foster is that the boys then find
their school associations " pleasanter " and tend to stay in
school for a longer time.
Inspection of Foster's tables shows that, in a class of 295
pupils sorted into eight groups by physiological age,4 of 58
1 Fed. Sem., 15 : 1908, 230-237.
- On the contrary, in the elementary grades in New York City, there are,
according to the same investigator, in grades 5c to ya, thousands of pupils who
are physiologically mature, but who are deficient in scholarship. These boys
are naturally poor scholars, who are kept in schools by the compulsory educa-
tion laws and who find the school work particularly trying and irksome.
3 Physiological Age as a Basis for the Classification of Pupils entering the
High School, Psych. Clinic, 4: 1910, 83-88.
4 The sorting was accomplished by making a direct examination of the degree
of pubescence, but the author believes that the relation of pubescence and height
is so close that a practical grouping could be made on the basis of height alone.
However, the natural range of variation in height is so great and the amount of
overlapping of heights in Foster's own groups was so great as to cast doubts
upon the feasibility of so simple a procedure.
250 Principles of Secondary Education
discharges, 33 were in the four most mature groups; of 58
failures, 40 were in the four most mature groups; while of
179 promotions, 100 were in the four least mature groups.
These results flatly contradict Crampton's generalization.
All in all, more investigation is needed of the interrelationships
of the several " ages," with special reference to the pupils
entering the secondary school.
Foster says distinctly: " It is quite certain that the boy of
Class I (the most mature group) will never be first in scholar-
ship." And for this he offers at least a partial explanation:
" Many of them were delayed in their progress at school or
by circumstances at home. Going to work is usually out of
the question for a small boy, and in social affairs and in athletics
he is not at all successful. The influences that tempt the big
fellow to neglect school duties do not have the same force
against the smaller boy." Again, some of the big boys en-
ter the high school a year or more after graduation from the
elementary school; others of them are undoubtedly innately
dull — a statement that raises the query whether the apparent
good that resulted from the segregation may not have been
due to a grouping of psychological age after all.
Aside from these bodily changes directly connected with
the maturing of sex, the most marked physical sign of early
adolescence is the augmented rate of bodily growth.
Growth in Height and Weight. — Measurements of the
height of some 88,000 American school children and of
the weight of nearly the same number have afforded the
valuable statistics of growth reproduced in Tables 3 and 4.1
1 These norms of stature have been calculated by Boas (Report Commissioner
of Educ., 1896-7, ii, 1541-1599) from studies by various investigators of school
children in Boston, St. Louis, Milwaukee, Toronto, and Oakland, Cal. The
same averages converted into inches are published by F. Burk (Amcr. Jour, of
Psych., 9 : 1897-8, 253), from whose article the norms of weight calculated for
Boston, St. Louis, and Milwaukee children have been taken. Curves showing
the distribution by percentiles of the height and weight of children of both
sexes for the ages 4 to 18 have been issued by F. W. Smedley (Rcpt. Dept. Child
Study, Chicago, No. 3), and are reproduced in part by Whipple (Manual of
Mental Tests, 2<\. ed.).
Psychology and Hygiene of Adolescence 251
TABLE 3
AVERAGE STATURE OF AMERICAN CHILDREN, IN CENTIMETERS
I
Age ... 5.5
6-5
7-5
8-5
9-5
10.5
"•5
Boys . . . 105.90
111.58
116.83
122.04
126.91
131.78
136.20
Girls . . . 104.88
110.08
116.08
121. 21
126.14
131.27
136.62
Age ... 12.5
13-5
14-5
15-5
16.5
17-5
18.5
Boys . . . 140.74
146.00
152.39
I59-72
164.90
168.91
171.07
Girls . . . 142.52
148.69
I53-50
156.50 ! 158.03
I59-I4
I
TABLE 4
AVERAGE WEIGHT OF AMERICAN CHILDREN, IN KILOGRAMS
Age . . 6.5
7-5
8-5
9-5
10.5
". S
12-5
13-5
14-5
Boys . . 20.50
22.45
24.72
27.03
29.66
32.07
34.88
38.46
43.18
Girls . . 19.69
21.64
23.81
26.03
28.53
31-52
35-70
40.23
44-59
Age . . 15.5
16.5
17-5
Boys . . 48.72
54-88
Girls . . 48.40
50-94
52-34
It will be seen that boys are slightly taller and heavier than
girls of the same age during childhood and up to just before
the onset of puberty, whereas girls are taller than boys be-
tween the ages 11.5 and 14.5 and heavier than boys between
the ages 12.5 and 14.5. This crossing of the curves of growth
of the two sexes is due to the fact that the acceleration of
growth which ushers in adolescence comes earlier in girls
than in boys. Boys, however, overtake girls, once they reach
their own period of acceleration, and, since they continue to
grow at an accelerated rate for a longer period, come ulti-
mately to exceed girls by a greater amount than in childhood.
A similar phenomenon appears in other anthropometric
measurements, e.g. that of vital capacity, and of strength of
252 Principles of Secondary Education
grip, though in these other cases the accelerated growth in
girls does not happen to be sufficient to bring about an actual
crossing of the curves of the two sexes.
The period of most rapid growth does not, as has sometimes
been said, take place just before puberty, for when pupils
are divided into groups according to degree of physiological
maturity, it is found that prepubescents grow slowly in height,
weight, and strength. On the contrary, the year of accelerated
growth in all these respects is the first year of postpubescence,
regardless of its chronological relations.1
Growth and Health. — While it is true that for some
individuals, more especially for some girls, the pubertal period
is attended with ill health and fragile physique, the evidence
of vital statistics shows clearly that these cases are exceptions
to the rule. Hartwell's study of the death rate for the city
of Boston showed that the period of pubertal change is the
period of lowest death rate, while the commission headed by
Axel Key,2 that examined 15,000 boys and 3000 girls in
Swedish schools, found that capacity to resist chronic diseases
was highest when growth was most rapid, and that the seven-
teenth year was the most healthy, the thirteenth and eight-
eenth relatively sickly. The indications are, therefore, that
early adolescence is a period of strong vitality.
Growth by Parts. — When we examine the growth of the
different organs and structures of the body, we find that
they participate to a very unequal extent in the rapid growth
of adolescence. Moreover, the periods of most rapid growth,
the nascent periods, of different organs do not coincide. And
finally, organs differ in the duration of their periods of growth.
Instances of these principles are given below, and many more
might be adduced to show that growth is "by parts," not
1 See Crampton, Psych. Clinic, i : 1907, 115-120.
2 This report is available, in German, in L. Burgerstein's Schiilhygicnische
Untersuchungen. Hamburg, 1889. See also F. Burk, Growth of Children in
Height and Weight, Anur. J. of Psych., 9 : 1897-1898, 253 ff., esp. 286-295.
Psychology and Hygiene of Adolescence 253
symmetrical and proportionate increase in size of the body
as a whole. It is tempting, and doubtless justifiable, to sup-
pose that the central nervous system likewise matures un-
evenly and that we have a corresponding growth by parts in
mental life, with nascent periods for specific traits and ca-
pacities.
Growth of the Bones. — The bones grow longer and
thicker and undergo important changes in their constitution,
particularly noticeable in the completion of the process of
ossification,1 e.g. in the bones of the skull, and in the joining
of the epiphyses of numerous important bones, e.g. the hu-
merus, femur, tibia, scapula.
The bone growth of puberty is not simple enlargement,
but, in many instances, involves alterations in shape and pro-
portions. Thus, chest growth is chiefly in a lateral direction;
growth in height is largely due to lengthening of the thigh
bones; the pelvis, at least in girls, is greatly modified in shape;
in the head, the face lengthens by as much as an inch; the
interocular distance increases as the face broadens ; the sec-
ond dentition is completed; the lower jaw becomes heavier,
the nose longer and more prominent, while the nasion fills in.
These changes combine with changes in muscular develop-
ment to bring about decided changes in facial expression.
Hygiene of Bone Growth. — Apparently, the system de-
mands a special supply of mineral matter, particularly of
lime, at this time. This demand is usually held to account
for the " lime-hunger " of pupils who eat chalk, and even plas-
ter of Paris or mortar. Too rapid growth of the bones is also
held to account for " growing pains," either because the ep-
iphyses, or centers of growth in the bones, become inflamed, or
1 It has been proposed to use this phenomenon as a basis for the classification
of children into different physiological ages. The work thus far done, however,
applies primarily to infancy and childhood up to the twelfth year. For X-ray
photographs of the progressive ossification of the small bones of the wrist,
see T. M. Rotch, M.I)., Roentgen Ray Methods Applied to the Grading of
Early Life, Proc. 4th Cong. Amcr. School Hyg. Assoc., 1910, pp. 184-208.
254 Principles of Secondary Education
because the bones grow faster than the muscles and thus cause
abnormal tension and perhaps interference with the blood
supply. Since bone growth is affected by posture and mus-
cular strains as well as by nutritive supply, it follows, ac-
cording to Hall,1 that " too high pillows, sleeping in one
position, ill-adjusted seats at school or on the bicycle, lacing,
occupations that strain or require unnatural postures, are
especially to be avoided at this age."
Growth of the Muscles. — The muscles participate exten-
sively in the rapid growth of puberty ; thus, at 8 years
they form 27.2 per cent of the total body weight, but at 15
years, 32.6 per cent, and at 16 years, 44.2 per cent. The
clumsiness so characteristic of adolescent boys is perhaps
due in part to inequalities of muscle growth, either because
the muscles grow faster than the bones to which they are
attached or because the musculature develops at an unequal
rate in its various parts.
Growth of Heart and Arteries. — The heart muscles in-
crease in size and in number of contractile fibers, so that
the volume of this organ is radically increased in proportion
to the lumen of the arteries through which it forces the blood
- the ratio of heart to arteries being 25 : 20 at birth, but
140 : 50 at puberty and 290: 61 at full maturity, according to
the measurements of Landois. The effect of this growth of
the heart is in all probability to produce a heightening of
blood pressure at puberty, and there is evidence that the
earlier and more decided this growth, the earlier, stronger,
and more complete is the development of puberty.
These changes in arterial pressure, together with changes
in the specific gravity of the blood (at least in girls) and the
slight rise in bodily temperature (about 0.5° F.), are all tokens
of the extension of the circulatory system to supply new struc-
tures and new bodily functions, of the need of irrigating an
increased musculature, and of the increase of metabolism
1 Adolescence, Vol. I, p. 82.
Psychology and Hygiene of Adolescence 255
(assimilation and dissimilation of tissue) connected with the
general physiological " stir- up " of the period.
Circulatory Disturbances. — Like all the other phenomena
of adolescent growth, there is here, too, a noticeably in-
creased individual variation, while temporary functional dis-
turbances are not at all uncommon. Sudden and unac-
countable fluctuation in the rate of the pulse, palpitation
of the heart, and frequent or habitual headaches are often
reported during pubertal growth. The anemia and chlorosis
(green sickness) of adolescent girls are other all too charac-
teristic functional disturbances of adolescence. Thus, Key
found habitual headache in 13.5 per cent of boys and 36.1
per cent of girls and symptoms of chlorosis in 12.7 per cent
of boys and 35.5 per cent of girls. Somewhat smaller per-
centages are reported by Hertel from the examination of
children n to 14 years old at Copenhagen.
Growth of the Lungs. — Though the growth of the heart
tends to lessen the chest capacity, this reduction is more
than compensated for by the enlargement of the thoracic
cavity already mentioned. By means of the spirometer,
measurements may be taken of the " breathing capacity," :
— also termed the " differential capacity " or the u vital capac-
ity," — i.e. the maximal amount of air that can be exhaled
after a maximal inhalation. This capacity, taken by itself,
or expressed in its relation to bodily weight (the " vital in-
dex "), furnishes a valuable index of general vitality. Meas-
urements of school children show that the vital capacity of
girls increases rapidly from 12 to 14, thence slowly until 20,
while that of boys increases rapidly from 14 to about 19.5
years.2
Training for Vital Capacity. -- Vital capacity, perhaps
more than any other physical capacity, may be greatly in-
1 When the estimated air remaining in the lungs, the "residual air," is added,
the total gives the "lung capacity."
2 See G. M. Whipple, Manual of Mental and Physical Tests, 1914, Test 5.
256 Principles of Secondary Education
creased by suitable exercise and training. Since, then, full
development of chest and lung is so obviously desirable (as
an adjunct in endurance under effort, in resistance to disease,
etc.), the physical training work in every secondary school
should be so arranged as to secure maximal chest develop-
ment and habitual good bodily posture.
Changes in the Voice. — Just as the cries, clucks, chirps,
and all the other various equivalents of voice found in animals
may be observed to alter at the mating season, or perhaps to
be heard only then, so, too, alteration in voice is one of the
most obvious and characteristic symptoms of the pubertal
period.
In boys the growth of the larynx, outwardly visible in the
increased prominence of the Adam's apple, with the correla-
tive elongation of the vocal cords to about double their former
length, produces a drop in the pitch of the voice of approxi-
mately an octave. In girls a similar, but less marked, change
may be noted : the drop in pitch is slight, but the change to a
richer and fuller timbre is unmistakable.
Period of Mutation. — In boys this process of " muta-
tion," as it is termed, may begin as early as 12, or not for
three or four years later. As it ordinarily takes about two
years for the voice to become established in the lower register,
some boys may sing treble even up to the age of 19. During
mutation the voice is often rough and hoarse and char-
acterized by the well-known " breaks " in pitch. Hall
thinks that, with the structural alteration of the vocal
organs, there appears " a new vocal consciousness," and
that pubescent boys delight to experiment with their voice,
especially " to yell and indulge in vocal gymnastics of a
drastic kind."
Hygiene and Training of the Voice. - - The desirability
of using the voice in singing during its mutation has been a
matter of debate among teachers of vocal music. Paulsen
found that 75 per cent of adolescent boys could not control
Psychology and Hygiene of Adolescence 257
the voice during mutation, but MacKenzie J examined 500
choir boys 14 to 18 years old and found the voice really
" cracked " in only 17 per cent. The best opinion appears
to coincide with the conclusion of Dr. MacKenzie that sing-
ing may be continued if due care is exercised, especially in
avoiding very high or very low registers.
At any rate, a reasonable amount of voice culture seems
to be needed in the secondary school to secure a satisfactory
speaking voice. Too often the voice settles into an undesirable
pitch and color ; it becomes nasal, throaty, coarse, or in girls
shrill and grating, and enunciation is defective. Teachers
should set a persistent good example and encourage their
pupils to think how they sound as well as how they look!
Growth of the Brain. — The brain, unlike most of the
bodily organs, does not increase much in weight at adolescence.
However, the manifold alterations and augmentations in
psychic life — the new instincts, feelings, ideals, motives,
and the general ripening of intellectual grasp that make up
the psychological picture of adolescence — point unmistakably
to corresponding alterations in brain activity. These altera-
tions may be in part the functional maturing of cells and
tracts hitherto dormant, and in part the extension and rami-
fication of the fiber processes of cells already mature, par-
ticularly in the " higher " association areas of the cortex. The
one development would account for the awakening of new
instinctive tendencies, the other for the enriching and elabora-
tion of mentality in general.
THE PSYCHOLOGICAL PHENOMENA OF ADOLES-
CENCE.2 - - The most prominent instinctive responses of
1 Morell MacKenzie, M.D., The Hygiene of the Vocal Organs. London, 1886,
p. 130.
2 METHOD OF STUDYING ADOLESCENCK. — A word may be said concerning
the method of studying the psychology of adolescence. Our present knowledge
of this field is due almost entirely to the labors of Stanley Hall, who, with the aid
of his confreres and graduate students at Clark University, has collected thou-
sands of observations by the circulation of series of questions. The questionary,
s
258 Principles of Secondary Education
childhood, fearing, feeding, fighting, and the like, make for
self-preservation. The child naturally " looks out for num-
ber one " ; his conduct is ego-centric ; he is, from an adult
point of view, intrinsically selfish. But to Nature the indi-
vidual counts for little, the race for much. Self-preservation
may be the " first law of human nature," but species-preserva-
tion is the first law of Nature.
We have seen how, during puberty, the body becomes
physically prepared for participation in this species-preserva-
tion. We must now see how, during the same period, mental
reconstruction yields a new attitude toward life — an attitude
which is, in large measure, clearly directed to the same general
end as the physical reconstruction.
Primary and Secondary Sex Characters. - - The biolo-
gist distinguishes between structures or traits that are directly
and immediately concerned in the process of reproduction
and other structures or traits that are merely accessory or
assisting ; the former are termed primary, the latter secondary
sexual characters. Thus, the odor or color of a flower, for
example, is a secondary character that serves to attract in-
sects and brings about fertilization by pollen grains (the pri-
mary sex characters).
Analogously, the mental processes correlated with the
development of sex during adolescence may be regarded as
including not only those that are primary to sex, like sex
love and impulses toward sexual activity (libido, in the scien-
or questionnaire, is, as its name implies, a list of questions, usually printed, to
which answers are sought from a considerable number — say, several hundred
— of persons. The replies, or "returns," are then collated, and from them in-
ferences are drawn. The method has the advantage of numbers — 200 expe-
riences afford a truer picture of human nature than do two or half a dozen —
but it has defects; 200 poor answers by writers incapable of reliable report, or
seeking to please the questioner, or unconsciously suggested by the phrasing
of his questions — 200 such answers are inferior to half a dozen reliable observa-
tions. It is not improbable that some of the generalizations now current about
the psychic life of adolescents are unwarranted and will be replaced in time as
more critical and exact information becomes available.
Psychology and Hygiene of Adolescence 259
tific terminology), but also a host of other processes that are
secondarily or indirectly associated with the emergence of
the sex-consciousness.
Ramifications of the Sex Instinct in Mental Life. -
Thus, interest in adornment, " showing-off," widening con-
sciousness of social relations, altruistic conduct, aesthetic
appreciation, religious conversion, and desire for travel, to
cite instances, represent varied and characteristic mental
experiences of adolescence, all of which may be traced back
to sex, in the widest meaning of that term. Not, of course,
that the sex instinct is alone responsible for these manifesta-
tions, or that the adolescent is even conscious of a connection
between them and his sex life, but only that the chief driving
agency behind them is, after all, the sex instinct. To use the
fruitful metaphor of Stanley Hall, we may think of these
secondary or indirect manifestations as " long-circuitings " or
" irradiations " of the sex instinct, and the problem of the
psychology of adolescence becomes primarily that of catalogu-
ing and describing them. Or, to use the terminology of the
followers of the Vienna physician, Freud, — who has given
us an elaborate account of the genesis and development,
particularly in aberrant ways, of these sex manifestations, —
we may speak of these remoter manifestations as " sublima-
tions " of the sex impulse.
Sensory Development. - - The uncertainty in data and
inferences based on the questionary method is well illustrated
in the statements commonly made as to the effect of adoles-
cence upon sensory development. On the one hand, labora-
tory experiments do not indicate any marked or widespread
" sharpening of the senses " during the period.1 The best
data obtainable show, for instance, that auditory acuity
reaches its maximum at 12 years; that visual acuity tends
all too often to deteriorate as a consequence of myopia,
hyperopia, and astigmatism ; that the discrimination of two
1 For detailed statements, see Whipple, op. n/., Chap. VI.
260 Principles of Secondary Education
points on the skin (the aesthesiometric index) is poorer at
maturity than at childhood. Sensitivity to pain decreases up
to 1 8 or 19 years, with irregularities at puberty. Pitch dis-
crimination apparently does not improve after the loth year,
nor the discrimination of lifted weights after the i3th year.
On the other hand, the frequently quoted results of Lan-
caster's questionary 1 are taken by many writers to mean
that the senses grow keener during adolescence. But when a
girl of 17 testifies that she now hears the chimes three miles
away that she never heard as a child, when another asserts
that her eyesight was keenest at 13, as tested by seeing a
steeple in the distance, and another that all nature took on a
" new aspect of beauty " at this period, and when Hall speaks
of " a new dermal consciousness," etc., it is evident enough
that the adolescent modification is central, not peripheral.
What is changed is not the cochlea or the retina, but atten-
tion, interest, feeling, and emotion. In short, adolescence
affects the attitude toward sensation, not sensation itself.
New Dermal Consciousness. — Take, in illustration, the "new
dermal consciousness " just mentioned. The sweat glands
and sebaceous glands apparently become more active dur-
ing puberty. The skin is more oily. Concern as to per-
sonal appearance may impel the girl to an altered regimen
of bathing, to the use of cosmetics. Pimples and eruptions,
characteristic of the period, solicit attention. Some pur-
posely abrade the skin ; others try to pull hair from the eye-
brows, cheeks, and other parts of the body, despite the pain.
Primitive people indulge in tattooing at this time. Then
appear strong likes and dislikes for covering parts of the
body, arms, neck, hands, head, etc., with clothing. Contact
with the skin of others, as in hand-shaking, stroking, caressing,
kissing, may be sought after and enjoyed, or strongly disliked
and shunned. All this elaboration of the " skin conscious-
1 E. G. Lancaster, The Psychology and Pedagogy of Adolescence. Pcd.
Son., 6: July, 1897, 61-128, esp. p. 79.
Psychology and Hygiene of Adolescence 261
ness" is centrally, not peripherally, determined; it is, in
reality, closely related to the ripening of sex functions, as
Freud * has shown. Hall believes that the leading of a rugged
life, with abundant skin stimulation, even with plenty of pain
stimuli, is desirable to keep attention from being focalized
on sex.
New Smell and Taste Interests. — Questionary returns
show a similar emergence of new interests in odors. Girls
develop fondness for perfumed soaps, sachet powder, smell-
ing bottles, etc. Likes and dislikes for people are frequently
reported to be based upon real or fancied odors; friendships
are broken on account of a bad breath, and so on.
Taste and smell, in combination, give us flavor, and re-
action to flavor determines likes and dislikes for various
foods. Data from questionary returns indicate both a widen-
ing of the range and a greater caprice of appetite during early
adolescence. Many articles of food are now used for the
first time, and few new dishes are u acquired " after this period.
Naturally, extreme likes and dislikes are to be curbed, espe-
cially when they tend to undermine health, e.g. overindulgence
in tea, coffee, condiments, and sweets. Adolescents not in-
frequently become faddists, and pursue certain diets, e.g.
vegetarianism, religiously for a time. Hall is of the opinion
that this widening range of appetite at adolescence may be a
recapitulation of the age in primitive peoples when youth
cut loose from parental support and began an independent
life of food getting, but this surmise is as questionable as any
other that hinges upon acceptance of the doctrine of psychic
recapitulation.
AVu' Aural Interests, - - With the change of voice at
adolescence, there is, as we have noted, a " new vocal con-
sciousness.'1 Likewise, there appears an undeniable aug-
1 S. Freud, Three Contributions to the Sexir.d Theory. (AYrtWf.v and Men-
tal Disease Monograph Series, Xo. 7), Xe\v York, IQIO, especially the third
essay : "The Transformation of Puberty."
262 Principles of Secondary Education
mentation of interest in music — both intellectually in growth
of real musical appreciation and understanding of musical
forms, and emotionally in delight in music. Of 556 adoles-
cents who answered Lancaster's questionary, 464 testified to
an increased " love of music." The evidence for this nascent
period is fairly clear, and it appears to reach its climax at
the 1 5th year. At this time, many boys and girls, who are
in reality unmusical, pass through a period of transient de-
votion to music, purchase instruments, and begin to " take
lessons," especially on stringed instruments (banjo, mandolin,
and guitar). Those who have real talent make surprising
progress at this time; the others soon lose their zeal.
Here, again, and in the similarly augmented interest in
color, displayed in dress, in painting lessons, etc., we have an
example of the enrichment of sensory life by the indirect
ramification of sex instinct. The real adolescent growth is
not in sensitivity and sense discrimination, in the strict
psychological sense, but in the emotional background, and
the appeal that stimulation of skin, tongue, nose, ear, and
eye makes to the strong undercurrent of life interests of the
period. Pedagogically, the main problem is the utilization
of this " awakening " for the higher processes of mental
development, particularly the turning of these biologically
determined impulses toward artistic and creative effort of a
worthy kind.
The Sex Instinct. -- The most fundamental psychic phe-
nomena of adolescence is, however, not in the sphere of
sensation, or the emotional reaction to sense-impressions, but
rather in the sphere of instinct. The sex instinct has been
commonly regarded as a typical latent or delayed racial
tendency, as practically totally lacking in childhood and
appearing relatively abruptly at puberty. In a way this is
true. The young child naturally exhibits little physical
self-consciousness, little instinctive concealment of sex shame,
whereas, at puberty, there appear bashfulness, coyness,
Psychology and Hygiene of Adolescence 263
" showing oil," strong personal interest in individuals of the
opposite sex, and a flood of vague impulses and emotional
reactions to sexual stimuli. Some authorities go so far as to
assert that for some years at this time fully nine tenths of
the mental processes of adolescents center in sex and its
functions — if we give to the term a broad interpretation.
On the other hand, however, the work of Freud and his
followers has laid emphatic stress upon the principle that the
remoter beginnings of the sexual life date far back into child-
hood and even into infancy, so that these pubertal phenomena
are transformations or realignments of earlier instinctive
tendencies rather than new and hitherto-absent tendencies.1
Sex Charms and Fetishes. — In the emergence during
puberty, and the subsequent development, of attraction for
the opposite sex, there is exhibited an interesting and char-
acteristic example of that " long-circuiting " or indirect rami-
fication of the instinct to which we have already alluded. It
is this: sexual attraction or repugnance tends to be aroused
less by the primary sexual characteristics than by secondary
or remoter characteristics. Likes and dislikes, in other
words, are based upon seemingly trivial details of personality,
e.g. color of eyes or hair, manner of walking, quality of voice,
contour of neck, and so on — all traits which do not, in the
last resort, affect in one way or another the value of their
possessor, considered biologically as a contributor to the
perpetuation of the species, yet traits which constitute the
basic material of romantic love.
Where, as is often the case, some one trait or combination
of traits becomes the focus of interest and admiration, or, as
it is phrased, gains " special erogenic power," to the exclusion
of other traits and qualities, we term it a sex fetish. Inves-
tigators have collected and classified these fetishes by asking
young men and women what particular traits they regarded
as essential in determining likes or dislikes for persons of the
1 See Freud, op. cit.
264 Principles of Secondary Education
opposite sex.1 The results are most striking. Bodily traits
are cited in the order: eyes, hair, stature, feet, brows, com-
plexion, cheeks, throat, ears, chin, hands, neck, nose, etc.
Movements and actions are equally prolific sources of sex
fetishes, e.g. the voice, mode of laughing, carriage, gait,
gesture, pose of head, etc. Attraction may also center in
dress or personal adornment — white linen, furs, collars,
glasses, ribbons, sashes, etc.
Equally intense aversions may reside in specific traits,
e.g. prominent or deep-set eyes, full neck, ears that stand out,
eyebrows that meet, large feet, pimples, red hair, giggling,
swaggering, flashy neckties, untidy linen, colored handker-
chiefs, or resemblance to certain animals — monkey, dog,
parrot, pig, peacock, etc.
In all the instances of attraction, these traits become charms
dissociated from sex centers (or perhaps rather symbolic of
them) and objects of direct attraction. This focalization of
the sex attraction upon specific traits, often in themselves
trivial, varies in individual adolescents, both in quality and
in degree, but the tendency is decided and clearly enough
exhibited by most adolescents, especially in the early portion
of the period. As maturity approaches they may suffer
modification and even reversal, so that the young boy who wor-
ships golden hair in his teens may, after all, succumb to a
complex of other qualities in a pronounced brunette.
The Development of Love. —- The appearance of these
sex charms and fetishes is but one phase of the development
of the sentiment of love. Not even this romantic and poetic
phase of human nature has escaped the analysis of the man
of science, and we have several accounts, primarily based upon
the questionary method, of the normal development of love.
Bell,2 for example, distinguishes five fairly representative stages.
l, Adolescence, IT. 113 ff.
- Sanford Bell, A Preliminary Study of the Emotion of Love between ihe
Sexes. Amer. Jour, of Psych., 13 : July, 1902, 325-354.
Psychology and Hygiene of Adolescence 265
(1) The '' love " of childhood, of boys and girls under the
age of 8, — a sort of Platonic, sexless, transparent childhood
attraction, characterized by fondness for one another's com-
pany, exchanging keepsakes, etc. These attractions are
commonly transitory and free from danger if not carried too
far.
(2) Juvenile love, or " liking," during the years 8 to 12, is
more secretive and self-conscious. This is the stage of motto
candy, and valentines, and such behavior as Whittier has
wrought into his poem " In School-Days." Teachers some-
times successfully utilize these juvenile attractions as an in-
centive for better work and conduct in the schoolroom.
(3) From 8 to 13, or later, there may be displayed a psy-
chologically interesting stage in which affection is exhibited
for older persons. Though sometimes abnormally strong,
and then a perverted and perhaps dangerous development,
this tendency is to be looked upon in the main as natural and
not unproductive of good, especially for the younger party.
Very common in this connection is the sentimental affection
developed by boys in the grades or early high school years
for women teachers — an affection which may exert a power-
ful determination upon the ideals, incentives, and conduct of
these pupils. The fact that this attraction for older persons
may focus upon an individual of the same sex (and not mere
liking, but actual passionate love) lends countenance to
Hall's suggestion that the root of the sentiment may be an
admiration for maturity itself. Because most schoolboys
are confronted with women teachers, the attraction happens,
for them, to be often hetero-sexual. Some observers believe
that a rough rule may be laid down to the effect that the sum
of the ages of the two persons remains approximately con-
stant, i.e. the younger the one party, the older the other.
This stage shows, at least, how fundamental and how wide
in scope are the sentiments and impulses of the period.
(4) A fourth stage, assigned to the beginning of puberty,
266 Principles of Secondary Education
seems to the writer less clearly manifested. In it, it is as-
serted, there is a temporary drawing apart of the sexes, as
modesty and sex reserve develop, and the interests of boys
and girls tend to diverge. Boys want to assert their man-
hood and are ashamed of the inexplicable weaknesses betrayed
in their juvenile loves.
(5) In the final stage conscious sex love slowly emerges,
gradually taking on fuller richness and meaning as physical
and mental maturity is attained.
Instruction in Sex Hygiene. — Sex hygiene may be
regarded as primarily concerned with securing a normal and
wholesome development of the sex instinct, though the field
that it opens for discussion presents physiological, ethical,
and sociological, as well as psychological problems. The
past few years have been attended with vigorous discussions
of the feasibility of instruction in matters sexual, and an ex-
tensive literature has accumulated.1 These discussions con-
cern four main queries: why, by whom, when, and how ?
Why ? — Children possess a natural curiosity concerning
the origin of life, birth, difference between the sexes, functions
of sex organs, and the significance of the bodily changes ob-
served in themselves at puberty. They have a right to know
about these things. Correctly given instruction in sex hygiene
certainly tends toward the securing of a healthful sexual
1 An excellent indication of the interest manifested in the problem and of
current views on the subject is to be found in the symposium on The Problem
of Sex-instruction, Journal of Education, 75: March 21, 1912, 313-323. The
writer has summarized some of the recent literature in the Journal of Editc.
Psycho!., 2 : October, 1911,464-470. In the same issue will be found a good survey
of the problem by W. S. Foster, School Instruction in Matters of Sex, 440-450,
and a description of an actual high school course, by W. H. Eddy, An Experi-
ment in Teaching Sex Hygiene, 451-458. Teachers may secure, at nominal
sums, by addressing the Society of Sanitary and Moral Prophylaxis, 9 East
42d St., New York City, a series of six Educational Pamphlets of value. The
same organization publishes a series of Transactions and a Journal of Social
Diseases. Some important papers on sex hygiene will be found in Vol. II,
Xo. 4, October. IQII, issue. For an extended discussion, see Havelock Ellis,
Psychology of Sex, Vol. 6.
Psychology and Hygiene of Adolescence 267
development, and on this hinges healthful physical, mental,
and moral development. The " policy of silence," which
has been predominant in this country in the past, and which
is still favored by many parents and teachers, is absolutely
indefensible, as any one fully conversant with the facts knows
full well. The child's curiosity drives him to secure infor-
mation where he may find it, and he usually secures it from
playmates in a filthy, misleading, and reprehensible form.
Lack of early instruction is the primary cause of bad personal
habits. It is responsible for the pathetic anxiety and worry
of numerous adolescent boys and girls, who fear that the
symptoms of pubertal change that they see in themselves are
abnormal, frequently become the prey of quack " doctors,"
and may even be driven to contemplate suicide on that ac-
count.1 Lack of instruction is responsible, too, at least in
part, for youthful immorality. " Girls who go wrong " often
blame their parents. Schoolmen have unearthed most ap-
palling conditions in some high schools. Finally, lack of
instruction is responsible, in part, for the frightful spread of
venereal diseases.2 It is surely worth while to incur whatever
slight risks may attend the giving of instruction to the young
if these calamitous evils may be in some measure counteracted.
By Whom ? — Ideally, sex Destruction should be the
welcome task of parents. In practice, parental instruction
is a failure. In many cases the parents are themselves in-
competent to give the instruction. More often they do not
attempt it on account of false modesty. To them sex is
" taboo.1' They repress the first questionings of their children
and erect insurmountable barriers to further approach. The
child soon learns to refrain from direct inquiry.3 Yet other
1 Hall, Adolescent;-, I, 450-46,3.
2 See particularly, \V. L. Howard, M.I)., Plain Fads on Sex Hygiene. Xe\v
York, 10 1 o.
3 On the disastrous effects of this undermining of the faith and intimacy of
parent and child, sec Krncst Jones, M.D., Psycho-analysis and Education.
Jour, of Ed nc. i's\\ii., I: ;<;io. 407-520.
268 Principles of Secondary Education
parents intend to inform their children, but put off the day of
enlightenment until conversation is too difficult or it is too late.
In some quarters, especially in Germany, the church or
the clergy have claimed the prerogative of guiding sexual
development in youth, but no serious, systematic, or extensive
movement for allying sexual with religious instruction is to
be discerned in this country. "It would be predestined to
failure, partly because the minister is too distant in his rela-
tions with his congregation, partly because he is incompetent
properly to instruct children in these matters. He can, of
course, perform a valuable indirect service by his appeal for
moral conduct, self-respect, and high ideals.
The family doctor has also been thought by some to be the
natural agent of sex instruction, but here, again, both peda-
gogical skill and personal intimacy are wanting.
The school, then, remains as the best practical agency.
The school undertakes the general physical, mental, and
moral training of the child; why should it not include this
particular aspect ? x The teacher has pedagogical skill ; the
teacher knows the child. The child looks to the teacher for
guidance. Reproduction may be studied perfectly logically
in physiology and biology, and the basis for special instruction
may there be firmly laid. .;
When ? — Opinions differ as to whether instruction in sex
should be left till the time of puberty or not. The chief argu-
ment for postponement is the plea that unnatural precocity
will result from early instruction, and the desire to keep the
child in " blessed ignorance." The arguments for prepubertal
instruction are much weightier. More pupils may be reached
in this period if the instruction is given in the school. In-
struction is easier then, for both teacher and child. Adults
are seldom able to realize how much less self-conscious than
themselves are children who have not reached their teens.
Psychology and Hygiene of Adolescence 269
Again, a prime reason for early instruction is the fear of the
evils that may follow deferment. As Dr. Blom says: " Better
a year too early than an hour too late." Finally, experience has
demonstrated the feasibility of early instruction. The alleged
precocity does not develop if the instruction is properly given.
How ? — If we admit that sex instruction should begin in
the prepubertal period and extend through the pubertal
period, the method and material of instruction fall naturally
into two parts. During the first, or prepubertal, period, which
would naturally coincide with the elementary school, instruc-
tion should be straightforward, objective, factual, and essen-
tially scientific in vein, and should be incorporated mainly
in the teaching of physiology, nature study, and personal
hygiene. If this work could be based upon, and supplemented
by, home instruction, so much the better.1
In the second, or pubertal and postpubertal period, I.e. in
the secondary school, instruction should take on a more per-
sonal and subjective tone and be presented with a strong
ethical and social emphasis. Just what should be given and
what not given is still a matter of debate, and the whole
pedagogy of sex hygiene is yet in the experimental stage.
Much depends on the local situation and on the skill and per-
sonality of the teacher. Thus, it is debated whether refer-
ence to the pathology of sex, particularly to venereal dis-
eases, their nature and spread, is desirable or undesirable.
A middle course would seem to be indicated. To secure
right conduct in sex as in other matters we need to use both
positive and negative incentives.2
1 Suggestions for a graded course of prepubertal instruction will be found in
B. Talmey, M.I).. Cc/trsis: a .\fiii: u<il of Instruction of Children in Matters
Sexual (\ew York, igio), Part TI, though some of the material there proposed
seems too difficult for the ages to which it is assigned. Consult also Clara
Schmitt, The Teaching of the Facts of Sex in the Public School, Fed. Son.,
2- : June, 1010. 220-241.
2 Tn favor of warning against venereal diseases is, of course, the hope that it
will serve as a powerful deterrent against yielding to temptation. Thus Howard
270 Principles of Secondary Education
Also debatable is the question whether instruction should
be occasional or systematic, optional or prescribed, to separate
or to mixed classes, by physicians or by regular teachers.
Neither is it clear how much value is to be gained from the
circulation of " books of warning," as they have been termed.1
The experiences reported by W. H. Eddy 2 and by Jessie
Phelps 3 show that it is perfectly feasible to arrange a well-
organized and successful course in conjunction with the work
in biology.
The Migratory Instinct. -- The sex instinct is one factor in
that complex impulse to seek new surroundings, to exchange the
routine and the familiar for the fresh and the unknown, which
is termed the migratory instinct. Thus, the migrations of
animals are partly impelled by food-getting, partly by climatic
conditions, but partly also by the approach of mating and
breeding seasons. And in children, though the running
(op. a'/., p. iii) \vritc5 : " The fearful havoc the diseases explained in this book are
making among the innocent is due to ignorance. Tt is my purpose in this book
to destroy forever this injurious ignorance. This is the only way to stop the
increase of the curse that is over all the land." Similarly, Talmey recommends
instruction on menstruation, pollution, and masturbation to children 13 to 16
years of age, and instruction on gonorrhea, syphilis, and continence to children
16 to 18 years of age. Divergent views are expressed by Dr. Richard Cabot
(The Consecration of the Affections — often misnamed Sex Hygiene. Proc.jlh
Cong, of the Amer. Sell. Hyg. Assoc., Xew York, IQII, pp. 114-120) and by
\V. D. Parkinson (Sex and Education. F.ditc. Rev., 41 : January, IQII. 42-50),
who question whether we can create virtue by dwelling on vice, and think it
bad morality to preach virtue for fear of the consequences of sin. Parkinson's
article closes with a very suggestive set of questions which will repay considera-
tion.
1 These are abundant enough, but not always of the type to be desired —
straightforward, cautious, and impressive without being sentimental. Good
examples are I-'.. Lyttclton, Training of t lie Young in Laws of Sex, London, 1000.
and two books by Dr. Kdith H. Lowry, Conjiilriica* : Talks with a Young Girl
concerning Herself (Chicago: Forbes & Co., icjio) and Truths: Talks with a
Boy concerning Himself. 1910.
2 Op,, ell.
3 Biologic teaching of sex. Trans, rst. Ann. Met ting Amer. Assoc. for the
Study and Prevention of Infant Mortality. Baltimore, IQIO, pp. 291-296.
(Reviewed in Jour. I-'.tluc. Psych., 2: IQII, 464-470.)
Psychology and Hygiene of Adolescence
271
away from home, which often begins as soon as walking is
learned, has doubtless various motives, conscious or sub-
conscious, yet the tendency is certainly stronger in the spring
than at other seasons (so that our " spring fever " probably
has some biological significance) and stronger at adolescence
than at other ages.1 So Kline- has found that the " curve" of
'' love of adventure " rises rapidly to 10, and steadily there-
after to 19, and lias shown a clear nexus between truancy
and the migratory instinct ; and Brooks 3 in his suggestive
study on withdrawal from school found that " desire for ac-
tivity " is a peculiarly potent factor at the dawn of adoles-
cence. Naturally, this characteristic restlessness of adoles-
cence need not manifest itself in actual truancy or running
away from home. But parents know full well how, with the
widening circle of acquaintances and the widening range of
interests that the high school entails, their sons and daughters
grow less and less home-bodies and are more and more caught
up in the bustle and activity of life outside their <*vn fold.
The fact that the yearning is so often a veritable Wanderlust
raises the question whether the school might not turn the
tendency to good account by arranging collecting trips, school
excursions to points of industrial, historic, geologic, or geo-
graphic interest, providing lectures on travel and life in for-
eign countries, or by encouraging camera clubs, walking
clubs, vacation tours, and the like.
It is unfortunate that we have in America no such organ-
ized trips for pupils as have long been regular features of
1 The writer h;is found that in college classes those men who have not run
uway from home one or more times during their high school period are generally
in the minority. The essentially instinctive character of the motivation is
evident both in the frequence of the occurrence and in the fact that there is
really no clear reason or necessity for the going in most instances; the impulse
often sei/es suddenly upon hoys whose home conditions were most happy.
2 L. J. Kline, The Migratory Impulse v.v. Love (if Home. Anirr. Jour, of
Psych., 10 : uSc.8, 1-81.
'•' S. 1). Uro.-.ks, C-r.ises of Withdrawal from School. EJitc. Rev., 26: 1903,
362.
272 Principles of Secondary Education
German school life. With us points of interest appear to be
too far apart ; the cost of travel is perhaps too great ; we
lack the convenient inns. A beginning has been made, how-
ever, in some parts of the country ; some schools in central
New York have arranged walking trips through districts of
historic interest in their vicinity ; excursions of graduating
classes to Washington have also become common. Similarly,
competent instructors have taken groups of boys on bicycling
trips of a week or more, under the auspices of the Y. M. C. A.
The recent Boy Scout movement also provides for various
expeditions.
THE SOCIAL ASPECTS OF ADOLESCENCE. The
Social Instincts. — The sex instinct in all animals leads to
association for longer or shorter periods (mating and breeding
seasons), and when the young have a distinct period of in-
fancy (with attendant helplessness), the need of parental
care may prolong the association or lead to something like
family flfe. In human beings adolescence marks the ripen-
ing of a number of racial tendencies known as the social or
group instincts. Among these tendencies are the seeking to
be where other persons are (gregariousness, need of society),
seeking to win the good will of others (love of approbation,
need of " getting-on " with people), and seeking to help or
assist others by positive service (altruism, self-sacrifice).
We do not need to assume that these instinctive responses
to the situations of daily life are seen only during or after
puberty, or that they are manifested in the same way by all
adolescents, or that no other causes conspire to elicit them
than the biological upheaval of puberty. The essential thing
is that these types of feeling and behavior are normally in-
tensified as the body assumes preparedness for the functions
of racial perpetuation. Compared with the relatively self-
centered life of the child, the life of the adolescent is shot
through with consciousness of self as related to other persons.
His outlook is hetero-centric, not ego-centric. His behavior
Psychology and Hygiene of Adolescence 273
has constantly a social reference. He considers himself in
relation to others.
It needs no argument to show how important these social
tendencies are from every point of view. On their successful
development and utilization depend the last and perhaps
most significant advances in mental development. Failure
to make these high adolescent adjustments is the cause of
much inefficiency, failure, and misery.1 The skillful second-
ary-school teacher sees in them both the cardinal problem
of adolescent moral training and the means whereby, if at
all, this training may be realized. A brief survey of these
tendencies will, then, enable us to discuss their utilization
in the school.
Gregariousncss. — The assumption of these new attitudes
is not the work of a moment. On the contrary one sees a
vacillation between the childish and the youthful attitudes.
The readjustment takes time, and contradictory behavior
appears. Thus, in the case of gregariousness, many young
adolescents, particularly boys, pass through a stage of what
is almost a fear of society, characterized by bashfulness,
diffidence, extreme self-consciousness, clumsiness, blushing
and dread of committing some gaucherie. This anti-social
attitude is shown primarily in the presence of the opposite
sex, and probably more often by those who are brought up
alone,- or \vhose conduct has been the subject of too much
criticism or censure by parents or friends.
Sympathy. — Another phase of the social tendencies, per-
haps sufficiently definite to be classed as a specific instinct,
is that disposition to enter appreciatively into the lives and
especially into the misfortunes of others - — in other words, to
be sympathetic. A sort of pseudo-sympathy develops in
1 E. B. Iluey, Retardation and the Mental Examination of Retarded Children.
Jour, of Psycho-Asthcnirs, 15: igio, 31-43.
- E. \V. Uohannon, The Only Child in a Family. Fed. Sen;., 5 : iSqS. 475-
496.
T
274 Principles of Secondary Education
very young children, but genuine sympathy is rarely dis-
played before adolescence. On it evidently depend a number
of important ethical traits and activities, like kindness, benev-
olence, charity, and philanthropy. Moral training in the
secondary school must aim to ensure an adequate develop-
ment of these essential social virtues.
Approbation. — The inclination so to act as to win the ap-
probation of others is obviously enough applied to instincts
underlying courtship. But, by extension, the adolescent
wants also to win the approval of others than the individual
of the opposite sex who serves as the special object of attrac-
tion. The adolescent wants to make a name for himself, to
feel that he has the good opinion of parents, teachers, and
schoolmates.1 That indefinable something we call " public
sentiment " now has profound weight. " Social pressure "
has now a real significance. What the adolescent eats,
wears, says, and does is largely determined by what he thinks
other people will approve. Boys and girls do this and that
because " it is the thing." Needless to say that this tendency
may prove a powerful lever in the hands of the teacher.
" Children thus often become what their teachers believe
them to be, and many a boy has been saved by the faith re-
posed in him by teacher, parent, or friend." But the same
tendency may, of course, become an equally powerful deter-
miner for evil if the wrong kind of approval be sought for :
a criminal might rejoice in being esteemed the toughest mem-
ber of his " gang."
Sometimes this desire for approbation is abnormally strong,
so that the adolescent has an almost morbid dread of antag-
1 In asking college students what incentives motivate their daily work, I have
been struck with the uniformly high place accorded such factors as "Desire
to please my parents," and "Desire to stand well in the opinion of my friends.''
These motives arc, 1 judge, more potent in maintaining effort through the labor
of daily tasks than the remoter incentives like "Desire to be of service to man-
kind," " Desire to get a good position," or " Desire to acquire a thorough
knowledge of the subjects I am studying."
Psychology and Hygiene of Adolescence 275
onizing his associates : he assents to all their opinions ; he
effaces himself completely, and becomes a sort of social
parasite.1
Altruism. — Altruistic tendencies add one more step to the
progress of socialization, for they impel the adolescent not
only to associate with others, to sympathize with them, and
so to act as to insure their approbation, but also to perform
positive service lor them, at his own discomfort or disadvan-
tage. This trait is not one to be gained in a moment. Al-
truistic conduct may alternate with utter selfishness. In-
deed, paradoxical as it may seem, genuine selfishness may be
more evident in adolescence than in childhood. The self-
centered career of the child is natural and instinctive, whereas
the adolescent chooses between conflicting tendencies, and
if selfishly, then in the face of his appreciation of duty and
obligation to others. But, in general, adolescence is, as
Hall says : " The great period in life for devotion to others,
especially in self-sacrificing causes. Pledges, agreements, vows,
and other restrictions on one's freedom are made at this period
with a joyous enthusiasm." As we shall see later on, these
altruistic tendencies lie at the root of the proclivity of adoles-
cents to indulge in various forms of philanthropy, to champion
reform movements, and to plan careers of social service.
Self-organized Groups. — If we turn now to concrete
instances of the operation of the social tendencies, perhaps
first in order is the instance of self -organized groups, or "gangs."
Sheldon2 found that 851 of 1034 boys would admit member-
1 Probably this disposition accounts for certain cases of apparent religious
conversion, with subsequent backsliding. Social pressure, personal appeal of
pastor, parents, or friends, and the highly emotional setting make a combina-
tion of great suggestive power while it lasts.
- H. Sheldon, The Institutional Activities of American Children. .1 mcr. Jour,
of Psych., 9: 1898, 425-448. See also \V. B. Forbush, The Boy Problem (4th
ed. Phila., 1902), and T. J. Browne, Boys' Gangs. Association Outlook, 8:
iSqo, 96-107. Louis D. Hartson, The Psychology of the Club: a Study in
Social Psychology. Pcd. Scm., 18 : September, 1911, 353-414 (with bibliog-
raphy of 89 titles.) J. A. Puffer, The Boy and his Gang. Boston, 1912.
276 Principles of Secondary Education
ship in some such rudimentary society. The years 10 to 17,
particularly n, 12, and 13, are those in which membership
is commonest. The motives and activities of these societies
are of evident interest to teachers and parents who would
understand and control them, or who would themselves
organize or direct societies for young adolescents. Of 123
spontaneously formed societies, Sheldon found the prevailing
motive (in 61 per cent) to be athletic, with another phase of
physical activity, the predatory — hunting, fighting, camp-
ing out, etc. — next in order (17 per cent). On the other
hand, industrial, philanthropic, literary, artistic, and merely
•social purposes are all less frequently exhibited. It appears
that the moral tone of these organizations tends, on the whole,
to deteriorate, so that hoodlumism, lawlessness, destruction of
property, and even more serious crimes, such as arson, larceny,
assault, organized theft, and even murder, may ultimately
develop. Under more favorable circumstances, however,
the better social traits may prevail, so that, as the mem-
bers of the gang grow older, intellectual interests may sup-
plant the physical activity interests. It appears, furthermore,
that boys and girls do not naturally organize together, and
that the type of spontaneous organization formed by girls
tends to differ from that formed by boys, being more frequently
social, philanthropic and literary than athletic or predatory.
Girls tend more strongly, also, to join societies organized for
them by adults than to organize societies of their own.
Maxims for Organizing Societies. — Those who have had
experience with controlling or organizing societies for young
adolescents 1 are in general agreement upon the following
principles: (i) Boys should be sought at about the age of
10 and their natural " gang instinct " supervised or controlled
until it has died out or has been permanently directed toward
worthy ends. (2) The basis and at least the initial stages of
1 See, in addition to Sheldon and Forbush, \Vinifred Buck, Boys' Self-
Governing Clubs. New York, 1903.
Psychology and Hygiene of Adolescence 277
any society organized for boys must be sought in some phase
of physical activity. Literary, ethical, scientific, or religious
activities must be annexed, not too obtrusively, to the physical
activity interest. Even in seriously purposed efforts to reach
boys, the seriousness must not be too evident ; the didactic
element must not be too prominent. (3) The sexes are best
organized separately ; boys should be led by a manly man
with a bit of athletic ability, considerable patience, and tact.
(4) It is difficult successfully to maintain a society whose
members are of different types, of different social stations,
or perhaps from different neighborhoods. (5) Leaders of
societies for boys and girls at this stage of maturity must
not hope for great permanence in the organization ; jealousies,
disputes, and unexpected dissensions frequently disrupt them,
however skillful the leader may be.
Variety of Adult-made Societies. — Nearly every adolescent,
besides participating in spontaneous organizations, finds
further outlet for his social tendencies by affiliating himself
with some form of social organization directed or instituted
by adults. The number and variety of these adult-made
organizations is surprisingly great — instance such institu-
tions as the summer camps, Boy Scouts, Boys' Brigades, de-
bating societies, school literary and musical organizations,
civic and patriotic societies, nature-study clubs, city-history
clubs, social-settlement clubs, the Knights of King Arthur,
the Animal Protective League, The Loyal Temperance Le-
gion, the Band of Mercy, the Captains of Ten, the Epworth
League, the Boys' Branch of the Y. M. C. A., the Junior En-
deavor Society, the Brotherhood of St. Andrew, the Sun-
day School, and a host of others. Into their several merits
and defects, from the standpoint of the needs and nature of
the adolescent, this is not the place to enter. As Forbush
has shown, no one of them is " the best." Few of them, un-
fortunately, make appeal to all, or even to many sides of adoles-
cent nature, and in so far probably fail to make the strongest
278 Principles of Secondary Education
possible appeal to their clientele. Yet the idea of banding
adolescents together for concerted action, even for a limited
and somewhat selfish purpose, is undoubtedly worth while and
is a first step toward attaining that wider unselfishness that
seeks the best good of society at large.
School Organizations. — Within the school itself, the tend-
ency toward organization has apparently greatly augmented
during the past decade. We find in the ordinary high school
various school and class organizations (class meetings, musical
clubs, sketch clubs, art clubs, school periodicals, etc.), as-
sociations dealing with athletics and military drill, and secret
fraternal organizations. These latter are sufficiently im-
portant to deserve separate consideration. As for the other
associations and organizations we may summarize the con-
clusions reached by the comprehensive investigation of the
Massachusetts Council of Education,1 as follows :
1. " Class organizations, literary societies, musical organiza-
tions, art clubs, and school papers are helpful to the pupils
and a benefit to the school, provided they are under the over-
sight of the school authorities.
2. " Class committees for purposes partly commercial
(class pins, photographs, dances, etc.) are especially in need
of the most exacting regulations.
3. " While more than half of the athletic associations which
include and direct the varied athletic activities of the school
are under the supervision, more or less complete, of the teachers
of the schools, the right to control has been assumed rather
than assured. Under this assumed control the participation
in athletics is conditioned upon rank in scholarship.
4. " A large majority of the teachers reporting consider
athletics a benefit to the schools. Sixty-five per cent believe
that both scholarship and discipline are improved. But all
1 Report on Organizations among High School Pupils. (T. C. Whitcomb,
Chairman of Committee), 6gth An. Rcpt. Brd. l-Auc. Mass., 1904-1905. Boston,
January 1906. Public Doc. No. 2, pp. 178-198.
Psychology and Hygiene of Adolescence 279
agree that this is only true when all such matters are under
the control of the school authorities."
High School Secret Societies. - A problem of special in-
terest to high school administrators is set by the development
in recent years of the special form of social organization known
as the secret society. The motives that have led to the ap-
pearance of the fraternity and sorority in the secondary school
are primarily two in number : first, the influence of the general
instinctive tendency toward the formation of social groups
that we have been considering ; secondly, the tendency to
imitate college customs. While there is nothing intrinsically
evil in either of these tendencies, their actual crystallization
in the high school secret society has unquestionably been
attended with evil consequences, so that at the present day,
with a very few minor exceptions, school boards, superin-
tendents, and high school principals and teachers are posi-
tively and strenuously opposed to them.
The arguments for and against the high school secret society
may be summarized as follows : J
Alleged Merits. — (i) They satisfy the desire for social
organization and promote fellowship among pupils. (2) They
1 See for a more detailed outline, W. T. Foster, Argumentation and Debating
(Boston, 1908), pp. 202-217.
The following are a few characteristic references on the topic : K. G. Godfrey,
High School Fraternities and Sororities; the Illiberal Education of the Young
American Snob. Sat. Evening Post (Phila.), January 7, 1005. W. Hard, High
School Fraternities; Farce, Tragedy, and Statesmanship. Everybody's Mag., 21 :
August, IQOQ, 173-183. P. B. Kohlsaat, Secondary School Fraternities not a
Factor in Determining Scholarship, Sell. Rev., 13 : 1905, 272-274. W. B. Owen,
The Problem of the High School Fraternity. Sell. Rev., 14: 1906, 492-504.
G. I). Pettce, School Work and Secret Fraternities (address in pamphlet
form, given at University School, Cleveland, Ohio, January 12, 1905). Report of
the Committee on Secret Fraternities, Proc. X.E.A., 1005, 445-451. X.Melius,
Arc Secret Societies a Danger to our High Schools? Rev. of Rev., 36: 1907,
338-341. S. R. Smith, Report Committees on the Influence of Fraternities in
Secondary Schools. Sell. Rev., 13 : 1905, i-io. The important decision of the
Supreme Court of the State of Washington may be found in Jour, of Ediie., 64 :
December 6, 1906, 607; also in Sell. Rev., 14: 1906, 739-745 and Hull. Xo. 3
L'. S. Bur. Educ., 1906, 136-141.
2 So Principles of Secondary Education
help to raise the standard of scholarship of their members.
(3) They contain the best and most representative pupils.
(4) They support all school activities and can accomplish
more in this direction than a far greater number of unorganized
individuals. (5) They furnish an opportunity for innocent,
healthful good times. (6) Old members keep up a greater
interest in their school after graduation. (7) Fraternity
members are often assisted by meeting wearers of their pin
in various places outside of their home town or city. (8) They
reduce or eliminate undesirable rivalry between different
high schools. (9) Some of them perform a small, but sincere
work in the direction of philanthropy and charity. (10) Their
exercises afford opportunity for training in literary, artistic,
and other lines of activity, (n) They cannot be undemo-
cratic and clannish, because they are not in operation during
classroom exercises and other schoolroom activities.
Alleged Faults. — (i) They are essentially unnecessary.
(2) They are fundamentally opposed in conception to the
democratic spirit underlying the whole theory of public school
education. (3) In selecting members, they often draw
racial, social, religious, or professional lines and thus tend to
promote snobbery and caste. (4) They interfere with school
politics by combinations, trades, and other " underground "
methods. (5) If their average scholarship is not inferior
to that of non-fraternity pupils, it is at least lower than it
would be if the societies were abolished. (6) Their social
functions exact too much time and energy. (7) They " offer
temptations to imitate the amusements and relaxations of
adult life (card playing, smoking, dancing, late hours, etc.)
while their members have not acquired the power of guiding
their actions by mature judgment.'" (8) When rooms or
houses are occupied, members often spend time in them
which should be devoted to school work. (9) These club
houses and rooms tend strongly to induce extravagance.
(10) They tend, furthermore, equally strongly to moral de-
Psychology and Hygiene of Adolescence 281
terioration : in some instances, vice has developed to alarm-
ing proportions, (u) The societies often interfere boldly
with the administration of school discipline. (12) Initiation
ceremonies, especially in the earlier days, have been degrading,
if not positively dangerous to life and health.
Solutions of the Fraternity Problem. — There may be dis-
cerned three administrative attitudes toward the high school
fraternities, viz : non-interference, regulation, and suppres-
sion. Those who officially ignore the secret societies do so
either because they do not find them undesirable or because
they are afraid to move against them.1 Systems of regu-
lation have commonly worked by (i) limiting the number
of societies, (2) prescribing time, place, and character of meet-
ings, (3) prohibiting membership without the written con-
sent of parents and the indorsement of the principal, and
(4) overseeing social functions and other activities of the
organizations. Suppression may be accomplished by moral
suasion under favorable conditions 2 but otherwise formal
proceedings must be instituted. These usually take the form
of regulations drawn up by the board of education withdraw-
ing school privileges (participation in honors, membership in
athletic teams, class offices, graduation honors, etc.) from
all who continue in membership. In the few instances in
which the fraternities have contested this regulation by re-
sort to law, the decisions have favored the school authorities.
Most important is the decision handed down by the Supreme
Court of the State of Washington wrhich fully upheld the posi-
tion of the school board of Seattle, despite the contention
of the contestants that the fraternal activities were private
1 There is a real danger here. A writer in the Journal of Education, April 4,
1907, declares that "any high school principal is liable to take his livelihood in
his hands when he attacks those in his school" and that experience has shown
that "it is safe to antagonize them when a principal is sure of the loyal support
of his faculty, of the unanimous and unhesitating support of his board of educa-
tion and of the editorial and news departments of all the local press."
2 See, for an instance, Pettee, op. ell.
282 Principles of Secondary Education
affairs, outside of the jurisdiction of the school authorities.
The final stage in the movement against this special form of
social organization is seen in the enactment in several states
(e.g. Kansas, Indiana, Minnesota, California, Michigan,
Mississippi, Nebraska, Ohio, Oregon) of general legislation 1
absolutely prohibiting the establishment or continuance of
secret societies in the secondary schools of the state.
Self-government Plans. — The transition to which at-
tention has repeatedly been called from the control by others
of childhood to the self-control of maturity, taken in con-
junction with the manifest tendency to work together in
teams, groups, committees, and other combinations, suggests
very strongly that in the high school, if anvwhere in the public
schools, some form of pupil self-government would be logical
and presumably successful. There have been developed in
recent years a number of widely heralded plans for compassing
this end.
The "School City." — A characteristic plan is that known
as the " school city." In this, each pupil is a citizen; each
room is called a ward, and practically all the officials of a
regular city government — mayor, aldermen, board of health,
police, city judge, and so on — are represented in the govern-
ment, with such adaptations as are required by the special
purposes of school government. The monthly elections follow
prescribed forms, and one purpose of the plan is to afford
concrete training in the operations of municipal government.
In the extreme applications of the scheme, all school problems
outside of classroom instruction, and especially, of course,
all problems of discipline, are handled by this pupil-govern-
ment, with a minimum of interference by the principal or
teachers. These school cities have been organized in gram-
mar and even in primary grades, though there seems, a priori,
to be little sanction for the turning of the control of vounger
Psychology and Hygiene of Adolescence 283
pupils into their own hands. As a matter of fact, the plan
does not always work successfully in the high school. So
far as the writer's observation extends, the school city is
taken up with enthusiasm and enjoys a period of success,
only, sooner or later, to become too arduous : the novelty of
the enterprise wears off ; jealousies and intrigue threaten the
undertaking ; over-harsh punishments are meted out ; the
training in cheap politics and " graft " becomes, perhaps,
more evident than the training in citizenship ; the teachers
find their hands full in controlling the machinery, and finally
the whole affair collapses in failure.
Simpler Self -government Plans. — A less intricate, and
apparently more successful form of pupil self-government,
in operation in the Polytechnic High School of Los Angeles
and in certain high schools in Philadelphia and St. Louis,1
provides that one boy and one girl be elected, every term,
from each of the three upper classes, from a list of candidates
whose scholarship is above a certain standard. Those elected
form two committees, one for each sex, who have entire charge
of the conduct of pupils, see that order is maintained in hall,
study and recitation rooms, and even, to some extent, in the
yards. They have authority, even to actual suspension,
though only in consultation with teachers when dealing with
extreme cases. The results of this form of self-government
(which is, one may say, an oligarchy or " aristocracy," as com-
pared with the " democracy " of the school city) are said to
be excellent, provided that both parents and pupils give full
adherence and that the committees are absolutely fair and are
properly supported by the teachers. The idea seems difficult,
but worth trying when conditions are favorable.2
1 Bertha H. Smith, Self-Government in Public Schools. All. Mo., 102:
1908, 675-678.
- For further literature on pupil self-government, see O. P. Cornman, The
School City: an Inquiry Concerning its Success and Value. Proc. of the New
York Conference for Good City Government, 1005, 280-289. B. Cronson, Pupil
Self-government. Xe\v York, 1907. C. \V. French, School Government. Sch.
284 Principles of Secondary Education
Group Work in the Classroom. — If the social instincts of
high school pupils may be utilized with some success in con-
trolling discipline through various self-government plans,
it is but natural to believe that the spirit of cooperation might
be utilized within the classroom as well. In a few high schools
where this type of group work has been tried, the results
have, indeed, seemed very favorable. The scheme resembles
in many ways the " seminary " type of instruction of the uni-
versity. The various topics or phases of the subject studied
are delegated to the several pupils of the class : each pupil
reports upon the topics assigned to him, while the other
members criticize, question, or discuss his report.
A characteristic instance of this type of group work has been
reported from the Charlestown, Massachusetts, high school.
Here the plan has been tried with classes in ancient history,
United States history, and civil government. The recitation
took on the form of a business meeting, with a president,
vice president, and secretary. The lesson was conducted
by the class, with the teacher as " executive officer " — a
court of final appeal. The " report of the last meeting,"
read by the secretary, served as a review. The carrying out
of this work led to the formation of various secondary groups,
such as a Drawing Club, a Camera Club, a Library Club, a
Current-Events Club, a " Sidelights Club," etc.1
Rev., 6: 1898, 35-44. C. W. French, The School City. Sch. Rev., 13: 1905.
33-41. G. H. Martin, Student Self-government. Proc. Chicago Confer, for
Good City Government, 1904, 279-282. W. A. McAndrew, High School Self-
government. Sch. Rev., 5-: 1907, 456-460. J. T. Ray, Pupil Self-government,
Jour, of Ediic., October 25, 1906. T. R. Slicer, The School City as a Form of
Student Government. Proc. Chicago Confer. Good City Government, 1904, 283-
293. C. H. Thurber, High School Self-government. Sch. Rev.. 5: 1007, 32-
35. P. A. Walker, Self-government in the High School. Elem. Sch. Teacher,
7: 1907, 451-457.
1 Lotta A. Clark, Group Work in the High School. Elem. Sen. Teacher, 7 :
1907, 335-344. Sec also C. B. Shaw, Some Experiments in Group Work, ibid.
329-334. Colin A. Scott, Social Education, Boston, 1908, especially Chaps. VI
and VII ; and J. Dewey, School and Society, Chicago, 1900.
Psychology and Hygiene of Adolescence 285
The advantages claimed for group work in the classroom
are : (i) It utilizes the natural instinctive tendencies of the
period. (2) It trains the pupils to work cooperatively.
(3) It permits the individual pupil to concentrate his energy
upon the particular thing that he most wants to do. (4) It
stimulates constructive criticism by pupils of the work of
their mates, and apparently appeals more powerfully than
ordinary recitation work to the instincts of competition and
desire for approbation. (5) It develops more enthusiasm
for study, makes the school work more real and personal,
less imposed from without.
Possible disadvantages would seem to be : (i) It may pro-
ceed slowly and take too much time. (2) It may fail to yield
a proper perspective of the subject matter. (3) Pupils may
fail to have a thorough understanding or permanent acquisi-
tion of those topics or phases of the subject matter not studied
by themselves. In some subjects where drill in all details
is essential this would seem to constitute a fatal obstacle to
the plan. (4) Idle or incompetent pupils may shirk their
assignments or present them so poorly that nothing would
be gained for the class. On the whole, however, the idea of
group work in the classroom deserves more attention than
has yet been accorded it.
RELIGIOUS AND MORAL ASPECTS OF ADOLES-
CENCE. In the religious life of its members, the public
secondary school can have, of course, no direct participation ;
nevertheless, this life is so often profoundly modified during
adolescence and with such decided effect upon motives,
ideals, and conduct that the teacher cannot afford to remain
ignorant of the main features of this spiritual reconstruction.
Religious Conversion in Adolescence. — Adolescence is
preeminently the time for religious conversion. Lancaster
reports that, of 598 young people, 518 were ready to admit
and describe to him a religious experience akin to conversion,
which occurred, for the most part, between the ages 12 and
286 Principles of Secondary Education
20. Statistics secured in various ways confirm the results of
questionaries and indicate that the years 15, 16, and 17 are
the years of greatest religious impressionability.
The Explanation. — The explanation of these facts is not
far to seek. The maturing of the sex instinct, with its strong
attendant social instincts, means inevitably, as we have seen,
a process of readjustment toward life, a transition from an
individualistic to a social attitude, from egoism to altruism.
If conversion, stripped of its theological implications, means
a resolution to become unselfish, to array one's self on the
side of right living, to sacrifice one's own desires for the wel-
fare of others, then it is evident that what we might term a
" secular conversion " is normal in adolescent development,
and is really biologically determined. This converting (liter-
ally, turning) is by theology envisaged as a turning from sin
unto holiness. Most adolescents, surrounded, as they are, by
the strong and pervading influence of the church, come natu-
rally to experience this instinctive readjustment of attitude
as a religious readjustment. Many thinkers have felt, ac-
cordingly, that the richest service and most vital task of re-
ligion is to take charge of this transition from self-love to
love of mankind, to make the transition complete, and to
conserve and direct the activities of the adolescents who are
experiencing it.
Tendencies toward Conventionalizing Conversion. — But there
are certain dangers attending the formalizing by religious
bodies of the experience of conversion. Particularly, to in-
sist too much upon certain " patterns " of conversion is un-
warranted in the light of what we know psychologically of the
extreme individuality of all adolescent experience.1 Even
1 On this and other features of the psychology of religion, the student may
consult: E. S. Ames, The Psychology of Religions Experience. Boston, 1910.
G. A. Coe, The Spiritual Life: Studies in the Psychology of Religion. Xe\v
York, IQOO. \V. James, The Varitiii"; of Religious Experience: <; Study in
Human Nature. Xe\v York. 1002. A. II. Daniels. The Xe\v Life: a Study of
Regeneration. Amer. Jour. Psych. 6: 1803,61-106. G. S. Hall, The Religious
Psychology and Hygiene of Adolescence 287
now some theologians teach that conversion is an instanta-
neous phenomenon, whereas the rule would appear to be other-
wise ; conversion is a gradual growth, not a sudden miraculous
paroxysm. Again, there is a tendency to conventionalize
and to accentuate the various stages of conversion — the
" conviction of sin," the " agonizing in prayer," the joy of de-
liverance, the public " confession " are sufficiently illustrative.
Some adolescents adopt these prescribed or approved forms
of conversion, but others fail to experience them clearly and
intensively, and may suffer exceedingly from what they regard
as abnormality or unworthiness on their part. Finally, there
is a tendency to encourage early conversion, despite the fact
that the conversion of children is clearly theoretically un-
warranted and nearly always practically unsatisfactory.
Periods of Intellectual Reconstruction. — In those whose
minds are intellectually active the religious experiences of
adolescence are rarely had without passage through one or
more periods of critical reconstruction, usually with doubt
and skepticism. The necessity of such reconstruction is
fairly obvious. The child is credulous, imaginative, sug-
gestible. His early instruction in matters religious and
philosophical is of necessity simplified, metaphorical, and
partial. Childish notions of God, heaven, immortality, sin,
and the like can hardly fail to dissatisfy the keener intellect
of the young man or woman. Mythical interpretations that
appeased juvenile curiosity are too crude to harmonize with
the larger knowledge of life of maturer years, and must go
the way of the Santa Claus legends of childhood.1 While
in some natures this reconstruction of the cosmos is gradual,
easy, and perhaps never completed, in others it is radical and
Training of Children. Educational Problems, Vol. T, Chap. IV ; also Adolescence.
J. H. Leuba, Psychological Study of Religion ; its Origin, Function and Future.
New York, 1912. J.B.Pratt. The Psychology of Religious Belief . New York,
1907. K. I). Starhuck, The Psychology of Religion. New York, iSqg.
1 Barnes, Theological Life of a California Child. Pcd. San., 2 : 1893, 442-448.
238 Principles of Secondary Education
stormy. Particularly in later adolescence may the uneasi-
ness felt by glimmerings of inconsistencies in religious views
extend to general doubt and uncertainty, until, finally, all
religious belief may be repudiated, and the seeker after truth
may swing over to agnosticism or indorse some system of
humanistic ethics, morality without religion, or whatever
code of belief best fits his private system of metaphysics.
The continuance of secular instruction through high school,
college, and university is almost certain to breed a period of
conflict in the necessity that it throws upon every thoughtful
student to readjust his earlier views in the light of his contact
with science and philosophy and the general broadening of
his mental horizon.
The question naturally arises whether reconstruction, es-
pecially the extremer forms of highly emotional, soul-racking
internal struggle, is inevitable, or whether it might be, and
should be, avoided by a better instruction in childhood.
Some individuals, probably the minority, experience no
serious interruption of the beliefs of childhood ; the majority,
however, begin, it appears, by doubting some phase of these
beliefs, e.g. the efficacy of prayer, the miracles, the biblical
account of creation, the immortality of the soul, the divinity
of Christ, the goodness of God in permitting evil, etc. While
some of these doubts are probably inevitable, others of them
appear to be the product of mistaken early instruction, par-
ticularly of instruction that tends to exalt form over spirit,
that presents the Bible as an inspired system of theology
rather than an inspiring guide to life, that stresses dogma
rather than the religious attitude. As Hall says : " Of all
the outrages and mutilations practiced upon youth by well-
meaning adults, insistence on such dogma upon pain of moral
offense is perhaps the very most disastrous and anti-religious
in its results, for it enlists the conscience of the individual,
at an age when it is most vigorous and tender, against his own
normal mental development."
Psychology and Hygiene of Adolescence 289
Studies of Ideals. — Closely allied with the social and
religious development of adolescence is a characteristic altera-
tion of ideals. This feature has been well brought out in
numerous studies,1 which have dealt both with personal ideals
and with ideals of future occupation. The usual method
has been to ask pupils to state whom they would most like to
resemble or what they would most like to do when grown up.
Some investigators have also asked for reasons for the choice
indicated ; others have studied " negative ideals " - " What
person would you most want not to be like, and why? "
The results of these investigations have been fairly con-
silient, and permit the following conclusions :
(i) Ideals depend on Age. — Despite some individual
variations, there is a well-defined trend of development in
ideals from childhood to maturity. Curves may be plotted,
then, to show the rise and fall of this or that ideal. Younger
children mention always persons in their own family or in
their immediate circle of acquaintances and are impressed
with objective values — wealth, beauty, social station, ma-
terial possessions, etc. At puberty there occurs a marked
widening of the range of ideals : historic characters, public
personages, characters in fiction , and even imaginary persons
replace the members of the family circle, while intellectual,
1 Earl Barnes, Children's Ideals. Ped. Sen:., 7: 1900, 3-12. Earl Barnes,
Type Study onldeals. Studies in Editc., 2 : 1902, 36, 78, 115, 157, 198, 237, 277,
3I9> 359 (9 papers). Also, Children's Attitude toward Future Occupation,
ibid., 243. W. G. Chambers, The Evolution of Ideals. Fed. Son., 18 : 1903,
101-143 (with 23 references). Estclle M. Darrah, A Study of Children's
Ideals. Pop. Sci. Mo., 53 : 1898, 88-98. J. Friedrich, Die Iclcale dcr Kinder.
Ztits. f. piid. Psych., 3: 1901, 38. H. H. Goddard. Die Idcale der Kinder.
Zeits. /. cxp. Piid. 5 : 1907, Hft. 1-2. H. H. Goddard, Negative Ideals,
Studies in Ednc., 2: 1902,392-398. J. I. Jegi, Children's Ambitions. Trans.
III. Soc. for Child Study, 3: 1898, 131-144. L. \V. Kline, A Study in
Juvenile Ethics. Ped. Scm.. 10: 1903, 239-266. C. H. Thurber, What Chil-
dren want to do when they are Men and Women. Trans. III. Soc. Child Study, 2 :
1897, 41-46. See also Proc. X. E A., 1896. J. P. Taylor, Children's Hopes.
An. Kept. State Sit pi. Pub. Instruc. N. Y ., 1895-1896. Adelaide Wyckoff, Chil-
dren's Ideals. Ped. Scm., 8 : 1901, 482-494.
290 Principles of Secondary Education
aesthetic, moral, and religious values are substituted for the
more material values of childhood. Moreover, ideals are
evidently more vital and dynamic, more effective in motivating
conduct in adolescence than in childhood.
(2) Ideals depend on Sex. — The range of ideals has always
been found more restricted in girls than in boys. That is,
girls tend more strongly to select ideals from their immediate
environment and share less than do boys in the broadening
of the scope of ideals at adolescence. Of special interest is
the circumstance that whereas boys only rarely list women
as their ideals, many girls, nearly 50 per cent in fact, find their
ideal persons in the opposite sex — a condition of affairs that
seems particularly unfortunate for young girls at this time
when ideals of womanhood should normally be developing.
Here is an opportunity for women teachers to come to the
rescue of their sex. In the lists of favored occupations,
teaching is most favored by girls, with nursing, dressmaking,
and millinery frequently cited ; boys are somewhat more apt
to be animated by money-making motives.
(3) Ideals depend on Home Life and Social Station. — The
children of the poor have relatively simple and " low " ideals,
and look forward, according to Thurber, to a life of hard work,
with little pleasure.
(4) Ideals depend on Type of School Instruction. — This
assertion is an inference, however, from the fact that Eng-
lish and especially American children decidedly surpass
German children in the range and variety of their ideals.
It is possible that this outcome is due to racial or tempera-
mental differences, but Meumann l believes that it points
to fundamental differences in school instruction. German
pedagogy lays too great stress on mere intellectual acquisi-
tion, too little on the cultivation of personality. If this be
granted, it follows that it is highly important to give sys-
1 E. Meumann, Vorlesungen zur Einfuhrung in d. exp. Pddag., 2d ed., I,
624-628.
Psychology and Hygiene of Adolescence 291
tematic and definite attention in the school to the inculcation
of ideals. In Germany, where formal instruction in religion
and religious history is prominent, it appears that this part
of the teaching has little effect upon ideals, whereas instruc-
tion in secular history, literature, and poetry is much more
potent.1
(5) The Variety oj Occupational Ideals is surprisingly great.
One might suppose that certain careers would be singled out
as ideal by nearly all pupils. But in some 1200 answers to
the question : " What would you most like to be in an imagi-
nary new city? " - 114 different occupations were specified.
(6) Their Alterations. — Since ideals tend to change, and
to change with special rapidity at adolescence, it is usually
unfortunate if the process is prematurely arrested. Thus,
a lad of 1 8, who aspires to be a lawyer and an orator, had at
16 an ambition to be " a pugilist and all-round sport." Had
his teachers and parents not carried him past this earlier
ideal, the results may well have been disastrous.2
(7) Over -ambitious Ideals. — In many adolescents ideals
are curiously and excessively ambitious and impossible of
realization. Through them runs, so often, a social and ethical
vein which impels their possessor toward philanthropic and
humanitarian projects. A school teacher of the writer's
acquaintance summed up her adolescent ambitions in this
1 That skillfully directed efforts may accomplish much in determining future
careers of students is well illustrated in the success which has attended the
"Baiting for College" schemes of some high-school principals, who have set up
in their schools cabinets and display frames with photographs, catalogues, and
other significant bits of information about various colleges and universities.
2 To cite another typical case : A woman who is now a successful high school
teacher of science wished for years in childhood that she were a boy in order to
become an Episcopal rector (apparently largely attracted by his robe). In her
grammar school days she planned to become a tight-rope walker and animal
trainer in some large circus, and actually trained a pet dog and cat and tried to
walk ropes in her back yard. During high school she wanted at graduation to
open a large dressmaking shop, but she was induced to go to college, got inter-
ested in science, and finally in its teaching.
292 Principles of Secondary Education
interesting and characteristic series : " To be the protector
of unhappy women, to write the history of the world, to write
novels as great as Victor Hugo's, to be an actress, to reform
society, to uplift the degraded." Given such adolescent
yearnings in minds of great natures, of true geniuses, they
may, indeed, be realized, as the biographies of Joan of Arc,
Savonarola, Lafayette, and George Eliot bear witness. Given
such yearnings in mediocre and inferior, but persistent minds,
and pathetic failure is the consequence. High school and
college teachers will recognize readily enough this top-heavy
combination of high ambition and poor ability.
MENTAL PATHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE. — Of the
various disorders which may accompany the development of
mental life during adolescence, attention can be called here
only to the more prominent. Of actual mental deterioration,
accompanied by brain disease, the most conspicuous and
important disorder is the very puzzling and much-debated
complex of symptoms known as precocious dementia, dementia
prcecox. This juvenile dementia, also sometimes known as
hebephrenia, is a psychosis which tends to develop at the
age of puberty. The beginning is insidious, with gradual
weakening of attention, sluggish association of ideas, and
marked indifference. The disorder proceeds by slow, but
inevitable, stages to a general and profound intellectual
enfeeblement.1
Developmental Retardation. — Dementia praecox is a
breaking down of mental life, a form of insanity — at least
in the opinion of most writers. More common at adolescence,
however, are certain forms of mental disorder which are due
to functional disturbances or to lack of complete adaptation
to the demands of mature life. The concept of arrested de-
velopment as applied to the lowest grades of intelligence —
the idiot, the imbecile, and the moron — is familiar to all.
1 For further details, consult textbooks on insanity, e.g. J. R. de Fursac,
Manual of Psychiatry (trans, by A. J. Rosanoff), New York, IQII, Chap. VIII.
Psychology and Hygiene of Adolescence 293
What is less well known is the existence of analogous arrests,
retardations, or deviations from normal mental development
in the adolescent period. In fact, so intricate are these
phenomena that this chapter of clinical psychology remains
as yet largely unwritten. It is safe, however, to assert that
the reconstruction of attitudes and interests that constitutes,
as we have seen, the real psychology of adolescence may ex-
hibit all degrees of incompleteness. The reconstruction is
at bottom a reconstruction of feeling rather than of intellect,
and in consequence the retardations and arrest of develop-
ment attributable to the period make themselves evident
more often in an inadequacy of adjustment to the widening
demands of life or in an unhealthy attitude toward these
demands than in insufficiency of intelligence. The defects
are defects of will and of feeling. There is lack of normal
social adaptation. Most of the chronic cases of neurasthenia
and psychasthenia and even of the more serious mental dis-
ruptions of hysteria are cases of arrested or retarded mental
development. Intellectual development may have been ad-
equate, but action — complete, efficient, and socially adapted
action — has not been attained. The clash of instinctive
tendencies has not resolved into harmonious conduct. The
feelings are similarly disjointed. These individuals, whose
final attainment of mental maturity is thus frustrated, are
impressionable, emotional, unstable ; they may be timid
or domineering, fawning or stubborn, self-effacing or self-
conscious, egotistical, finical, often with tendencies not un-
like those that usher in dementia prascox — seclusive, shy,
dreamy, brooding over failure, given to sexual or other ru-
minating, self-deception, and superficial moralizing.1 " The
neuroses," says Pierre Janet, the eminent French authority,
1 See Adolph Meyer, What do Histories of Cases of Insanity teach us con-
cerning Preventive Mental Hygiene during the Years of School Life? Psych.
Clinic, 2: June 15, iqoS, 89-101; also !•'. B. Huey, Retardation and the
Mental Examination of Retarded Children. Jour, of Psycho-Asthcuics, 15:
1910, 31-43.
294 Principles of Secondary Education
" appear almost always at the ages in which the organic and
mental transformation is the most accentuated. They almost
always begin at puberty." 1
Higher Retardations as a School Problem. — The problem
set for our school system by the existence of these higher
grades of mental retardation is clear enough in theory, though
as yet difficult in practice. There must be worked out some
adequate system of diagnostic tests whereby, for a given in-
dividual, the fact of such retardation may be definitely es-
tablished and its level definitely ascertained. Such a system
of tests must be worked out by the research departments of
applied psychology in universities, public school systems, and
institutions for defectives. Along with these tests must be
developed the clinical histories of numerous cases, so that
we may in time know the early danger signals.
Whether by prescription of some regimen of mental hygiene,
by more careful regulation of environmental conditions, or,
perhaps, by recourse to the therapeutic measures of Freudian
psychology, we may overcome these adolescent arrests of
development, or whether, as the analogy of those earlier
arrests of childhood would suggest, these later arrests are
Likewise due at bottom to hereditary, or at least to congenital,
taint, it is perhaps too soon now to say. It ought at least
to be possible to prescribe a mode of life and a sphere of
activity in which these retarded minds may work happily
and with all the efficiency they possess.
Adolescent Criminality. — Statistics show a sudden in-
crease at puberty in the commission of crimes. From 10 to
13 years, lying, stealing, and vagabondage are the typical
youthful offenses. Crimes against persons and those which
combine violent passion with moral obtuseness make their
appearance in later adolescence.
Causes. — Criminologists have advanced various explana-
1 See his Qu'est-cc qu'une nevrose. Rev. scienlifiqnc, January 30, 1909, 129-
138.
Psychology and Hygiene of Adolescence 295
tions for adolescent criminality, some of which are
surely far-fetched and hasty generalizations ; such, for in-
stance, as the assertion that all pubescent girls have a natural
propensity for pyromania. Other types of monomania are
described in this extremist literature and assigned to various
stages of mental development. The causes of criminality
are both individual and social, i.e. both internal and external.
It is certainly possible for the social factors to work alone ;
contact with new industrial and financial problems, weaken-
ing of parental control and other environmental circumstances
may cause an adolescent whose mental equipment is entirely
normal to commit crime. However, we may add to this
that normality in adolescence does include a transition through
a yeasty stage of physical and mental upheaval which is
sufficient to account for a great many minor trespasses.
Lawlessness, impulsive misconduct, the sowing of the pro-
verbial " wild oats," and even passionate outbreaks may ap-
pear as transient phases of the mental and moral adjustment
of the period, so that moral delinquency in adolescence does
not necessarily imply confirmed criminality.1
On the other hand, there are cases of criminality which
can be traced to individual factors which are really abnormal.
A youth who, from adolescent arrest, has failed to make ade-
quate social adaptation, has doubtless within him a predis-
position toward non-social acts which needs only the stimulus
1 If the " gentle reader" has himself never strayed from the path of legal
rectitude, let him read Swift's account (Some Criminal Tendencies of Boyhood;
a Study in Adolescence, Fed. Sem., 8 : 1901, 65-91), wherein several dozen college
professors, normal school teachers, lawyers, ministers, dentists, merchants, and
other respectable citizens confess to adventures, truancy, fighting, robbing
orchards, stealing watermelons, old iron, and money, breaking car windows,
lying and other offenses of their juvenile and adolescent days. Swift goes so
far as to conclude, I think rather rashly, that "there can hardly be any doubt
that there is a time in the life of every normal boy when primitive impulses, the
reverberation of savage life, carry him on, with almost resistless fury, toward a
life ot crime. When to these native impulses there is joined an environment
favorable to crime, there can be little hope for successful resistance."
296 Principles of Secondary Education
of circumstances to show itself in criminality. Moreover,
it is not unreasonable to believe that the increased complexity
of modern civilization makes social adaptation more difficult,
so that this, taken in conjunction with a less strict family
life, less strenuous emphasis upon moral training, earlier
personal liberty, the greater predominance of urban life, the
prominence given to crime in the newspaper, and the apparent
weakening of the religious sentiment, may account for what
is generally acknowledged to be an increasing precocity in
crime and an increasing proportion of youthful criminals.
Remedies. — The remedies must doubtless be sufficiently
varied to counteract these varied factors — partly social?
industrial, and economic, partly individual, moral, and educa-
tional. Particularly in the case of adolescent criminality
should the attempt be made to reform the offender himself.1
That systematic and persistent efforts at moral and re-
ligious training do have a direct and measurable effect in
reducing criminal tendencies seems to have been established
by an important investigation, as yet unpublished, carried
on at the University of Illinois under the direction of Dr.
W. C. Bagley, to whom I am indebted for an account of the
conclusions. From this study it appears that those religious
bodies that lay most stress on the moral training of their
members are represented by the fewest number, relatively,
of convictions for crime.
Of special interest in this connection are the ten principles
of the " Credo " of Mr. George, whose long personal experi-
ence with the boys and girls of criminal tendencies in the
Junior Republic entitles him to speak with authority. These
principles may be paraphrased from Mr. George's words2 as
follows: (i) Normal, healthy boys arc pretty much alike,
1 For a good discussion of this problem, consult G. L. Duprat, La Crimina-
lilc dans I' Adolescence. Paris, igoo.
2 W. R. George, The. Junior Republic: its History and Ideals. New York,
1910. See especially the last chapter.
Psychology and Hygiene of Adolescence 297
the world over, regardless of class or social condition.
(2) Hero worship, dare-deviltry, love of praise, curiosity,
comradeship, and lawlessness are fundamental components
of boy nature. (3) Superabundant physical energy is bound
to find an outlet somehow. (4) These mental and physical
traits, coupled with the care-free condition of youth, make
more or less inevitable a " vigorous crop of wild oats dur-
ing the 'teens.'" (5) This "transit of fool's hill" is ter-
minated, for the average boy, only when he comes to feel
responsibility for himself or for others, when, in other words,
he becomes " a World's Worker." (6) There are two sorts
of these workers, those who do right for right's sake, and
those who do right for policy's sake. (7) Opposed to the
workers are the lawless, who are youths still in their teens, or
maturer individuals who have not yet felt the saving shock of
responsibility. (8) The workers come to forget their own
wild oats and are too apt to have no sympathy for misde-
meanors of the lawless ; so they demand a System for their
reformation. (9) The System, which in the concrete is known
as Prison, Reformatory, etc., is unnatural and un-American,
and it fails of its purpose because it neglects the individual
for whom it was devised. (10) The only remedy for this
failure is the organization of such a community or village
as the Junior Republic, wherein is incorporated the oppor-
tunity to learn the essential lesson of responsibility.
INTELLECTUAL GROWTH IN ADOLESCENCE. — Our
study of the mental traits of adolescence has been confined
thus far very largely to the sphere of instinct and feeling.
The intellectual development of the period and its relations
to high school teaching now merit brief consideration. Many
careful observers believe that there is a period of a year or
so just at puberty when children, especially girls, show a sur-
prising and irritating stupidity. If this observation be cor-
rect, it would seem to be connected in some way with the
physical alterations of the period, as if brain growth stagnated
298 Principles of Secondary Education
while the body was undergoing transformation for the func-
tion of maturer years.
In the main, however, adolescence is characterized by the
attainment of the final stages of efficiency in different mental
capacities ; memory span, for example, reaches its maximum
at 1 6 or 17. Again, the development during this period of
numerous collateral neurones in the central nervous system
agrees with the evident increase of capacity for complexly
organized association systems, so that the adolescent can
deal with more elaborate and difficult concepts than the
child. As his critical ability and capacity for independent
thinking increases, there is a modicum of truth in the common
notion that "reason" is an adolescent, rather than a juvenile
" faculty."
To attempt to organize high school work upon the basis of
a psychology of adolescence alone seems, however, to be an
impossible undertaking, because the selection of subject
matter and of methods and pace of instruction is largely
governed by other factors, not the least of which is the domi-
nating influence of college entrance requirements and the
general acceptance by secondary school authorities of the
idea that all students should follow the same methods and
pace within any given subject as are followed by other pupils
who are taking the subject in preparation for college. We
may state here, however, a number of principles which seem
to be justified by psychological and pedagogical research.
The Problem of Formal Discipline. — In the discussion
of the organization of high school work (p. 222) it has been
urged that no subject deserves to be retained in the curriculum
whose sole or whose primary sanction is the mental discipline
it affords. It remains to set forth more clearly the grounds
for this principle.
In the elementary school the issue of formal discipline .is
scarcely raised at all : some subjects are studied for their
direct value as sources of information ; other subjects, like
Psychology and Hygiene of Adolescence 299
reading and writing, though sometimes referred to as "formal"
studies, are pursued for their intrinsic usefulness and not
for their formal discipline in the sense of indirect mental train-
ing. In the high school, on the contrary, nearly all subjects
in the curriculum are espoused or defended not only for their
direct, but also for their indirect, formal value; indeed, the
disciplinary worth may be put foremost in the argument for
their inclusion in the curriculum. Thus, the study of high
school mathematics, though urged in some degree for its in-
trinsic value as information, e.g. usefulness in professional,
industrial, and like activities, is often still more emphatically
urged as a means for training concentration of attention,
accuracy, and power to reason. Similarly, whole courses of
study have been prescribed with the idea that in that way
alone could a predetermined type of mental training be se-
cured (all pupils should take botany for training their powers
of observation, etc.).
It is profitable, then, to examine with care the arguments
advanced for and against this doctrine. The issue necessi-
tates, first of all, the drawing of a distinction between content
and form, between information and training in the narrower
sense. A knowledge of Latin undoubtedly facilitates the
learning of French, but in what way? In part, obviously,
because French is a Romance tongue and contains many
features that closely resemble analogous features in the Latin.
The French vocabulary comprises numerous terms whose
roots are derived from the Latin vocabulary. In so far as
this is the source of the assistance given by the study of Latin
to the study of French, evidently what is carried over from
the one study to the other is information, not formal training.
We may speak in this case of a " spread " or " transfer " of
efficiency or ability from one subject to the other, but not in
the sense of formal discipline.
Assume, however, that the study of Latin facilitates the
learning of German or architectural designing or intensive
300 Principles of Secondary Education
farming. In these cases there can be relatively little direct
carrying over of information as such. The profit for these
several lines of activity must be in another sphere, and it
may, in theory, be of two kinds, specific or general. The
mental training developed by Latin may include certain
methods or ways of going to work in the handling of linguistic
material, in which case there has been gained a specific dis-
cipline that will be serviceable in the learning of the German
or of any other language. Or, the mental training in Latin
may include certain methods or ways of undertaking any
sort of mental work, e.g. training in concentration of atten-
tion, in assiduity, in patience, in analyzing complex situations,
in synthesizing isolated items into a meaningful and ordered
whole. These latter capacities are evidently instances of
general discipline, since they are of an order that can function
in various and varied situations, whether linguistic or non-
linguistic.
The work of high school pupils in a given field may, there-
fore, result, in theory, (a) in the acquisition of information
which will be of direct service in related fields, (6) in specific
mental training that will be of service in fields of a like kind,
or (c) in general mental training which will be of service in
many and widely divergent fields. It is with these last two
types of spread or transfer of the effects of special drill that
we are concerned in the problem of formal discipline.
The Older View. — The older view of formal discipline
assumed without much question the existence of a general
spread of mental training. This view still remains the " com-
mon-sense " view of the " man-in-the-street." It had its
support largely in the commonly accepted " faculty " psy-
chology, according to which the mind is composed of a number
of faculties — imagination, memory, reasoning, observation,
and the like — and according to which the carrying on of
any specific bit of imagining, remembering, reasoning, or ob-
serving entailed the exercise as a whole of the faculty con-
Psychology and Hygiene of Adolescence 301
cerncd. Any bit of reasoning, then, would strengthen the
faculty of reasoning. A second common argument for formal
discipline rests on the analogy of physical training and exer-
cise. A man, who by appropriate exercises with a weight
machine in the gymnasium adds a half inch to the girth of
his biceps, thereby stores up added power which he can turn
to use later in chopping down a tree or rowing a boat. A
third argument for this view calls attention to the relation of
general ability in the population at large to educational train-
ing. For example, college graduates are shown by statistics
to be greatly superior to non-college graduates in making a
success in life ; hence, their success is due to the superior
training.
Arguments against It. — These three chief lines of argument
are refuted by some such arguments as the following. Modern
psychology denies the existence of the old-fashioned mental
faculties and substitutes for them the notion of numerous
very specialized mental functions. There is not one faculty
of memory, but visual memory, auditory memory, memory
for faces, memory for poetry, etc.1 The argument from
physical training, like all arguments from analogy, is weak.
The biceps is, after all, the same biceps, whether contracted
for rowing or wood chopping, whereas mind is not so simple
as muscle, as has just been pointed out. Finally, the argu-
ment based upon the generally superior performance of per-
sons subjected to prolonged mental training may be met by
the assertion that this inference is a post hoc profiler hoc fallacy,
that in truth those who pursue the higher education are a
group selected by their very inclination and ability to master
complex issues and employ their minds with larger and more
difficult problems, that, moreover, they owe their success in
part to the prestige and distinction attendant upon their
1 Sec, in illustration, G. M. Whipplc. The Effect of Practice upon the Range of
Visual Attention and of Visual Apprehension. Jour, of Ediic. Psvcli., i : 1910,
249-262, especially pp. 258-259.
SANTA BAH'uAtiA C.L'I E LIBRA
302 Principles of Secondary Education
college career, and in yet greater part to the acquisition of
highly specialized information along certain professional lines.
It might even be argued, if one wished to force the retort,
that college-trained men succeed in spite of their training.
Or, again, it can be urged that even those who have mastered
extensive cultural training often exhibit only a limited or
one-sided efficiency : they may be good in music and poor in
linguistics, skilled in oratory and poor in mathematics, etc.
Experimental Studies of Transfer. — So much for arguments.
The issue of formal discipline, however, has been subjected
to elaborate experimental study during the past decade. It
is the outcome of these experiments,1 in fact, that has in-
fluenced many to entertain a general distrust of the doctrine,
if not to deny flatly the existence of any transfer of mental
training. Some of these experiments have concerned what is
known as bilateral transfer, i.e. the effect of special exercise
of a sense organ or of a particular movement on one side of
the body upon the capacity of a corresponding organ or
movement upon the other side. But the greater part of the
experiments have concerned the transference of practice-effects
from one form of mental activity to another. In the typical
experiment a preliminary trial is made to determine the ability
of a group of subjects in a given direction, e.g. learning num-
bers, letters, Italian words, etc. This group is then drilled
at length in some other activity, e.g. learning nonsense sylla-
bles, and is finally given a second trial with the original, or
test material. Other persons are given the two tests with the
original material, but are not given the intermediate drill.
If the drilled individuals show much greater final improvement
in the tested activity than do the " control " or undrilled
individuals, then it is argued that the drill work did develop
1 See for a summary of the experimental work, article on formal discipline,
Cyclop, of Ediic., Vol. 2, p. 642 ; S. S. Colvin, Some Facts in Partial Justification
of the So-called Dogma of Formal Discipline, l'u:i<. of Illinois Bulletin, Vol. 7,
No. 26, 2(1 revised edition, February, TQIO; \\. II. Heck, Mental Discipline
and Educational Values, 2(1 ed.. ign. especially Chap. 3.
Psychology and I [ygienc of Adolescence 303
some kind of capacity that facilitated the test work ; that
there was, in other words, some kind of transfer of capacity.
The results of the earlier experiments, e.g. the well-known
work of James ' and the Columbia experiments,2 have been
generally interpreted as conclusive evidence against formal
mental training. But these results have been subjected to
much criticism since their publication, while the trend of
later experimental work has been much less decidedly against
sweeping denial of transfer-effects. On the contrary, it
would be safer to assert that in practically all carefully planned
experiments, notably in the extensive experiments of Ebcrt
and Meumann upon memorizing, an amount of transfer
is indicated sufficient to receive serious consideration. It is
true that the opponents of formal discipline have criticized
with some severity much of the experimental work that has
seemed favorable to transfer. It would seem safe, however,
to state that the net result of the experimental work has
been to discredit any extreme view. Formal discipline can-
not be flatly denied, neither can it be regarded as invariably
and necessarily existent. In some ways, too, the experimental
work, because it has been for the most part restricted to
laboratory tests with adults, has left untouched the essential
educational problem : precisely of what nature and of what
magnitude is the transfer of mental training under actual
conditions of school instruction? It cannot be said that
psychology has at present any satisfactory ans\ver to this
problem. It remains a matter for future investigation,
particularly so when we inquire concerning general rather
than specific discipline.
To quote from Colvin (p. 17) : "Whether the results are due
to transfer of identical elements (Thorndike) ; to improve-
1 Psychology, Vol. i, p. 667.
2 E. L. Thorndike and R. S. \Yoodworth, The Influence of Improvement in
One Mental Function upon the Efficiency of Other Functions. Psych. Review,
&: looi, 2.|7-2(n, 348-31)5, 553-564.
304 Principles of Secondary Education
ment of habitual methods of recording facts (James) ; to
training the attention and will-power (Scripture and Davis) ;
to divesting the essential process of the unessential factors,
greater habituation and more economical adaptation of atten-
tion (Coover and Angell) ; to the effective use of mental
imagery and properly controlled attention (Franker) ; to the
development of ideals (Bagley and Ruediger) ; to general
improvement in technique of learning, attention and will-
power, but chiefly to a sympathetic interaction of allied
memory functions (Ebert and Meumann), or to some other
factors as yet not analyzed out, may still be a matter of
investigation and debate. My own personal opinion is that
practically all of these are more or less important elements in
the transfer."
Conclusions based upon Adults may not apply to Children. -
There remain to be mentioned two or three features of this
problem which, in the writer's judgment, are apt to be lost
sight of in the discussion. One is that conclusions reached
with adults, especially with adults already trained in mental
activity, may not apply to untrained adults and still less to
children, whose mental habits are not yet matured. Ex-
perimental work performed upon school children at Ithaca,
and soon to be published,1 has shown an apparent gain in
general mental efficiency on the part of school children sub-
jected to special formal drill in visual apprehension that is
quite in contrast to the absence of such general effects on the
part of adults tested in the laboratory.
Negative Transfer. — Another feature which has been
clearly brought out in experiments is that the mental " set "
or " attitude " developed by a particular form of drill work
may hinder rather than facilitate the performance of certain
other mental activities. There may result, for example,
what is known as " interference " of associations, or " negative
transfer." Thus, drill in precise expressive reading may
conceivably be carried far enough to operate against the ac-
1 K. M. Dallenbach, Jour, of Ldiic. Psych. June and September, 1914.
Psychology and Hygiene of Adolescence 305
quisition of high speed " skimming " in reading, so desirable
for many phases of adult work. Again, if high school geom-
etry does train the pupil to reason correctly, it is possible that
it unfits him to carry on reasoning about the complex matters
of daily life in which contingency, qualification, and neces-
sity of appraisement of conditions replace the cut-and-dried,
right-or-wrong type of reasoning of the geometrical theorem.
The Teacher as a Factor. — Finally, another feature, too
often lost sight of, is that the disciplinary values that do exist
actually inhere less in the subject matter itself than in the
method by which it is presented, so that the skill and insight
of the teacher are perhaps more important than the subject
matter taught. High school mathematics, for instance, may
be so taught as to emphasize memoriter activities, or pro-
cesses of proof, or yet other phases, such as the " feel " for
geometrical relations. Similarly, a desirable mental attitude
of cautiousness in drawing conclusions from scanty data
might be developed by one teacher in biology and by another
in the study of Latin. Let the reader attempt to appraise
his own possessions of this sort, and then let him try to de-
cide just when and in what subject he secured the drill that
made him diligent, neat, punctual, keenly observant, rational
in argumentation, capable of intellectual concentration, quick
to grasp the merits of an issue, prone to see both sides of every
question, assiduous in following all problems to their con-
clusion, fertile in imagination, resourceful in an emergency,
and so on to the end of his virtues. He will find it difficult
or impossible, so automatic and ingrained are these attitudes
and tendencies in adults, to analyze them into clearly con-
scious mental habits or ideals, or to say with any certainty
when or how they were acquired in the course of his school
training, or whether, indeed, they may not have developed
as simple functions of maturity. Yet these are the things
that are set forth as the definite and positive results of study-
ing this or that high school subject.
306 Principles of Secondary Education
In conclusion, then, the best rule that can be laid down is :
no subject should be introduced into the curriculum for the
sake of its formal training alone, but every subject should be
so taught as to secure from it all possible drill in correct
methods of thinking and worthy ideals of mental action.1
Alleged Inadequacies of High School Science. -- The choice
of material and type of presentation in high-school science
does not accord well with the natural inclinations and in-
terests of adolescents. There is over-insistence upon technical
nomenclature. There is over-insistence upon quantitative
and mathematical treatment, especially in physics and chem-
istry. In biology, morphology, analysis, and the study of
structure is stressed too much to the neglect of the dynamic
and the functional. Such, at least, are the conclusions of
Stanley Hall,2 who believes that these tendencies devitalize
and dehumanize science, and who would substitute a genetic
order of approach with four main stages: ist, acquaintance
with simple, primitive, mythical men and poetic interpreta-
tions of nature ; 2d, popular science, like the material pub-
lished in the Scientific American or Popular Mechanics —
box-kites, photography, moving pictures, wireless telegraphy,
etc. ; 3d, applied science and the utilitarian aspects seen in
various branches of technology, economic geology and botany,
mechanical and electrical engineering ; 4th, pure science, or
science for science's sake, to be pursued last of all and to be
relegated for the most part to the college and university.
Recent tendencies in high school science have in some measure
incorporated these recommendations, though it has seemed
impossible to adopt them fully, even were it agreed that in-
struction should always follow that order of presentation
1 For further discussion of the subject, consult, in addition to the references
cited, the symposium on formal discipline by Angell, Pillsbury, and Judd, Ednc.
Rev., June, iqoS ; the second symposium by Delabarrc, Henderson, and Home,
Education, May, IQOQ; \V. C. Bagley, The Educative Process, Chap. 13.
2 Adolescent Feelings to\vard Nature and a New Education in Science,
Adolescence, II, Chap. 12.
Psychology and Hygiene of Adolescence 307
suggested by genetic psychology. Does our science teaching,
one may ask, really " arrest and mutilate the soul of adoles-
cence by prematurely forcing it into the mental mold of
grown-ups " ?
Linguistic Interests. - The common practice of beginning
a foreign language in the first high school or last grammar
school year receives endorsement from studies which indicate
at puberty a new interest in linguistic expression, a desire
to augment one's vocabulary.1 Since this interest is an in-
terest in the use of words in actual expression, it would seem
that a spoken language, like French or German, would be a
more natural thing to study at this time than a written
language like Latin. On the other hand, the question may
fairly be raised as to why any one of these languages should
be taken up by secondary school students, at least by those
who are not to continue them in college. While this is not
the place to discuss educational values of the high school
branches, it may be pointed out that few high school grad-
uates gain much acquaintance through their linguistic work
with the literature, history, or civilization represented by the
foreign tongue, that practically none of them cares to, or
can, either read or speak Latin, French, or German after
graduation, that the increase in familiarity with English
etymology and English grammar gained through foreign
language study is not noteworthy in comparison with the
time that is devoted to it, and that the improvement of Eng-
lish style and diction by exercises of translation is secured
only when very competent teachers make persistent efforts
in that direction.
Literary Interests. — Most adolescents have at some time
during their secondary school days what they term a " craze
lor reading." Since sensational and trashy books are often
1 It has even been argued that the use of slang by girls in early adolescence is
a phase of this desire; see Lillie Williams, Interest of Children in Words, Ptd.
Scm., 9 : 1902, 274.
308 Principles of Secondary Education
read for want of a proper notion of what is worth while, parents
and teachers should utilize this opportunity to cultivate
literary taste and protect boys and girls from what are really
vicious forms of the " reading habit." Lancaster took a census
of the type of reading preferred by adolescents and found the
preferences to be in the order: novels, 812 votes, poetry 797
(which is perhaps unexpectedly and suggestively high), es-
says 67, history 37, travel 30.
Art Interests. — As has already been pointed out (p. 262),
interest in art — music, drama, architecture, painting, etc. -
is decidedly augmented during adolescence. In some, prob-
ably in most, the interest is but transient ; but in the truly
gifted, notable progress is made during adolescence both in-
tellectually, in the understanding of art and development of
taste, and emotionally, in a richer feeling for the esthetic.
The school cannot afford to neglect this phase of cultural
training. Even in intentionally utilitarian types of secondary
school, e.g. high schools of agriculture, those who plan the
curriculum should remember that bread-and-butter winning
is but a part of life. Psychologists have shown how the play
of children is normally replaced in later years by some form of
artistic activity, be it music, painting, some form of decora-
tive or plastic art, or other recreative handicraft in which the
esthetic instinct may find expression.
COEDUCATION. — A final word may be said on the bear-
ing of the physical and mental features of adolescent develop-
ment upon the problem of coeducation. It should be made
clear at the outset that coeducation does not necessarily mean
co-instruction. One may be convinced from sociological and
economic considerations that youths and maidens should
study the same subjects, but conclude from physiological
and psychological reasons that they should study them in
separate classes or in separate schools. In cities where more
than one high school is imperative there has often been found
an advantage in making the separation by sex rather than on
Psychology and Hygiene of Adolescence 309
geographical or other bases. In other schools it has been
found worth while to adopt a system of partial segregation.
A typical illustration is afforded by the practice at the Engle-
wood High School,1 where boys and girls have recited in
separate classes and the work has been adapted to the
interests and needs of the two sexes. It is stated that
four years' trial has resulted in a striking increase in attend-
ance, and in a marked improvement of scholarship, especially
of the boys. Moreover, a majority of the pupils — 60 to
96 per cent of the girls and 87 to 100 per cent of the boys
in various classes — have declared themselves in favor of the
plan.
The chief arguments for a different curriculum for the two
sexes are sociological and relate to what is felt to be the funda-
mental difference between the prospective future lines of
activity of boys and of girls. Particularly, it is urged that
the majority of girls are destined to careers in which the home
will be the center of interest and that their high school train-
ing should, accordingly, be directed mainly toward this end.
Coeducation renders it impossible properly to differentiate
the school work in this way. Counter arguments assert that
modern conditions indicate, on the contrary, the necessity
for identical training of the sexes, that thousands of girls
enter upon occupations for which they need the same training
as boys, and that, even if the majority are destined ultimately
to domestic activities, they need, as wives and mothers, the
same cultural training and the same general background of
information as their husbands and children.
Into the merits of these several arguments this is not the
place to go.2 If we turn to the arguments from psychology
and physiology, they are found to reduce in the main to two :
first, that men and women are physically and mentally funda-
310 Principles of Secondary Education
mentally different 1 — so different that they need different
mental and physical training, so different that no amount of
identical training can equate them.2 Second, that adolescent
girls are handicapped by their physical constitution, so that
it is a crime to attempt to put them through the course of
training that is suited to adolescent boys.3 It is no longer
contended that girls are incapable of doing as much or as
good work as boys — experience has proved the contrary -
rather that they compete with boys at the expense of their
health.
TOPICS FOR FURTHER STUDY
1. What are the chief problems and the chief factors in the develop-
ment of the will, especially in adolescence ?
2. What is the relation of vocation and the vocational motive to
character ?
3. Does high school training lead away from manual work ?
4. What is the relation of the esthetic to the moral ?
5. What are the moral effects of various studies ?
6. What educative effect does student self-government or the "honor
system" have ?
7. What are the educative and the moral values and problems of
social life — -clubs, societies, fraternities, dancing, etc. ?
1 For an inventory of these differences, see G. T.W. Patrick, The Psychology
of Woman. Pop. Sci. Mo., 47 : 1895, 209.
2 This contention seems somewhat at variance with another frequently heard
argument against coeducation, viz. : that it does not permit the two sexes to
develop adequately those qualities which are natural to them; that it tends to
make girls too masculine and to effeminate boys. On the other hand it is urged
in reply that coeducation exerts a desirable disillusionizing influence and tends
to make the relations between the sexes more wholesome, that there is really no
more reason for separating the sexes in the classroom than in the drawing-
room.
3 As the phrase goes, we "spoil a good mother to make a poor grammarian."
This, which might be termed the medical argument, is found in a host of articles.
For references and further discussion see Hall, Adolescence, also his Youth.
One of the earliest and most discussed books on this theme is E. H. Clarke's
Sex in Education, or a I- air Chance for Girls (Boston, 1873). A reply to Clarke
will be found in Cleo. V. and Anna M. Comfort, ]\'o»xui's Education and
Woman's Health. 1^.74.
Psychology and Hygiene of Adolescence 311
8. What arc the advantages and disadvantages of coeducation in the
high schools ? Of partial segregation ? Of separate schools ?
Q. What is the relation of sex hygiene to general education? How
should the problem of instruction in sex hygiene be handled ?
10. What progress has been made in the solution of this problem?
11. What is the relation to character formation of athletics; inter-
scholastic contests; physical training?
12. What loss is there of individuality and initiative, and hence moral
intelligence, through the pressure of custom and fashions?
13. What is the moral effect in high school of college ideals and
fashions?
14. What relation docs the size of a school have to the attainment of
moral results ?
1 5. What are the sources of moral influence on the part of the teacher ?
16. Make a study of great teachers of youth: Vittorino, Loyola,
Arnold of Rugby, Thring of Uppingham ; Mark Hopkins ; etc.
1 7. What is the value and what are the best forms of religious exercises
and instruction ?
1 8. What is the ethical value of the study of current social and economic
movements ?
REFERENCES
BTRK, F. S. Growth of Children in Height and Weight. Am. Jour.
Psych., 1898, pp. 253-326.
BKRRY, FRANCKS MAY L). On the Physical Examination of London
School Children and the Prevalence of Albuminuria. I. Inter-
nationale Kongrcss fii>- Schulhygicne, Nurnberg, April, 1904, Band
III, pp. 421-425.
BURXHAM, WILLIAM 11. The Study of Adolescence. Pcd. Scm. i8gi,
Vol. 1, No. 2, pp. 174-105.
CLOUSTON, THOMAS S. Hygiene of Mind. London, igo6. 284 pp.
.\enroses of Development; being the Morison lectures for 1890.
London, 1891, 138 pp.
CRAMPTOX, C. WARD. Anatomical or Physiological Age versus Chrono-
logical Age. l\d. Seni. June, 1908. Vol. XV, pp. 230-237.
HALL, G. STAXLKY. Adolescence. 2 vols. New York, 1907.
Youth. New York, 1906. A resume of the pedagogical aspects of
adolescence.
KING, IRVING. The Hig/i School Age. 233 pp. Indianapolis, 1914.
LANCASTER. Psychology and Pedagogy of Adolescence. Fed. Sent.,
1897, pp. (» 1-128.
312 Principles of Secondary Education
LEMAITRE. La Vie Mcntalc de V Adolescent, d ses Anomalies. Paris, igio.
MARRO, A. La Pubcrta. 507 pp. Bocca, Torino, 1897. French
translation, La Puberte. Paris, 1902. This deals chiefly with the
physiological side of the subject.
MEYER, ADOLF. What do Histories of Cases of Insanity Teach Us Con-
cerning Preventive Mental Hygiene during the Years of School Life ?
Psych., Clinic. June 15, 1908. Vol. II, No. 4, pp. 89-101.
MOLL, A. Sexual Life of the Child. 339 pp. New York, 1911.
SCOTT, COLIN. Social Education. Boston, 1908.
SLAUGHTER, J. W. The Adolescent, in pp. London, 1911.
STARBUCK, E. H. Psychology of Religion, especially the sections dealing
with conversion. New York, 1901.
SWIFT, E. J. Mind in the Making, 329 pp. New York, 1908.
TYLER, J. M. The Laws of Growth and Development. New York, 1906.
For physiological and abnormal phases of the subject, the reader
should also refer to the works of Havelock Ellis and Freud.
CHAPTER VIII
MORAL AND RELIGIOUS EDUCATION
WILL DEVELOPMENT THROUGH WILL ACTION.
- The character of the individual is little changed by what he
merely undergoes: Herbart long ago called attention to the re-
markable fact that physical agony, even though in tense and long
continued, may leave the character essentially unchanged ; men
rise from the most serious bodily accidents and illnesses the
same in opinions, manners, and morals. It is what the individ-
ual himself resolves and does that forms new habits and
attitudes and so essentially modifies character. " Those
things which proceed out of the mouth come forth from the
heart, and they defile a man "; no less do such things, when
good, ennoble a man. In both cases the things that proceed
from the heart — i.e. the \vill — leave their mark on charac-
ter. Mere external compliance is futile in producing habits,
principles, or ideals. The literature on moral education is
always echoing the cry of the German teacher of religion, when
his most recalcitrant pupil passes the most brilliant examina-
tion. " Why, he know it all! " the examiner cries. " Yes, but
he believes none of it ! " retorts the discomfited but unconvinced
teacher.
In one way it is a mere truism to say that will power and
righteousness grow by exercise of will, and in no other way.
There would be no excuse for dwelling upon the principle if it
were not that it is sweepingly ignored in practice; both the
principle itself, and the prevailing disregard of it in our edu-
cational practice are admirably expressed by Professor Dewey :
" Xo one seriously questions that, with an adult, power and
313
314 Principles of Secondary Education
control are obtained through realization of personal ends and
problems, through personal selection of means and materials
which are relevant, and through personal adaptation and
application of what is thus selected, together with whatever
of experimentation and of testing is involved in this effort.
Practically every one of these three conditions of increase in
power for the adult is denied for the child. For him problems
and aims are determined by another mind. For him the mate-
rial that is relevant or irrelevant is selected in advance by
another mind." . . -1
We may well be apprehensive of an education that occupies
the adolescent youth with doing what some one tells him to do,
and confers its highest rewards and commendations without
regard to independence or originality of either intellect or will;
and, moreover, compels him to employ his school hours with
so-called studies (far indeed from the true sense of the old
Latin word) the very meaning and use of which he does not
comprehend and often profoundly doubts. Such education
can form only a will that is dependent, unstable, void of
self-reliance and initiative: not necessarily lacking in mere
force or violence, but devoid of the sole supreme mark of
a mature or maturing will, a self-existing and self-sustaining
purpose.
Hence it is that the boy's actual will training is almost cer-
tain to take place out of school, and the influences of culture
and higher thought which the school more than any other
agency should communicate, fail to penetrate deeper than the
most superficial layers of memory, and fade into oblivion al-
most before the expiration of the term in which they are
studied: and volition, with all its domination over life, is
determined by business, politics, pleasure, — or on the other
hand by the stimulus of some upward social movement in the
larger world.
1 Psychology and Social Practice, p. 128. See also College Students'
Comments on their own High School Training, School Rtvic-ic, December, 191 j.
Moral and Religious Education 315
INTELLECTUAL ASPECT. — Not only does will grow
only by exercise of will, but intellect also develops most
effectively under the stimulus of the learner's own self-active
purpose and volition. Every teacher knows how knowledge
and intellectual mastery leap forward when the pupil is eager
to learn. Attention is the absolute sine qua non of new associa-
tions and so of knowledge and mental power,1 and attention is
also in its deepest forms indissolubly linked with voluntary
action or will.2 So far, then, from true moral training in any
way detracting from intellectual achievement, the exact oppo-
site is the case ; if we can enlist the pupil's will in such manner
as to secure true moral development, we shall also increase
and wonderfully enhance the progress of the intellectual
powers. " Since problems of conduct are the deepest and most
common of all the problems of life," says Professor Dewey,
" the ways in which they are met have an influence that
radiates into every other mental attitude, even those remote
from any direct or conscious moral consideration. Indeed,
the deepest plane of the mental attitude of every one is fixed
by the way in which the problems of behavior are treated."3
Dr. Kerschensteiner, out of a rich experience in the practical
problems of public education, declares: " Any training of the
intellect deserves attention only so far as it rests on the char-
acter — in a manner it proceeds from the character, because
the way to the head is opened through the heart.4 As
things are the pupil may do 'thinking' enough, — or at
least brow bending and brain racking, — but it is not his
thinking ; it is done ' for ' Mr. or Miss So-and-so ; it is a hired
servant's thinking, and has little or no root in the student's
own mind ; even intellectually this is gravely injurious, as is
well indicated by the poverty-stricken results in various studies,
1 McDou^ull, Physiological Psychology, p. 120.
- J times, Psychology (Briefer Course), p. 448. Belts, The Mind and Its
Education, pp. 230-237 ; MiinsterberK, Psychology and the Teacher, pp. 186-187.
:! I lav.' we Think, p. 54.
* Education for Citizenship, p. uo. Chicago, IQII.
316 Principles of Secondary Education
while in relation to moral culture it is ruinous. This heterono-
mous intellection leaves behind it no blessed legacy of mental
power: this is why the college teacher is never done lamenting
that the high school graduate has not learned to think; and
no less does the high school teacher pass the condemnation on
to the elementary grades."
In other words, the secret of better intellectual results and
more effective moral training lie very close together, and both
involve the fuller enlistment and activation of the will of the
learner. We are anxious to make this point prominent at the
outset: the advocacy of more attention to the moral aspect of
education in the secondary period does not involve any diminu-
tion in intellectual achievement, but quite the opposite. We
shall certainly reach the conclusion that the interests of the
moral cultivation will demand some changes in the content of
the program of studies, but its first and most essential aim is
the vitalization of whatever the pupil does, including his
intellectual pursuits ; it demands that in them he shall always
work at high efficiency, to the limits of his best capacities:
this is the essence of moral training. The secondary teacher,
being usually a college or university graduate, is likely to be
primarily concerned for intellectual results, in spite of the
article in the orthodox pedagogic creed declaring character
to be the supreme aim of all education. We shall have some
criticism to pass upon the teacher's intellectualism later:
here we prefer to make peace with it, by making it clear that
the first and most fundamental move in better moral training
will be no less an advance in school pursuits, whether science,
humanities, or vocational training.
THE MORAL ELEMENT PERVADES ALL. — Moral
education, then, is in no sense a branch of education, and the
attempt to treat it as such is the cause of endless fallacies and
abuses, as well as most of the disputes and misunderstandings
on the subject. Still less can it be a sort of addendum or appen-
dix to the rest; it is truly the consummation and resultant
Moral and Religious Education 317
of all ; it must enlist and employ all the activities of the child.
The " branches " are all abstractions, each more or less sepa-
rable, often, alas, isolated; but one thing is always present
- the child himself — and always becoming what he is to be.
Least of all can there be a special teacher solely answerable
for moral training, nor can any teacher of children or youth
for one moment be absolved or discharged from responsibility
for the culture of the will. Perhaps no point is more immedi-
ately vital to the existing secondary school and college situa-
tion.1 Thus Rousseau says rightly : " There is only one science
to be taught to children, namely, that of the duties of man."
The whole task of education is moral; it is the guidance of the
child into such performance of his own present childish duties
that he shall grow into consciousness of the duties of his man-
hood, and into the possession of powers to discharge them.
THE WILL EXERCISES ON PROBLEMS. — The exer-
cise of the will, then, demands a task or a problem, and the
exercise of my will demands that I should have a problem.
True, it may have been but now any one's problem, but before
my will, as a real will, can act upon it, I must adopt it and
make it for the time at least my very own. The true essence
of moral education is the actual unmitigated and concrete
operation of the will itself; all else is but preliminary, sub-
ordinate, auxiliary, and without this ends in nothing or less
than nothing; other processes are worthy only as instruments
or aids to arouse the sovereign act itself, or minister to its
full performance.
Even at some risk, then, of the fallacies of conciseness, we
may say that the essential method of moral education consists
in helping the educand to grasp and solve his own problems,
and to advance from those which he has by nature and through
the stimulus of his present environment, to the perception,
1 This docs not, however, at all dispose of the question of moral or ethical
lessons, with a place in the course of study and on the daily and weekly sched-
ule.
318 Principles of Secondary Education
adoption, and solution of the problems of his mature life in
society.
The multifarious and confusing miscellany of ways and
means in moral education, of methods, plans, decrees, instruc-
tion, and discipline, here find their unity, and their only possi-
ble justification. The test question must always be: What
will aid the educand to solve his problems aright and move
toward new ones, and so approach the perfected will ? The
fact is that just as in instruction the golden rule is, " Unless
the mind of the learner works, all is in vain " — so in training,
discipline, moral education of every kind, it is, " Unless the
will of the educand acts all is in vain." Hence, just as instruc-
tion must wait upon and stimulate interest, will training
operates through problems and action.
THE SOURCES OF ENERGY. — Another aspect of the
question must be examined: character is character only by
virtue of being endued with power, with dynamic force to
enact itself against resistance. Hence moral training, as
contrasted with mere intellectual or aesthetic culture, must
needs make connection with the sources of energy in the
educand. But the existence of a problem in the mind is
exactly the best evidence of will energy ready to be released as
soon as the appropriate channel or direction is determined.
The youth is deliberating what he shall do: the very cause of
the mental state is the underlying dynamic state. The per-
sistency and intensity with which the problem holds the atten-
tion is a measure of the amount of potential energy stored
behind it. Hence, if we can only discover the problem, we
have located the forces demanded in the make-up of character.
Moreover, the personal relation of the teacher to his pupils
is never so favorable and effective as when he helps them to
solve their own problems ; suspicion and aloofness are ban-
ished, the pupil's mind is open and eager, his heart is receptive
and cordial, the teacher becomes truly what he so deeply
desires to be, " guide, philosopher, and friend." One of the
Moral and Religious Education 319
most convincing collateral evidences of the correctness of this
method of moral education is found in the countless actual
cases of all shades and varieties, where a teacher or adviser
does succeed in getting hold of the pupil and changing his
conduct and his character just by showing him that a prob-
lem of his own is involved in the situation, and that for him
the vital point is the solution of that problem. The idle boy
is brought to see the probable effect of his indolence upon his
own future, and the stern necessity of fostering a new habit of
work ; the disorderly or insubordinate is shown the larger
social self, himself as he ought to be, and is awakened to culti-
vate that enhanced self; the youth who is set on leaving school
against his parents' will comes to see that his life problem
cannot be solved or even worked at without reckoning in those
parents, their happiness and welfare. Let any one read any
story of influence, Arnold at Rugby, Thring at Uppingham,
Stableton in his little Diary of a Western Schoolmaster,
Judge Lindsey, William G. George, dealing with normal or
pathological cases, and he will find, practically without excep-
tion, that the method of success was to help the child to find
and deal with his own problem, and so discover and coniirm
his true self.
THE BROADENING OF SYMPATHY. — Possibly, some
one may apprehend egoism or individualism in such moral
training, but this can only be on a superficial view ; in the
natural development of a human being his problems broaden
to include more and more others ; his affections widen as well
as his knowledge, and wherever his affections fix themselves,
there his problem is found. The larger social self grows by a
process of development ; even in infancy egoism is far from
being sole determinant of thought and action, and in all
healthy growth the narrower self is soon overgrown by a true
human heart and will. All of this should become clearer as
we consider the actual problems of youth, which is, par ex-
cellence, the era of socialization.
320 Principles of Secondary Education
Perhaps we are fortunate in having to deal with adolescent
youth, for even those who might think the foregoing state-
ments extreme if applied to the training of small children
can surely agree to their truth in respect to young people
treading on the verge of manhood and womanhood, the vast
majority of whose fellows of equal age have indeed already
left the school for good and are doing adult work in the
world.1
One word of caution: the doctrine that we must train the
will of the student through his own problems does not in the
least imply that we are to abandon him to his own whims and
caprices nor that his training is to be soft and indulgent; on
the contrary, it demands that his real forces, now often
squandered on specious and trivial pursuits which delude
his immature and unaided vision, shall instead be devoted
to the tasks which really lie along the true path of his growth
and destiny; he will generate more energy, and apply it far
more effectively than under any other system of training: he
will work harder, endure more toil and hardship, overcome more
obstacles, and vitalize and toughen his moral fiber, far beyond
the measure of any forced and alien compulsion: and his
powers will be his own, and will already be enlisted and
organized under the command of his own purpose, indeed, in
the cases of highest success, under the supreme leadership of
the greatest and final phase of the will, a worthy life aim.
TEE PROBLEMS OF YOUTH
WHAT ARE THE PROBLEMS ? — The first task of moral
education, then, is to penetrate the heart of youth and there
discover its real problems. To what themes does his mind
turn easily, naturally, irresistibly, as the needle turns to the
pole ? What are his uncompelled cogitations, his freest
1 See J. K. Hart, A Critical Study of Current Theories of Moral Education,
p. 36.
Moral and Religious Education 321
thoughts ? To what does his inner consciousness swing in repose,
or even against the external calls of duty, of work, of study, of
parental, pedagogical, or occupational pressure ? Above all,
what is he anxious and concerned about, what is he eager to
achieve or compass, in what does he think to find joy, and in
what does he dread to endure loss and failure? To the dis-
covery of these secret currents of the souls of youth must we
devote all our sympathy, and no less all our wisdom, even
shrewdness. And this not merely to indulge these native
tendencies ; certainly not, as is too much the fashion, to laugh
at them ; not even to be content with them as they are; but to
utilize them. They are the data of the will, the sources of
both power and direction. Out of them, or out of nothing,
must the full-grown human will develop. We are dealing
here, as it were, with the natural history of the adolescent
will.1
The scientific treatment of such a field is infinitely difficult
and is certainly as yet in its infancy. Adolescence is the high
point of modesty and reticence. This need by no means
surprise us, inasmuch as the two most prolific sources of the
inner consciousness and problems of youth are, as we shall see
more fully later, the sentiment of self, and the new elements
of sex life, both of which are exceedingly affected by the
sentiment of modesty.
SOURCES OF INFORMATION. — What, then, are the
sources of information as to the consciousness of adolescence ?
First, the recollections of our own youth ; this not only gives
us the only possible immediate knowledge we can have on the
subject, secure from all fallacies of communication or interpre-
tation, but it gives us the clew by which we may grasp and
interpret all other available knowledge. Probably nothing
is more invaluable to the teachers of youth than that they
should themselves have lived a full, rich, and normal adoles-
cence, and should keep an ever-living memory thereof. Only
1 Scott, Social Education, pp. 36, 37.
322 Principles of Secondary Education
thus can we hope for even a beginning of comprehension and
sympathy for our students.1
Of course the students themselves are the second source of
information. Other knowledge is useful to interpret, check up,
and perhaps supplement, but this furnishes the real data of
our problem. The high school teacher needs to study his
own pupils outside of the classroom work; play of volition is
far fuller and more typical there than in the schoolroom under
any ordinary conditions. There are rich sources of knowledge
almost unworked ; for example, athletics and social life. As
to the former the teachers fall mostly into two classes — some
preserve an adolescent attitude of uncritical enthusiasm;
others grow gradually into a sort of jealous hostility, some-
times so mild as to appear as mere indifference, sometimes
very intense. Both classes fail to study the phenomena in any
profitable manner. A conspicuous feature of the social life
has been the fraternity ; high school workers have devoted
much earnest thought to the external, administrative problem
involved, and have been led generally into relentless war upon
the organizations, sometimes resulting in bitter conflicts re-
quiring the aid of the courts to settle them. Practically all
the best friends of the high schools are against the fraternities,
and agree that the school authorities are right in exterminating
them. But we have not properly studied the phenomena
involved, as manifesting in extreme form some of the charac-
teristic elements of adolescent volition. We must extend our
inquiry beyond the more external symptoms of snobbery,
insubordination, dissipation, and general deterioration, and
investigate the impulses and volitional forces, in the individual
boy and in the group, that underlie and explain the boys'
intense, almost furious devotion to their society and to the
fraternity idea. These impulses and forces are in themselves
good, and need not to be destroyed but to be guided.
1 On the tendency to forget one's own adolescence, see Hall, Youth, pp. 144-
145-
Moral and Religious Education 323
Doubtless there is some help to be found in literature. The
immense mass of descriptive and statistical matter in the
literature of the Hall school will naturally come first to mind.
Most of us must take it with some caution, and probably in
rather moderate doses, for the simple reason that it runs much
to the abnormal and pathological. Yet it is the only consider-
able effort yet made to study youth by scientific and especially
by biological methods ; and these methods seem indispensable
in the study of volition. It is safe to say that no earnest
student of high school education can afford to ignore this
source. Two books must be mentioned as highly prophetic
and interpretative, as well as powerfully inspiring — Jane
Addams' Spirit of Youth and Our City Streets, and Charles
Wagner's Youth. Then there are accounts of methods of
dealing with adolescents, and of their responses to these
methods. The lives of Arnold and Thring are invaluable ;
before the days of adolescent psychology they perceived and
utilized the laws of the volitional life of boys. In our own
days numerous accounts of boys' clubs, school cities, and
other juvenile activities, furnish pertinent and often valuable
data. The George Junior Republic is a fascinating study in
not-quite-normal adolescence, to be taken, doubtless, with
some caution ; juvenile court experience is a profitable study.
Exceedingly valuable in this field are the methods and experi-
ences recorded in Reeder's How Two Hundred Children Live
and Learn, and, with still closer relation to school life, Stable-
ton's Diary of a Western Sclioolmastcr.
THE LARGER LIFE. — The school or the teacher who
thinks only in terms of school reckons without his host. The
bigger world already has the eye and ear of the youth ; his
problems are all determined by the forms of life into which
he feels himself swiftly moving. His most personal ideals are
meant in the last analysis to conform or to please ; his diver-
sions are not solitary but love the group or even the crowd ;
his calling will be one of the functions that society has ready
324 Principles of Secondary Education
made for him ; even his religion will come from the minds and
hearts of many now living and more who have passed away.
No less social are the means at the hand of the school for guid-
ing the youth in solving his problems. It is easy for the edu-
cator to throw away his labors by building what the rushing
forces of life will sweep quickly away ; — • nay, the currents of
life, unperceived by his academic vision, may be carrying
away his foundations while he is laying them.
Our athletic affairs are molded by the national situation;
the old village green, where the many played and a few old
folk and infants looked on, has been changed to the baseball or
football park, where a handful of professionals are exhibited
in an arena, while thousands sit in pathological super-excite-
ment, with every normal avenue of expression choked up, and
all the efferent nerve currents poured into flushed and dis-
torted faces or furious vociferation. College and high school
have been drawn into the vortex, and the flower of the young
men are often sacrificed in one way or another to " make a
Roman holiday." The incoherent cries of the " fan " are
organized under the " yell leader," and an athletic liturgy is
consecrated out of noise. Until society at large awakens to
the truth of the matter it will be hard to reform athletics and
rehabilitate physical education in schools and colleges. An
exceedingly close parallel maybe drawn for social life in general,
involving such matters as dress, dances, parties, fraternities,
smoking, and the like.
On the other hand, the big world is full of constructive forces.
The people in general are on the side of the right, especially
when it affects their children's training and future. Business,
with all its vices, and work, with all its imperfections, are great
educative forces that have raised man above savagery and
contributed to the education of all generations. The chief
vice of the public with reference to the school is ignorance and
neglect; the great task of the school administrator in this
respect is to awaken and enlighten public opinion, and enlist
Moral and Religious Education 325
its aid in maintaining the moral conditions in and out of school
that arc the indispensable ground and support of moral
education in the school.
THE POINT OF CONTACT. — The actual point of con-
tact between educator and educand, the problem itself, and
the exact form or aspect of the problem, depend greatly upon
the subtle, indefinable, yet most real relation between the two
persons concerned. To discover and vitalize this contact is
the supreme art of influence, in which any large success comes
only through what may figuratively be called in words of
Jesus " fasting and much prayer," that is, deep and self-effacing
devotion. This is perhaps the reason why so many wise and
earnest thinkers are unwilling to admit any definite or would-be
scientific treatment of the problem of moral training, and
assign everything to the " personality of the teacher." It is
this also which leads even Herbart, the great prophet of a
completely mechanized pedagogy, after he has expounded
all his principles and formulated all his rules, to discuss Tact
at some length as the indispensable attitude, incommunicable
and defying all analysis and description, which must guide
and animate any method whatsoever if real success is to be
achieved. It would be foolish to deny or belittle the impor-
tance of personality and tact as emphasized by these and
similar statements ; but we must resist their more extreme
forms, and insist on believing in the ultimate possibility of a
scientific solution of even the problem of moral training, on
the ground that we are confronted not with an irrational or
inherently incalculable activity, but only with an exceedingly
complex one.
THE GREAT PROBLEMS. — When we undertake any
descriptive account of the problems of youth, it is easy to
enumerate concrete and definite things that the adolescent
undertakes and for which he will labor most strenuously ; *
"making the team" is perhaps the most striking; keep-
1 See, for example, Hall, Youth, Chap. 8, Biographers of Youth.
326 Principles of Secondary Education
ing his standing with his fellows is another ; earning
money is often another ; very commonly he gives much and
conscious thought to his personal appearance and dress ; any
conduct that is considered loyalty to the school can usually
command his best efforts ; he sometimes, and she oftener,
will expend great efforts, even to the point of overstrain and
injury, in order to keep up in scholarship ; and so on through
an indefinite list. Such things as these are the original data,
careful observation and description of which are the pre-
requisite of any scientific treatment.
While there is much variety of opinion as to details, there is
general recognition of the idea that these adolescent tendencies
group themselves largely about four or five great problems ;
for practical discussion we present a rough outline of these.
The first is the discovery and perfection of the Self, both
individual and social, which, in its broad sense, evidently
includes all other possible problems ; next amusement, recrea-
tion, " fun," in a vast variety of forms ; then two that belong
peculiarly to adolescence : first, relation to the other sex, involv-
ing sexual life itself, love, marriage, and family ; then vocation
and economic success, rising into the ideal of a life career.
The fifth great choice is a religion, not at all in the theological
but in the ethical sense, — something which dominates the
whole hierarchy of will, forms the object of supreme desire,
and so assimilates to itself all other motives. These great
questions are being asked more or less definitely by young
people everywhere ; nowhere, it is natural to suppose, more
than in high schools. They may be put into words somewhat
thus: (i) "What sort of person am I going to be?" (2)
" How am I going to find my amusement, spend my leisure
time?" (3) "What attitude am I going to take toward
women (or men)?" (4) " What shall I do for a living?"
or more naively, " How am I going to make money? " and
finally, though far less likely to take any definite or even con-
scious form, (5) " What am I going to put above everything
else? What am I going to serve with all mv heart? "
Moral and Religious Education 327
THE GREAT DETERMINATIONS
THE REALIZATION OF THE SELF. — Of the five great
adolescent will activities only one has been generally recog-
nized by formal education, that is, the first, self-development
and perfection ; and this in a comparatively narrow and feeble
form. Much stress has been laid by the school upon the in-
tellectual progress of the pupil, and that with constant empha-
sis upon his remote future welfare and success. Of course
such an appeal is legitimate and not without effect. But it is
subject to at least three serious weaknesses : first, the normal
youth is not yet effectively concerned for his scholastic achieve-
ment ; second, his will needs not a remote but an immediate
stimulus ; and third, the youth who most needs guidance
and stimulus will almost always be least affected by the intel-
lectual ideal.
Physique. — On the other hand, the powerful impulse
toward physical strength, beauty, grace, efficiency, prowess,
has been allowed to run largely to waste, or even to militate
against the avowed aims of the school.1 The case of school
athletics is too familiar to need rehearsal here ; but it is im-
possible that WTC should gain our moral ends with high school
youth unless we avail ourselves of the potent athletic impulse ;
the early adolescent will make any sacrifices, endure any
labors, perform the incredible, — as every coach knows, -
to demonstrate his manly powrers to himself and his fellows.
The question is no mere physiological one, — a human body
is a psycho-physical thing ; our most serious loss at present is
the loss of psychic results obtainable but not obtained from
physical action.
The mere catharsis of a vigorous bodily regimen is indis-
pensable ; every student of boys knows how their " animal
spirits," -lacking which they would be less than men, -
1 See G. Stanley Hall, Psychology of Physical Education, Proceedings X . E. A .,
1910, p. 297.
328 Principles of Secondary Education
if denied full and free vent in abundant and exhilarating exer-
cise, break out in disorder, " rough-house," insubordination,
and even rebellion. , And there is probably a far more serious
evil that eludes most observers, in that the less bold and
dynamic youth fall into secret vices that sap their forces ere
they develop ; against self-abuse and degenerating vice in
general, the most universal safeguard is certainly a bodily
regimen, vigorous and virile even to excess. A life which sends
the lad to bed regularly and healthily tired but not exhausted,
with muscles and nerves and organs purged by abundant
exercise, gives scant play to any perverted or noxious impulse
or habit.
Moreover, great as is this advantage, it is but the negative
side of the benefits of proper physical regimen ; the positive
results include a just confidence in one's bodily powers, inval-
uable balance of the psychic constitution, endurance, courage,
the physiological basis of optimism. The social values of
athletic sports, in their normal forms, are too great to discuss
here ; we do not hesitate to say that one of the first duties of
curriculum makers is to study earnestly and without prej-
udice the educative influence of play and recreation. It is
passing strange that a culture that claims descent from the
Greeks and professes sincere admiration for their achieve-
ments should so completely despise the gymnastic element
that made good half of their training of the young. What
would the Greeks have thought of a school for adolescents
that assigned either no single instructor or at best a meager one
or two in a hundred to the education through bodily exercise ?
Yet that is the status of our high schools ; even in a progressive
school, out of fifty teachers it is rare that more than two or
three are charged with physical culture. Too often even
these are looked upon as outsiders or underlings by the
" academic teachers " ; almost universally they are selected
and utilized, not for the true physical development of the
whole group of youth in the school, but to plan and exe-
Moral and Religious Education 329
cute the spectacular exploitation of a few who least need
their help.1
Intellectual Initiative. — On the side of the student's self-
development that the school has emphasized, the intellectual,
the great need is the awakening of the student's own initiative
and energy. Attention should be fixed less upon externals,
such as the performance of set tasks and the gaining of marks,
and more upon the essential thing of the youth's sense of his
own growing powers of thought.2
Above all we need to revise our present system of " passing "
and " failing," by which the individual of high capacity is
practically encouraged to loaf along at any half-speed that will
keep his head above water academically. Each must be in-
cited constantly to do his best, quite regardless whether that
best is marked " A " or " X " in the school records. We
might do worse than borrow a maxim from the trainer of
trotting horses " to make the colt go his pace for his distance " ;
as things are, we virtually suggest to the fast colt to go the
slow colt's pace for the slow colt's distance. It is ruinous for
the human colt to habituate himself to an achievement below
his capacity, no matter what the achievement may be in itself,
for so he tends to decrease his powers ; toward increase of
power there is but one road, the doing of one's present best,
nay more, one must ever surpass one's best, do the impossible,
rise to a new level of power and confidence.
1 See the writer's The High School's Cure of Souls, Educ. Rev., April, 1908,
pp. 364-365; and Essentials of Character, Macmillan, pp. 115-116, 98-102.
2 "As a matter of fact the moral exercise of the will is not found in the exter-
nal assumption of any posture, and the formation of moral habits cannot be
identified with the ability to show up results at the demand of another. . . .
The question of moral training has not been touched until we know what the
child has been internally occupied with, what the predominating direction of his
attention, his feelings, his disposition has been while engaged upon this task.
If the task has appealed to him merely as a task, it is as certain psychologically
as the law of action and reaction is physically that the child is simply engaged
in acquiring a habit of divided attention." Dewey, Interest as Related to Will,
p. 9.
330 Principles of Secondary Education
Morally no less than intellectually it is a sore point that our
intellectual culture fails signally to produce intellectual inter-
ests which are will characteristics as well as intellectual, and
which are after all the only true results ; all else, — for instance,
any acquisition of information or knowledge, — being mere pre-
liminary or instrumental processes. It is a moral loss quite as
much as an intellectual one when the student turns away, at
the end of a course in English or mathematics or science,
with a sigh of relief and throws away his book and his thoughts
on the subject, more than satisfied to say that he has " had " it.
This brings us from another angle to the same insistent but
ignored truth, that intellectual results cannot be achieved with-
out the vitalization of the learner's own will ; the heart of
instruction is interest, which is the very essence of the " new
education," and interest is nothing more or less than the
enlistment of the learner's own will. The upward road for
better moral training is exactly the same as that to better
thinking and more intellectual mastery. The sooner both
secondary and college teaching take this truth into their
reckoning and let it operate fully on their methods, and upon
their curricula, the sooner will they approach the heights of
intellectual success they so greatly and sincerely desire.1
Personal Ideals. — The youth's problem of honor is the de-
cision of what he will admit and what he will reject from his
innermost self, his code of conduct. What is he to love and
practice, and what is he to hate and eschew? He is blessed
with abundant instincts of honor ; chief among them is loyalty
to his fellows, especially when a conflict with some adult
authority or power is involved. Another is the ideal of cour-
age and the utter hatred and abomination of cowardice. How
resistless these impulses are no words can adequately express ;
the whole soul and body of the healthy and vigorous youth
1 An interesting testimony to this is found in the first few paragraphs of Dr.
Eliot's The Value during Education of the Life-career Motive. V. E. A.
Proceedings, IQIO, 133 ff.
Moral and Religious Education 331
responds to them. They are strong enough to tear him from
school or even home, to drag him through danger and pain.
They are the mainsprings of that great adolescent ethics of the
race, chivalry, and are the promise in the modern youth of
both the good and the evil of medieval knighthood.1
The fatal error in dealing with adolescent honor, even in its
most inconvenient forms, is to quarrel with it ; the path of
success is first of all through an understanding of it that is both
clear and sympathetic : clear in seeing its confusion and nar-
rowness, sympathetic in having a warm and abiding sense of
its appeal and preciousness to the youth himself. Then comes
enlightenment ; the universal role of thought must be played
here, and the youth must look out and beyond, must see the
interests and welfare of all affected: first, those of the "out-
siders " from his point of view, — the teacher, the man whose
windows are broken or whose trees have been robbed ; too
often — alas, for our sportmanship ! : — the opposing athletic
team, the pitcher trying to hold his nerve at a crucial point or the
quarterback struggling to rally his demoralized team. Then
he must, and thus will, see the interests of himself and his own
clique or crowd, in a new and larger way. Thus, and thus only,
may the abundant and priceless energy of his impulses of
honor be enlisted in the service of the larger and truer right.
But let the teacher never doubt that in its crudest form the
impulse itself is at bottom good, so good that without its
aid there is no possibility of the realization of the best charac-
ter in the man that is to grow out of the boy.
VOCATION. — The vocation motive is happily coming to
its own in these days. We may hope that the school is soon
to perceive in a true and profound way the wisdom of the
answer of the old Spartan king, who, when asked what boys
should study in school, answered, " I suppose that which being
1 For a most interesting symposium on this subject see "Who Broke the
Window" in several numbers of the Outlook for 1913 and "Good, Bad, and
'Daddy George' " in the Survey, August 2. 1013, pp. 565-566.
332 Principles of Secondary Education
men they shall do." No narrow view of this element will
suffice ; such views have already deformed the practice of
some vocational schools, and repelled many earnest but con-
servatively minded friends of education. We cannot accept
without scrutiny the views of the manufacturer and the
business man who are mainly concerned to increase the num-
ber and quality of operatives or clerks ; we cannot agree with
the dictum that " A boy who is to be a carpenter should con-
tinue in all stages of his educational course to make manual
training of this sort his most important occupation." We
are here concerned, not with the making of carpenters, but the
making of men.. Hence we urge more stress upon the voca-
tional element and motive in schools because it vitalizes and
energizes the whole school life of the student ; it puts into his
" studies " what in other cases is found only in his " activi-
ties," — spontaneous, self-feeding interest, — and this means
moral growth instead of atrophy and decay. We do not
hesitate to say that a survey of the educational field would
show that the most potent single force for interest in secondary
and higher education even now is the vocational motive.
The superior performance of professional students over
" liberal arts " men is a notorious fact ; the vocational school
manifests, even to the casual observer, a warmth and person-
ality of interest among the students that the general secondary
school cannot equal.
To us adults things must mean something if they are to gain
our attention and effort ; no less so with children. One of the
simplest and most immediate sources of meaning to the second-
ary student is relation to his life work. He is going to do a
vast amount of thinking on this subject, whether or not the
teacher knows or cares. Before and after leaving high school
he will canvass vocation, — not wisely, not broadly, not intelli-
gently ; to his unaided reflection it will IDC mainly a question
of " making money " ; even the best of lads have either little
or no perception of the great rich social aspect of any man's
Moral and Religious Education 333
calling. Here are then two great opportunities of the school :
to utilize the impulse that flows from the vocation motive,
turning it into channels of mental and technical advancement ;
and to enlighten the impulse itself, helping the youth to see
vocation in its bearings upon life as a whole, and especially as
one of his most important relations to the great world of human
life and common welfare.1
Effect upon the Curriculum. — Of intense interest to every
high school teacher, and indeed to all friends of education, is the
question how this vocational principle is to affect the present
curriculum and methods of the schools. We have already
proposed a general principle by which all school activities must
be tested : Do they aid the pupil in grasping and solving his
problems? So far as vocation is concerned it seems increas-
ingly sure that many things now not in the curriculum possess
great capacity to aid the educand in solving this vital, voca-
tional problem and will inevitably demand and obtain, against
any resistance whatsoever, entrance into the school. This
is true of many industrial and technical activities ; and it is no
less true of some studies, not in themselves contributing to
the technique of any calling, but shedding light upon vocation
as a whole, and upon the relations of vocations to each other
and to economics, ethics, politics, and any other great aspect
of life in which the student must orient himself. It would
seem that the worker in the field of secondary education should
prepare himself for far-reaching and radical, though gradual,
changes in the secondary program of studies in these directions.
Vocational Guidance. — Most immediately hopeful and
practicable for moral effect is the field of vocational guidance.
This need not wait upon costly equipment and sweeping
changes of personnel and methods : it demands only the enlist-
ment of the hearts and intelligence of considerable numbers
of teachers and other sincere friends of youth. The egregious
1 See chapter on " Social and Economic Gains through Vocational Guid-
ance," in Eloomneld, Vocational Guidance of Youth, especially pp. 112-113.
334 Principles of Secondary Education
blunder of letting our boys and girls drift or be thrust into
callings without any rational consideration of the questions
involved need not remain longer without some remedy. Few
possible educative methods are so pregnant with good as this.
It does far more than aid the pupil to solve one of his most
pressing and fateful questions ; it engenders between youth and
adviser a relation of sympathy and understanding that is the
best possible avenue of all kinds of moral aid and enlighten-
ment. It provides, probably, the easiest good road to the heart
of the educand. And it is twice blessed, — it blesses the
teacher who gives no less than the pupil who receives. Few
things in the high school situation are more to be desired than
the opening up of paths of sympathetic intimacy between
teacher and pupil, along which may pass freely the educative
benefits which now too often lie choked up or inert in the
teacher's soul.1
THE ZEST OF LIFE. — We come next to two great neg-
lected moral forces, recreation and the intersexual nature and
life. In both of these, happily, awakening seems at hand.
Jane Addams' Spirit of Youth and our City Streets is a
veritable challenge to all who are concerned in the welfare of
young people of both sexes. It is true that it deals most
directly with young people who are not in school or college :
yet the essential nature of youth is the same in both classes,
and it is probably true of high school boys, as Miss Addams
says of working youth, that " recreation is stronger than
vice, and recreation alone can stifle the lust for vice." Most
assuredly the modern high school needs to take a page from the
philosophy of the Greeks and from the educational practice of
the Greeks and readopt play and recreation as an indis-
pensable and potent educative force. The very exuberance
of play is proof enough of its power to leave its mark on the
1 On this whole problem see Eliot, Value during Education of Life-career
Motive, Proceedings, N. E. A., IQIO, pp. 133 fT. ; Kerschensteiner, Education
for Citizenship, Chicago Commercial Club, TQII ; Gillette, Vocational Guidance,
Chicago, 1910; Bloomfiekl, Vocational Guidance of Youth, Boston, 1911.
Moral and Religious Education 335
fiber of the organism. Nowhere else does the educative cycle
run so swiftly and intensely through its full course of stimulus,
decision, and response. Nowhere is the " trace on brain and
nerve " more certainly and deeply marked. Profoundly
formative recreation is, whatever the educator may do about
it : the task that lies before us is to control its power and make
it educative. This is, as we have already suggested, the
great, almost the only real problem in school athletics.
The social aspects of recreation extend far beyond the school,
and responsibility for them must be borne primarily and ulti-
mately by the home. Yet we may well inquire whether the
school has not a part to play. It has taken no small hand in
settling the school fraternity matter : possibly with a little
too much regard for the institutional welfare of the school
itself, and rather too little consideration of the instincts and
nature of the young people themselves. We suggest two
other means at its disposal. The first is closer cooperation
with the home ; here we are met at once with the complaint of
lack of time for such relations, especially in our huge and
crowded city schools, — where it is perhaps most needed.
The answer is not so impossible as it may seem, — sacrifice
something else ; let the teacher be authorized, nay instructed,
to throw quiz or exercise papers into the waste basket any time,
if needed, to allow time to talk with parents about the welfare
of their children. It is high time that the secondary teacher
be freed from the academic strait-jacket of prescriptions and
requirements of laborious detail, of endless reading of papers,
and become a teacher and friend, no longer a mere quizmaster
and indexer of grades. How can we hope to help the growing
boy and girl when their two chief educators — parent and
teacher — do not even know each other by sight, and when
home and school are mutually ignorant of each other's aims,
ideals, methods, and attitudes?
It is hard to understand the slowness of school authorities to
avail themselves of the parents' meeting to aid in this respect.
336 Principles of Secondary Education
Difficulties and some risks there certainly are in the way of
parent meetings, but so there are in any really worth while
action. They can be and are being overcome. The problem
of social life and recreation will be solved only through joint
and harmonious action of school and home.
MUTUAL RELATIONS OF THE SEXES. — Sex educa-
tion is properly a chapter by itself in educational progress:
something must be said of it from the point of view of moral
training. There are two great motives for the control of sex
life by which the lower or physiological impulse is regulated by
the higher human elements. The first is the desire for individ-
ual strength and perfection, especially in the case of the
adolescent boy, the intense ambition to be virile, athletic,
well grown, to surpass in bodily prowess. This impulse, and
the actual physical catharsis of an athletic regimen, are the
great bulwark against all forms of secret vice. But these are
inadequate, as are all individualistic motives in every field of
morality : above and beyond it comes the ideal of personal
honor, of chivalry, merging into the potent impulses of mar-
riage and family. Marriage and parenthood are the evolution-
ary and racial solution and elevation of sex, and must be so for
the individual. Let this expectation of being a husband and
a father be a part of the conscious thought of youth, mingling
in his mind with his hopes and ambitions to be a worth-while
in other fields, such as economic success and civic duty.
Honor and Ideals. — The thing needed is an attitude to-
ward the other sex that can bear scrutiny : there are ways of
appeal that no healthy boy can resist, — " It should be im-
pressed on every boy that every girl is somebody's sister, and
that it is his sacred duty to afford her the same respect and
protection which he would expect from another boy to his
sister." * Charles Wagner puts irresistibly the course of
thinking for the young man which leads him to the only possi-
ble conclusion : " The rule of conduct here is chastity. Every
1 The Survey, Nov. 16, 1911, p. 193.
Moral and Religious Education 337
infraction is a sin. Though this law may seem difficult and
severe it is the only safe one. Morality without it is rubbish." 1
The promise and potency of these high ideals is found in a
field despised and neglected by the educator, and arousing in
the rest of the adult world mainly the laughter of fools — the
early love of the adolescent, perhaps the purest and most
ethereal experience, next to motherhood, that most human be-
ings ever experience. No description can overstate its charms :
" It is a morning land full of bursting flowers, bathed in the
sunshine and the dew, a pure and virgin soil where no foot has
trod, where no dust and stain have come. It is a land where
love is born amid the friendships, the smiles, the sports of
youth. ... It lies at the threshold of our life, like a radiant
paradise where the joy of living, of seeing, of worshipping
reverently from afar, and oftenest without telling our love,
suffices us. We have closed this paradise. We must reopen
it and teach our youth to desire it."
Just how this great force is to be utilized is certainly far
from clear : but it is one of the most undeniable problems of
education, especially in the secondary period, which usually
contains the climacteric of adolescent love. Already many
individual cases have operated for good, and not a few for
injury in actual school work ; many a high school teacher has
known of boys awakened to new interest and energy by falling
in love with some good girl who perhaps was inclined to take
her studies seriously.
A Gap in the Curriculum. — Spencer long ago held up to
sarcastic comment the failure of the school to make any prep-
aration for the business that nine tenths of the educands must
some day engage in, — the rearing of a family. The curriculum,
he says, gives the impression of having been planned for some
celibate order, rather than for the common run of men and
women. The moral educator must recognize that to turn out
good men we must needs form good fathers. Some day we may
1 Youth, p. 250. 2 Youth, p. 258.
z
338 Principles of Secondary Education
hope for an education that will nurture the impulses of sex and
love into their normal fruition in inspired and intelligent
parenthood and family life. At present, the most that we do
is to curse the ignorance and neglect of the average parent,
which is, after all, merely the natural result of education as it is.
WAYS AND MEANS
The crucial test of all methods of moral training is clear
from all our preceding consideration : whatever awakens and
exercises the student's own will cultivates his character. The
best friend of a youth is he who makes him do most. But the
doing must be of the will and not merely of legs and hands.
The actual instruments of training in the school have been
stated by Professor Dewey as (i) the life of the school as a
social institution in itself; (2) methods of learning and doing
work ; (3) the school studies or curriculum.1 As things are, it
is well to insert a fourth division, school government. Let us
consider them in this order.
SCHOOL LIFE. — " The moral life," it has been said, " is
the response that the individual makes to the social order in
which he lives." In proportion as the school hours become
part and parcel of the main flow of the student's spiritual
existence do they contribute to his moral growth. The great
task for the secondary school with respect to its " life," is to
inform all the activities, study, recreation, athletics, social
affairs, with a wholesome morale, so that in them all the will
of the youth is acting as we desire it to act in his mature life.
It is quite clear that one of the first requisites here is the
cordial and intimate participation of teachers in the life of the
school. Education, as Professor Palmer has so well said, is a
" dependent fellowship " in which the elder and wiser en-
lightens and aids the younger. Boys and girls need such help
quite as much in their recreation and diversions, their athletics,
1 Dewey, Ethical Principles underlying Education, p. 26.
Moral and Religious Edtication 339
social functions, journalism, as in algebra and chemistry.
The modern secondary teacher is tempted, almost compelled,
to content himself with being a philosopher to his pupils and
never attaining his more influential relation of guide and friend.
But that the relation is possible is proved by the few who do
attain it in high measure, — the teacher to whom the students
come for counsel about their dances, their school paper, and
all the miscellaneous quasi-personal details of life outside of the
curriculum.
It must be admitted that the huge high schools toward which
we are so rapidly tending are utterly unfavorable to such moral
relations ; the testimony of high school students themselves
indicates that a human companionship between teacher and
students is not uncommon in the small town or rural school
but almost unknown in the great metropolitan institution.1
SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. — Student self-government is
nowadays a much mooted subject ; with many it is a phrase
to conjure with, to others it is a fad with which innovators
entertain themselves. That the student should wisely
govern himself is certainly the supreme end of his education ;
whatever causes him to govern his own conduct in school
trains him toward this end. The most advanced theory, by
no means unsupported by practical experience, is that the body
of pupils should come to feel thoroughly responsible for the
social order of the school. This is actually realized in higher
education in at least one conspicuous case ; many secondary
and even elementary schools at least approximate this condi-
tion.
From the point of view of moral training, to which we are
here confined, two or three things may be said as to the present
situation : first, no one should pretend, and in the successful
cases no one does pretend, that the students wield any final
authority ; no one knows better than the students that the
legally constituted authorities cannot, if they would, abdicate
1 School Review, December, 1912, pp. 657-659, 663.
34-O Principles of Secondary Education
their posts or shuffle off their responsibility. But the students
are perfectly satisfied to be allowed to conduct their affairs,
subject to revision by the faculty; and experience shows
abundantly that under right conditions they can and do get
along for indefinite periods, dealing with various and difficult
matters, without needing any official revision from above.
On the other hand, any one who expects such a system to
create itself in a high school, or run after it is created without
most earnest and vigilant care, is likely to suffer a rude dis-
enchantment. But the work to be done is not mechanical or
routine, it is spiritual, communicative, intimate ; its great
purpose is to awaken in the minds of the youth the ambition to
be autonomous ; and enlighten them as to the true nature of
the end and the effective means of attaining it. Indeed the
" system " is the least important part ; many a school has
genuine student self-government, in the wills of individuals and
in the body politic, without any machinery ; and the finest
system might conceivably lack the true spirit and so be futile.
One practically demonstrated means toward these ends is
the maintenance of joint boards or committees composed of
teachers representing the faculty and students elected by the
whole school or sections of it.1 These boards should be given
real things to do and real powers. They constitute an invalu-
able channel of intercommunication between faculty and
students, the value of which is realized when we consider the
fact that the most serious disaffections arise in school life as
elsewhere through misunderstanding.
Actual experience with any healthy form of student par-
ticipation in government will strengthen the teacher's indis-
pensable faith in the soundness of the real heart of youth in all
vital matters. In fact, the student council or court not seldom
takes so ideal and rigoristic a view of conduct as to call for
some interposition of clemency from the faculty. The great
1 See for example the Board of Athletics and the Council at Bradley Poly-
technic Institute, Peoria, Illinois (described in catalogue, q.v.).
Moral and Religious Education 341
moral value of all plans of real student control is in their power
to call forth and exercise the social and ethical will and intelli-
gence of all concerned.
SCHOOL WORK. — The most effective educator -
though we may have to ask sometimes to what good end ? -
is the athletic coach ; for he spurs and goads his charges with
the discovery, indeed the creation, of new powers in themselves.
It might be well for the academic instructors to go out and see
the football practice, not with any care as to the next match
game, but to see how the lads add to their power and skill by
outdoing their previous possibilities.
It is the immense educative value of industry, of application,
of relentless persistence, in brief, of every form of hard work,
that has led to the almost universal faith in " disciplinary " stud-
ies and that probably accounts for much that is attributed to
" formal training." Many wise educators have quoted approv-
ingly that old saying that " the best thing in education is doing
the thing you don't want to do at the time when you don't want
to do it." The truth is — paradoxical only in form and because
of the poverty of words — that real power is gained only
through wanting to do the thing you don't want to do, and
doing it because the "don't want" is superficial and tempo-
rary, while the " want " is essential and permanent.
This is the reconciliation of interest and effort ; and every
one knows that the maximum of endeavor is attained, not
through external compulsion, but through desire and ambition
from within.
Yet it is true that few things are more needed in the American
school, in all grades, than more effort and application, more
thoroughness and mastery. The youth must learn that
educationally also " the Kingdom of Heaven suffereth violence,
and the violent — that is, the energetic and resolute — take it
by force."
When we ask then how the young people shall work in high
school, we may answer, first, hard, very hard ; this is the
34 2 Principles of Secondary Education
gymnastic of the mind, the only way leading to the powers of
concentration and mastery. But also successfully and joy-
fully ; learning to fail, so common now, must be reduced to a
minimum. To this end they must work intelligently, with
some sense of purpose and hope of reward. Finally, they must
work socially, in school, as in life ; here is one of the easiest
routes of advance, because the present practice is so crudely
individualistic. The isolation of the pupil in school has long
been held up to censure, but yields very slowly to improve-
ment. To help each other, the chief virtue of real life, is a
misdemeanor in school. Doubtless there are causes for this
insistence upon individual work ; no one wants John to do
James' work ; that is no cooperation at all ; what we do
want and must have is a kind of work in which each can do
his own part, in contact and relation with all the rest. Only
thus can the young worker learn the indispensable virtues of
adjustment, consideration, practical coordination ; it is time
the school did its share in the production of these traits.
STUDIES. — After all, as things are, and as they are likely
to be for some time to come, the bulk of the school's time and
attention is given to the curriculum. All past ages have had
great faith in the moral power of studies : abeunt studio, in
mores said the Roman writer, and Bacon quotes the saying
approvingly ; ' but nowadays the educational world is full of
skepticism concerning the effect of the curriculum on charac-
ter. We have space for very brief discussion. First, let us be
quite clear that the studia of the Latin proverb are not mere
formal branches of learning, subjects in the school program ;
the word study, which Bacon and Milton use in its original
sense, has fallen from its high estate ; a study, truly speaking,
is an earnest pursuit, a zealous and devoted occupation of the
mind ; Milton speaks of " the study of learning " as we would
say the love of learning. It is in this that the truth of the
saying lies, for the basic fact of the formation of character is
just this: that our earnest pursuits pass over into habit and
Moral and Religious Education 343
attitude and so form the very essence of our morals. This
then is nothing more than a reiteration of what was said in the
preceding paragraph on how pupils should work, — hard,
resolutely, joyfully. Let us be sure that no other kind of
" study " has any great chance of passing into morals.
Moral Values. — Having agreed in great measure with the
disciplinarians on the importance of how children study, we
differ absolutely with those who belittle the question of what
they shall study. The moral and in general the practical
value of studies varies enormously, depending upon the
directness of their application to the life that the adult is to
lead. The secondary course stands in need of merciless scru-
tiny and appraisal in this respect. Let us follow Plato's
example, who, disregarding even the most sacred traditions,
chooses and rejects from every source, not excepting Homer
himself, according as the subject matter fosters virtue or its
opposite.
Two great fields at once present themselves as peculiarly
ethical : history and literature. These both deal direct with
human life ; they are the humanities, and as such must con-
stitute the chief part of the moral studies. With history must
be included the study of the present as well as the past ; also
the related sciences of economics, politics, and ethics, — all in
so far as they can be dealt with in the secondary period; and
the elements of all can be so used. Literature we include
without regard to the language in which it is written or read ;
hence much that is now set down as language study — which
is something utterly different — is here included. In other
words, this is really the question of the classics, without which,
rightly understood, there can be no liberal education, as has
been so often and so warmly declared.
The Classics. — As to the classics themselves, the humani-
ties, Milton forever voiced the view of their precious power that
has been the spring of all the passionate devotion which they
have excited from the days of the revival of learning until now ;
344 Principles of Secondary Education
through them, says he, in his Tractate, the boys are to " be
inflamed with the study of learning and the admiration of
virtue, stirred up with high hopes of living to be brave men
and worthy patriots, dear to God and famous to all ages,"
and more to the same inspiring effect. This was the view of
Vittorino and Erasmus and Ascham before Milton's day,
and of Arnold and Thring since. On such a view it is easy to
justify the great space in the curriculum given historically to the
classics. But on such a view the teacher of the classics —
in whatsoever language, Greek or German or mother tongue —
must be mainly not an instructor in language but an inter-
preter of man and his life, as bodied forth in the literature in
hand. This is humanism, and such a study as this does most
truly pass into character. How far, in the opinion of at least
one expert, we are from this lofty ideal, may be read in Gayley's
Idols of Education (pp. 108 ff. and passim}.
Heroes. — We have almost forgotten in these days the true
educative use of great men, so well known to earlier times ; the
figures of our own national heroes are almost unknown in their
true form to the vast majority of our people. By actual test
college students are quite ignorant of the essential facts
in the life of Lincoln, and could give no sort of adequate
reason for our placing him at the top of our list of great Ameri-
cans. The truth is that the life and character of Lincoln form
one of the most potent educative instruments at our hand, in
the vital task of perpetuating and elevating ideals of genuine
Americanism. But our young people must know him truly
and intimately ; as it is they have a few scraps of information
and error mixed and floating about in their minds to no spirit-
ual purpose.
Let room be made in the course for more history, especially
of our own country ; and let room be made in the history, -
by omitting great masses of material now learned only to be
immediately forgotten, — for extended and inspiring contact
with great figures ; besides our own great, — Columbus,
Moral and Religious Education 345
Washington, Lincoln, and a few others, — there should be an
acquaintance with the viri mundi, the supremely great of all
ages and races, Moses, Socrates, Pericles, Regulus, Alfred the
Great, Charlemagne, Cavour. These happen to be rulers
and statesmen, but there should also be scientists like Darwin,
inventors like Palissy, reformers like Luther, men who have
" enlarged the known powers of man " in any field, and, above
all, who have greatly served.
The true Shekinah, some one has said, is Man : all ideals of
life and conduct, all ethical truths, are seen perfectly only when
embodied in man himself ; this is the principle of incarnation,
of the revelation of God in man, of the Divine Word made
flesh. Educationally, this principle is doubly potent, for the
human figure has power to fascinate the attention and enchain
the heart of youth ; so personalities carry at once the content
and the enforcement of moral truth. The high school period
is the last chance for such spiritual effects, and probably the
best ; it is a valley of decision with respect to ideals and prin-
ciples ; the elementary pupil lacks the breadth of mental
horizon to enable him either to comprehend or feel the essen-
tial greatness of most educative figures ; the young man be-
yond the high school age, whether in college or in life, has closed
most of the questions involved, and is little affected by the in-
fluence of ideal personalities. This is the opportunity and the
responsibility of the secondary period.
The New Order. — But let us not lose sight of the new
humanities : the youth of to-day are looking out on a new world,
with economic, industrial, political, social ideals and attitudes
that were only vaguely dreamed of until practically our own
day. It is a world so full of threat and promise that hope
fights with despair in the minds of men. Some one must think
out the solutions of these momentous problems ; intelligence is
the only possible safeguard against internecine strife. Now
the high school occupies a unique position and bears a weighty
responsibility, for out of its small selected group must inevita-
346 Principles of Secondary Education
bly come in the main such leadership as the future may hope
to enjoy. Leadership rests upon two great qualities, spon-
taneity and initiative, — to the culture of which most of the
earlier part of this chapter has been given — and power to think
correctly. This is the imperative call for the social studies in
the high school, and that in the most practical way. The
abstract theory of ethics and economics may well wait for the
college and university, but clear and sound notions of certain
elements that pervade ordinary adult life, in business, in
society, in civic duty, in avocation, should be opened up to
every young person in high school. The secondary school is
waiting for a Giddings, or a Sumner, with the admirable art of
leading the minds of early adolescents into true views of these
questions that they must so soon settle at least in practice.
What is money? What are labor and capital? What do
luxury, waste, unemployment, crime, vice, mean for the lives of
men and women and children ? Above all, what are the new
hopes of our day and generation, the charity that revives the
spirit and rehabilitates the will, the physician's art that puts
prevention before cure and views its profession as social serv-
ice ; the new patriotism that works in peace as well as war,
pays its taxes, casts a well-considered and broad-hearted vote ;
the new jurisprudence and penology that seek to reform the
culprit rather than to avenge the crime. All this is most
congenial to the new vocational motive already discussed ;
the two fields complement each other, the vocation motive
reenforcing interest in the social studies, and the social ideal
illuminating and elevating the vocational concept.
Moral Idealism. — The more distinctly ethical aspect of
these social studies is the extension of the radius of altruism
in the minds of the adolescent youth. " Who is my neigh-
bor " is the insistent practical question in morals; in the
abstract any one agrees that we should love each other, but
most of us find that our charity not only begins at home, but
never gets far away from its center. The broadening of
Moral and Religious Education 347
knowledge has little value, at least so far as conduct is con-
cerned, unless sympathy also spreads. This is the chief
fault with our intellectualized instruction in history, literature,
economics, civics, and the like. The true maxim of humanism
is the noble dictum, " Nihil humani mihi alienum est," —but
things human are apprehended not by the understanding
alone, but also by the heart. Humane studies may be quite
dehumanized either by intellectual abstraction or by spiritual
indifference, and may then become rather immoral by accus-
toming the youth to look with untouched heart upon ideas
and images that ought to arouse the emotions of any true man.
" Unless youth be golden," says Jean Paul, " age will be
but dross." There is evidence of the need and approach of a
revival of the spiritual element in secondary education, the
quality that gave power to the teaching of Arnold and Thring
and far-off Vittorino. " Neither young nor old," says Presi-
dent Hall, in his Educational Problems, " should lose the ancient
vision that has inspired so many of the prophets, saints, and
apostles of righteousness, — of some ideal state, common-
wealth, or millennium, city or kingdom of God, Utopia, etc.,
where most ethical characters and organizations are found. In
the painful struggle for slight, gradual amelioration of present
evils, we should keep some dream chamber in our many man-
sioned soul, where we can occasionally retire and revel in the
imaginations of perfection, and hearten ourselves by yielding
to the fancy of all good wishes fulfilled and all high ideals
realized."
RELIGION
THE SECULAR SCHOOL. — The outward forms of reli-
gion which but recently were a part of all school life have
practically passed away from the public high schools of the
United States. The great majority of high school students
never hear the Bible read nor words of prayer uttered nor any
religious instruction or exhortation in school. The history of
348 Principles of Secondary Education
this secularization of the school has never been adequately
written. It is certainly part and parcel of a sweeping change
in the great field of the moral and religious life of our people,
and indeed of the whole civilized world. The sanctions of the
moral life in the present age are more social than supernatural.
The great appeal is to human welfare and hence to social
justice. This motive in an extreme form becomes Socialism,
which is a religion to most of its adherents.
But while the change is so widespread and pervasive as to be
well-nigh universal, it is not certain that it is so profound and
fundamental as might be implied by the terms in which it is
stated. History, in Goethe's figure, " stands at the roaring
loom of time and weaves for God the garment that we see him
by." May not social justice and human good also be the
visible manifestation of the Divine ?
REACTION. — Moreover, there are some signs that opinion
is swinging back somewhat from the extreme of secularity. The
charge sometimes made by overzealous religionists that the
schools are " Godless " has always been warmly resented by
most of our people and practically all of the teachers. " Shall
we have Godless schools? " asks a metropolitan daily. " Not
a family in the community would vote that we should. . . .
Who is it objects to the reading of a psalm and the saying
of the Lord's prayer? Is it conceivable that the objection
which may be expected to so simple a form of religious obser-
vance as this shall counterweigh the inculcation of religious
reverence ? Without regard for creed, there is surely a place
for God in the schools to which we send the children."
At least one state has adopted an official syllabus of Bible
study for use in its high schools ; * and requests for the syllabus
have come from every state in the union. In one large public
high school an elective course in the Old Testament scriptures
was given for eight years without arousing the slightest objec-
tion and with gratifying results in many ways.2
1 North Dakota. 2 See School Review, April, 1913, pp. 246-249.
Moral and Religious Education 349
THE LETTER AND THE SPIRIT. — The greatest danger
in the secular school is not the loss of the theological or
ecclesiastical content of the traditional religious instruction,
but the failure to learn to think of the world religiously, that
is, profoundly and humanly. Here is found the justification of
the paramount place given to religion in education by educa-
tors like Arnold of Rugby, and the Roman Catholics in all
periods. True, attention is too often placed upon externalities,
- religious exercises, scripture, church attendance, and the
like. These externalities are the field of infinite divergence and
antagonism, and this has led to the elimination of religion in
this sense from the public schools. We are just detecting our-
selves in the act of rejecting the essence along with the super-
ficial, or to use the homely German phrase, we are in danger of
" throwing out the child with the bath water."
Hence the first and most general task of the high school,
and the secondary teacher, in this respect, is to lead youth not
only to think all things in their individual clearness and their
immediate relations, — which is scien.ce, — but also to get a
vision of the wholeness of the world and of life, and the radia-
tions of cause and effect out to their remote bearings in both
space and time ; and finally to feel that all things get their
meaning and value from their relation to the life of mankind,
with all its possibilities, both tragic and glorious.
Against such thinking there is no law, nor any voice of pro-
test. Young people of high school age eagerly follow the
teacher who leads them in these directions, and cherish the
memory of such teachers above all others. But the method is
all important : dictation and coercion are worse than useless ;
learning by rote is futile ; here, more than anywhere else, the
teacher's role is stimulus and guidance ; the student must
think himself out ; the only effective compulsion is the force
of truth and reason. But the ancient sage at least had
boundless faith in the spiritual efficacy of such a method
when he wrote " ' Come let us reason together,' saith the
35O Principles of Secondary Education
Lord, ' though your sins be as scarlet, they shall be as white
as wool.' '
MEANS. — Certainly there are means peculiarly fitted to
these ends. The Bible will usually be recognized as the su-
preme expression of the moral and religious life of the past.
References made earlier in this section show that the way is
probably opening for a renewed attention to the scriptures,
at least the Old Testament, in the schools. Natural science
no longer boasts of having " abolished mysteries " and is in
far less sharp antithesis to religious thought than it was
twenty-five years ago. History and literature are the great
opportunities for nurturing the religious as well as the ethical
view of life. I have elsewhere pointed out that many of our
heroes, national and universal, if presented truly, bring in
religion embodied in their characters and actions.1
Finally, do we not need to consider earnestly the place wrhich
the daily chapel exercise in its various forms held in practically
all secondary schools and colleges but a short time ago ? Com-
plete return to it is impossible and probably not desirable ;
but it is hard to doubt that we need to gather students and
teachers together more frequently in meetings whose spirit is
earnest, reverent, thoughtful, touched with emotion, raised
to the higher levels of thought and feelings, in a word, and in
the deepest sense of that word, religious.
THE HIGH SCHOOL TEACHER
LIMITATION BY CONDITIONS. — Miss Addams tells
of some lads who complained to her that their high school
principal never talked to them about life. " He never asks
us what we are going to be; we can't get a word out of him
excepting lessons and keeping quiet in the halls." Yet
every one who knows the social status of the school and
the teacher knows that the blame for such an attitude
1 Religious Education, April, 1911.
Moral and Religious Education 351
rests upon society and its treatment of the school and
the teacher rather than upon the unfortunate high school
principal in question, or the thousands of teachers who are
like him. The intellectual load of the course of study, tight
bound by college entrance requirements, exhausts the powers
of attention and effort of most teachers. In the small school
the teacher has too many subjects and classes ; in the large
school too much routine and regulation. The routine must be
performed ; spiritual influence cannot be placed upon a time
schedule nor tested by examination, so we have as of old the
tithing of mint and anise and cummin to the exclusion of the
weightier matters of the cultivation of judgment and righteous-
ness in the pupils.
REMEDIES. — The amount of potential moral educative
energy stored up, or rather choked up, in the high school
teachers of the land is beyond computation. Two things are
greatly to be desired : first, that the pressure of class work,
exercise correction, theme reading, laboratory instruction,
and other forms of routine may be greatly reduced, and
thus allow the teacher time and spiritual energy for per-
sonal relation with classes and individuals ; then, also, that
teachers should express in word and deed the interest they
feel in the real inner state and development of their pupils.
The secondary teacher of other days was a teacher of youth ;
now he is an instructor in mathematics or botany or Ger-
man ; the difference is by no means simply verbal. Admit-
ting, although only for the sake of the argument, that the
new instructor accomplishes more in intellectual progress,
it may still be asked whether we might not well travel quite
halfway toward the older type. After all, the most impor-
tant of all qualifications for the teacher is that embodied
in the vow of the Jesuit, " a special concern for the education
of youth."
Yet must the teacher study to be only a stimulator of the
mind and will of the student ; moral education consists in
352 Principles of Secondary Education
bringing to pass the most and best activity of the will of the
educand himself, in all its phases, — energy, intelligent direc-
tion, and finally righteousness. He must do right; but the
vital doing is inner, psychic, often hidden from all except
perhaps the keenest insight. He must think and feel aright ;
the moral teacher is the one who can accomplish this inner
result ; and the doing of this is influence. The teacher here
as elsewhere is to find his success in rendering himself no
longer needed. The road to this end is hard to find ; in general
it requires that the teacher should do as little as possible and
the learner as much as possible. We have suggested that
many teachers exercise their powers of moral influence too
little — perhaps speak too little with a moral aim ; yet it is
easy to say too much and do too much. In training as well as
in instruction, great is the power of silence and refraining ; not
seldom it incites the educand to his utmost efforts and so
advances him most effectively in power and wisdom. To be
ever at hand, ready to help ; ever interested in the problems,
the perplexities, the temptations, the hopes and ambitions,
of the young ; yet not to meddle, not to interrupt needlessly,
to perceive the right moment and divine the true means, -
this is the art of influence.
Perhaps the most practical advice that can be given to the
teacher who desires success in this task is to follow the method
of the Greeks, who, as Matthew Arnold says, poured a flood
of thought about every question. We must think before and
after; we must plan our operations as wisely as we can, and
subject the outcome to earnest scrutiny that we may do more
wisely the next time. Nor is any individual competent to
think out his problems unaided ; the flood of thought, to be
safe and adequate, must come from many minds ; hence the
value of conference in all its forms, especially, however, among
small groups of two or three who have common interests and
deal with the same or similar individuals.
The high school youth is looking out eagerly into the world,
Moral and Religious Education 353
— of which he usually takes a very unacademic view. His
great problems all look in that direction, as indeed they should.
He often views his teachers as semi-clerical, unworldly, almost
secluded in their minds and activity. In this he is doubtless
partly wrong; but he is also partly right, and the teacher
who will seek influence in any high degree with the mass of
the youth must live in the current of the world's life, think
on the problems of the day, and share in social, civic, and
political life. Only thus can he either trust his guidance to
be right or hope that his pupils will respond. It is a part of
the great price at which influence is bought ; fortunately it is
also worth while in itself. We may well hope that various
present obstacles to such activity on the part of teachers may
be removed.
TOPICS FOR FURTHER STUDY
1. How can will power be developed through high school work aside
from the training that comes from meeting moral problems ?
2. What relation exists between intellectual results and moral training
so far as you have observed it in actual schoolroom experience ?
3. What changes in our usual high school curricula are demanded to
meet this problem of moral education ? What changes of method ? Of
organization ?
4. How valuable is "direct" moral training ? How can it be given ?
5. If the whole problem of education is moral, how can desired moral
results be obtained from any one given subject, as mathematics, history,
or literature ?
6. What is the relation of "interest" to moral education, as you have
observed it in your own experience as pupil and teacher ?
7. In what respects and why does the period of adolescence seem to
be the most fruitful period for moral education ?
8. To what extent is it possible to give intellectual instruction through
"problems" and how does this affect moral education? What are the
difficulties and dangers involved ?
q. To what extent should sex hygiene form a part of the instruction
in high school ? How can it best be given ?
10. What value do athletics possess as a means to moral education?
What moral problems do athletic activities present to the high school
pupil ?
354 Principles of Secondary Education
11. To what extent can the work in physical education be made the
basis of moral training ?
12. To what extent can the social activities and organizations of the
high school pupils be used as means of moral training ?
13. To what extent can forms of self-government be used to effect
moral results ?
14. Compare either English, French, or German secondary schools
with American in the use which they make of athletics, physical edu-
cation, self-government revenues, direct moral instruction, sex hygiene
instruction, or the direct instruction in the intellectual subjects, as means
to moral education ?
15. In the life and work of great school masters, as Arnold, Thring,
Hopkins, was it their influence in moral education or in intellectual in-
struction that counted more ? In each of such cases what were the means
by which the moral influence was exerted ?
1 6. Does vocational training simplify or render more complex the
problem of moral education ? Why and how ?
17. To what extent, as shown in concrete studies, does vocational
guidance aid in moral education ?
1 8. Does coeducation simplify or make more complex the problem of
moral education ? In what respects ?
19. What place has religious instruction in secondary schools? How
can it best be given ?
20. What place does religious instruction have in the adolescent period ?
How can it best be given ?
21. What is the relation between religious instruction and moral
education ?
22. What place and obligation has the teacher in moral education?
REFERENCES
ADLER, F. Moral Instruction of Children. New York, 1898.
BUTLER, NICHOLAS MURRAY, and others. Principles of Religious Edu-
cation. New York, 1900.
COE. GEORGE A. Education in Religion and Morals. New York,
1904.
DEWEY, J. Ethical Principles underlying Education. Chicago, 1897.
Moral Principles in Education. Boston, 1909.
Interest as Related to Will. Bloomington, 111., 1896.
DRAWBRIDGE, C. L. Religious Education. How to Improve It. Lon-
don, 1906.
First International Moral Education Congress :
Moral and Religious Education 355
(1) Record of Proceedings. London, 1908.
(2) Papers on Moral Education. London, 1908.
JENKS, J. W. Life Questions for High School Boys. Y. W. C. A., 1910.
JONES, HENRY, and others. The Child and Religion. New York and
London, 1905.
Publications of the Religious Education Association (Chicago) and
of the Catholic Educational Association (Columbus).
McCuxN, J. The Making of Character. New York, 1900.
PALMER, G. H. Ethical and Moral Instruction in Schools. Boston, 1909.
Religious Education Association. Education and National Character.
RILEY, A., and others. The Religious Question in Public Education.
London, 1911.
SADLER, M. E. Moral Instruction and Training in Schools. London,
1908.
SPALDING, J. L. Means and Ends of Education. Chicago, 1901.
SPILLER, G. Report on Moral Instruction and on Moral Training.
Bibliography. London, 1909.
SPILLER, G., ed. Papers on Moral Education. International Moral
Education Congress. London, 1909.
See also the References in the body of this article.
CHAPTER IX
THE VERNACULAR
THE TEACHING OF LITERATURE. — As early as Plato
the fundamental theoretical principles which underlie the teach-
ing of literature were already clearly stated. In the Gorgias
the character who gives the name to this dialogue maintains
that he has elaborated an art, the art of rhetoric, which is
communicable by teaching and which will assure to the practi-
tioner of that art the greatest possible happiness. Plato, on
the other hand, if we may assume that Isocrates expresses
Plato's opinions, maintains that what Gorgias calls an art is
a false art, is merely flattery (cf . the place which is assigned to
the poet in the Republic}, and that real power has to do only
with the perception of and control over that inner truth which
is each man's possession in varying degrees by gift of nature,
and that consequently there is no communicable art of ex-
pression based upon sound moral principles. To these two
views, both manifestly presented in the extreme, should be
added a third, set forth in the Ion. This is the doctrine of
" secondary inspiration," according to which certain persons
whose spirits are attuned in a peculiar manner to the writings
of some specific master of literature are thus enabled to put
themselves with respect to these writings into a sympathetic
mood of enthusiasm which is similar to the mood of the author
in composing them, and which in a certain degree is communi-
cable to others. The three principal points, therefore, which
are represented in these two dialogues, expressed in terms of
modern thought, are, first, the possibility of teaching the
technique of an art of literature ; second, the necessity of
basing literature not upon technique, but upon personal
356
The Vernacular 357
character, which is not communicable and consequently not
teachable ; and third, the transmission of the elements of
personal character not completely but in an imperfect manner
by means of sympathetic appreciation or secondary inspira-
tion. If we add to these principles a conception not possible
in Plato's time, the conception of a history or development of
literature, we shall have all the main ideas which underlie
the modern teaching of the subject.
ENGLISH LITERATURE IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS. -
The question of the advisability of teaching literature in the
modern secondary schools has been definitely answered by ac-
tual experience. Through the various stages of the elocution-
ary speaking of " pieces," the use of reading books, and finally
the detailed and formal study of English classics, the study of
literature has gradually taken its place in the school curriculum,
although it is only within the present generation that extensive
and specific provision has been made for such study. The cause
and the justification for the contemporary emphasis placed
upon the study of the English language and literature are
intimately bound up with the democratic tendencies in general
of both language and literature within the last three genera-
tions. English literature, beginning with the reforms of the
late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, has become
more and more in its modern manifestations an expression of
general social ideas and emotions than it has ever been before,
and its range of appeal has consequently become wider.
Moreover, the modern school, in the extraordinary expansion
by which it has assumed to itself many different kinds of
activity, left by the earlier school either to the limited instruc-
tion of the parent or of special masters, has at the same time
assumed certain responsibilities, necessarily arising from the
instruction in the elements of these new subjects which the
school provides for the public at large. Thus in teaching
practically every member of the community how to read and
write, the school has placed within the reach of all the elements
358 Principles of Secondary Education
necessary to the understanding and the practice of the literary
art. Having provided the general public with the key of
admission to the treasury of English literature, modern
education cannot consistently abandon the public thereafter
to its own undisciplined devices. A system of universal
popular education logically demands that attention be given
to so influential an element as literature in the life of the people ;
and in answer to this demand, from the lowest grades through
the secondary school, the college, and the university, the study
of the literature of the vernacular has come to occupy an im-
portant, and, on the whole, unquestioned place. The de-
batable question is no longer whether English literature shall
be taught to English students, but how and with what varying
degrees of emphasis it shall be taught.
Literary Appreciation. — Perhaps the most important single
result of modern practical experience has been the turning
aside from matters of information about authors and litera-
ture, as exemplified in the old-fashioned manuals of the history
of literature, to an attempt at direct appreciation of the
literary monuments themselves. It is now generally recognized
that historical and biographical information with respect to
literature is of secondary value, and that it finds its justifica-
tion in instruction only when it helps the student to a truer
appreciation of the literary product. The study of literature
is not, therefore, an appendage to the study of history ; and
this is especially true in the elementary teaching of literature.
The details of historical and biographical information are
matters of scholarship, whereas the proper understanding of
literature in its simplicity is not primarily a matter of scholar-
ship, but rather of sensibility and feeling.
Study of the Vocabulary. — At the same time it is recog-
nized that the teaching of elementary English literature is
not altogether a matter of sensibility and feeling, and that it
has elements of a severer intellectual discipline in it. In the
first place, all literary expression is made up of words, and an
Tke Vernacular 359
intelligent understanding of the meanings and connotations
of words is absolutely necessary to any adequate appreciation
of literary monuments. The teacher, therefore, must gauge
the capabilities of students with respect to the vocabulary of
the literary expression under examination in such a way as to
make sure that their understanding is not only clear, but also
in accordance with the normal traditional usages of the lan-
guage. It is not enough that students should have a definite
impression of a work of literature ; they must also have correct
impressions. In acquiring this right understanding of words,
which, as Plato has justly said, is the basis of scholarship,
the teacher's most intelligent judgment and oversight are
necessary. Obviously the study of a literary monument the
expression of which is so far beyond the comprehension of the
student that his attention is completely taken up with details,
leaving him no energy for the synthesis of his impressions,
should be deferred until the student has at his command
a wider range both of vocabulary and of modes of thought.
The Literary Language. — Another kind of definite fact
which the elementary teacher of literature may not neglect
is that which has to do with certain forms of phrasing peculiar
to the literary style, especially the use of figurative language.
These modes of expression are usually quite outside the
student's natural colloquial experience, and unless they are
specifically analyzed, the significance of them is not clearly
realized, even when the individual words are intelligible.
It is the frequent experience of all teachers of English literature
that even fairly mature students are unable to see the value
of a metaphorical expression, an inability which arises not
so much from an inactive intelligence as it does from unfamil-
iarity with the literary convention contained in the manner of
expression. The study of literary style, as it was developed
in the early manuals of rhetoric, and as it was based upon the
study of the Greek and Latin classics, limited itself almost
exclusively to the analysis and classification of figures and
360 Principles of Secondary Education
metaphors. The futility of all such classification merely for
the sake of classification acknowledged, it must be granted also
that, within proper bounds, the analysis of metaphorical
expression is justifiable and necessary.
Still a third group of facts to be noted in the disciplinary
study of elementary literature consists of allusions, proper
names, and other matters of information embodied in the text,
the understanding of which is necessary for the proper grasp-
ing of the writer's intention. Here again it is apparent that
works such as some of the satires of Dryden and Pope, in
which the local and contemporary allusions are so numerous
as to absorb all the student's attention, are hardly appropriate
material for elementary instruction.
The Philological Method. — When stress is placed heavily
upon these details of fact, that is, on vocabulary, figures, al-
lusions, etc., the result is what is often called the " philological"
method of the study of literature. This kind of literary study,
which arose out of a desire to give the study what was con-
sidered a disciplinary value, was much more in vogue in a pre-
ceding generation than it is at present. The study of figures
of speech, for example, was made a very technical drill in the
classification of the figures under the heads of an elaborate and
pedantic system of classical terminology. In the same way
the study of vocabulary was, and often continues to be,
carried to extremes in the consideration of the etymological
origins of the various words, or their comparative uses by
different writers, and similar questions. The study of gram-
mar is often combined with the study of literature, and teachers
have been known to compel students to parse through every
word of In Mcmoriam under the pretense of a literary study
of that poem. It is perhaps sufficient to point out here that
the philological method When carried to such extremes does not
answer the requirements of the study of literature, however
valuable it may be as a technical drill in language. The com-
mon-sense conclusion seems to be that a piece of literature
The Vernacular 36 1
should not be taken up, at least in elementary or secondary
instruction, when it requires such elaborate linguistic commen-
tary that the student's attention and energy are completely
abstracted from the appreciation and enjoyment of the work
merely as literature.
Technique and Structure. — - The more subtle questions of
technique, such as those which have to do with form or
structure in the larger sense, the differentiation of types, the
conventions of individual types, etc., are usually, and may very
well be, disregarded in elementary instruction. With the
most mature students the interest of these questions with
respect to literature may be considered as esoteric, and with
younger students, much more limited in power of abstract
thought, the dwelling upon them is merely confusing. There
is perhaps somewhat more justification in dwelling upon
historical considerations, e.g. the period at which a work was
written and the particular contemporary circumstances of its
composition. Such details are often helpful in grasping the
meaning of a work as a whole. But it is doubtful if students
should be much troubled with attempts to group writers into
periods, or to appreciate large general movements, like
classicism and romanticism, in the earlier stages of their
literary training. The usual plan of reserving such considera-
tions for the last year of the secondary curriculum or for the
college seems to be the wisest.
As to the question of transmitting appreciation for the
literary monument itself, after all matters of technical detail
have been disposed of, apparently little that is of practical
value can be said. It will be generally conceded that Plato
was right when he declared that there was no communicable
technique for the best aspects of literature, and that a right
feeling, " a secondary inspiration," will accomplish more than
the most ingenious technical analysis. And as the Greek
rhapsodists gave expression to this secondary inspiration
mainly by reciting the works of the authors who inspired
362 Principles of Secondary Education
them, so in elementary instruction intelligent reading is often
more effective than elaborate commentary.
Moral and Cultural Value. — One other aspect of the ele-
mentary study of literature presents itself insistently to the
teacher, and this is the question of the relation of the study
of literature to the study of morals, ideas, and civilization in
general. It is obvious that the possibilities of correlations
of this kind in literary study are almost illimitable in extent.
No other kind of expression has summed up so directly and so
compactly as English literature has done the ideas and forces
which have exerted influence upon the thought of the English
people. Any adequate study of the monuments of English
literature must consequently and of necessity lead over into
a consideration of moral ideas. The study of The Merchant
of Venice, of Silas Marner, of The Ancient Mariner, to choose
a few examples at random, inevitably raises in each instance
important questions of moral conduct which are inherent
in the very conception of the works. The endeavor
to exclude such discussions by limiting the choice of
texts read to simple narrative, like Scott's narrative poems,
seems hardly defensible, since it excludes what must be re-
garded as the most characteristic products of English literature.
Here again a balanced and common-sense attitude toward
the question of moral instruction in the teaching of literature
seems to be the only one tenable. To make literature merely
the vehicle for the conveyance of moral instruction, to torture
a moral lesson out of every innocent poem or tale, changes
the subject from the study of literature to the study of ethics,
besides frequently destroying for the student the characteristic
charm of the writings under consideration. On the other hand,
the moral and didactic implications of many of the most im-
portant monuments of English literature cannot be disregarded
without slighting what is after all one of the most persistent
and prominent characteristics of the whole history of that
literature.
The Vernacular 363
Grading the Material. — The question of grading the
material used in literary study may naturally be answered
variously according to the attendant circumstances. In
general, however, in the early years of the elementary
pupil's development, the most appropriate material will be
found in fairy tales, folk tales, myths, and simplified forms
of epic narrative. The next stage in the development of
popular narrative, and the one which is most appropriate
for study in the later years of the elementary school, is rep-
resented by the romantic tales of chivalry, such as the stories
of King Arthur and other medieval romances, as well as
chivalric stories from actual history. In the secondary school,
on the other hand, considerably more attention is paid, and
appropriately so, to writings which are specifically works of
literary art, and which consequently bear the marks of con-
scious literary artifice, such, for example, as the list of " Eng-
lish Classics " prescribed for reading and study in preparation
for entrance into college, and the still larger list now recom-
mended for all secondary schools by the National Council of
Teachers of English.
THE TEACHER AS AN INTERPRETER OF LITERA-
TURE. — The " interpretation of literature " is a general ex-
pression including one or more of several things. In its pri-
mary and simple sense, it means understanding what the author
has said. Such interpretation is the main thing in reading
simple straightforward prose like Lincoln's Gettysburg Speech
or Macaulay's Life of JoJinson, and simple poetry like Long-
fellow's The Wreck of the Hesperus or Homer's Odyssey. It is
in this primary sense that the child reads his Second Reader,
and the average man reads his daily newspaper. He gets
the surface meaning, interpreted and made significant by such
experiences as he has had. But what the classical scholar gets
in reading Homer differs widely in quality and quantity from
what the schoolboy gets ; what the statesman or historian
understands and sees in the daily news differs from the read-
364 Principles of Secondary Education
ing of the ordinary citizen ; The Pilgrim's Progress had more
meaning for the Puritan theologians than it has for a twentieth-
century reader. It is obvious that even in the reading of the
clearest, simplest literature there are widely varying degrees
of understanding and mental responsiveness. It is equally
obvious that as the education of the child progresses he ought
year by year to be able to get more out of the simpler forms of
literature, and to read literature whose comprehension re-
quires more accumulated experience from both life and books ;
the general field of literature ought for him to have year by
year more and deeper significance. As his power of inter-
pretation grows with his general mental growth, he will
naturally put away some of the childish things. It is no dis-
paragement of the nursery rhymes and folk-tales that the high
school pupil has outgrown them ; no disparagement of Long-
fellow that he has little to say to highly cultivated minds,
though he may have been among the favorite authors of their
nonage.
Interpretation is, then, a changing and growing, not a static,
power in all who are in process of being educated. It is pri-
marily a matter of comprehension. It is closely related also
to taste, has much to do with forming and determining taste ;
for how one feels towards a subject is determined largely by
how much one understands. Is the town drunkard a joke,
or an object of pity? Is the financial bandit to be envied
or to be despised? Was Napoleon a great man, or a powerful
brute? Is war glorious, or senseless and bestial? Are the
footlights of the cheap theater the entrance to fairyland?
Your answer to such questions will indicate not only your
feelings, but what you really know. And so with books. Is
Dickens sometimes vulgar or maudlin? Does he rank high
in fertility of invention? Is Omar Khayyam irreligious?
Is the newspaper you read conducted with intelligence and
honesty? Do you accept the statements of advertisers or
politicians at their face value? A book, like a fact, is nothing
The Vernacular 365
in itself. Unread, it is non-existent. Read by one person,
it is one thing ; by another person, another thing ; to the same
person at different times, even, a book may have widely dif-
ferent values. Different ages, as well as different persons,
have viewed differently the same books. Shakespeare in-
tended his audience to jeer at Shy lock in his defeat, and they
did ; but modern readers, actors, and audiences find him a
tragic figure in spite of Shakespeare's clear intention, and
Portia's mercy speech rings hollow if not hypocritical. Don
Quixote was a humorous scarecrow to the seventeenth century,
an object of sympathy and admiration to the nineteenth.
The interpretation of literature is, indeed, a highly relative
thing : changeable, various, and complex. And the teacher
must not expect a book to have the same import and value
for all his pupils.
The student of literature, that is, the thoughtful reader of
literature, may approach it from different directions. These
approaches may be determined by our own dominant interests
or by the nature of the literature itself.
i. Our interests may be largely linguistic. We may study
our Shakespeare, our Chaucer, our Alfred, for the language of
the time. This is an interesting and important study, but
it is not, strictly speaking, the study of literature. It is the
study of that in which literature is expressed, and without
which it cannot be understood. The authors and scholars
of the eighteenth century, being ignorant of Middle English,
were under the delusion that Chaucer was barbarous and un-
musical, and so failed to enjoy the charm of his poetry. Eng-
lish philology has put Chaucer back among the readable
poets. Most of the failure of high school pupils and ordinary
readers to appreciate Shakespeare is due to the strangeness
of his language ; he was clear enough to the audiences of his
own day.
To slight the study of words in teaching literature is to
render the reading weak and colorless. Not only the mean-
366 Principles of Secondary Education
ing, but the quality and flavor, of a selection are determined
by the fine shades of diction. He only has learned to read
who has become sensitive to words, and is willing to give care-
ful thought to their meaning. Such a reader will find his range
widened, not only in English, but in its related dialects. Burns
and Scott among the elder, and Barrie among the later, writers
demand an eye and ear quick to take in dialect. Tales of
Irish life, stories in negro dialect, like Uncle Remus, and many
other variations from standard English may be read not only
with pleasure but in confidence that they are literature. The
genius of the English-speaking peoples is hospitable to new
and changing forms of speech, averse to fixity and to linguistic
authority.
2. Our interest may be biographical, not in the narrow
sense of the external facts of the author's life, — those events
that can be recorded with dates affixed, — but in the fuller
sense of an interest in the personality of the man. Much
so-called biography is only remote gossip ; not wholly unworthy
and ignoble, if taken as an interesting and significant part of
the great human document. One would not like to be igno-
rant of the fact that the great have had their sins and foibles ;
but one would hardly wish to have such things loom so large
as to impair one's sense of values. Yet, in studying literature
those features of an author's life and character which help
us to understand his work are well worth while. The con-
nection between one man's life and his books will not be the
same as another's. Burns, Lamb, Goldsmith, Stevenson, have
written themselves into their work in a full and direct fashion.
Milton and Tennyson have done it much less directly. For
such of his life as we have, Shakespeare has done it still less ;
and it is hard to see, in these last three instances, how the
study of their lives can throw much light upon, or create much
interest in, their work for young students. Indeed, it is rather
common among lovers of literature for their interest in literary
biographies to come late, — say at twenty-five or later, — though
The Vernacular 367
their familiarity with good literature may date from their
early 'teens.
When one has reached the point of finding the author's
personality in his work, he has come to the thing of value in
the biographical aspect of his studies. How a flower, or a
waterfall, or a peasant appealed to Wordsworth, to Burns,
to Scott, to Tennyson ; how Shelley reacted to a social wrong,
how Burns did, how Dickens did ; what things were humorous
to Chaucer, to Shakespeare, to Jane Austen ; what things
roused Milton's anger, and what his reverence ; which authors
see life direct, and which see it through the medium of books ;
what things appeal to the senses of this man or that, — these
are not biographical questions only, but critical, also, and are
therefore interpretation of literature in a very real sense.
3. Our interest may be historical. We may view a piece
of literature as a link in the chain of historic development.
The rise and end of the epic ; the invention of the sonnet,
its disuse and subsequent revival ; the rise and decline of the
heroic couplet ; the development of the various forms of the
novel, in the guise of letters, or of autobiography or of the
omniscient third personal narrator, — these and many other
matters of form invite historical study. More interesting
than these matters of form, however, is the development of
ideas. The sonnet has enlarged its scope from a simple,
usually trivial, love motive, until it includes almost every
phase of human experience capable of brief poetic expression.
Ideals and standards of taste and morality have changed
immensely. Some of the tricks played upon foolish Malvolio
strike a modern audience as brutal rather than funny ; and so
the prison scene is now omitted from stage representations of
Twelfth Night. Milton's ideas of woman's place are not the
same as those in Tennyson's The Princess. Chaucer's Wife
of Bath had a freedom of speech repugnant to the taste of
the nineteenth century, but our own time seems disposed to
allow her modern counterparts an equal degree of freedom in
368 Principles of Secondary Education
the name of the social sciences. The bludgeon-like insults of
the eighteenth century, in epigram or heroic couplet, once
passed for wit and satire ; now they would only serve to mark
the author as socially " impossible." Since Wordsworth's
day the humble and the poor and the child have come to a place
in literature undreamed of in Shakespeare's day.
Such changes in literature both record and cause the changes
in social ideals, and are therefore not only profoundly inter-
esting, but, as subjects of study, immensely valuable. The
student who has begun to notice such things, to compare ideals
in different times and different authors, has begun not only
to read, but to learn and to think ; he has awakened to what
is perhaps the greatest educational force in literature. To
cite a familiar instance : When George Eliot closes her village
idyll of Silas Marner by marrying her heroine to a common
village laborer, instead of letting her enter into the inheritance
and the opportunities which her father, the squire, offers her,
we note the unconventional nature of the denouement. Why
has the author done this? Out of regard for young Aaron,
the rustic lover? Hardly, for he need not even have been
introduced into the story. To punish the father for his
cowardly delay in acknowledging his child? But he has
already been punished in various ways : he is childless, he has
his conscience and a gently censorious wife. Is this the only
way of rewarding Silas? He could die in peace and happi-
ness before the necessity for Eppie's choice arises. Does the
author mean that there is more happiness in a cottage than in
a mansion ? Is it the spirit of nineteenth century democracy,
or her strong sense of the laws of things, that guides the author
to this ending ? Whatever answer we make, we are forced to
admit that the story would probably not have been ended
thus before the days of George Eliot. Any one of a dozen
authors of the nineteenth century might have ended the
story as she did, but hardly one of those of an earlier
century.
The Vernacular 369
4. Our interest may be purely aesthetic. In much of our
reading we are content with the satisfaction of our aesthetic
sense. We find the story or poem is beautiful, and ask no more
of it. Such is the appeal of many lyrics, for example. The
songs of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, the comedies
of Shakespeare, the odes of Keats and Shelley, the poetry of
Swinburne, often raise little thought, or none, as to their mean-
ing, their wisdom. They have no " message," no evangel,
for us. It may be beauty of sound that we feel, ranging all
the way from the simple rhythm of Mother Goose to the in-
tricate melody of Swinburne or the " organ-music " of Milton.
It may be the beauty of the picture presented, as in Keats'
Eve of St. Agnes. It may be the vague stirring of other
aesthetic memories, as in Keats' Nightingale or Wordsworth's
Highland Girl. Often, indeed, the pleasure is in a thrill,
a transport, compounded of several of these elements. To
those for whom such things have no appeal, they have no
appeal. The deaf cannot enjoy music, the blind do not fre-
quent picture-galleries ; but deafness and blindness are mis-
fortunes, not arguments.
5. Our interest may be in the form and structure of a piece
of literature. We may examine the meter and rhyme arrange-
ment of poetry, study and compare the various types of sonnet
structure, note the parts of a short story, trace the threads of
action in the complicated plot of a novel, follow the develop-
ment of a drama through the crisis to the denouement, or note
the logical relation in the parts of an essay. Such study,
especially in the drama and prose fiction, involves important
acts of judgment, where plot is made to depend on probability
in action or consistency in character. That story is con-
vincing which seems to unfold naturally and inevitably from
given conditions. Where probability is strained or character
forced, the story weakens. The effect of a drama or story
depends much upon the arrangement of climaxes, suspense,
and expositions. The study of these things demands inter-
2 B
370 Principles of Secondary Education
esting acts of judgment. And when we seek to determine
the fitness of a verse-form to the idea expressed in it, both
judgment and taste are involved.
It is easy and tempting to overdo this form of study. Its
definiteness is attractive, like the definiteness of mathematics
or formal grammar. But it is to be remembered that litera-
ture is complicated, as mathematics and grammar are not,
with quite other elements that do not lend themselves to exact
formulation. Emotion and taste are complex, often nebulous,
and must not be dissipated in a mistaken effort for exactness
and formality.
The kinds of study sketched in the foregoing paragraphs
will not answer the question how a given selection is to be read.
Generally it should be from several of these points of view.
The treatment appropriate to one piece of literature is un-
suited to another ; the presentation of the same piece of litera-
ture will quite properly differ for different classes, or for the
same class in the hands of different teachers. No teaching
in the secondary school should or could exhaust all these types
of study. Any method which reduces the teaching of the
classics to rule and formula is pretty certain to become in-
flexible, unsympathetic, wooden, because it loses sight, first,
of the relative interest and values of things in any particular
piece of literature, and, second, of the things that can appeal
most to the given class. The attitude of the teacher should
be that of a cultivated mind ready to help his pupils see and
appreciate those things which at their stage they can best see
and those things from which they can get most of information,
wisdom, and aesthetic satisfaction.
As to method, little need be said. It will, of course, be no
stereotyped method that will get good results. Relevant
information, sometimes got from suggested reading, sometimes
imparted viva voce (even brief lectures are not always bad) ;
questions that hint at and open up new ideas ; tests of memory ;
reading aloud, not too much, even though the teacher does
The Vernacular 371
think he reads well ; enthusiastic emphasis upon the really
significant and beautiful things ; some analysis — again not
too much — upon what gives the beauty and significance ;
and a large catholicity of taste regarding both literature and
life, — these are some of the elements that make for good
method in teaching literature.
A few instances of this informal treatment of literature may
make for greater clearness. Hawthorne's David Swan is
one of the simplest stories in his Twice-told Tales. The
author announces his theme at the beginning : Events big
with possibilities often brush near us and pass us by without
our knowledge. How does Hawthorne illustrate this ? Three
possibilities, wealth, love, and death, or what might have led
to each of these, almost come to David while he sleeps by the
roadside. In the same book, in the story of Dr. Heidegger's
Experiment, Hawthorne gives his answer to the question,
Could we live our lives over again, should we live more wisely?
He chooses for the experiment four old people whose lives had
been such conspicuous failures that they might well wish for
another chance. They are given the magical water from the
Fountain of Youth ; they drink, find their youth restored, and
forthwith proceed to indulge in the same kinds of folly as had
originally wrecked them. In the climax of their revels they
upset the water, and old age descends upon them again.
How has Hawthorne prepared for this introduction of the
magical ? By a certain uncanny gloom and by hints of magi-
cal things in the doctor's office. How does he bring the scene
to an end? By the breaking of the bowl that contains the
water. His use of the mirror, his moralizing, have his char-
acteristic imaginative and speculative touch.
Browning's Up at a Villa — Down in the City introduces
a lively and volatile Italian who would like to live in the city,
but cannot afford to do so. How do we know he is volatile?
What pleasures of city life does he wish for? The processions,
the noises, the gossip, — the things that to him mean life.
372 Principles of Secondary Education
Why is the city too expensive? We need to know about the
heavy taxes imposed on food in Italian cities. What lines
or phrases indicate these things ?
But bless you, it's dear, — it's dear ! fowls, wine, at double
the rate.
They have clapped a new tax upon salt, and what oil pays
passing the gate,
It's a horror to think of.
His delight in noise is as na'ive as that of a boy at the circus :
Bang — whang — whang goes the drum, tootlc-te-tootle the
fife:
No keeping one's haunches still : it's the greatest pleasure
in life.
Ere you open your eyes in the city, the blessed church bells
begin :
No sooner the bells leave off than the diligence rattles in.
What, by the way, is " the diligence? " And what is the
" Pulcinello-trumpet " mentioned a few lines farther on?
And the " traveling doctor " who " gives pills, lets blood,
draws teeth " : has — his kind disappeared? And the church
ceremonies, in church and on the street, — have you seen any
of them? Does our Italian who says, "I scratch my own
(skull), sometimes, to see if the hair's turned wool," pay any
unconscious tribute to the beauty of the country ?
You've the brown ploughed land before, where the oxen
steam and wheeze,
And the hills oversmoked behind by the faint gray olive-
trees.
*******
'Mid the sharp, short emerald wheat, scarce risen three
fingers well,
The wild tulip, at end of its tube, blows out its great red bell
Like a thin clear bubble of blood, for the children to pick and
sell.
The Vernacular 373
Is Browning merely laughing at our childlike friend of the
poem? Or does he have a kindly, smiling sympathy for him?
And is the man in the poem like the mass of the dwellers in
cities to-day? Is Browning preaching a lesson, or merely
showing us a type ? Do the lively meter and the free and easy
colloquial diction fit the speaker and express him well ?
But there is no end to illustrations that might be used, and,
as I have already insisted, there is no set form that holds for
all selections or for the second time in the same selection.
COMPOSITION. — The term " composition " is applied
to the grouping of figures or other objects in painting and
sculpture, and to the grouping of ideas in language. In each
case the end sought by such grouping is the attainment of
certain general effects in the whole work. It is of the grouping
of ideas expressed in words that this article treats.
Though the terms " rhetoric " and " composition " are
frequently found together, and sometimes confused, they
properly designate two quite distinct phases of the subject.
Rhetoric is concerned with the theoretical side, with the laws
of expression. The term " composition " means (i) the appli-
cation of those laws, consciously or unconsciously, in spoken
or written discourse, or (2) the discourse itself. A treatise
on rhetoric is a systematic presentation of the laws of dis-
course, generally illustrated by specimens of such discourse.
Composition, being the application of these laws, is therefore
an art, as distinguished from a science. It is, moreover, an
art that is in constant employment by all normal people,
in either its spoken or written form ; though the difference is
very great in the skill with which the art is practiced by dif-
ferent people.
The four fundamental processes of composition are dis-
tinguished by the ends they have in view : narration, which
aims at telling a story, or a succession of incidents ; description,
which aims to describe or portray, and which most commonly
makes its appeal to the visual imagination ; exposition,
374 Principles of Secondary Education
whose purpose is to explain ; and argument, whose purpose is
to prove some proposition. While the distinctions among
these forms are often convenient in instruction, it must be
remembered that the various forms are seldom found entirely
distinct. Narration and description are often found in the
same composition. Moreover, the methods of the two are
often so closely alike that it is difficult to say of certain pas-
sages to which of the two processes they belong. Exposition
and argument are often found together, though the line be-
tween them is easy to draw. But exposition and description
again often overlap each other. The full treatment of them
belongs to the theory of rhetoric rather than to the art of
composition, and finds no place either in the modern text-
book of composition or in the work of the teacher. Of these
four processes exposition is by far the most common both in
written and in spoken language ; narration comes next in order
of frequency. Except in literary works, descriptions are
usually limited to a few words. Except in formal presenta-
tions of propositions in law, science, or the like, arguments
seldom proceed beyond a few sentences.
Composition looks rather to the end to be attained, i.e.
the effect to be produced, than to the employment or the
practice of any one of these type forms of writing, though the
laws of each must often be consciously used by the writer.
In scientific exposition or in serious argument, however, it
is necessary to adhere more closely to the type.
The Teaching of Composition. — Within the past twenty-
five years the art of composition has assumed far greater im-
portance in the schools than ever before. So long as the ideals
of classical study ruled the schools, and culture was thought
to come principally from a knowledge of Greek and Latin,
expression in English was neglected by teachers. With the
breaking away from the classical tradition, and the increased
recognition of the educational value in the study of modern
life and environment, the minds of teachers turned more and
The Vernacular 375
more toward instruction in the mother tongue. The begin-
nings of the movement go back, indeed, to the days of Franklin
and Jefferson. But the general movement even in some of the
less backward schools cannot be said to have become estab-
lished before 1885. It is now usual to find composition
given a large share of the time of the program, and taught as
a vital subject rather than in the occasional and perfunctory
fashion of former days. It is now recognized as a subject of
the greatest utility, inasmuch as every one depends for his
pleasure and success in part upon his ability to express his
ideas agreeably and effectively. It conduces to clearness and
definitness in one's thoughts, to care in ordering and expressing
them. To have tried conscientiously to say things well helps
in the appreciation of things well said, and therefore adds to
the enjoyment of literature. And command of one's native
speech puts one into closer touch with the social and national
life about him. Such are the principal arguments by which
the present important place of composition is defended.
Especially noteworthy are the changes in the methods
of instruction. Theory has given place to practice ; it is
fully realized that one can learn to speak and write only by
speaking and writing under stimulus and guidance. Rhetori-
cal rules are worth nothing except as applied. The earlier
teaching aimed at a sort of lifeless accuracy. Verbal and
grammatical correctness, propriety in spelling and punctua-
tion, were sufficient. The present-day teaching of the better
sort judges the child's efforts not only for these things, but
for the interest and general effectiveness of the whole com-
position. Has he done with the subject what he should have
been expected to do ? Does his composition show that he has
remembered and thought ; that he has ordered and arranged ?
Such is the standard now set up, adapted though it must be
to the child's age and capacity. In accordance with these
standards the training is not in the lesser units of words and
sentences so much as in paragraphs and whole compositions.
376 Principles of Secondary Education
Through the influence of modern linguistic scholarship
another influence is slowly working its way into the schools.
Under the older — and erroneous — conception of language as a
fixed and absolute thing, teachers often set up a rigid standard
of grammatical and rhetorical propriety that could not be
justified either from literature or from the speech of a large
body of educated people. This standard, under which most
teachers of the present day were educated, is slowly giving
way before the conviction that a considerable latitude must
be allowed in the choice of words and expressions ; the con-
viction that it is often impossible to say, as between two ex-
pressions, that one is right and the other is wrong.
More and more the tendency is to have the pupil write of
the familiar and concrete, of the things within his own daily
experience, instead of the abstract and remote. It is realized
that he can learn to write and speak best when dealing with
simple and familiar things. Such material commonly includes
also his school work in other subjects than English. Themes
drawn from his readings in literature may well be included,
but must be chosen with careful reference to the limitations
of children's minds.
Composition is recognized as a difficult art, involving, as it
does, not only the expression of ideas, but the gathering and
arrangement of them. So far as possible these two tasks
should be divided. When the subject is chosen, it should be
worked over and discussed in various lights, until the pupils
can talk of it with some degree of freedom. The writing should
be begun only after the pupils have gained some confidence
in their ability to talk of the subject, and, in the later years,
are able to outline it with a fair degree of clearness. Outlines
made by the pupils themselves are an aid to both confidence
and clear thinking.
In the elementary school the work in composition may be
easily carried into other school studies, inasmuch as they are
usually all taught by the same teacher. In the high school,
The Vernacular 377
however, the divorce between English composition and other
subjects is an evidence that our systems are still imperfect.
As long as the pupil speaks and writes carelessly in other de-
partments, so long will the work of the English teacher fail
to form good habits. Not until all teachers cooperate can we
hope for the best results attainable.
As to the time of beginning the training in composition,
and as to the amount to be required, there is still considerable
divergence both in theory and practice. As to the question
of how much writing should be employed there are again
differences of opinion. In general, however, it is agreed (i)
that short exercises are better than long, for the long ones tend
to produce either discouragement or prolixity ; (2) that some
writing should be done every day, the subject often being
drawn from some of the school studies ; and (3) that, if con-
sistent with the foregoing rule, the pupils should not write
more than the teacher has time to read.
This leads naturally to the question of criticizing the pupils'
efforts in expression. The oral work should be carefully
watched. Errors and carelessness alike should be corrected,
generally when made, except when such interruption interferes
with the pupil's thinking. The criticism of the written work
is the only means of insuring its effectiveness. A few general
principles, now commonly accepted, may be stated. Pupils
are to be made as much as possible self-critical and self-helpful,
though care must be taken not to develop their self-criticism
to the point of inhibition. They must be held responsible
for things once learned. Generally the written work, after
the teacher has corrected it, should be returned to them, be
worked over by them, and again submitted for inspection;
for if the criticisms made arc not applied, they are useless.
Work obviously careless in form and matter should not be
accepted, if the teacher would have the pupils respect and
value the subject. But the criticism must not stop with these
more mechanical matters. The work must be judged for its
378 Principles of Secondary Education
ideas. And, speaking relatively, the pupil must be led gradu-
ally to value his and other work for the ideas he has got into
or from it, as well as for the clearness and effectiveness with
which the ideas are conveyed. For this there is no better
means than reading the compositions aloud, having the class
as a whole help in passing judgment upon each other's per-
formances. In all the work of criticism the teacher's true
function is not that of the faultfinder, but of the stimulating
and helpful guide. If freedom and accuracy are to be attained,
there must be a certain amount of drill. Frequent practice
in dictation will help in giving control and facility over the forms
of words and sentences. Of considerable value also is practice
in saying the same thing in different ways. In brief, the work
will be effective in proportion to the teacher's skill and resource-
fulness.
The prominence given to the work in composition in recent
years is due in part to the demands of the colleges that their
students must, at entrance, give evidence of a good course in
English, and in a greater degree to the belief, on the part of
the high school teachers themselves, in the value of such in-
struction. It is especially to be noted that those high school
courses which are not directly preparatory to college commonly
give more time to instruction in English than is contained in
the college preparatory courses. For a considerable period
the desire to unify the course in English, and especially the
literature and composition, led to forced relations that were
not to the advantage of either. Pupils were required to write
too frequently on literary subjects that were beyond their
grasp, with the result that the compositions were insincere and
futile, and the pupils' love of literature was hindered rather
than helped. At the last meeting of the national conference on
college entrance requirements in English (1912), in which both
colleges and high schools were fully represented, a report was
adopted which, it is hoped, will tend to put the composition
work on a sounder basis. One of its most important recom-
The Vernacular 379
mendations was that a considerable part of the composition
writing should be upon such experiences as come within the
pupil's daily life and observation. That the report was in
harmony with the judgment of the best teachers appeared
from the way in which it was received.
TRAINING IN ORAL SPEECH.— In American schools
the late eighteenth century and the early nineteenth gave
renewed emphasis to the importance of declamation through
the increased opportunity for the public oration and the nu-
merous occasions for display of oratorical power. The text-
books in reading and literature, as well as even those in spell-
ing and grammar, became filled with selections suitable for
declamation. This replacing of the old reading materials,
chiefly of a religious character, by those of a political, social, or
dramatic character, had great influence on the interests and the
character of the people. Reading and such literary studies
as found a place in the schools came to be used chiefly to de-
velop this power of public presentation, rather than to develop
literary appreciation, or power to use the English language
effectively in conversation, speech, or composition. It was
customary, in most schools, to set aside one afternoon a week,
or at least one afternoon a month, for a general assembly to
be devoted entirely to declamation. These exercises seem
to have had a marked effect upon the public speaking of the
period, but an effect that hardly meets with modern approval.
In general the selections were beyond the comprehension of the
pupils or of but little interest to them. They were usually
martial verses on the order of Bernardo del Carpio and Horatius
at the Bridge, or the fervid perorations of an impassioned
oration, such as Patrick Henry's Appeal to Arms. Further-
more, these declamations were mechanically delivered in
imitation of the pattern set by the teacher, and unlucky was
the pupil who misplaced a gesture or failed to inflect his voice
in the exact manner which his model indicated. The style
developed, not only in the pupils but in adult speakers, was
380 Principles of Secondary Education
bombastic and flamboyant — the style that even now appeals
to the untutored as the very acme of oratorical perfection.
'When we hear it said that oratory or declamation is now on
the decline, we must surmise that the reference is to this kind
of oratory — the spread-eagle, star-reaching pyrotechnics of
our forefathers.
But declamation and oratory in the truest sense are not
declining, but rather developing ; more refined standards are
replacing the coarse ones of half a century ago, and sounder
pedagogical principles are followed in the use of declamations
in the schools and in the methods employed in teaching them.
More time is now given to English than to any other subject,
and also the child's power of free, oral expression is developed
as the foundation for all effective work in reading and com-
position. In company with conversation lessons, language
instruction, reproduction of stories, and dramatization, the
memory or primary declamation helps to develop this general
power of effective oral delivery. If well chosen, these
memory selections are within the child's comprehension, are
of interest to him in their subject matter, and have a distinct
literary excellence calculated to develop taste. The purpose
of classroom and assembly recitation of these selections is not
only to secure confidence before an audience, but to give a
power of literary appreciation and a consequent ability to
render the thoughts of the author in a sympathetic manner.
The teacher also makes use of the declamations as a basis
for the correction of defects in pronunciation and articulation.
As a rule, very little is done in the matter of voice training
and technical elocution. In teaching these selections, the
methods generally adopted are calculated to increase the child's
knowledge of words, impress him with a love for the beautiful
in literary composition, and develop his general power of
correct and pleasing oral expression, rather than to prepare
him definitely for public speaking. But as the work progresses,
this function of the declamation as a training in general
The Vernacular 38 1
language excellence gives way to a more distinctly oratorical
purpose. The declamation is used more and more as a con-
venient means of having a pupil speak in public at a time when
he cannot be expected to say something original.
The separation of elocution from the general training in
English becomes clearly noticeable in the secondary schools.
In many city high schools and private academies the work of
elocution is in the hands of a specialist, and is not regarded as
a by-product of the department of English language and litera-
ture. The differences between the structure of matter meant
to be spoken and that designed to be read are pointed out,
and the pupil is trained to have a definite attitude toward the
audience. In the treatment of declamation, the method is dis-
tinctly modern. Whereas a few decades ago the pupil was
carefully coached to imitate his master's way of rendering
a selection, the plan now is to stimulate rather the pupil's
self-activity and to expect a spontaneous rendition of the
declamation, prompted by the pupil's own thoughts and feel-
ings. It is customary for the pupil to analyze the piece care-
fully for its meaning and to give the teacher either an oral or
written paraphrase as evidence of the thought he gets from the
author. The teacher guides, suggests, and keeps up the inter-
est, but seldom recites any passage, for he is seeking, not to
impose his own personality and mode of expression upon the
pupil, but to bring out a sympathetic rendition of an intelligent,
first-hand interpretation. The pupil is made to realize that
he must faithfully represent to an audience, by his voice and
gestures, the thoughts of another. He owes a duty to the
author and to his hearers. The selection is a living message
to be conveyed to others, not a " piece " to be memorized
and mechanically ground out in close imitation of the teacher.
During the practice with declamations, instruction is usually
given in the elementary principles of elocution, orthoepy, and
voice management ; and practical efforts are made to correct
defects of delivery ranging all the way from stammering and
382 Principles of Secondary Education
stuttering, through nasality and dialect, to mere localism and
mispronunciation. In some schools, where debate and ex-
temporaneous speaking are taken up, the declamation is
regarded as a preparation for these more original forms of
public speaking.
COLLEGE ENTRANCE REQUIREMENTS IN ENG-
LISH. — Since 1885 the preparation for college in English has
evoked more discussion than any other preparatory subject.
Its prominence is, however, comparatively recent. Long after
the admission requirements in Latin, Greek, and mathematics
were definite in form and respectable in amount, English as an
entrance subject was not mentioned. About the beginning of
the nineteenth century there were some slight beginnings.
Nothing appeared, however, in the direction of the present
full view of English as a preparatory subject, until Harvard,
in 1874, required both literature and composition. This re-
quirement was the germ of the present system. " Each can-
didate," said the Harvard announcement, "will be required
to write a short English composition correct in spelling, punc-
tuation, grammar, and expression, the subject to be taken
from such works of standard authors as shall be announced
from time to time. The subject for 1874 will be taken from
one of the following works : Shakespeare's Tempest, Julius
Caesar, The Merchant of Venice; Goldsmith's Vicar of Wake-
field; Scott's Ivanhoe and Lay of the Last Minstrel." This
plan, with various modifications, was adopted by other
colleges : by Michigan in 1878, by Cornell in 1883, by Prince-
ton in 1885, by Columbia in 1891, and by Yale in 1894. By
1897 as many as eighty of the leading colleges had adopted the
general plan. Some of the colleges examined on only a single
author, as Cooper, Irving, or Goldsmith. But gradually
the list grew, until, by 1895, ten or twelve books were required
by many of the colleges in place of the half dozen of the
earlier requirement. There was still, however, great diversity,
not only in the books required by the various colleges, but also
The Vernacular 383
in the nature of the examinations. As a result, in a subject
at best so indefinite as English, the fitting schools found their
task seriously complicated. Various attempts were made to
unify and standardize the requirements. The first were by
the New England Commission of Colleges in 1885, and by
the Association of Colleges and Preparatory Schools of the
Middle States and Maryland in 1887. In 1894 the recom-
mendations of these two associations were brought together
and a revised list of books was agreed upon by both, and
adopted. This list was accepted also by the Association of
Southern Colleges and Preparatory Schools and by the
North Central Association. The Committee of Ten appointed
in 1892 by the National Education Association, to inquire
into the whole matter of secondary curricula, gave especial
attention to the unification of the English requirements, and
also to the formulation of a course of study and of the prin-
ciples which should govern instruction in English.
Since 1895 the modification of the requirements has been
in the hands of a National Conference on College Entrance
Requirements in English. This conference is a joint com-
mittee composed of delegates from the college and prepara-
tory school associations mentioned above, and also from the
New England Association of Colleges and Preparatory Schools,
and the College Entrance Examination Board (q.v.}. The
reports of this committee, which meets at least every three
years, are referred to their respective associations for adop-
tion. In one of its meetings (1897) it was agreed that the Eng-
lish course in the high schools should be the same for the stu-
dents who were not going to college as for those who were. In
this and succeeding meetings of the conference, the courses
of study were framed by the conference with this principle
in view. Partly as a matter of convenience, and partly in
acceptance of this view, the high schools pretty generally
adopted the recommendations of the conference ; which thus
came to set the norm or standard for most of the secondary
384 Principles of Secondary Education
instruction in English throughout the country. The recom-
mendations, though frequently modified in the light of ex-
perience, have not been universally satisfactory at any time,
and are not so at present. It has been impossible to meet the
special needs of all pupils and the special tastes and judg-
ments of all teachers. But, none the less, the work outlined
in these reports is substantially the course of study followed
in almost all the good high schools and fitting schools of the
country, and is the basis of the entrance examinations in prac-
tically all of the good colleges which admit either upon exam-
ination or by certificate. In order to meet the needs of schools
which do not prepare students for college, there has been re-
cently formed (1912) a larger and more representative body,
called the National Council of Teachers of English, under the
general auspices of the National Education Association. Its
official organ is The English Journal. The recommendations
of this council as to the course of study in English in the
high schools are accepted by most of the colleges, and are
coming to set the norm especially for non-preparatory high
schools.
The most prominent changes in the recent recommenda-
tions of the conference have been (i) in the direction of em-
phasizing non-literary themes as subjects for composition, and
(2) in enlarging the list of books from which choices may be
made. In 1905 the conference, in response to a general and
insistent demand for " more freedom," enlarged the list of
books " for reading " from a list of ten required to a list of
forty out of which ten were to be chosen. In 1908 and 1909
the list was still further enlarged. The report of the last
conferences, held February and May, 1912, and making recom-
mendations for the next three years, indicates the present
status of the subjects. The list of books from which choices
may be made now includes several hundred titles, the greater
number of them in the field of fiction. The list is still de-
ficient on the side of informational and scientific works.
The Vernacular 385
TOPICS FOR FURTHER STUDY
1. What books in the high school course in English have the ethical
as a dominant interest ?
2. What books have instruction as their main interest ?
3. What books or poems are wholly aesthetic in their appeal?
4. What background of general knowledge — historical, scientific,
or social — should teacher and pupils have for appreciating books like
the following : Silas Afarner, Ivanhoe, The Tale of Two Cities (see Chap.
XIV of Coleridge's Biographia Liter aria), The Lady of the Lake, Henry
Esmond, etc.
Is much of such background needed to understand the book ?
5. Make out a list of reading which the teacher should have done
before teaching some one of these books.
6. What kind of "philosophical" study is needed to appreciate
Shakespeare ?
7. In view of the fact that Shakespeare's plays were written to be
acted, how should they be read in school ? How much place should be
given to the so-called "philosophical" interpretation of them ?
8. What value is there in committing to memory fine passages from
literature ?
9. What are the functions and value of literary criticism for the
teacher ? For the pupil ?
10. What is the value of school dramatics? Should classic dramas,
like Shakespeare's, be employed for such purposes ?
11. Discuss the value of literary biography of authors in the school
curriculum. Will it help the pupil to understand the writings of Gold-
smith ? Of Tennyson ? Of Shakespeare ?
12. What reasons are there for training pupils carefully in writing
clear sentences ? In making clear outlines ?
13. Why should oral and written composition be kept in close re-
lation with other work in English ? With other school subjects?
14. In what ways can other departments lend support to the
English ?
15. What is the difference between "declamation" and oral English?
16. What is the modern attitude towards "oratory"?
17. How should poetry be read aloud ?
1 8. Show by citations that modern literature is democratic in its
ideals. Was ancient literature so ?
IQ. Make out lists for guiding the pupils' reading in contemporary
and recent literature.
20. Discuss the value of the short story for high school courses.
2 c
386 Principles of Secondary Education
REFERENCES
BRIGGS and COFFMAN. Reading in the Public Schools. Chicago, 1912.
CARPENTER, BAKER, and SCOTT. The Teaching of English. New York,
1903.
CHUBB, P. The Teaching of English. New York, 1902.
COLBY, J. Literature and Life in School. Boston, 1906.
Cox, J. H. Literature in the Common Schools. Boston, 1908.
Harvard College, Reports on Composition and Rhetoric. Cambridge,
1895, and later.
Twenty Years of School and College English. Cambridge, 1896.
HERRICK, R. Methods of Teaching Rhetoric. Chicago, 1898.
LAURIE. Language and Linguistic Method. Edinburgh, 1893.
MACCLINTOCK, P. L. Literature in the Elementary School. Chicago,
1908.
SCUDDER, H. E. Literature in the Schools. Boston, 1888.
THURBER, SAMUEL. Papers in the Academy (Syracuse), Education,
Educational Review, and School Review.
A full bibliography up to 1913 is given in the revised edition of Carpenter,
Baker, and Scott's The Teaching of English, cited above.
CHAPTER X
THE CLASSICAL LANGUAGES AND LITERATURES
LATIN
PLACE IN THE CURRICULUM. — The position occupied
by Latin in the curriculum of the secondary school is due
primarily to tradition. During the Middle Ages and at the
Revival of Learning, Latin was the medium of communication
in science, literature, and politics. Consequently it was the
first and most important element in education ; supplemented
by Greek and mathematics, it formed the whole curriculum.
In the seventeenth century the native tongue began to form a
small part of the course of study. This was followed in the
eighteenth century by the modern foreign languages, and in
the nineteenth by the various sciences. Practically all the
time devoted to them was taken from that allotted to Latin
and Greek. The process has continued until now Greek is
omitted from the curriculum in practically all public high
schools and in most private ones, and Latin has been reduced
to modest proportions. Latin now occupies about one fifth
of the total time of the secondary schools, but it has to main-
tain itself against vehement criticism and opposition. The
critics maintain that Latin is not a " practical " subject, and
that the results of Latin teaching are entirely disproportionate
to the amount of time which it demands. The defenders of
Latin urge two main reasons for its retention in at least its
present condition : (i) its value as a mental discipline, (2) its
value as a practical subject.
THE VALUE OF LATIN, or of any subject in particular, as
a mental discipline, has been much impugned in recent years,
387
388 Principles of Secondary Education
particularly by the psychologists ; but there is a tendency now
apparent to recede from the extreme position in this regard,
and there is abundant testimony from unprejudiced observers
in all walks of life to the value of Latin as a training instrument.
For above every other subject it trains (i) the process of obser-
vation, (2) the function of correct record, (3) the reasoning
power and general intelligence in correct inference from re-
corded observations. To this should be added its great value
in developing the power of voluntary attention.
The value of Latin as a practical subject has to do par-
ticularly with the effect of the language in the cultivation of
English style. In the English vocabulary a very large propor-
tion of words in everyday use are of Latin origin, and it has
been estimated that two thirds of the Latin vocabulary of the
classical period has in some form or other come over into Eng-
lish speech. For the correct use of synonyms in English and
the habit of expressing one's thoughts clearly, concisely, and
cogently, a discriminating knowledge of Latin is indispensable,
and while not every pupil in the school may be expected to
develop a good style, nevertheless he should be given the
necessary foundation for it.
When we turn to literature, we find that Latin is influen-
tial everywhere — • particularly in our classical authors — by
allusion, by quotation, by actual domestication. Many of
our great English writers are permeated with Latin. We can-
not expect that all will desire to feed their minds on the works
of our greatest authors, however much we might prefer it ;
but certainly we should not deprive them of one of the most
important elements in their enjoyment should they be so
minded.
The criticism of the results of Latin teaching has borne more
heavily in recent years, and teachers are coming to realize that
this criticism has genuine foundation. There has been, there-
fore, much discussion as to improvement of method, and many
suggestions, particularly by editors of textbooks. It may be
The Classical Languages and Literatures 389
said in general that the tendency of these suggestions has been
toward greater emphasis upon oral teaching and the testing of
acquaintance with the language by the ability to read its ordi-
nary forms at sight. It has been too true that the value of the
exercise in translation, which, when properly done, should be
very great, has been seriously impaired by the very wide-
spread use of English translations, a practice which results in
slow progress on the one hand, and dulled moral sense on the
other. Then, too, in most of our colleges the classes, particu-
larly in the earlier years, have been so large that adequate
personal attention to individual students has been impossible,
and this difficulty is becoming more and more serious in sec-
ondary instruction with the rapid growth of our public high
schools. Administrative officers have shown a curious dis-
inclination to treat languages with the same consideration
that is extended to the sciences. While it is accepted without
question that scientific instruction without individual labora-
tory work under the eye of laboratory assistants is impossible,
the equally obvious fact that instruction in languages without
similar practice can be only haphazard and slipshod, is either
not perceived or knowingly neglected.
METHODS OF TEACHING. — Naturally in the teaching
of any language we should begin with the essentials of gram-
mar, together with sufficient exercises to insure the complete
learning of the forms, and enough of the syntax to make the
reading of simple sentences possible. This would be followed
by easy reading, and then by more difficult reading, until the
student acquires sufficient mastery to read with some ease
whatever he would naturally come in contact with. And this
is practically (with certain restrictions) what has been fol-
lowed for centuries in the teaching of Latin. The question
has been chiefly as to the nature of the instruction in the first
year and the sequence of reading material. In the main
the colleges have dominated the high school curriculum in
America by their requirements for admission, and thus we find
39° Principles of Secondary Education
that for a long period the course of instruction in the high
schools has been the beginner's book, a certain amount of
Caesar, certain orations of Cicero, certain books of Vergil's
jEneid. When the high school course has been four years in
length, as is the case almost everywhere, one year has been
devoted to every one of these four subjects. Where the
course is five years, or six, teachers have enlarged it by the
addition of Ovid, Nepos, Sallust, and in some cases have
increased the time devoted to the beginner's book so as to
spend upon it a year and a half.
In recent years there has developed a strong feeling that the
prescription of so much reading has a deleterious effect upon
the teaching in the schools, and that better results could be
attained if there were less definite prescription of authors and
more insistence on the ability to translate easy Latin at sight.
The first year of Latin is the most important work in the
whole high school curriculum. This importance lies in the
fact that the pupil is studying not only Latin, but the phe-
nomena of organic speech. In some schools in Germany and
in England the pupil makes his first acquaintance with a
foreign language in the study of French ; but this practice
has not taken root in the United States, and there the first
serious study of linguistic expression begins in the Latin class-
room.
Difficulties of the Student. — Let us see for the moment
what the problems of the Latin student are, what the Eng-
lish-speaking child will find difficult or unusual. First and
foremost, he will be struck by the Latin forms. English is
practically a formless language ; the few terminations remain-
ing are not sufficient to form a foundation for the careful study
of the expression of ideas by means of termination. The
pupil will now for the first time have to distinguish between the
various cases of the noun and the various tenses and moods of
the verb. This comes as a shock to the average English-
speaking child, and it requires months upon months of careful
The Classical Languages and Literatures 391
and insistent drill before the expression of case relations by
changes in termination becomes second nature. For example,
in an English sentence like, " The boy strikes the dog with a
stick," outside of the s in the verb no indication of meaning is
given by any termination, and the three substantives would
suffer no change in form, no matter what change in meaning
might be brought about by transposition. On the other
hand, in Latin the syntax would be expressed not merely by
the sense, but also by a formal difference in every noun.
Furthermore, the pupil would be troubled by even the simplest
syntactical structure. An English sentence like, " The father
gave his son some money that he might buy the book," is
comprehensible to the child without any serious mental effort ;
but in the Latin sentence he must become acquainted with the
idea of purpose and its expression and the use of mood to
take the place of the auxiliary. This difficulty is immeasur-
ably enhanced when " to buy " takes the place of " that he
might buy." Another difficulty which is none the less real is
that of pronunciation. For the first time the pupil comes into
contact with what is essentially the Indo-Germanic system of
sound expression, from which English has seriously varied.
Then, too, there is word order and its possibilities in an in-
flected language. With these difficulties staring him in the
face, and with progress made exceedingly slow on account of
the necessity of accurate thinking along several lines at the
same time, the first-year La tin taxes the patience, the ingenuity,
and the skill of even the best of teachers. And in the United
States in particular, owing to conspicuous administrative
incompetence, the work of the first year is usually in the hands
of the most inexperienced teacher.
The Introductory Work ; the Customary Method. — The
material is provided in the numerous first-year books, which
show almost every possible idiosyncrasy of method. It may
be said in general that they embody the carefully thought out
schemes of the individual authors. They follow two main
392 Principles of Secondary Education
lines of presentation, one of which may be called the block
system, the other the fragmentary system. In the latter —
and by far the more influential — the lessons, particularly the
earlier ones, are so divided that fragments of declension and
fragments of conjugation alternate with each other ; thus,
either the nominative singular, or the nominative and accusa-
tive singular, or the nominative singular and the nominative
plural of the first and second declensions are followed by the
present indicative, singular number, or third person singular
and plural, as the case may be. Subsequent lessons fill out
the paradigms of the first and second declensions and the first
conjugation, after which the other conjugations and the
remaining declensions are taken up. In the meantime ele-
mentary rules of syntax, such as the agreement of the subject
and the verb, the government of the accusative case, the
ablative of instrument, the ablative of place, the dative of
possessor, the objective or possessive genitive, the use of ut to
express purpose, sometimes the use of cum in the sense of
" when," are scattered along according to the caprice of the
author. The object of thus breaking up inflectional groups is
to provide early in the course reading material which will have
in itself some reason for existence, and thus avoid the aridity
of the old-fashioned textbook. In the former class, the text-
book gives the first declensions in their order, supplementing
them only by so much of the verb inflection as seems necessary
to make the construction of sentences possible ; then follow the
conjugations in their order. The earlier exercises from Eng-
lish into Latin and from Latin into English are largely confined
to the translation of detached forms. The critics of the first
system maintain that it divorces things that belong together ;
those of the second that it makes the early Latin work not
merely dull, but practically hopeless, because the pupils see no
evidence of progress. As a matter of fact, the superiority of
the first method to the second is merely specious, and the frag-
.mentary acquisition of forms carries with it many evils. A
The Classical Languages and Literatures 393
third method of presenting forms, advocated by a few, is what
one might call the topical treatment. The pupil begins with
the study of a case throughout all its formations, and after
proceeding through the declensions he takes up the verb
similarly. Every one of these three methods requires a live
teacher to make it successful, and practically, therefore, none
shows any superiority over the other. Theoretically the
second method is preferable, supplemented by the third
wherever feasible, the first being the least defensible of them
all.
The selection of the material of the first book involves the
three divisions of forms, syntax, and vocabulary. It is gener-
ally agreed that unusual forms should be excluded, on the
principle that only those in most common use are vital, while
the unusual ones can better be learned (if learned at all) where
they occur. Consequently the old apparatus of rule followed
by exception has practically disappeared, and the beginner's
book lays particular stress upon the normalities of language.
This principle, however, suffers some modification in practice.
It is frequently easier to learn the complete series, even though
some of the elements are rare, than to break it up into frag-
ments ; the effort of mind is often much greater in the second
case. The terminations are best learned in groups, even
though examples of some of them are comparatively infre-
quent. Principal parts are best learned complete, though
in the case of many verbs certain of them are never found.
In the main, however, the principle is sound. In the case of
syntax the situation is different. Comparatively little syntax
should be given in the beginner's books, and this should be
not necessarily the most common ; but the most simple, for
the learning of forms taxes primarily the memory, while the
study of syntax exercises principally the reason. Therefore
the indicative constructions should appear in the beginner's
books, and only those uses of the subjunctive which make but
slight demand upon the reasoning power, such as its use in
394 Principles of Secondary Education
wishes, in expressions of purpose and result, and little else.
It is customary in the beginner's books to devote the last few
lessons to the more elaborate constructions ; but conditional
sentences and the whole body of constructions with dum and
the like, quin, quominus, and concessive clauses would better
be deferred to the second year. The same is true of the more
involved relative constructions.
The choice of vocabulary obviously depends upon the aim of
Latin teaching in general. If, it is generally argued, we taught
pupils to speak Latin as we did formerly, we should naturally
require a colloquial vocabulary, but since our chief aim now
is to give the means of reading Latin literature, we must choose
the vocabulary with this end in view. A number of beginner's
books claim to limit the vocabulary to the words in most
common use in Caesar. This practice is sound, because it has
been found that these words are also in common use through-
out the literature, while birds and animals, furniture and every-
day occupations would leave the pupil absolutely helpless be-
fore a page of any Latin author. The size of the vocabulary
for the first year should be about 500 words, and the text-
books usually show about that number. But no fixed list of
words can be learned completely by all the pupils, and a certain
margin must be allowed for forgetfulness, consequently the
beginner's book would do well to show a vocabulary slightly
in excess of 500.
The exercises in translation are usually divided into Latin-
English and English-Latin. Some teachers hold that no
translation from English into Latin should be expected until
very substantial progress in the learning of forms has been
secured, perhaps not until the middle of the year ; but the
weight of opinion inclines to the view that translation from
English into Latin should begin with the first lesson. This
work, however, is very much more difficult than translation
from Latin into English, and the demands in vocabulary and
syntax should accordingly be lessened.
The Classical Languages and Literatures 395
The Oral or Direct Method. — Dissatisfaction with the
results of the traditional method have led in recent years to
the employment of the oral or direct method. The advocates
of the latter insist that Latin should be taught as if it were a
modern spoken language ; consequently they follow in general
the principles of direct teaching as employed in the teaching
of modern languages. Almost from the very beginning Latin
is the customary language of the classroom. At the outset
short commands and questions having to do with the necessary
activities and surroundings of the classroom form the means of
instruction. The pupils are required to answer every question
in Latin and to follow every command with a statement of
what they are doing. As they progress the range of vocabu-
lary is enlarged, but still restricted primarily to the ordinary
activities of life. After a little time the teacher tells the class
short stories in Latin, explaining the meaning of unfamiliar
words in the same tongue and requiring the class to give him
back the story in such Latin as they can command. In this
method translation, whether from Latin into English or from
English into Latin, is practically unknown. This is reserved
for the period when the pupil, having obtained a ready com-
mand of the fundamental principles of Latin, is ready to
begin that comparison of Latin and English idiom which ren-
ders translation so valuable an exercise. Drill in syntax is
obtained partly by the oral exercises, partly by written work.
To provide for this drill the teacher may require his pupils to
embody such and such constructions in the written work,
while in the oral work he may have the various ideas expressed
first in one fashion and then in another, turned from active
to passive, or from the independent to the dependent form.
Short narratives composed of independent sentences may be
rewritten so as to involve various kinds of subordination. The
effect of such training is to make the forms of the Latin lan-
guage second nature to the pupils, and to reduce by constant
practice the strain upon the memory. The method requires a
396 Principles of Secondary Education
great deal of ingenuity and readiness on the part of the teacher,
for every opportunity afforded by any chance remark of the
pupil must be improved at once ; but in the hands of a com-
petent teacher the results are claimed to be vastly superior to
those of the old method. After some months the pupils have
a greater grasp of the forms and easy syntax of the language,
and are then prepared to go on to serious reading with much
greater ease. The chief drawback of the direct method is one
of time. The earlier stages require a great deal more time
than is required by the old method, but the advocates of the
new method maintain that what is lost in speed is more than
gained in definiteness and quality of knowledge, and that in
the subsequent years the previous delay is much more than
made up. One of the important results of this method is
that pupils feel that they have a certain control of the language
and are thus relieved of the temptation to use unfair means in
preparation.
Very recently in the United States an attempt has been
made to modify the traditional method by adding to it some
of the features of the new method. Recent textbooks give
more attention to colloquial features, and the vocabulary of
the earlier lessons has to do with the ordinary activities of
life. But this choice of vocabulary is intended merely to facil-
itate the colloquial handling of the language by the pupils,
and is expected to give way to the normal literary vocabulary
as soon as the serious reading of Latin literature is begun.
Pronunciation. — Whatever method is employed, the initial
difficulty is that of pronunciation. The Roman method is
commonly employed. Objections are occasionally made to it,
but its foundation is secure both in knowledge and in in-
tellectual honesty. It is frequently said that we do not know
how the Romans pronounced. This is true only to the extent
that those who have not actually heard a modern language
do not know how it is pronounced. We have a fairly accurate
knowledge of the sounds of the Latin letters, and we have
Tlie Classical Languages and Literatures 397
special directions as to the position of the organs of speech in
articulation. While some of these directions come from a
comparatively late period, — as late, in fact, as the sixth
century A.D., — yet the laws of linguistic development show
conclusively that the directions of this period involve certain
preceding conditions which can be postulated with accuracy.
To determine Roman pronunciation we have, besides the
directions of the grammarians just alluded to, transliterations
of Greek words into Latin and of Latin words into Greek.
We have inscriptional evidence as to the length of the vowels,
occasional remarks in Latin literature touching upon pro-
nunciation, and the evidence presented by the Romance
languages, which modified in transition the Latin sounds
after a definite manner. We are able, therefore, to give in the
textbooks the sounds of the Latin letters with practically as
much certainty as we can the sounds of a modern language in
textbooks for foreign use. To the ear of a Cicero a modern
Latinist would speak with an " accent," but he would be
understood. It is the business of the teacher to show in pro-
nunciation a careful attention to exact enunciation and to
require on the part of the pupils the same accuracy. The
pupil should never hear a Latin word mispronounced by the
teacher. The Latin that is to be translated should if possible
be read aloud by the pupil, and such practice should be con-
tinuous. A little careful practice every day is better than a
great deal at intervals. The teacher should pay attention
particularly to the quantities of all the vowels in his own
enunciation and to syllabic division ; the pupil, however,
should not be forced to learn anything but the quantity of
terminations and penultimate syllables. The former should
be learned in the acquisition of the forms, the latter on meeting
with the new word. Inasmuch as Latin accent depends upon
the length of the penult, it is not necessary to require a careful
marking of the earlier syllables in the word, except where it
is an obvious derivative of a form already known. Hidden
398 Principles of Secondary Education
quantities, so called, should not be required of the pupils,
but the teacher should be careful to pronounce them correctly
as far as our knowledge extends.
The Later Reading. — In many of the older English schools
and in those American schools with a curriculum of more than
four years, the introductory work extends over into the second
year ; but in the new English schools and in the vast majority
of American schools the reading of genuine Latin begins in
earnest with the beginning of the second year. The arrange-
ment of the curriculum for subsequent years differs in different
countries. In general, Nepos and Caesar are taken up first,
and then a mixed combination, composed mainly of selections
from Cicero, Ovid, and Vergil, but with possible substitutions
of Livy, Sallust, and Terence, has been the habit. In the
United States up to very recently the almost universal prac-
tice has been to devote the second year to Caesar, the third
to Cicero, the fourth to Vergil. The amount of Caesar pre-
scribed (four books) has proved to be a very severe task for
the ordinary high school class. It has involved a definite
advance every day, and it has thus been impossible in many
cases to take account of weak students or to linger for the
purpose of securing thoroughness. The plan recently adopted
decreases the amount of reading specifically required and lays
increased emphasis upon reading at sight and the acquisition
of additional vocabulary.
Transition to Ccesar. — The transition from the beginner's
book to Caesar is difficult, and the pupil is apt to show a weak-
ness entirely unexpected from the work of the previous year.
This is due to the complexity of the periodic sentence. Word
order and the various devices of subordination give a great
deal of trouble. At the outset the teacher must be content
with short lessons in which attention is paid particularly to
the new constructions and the new words. He should also
devote a good deal of attention to working over the Latin
sentence into genuine English. The class should be drilled
The Classical Languages and Literatures 399
in the difference between Latin and English idiom, and should
be required to translate at least the review passage into cor-
rect English. The work done during the class hour should
be of two kinds : the lesson of the previous day should first
be reviewed, and the rest of the hour should be devoted to a
preliminary sight translation of the work of the next day under
the guidance of the teacher. As far as possible, the home
work should be restricted to the study of syntax (often in
written exercises) and vocabulary. Every now and then the
pupils should be required to write out in class the transla-
tion of a small portion (if only four or five lines) of the day's
lesson, and these written translations should then be criticized
by the teacher from the point of view of the English expression.
One such exercise is worth a dozen oral translations for the
appreciation on the part of the pupil of the difference between
Latin and English expression. The teacher must never lose
sight of the fact that from the beginning of the second year
the most important part of the training is the development on
the part of the pupil of the sense of style, by which is meant
good English as an offset to good Latin. If the advantage
claimed for the study of Latin in appreciation of English style
is to be secured, it can be done only in this way.
Ccesar furnishes particular problems. In the main his
narrative is simple, concrete, narrow in range of ideas, and
easily followed. In fact, no author in the whole Latin litera-
ture is better suited for the reading of the second-year Latin.
But Caesar shows a fondness for the insertion of speeches in
what is called indirect discourse. These have nothing to do
with the narrative, and could be omitted without disturbance.
The length of these speeches in the first book has led many
teachers to begin with the second book. Such a practice is
faulty in principle ; and, inasmuch as the speeches are not
necessary to the narrative, it is far better to begin with the
first book, and for the teacher either to translate or to para-
phrase the speeches as they occur in order merely to give the
400 Principles of Secondary Education
setting of the story. A good deal of stress has been laid upon
the ability of the pupil to turn direct discourse into indirect
discourse and the reverse, but it should be remembered that
Caesar is the only author whose style is characterized by
indirect discourse in mass, and that, so far as the learning of
Latin is concerned, the time devoted to the intricacies of
indirect discourse would much better be devoted to more
extended reading. Nevertheless, until we are prepared to
give up Caesar, some attention should be paid to the indirect
discourse, and the speeches might well be reviewed toward the
end of the year, when Caesar's story is being studied as a whole.
In studying Caesar due attention should be paid to the de-
velopment of his narrative and to the Roman art of war.
Pupils might be required after a compaign to write out an
account of it, or they might be required to plan or describe a
battle. Some attention may be paid to Caesar as a man, his
dealings with his troops, his attitude toward the State, the
circumstances which led to the Civil War. But of course
these studies should be supplemental merely ; for after all,
while Caesar is history, he is being read primarily to learn
Latin. If the plan of preparation indicated is followed, no
particular effort need be made to develop the power to trans-
late at sight, but a period may be devoted, perhaps as often
as once a week, to sight translation only. The passage read
may be merely a further section of the advance narrative, or
interesting passages may be selected from the later books
or from any other Latin of approximately equal difficulty.
During this year much attention must be paid to prose
composition, and as this important exercise is for the purpose
of systematic grammatical study, it should be done systemati-
cally from the beginning. The exercises should be graded
in difficulty, and should follow a definite plan of syntactical
development. They should, accordingly, not be merely
based upon a small section of the text. All that can be ex-
pected is that the vocabulary should be that of the stage of
T/ic Classical Languages and Literatures 401
study and that the style should be narrative. If the subject
can be made either identical with what the student is reading,
or similar to it, so much the better. It is the habit of many to
devote one period a week to prose composition. This is theo-
retically objectionable. It is better that a short exercise should
be done every day. Review exercises embodying a number of
principles previously studied may occupy the period every
now and then ; but one period a week devoted to Latin com-
position involves too long an interval between efforts. Oral
composition in connection with the reading of the day may
often be productive of excellent results.
When some of the Lives of Nepos are substituted for a
portion of the Ciesar, the same general principle should be
followed in the teaching, but the supplementary work would
of course be different. Nepos is, however, not so suitable as
Caesar for this stage, because his vocabulary is much wider
and involves many unusual words, and many of the concep-
tions are abstract. Nor docs the brevity of the episodes
serve to counterbalance the greater complexity of the periodic
sentence.
Cicero. — Ordinarily Caesar is followed by Cicero. Cicero
not only represents the highest point of Latin classical style,
but he was the greatest Roman orator and an important figure
in the death struggle of the Republic. The orations usually
chosen are the four against Catiline, the one on Pompey's
command, and the one for the poet Archias. The orations
against Catiline are the easiest of all, and have an important
political significance. The Pro Lcgc Manilla, in addition to
being a comparatively early speech, marks the beginning of
Pompey's growth as a great figure, and also forms a good
opportunity to study the rhetorical elements in the orator's
style. The Pro Archia is in effect a eulogy of Greek literature
and a wonderful example of the panegyric style. Sometimes
the teacher prefers to read a different set of speeches for the
purpose of focusing the attention of the pupils upon some
402 Principles of Secondary Education
\
particular side of Cicero's multifarious career, and many
teachers like to substitute for some of the speeches men-
tioned selections from Cicero's correspondence, chosen either
to show the great orator's human side or to throw sidelights
upon the history of the period. Some teachers regard Cicero
as dull and uninteresting to pupils, and prefer at least to
begin the third year with Vergil. This apparently unpeda-
gogical practice is defended on the ground that Vergil, even if
not thoroughly understood, is interesting on account of the
narrative, that his style is not difficult, and that outside of
the strangeness of the poetical dress, the narrative moves
quickly and easily. Moreover, the syntax on the whole is
easier than that of Cicero, because of the absence of involved
sentences. Others begin the third year with Vergil, and
after a time they take up Cicero, completing both Cicero and
Vergil in the fourth year. But this is all pedagogically un-
sound. Vergil should be deferred to the fourth year, be-
cause his writings are pure literature, and need for proper
appreciation and enjoyment as much maturity of mind as can
be brought to them. On the other hand, Cicero makes but
small demands upon the mental maturity of his readers. In
teaching Cicero it is proper to go more into detail about the
history of the later years of the Republic and the condition of
parties at Rome. The work of the Caesar year in this regard
might well be amplified, and the attempt made to give the
pupils some rational idea of the workings of the Roman con-
stitution, but the main stress should, of course, be laid upon
the interpretation of the speeches themselves. The teacher
should possess a great deal of imagination, because Cicero is
serious, ironical, humorous, jesting, or playful in turn, and his
invective on the one side is offset by the deepest pathos on the
other. Very often the point of the passage depends on the
order of the words or the application of a particular word.
References that seem blind can be lighted up by modern in-
stances. Cicero's personal character and the main facts of
The Classical Languages and Literatures 403
his personal life should not be overlooked, and the teacher
should try to lead his pupils to some understanding of the man
whose soul was torn in two directions, who felt always the
conflict between inclination and duty, who followed a sinking
cause with his eyes open and remained true to his convictions
even at the cost of life.
Ovid. — When Ovid is read, whether after Caesar or Cicero,
it serves as an introduction to Latin poetry and to ancient
mythology. It also relieves the early study of Vergil of the
drudgery usually attendant upon the shift from prose to
verse, and makes it possible to treat Vergil as literature from
the beginning. Selections from the Metamorphoses are
usually chosen, because the narrative is easy. The chief
difficulty is one of word order. To relieve this some editions
have the earlier selections rewritten in prose order. Scansion
also is a serious exercise for most pupils, even when they have
been carefully trained in pronunication from the beginning.
Most teachers are content if some appreciation of rhythm is
developed, and pay little attention to the conflict between
verse and word accent that regularly obtains in the first part
of the verse. Others maintain that, as Latin is a language of
almost " level stress," the verse will scan itself, if the words
are pronounced as they should be pronounced in prose. Few
teachers, however, are able to reach this point of perfection,
even in their own scanning.
Vergil. — It has been objected that because the works of
Vergil represent the highest reach of the Roman imagination
and the most finished product of Roman literary art, they
should be reserved for the later period of study, when the
attainments as well as the maturity of mind of the student
are greater. If we were sure that our students were going to
continue the study of Latin for some years, this objection would
weigh ; but the great majority of secondary pupils terminate
their study of Latin with the high school course, and it
seems indefensible that any should give up Latin after four
404 Principles of Secondary Education
years' study without having had the opportunity to read
Vergil.
Since most American high schools prepare for the college
examinations at the end of their course, it becomes necessary
in the last year to devote considerable attention to a review of
grammar and syntax. Vergil, however, is not well suited for
this. His style is in general very simple ; subordination is
conspicuous by its absence ; the subjunctive constructions
that are so common in all Latin prose are comparatively rare.
The syntax of the cases can, it is true, be studied with some
effect because most of the so-called poetic usages have to do
with case constructions ; but these are the easiest, after all,
and the pupil needs most to review the construction of the
verb. This is best accomplished by the careful writing of
Latin during the whole of the last year.
The selection usually read is the first six books of the sEneid.
This is justified, first, by its extreme interest for all kinds of
pupils, secondly, by the fact that neither the Bucolics nor the
Georgics treat matters of universal appeal. The subject
and the vocabulary of the Bucolics were exotic to the Romans
themselves. That of the Georgics is too specialized to warrant
any great attention on the part of high school pupils. The
first six books of the jEneid are without question the most
important part of this poem, and they have a world interest
which is hot so much felt in the latter books.
In teaching Vergil the aims are altogether different from
those that dominate the teaching of Caesar and Cicero. Here
is no place for the study of military operations, the colonial
system or method of government, nor is there any occasion
for investigation of party feuds and social relations. Since
the Roman epic is a purely literary creation, stress should be
laid as far as possible upon the literary element. The ancient
mythology, the ancient simplicity of life, the ancient morality,
all claim attention ; but these are subordinate to the far-
reaching literary interest which Vergil exercises upon all
The Classical Languages and Literatures 405
subsequent authors. Most of the school editions contain
copious parallel passages from later literature. In many
cases these are not genuine parallels, and the pupil gets either
no impression or only a very vague one from reading them.
This ought not to be the case. An attempt should be made
to focus the attention of the students upon certain important
features of English literature and upon certain particular
authors who have been under classic influence. With that in
view it would be well to treat at greater length the influence
of Vergil upon Shakespeare, upon Tennyson, upon Milton, and
so forth. This can be done usually with the material provided
in the editions. The pupils should also be taught throughout
to visualize the scenes, to form their own judgments as to
the narrative in its various stages, to become independent in
attitude. Here, too, extreme care should be exercised in
translation. Poetic language should be rendered poetically.
It will be the first experience of most students in distinguishing
what is prosaic in expression from what is poetic, and the fact
that Latin verse differs from Latin prose will be better under-
stood if the difference between English prose and English verse
is also shown. Images and metaphors should not be washed
out. Due attention should be paid to the artistic setting,
the picturesque qualities of every scene. The teacher should
never lose sight of the fact that in teaching Vergil he is teach-
ing the principles of literature in general, just as in the earlier
years of the course he was teaching universal grammar. In
this way Vergil ought to be not merely the proper culmination
of the secondary Latin course, but also an important element
of the pupil's general culture.
Other Selections. — With a longer course Sallust's Catilina
might be read as a foil to Cicero's Catilinarians. Variety
may also be attained by selections from Terence or Livy, or
by more extended anthologies, a large number of which are
now available, adapted to the wants of pupils of different
grades.
406 Principles of Secondary Education
GREEK
PURPOSE AND VALUE. — It is well to begin with a
clear idea of the end in view in learning Greek, as the first
regulator of method in teaching it. Complete agreement as
to that end there has probably never been ; and in four cen-
turies views have undergone many changes. The carefully
limited statement of the Prussian Lehrplan of 1901 is : " An
acquaintance, based on adequate knowledge of the language,
with a certain number of literary works of special importance
for content and form, and by this means an introduction to
the thought and civilization of ancient Greece." Here is
not a word that suggests any other purpose in studying
Greek than in studying Chinese ; the official directions to
teachers hardly touch upon what is really the heart of the
teacher's task ; they tacitly assume, in the traditional way,
that learning a foreign language is a radically different process
if the language is ancient. Current formulas in England and
America, however various in form, fall into two classes, accord-
ing as they put in the foreground the content of the study or
the effect on the student. But these two conceptions, instead
of being opposed to each other, are simply two aspects of one
mental activity ; they may be reconciled in a single statement,
comprehensive and brief. The starting point for this is
a great historical fact, which may be put in the words of one
of the best-known scientists of England and America, Sir
William Osier : " The tap-root of modern science sinks deep
in Greek soil, the astounding fertility of which is one of the
outstanding facts of history. . . . Though not always
recognized, the controlling principles of our art, literature,
and philosophy, as well as those of science, are Hellenic."
Corresponding to this undisputed fact of history, and some-
how closely related to it, though we cannot here discuss the
relation, is the following psychological fact, verified in centuries
of experience. For minds not unadapted to it, the process
T/ie Classical Languages and Literatures 407
of acquiring, under good instruction, a first-hand acquaintance
with the Hellenic mind, as embodied in the existing works
of ancient Greeks, is peculiarly formative, enlarging, dis-
ciplinary. No educational instrument yet known can fully
take the place of this, as none can take the place of mathematics.
This brings us to the simple and comprehensive formula :
The prime object of Greek study is to gain a first-hand ac-
quaintance with Hellenism, as a great force in civilization ;
the first aim in teaching Greek is to lead pupils to a personal
acquaintance with that force. The disciplinary effect, the
formal training, and all desirable ends, are included in that
central aim, as auxiliary or incidental to it. That Hellenic
force has been profound, lasting, pervasive. Along one line
it reached even the extreme Orient, long before the Renaissance
in Europe. It has recently been demonstrated that through
Alexander's conquests, carrying Greek art to northern India,
where Buddhism arose and matured, even China and Japan
received from Hellas a potent influence on their sculpture
and painting. And now this influence, carried eastward to
the edge of Asia, has there met the broader stream that flowed
westward through Europe to America and across the Pacific.
Such far-reaching facts in the development of mankind must
continue to urge all who would understand the intellectual
world of to-day and the movements of history to know Hellas
for themselves. And really to know Hellas is to take into
one's self directly something of that original force, still un-
exhausted, still fertilizing the individual mind that is brought
into real contact with the art, literature, and thought of ancient
Greece. Such are the facts and experiences that must draw
many of the stronger and more aspiring minds to this study.
The Approach to the Hellenic Spirit. — When we would
approach the Hellenic spirit most directly, it is embodied,
first, in countless examples of Greek art still existing, more or
less injured, in European and Asiatic Hellas, and in the
museums of Europe and America ; and secondly in a copious
408 Principles of Secondary Education
literature. Where the former are accessible, as in our larger
cities, no opportunity to become acquainted with them should
be neglected. But for general educational purposes literature
has this advantage over all other arts, that its originals can
by printing be reproduced perfectly, cheaply, and in any
number of examples. If we will, we can know these books
nearly as well as any Greek could. Only we must first learn
the language, for translations are but poor copies. In school
and college the Greek language is to be taught and studied
primarily as offering the only direct access to the great books.
For while Euclid and perhaps a few other authors can be ade-
quately read in translation, neither Homer and the dramatists
nor Thucydides and the orators nor Plato and Aristotle can
be so read. For these the content is inseparable from the
original form. And unfortunately Greek is a difficult language.
Its difficulties may be considered in four groups, which pre-
sent themselves to students in the following order. First,
an alphabet differing in part from our own. This is the least
difficulty, but is serious during the first weeks. Second, a
large vocabulary, far less represented in everyday English
than is the Latin or French. Third, a rich inflectional system,
especially for the verb. Fourth, a wide divergence from Eng-
lish in syntactical idiom, a divergence due chiefly to the third
group of differences, the copious inflections. It is really the
verb that is at the bottom of all serious troubles after the
alphabet is learned ; and too often the verb is neglected, with
disastrous results. Taken all together, it is not too much to
say that as large a bulk of grammatical acquisition is required
to prepare for the best colleges in Xenophon and Homer as
is required for preparation in Latin and in elementary French
and German combined. Nothing is gained by blinking these
difficulties. It is better to face them, and attack them in
order.
METHOD FOR BEGINNERS. — The first step in learn-
ing the alphabet is to copy out both capitals and small letters,
The Classical Languages and Literatures 409
the teacher indicating the best way of writing each where
a question can arise. Some would follow the cursive manuscript
forms now used in Greece. This has advantages ; but unless
one lives in a Greek-speaking community, keeping nearer to
the usual printed forms leads more directly to the main goal.
Next, the names of the letters should be copied out, in Greek
characters, the pupil pronouncing each one aloud repeatedly.
The written accents are so troublesome that one is inclined
to relax the requirement of strict accuracy at first, hoping
to take them up more carefully later. That is a mistake ;
to correct a habit of inaccuracy once acquired takes more time
and effort than does accuracy from the beginning. The funda-
mental rules are few, and the whole subject less difficult than
English accent is for foreigners. And careful pronunciation
should accompany every step. This raises the question,
what pronunciation ?
Pronunciation. — As with writing, it leads most directly
to our main goal, acquaintance with the ancient literature, to
adopt the compromise in pronunciation which is recommended
in recent grammars and by the Classical Association of Eng-
land and Wales. The principle of this compromise is simple :
to pronounce as the Athenians did about 400 B.C., as nearly
as is practicable for our classes. The latter consideration
leads us to adopt substantially the modern Athenian sounds
for e, o, $, d, x and to give &) a closer sound than the ancient,
like that of German 0; the ancient sounds in these cases
would, for our classes, be so difficult as to demand for mastering
them a disproportionate amount of time. For the same reason
it is not thought worth while to attempt the ancient pitch
accents ; we pronounce them all, in the present Greek fashion,
as we do the English stress accent. Long and short vowels,
however, it saves time in the end to discriminate carefully ;
" hidden quantities " are few in Greek. To Plato no doubt
our best reading would have sounded very barbarous, perhaps
unintelligible. But so would our reading of Shakespeare's
410 Principles of Secondary Education
lines have sounded to Shakespeare ; yet that does not make
them less living to us. Some would see in this example an ar-
gument for the modern Greek pronunciation for ancient Greek.
That, however, is to overlook the decisive differences in the
two cases. The change in English since 1600 has not gone
so deep that our pronunciation destroys all Shakespeare's
rhythm, confounds the commonest words, and turns a phonetic
spelling into an irrational chaos. The modern Greek pro-
nunciation does all that for Sophocles. Considering the
centuries that have elapsed, the Greek language has been
conservative ; some of the present characteristics began to
appear before 300 B.C. ; the popular speech of Greece is eupho-
nious and expressive and has an interesting literature. But
the wealth of the old literature was a constant force toward
the retention of old spelling, while pronunciation inevitably
changed. When, therefore, the modern sounds of the letters
are applied to the poetry of twenty-three centuries or more
ago, rhythm disappears, spelling becomes chaotic, and the
language far harder to acquire. For an approximate illustra-
tion in English we should take, not Shakespeare, but Chaucer.
To read his lines as verse we must return as well as we can
to his pronunciation ; in good teaching of Chaucer that is now
done.
Oral Methods. — But precision in pronunciation on the
system adopted is essential. This is one item in the applica-
tion of the general principle that Greek, like any foreign
language, should be taught as a living speech. As for " dead
languages," of course Elizabethan English is really as dead
as the language of Xenophon ; the latter can be made to live
for us in the same way as the former, and not otherwise. That
is, ear, hand, and tongue must from the first be as accustomed
to Greek words as is the eye, precisely as in the best teaching
of modern languages. The advance of recent years in teach-
ing these, especially in France, Germany, and England, is even
more needed in teaching Greek, and is just as possible.
The Classical Languages and Literatures 411
" Read, write, speak " was the rule of the Jesuit schools three
centuries ago ; the notion that Greek and Latin are to be
learned merely by reading, without accompanying oral use,
belongs to the nineteenth century, and is a fundamental
error. How much use can be made of conversation will depend
on the knowledge and skill of the teacher ; more use can be
made than seems possible to one who has not persistently tried
for it. But the principle is not bound up in any " method " ;
what it requires is that by every available means the ear be
trained to understand Greek words when spoken, and that
the student be accustomed to reproduce Greek accurately,
both orally and in writing. The better the teacher's own com-
mand of the language, the more he can vary these means,
and the better results he will obtain. Also the more Greek
can be used for saying what must be said in the classroom,
the more rapid the progress. But any teacher can insist on
good reading aloud, writing from dictation, translation from
another's reading, and on reciting and writing from memory
both paradigms and connected passages. By such exercises,
too, one gains the power to go further in that direction. There
seems to be a physiological reason for the plain fact of ex-
perience, that a foreign tongue ceases to be alien and becomes
a natural and living mode of expressing thought, only when,
like the mother tongue, it is firmly held by all four kinds of
language memory, those of the ear, hand, and voice, as well
as that of the eye. To exercise all alike from the beginning
makes the learner's progress more rapid, because each step is
more secure.
Reading. — For mastering regular Attic inflections, and
of course for obtaining any considerable vocabulary or a fair
knowledge of ordinary syntax, two things are indispensable.
These are a large amount of reading in easy Attic prose, and
along with this, not after it as a special exercise, much re-
productive use of the language. To both too little attention
is given in American schools. Those who condemn Greek com-
412 Principles of Secondary Education
position from the notion that this is taught as an end in itself
are attacking a man of straw ; nowhere has it ever been so
taught. But for learning to read any language accurately no
other means can take the place of writing. And if to prepare
pupils rightly for the examination in elementary French or
German some two hundred pages of reading are requisite, how
much Attic Greek must be read to obtain equal proficiency in
the far more difficult language ? Can one hundred and fifty
pages of Xenophon suffice? Probably five hundred would
be nearer the mark. The disproportion and the error of
method in the usual practice are plain. Rereading and learn-
ing by heart, good as they are, do not meet the need. Too
much rereading dulls the interest, and that is a capital mistake.
What an eager young mind craves is variety, new combinations,
the repetition that comes with these is more effective than
twice that repetition through reviewing. For the vast ap-
paratus of Attic conjugations, for the two or three thousand
fundamental words, and for the common syntax, no single
one hundred and fifty pages can offer enough combinations.
Still more is this true of what we group together as idioms, the
un-English ways of saying things, ways that grow naturally
from the wealth of inflections, but are impossible in a language
so little inflected as English. Just because they are unnatural
to us, but are the warp and woof of Greek expression, the pupil
must become familiar with a mass of them by meeting them
in scores of variations ; to repeat a few of the combinations
a score of times is not enough. How to meet this difficulty
is a serious problem, which we have scarcely faced, much less
solved. The solution is to be sought in two places. First,
a large amount of simple Attic prose, as varied as possible,
should be read before the Anabasis. Disconnected sentences
will not serve, for several reasons ; first, because they are
intolerably dull. And nothing read before the Anabasis
should destroy the freshness of that interesting story by
anticipating its distinctive vocabulary or its narrative ; de-
The Classical Languages and Literatures 413
tached sentences that spoil both by anticipation are a pedagog-
ical sin. In part the place must be filled by modern composi-
tions. A Greek Boy at Home, by Dr. W. H. D. Rouse
(London, 1909), whose experimental work in the Perse School
at Cambridge (England) has for a decade been doing much for
classical teaching, can DC commended from personal experience
as interesting and practical, and it can be taken up in the first
week. It has the merit, too, of introducing early the com-
monest particles and idioms of sentence connection, which
play so much larger a part than in Latin or any modern-
language. Later some parts of Lucian can be used ; when the
need is more widely realized, a wider choice of suitable texts
will soon be provided in convenient editions. Secondly, we
must not be afraid to postpone a little the reading of Homer,
that the immortal epics may be the better enjoyed. Colleges
that have classes for beginners in Greek are as directly con-
cerned as the schools in attacking such questions as these,
though it should not be forgotten that details of the solution
may be much affected by the age of the class and by their
previous studies. We must here confine ourselves to general
principles, observing that youths of fourteen or fifteen can
learn paradigms, and perhaps can learn passages by heart,
more easily than those of eighteen or older, while the arguments
of the orators and the thoughts of Plato's Apology, Eut/iyphro,
or Crito are harder for young people to comprehend.
Minor Principles of Method. — Three topics, under the
general subject of method, still demand a few words. First,
six hours a week in the class are far more than twice as effective
as three hours ; less than five hours a week means a sad loss of
efficiency in the first year of any foreign language. The
secret of the rapid strides \vhich children make in learning
German when living in Germany is not in the increased number
of hours given to study, but in the increase in the number of
hours of exposure to German, with the constant gentle urging,
which daily life brings upon them, to listen and talk as well as
414 Principles of Secondary Education
write and read. The classroom is a poor substitute for all
that, but is the best we have ; we should make as much of it
as we can. Second, in the writer's experience, Greek syntax
makes little trouble for pupils who have really learned the
inflections. It is hazy notions about these that make syntax
and syntactical idioms appear hard. The thing to emphasize
constantly during the first five hundred pages of reading in
Attic prose is the inflections, particularly of verbs ; without
a firm grip on these a student can have no real knowledge of
Greek, but only invertebrate and feeble notions, which were
better replaced by a real knowledge of French. And a teacher
must not expect this mass of forms to be fully digested until
several hundred pages have been read, with much reading
aloud and writing and much reviewing of set paradigms.
Third, what is commonly known as " sight reading," if
treated as a separate exercise and as somehow distinct from
right reading, is a snare and a delusion. Reading is merely
taking the writer's meaning from his words, written or printed.
Reading Greek or French is not different in that respect from
reading English. The pages a pupil is set to read should
be properly graded to his previous attainment. That being
assumed, every sentence should be first read as well as possible
at sight. That is, the pupil should be trained always to take
the sentence as it comes, gathering the meaning as he proceeds,
from all the indications before him. Precisely as, in learning
the mother tongue, children enlarge their knowledge mostly
by inferring from the context and the situation, so a great
deal that is new can be inferred on every page. For some
months all this new reading should be done in class, the teacher
giving the meaning of new words when this cannot be in-
ferred, but guiding the class to make all needed inferences that
can be made on the basis of what they already know. This
practice both increases speed and habituates to the right
method, while it still leaves plenty for the pupil to do in review-
ing the same passage for the next session. But any kind of
The Classical Languages and Literatures 415
reading which cultivates a habit of stopping short of a close
approximation to the writer's exact meaning is vicious. The
purpose of those who first gave vogue to " sight reading "
was to increase the pitifully small amount of reading then
usually done ; the purpose at least was good.
The above outline deals only with the teaching of the lan-
guage in the early stages. This is not the place for the dis-
cussion of method in the more advanced work of the college,
after a fair reading command of the language is acquired.
PLACE IN SCHOOLS. — The schools of different countries
have developed on such different lines that comparisons in
regard to any branch of study are difficult to make and are
peculiarly open to misunderstanding. The intense interest in
Greek during the earlier Renaissance soon declined. It was
in Protestant Germany and England that Greek literature
was most highly esteemed, permeated most thoroughly the
highest intellectual life, most strongly influenced the men who
created the modern classics, and there it has held the largest
place in the school training of the educated class.
For German schools a new era began with the reorganization
of the Prussian educational system after the humiliation of
Prussia by Napoleon. The school which led to the university
and was intended for the early training of all members of
the learned professions and all higher state officials, though
it was open to all boys whose parents could send them,
was the gymnasium. This was meant to be the stronghold
and propagator of the New Humanism, the heart of which
was the appreciation of Hellenism, as exemplified in all the
makers of classical German literature, notably in Lessing,
Goethe, and Schiller. Latin was given the largest place in the
new gymnasium, but Greek stood beside Latin for the last
six years of the course. And without passing through this
course there was no entrance to the university, therefore none
to a profession or to high civic office. The Prussian schools,
controlled by the state, were on the whole so superior that they
416 Principles of Secondary Education
became the general model for all other German states. Further,
the privileges granted only to state schools made it impossible
for good private schools for boys to grow up beside the state
schools. The system as a whole amounted to a degree of
propulsion toward the study of Greek such as England and
America never approached; that of France was similar, but
less rigid. Two large results followed. First, Greek was
taught and learned with a thoroughness nowhere else equaled
by so large a fraction of the youth of a country. Second, as
mathematics, natural science, the native and other modern
languages and literatures became more and more important
for a liberal education, and yet could not be adequately rec-
ognized in schools that gave so much time to classics, the
revolt against this educational monopoly was most justified
and was strongest in Germany. The centralized state control
made it harder than in America for public opinion to effect
changes ; but changes had to come. Under the present
Emperor they have been coming rapidly, and are likely to
go much farther ; and Greek is the subject most affected by
them. In two ways Greek is crowded out. First, students
are now admitted to university privileges from other schools,
without Greek ; second, more room for modern subjects must
be found in the gymnasium by restricting the time allotted
to Latin and Greek. As one manifestation of the latter
tendency, the plan of the so-called Frankfort system seems
to promise most for the retention of Greek. By this plan
Latin is not begun till the fourth year of the nine-year course,
being preceded by three years of French. Greek is not begun
till two years later, and is then studied intensively for four
years. If this shortening of the time leads to the adoption
of improved methods of teaching, along the line of the vastly
improved teaching of modern languages that is now enforced
in all Prussian secondary schools as in all French lycees,
probably more Greek can be taught than was possible under
the old plan.
Tlic Classical Languages and Literatures 417
In England, the establishing of classical schools in the six-
teenth and seventeenth centuries was a widespread movement,
as truly popular as any such activity could be in those times.
It was always recognized that many who desired higher edu-
cation, and who would by it be fitted to render public service
in church and state, were sons of poor parents. Hence every
educational foundation provided in some form for gratuitous,
or partially gratuitous, teaching of a certain number of poor
boys. In all such schools Greek was a firmly established
subject of study by 1660, and has continued to be so. In the
latter half of the last century a " modern side," without Greek,
also became usual, and a demand for exemption from Greek
for university entrance made itself felt. The newer univer-
sities do not require it, and the question is under discussion
at both the older institutions. At Cambridge German or
French is allowed as a substitute for Greek in the regulations
for the " Examination in Modern Languages for the Ordinary
Degree," an innovation which probably foreshadows a like
concession with regard to the requirements for the " Previous
Examination." At Oxford, however, the- proposal to make
Greek non-compulsory in the cases of candidates presenting
themselves for honors in mathematics and natural science was
rejected in Congregation (November, 191 1) by a majority of
236. As regards the preparatory schools the Report of the
Curriculum Committee (1910) suggesting that Greek should
not be commenced " until a boy had reached a certain stand-
ard in other subjects, such as English, Latin, and French,"
was laid before the Headmasters' Conference at Sherborne,
and is still awaiting their formal consideration. But nowhere
else is Greek more firmly intrenched in the estimation of the
educated classes than in England and Scotland ; this must
have for a time a conservative effect in the schools. The
amount of time traditionally given to the subject, however,
must certainly be diminished, and also the number of those
who drop out by reason of failure to attain, before the age
418 Principles of Secondary Education
limit, the standard set for the successive forms. It should
be added, on the other hand, that youths to whom the subject
is adapted, and who take the full training of a fine English
school, including verse-composition, and then honors in classics
at Oxford or Cambridge, obtain a fuller mastery of the Greek
language and a deeper understanding of Hellenism than is
imparted by the corresponding course of any other country.
In America, the English colonists, following the example
of the mother country, began early to found grammar schools,
in which Latin should be taught, and a beginning of Greek
in the New Testament. Before the Revolution also the endow-
ment of " academies " as another class of secondary schools
had been well begun and it continued into the last century, to
be succeeded by the still more popular movement for estab-
lishing free public high schools. One of the chief functions
of the academy, as of the grammar school, was to fit boys for
college, and hence to start them in Latin and in the elements
of Greek ; the high schools were intended rather to furnish
a better education for those who would not go to college.
Preparation for colleges of the old type was for them always
a secondary aim ; and has been more and more subordinated
as the other aim has broadened and turned more toward
vocational training, or at least toward such teaching as would
more directly facilitate bread winning. In the newer states,
of course, where the state universities have always given more
attention to applied science and purely modern subjects, the
high schools of each state have stood in close connection with
its university ; but that brings them no nearer to Greek.
The great increase in the number of pupils whose home speech
is not English has been a large factor in this development of
the high schools. Accordingly, while many of the earlier
high schools included Greek in the curriculum, few, except
large high schools, now do so, and many of the largest, as in
New York and Chicago, do not. In many states, as Iowa
and Minnesota, no high schools teach any Greek. The
The Classical Languages and Literatures 419
surviving grammar schools and larger academies generally
teach it to those who desire it. Meantime, with the increase in
wealth and advance in ideals of education, the demand for
proprietary and endowed schools of the highest class has
lately been growing. This has filled to overflowing the exist-
ing schools of this sort, and has brought into being many new
ones. These are largely, if not primarily, preparatory for
college and technical schools, and hence include Greek for
those who wish it. They may prove to be one of the strong-
holds of Greek instruction, since they are in a better position
for adopting improved methods of teaching than are the
public schools, and their teachers' advice carries more weight
with parents and pupils. Finally, it should be mentioned that
the Roman Catholic Church maintains not a few colleges and
schools, including some for girls, in which Greek is taught.
Also, some groups of immigrants from Germany have been
active in providing classical teaching for their sons. Notably
the Lutherans have a series of flourishing schools more closely
modeled on the German gymnasium than any others in
America.
Amid the conflicting currents of life in America it is difficult
to sum up the present situation with reference to Greek
study, and impossible to foretell the future. The mate-
rialistic trend of the whole modern world toward money-get-
ting is hostile to studies that seem to have no direct bearing
on that. On the other hand, the deep idealistic strain and
the passion for the best that are so characteristic of the race
that America is slowly forming out of many heterogeneous
elements, offer ground for hope. Whatever the teachers of
Greek can lead their pupils to feel, in adult life, has been
good in their own mental experience, will be kept and made
available for their children.
420 Principles of Secondary Education
VISUAL AIDS
LATIN AND GREEK. — The various schoolbooks, in-
cluding beginners' books and editions, are now, as a rule,
profusely illustrated with maps, diagrams, pictures of ancient
sculpture and coinage and, in the case of Caesar, with photo-
graphs of the present appearance of the ancient battle fields.
Besides the textbooks, however, there are many other
publications for the use of students and for classroom illus-
tration. Of prime importance are large maps, the best of
which are those of Kiepert (Reimer, Berlin). There are
numerous school atlases in all countries.
A capital book is Hill's Illustrations of School Classics
(London, 1903), which gives numerous illustrations covering
the fields of religion and mythology, history, and antiqui-
ties, with a special chapter on buildings. This may be well
supplemented by Schreiber's Atlas of Classical Antiquities
(Macmillan, 1895).
Lantern slides have been prepared in great numbers by
G. R. Swain, Lockport, Illinois, to illustrate Caesar's life and
campaigns (400 slides) and Greek and Roman archaeology in
general. The Records of the Past Exploration Society
(Washington, D.C.) have issued forty slides illustrating Vergil's
jEneid as well as sets illustrating Pompeii (50 slides), Homer
(65 slides), and Greek and Roman mythology (50 slides).
These are expensive, but very fine. Excellent and cheap half-
tone prints of classical architecture and sculpture are issued
by the Bureau of University Travel, Boston, Massachusetts ;
the Perry Pictures Co., Maiden, Massachusetts ; A. W. Cooley,
Auburndale, Massachusetts. Washington University, St.
Louis, will furnish slides based on the remains and reconstruc-
tion of the Saalburg Camp.
For the Gallic War we have also Oehlcr's Bilder- Atlas zu
Ccesars Biiclier dc bcllo Galileo (Leipzig, 1890), and Von
Kampen's Quindecim ad Casaris de bcllo Galileo commenlarios
The Classical Languages and Literatures 421
tabula; (Gotha). L. Gurlitt, has also published six An-
schauungstafeln zu Caesars bcllum Gallicum (Gotha).
W. B. Harison of New York has issued a very extensive and
cheap collection of Illustrations for History Notebooks, in
which there are outline maps as well as illustrations of every
conceivable ancient object. These can be made very service-
able.
Visual aids have a prominent place in the direct method.
For this purpose Dent and Co. (London) have issued a number
oj: colored Wall Pictures of Roman Antiquities. These may
be supplemented by Launitz's Wandtafeln zur Veranschau-
lichung antikcn Lcbcns (Cassel). Cybulski's colored Tabula
quibus antiquitatcs Grcecce et Romance illuslrantur (Leipzig,
Koehler) are also invaluable for such use. Bell and Co.
(London) have recently issued a series of sixteen colored picture
cards, with vocabularies and exercises covering a similar ground.
The pictures in Gurlitt's Lateinische Fibel and Lcscbuch (Berlin)
could easily be reproduced, and would give much variety to
the material.
Especial reference should be made to Hensell's Modclle zur
Veranschaulichung antiken Lcbens (Diesterweg, Frankfurt
a.M.). These models have to do with ancient clothing and
life and with military engines. They could easily be re-
produced by the manual training department of any school.
They are not expensive wrhen the size and demand for such
models is considered.
TOPICS FOR FURTHER STUDY
1. What in recent years has been the tendency in the American high
school in the number studying Latin ? Greek ?
2. Compare the amount of time devoted to Latin in the American
high school with that given in the various types of secondary schools
of European countries?
3. What difference in the results of the study of Latin are discoverable
in a comparison of American high schools with European secondary
schools ? In methods ? In textbooks ? In curricula ?
422 Principles of Secondary Education
4. Test the assigned values of the study of Latin in a study of any
one given high school, with students now in school. With graduate stu-
dents. Compare Greek.
5. Compare these results with the results of similar tests for other
subjects.
6. Compare in any one high school or other institution the general
class or school standing of students taking Latin or Greek with those
who do not. In what respects does such a study give evidence of the
educational value of the subject, and in what respects not?
7. In what respects are the problem of interest and the problem of
effort in education revealed through the study of Latin ? Of Greek ?
8. To what extent is the oral method of teaching applicable in Latin ?
What peculiar values does it have ?
9. \Vhat visual aids to the teaching of Latin and Greek can be used
and to what extent should they be used ? What are the pedagogical and
the educational value of such aids ?
10. Can the values of the study of Latin or of Greek be measured by
quantitative methods ?
REFERENCES
BENNETT, C. E., and BRISTOL, G. P. The Teaching of Latin and
Greek in the Secondary School. New ed. London and New York,
IQII.
BREUL, KARL. Greek and its Humanistic Alternatives in the "Little-Go."
Cambridge, 1905.
COOKSOX, C. Essays on Secondary Education. Oxford, 1898.
CORCORAN, T. Studies in the History of Classical Teaching. Dublin, 1911.
ECKSTEIN, FR. A. Lateinischer und Gricchischcr Untcrricht. D. H.
Heyden, Ed. Leipzig, 1887.
England. Board of Education. Publications, particularly :
The Teaching of Latin in the Perse School, Cambridge. Educational
Pamphlet No. 20. London, 1910.
The Teaching of Greek at the Perse School, -Cambridge. Educational
Pamphlet No. 28. London, 1914.
The Teaching of the Classics in Secondary Schools in Germany. Special
Reports, Vol. 20. London, 1910.
GARNE, J. B. Handbook for High School Teachers of Latin. Cape
Girardeau, 1909.
HEADLAM, J. W. Teaching of Classics in Secondary Schools in Germany.
In England, Board of Education, Special Reports, Vol. XX. Lon-
don, 1910.
The Classical Languages and Literatures 423
HECKER, E. A. The Teaching of Latin in Secondary Schools. Boston,
1909.
JONES, W. H. S. The Teaching of Latin. London, 1906.
KELSEY, ¥. VV. Latin and Greek in American Education. New York,
1911.
KOHL, O. Griechischer Untcrricht. Langensalza, 1898.
MATTHIAS, A. Praktische Pddagogik filr hohcrc Lchranstallen. Munich,
1908.
MICHAELIS, G. Wclche Forderung kann dcr latcinische Unterricht an
Rcformschulen durch das Franzosische crfahrcn? Marburg, 1902.
NORWOOD, C., and HOPE, A. H. Higher Education of Boys in England.
London, 1909.
Recommendations of the Classical Association on the Teaching of Latin and
Greek — being a series of Reports by committees. London, 1912.
ROUSE, W. H. D. Classical Work and Method in the Twentieth Century.
London, 1908.
Teaching of Latin and Greek. Proc. Scotch Classical Assoc., 1910-
1911.
The Teaching of Classics (brief description of his application of the
direct method to Greek and Latin). In Athemeum, Sept. 17, 1910,
PP- 323-325-
SABIN, F. E. The Relation of Latin to Practical Life. Chicago, 1913.
SANDYS, J. E. A History of Classical Scholarship from the Sixth Century
B.C. to the Eighteenth Century in Germany, and the Nineteenth Cen-
tury in Europe and the United States. Cambridge, 1903-1908.
The School for the Reform of Latin Teaching. Reports for 1911, 1912,
1913, 1914. London.
SLAUGHTER, M. S. The High School Course in Latin. Madison, 1908.
WATSON, FOSTER. English Grammar Schools to 1660. Cambridge, 1908.
WOODWARD, WM. H. Studies in Education during the Age of the Ren-
aissance, 1400-1600. Cambridge, 1906.
The Years Work in Classical Studies, edited annually by W. H. D.
Rouse for the Classical Association (London, John Murray), con-
tains each year a report on recent pedagogical discussions.
See the files of the Journal of Education (London) and School World
(London), especially since IQIO, on the status of Greek at Oxford.
The Classical Weekly, published at Columbia University, New York,
and the Classical Journal, published monthly at the University of Chicago,
contain much material relating to the classics in American schools.
So also do the files of the School Review, University of Chicago, and the
Educational Review, edited by President Butler of Columbia University.
CHAPTER XI
MODERN LANGUAGES
PURPOSE OF STUDY OF MODERN LANGUAGE. -
Modern languages are studied in the secondary school primarily
for their practical value. Through the choice and study of
material a cultural value is added. Moreover, the processes
involved in learning a foreign language are conceded to have
general educative value ; they serve to clarify, deepen, and
broaden one's knowledge of language in general as a vehicle
of thought. The practical goal sought in the course may be
regarded from at least two points of view. We may stress
the utilitarian side, the practical oral control of the language,
allowing the reading of books to appear as a natural out-
growth, or we may make reading the chief aim. The first
way might seem upon the surface both a desirable and a
logical one to pursue. Yet experience teaches us that the
school is not a favorable place for the acquisition of a lan-
guage technique commensurate with the energy that would
have to be expended and for which there is not sufficient time.
The field of reading, on the other hand, is not only broad and
cultural, but the kind of work required to teach pupils to
read successfully is quite in keeping with school conditions.
Moreover, the ability to read a language is more likely to be
of permanent practical value than any conversational knowl-
edge that might conceivably be gained in school classes.
METHOD. — Pronunciation. — The importance of teaching
the foreign sounds correctly in the early weeks of the modern
language course cannot be too strongly emphasized. The work
should be largely upon an imitative and oral basis, the teacher
acting as model. It is also important that he possess a working
424
Modern Languages 425
knowledge of phonetics. This will insure the right attitude
toward this element of the course, and enable him to diagnose
and correct mistakes wherever imitation is insufficient as
a guide. Whether the pupils themselves shall be taught
phonetic terminology and the foreign sounds at first by means
of transcribed texts is a moot question. There are good argu-
ments both for and against, particularly when dealing with
a language like French. In any case, it is fundamental
that there should be abundant practice in hearing and utter-
ing the sounds of the new language.
Oral Practice. — Although intelligent reading is the chief
end sought, a great deal of attention ought to be given to work
in hearing and speaking, because of their very positive value
in classroom procedure. In general, emphasis upon the spoken
word makes for greater flexibility in the treatment of the ma-
terial. It is stimulating to both teacher and pupil. Imitation
and repetition are fundamental means of acquiring a new
language, and if oral exercises in the foreign tongue are em-
ployed with judgment, there is no kind of work which allows
and suggests to the teacher greater abundance of repetition,
and hence tends to make right associations habitual. More-
over, the constant use of the foreign language in the classroom,
in the form of commands and well-directed questions and
answers, favors the formation of a Sprachgefuhl, or language
sense, an indefinable though undoubtedly a potent factor
in the acquisition of a foreign language. The amount of time
to be devoted to work in speaking cannot readily be determined.
In general, however, practice seems to favor greater emphasis
proportionally during the elementary stage, at a time when a
great deal of drill is necessary to acquire the grammatical
forms and a working vocabulary. But throughout the course
it should be the rule to have regular oral practice carefully
graded and coordinated with all other elements of the course.
Only in this way can we be assured that it shall be beneficial
in the work. The scope of work in speaking and its distribu-
426 Principles of Secondary Education
tion in the different years of the course, its relation to other
elements such as reading and grammar, have not as yet been
satisfactorily worked out, particularly for the later stages.
Adequate books and specially trained teachers are still lacking.
The earliest material will probably be best selected from
objects in the immediate environment ; and wall pictures, if
judiciously employed, will be of great assistance in planning
the elementary work. The bulk of the material for the second-
ary school, however, should be chosen from connected reading-
texts. In the elementary stages these will consist of simple,
constructed texts or natural texts that are rich in certain
grammatical forms or vocabulary. Later the regular annotated
stories, etc., may be made the basis for conversational practice.
Still, for many reasons, chief among which are that the reading
texts may not lend themselves to conversational treatment,
that the vocabulary may be too uncommon or too highly
literary in character, and above all that the selections may
be too difficult, it would seem advisable on the whole to have
separate texts for conversational practice, carefully organized
as regards vocabulary, content, and form. Graded material
dealing with foreign life and customs is suggested.
Work in speaking may be roughly divided into two kinds :
(i) highly formal in character, (2) a more natural kind, which
emphasizes the thought as well as the form side of the material.
The first kind will consist of various changes in the sentences
read, in person, number, tense, voice of the verb, and sub-
stitutions of pronoun for noun, etc. Questions may be put
in such a way as to force the pupil to employ the desired gram-
matical form. The second type will consist largely of rapid
questions and answers upon the day's reading. In the earlier
stages the questions and answers would closely follow the
printed text, later the text might be used merely as a starting
point for conversational practice, the pupils drawing their
answers from their general knowledge of the spoken language.
From time to time the class would be encouraged to relate
Modern Languages 427
the contents of a part or the whole of the material thus in-
tensively studied. Success, however, in the later stages de-
pends upon the thoroughness with which the so-called ques-
tion and answer work is done. In any high school course
simple questioning on a suitable connected text should occupy
the major portion of the time in oral practice. It is only in
this way that fluency and the requisite accuracy are assured.
Grammar. — Whatever other value the study of grammar
may have in the mental training of the pupil, its immediate
value is to enable him to acquire the foreign language on the
form side systematically and intelligently. Only essential
forms and usages should be selected, and these should be
taught by constant practice rather than by drill upon rules.
Correct habits of use should be regarded as of more importance
than the mere learning of paradigms. In general, the treat-
ment of grammar should be inductive at least in spirit. Tra-
ditional grammar teaching regards the translation of a number
of detached sentences from and into the mother tongue as the
chief exercise for clinching the previously studied formal rules.
More recent teaching, however, lays great stress upon ex-
ercises planned to give a great deal of oral and \vritten practice
carried on in the foreign language itself. Some of these ex-
ercises have been suggested under the preceding topic, such
as changes of tense, number and person, etc., based upon dis-
connected sentences or connected reading material. The
filling out of appropriate endings and a large variety of exercises
all serve to give more copious and quicker drill than the older
translation method. Of greater importance than these,
however, are the more or less formal question and answer drills,
in which the teacher's questions force the pupil to employ
the new grammatical principle or form. Many of these ques-
tions will be type questions, that is, one question will admit
of a comparatively large number of answers, each one of which,
however, will contain the required principle or form. The
judicious employment of this so-called living grammar teach-
428 Principles of Secondary Education
ing is of great advantage in giving quick, definite, and withal
interesting drills which to a large extent are wanting under
the still widely prevailing plan of translating detached sen-
tences into the foreign tongue.
In a course lasting four years it seems highly desirable, in
German at least, to have the first grammatical course extend
over two years. The last two years might then be spent in
giving richer practice and somewhat broader treatment. This
plan, however, is not practiced in the majority of schools,
with the result that pupils in the higher classes are often weak
both in knowledge of forms and in the ability to use them
accurately for the expression of simple thoughts in the foreign
language.
Written Work. — Work in writing should accompany at
every step the oral work in the German classroom. As a rule,
it should follow directly the oral development of, and drill
upon, the grammatical topic. After the material has been
first threshed out orally in the classroom, it should then be put
into writing, for the time being the final form. As not every-
thing can be written, the work should represent that which
is typical and essential in the lesson or series of lessons. The
results obtained from writing are fairly obvious. Hand and
eye serve to fix the oral impressions, and it checks up the work
on a given topic. Further, it makes for greater definiteness
and flexibility in the work done outside of class. In the early
stages, however, it is better to have much of the written work
done in class, and thus controlled and corrected at every step.
But wherever done it is a wise procedure to ask of pupils that
they shall employ in their written exercises only the materials,
vocabulary, and principles, with which they are quite familiar
through previous study.
Work in writing may be of two kinds : (i) exercises largely
imitative in character, (2) exercises in translation, involving
comparison between the mother and the foreign tongue. The
latter type is still largely employed in all stages of the course.
Modern Languages 429
Recently, however, teachers have found that written exercises,
similar to, and in fact growing out of, the conversational
practice, are productive of better results. In addition to the
more formal exercises which emphasize a certain grammatical
fact, the simple narrative of the day's lesson, and the intro-
duction in the upper classes of the letter form of composition,
offer a rich field for development. Over against this rather
modern procedure, we find a large proportion of teachers still
faithful to exercises in translating from the mother tongue
into the foreign. In the early stages the exercises consist of
detached sentences arranged under the appropriate gram-
matical headlines in the textbook. Later, a graded composi-
tion book, containing various styles of writing, is employed.
As this kind of work prevails, often to the exclusion or at least
the fitful use of free reproduction and other non-translation
kinds of exercises, it is well to point out some of the weaknesses
of the practice, (i) Pupils are made to learn the foreign
language by comparison before they have sufficient knowl-
edge of its vocabulary and principles. (2) The composition
books are far too ambitious in character. The acquisition
of speed and accuracy should be regarded more highly than
the ability to translate difficult material inadequately. Writ-
ten work of all kinds ought to consist largely of material that
the pupil can readily do at sight.
Reading. — Since reading is the chief aim of the modern
language course, great care should be exercised not only in
the selection, but also in the treatment of the material. It
should be interesting, possess literary merit, and be well
graded as to difficulty and the maturity of the pupils. At
present, the general tendency is to read stories, and in the
later years some poems and plays of classical writers. Unity
and point of view are lacking in the course. It is organized
only as to general amount and difficulty required for entrance
to college. It would seem desirable to increase the kind of
reading dealing with facts, particularly with those that give
430 Principles of Secondary Education
an insight into the life, customs, and history of the foreign
peoples. In a four-year German course we might, for
example, group the reading material around some definite
points such as these : first year, a general introduction to
German life ; second year, legends and sagas and the Mdrchen;
third year, some few facts of history as illustrated by the lives
of great personalities ; fourth year, at least one literary
masterpiece and brief sketches of the lives of such men as
Goethe, Lessing, and Schiller.
The traditional treatment of reading is that of translation
into the mother tongue. More recently systematic attempts
have been made, notably in Germany, to reduce the amount
of time spent upon this exercise and to increase the ability
of the class to study and understand the foreign text without
the aid of habitual translation. Clearness of understanding
in the early stages is effected by selecting simple, objective
material and teaching it by means of close questioning in the
foreign tongue, explaining new words by the use of objects, pic-
tures, or gesture, by opposites, by the study of word formation,
by definition in the foreign language, or even by translating
troublesome words and phrases. If the work is systematically
done from the outset, translation may be limited largely to
the more difficult passages, and the time usually devoted to it
be employed in various exercises carried on within the language
being taught. How much shall be translated is a question,
however, which individual teachers will always have to decide
for themselves. Length of course and the equipment of the
teacher are the controlling factors. It is obvious that trans-
lation is the quickest apparent test of the pupil's understanding
of a passage, although where it is used to the exclusion of
all other exercises upon the text, some of its weaknesses may
be summed up as follows.
In general, translation is largely an exercise in the use of the
mother tongue. As an exercise for teaching the foreign
language, it is wasteful of time as a vocabulary builder.
Modern Languages 431
Since the pupil exchanges symbol for symbol, it neglects almost
wholly the acquisition of the form side of the foreign language,
and as usually carried on, it lays but little stress upon the
thought side. It has little or no influence upon the growth
of language sense (SprachgefuhT). The foreign language is
kept in the background, and is used as a mere vehicle for
exercising the mother tongue.
RESULTS OF SCHOOL WORK. —What, briefly, should
be the outcome of a four-year high school course in modern
languages ? The pupils should be able to read ordinary prose
or poetry suitable in range of thought to their years of under-
standing. By far the greater proportion of the materials
should be selected from modern authors. While there can
be no objection to the appreciative study by the pupils of one
or two of the classic dramas or other forms of literature, the
reading of the classics in general should be deferred to the
college period of modern language instruction. By the selection
of reading material and by all other means that the teacher can
devise, the pupils should have been taught some elementary facts
regarding the life and customs of the foreign peoples. They
should have obtained by careful teaching an accurate working
knowledge of the essentials of grammar in order that their
growth in knowledge of the language shall always be upon
a solid foundation. In addition, the pupils should have ac-
quired the power to use a small stock of common words in
speaking or in writing. They ought, for example, to be able
to answer questions based upon an easy story read to them,
or to give its contents in simple language either orally or in
writing. Finally, they ought to have some facility in con-
versing about simple matters of daily life and be able to express
their doings in letter form.
PLACE OF MODERN LANGUAGES IN THE CURRICU-
LUM.— The study of modern languages in the schools was
largely developed during the nineteenth century. Before that
period school instruction was not very widespread, nor were
432 Principles of Secondary Education
the foreign languages given anything but a very minor place
in the school program.
United States. In Colleges. — Until the Revolutionary
war, American colleges, as a rule, followed about the same
course of study as was found in the universities of the mother
country. Latin and Greek, Hebrew, some logic and philos-
ophy, rhetoric, elementary mathematics, and physics were
regarded as ample. French is recorded as an extra study
about the middle of the century at Harvard. The first
professorship of French seems to have been established at
the College of William and Mary in 1779, with the radical
reorganization of the curriculum brought about by Thomas
Jefferson. Students at Harvard, not preparing for the
ministry, could substitute French for Hebrew in the 8o's of
the eighteenth century. But for a good many years the
advance made by French and, later, German, in the colleges
was extremely slow. It was an extra subject, occupying an
inferior position in the same list as music, fencing, etc., to be
paid for extra, and not permitted to interfere with the stated
academic duties. George Ticknor was made Professor of
French, Spanish, and Belles Lettres at Harvard in 1816.
With his name is closely associated the term " elective sys-
tem," which much later came to play such a role in the or-
ganization of the work of all higher education in America.
The modern languages acted as the first entering wedge in
the attempt at breaking up the rigid curriculum of the past.
In 1825 the University of Virginia opened its doors, and
modern languages formed one of the ten schools comprised
in the plan. In six months the modern language school was
second in numbers after mathematics, and larger than the
school of ancient languages.
Very little progress in modern language studies was then
made for over a generation until, in fact, the idea of elective
studies again rapidly spread during the period of the presidency
of Charles W. Eliot at Harvard. At present, the modern
Modern Languages 433
languages are among the largest departments in the Colleges
of Arts.
College Entrance Requirements. — If the development in
the colleges was so slow, the condition in secondary schools
is readily understood. It was not until 1875 that a modern
language was required for admission to college.
At the present time many colleges demand a reading knowl-
edge of French or German, or both, for the several degrees,
although there is nothing like uniformity except in colleges
exclusively for women. As late as 1896-1897, of 432 institu-
tions only 14 per cent required a modern language for the B.A.
degree; of 123 institutions 4i| per cent required a modern
language for the Bachelor of Philosophy, the modern language
being in lieu of Greek. Similar percentages are shown in the
requirements for the degrees of B.S. and B.L. In the same
year only 123 out of 318 colleges and scientific schools re-
quired a modern language for admission.
Reports on the Secondary Curriculum and Methods. —
The Report, published in 1899, of the Committee of Twelve,
appointed by the Modern Language Association, has been
of great assistance in fixing standards of modern language
instruction in the schools. The method favored by the com-
mittee was on the whole the so-called reading method ; that
is, copious reading of graded texts, hand in hand with the study
of grammatical essentials. But the committee also advised,
particularly in the longer courses, the introduction of some
oral work, and other practices of the German direct method.
Three grades of attainments were defined in the Report, and
reading texts for each suggested. The elementary grade,
reached normally after two years of study, represents the
minimum requirement now usually set for entrance to col-
lege. The work of the two higher grades, the intermediate
and the advanced, is intended to take one and two years'
longer study than the elementary. The Committee's Report
was early adopted by the College Entrance Examination
434 Principles of Secondary Education
Board and the combined influence has done much to bring
about unity in admission requirements. The aim of instruc-
tion and the work to be done in the various grades is about
as follows :
For the elementary course. Ability to translate at sight
very easy dialogue or narrative prose, to put into the foreign
language short English sentences taken from the language of
everyday life or based upon a text given for translation, and
to answer questions upon the rudiments of grammar. The
committee suggested that the amount of reading to be done
should, in French, consist of 350 to 375 pages; in German, of
225 to 250 pages. In addition to careful drill upon pronuncia-
tion, abundant easy exercises of various kinds should serve
to fix the essentials of grammar and to cultivate readiness in
the reproduction of natural forms of expression.
For the intermediate course. Ability to read at sight prose
of ordinary difficulty, to put into the foreign language a con-
nected passage of simple English based upon the text read,
and to answer more difficult grammatical questions. The
work to be done in reading should consist of about 400 to
600 pages of French, or 400 pages of German, with constant
practice in giving paraphrases of portions of the matter read,
together with more extended study of the grammar of the
foreign language.
For the advanced course. Ability to read at sight difficult
French not earlier than that of the seventeenth century, or
any German literature of the past 150 years that is free from
textual difficulties, to put into the foreign language a passage
of simple English prose, to answer German questions relating
to the lives and works of the great writers studied; in French,
to carry on a simple conversation. The work of the last
year should consist of about 600-1000 pages of standard French
or of about 500 pages of German literature respectively.
Pupils should also write numerous short themes as well as
translations of English into the foreign language.
Modern Languages 435
While the Report of the Committee of Twelve remains
even to-day an excellent statement, on the whole, of the aims
and methods of foreign language study, the experience of the
past years warrants a restatement in regard to some partic-
ulars. Higher standards of thoroughness, greater intensity
and variety in the treatment of the material make it impossible
to cover satisfactorily the number of pages indicated in the
report. This is particularly true with regard to the inter-
mediate and advanced grades. The reading lists also re-
quire adjustment and more careful standardization for the
various grades. The rate of advance in difficulty from the
elementary to the intermediate, and, again, from the latter to
the advanced, is, undoubtedly, too great, and out of harmony
with school conditions. Lastly, the importance of oral and
aural training, of the freer use of the foreign language in
general, would now be more greatly accentuated.
Within the past few years, the more progressive teachers,
stimulated by the results obtained by the reformers in Ger-
many, have been trying to adapt to local conditions some of
the aims and methods employed abroad. More attention
has been given to oral work, and to teaching pupils freer and
better control of the language in general. The greatest ob-
stacle to rapid progress, however, is bad teaching, for outside
the large city systems there are far too few special teachers
possessing adequate knowledge of the subject, and specially
trained in methods of presentation.
Distribution of Pupils. — The geographical distribution of
pupils studying French and German in secondary schools
shows remarkable variations. In general, the North Atlantic
Division leads in the percentage of pupils studying both
French and German in IQOQ-IQIO, with 27.56 per cent as
against 1 1 .50 per cent for the rest of the United States. Again,
the New England states lead in the percentage of those pur-
suing French, with 41.21 per cent as against 6.44 per cent
for the rest of the United States. On the other hand, the
436 Principles of Secondary Education
same states are below the average for the United States in
the percentage of pupils studying German, 17.21 per cent as
against 23.69 per cent for the country as a whole. As an
example, also, of the great variation in the study of the two
languages in different states, 49.09 per cent of pupils in the
New Hampshire secondary schools study French as against
0.69 per cent in Indiana. New Jersey leads in percentage of
pupils pursuing German, with 41.39 per cent, while the per-
centages for South Carolina, Louisiana, and Mississippi are
0.34 per cent, 0.72 per cent, and 1.69 per cent respectively.
Germany. — Although Germany was much in advance of
other countries, the introduction of French into the schools
did not begin to make any headway until the eighteenth century.
Before that time its study was confined to private instruction or
to the schools attended by the upper classes (Rilterakademien) .
By the beginning of the nineteenth century, however, most
Prussian Gymnasien offered French as an optional subject.
Owing to patriotic reasons, it was banished from the schools
in 1816, to be taken up more vigorously a few years later.
In 1831 French became obligatory in Prussia, beginning in
Tertia. Other states followed later, Saxony in 1846, Bavaria
in 1854. The study of English was much slower in its develop-
ment. The relations between the countries were in earlier
times not strong, but were kept alive by trade, traveling, and,
notably, beginning with the middle of the eighteenth century,
by the increased interest in English literature. It was,
however, not until as late as 1859 that English was made
obligatory in the Realschulen of Prussia, although of course
it had been gradually introduced in the schools during the
first half of the century. Since the refounding of the Ger-
man Empire, and particularly during the last two decades,
the study of English has made rapid advances. In 1900 an
imperial edict allowed the substitution of English for French
in the three upper classes of the gymnasium (Oil, UI, and
OI), French remaining an optional subject. It also made
Modern Languages 437
possible the substitution of other subjects for Greek in
Unlcrtertia, Obertertia, and Untersekunda, in which case
three of the six hours arc given to English, and the other
three are distributed among French and mathematics and
the sciences.
Method. — The method of modern language instruction in
Germany has, from early times, swung between two poles, -
the synthetic and the analytic. Both types of instruction
have existed at all times side by side, although, during the
first half of the nineteenth century, the method employed
in the schools was on the whole synthetic and a close imitation
of the severely grammatical procedure employed in the teach-
ing of Latin and Greek. This was due in part to a great lack
of properly trained teachers, for the universities were late in
establishing chairs of French and English, the majority com-
ing after 1850. The new facilities for study produced in
time an organized and well-schooled body of modern language
teachers. Particularly during the last generation have great
changes been made, bringing progress toward better ways and
means of teaching the subject, so that at the present time no
other country equals Germany in the excellence of its modern
language instruction. The method now widely employed, often
called the direct method, is analytic in character, and is a
revolt against the older formal grammatical procedure. The
chief points are as follows : Reading occupies a central posi-
tion in the work in place of grammar, and is selected so as to
give pupils a clear idea of the life, thought, and civilization of
the foreign people. In all stages, but particularly in the
earlier, great emphasis is laid upon oral practice. Indeed,
the emphasis upon the spoken language and upon written
exercises growing out of the oral work is a salient characteristic
of the method. Translations from and into the vernacular
cease to be any longer a regular exercise. Grammar study is
reduced to essentials, and taught largely inductively. This,
in general, represents the plan of the more radical reformers.
438 Principles of Secondary Education
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Moderti Languages 439
The more conservative, forming probably the majority, still
favor the retention of translation, and greater emphasis upon
the grammatical course.
, The work, particularly of the more advanced reformers,
has been the subject of much criticism, especially in the last
decade, partly because of its too utilitarian tendencies, and
partly because of the general instability of pupils' knowledge,
mainly on the formal side. The movement, however, rep-
resents a great step forward in both aim and practice. Mod-
ern language method has never before been so efficiently and
rationally organized with the idea of giving power to the
pupil to use the foreign language in reading, in writing, and
in speaking.
France. — German and English are the modern languages
most studied in the French public schools, instruction in
Spanish and Italian being confined almost exclusively to
places near the borders of the respective countries. Of the
two languages German is chosen more frequently in the boys'
schools. This is partly due to the fact that it is required for
entrance to the military school at Saint-Cyr and the Ecole
P olylcclmique . English is more favored in the girls' schools.
Instruction in the modern languages was made optional in
lye ccs and colleges in 1821, though but little weight was at-
tached to their study, and but meager time allowed. In
1858 the stuck' became compulsory in the classical course,
and in 1847 m the " modern " course. In 1880 modern lan-
guages were studied in every class, with a total of twenty-
nine hours per week. The kind of instruction, and the results
obtained, were, however, unsatisfactory. Translation from
and into the foreign tongue, and much formal grammar were
the chief means employed almost everywhere, even as late as
1896, although the ministerial instructions of 1890 were in
theory in advance of any of the German official regulations
of about the same time. The provinces in particular were
verv backward. The reform, which had alreadv been in
44° Principles of Secondary Education
progress a dozen years or more in Germany, had as yet made
scarcely any impression upon the work in France. In 1902,
however, the whole subject of modern language instruction
was radically changed. The aims and practices of the ad-
vanced German reformers were taken over, stock and barrel,
and formulated in the instructions of the i5th November, 1901.
Since that time most earnest attempts have been made by
the government and the teachers to carry out the new radical
program, and apparently with considerable success.
After six years' trial it was found necessary to be more
conservative in the work, particularly in the upper classes.
The new instructions of 1908 confirm and strengthen the plan
of work done in the lower classes. For the fifth and fourth
classes translation into the mother tongue, not mentioned in
the earlier instructions, is suggested as a means of control in
addition to the study of the reading text by exercises in the
foreign language. The chief changes, however, are made in
the instructions dealing with the work of the second and first
classes. The earlier program emphasized reading material
dealing with the life, civilization, and history of the literature
of the foreign people ; the new lays stress entirely upon litera-
ture, pure and simple. Moreover, one of the chief exercises
of the last period is the cultivation of the art of translation
into the mother tongue. These changes, however, are very
slight on the whole. France leads the world, officially, in
the advocacy of the radical direct method of modern language
teaching.
Modern languages may now be studied for eleven of the
twelve years in the French lycccs and colleges for boys. In
the second year of the preparatory division and in the eighth
and seventh forms of the elementary division the subject is
very inadequately represented by two hours for each. At-
tempts to eliminate the study and to defer the regular instruc-
tion until the sixth form have thus far failed. In the follow-
ing four forms, constituting the first cycle, one modern Ian-
Modern Languages
441
guagc is studied five hours per week in each of the four years.
In the first two forms of the second cycle the number of hours
devoted to modern languages depends upon which of the four
possible groups of courses or sections the pupil elects to pur-
sue. The following is a table for these two years :
SECTION A
STCCTION 15
SECTION C
SECTION D
Latin and Greek
Latin and Modern
Language
Latin and Science
Science and
Modern Language
Modern
Language
2
3
41
2
3
41
In the highest form there is a twofold division into the
philosophy and mathematics forms, each with two sections,
A and B.
PHILOSOPHY
MATHEMATICS
Section A
Section B
Section A
Section H
Modern
Languages
2 "
\ I
ta«
2
f I
(23
The modern language course in girls' secondary schools is
begun in the infant class and continued as an obligatory study
throughout all the nine years. In the last two years a second
modern language may be taken. The following is the number
of hours per week in each of the classes: 2-^, 2§, 2-^, 2-|, 3,
3, 3, 3, (2);' 3 (2).'
The following is the number of hours given to modern
languages in the usual three classes of the French higher
1 Second language begun and continued. - Optional.
3 Pupils have the right aa to distribution of these hours.
4 Second language optional.
442 Principles of Secondary Education
elementary schools, the ecoles primaires superieures and ecoles
pratiques de commerce el cF Industrie.
BOYS' SCHOOLS
I
II
in
General Course , .
. , „ \ ecole supeneure
Commercial Course j
3
3
4
2
4
Commercial Course (ecole pratique}
6
6
6
GIRLS' SCHOOLS
General Course (ecole superieurc)
3
3
3
Commercial Course (ecole pratique)
4
4*
4i
England. — The status of modern foreign languages in
English schools of secondary grade is still in the making.
Among the factors that have retarded their growth are : -
(i) Lack of any national system of public instruction before
1902 ; (2) The influence of the older universities and public
schools — strong bulwarks of classical training ; (3) Until
a few years ago, the overemphasis of science and art subjects
in non-endowed schools, in order to obtain state grants of
money, and the consequent neglect of the humanities ; (4) The
attitude of the Board of Education towards modern languages,
its insistence upon Latin as one of the two foreign languages
taught in every school. In the most recent circular, however,
it has taken a more liberal attitude and has yielded so far as
to say that provision for the study of Latin need not be made
in every school, but only in one out of every group of schools.
The present ratio of pupils taking French to those taking
German is about five to one. Since it is usually possible for
pupils to take only two foreign languages of which Latin either
must be, or almost invariably is, one, German goes to the
wall. Indeed many feel it is in a state of serious decline.
According to the Report on the conditions of modern lan-
guage teaching presented in 1908 at the meeting of the Modern
Language Association, the average age of pupils beginning
Modern Languages 443
French was i r ; of 98 schools of the local type reporting, 74
began French first, 4 schools Latin, and 20 began the two
languages simultaneously. German, if studied at all, is
taken up at 14. This gives little time to the study of this
language where the leaving age is 16 or 17. Four or five 45-
minute lessons a week are quite usual for the foreign language.
The teaching has shown great improvement in recent
years. In the past, particularly in the public schools and
the numerous private schools, the scanty instruction was in
the hands of a foreigner who was, far too often, treated as an
outsider in the social scheme. To-day there are an increasing
number of men and women — trained at the universities or
by study abroad — who have done much to put modern lan-
guage work in a better strategic position. Within the past ten
years or so, the principles of the German reform method have
found many advocates. The Modern Language Association
with its excellent organ, Modern Language Teaching, has been
a powerful instrument in arousing apathetic official boards
and in creating public interest in the cause, and, particularly,
in threshing out and adapting the so-called " direct method "
to English conditions. Judging from the report of the com-
mittee referred to above, reform teaching has already made
considerable headway, especially in the elementary stages of
instruction. The various university and other examining
bodies that play such a role in English education have also
begun to set papers more in keeping with modern aims of
foreign language teaching.
TOPICS FOR FURTHER STUDY
1. The range of active vocabulary in the modern language course.
2. The use of illustrative material.
3. The use of the talking machine.
4. The organization of reviews.
5. The applications of the Gouin method.
6. The relation between class and home work.
7. The study of typical errors of pupils.
444 Principles of Secondary Education
8. Prescribed reading for entrance to college.
9. Examination papers as a tes of power and of knowledge.
10. The organization of drill exercises.
11. The use of the mother tongue in foreign language instruction.
12. The teaching of grammar in the foreign language.
13. The relation between speaking and reading in the higher stages
of the course.
14. The aim and organization of written work in the higher stages.
15. The acquisition of the foreign language vocabulary.
P.EFERENCES
BAGSTER-COLLINS, E. W. The Teaching of German in Secondary Schools.
New York, 1904.
BAHLSEN, L. The Teaching of Modern Languages. Boston, 1905.
BAUMANN, F. Reform und Antireform im neusprachlichen Unterricht.
Berlin, 1902.
BREUL, K. The Teaching of Modern Foreign Languages. London,
1908.
BUTTNER, H. Die Muttersprache im neusprachlichen Unterricht. Mar-
burg, 1910.
EGGERT, B. Der psychologische Zusammenhang in der Didaktik des
neusprachlichen Reformunterrichts. Berlin, 1904.
England, Board of Education. Special Reports on Educational Subjects,
Vol. II (1898), pp. 648-679; Teaching of Modern Languages in
Belgium and Holland, Vol. Ill (1898), pp. 461-533; Teaching of
Modern Languages in Germany (several articles).
FLAGSTAD, CHR. B. Psychologic der Sprachpddagogik. Leipzig, 1913.
HANDSCHIN. C. H. The Teaching of Modern Languages in the United
States. Washington, 1913.
HOVELAQUE, E. Deux Conferences sur V Enseignement dcs Langues
Vivantcs. Paris, 1910.
JESPERSEN, P. How to Teach a Foreign Language. New York, 1904.
MUNCH, W. Didaktik und Methodik des franzosischen Untcrrichts.
Miinchen, 1910.
QUIEHL, K. Franzosische Aussprache und Sprachfertigkeit. Marburg,
1906.
Report of Committee on Modern Languages. Washington, 1899, also
Boston.
WALTER, M. Englisch nach dcm Frankfurter Rcformplan. Marburg,
1910.
Zu;- Mcthcdik dcs neusprachlichen Untcrrichts. Marburg, 1908.
Modern Languages 445
WOIILFKIL, P. Dcr Kampf um die neusprachlichc Unterrichtsmethode.
Frankfurt, 1901.
WOLFROMM, A. La Question dcs Methodcs. Revue de I 'Enscignement
dcs Langucs vivantes. Paris 1902-1905.
Periodicals : —
Die Neucren Sprachen. Marburg.
Modern Language Notes. Baltimore.
Modern Language Teaching. London.
Monatshefte fur dcutsche Sprache und Pddagogik. Milwaukee.
Revue de I ^Enscignement dcs Langucs vivantes. Paris.
Zeitschrift fiir franzosischen und englischen Unterricht. Berlin.
CHAPTER XII
EDUCATIONAL FUNCTIONS AND VALUES OF THE
SCIENCES
WHAT SCIENTIFIC STUDY SHOULD DO FOR THE
PUPILS. — Educational values of great importance may be
derived from the study of science, if it be taught in accordance
with the scientific method and from the broad, humanistic
viewpoint. The extent to which these values are likely to
be realized will depend on the natural tastes and aptitudes
of the pupils, their previous and their present environment,
their present powers and abilities, and the degree of perfection
attained in the methods by which they are taught. Cer-
tainly these values are more likely to be realized in the pupils
if the teacher understands them. They are therefore here
enumerated and will be briefly discussed.1
1. The formation of some useful specific habits, — through
training, routine, rationalized practice.
2. The acquisition of useful information, — through me-
thodical study, instruction, and drill.
3. The adoption of valuable ideals, or "emotionalized
standards, " — inculcated through the inspiration to be gained
from the teacher, from the lives of great scientists, and from
experiences of intimate contact with nature.
4. The acquisition of facility in the use of facts, ideas, and
methodical thought processes, for the solution of problems,2
1 Cf. Bagley, W. C., Educational Values. Xe\v York, IQII, Chap. VII.
2 In this chapter the word problem is to be taken in its broadest sense, mean-
ing any situation involving doubt, in which thinking is required in order to
reach a solution. Cf. Dewey, John, //<>:;• JI> Think. Heath & Co. Boston,
1910, p. 9.
446
The Natural Sciences 447
the overcoming of difficulties, and the accomplishment of
worthy purposes, — through the mental discipline afforded by
properly graded practice in the solving of scientific problems.
5. The development of taste, and power of appreciation, -
to be gained through a clear apprehension of unity, adaptation,
economy, order, and system in nature as interpreted by science.
6. The development of scientific or philosophic insights,
perspectives, and attitudes of mind that serve as safeguards
to the intelligent interpretation of contemporary life, —
through acquaintance with systems of organized knowledge.
Thus science teaching has a training function in the for-
mation of right habits, an instructional function in the stor-
ing up of useful information, an inspirational function aiming
at the inculcation of worthy ideals, a disciplinary function,
resulting in the development of mental power, a recreative
function, tending toward the development of refined tastes
and powers of appreciation, and an interpretive function,
aiming at scientific insight, and such broad mental perspectives
as are characteristic of a cultivated, well-balanced mind.
The general aim of education from the modern standpoint
is the development, in each individual, of the highest type of
personality, combined with economic and social efficiency.
This aim takes account of individual differences and environ-
mental differences. Its motto is " The socially efficient
individual."
On this basis the hope for outcome of the training function
is the realization of utilitarian, economic, or vocational values,
- " bread-and-butter values," so to speak — which contribute
to the ability of the individual to support himself and a family.
In the more narrowly vocational studies and trade studies,
the aim is toward direct utilitarian value, — the specific kinds
of motor skill needed in particular occupations, such as car-
pentry, electrical construction, plumbing, cooking, and the
like ; but the habits formed in science study are more indirect,
more varied, and therefore of more general application. If
the usefulness of these habits in life situations outside the
448 Principles of Secondary Education
school are clearly shown, so that the pupils realize their value
as permanent acquisitions that will help them in their every-
day lives in definitely apprehended ways, the pupils may
form ideals of carrying these habits over into their everyday
lives. Experiments have shown that, without such conscious
ideals, such habits are not at all likely to be carried over in
large measure.1
The instructional function tends toward utilitarian value,
and also toward preparatory value. Much of the information
gained in the study of physics, chemistry, botany, geology,
and zoology is necessary in preparing for the higher studies
needed in the professions of applied science, such as engineer-
ing, scientific agriculture, teaching, and medicine.
Both the training and the instructional function result
incidentally in a certain amount of conventional value.
Through these functions the pupil may acquire some of the
habits, manners, and general information which constitute
that minimum of conventional culture, without which society
will refuse to accord him respect, and the lack of which would
stamp him as a boor, an ignoramus, and make it less easy for
him to get on harmoniously with his fellows.
The remaining functions contribute to socializing value,
because they enable the individual who has profited by them
to contribute to social progress. They fit him to be a " soldier
of the common good," to help in increasing the achievement of
each for all and all for each, through the improvement of the
environment of all and the personal worth of each.
Specific Habits. --The following are some of the specific
habits which pupils will tend to acquire through the study of
any of the sciences under the direction of a good teacher.
Since they are of kinds that will be useful in very many of
1 Cf. Ro\ve, S. H., Habit Formation and the Science of Teaching. Longmans,
Green & Co., New York, 1910, Chap. XTI, especially pp. 243 ff. ; Colvin, S. S.,
The Learning Process. Macmillan, Xe\v York, 191 i, pp. 220 ft". ; and Thorndikc,
E. L., The Psychology of Learning. Teachers College, Columbia University,
New York, 1913, pp. 415 ft.
The Natural Sciences 449
the situations of everyday life and in all kinds of occupations,
they are of great general utility, and are important to every
individual. While the time and attention given them should
not be allowed to become disproportionately great, no teacher
should allow himself wholly to neglect them.
1. Careful observation of significant facts and phenomena,
using hands, eyes, and ears before consulting books.
2. System, order, and neatness in the arrangement of
apparatus and appliances for observational and experimental
work.
3. Carefulness and skill in the manipulation of tools and
appliances.
4. Careful measurements, according to correct methods.
5. Accuracy and methodical procedure in setting down,
arranging, and tabulating data, and in making calculations.
6. Legible writing, clear, neat and accurate drawing, cor-
rect spelling and punctuation, correct grammatical construc-
tion, clearness and conciseness in written and spoken English.
7. Good form and effective motor attitudes and expression
in "making a recitation."
In the routine of studying a science in school all the various
kinds of acts implied by the list just enumerated will be per-
formed, either in the right ways or in wrong ways. When-
ever an act or a thought occurs in response to a question,
direction, suggestion, or act of the teacher, and it results in
satisfaction, it is likely to be repeated under the same stimulus
or a similar one. Every repetition of such a motor reaction or
mental connection tends to make it recur automatically.
Hence, habits of some sort will inevitably be formed. Whether
they are to be right habits or wrong habits will depend on the
way in which the teacher conducts the work.
The Law of Habit Formation. — This is a special case of
the more general law of mental connections or association, and
is stated by Thorndike J as follows : " The likelihood that
1 Thorndike, E. L., Elements of Psychology. A. G. Seiler, New York, 1905,
p. 207.
2 G
450 Principles of Secondary Education
any mental state or act will occur in response to any situation
is in proportion to the frequency, recency, intensity, and re-
sultant satisfaction of its connection with that situation or
some part of it, and with the total frame of mind in which the
situation is felt.''
Application of the Law of Association in Teaching. — Hence
the teacher should see to it, when any of the things above
referred to are done, that (i) the pupils clearly understand what
is the best way and why it is best, (2) that he arouses in them
such ideals of good form, efficiency, and professional pride, and
gets them into such a total frame of mind that they shall be
anxious to do it in the best way, (3) that in the inevitable repeti-
tions of the act they are not allowed to lapse into wrong ways,
but are made to do it in the right way every time, and (4) that
satisfaction shall always be connected with the right way and
dissatisfaction with the wrong way until the right way becomes
automatic.
Scientific Information. — The content of the sciences is made
up of facts, phenomena and processes, laws and principles,
hypotheses and theories, and fundamental generalizations,
arranged and classified in accordance with their relations to
one another, — particular under general, and these in turn under
more general. The relations in accordance with which they
are classified have to do with time, space, quality, — especially
with reference to function, or use, quantity, and cause, origin,
or development.1
The Choice of Subject Matter. — There are three conditions
under which any part of the content or subject matter of a school
study may be made permanently useful.
1 Economy of space forbids elaboration of this topic. To the reader who has
pursued extended courses in one or more of the sciences its meaning will prob-
ably be clear, as the classification and arrangement of the content of most
science textbooks are made from the logical rather than the psychological point
of view. Xo better illustrative examples of the kinds of content and modes of
organization of scientific subject matter for the purposes of the mature scholar
can be found than the article on " Science," and the articles on the special sciences
in the Encyclopedia Britannica.
The Natural Sciences 451
1. It must be capable of being made simple enough to be
clearly comprehended by the pupil ;
2. It must be knowledge that will help in the accomplish-
ment of some worthy purpose ;
3. It must be frequently associated with the situations in
which it is likely to be needed, or some part of them, or some-
thing like them, so that it can be recalled when the need for it
occurs.
Were these three conditions always applied as criteria in the
selection and teaching of the subject matter, much uninteresting
and worthless lumber that is handed down from textbooks of
an earlier day would be discarded from our lessons. Actual
utility of this sort ought to be the sole test for the choice of sub-
ject matter, since there are such vast stores to choose from that
no one can possibly learn it all, even should he so desire. To
defend subject matter that cannot stand these tests by claiming
that it is a means of mental discipline — of gaining power — is to
ignore the findings of modern psychology. So far as mental
power is dependent on information, it consists precisely in having
at command, for immediate recall and use, information that will
help to solve the various problems of everyday life, intellectual
and social as well as physical, and especially such problems as
have elements of more than ordinary novelty and difficulty in
them. To claim that mental power results from the mere ac-
quiring of information that cannot be so used is a direct con-
tradiction of terms. On the other hand, even though the learn-
ing of contentless material were granted disciplinary value,
there is a superabundance of useful material out of which just
as good discipline can be got, provided the methods by which
it is imparted are right.
Criteria for the Choice of Subject Matter. — In making choice
of content we should select that which is comprehensible, and
which has the greatest number of useful elements in common
with the present everyday-life situations, interests, and knowl-
edge of the pupils, and with the everyday-life situations in which
45 2 Principles of Secondary Education
they may reasonably be expected to take part when they be-
come adults. Since the law of efficient recall is identical with
the law of habit formation, we should connect this content with
as many as possible of these situations, and do it as frequently,
as vividly, and as interestingly as possible.1 It is thus only that
we can make sure that the knowledge gained shall be of useful
sort, and that it shall be usable.
The Mastery of Content. — Much of the content of the sciences
is familiar to the active and enterprising boy or girl, but his
concepts, gained empirically through untrained experience, are
vague. The meanings grouped in them are disconnected and
unsystematized. Such vague, indefinite products of experience
are called psychological concepts. The teacher's problem is to
start with what the pupil knows about a fact or law, — with his
psychological concept, — and help him to work out his ideas,
to make them clear and explicit, to apprehend their relations,
and to classify and arrange them accordingly. He must be
supplied with new meanings from various sources, and in various
ways, so that the content of his concepts may be enlarged. He
must be taught to define his concepts, and connect them in
memory with the names, symbols, formulae, definitions, or
statements that are to stand for them. By such a process his
vague psychological concept of tree, or mountain, or plain, or
the law of the lever, or of the process of stream erosion becomes
an explicit, organized, logical concept, and is connected in
memory with a word or definition which serves to recall any or
all of the many clear and useful meanings that are now grouped
in systematic order under it.2
The learning of facts and laws, the building up of concepts,
the mastery of principles, are best carried on in connection with
problems to the solution of which the knowledge is necessary or
significant. The memory connections and associations thus
1 See pp. 449 and 450 ante.
2 See Miller, The Psychology of Thinking. Macmillan, New York, 1910,
Chaps. XV and XVI.
The Natural Sciences 453
made will be stronger just because of this necessity or signifi-
cance ; for if there is a strong desire or incentive toward reach-
ing the solution, the information will be sought earnestly, it
will be connected vividly with the other elements of the problem,
and the connection will result in satisfaction if the knowledge
proves to be helpful. Furthermore, frequency is secured by the
repeated use of the fact or principle in different problems.
If an important principle is not successfully memorized in
this way as an incident in problem solving, its utility may at
least be made so apparent that the students will cheerfully sub-
mit to whatever formal drill may be necessary in order deliber-
ately to memorize it for further use.
It thus appears that separate lessons will not often be neces-
sary for the mastering of content and the mastering of method,
but that the former is best acquired through the problem lesson,
wherein lies the only road to a real hold on the latter.
Inspiration and Scientific Ideals. — Ideals constitute the
motive power for human endeavor. This is true for the adoles-
cent no less than for the adult. Adolescence is the very time
when the tendency toward idealizing is strongest. What the
youths or maidens choose to do, how they regulate their conduct,
depends, so far as their personal initiative is concerned, on what
they think worth while. Hence, the importance of recognizing
the values of scientific ideals and of making every effort to
realize them in the teaching process can hardly be overstated.
Scientific study if carried G-n in the true scientific spirit com-
pels sincerity, out-and-out intellectual integrity, uncompromising
honest}', at every step. " What are the actual facts ? " " What
is the truth about them ? " These are the sole ultimate questions
of scientific study. To know the truth and put it into usable
form, is the only aim. Since honesty is of the very essence of
scientific study, the student of science under good scientific
instruction is trained day by day to habits of honesty, to the
habit of seeking the truth, and he may therefore come to realize
the general value in individual and social life, of sincerity,
454 Principles of Secondary Education
honesty, and love for knowledge of reality for its own sake.
He may without special direction analyze out and generalize
these ideals from the daily practice of these virtues in class-
room and laboratory. Now although it is fair to count on some-
thing in the way of their unconscious acquisition, yet great op-
portunities for immediate motivation and the determination of
future character will be lost, unless the teacher constantly holds
up the worthy ideals before the pupils, and occasionally points
out their utility, both for accomplishing the scientific work im-
mediately in hand, and for regulating the conduct of a successful
life. In doing this the situations chosen as examples of such
utility should always be specific and concrete, not general or
abstract. Referring again to the law of mental connections,
the teacher should understand that the only way to make sure
that the ideal of honesty in the schoolroom be recalled and used
in the various situations outside is to have the pupils associate
it with a great variety of these situations with " frequency,
vividness, and resultant satisfaction," and then to generalize it.
Prudish and abstract sermonizing is harmful. It defeats its
own end ; but if the teacher loves the ideal and lives it himself, he
will find multitudes of tactful ways, in addition to the powerful
way of example, for quietly influencing his pupils to adopt it
deliberately as a rule of life.
Other important ideals that may be expected to accrue from
the study of science by the scientific method are : (i) achieve-
ment, (2) industry, (3) " stick- to-itiveness," concentration of
attention on the thing in hand, (4) efficiency, or accuracy com-
bined with speed, (5) resourcefulness, (6) open-mindedness,
(7) a logical, well-balanced mind, (8) hatred of narrowness and
prejudice, (9) social service, and (10) the ability to present ideas
clearly and convincingly.
Mental Discipline.1 — Notwithstanding the specific character
of habits and intellectual functions, the possibility of the transfer
or spread of training into fields other than those in which it is
1 Cf. Whipplc, G. M., p. 300 ante.
Tlie Natural Sciences 455
acquired is admitted by most modern psychologists; but it is
certain that the extent to which such transfer may spread de-
pends very largely on the kind of content with which the training
deals, and the way in which it is taught. Our present task is to
find a principle that will help the teacher of science to convert
this possibility into fact.
The so-called generalized habits, such as concentration of
attention, methodical procedure, accuracy, open-mindedness,
etc., are specific habits that can be used in a large number of
different situations having elements of likeness to the situations
involved in the training in which these habits have been gained,
and requiring responses of a more or less similar kind.
Knowledge of many facts of physics, chemistry, geography,
botany, etc., enables one to get on better in a great variety of
activities in which knowledge that is identical with it, or like
it, in whole or in part, is needed as a basis for ideas in the solu-
tion of difficulties, and the performance of tasks. It has been
shown elsewhere * that the method by which the scientific worker
controls his thinking and carries on his researches is only a re-
finement and perfection, through scientific training, of the
methods of thinking that are used by everybody who thinks
effectively. Thus it is evident that scientific training has ele-
ments of method that are common to all problematic situations
in every field of activity.
Applying the Principles of Transfer. — Hence, in order to get
general discipline out of any particular study, the content
selected for teaching must be that which has the greatest number
of such common elements, and these must be mentally associated
with as many as may be of such activities, as frequently, vividly,
and interestingly as possible.
Also whenever the methods used in the study are applied in
whole or in part, with or without modification, to the solution
of important problems or the performance of work important
1 Cf. Dewey, op. cit., Chap. VT, and T \viss, G. R., The Principles of Science
Teaching. Macmillan, New York (in preparation). Chap. IV.
456 Principles of Secondary Education
to the present or future life of the boys and girls, the teacher
should make the pupils think how such methods apply, and
what modifications, if any, must be made of them in order that
they may be most efficiently used.
In connection with forming habits of connecting school
knowledge with life problems, the advantage of habitually ac-
quiring such knowledge and of using it for accomplishing worthy
things must be shown, so that an ideal of so acquiring and using
concepts and principles may be built up and emotionalized.
How Concepts of Method are Built Up. — The most important
phase of teaching with respect to mental discipline is the for-
mation of concepts of method. These are built up just as other
concepts are. Through the experience gained in solving a large
number of practical problems, the student becomes acquainted
with certain modes of attack, methods of orderly procedure,
ways of classifying data, and points of view in interpreting data,
all of which are commonly found to be advantageous in handling
such problems. He forms habits of analyzing problematic
situations to find out the features of them that are essential or
significant to their solutions. He acquires habits of forming
hypotheses, reasoning out their implications, and testing these
implications one by one by comparison with the actual facts
through systematic observation or definitely planned experi-
ments. He learns processes of weighing, measuring, testing,
separating, of eliminating irrelevant circumstances, materials, or
forces, of restricting inferences to wrhat logically follows from
known facts, of making card catalogues, looking up bibliogra-
phies, and the like. Through his experience with these methods
and through appreciation of the value of methodical habits and
definitely planned procedures, he gradually gets the idea that
there is some kind of methodical procedure that is best for
any given thing that has to be done, or any given kind of prob-
lem that has to be solved. Sooner or later he begins to observe,
classify, and organize the methods which he has used, to find out
in what kinds or classes of problems each one of these methods
The Natural Sciences 457
is applicable. Thus he accumulates facts about methods, grasps
the meanings of methods in their relation to various kinds of
problematic situations, and learns what kinds of procedure are
applicable in various kinds of problems. Bit by bit he adds
these to his notion of what methodical procedure is, what it is
good for, and how a well-known method of procedure must be
modified in its details to lit new situations that are like old ones
in general but different in some of their details. The extent
to which his psychological concept of methodical procedure
will be converted into a well-ordered and usable logical concept
will depend very largely on the methods by which he is trained,
and these in turn will depend on how broad and thorough is the
teacher's concept of method, and how fertile he is in assisting
the students to notice and classify methods as they go along,
and how careful he is to have them notice situations, outside
the schoolroom, to which these methods may be fitted either
with or without modification.1
Precepts for the Conduct of Transferable Training. — From
the principles just stated we may derive some rules of procedure
for the science teacher who wishes so to shape his methods of
teaching that his pupils may get transferable discipline out of
their study under his direction.
1 . It is impossible to teach the whole of any science ; there-
fore a most careful selection of subject matter and method must
be made.
2. In making the selection the choice should fall on such
elements of content and such elements of method as are useful
in many situations of present-day life, and especially of the
sorts of life that the pupils who are being taught are likely to
live, now or later on.
3. The pupils should be caused to make association connec-
tions between these elements of content and method, as de-
veloped in classroom and laboratory, and the situations of life
1 Cf. Heck, W. H., Mental Discipline and Educational Values. John Lane
Co., New York, 1911, Chap. VI and VII. Also the authorities cited in the
footnote, p. 448.
45 8 Principles of Secondary Education
outside the schoolroom wherein such elements have signifi-
cant counterparts.
4. Careful attention should be given to building up general
concepts of method and ideals of methodical procedure for
the conscious purpose of rendering the discipline transferable.
5. Whenever possible both subject matter and method should
be presented by means of problems which are of such a nature
that the pupils desire to attack and solve them for their own
satisfaction rather than as perfunctory school tasks.
Developing Powers of Interpretation. — The interpretive
value of science is closely related to the disciplinary value ; and
like this it is secured in very large measure by studying science
according to the scientific method. The habits and ideals
growing out of practice in organizing knowledge into systems,
and practice in bringing particular cases and problematic situa-
tions under the general and special systems where in accordance
with their relations they properly belong, are the fundamental
elements of interpretive power. One who is trained in this
way will know how and where to look for the facts in any case,
and what kind of principles to apply in dealing intelligently
with them. He will know whether the matter in hand is a case
for observation and experimentation, or a case to be settled by
an appeal to authority, or whether it is simply a matter that
goes back to a definition. Problems of interpretation are largely
problems of deduction from known definitions, principles, and
laws ; or they may be problems of explanation, — that is, of
identifying facts as cases or consequences described by certain
general principles or laws.
Such acquaintance with systems of knowledge also tends to
give one broad points of view, and a judicial, open-minded
attitude toward all questions. It gives him an appreciation of
proportion, — of the relative importance of things, — and there-
fore enables him to gain such intellectual perspectives that his
judgments on any question are likely to be good judgments, so
far as he permits himself to judge. One so trained and cultured
The Natural Sciences 459
will know also when his judgment is likely to be poor, and who
the experts are whose judgment of the question is certain to be
good. Pie will in such cases consult the experts and accept
their conclusions instead of his own. For example, if he were
a member of a committee of a chamber of commerce that was
to investigate the question of a pure water supply and a sewage
disposal plant, and to make recommendations to the city council,
he would not trust his own judgment unless indeed he were an
expert sanitary engineer himself. If he were not such an expert,
but had good general powers of scientific judgment, he would
use his abilities in the selection of an expert sanitary engineer,
and would base his recommendations to the council on the
facts of the expert's report and the inferences that might logically
be drawn from them.
THE TECHNIQUE OF INSTRUCTION IN THE
SCIENCES
CURRENT METHODS. — Three types of method have-
been commonly used in science instruction during the last ten
or fifteen years, known respectively as the recitation, the lecture
demonstration, and the laboratory lesson. These are supposed
to be closely correlated in a carefully worked out plan ; but
unfortunately actual inspection of the work carried on in many
schools leads to the inference that they are seldom so related.
As witnessed in a large majority of the schools, the recitations
represent reproductions seriatim of sections of the subject
matter as given in the textbook ; and the laboratory lessons
are discrete units or tasks to be done. The latter too often
have little or no direct logical relation to the former, and in
very many cases not even a remote relation. Thus while the
current theory of the three methods of instruction is correct,
the actual practice is far too often at variance with it.
The Problem as the Center of Unification. — In the light of
the principles at which we have arrived, the obvious remedy is
460 Principles of Secondary Education
to organize the class work, the demonstrations by the teacher,
and the laboratory observations and experiments about definite
well-chosen problems, at least so far as that is feasible. If
there is no practice in dealing with problematic or forked-road
situations, there can be no training in the scientific method, and
most of the thinking that may be done will be accidental. It
can scarcely be said too often that an effort to recall what some
one else has thought out and written in a book or said in a lec-
ture is not thinking, unless indeed the recall occurs in the pro-
cesses of reflection and reasoning from the known to the unknown.
A problematic situation, then, and not a recitation or a lecture
demonstration or a laboratory exercise, should be the unit of
instruction, excepting in the case of formal review lessons ; and
even the latter are better when thrown into problematic form.
The aim of the student should be to arrive by correct scientific
thinking and experimenting at the solution of a significant prob-
lem, rather than to recite a lesson or to " do a stunt '' in the
laboratory for the rather uninteresting purpose of getting a
possible mark or escaping such disagreeable consequences as may
be expected to follow a failure to satisfy the teacher's demands.
This difference in the attitude of the pupil toward the unit of
instruction may seem to some to be of little consequence so long
as the pupils actually do the required work ; but it is really the
condition that determines whether the work of the instructor
shall be real scientific teaching or mere perfunctory school keep-
ing. It is the condition that determines whether the pupils
are to get training that shall make them at home among scientific
ideas and scientific or practical problems, or are merely to be
crammed with words and processes that they cannot intelligently
connect with things that are meaningful to them in life.
THE CLASS CONFERENCE. — This term is to be preferred
to the term " recitation." It represents more nearly the spirit
in which the pupils and teacher should meet in the classroom,
and the purpose for which they come together. They should
meet not in order to take turns in trying to remember and recite
The Natural Sciences 461
what they have all conned from the same textbook, but rather
to confer with one another and with the teacher for the purpose
of putting together their individual stocks of significant facts,
and criticizing one another's ideas, with reference to a problem
in which they are interested and the solution of which they
desire to find.
The term " conference " implies that the teacher should not
be the only one who asks questions nor the only one who sets
forth facts and ideas for the enlightenment of the others. In fact,
some of the best class exercises the writer has witnessed have
been those in which the pupils were fighting out a disputed ques-
tion among themselves, one at a time against the pack, while
the teacher stood, as it were, on the side lines, and acted as umpire
and referee. Too often, the teacher monopolizes the spotlight
in the center of the stage, tells too much, and asks four or five
inconsequential questions when one incisive query would suffice.
One concise, well-directed question or stimulating suggestion
from a skillful teacher is often sufficient to start a discussion in
which all the required facts and ideas are brought out by the
pupils themselves.
The function of the teacher is to supply, by his own example,
inspiration and stimulus for attentive, vigorous, consecutive,
logical thinking and expression, and to see that all this activity
is carried on by the pupils in an orderly and efficient manner.
The pupils should be stimulated to ask questions of one another
and of the teacher; and when a question is raised, it should, if
possible, be answered by the pupils rather than by the teacher.
The things to be told by the teacher are those to which the
pupils cannot find answers without too much loss of time.
Such questions should be answered as concisely, as clearly, and
as artistically as possible, and usually in such a way as to stimu-
late curiosity and provoke further study and inquiry.
Ordinarily, altogether too little importance is attached by
teachers to the function of inciting the pupils to raise questions
and to answer questions that other pupils raise. Too often the
462 Principles of Secondary Education
classroom meeting consists merely of a succession of dialogues
between the teacher on one side and various individual pupils
on the other side, in which the teacher does most, of the talking,
and in which the remainder of the class show little or no interest
for the reason that they know already very approximately what
the substance of each dialogue is going to be. The frequency
and logical significance of the questions asked by pupils supply
one of the very best measures of the efficiency of a class conference.
THE FUNCTION OF THE LABORATORY. — If the prin-
ciple of the problem approach be accepted, then a somewhat
different function is indicated for the laboratory experiments
from that in common use. With the problem as the unit of
instruction, the pupil goes to the laboratory to make an experi-
mental test of an hypothesis which he has set up in the process
of thinking on a problem. He is in the attitude not of " doing a
stunt/' as he would say, nor yet of " fixing a principle in mind,"
as some of the syllabus makers have said. Rather is he in the
attitude of an inquirer eager to find an answer to a question,
and putting the question up to nature herself. He goes there
to get information direct from nature, just as the scientist does
when he cannot find it in the works of other scientists. Since,
however, he is not experienced enough to work independently
as the scientist does, the teacher is present to be his helper, in-
spirer, and guide.
In the laboratory as well as in the classroom the good teacher
avoids too much telling, and often answers one question by ask-
ing another, or by directing the student to a reference book or
map or museum specimen where he can get the required infor-
mation for himself. He cites a principle to apply oftener than
he tells or shows a pupil exactly what to do. He makes every
individual " stand on his own feet " in observing, thinking, and
o o
experimenting, so far as that individual is capable of doing so.
By studying the pupils and the work, he knows when he should
help a student and when he should allow him to blunder in order
to find out how not to blunder again in a similar wav. A com-
The Natural Sciences 463
mon fault of teachers is to give either too much help or too little.
Those who know their subjects well usually give too much help,
and those who have imperfect command of the subject are likely
to go to the other extreme. Too many teachers know so little
about their subjects that they do not find much in them to tell.
The wise teacher will make much of every good idea or
piece of work from the pupils, and will be very sparing of fault-
finding. He will insist that every pupil complete the work
that is assigned to him with as much thoroughness and excel-
lence as he is capable of reaching in a reasonable amount of
time. Faulty or careless work should not be punished or
drastically criticized, but rather the student should be required
to repeat the work and do better. It is not difficult to get
pupils to set up an ideal of good work which their own interest
compels them to make all reasonable efforts to meet.
Efficient laboratory management demands that apparatus
and materials be so methodically cared for and stored that the
pupils may have it ready at hand at the beginning of the period,
and a minimum of time be comsumed in preparing to begin
work.
When the materials are of such a nature that this is practi-
cable they should be kept, methodically arranged, in drawers,
lockers, or cases from which the students themselves can get
them quickly, and to which they can return them quickly
when they have finished their work. This is possible even
with much of the apparatus used in physics ; but in this sub-
ject some of the apparatus involves complications in setting
up and arranging that would entail too much loss of time if it
were not conveniently placed on the table before the beginning
of the period.
In the time-consuming work of caring for, repairing, getting
out, and replacing apparatus, the teacher should get as much
help as is practicable from students. They will usually give
it willingly if they are assigned to it in relays so that no one
pupil has a burdensome amount to do.
464 Principles of Secondary Education
The following criteria will be useful guides in the selection
of laboratory exercises :
1. An exercise for the laboratory should provide the means
of answering some question or questions that constitute
essential steps in the solution of some problem that is sig-
nificant to the students.
2. It should have some direct and clear connection with
what immediately precedes and follows it in the course.
3. It should be one that compels careful observation, dis-
crimination, and reflection, and that affords some opportunity
for the development of skill and self-reliance in " putting
questions up to nature."
4. There should not be so many things to observe or do that
mental confusion will result.
5. It should be so easy of manipulation that the poorest of
the qualified students can do the work with fair success and
reasonable speed.
6. It must be capable of being done by the students with a
respectable degree of accuracy ; and such reasonable accuracy
should be insisted on, else the students will have no faith in it
or in what it is intended to teach.
7. Wherever practicable the parts of the experiments should
be so arranged that the results obtained in them will check one
another, thus enabling the students to judge their accuracy by
the agreement among the results themselves instead of by
comparison with the results given in the books.
Number of Laboratory Exercises per Year. — There ought
to be a sufficient number of experiments so that when sup-
plemented by those made at the demonstration table the main
outlines of the subject as presented shall rest back on them or
on principles that can be shown to rest back on experiments
and observations of a similar kind. The minimum amount
of laboratory work for each of the sciences according to pre-
vailing ideals and standards is such as will require from thirty
to thirty-five double periods a year.
Size of Laboratory Divisions. — There is a very general
agreement among leading science teachers that for the best
The Natural Sciences 465
work there should not be more than twenty pupils in a labora-
tory division. Exceptionally able teachers successfully handle
as many as thirty, but the latter number is considered the
upper limit, according to accepted standards of administra-
tion, for both recitation and laboratory sections.
Double Periods. — In physics and in chemistry the double
laboratory period has come to be considered as an essential
feature. Though perhaps not so necessary, it is also very
desirable in the other science subjects. Nearly as much
actual work can be done in a continuous period of ninety
minutes as in three separate periods of forty-five minutes each.
In many schools two double periods are given each week,
throughout the year, to laboratory work, and three single
periods to classroom work. In the opinion of the writer this
is a larger proportion of the time than most teachers can
profitably use for laboratory work, and the practice results in
many cases in neglecting to have principles and applications
thoroughly threshed out in class conferences and quizzes.
Until the teaching becomes much better than it is now usually
found to be, probably better results would be reached by hav-
ing four single periods and one double laboratory period per
week for each science.
Form of Notes. — The notes made by the student on his
experiments should contain (a) a full and clear but concise
statement of the problem that is to be solved or the question
that is to be answered by the experiment, (b) a brief descrip-
tion of the apparatus and materials used, (c) an explanation of
the methods of procedure, (d) a clearly tabulated statement of
numerical data and results, (e) all the calculations that were
used in obtaining the results, (/) the conclusions that were
reached, (g) a brief discussion of such sources of error as are
profitable for the student to consider. The students should
be required to express themselves by drawings and graphs
wherever such modes of description are obviously of service,
but care should be taken that they do not get the idea that
466 Principles of 'Secondary Education
drawings and graphs are ends instead of means. The teacher
should use good judgment as to the amount of time that a
student should spend in drawing. Much time is often wasted
in useless embellishment of notebooks. Students should
never be allowed to copy drawings from books. All drawing
should be made directly from the objects that are to be
represented ; and they should show clearly the particular
features that are significant in the problem. Ordinarily a
sectional diagram showing only the significant features is
preferable to a perspective drawing. Set forms for notes
containing blanks for the student to fill are often found in
laboratory manuals and direction sheets. These are ingenious
devices for saving the teachers' and students' time ; but they
deprive the latter of the training that they ought to get in
devising their own forms and arrangements, and in many
cases also effectively prevent them from thinking. They are
thus of doubtful value if not positively pernicious. The best
kind of notes tell a straightforward story in the student's own
language about what he wanted to find out, how he went
about it, the steps by means of which he reached his answer,
and what the answer was.
The best sort of notebook is the loose-leaf type, and the best
paper for general purposes is quadrille ruled, in squares one
half centimeter or one fifth inch on a side.1
Inspection of Notes by the Teacher. — All notes that
belong directly to the laboratory work should be made in the
laboratory at the time when the experimental work is done ;
and the sheets on which they are made should not be taken
from the laboratory until they have been inspected, checked, and
released by the teacher, who should see that they are reason-
ably full and accurate in statement, reasonably systematic in
arrangement, and reasonably legible and presentable in form.2
1 The most convenient cover known to the writer is the I. P. Number 6
made by the Irving Pitt Co., Kansas City, Mo.
2 Cf. comments on specific habits p. 448, ante.
The Natural Sciences 467
The examination of notebooks is grueling work for the
teacher, but there is no escape from it if the pupils are to be
properly trained. The better the teacher is at inspiring his
pupils with ideals of efficiency, the less arduous his work with
the notebooks will be. If each exercise is graded before correc-
tion by the student, and if correction is required to hold the
grade, the pupils will be more careful not to make mistakes.
LECTURE DEMONSTRATIONS. — The reader who has
accepted the principles of science teaching that have been set
forth in this chapter will agree with the writer that the lecture
method finds a very limited place in the instruction of second-
ary students. Occasionally, however, it may have an impor-
tant function.
1 . When any of the sciences is presented as a series of prob-
lems after the manner that has been described, there are gaps
to be filled and information to be supplied in order that the
subject may be adequately covered as a whole, in its broader
outlines, so that unity and coherence of presentation may be
preserved. Such information may be effectively presented by
informal talks or lectures.
2. Accounts of new discoveries, classical experiments and
researches, scientific information of local interest, or of interest
in connection with current events may be presented occasion-
ally by lecture and demonstration with preparations, experi-
ments, or lantern slides, as a scientific treat for purposes of
inspiration and motivation.
FIELD OBSERVATION. — In Germany and France, the
practice of making class excursions for field observation in
connection with school studies has long been in vogue. That
we have no more of it in this country than the very little
we do have is one of the results of our custom of employing
as teachers and supervisors persons who are not specially
trained and educated for their work. When this form of
instruction is uniformly advocated by experts in the various
sciences — some going so far as to say that it is indispensable —
468 Principles of Secondary Education
and when at the same time it is not generally done, we must
conclude either that the teachers fail to know its value or
that they do not know how to carry it on. In fact most science
teachers freely admit its value, but urge certain difficulties as
reasons why they cannot do it. Let us consider a few of these
objections, and the answers to them.
1. Excursions are not favored by school authorities above
the teacher, or by the parents. Answer. By conducting
successful voluntary excursions with pupils whose parents do
not object, the teachers can demonstrate their value.
2. The school program cannot be so arranged that excur-
sions may be carried on in school hours. Answer. Those
sciences in which outdoor observation is most essential can
often be assigned the last or last two periods in the session ;
so pupils can be free from other work for the last periods and
may use them and the remainder of the afternoon for the
excursion. In many cases, outdoor material of great value
is to be found near the school, and can be visited in a double
school period. A roadside ditch, a row of shade trees, a vacant
lot, a blacksmith's or harness shop, all are nature laboratories
to him who has eyes to see. If no other way can be found,
after-school and Saturday excursions are feasible for a large
majority of the pupils ; and if a number of these are made
during the year, even those pupils who have " music lessons "
and " home duties " will probably be able to attend a part of
them. If it is objected that attendance cannot be required,
the answer is, make them voluntary, and so significant and
interesting that the pupils will attend if they possibly can.
3. There is nothing in this locality to be seen. Answer.
The writer has as yet failed to find a locality where there
was not considerable material to see within striking distance
of the school.
4. The best localities for study are too far away. Answer.
In village and rural schools this is seldom true ; and if it is,
there are always opportunities near the school for field studies
77/f Natitral Sciences 469
in biology and geography, and there are always a few local
industries of interest in connection with physics or chemistry.
These, although not the best, may be well worth visiting. In
the large cities distances and the difficulties of managing
transportation present real and often great obstacles ; but the
fact that some teachers always overcome the difficulties proves
that usually they may be overcome. In such localities doubt-
less the excursions must almost always be voluntary, and the
attendance of all pupils on all the excursions cannot be secured ;
but teachers who are resourceful enough to make the excur-
sions of real worth to the students secure a large enough
attendance to make the practice well worth while.
The following suggestions from the experience of the writer
and others, who have handled large bodies of students in such
excursions, will prove to be useful.
(1) The maximum number of pupils that can be conven-
iently handled by one teacher is ordinarily from twenty-five to
thirty-five. Exceptionally resourceful teachers can handle a
larger number and keep them at work, but inexperienced
teachers would better begin with groups of twenty or less.
(2) The teacher should first make himself thoroughly
acquainted with the ground to be visited, with the route and
means of transportation, and with the special objects to be
observed and studied.
(3) The observations should be directed to specific features
or phenomena that are factors in some problem or problems
that have been set up for solution.
(4) The field lesson should be carefully outlined in a lesson
plan that has been checked up by the teacher on the ground,
and the plan should be adhered to while the class is in the field.
(5) Mimeographed sheets should be provided beforehand
containing questions to be answered from observation and
reflection. They should also contain needed directions, hints,
or suggestions, for making effective observations, for recording
results, and for collecting specimens for individual or school
47° Principles of Secondary Education
cabinets. It would be better to have these in the hands of
the students a day or two before the excursion is made.
These sheets are to perform the same function for the field
work that the laboratory manual performs for the laboratory
work.
(6) The field work should be explained and the field prob-
lems outlined in the classroom on the day before the excur-
sion. The teacher should carefully refrain from answering
questions that the pupils can answer for themselves as a result
of the field study, but he should make sure that the students
understand exactly what they are to look for and to do,
exactly what rules of order and discipline they are expected to
conform to, and exactly what is the nature of the problems
that they are expected to solve in the field. If they are to
make collections, they should be told exactly what kinds of
samples and specimens they are expected to get and how they
are to care for them.
(7) At the next class meeting after the excursion the prob-
lems, the observations, and their bearings on the solution of
the problems should be thoroughly discussed, and the informa-
tion and conclusions should be organized so that when the
discussion has been concluded, some definite things have been
learned, and some tentative or final conclusions of a perfectly
definite nature have been reached.
REVIEWS. — A working knowledge of the content of the
subject is a necessary part of the ability which the successful
study of any science ought to impart ; and although it is
claimed that both an understanding of the concepts and princi-
ples of a science and the ability to recall them when needed
are best acquired through solving significant problems, it
should be clearly understood that knowledge once acquired is
usually forgotten in large part unless occasions for its recall
occur at intervals and the part that has been wholly or partly
forgotten is relearned. The purpose of the review, then, is to
strengthen the association bonds which should be made per-
The Natural Sciences 471
mancnt but which as yet are weak. Both pedagogical experi-
ence and the few experimental studies of memorizing and for-
getting that have been made indicate that it is more economical
to review or relearn frequently at first and then at greater and
greater intervals, than it is to try by many repetitions to fix
the memory bonds permanently during the first learning period.
So far as our present knowledge of learning and forgetting
goes, it confirms the very general opinion of successful teachers
that frequent reviews are necessary. The time-honored cus-
tom of conducting carefully planned formal reviews at the
end of each week, each month, and each term, and at the end
of the year, should be adhered to. The intervals need not be
exactly those mentioned, but may preferably be adjusted to
the minor and major logical divisions of the subject matter.
Efficiency requires that we spend no time unnecessarily on
that which is most easily and permanently remembered, or on
formally reviewing that which is bound to be recalled anyway
at sufficiently frequent intervals in consequence of being
needed as bases for conclusions to be reached in later lessons.
It requires us, rather, to select carefully that which most needs
to be relearned ; and to drill on that at intervals of increasing
length until it is correctly recalled when required.
Hence, the review lesson has two obvious functions :
(i) to find out what things have been wholly or partly forgotten
and need to be relearned ; and (2) to provide situations that
will cause the students to relearn them. Topical recitations,
written recitations, and review matches in which sides are
chosen and total scores compared, are all effective for organiz-
ing subject matter, or for fixing it in mind.1
The Topical Recitation. — Pupils write on the blackboard
the headings and subheadings of a topical outline. Other
pupils in turn briefly and rapidly explain the more important
facts and relations that come under the topics. Each is
1 Cf. Straycr, G. D., A Brief Course in the Teaching Process. Macmillun,
New York, 1912, Chap. IX.
472 Principles of Secondary Education
quizzed by the teacher whenever the latter suspects that his
specific knowledge of the content represented by the sub-
headings is inadequate. The teacher also stimulates the other
pupils to quiz him when they desire fuller information as to
any of the subtopics. Occasionally one recites on a topic
without the aid of a blackboard outline. These outlines
should be made by the pupils, never dictated by the teacher.
The habit of making such outlines should be formed in con-
nection with summing up and organizing the subject matter
in the class conferences.
Written Reviews. — These are very useful not only as
reviews but also as furnishing practice to the pupils in reducing
their acquired information to writing on demand. Students
who have examinations to pass should have much practice of
this kind. One reason why so many students " go to pieces "
on examinations is that they have not had sufficient practice
in taking written tests to acquire familiarity with that kind of
situation and skill in that kind of performance. Questions and
numerical problems for such reviews should be numerous and
short, rather than long and complicated. They should be so
framed as to call for a maximum of content with a minimum
of writing, and should be split up into units representing facts,
meanings, relations, etc., having values that supposedly are
approximately equal. Thus each item may receive a single
and definite score. This makes grading easy, and also more
just. It also makes it possible to find out which ideas are the
hardest for the pupils or are least perfectly known by them.
An idea, for example, which is reproduced correctly by 50 per
cent of the pupils is of median difficulty for the class ; and
one which is reproduced correctly by only 25 per cent
of the pupils is more difficult than the former, but less difficult
than one that is correctly reproduced by only 20 per cent.
One which is reproduced correctly by all of them is so easy
(i.e. has been so well learned) that it did not need to be re-
viewed.
The Natural Sciences 473
THE SCIENCES AND THE CURRICULUM
COLLEGE ENTRANCE REQUIREMENTS. — The high
schools grew out of a popular demand for a kind of secondary
education that would be better adapted to the needs of all
classes than was that given by the academies and college
preparatory schools ; " but the high schools gravitated toward
the colleges, as the academies had done before them." *
The teachers and principals gave their best energies toward
the preparation for college of the small percentage of their
pupils whose aim was toward a higher education. Previous
to the last decade of the nineteenth century every college
set its entrance requirements in accordance with its own
notions, without reference to those of any other college ; and
the high schools tried to meet them all, so that their graduates
might pass the entrance examinations of the various colleges
that they wished to attend. The lack of uniformity in the
preparation required by different students in the same school,
and the conflict between the needs of those who were preparing
for college and those who were aiming directly toward em-
ployment in the various occupations, brought about an intoler-
able situation for the high schools. Greater uniformity in the
administrative machinery that had to do with admission to the
colleges, and a simplification of the means of adjustment
became an urgent necessity. The movement toward uniform-
ity began with the Report of the Committee of Ten of the
National Education Association in 1893, gathered headway
with the reports of the Committee on College Entrance Re-
quirements of the same association in 1896 and 1899, and
culminated in the organization of the College Entrance Ex-
amination Board in igoo? The reports and syllabi published
by these committees, and the bulletins of the College Entrance
1 Brown, Elmer E., The Making of Our Middle Schools. Longmans, Green,
& Co., New York, IQOJ, p. 373.
2 Cf. Mann, C. R., The Teaching of Physics. The Macmillan Co., 1912,
Chap. I.
474 Principles of Secondary Education
Board of the various colleges, and of certain state departments
of education, all of which have been based mainly on those
reports, have in large measure shaped the curricula of the high
schools and determined the character of the teaching.
As far as science is concerned the results have been both good
and bad. Among the good results are the establishment of the
principles (i) that high school teachers should have adequate
collegiate training for their work, (2) that laboratory work,
field excursions, and some reference book work should be
carried on in connection with each of the sciences, (3) that
schools should be adequately equipped with laboratories,
apparatus, and libraries for such work, (4) that double labora-
tory periods for the laboratory exercises should be provided
in the time schedules, (5) that laboratory notes should be sys-
tematically entered in suitable books by the students, and
(6) that the pupils should be taught not merely to memorize,
but to think. Among the bad results have been (i) the tend-
ency to cast all the instruction in one mold in the attempts
to meet the specifications of syllabi and examinations, (2) the
overemphasis on the assimilation of subject matter and the
consequent undervaluation of the scientific method of study,
by means of which the subject matter of science is best acquired,
and most of all (3) the discouragement of initiative on the part
of school teachers and administrators because of the burden-
some amounts of subject matter that were called for by these
authoritative syllabi. The tendency was rather toward
cramming the pupils with facts and laws than toward putting
them in situations that would necessitate thinking. The
path for reform lies obviously in the direction of changes in the
syllabi in consequence of which they shall contain a minimum
of prescription and a maximum of suggestion, especially as
to the use of the scientific method or problem approach in
teaching, as to the organization of the subject matter about
suitable problems for observational and < experimental study,
and as to the rich variety of practical applications of scientific
The Natural Sciences 475
principles and laws that may be found in all sorts of localities.
The introduction of such flexible and suggestive syllabi must
be accompanied also by better training of science teachers
themselves. Science teachers should not know less of their
special subjects than they do, but they should be given a
wider range of scientific knowledge, better training in the prin-
ciples of the scientific method, and some special training in
modern psychology as applied in the principles of teaching.
Along with more flexible syllabi and better training of
teachers for intelligent experimentation on both subject mat-
ters and methods of teaching must come an attitude and'a
procedure on the part of both college professors and school
administrators which shall make science teachers feel free to
apply the method of intentional variation, testing, and selec-
tion to both subject matter and methods. In other words
teachers must apply the scientific method to the study of their
teaching problems, if science study is to do for their pupils what
scientists and psychologists believe that it can do and ought
to do. We must learn to teach science more nearly in a scien-
tific — that is, in a psychological — way ; and this we can
learn only by observation, experimentation, and measurement.
This means that a selected few of the best trained, most enter-
prising, and ablest secondary science teachers must become
research students in experimental pedagogy, and that the
results of their experiments must be published, critically
reviewed, and put into the hands of all science teachers as
suggestive material for their further guidance.
THE SCIENCE SUB JECTS. -- The subjects that are
now more or less generally taught in high schools are physical
geography, botany, zoology, physiology, physics, and chemistry.
Astronomy and geology, which were widely in vogue up to
about 1880, are now seldom taught in high schools. Meteorol-
ogy, which was strongly recommended by the Committee of
Ten as an advanced elective, is almost never taught as a sepa-
rate science, but the most significant portion of its content is
476 Principles of Secondary Education
pretty generally taught as a part of physical geography, or in
connection with " general science " courses, which are being
introduced in some schools as an experiment. Agriculture is
also coming rapidly to be a part of the curriculum in many
rural, village, and agricultural high schools ; and even in
some of the technical high schools in large cities.
The Committee on College Entrance Requirements recom-
mended for high schools the following courses in the natural
and physical sciences, to be given in the order named :
First year, physical geography; second year, biology or
Botany or zoology, or botany and zoology ; third year, physics ;
fourth year, chemistry.
It seems to be very generally agreed, on both theoretical and
practical grounds, that the general order recommended by the
Committee is the best. In fact the general order here given is
usually followed ; although physical geography is frequently
given as a half-year course, either followed by physiology or
botany or agriculture or preceded by a half-year course in
" elementary " or " general " science. The recommendation
" that the time allowance for each of these courses be at least
four periods a week throughout the year " 1 has also been
pretty generally followed, although the definition of the unit
has since received a modification giving it greater flexibility.
A unit in science is now defined as the equivalent of one
hundred and twenty sixty-minute hours of classroom work,
two hours of laboratory or field work counting as one hour of
class work.2
GEOGRAPHY
GEOGRAPHIC CONTROLS. — The activities of man in
carrying out his life purposes are controlled by the distribution
of heat and moisture. These in turn are controlled by the
lProc. N. E. A., 1899, p. 651.
2 Document 48, December i, 1910, College Entrance Board. Substation 84,
New York.
T/ic Natural Sciences 477
movements of the atmosphere, and these again by the form and
movements of the earth and its relations to the sun. Streams,
lakes, and oceans, mountains, plains, plateaus, valleys, and
shore lines, all combine in various ways to affect his activities
both directly and through their effects on the distribution of
plants and animals, of soils and other mineral resources.
All these interdependent forms and agencies constitute the
environment to which man must adjust himself, or which,
when he can with advantage, he adjusts to himself. To
effect this adjustment to his environment he must under-
stand it, — he must comprehend it ; and herein lies the central
motive for the study of geography. The process of adjust-
ment, which is life itself, gives rise to multitudes of problems
to be solved. Problems of vital utility and problems of absorb-
ing intellectual interest grow directly out of the pupil's daily
life, and reach out to the distant parts of the earth and off
through millions of miles of space to the sun.
BEGIN WITH LOCAL PROBLEMS. — To the teacher
who has the point of view that has been set forth in this chapter
it will be obvious that the study of physical geography should
begin with intimate home problems. Perhaps no better one
to begin with could be found than that suggested by the ques-
• tion " How do wre get our drinking and wash water ? " In the
country this would lead at once to wells and cisterns and the
conditions that maintain them, and thence to the sources and
movements of ground water. This would lead to problems of
farm and village drainage, the effect on crops, and to other
related facts and conditions affecting or controlling farm
and village life. Directly connected with drainage problems
are the problems of soils. What kinds of soils are found in
this locality? What crops grow best in each kind? Why do
these soils differ? From what were they made? (Rocks and
rock-forming minerals.) These questions lead to the study of
the processes of weathering and stream erosion as related to
rainfall and to the production and transportation of rock
478 Principles of Secondary Education
waste. The study of neighboring streams, which the solution
of these problems necessitates, raises other questions as to
where the stream begins (springs and lakes) and where it goes
(river system, river basin, life history of rivers, and the kinds
of control rivers exert on population at their various stages of
development). The study of the drainage basin to which the
locality belongs also leads, either immediately or later, as the
teacher may decide, to the study of the larger physiographic
region of which it is a part, and to the life relations that exist
between this part and the whole. The study of the local
rainfall in relation to water supply for man, beast, and vegeta-
tion leads back to the conditions that produce the precipita-
tion and distribution of atmospheric moisture ; and this in
turn to atmospheric movements, weather, climate, and the
relation of climate to topographic features. Thus each prob-
lem suggests others which are more or less closely related to it,
or grow directly out of it. As these problems are solved, the
information accumulated should be organized and built up
into small systems,1 which in turn are incorporated into larger
outlines as the knowledge of the pupils grows. In the city the
question of water supply leads to a study of the city water
plant, this to the source of supply, and this in turn to the study
of streams and their work. The problem of city sewage dis-
posal leads also to the streams and suggests a question of
grave import to every city. Is our water supply polluted
by sewage from our own city or elsewhere ?
Again, what roads and railways bring in our food and raw
materials and carry out our manufactured products? Why
were these routes chosen ? (Valleys, ancient lake beaches,
mountain barriers and passes, road-making materials, etc.)
There should be no difficulty in starting such problems in
approaching any new topic whatever. If the teacher is not
inhibited by traditions of " logical order," they will bristle
up in such abundance that one will be ready for every lesson.
1 Cf. p. 452, ante.
The Natural Sciences 479
For the child, the personal relation is the natural, psychological
starting point of interest in every one of them ; * and next to
this comes the social relation.2 The question, " Where does
our coal come from? " leads not only, say to the dissected Al-
legheny plateau and its origin and history as a physiographic
feature, but also to the questions, What kinds of people
are the miners who get this coal out of the ground for us?
How do they live? How do they work? Where do they
come from? (Poland, Hungary, Sicily, etc.) Why did they
emigrate? So the same problem, according to the turn the
teacher gives it, leads, through personal and social relations,
to the study of a distant part of our own country or even to
the countries beyond the seas.
TEXTBOOKS. — There are half a dozen excellent and
(at least to an adult) attractive textbooks on physical geog-
raphy which differ but little one from another either in the
amount or the choice of subject matter that they present. It
matters little which one the teacher uses. What really
matters is the way in which he uses it. The wrong way is to
assign a lesson to be studied and recited from the book. The
right way is to start a problem and send the pupils to the book
for information which, combined with their own observations
and reflections, and the assistance given by the teacher, will
help them to solve it. Textbook study, field and laboratory
study, class conferences, all then become means instead of
ends. For the pupil the end is no longer to make a perfunc-
tory recitation from artificial academic motives, but to find
out something that he wants to know, because he can see that
it has meaning and value in connection with the realization
of his own life purposes and activities and with the purposes
and activities of people whom he finds are in some way related
to him. The textbook then finds its proper place as a mine
1 Cf. Dewcy, John., Interest and Effort. Houghton, Mifflin Co., 1913, pp.
23 if.
-Ibid., pp. 84!!.
480 Principles of Secondary Education
of information and a guide for organization and review.
" Pupils, from the start, must be impressed with the fact that
geography is a study of the earth and not of the book." 1
In connection with the use of a textbook it is important for
the teachers to recognize three facts : (i) Every one of the
textbooks has more matter in it than any high school pupil
can assimilate in a year ; hence selection is absolutely neces-
sary. (2) The teacher should make the selection, using only
the materials that can be made significant and comprehensible
to the pupils of his own locality. There is more danger in
attempting to cover too much ground than there is of covering
too little. (3) There will always be differences in the sig-
nificance of topics due to differences between localities ; and
therefore for any locality the treatment of the text on some
topics may not be full enough to suit the case. Here the
teacher must supplement the text from other sources, such as
special monographs and government reports. On this princi-
ple, the pupils of Colorado would study mountains in more
detail and pay less attention to the ocean and shore lines than
would pupils on the sea coast. The latter would study moun-
tains less in detail because mountains and mountainous con-
ditions are farther removed from their actual experience and
are therefore less significant to them. A careful study of the
local features is the only means of rendering the unseen fea-
tures intelligible.
REPORTS OF NATIONAL COMMITTEES, BOOKS, AND
MAGAZINE ARTICLES. — The young teachers of physical
and commercial geography will find themselves highly favored
with suggestive material for their guidance in choice of sub-
ject matter and special methods of instruction, for leading
geographers have written generously for their guidance.
Every teacher of this subject should study carefully the
Report of the Conferences on Geography in the Report of the
1 Sutherland, William J., The Teaching of Geography. Scott, Foresman &
Co., Chicago, 1909, p. 43.
The Natural Sciences 481
Committee of Ten * and the Report of the Committee on Col-
lege Entrance Requirements of the National Education Associ-
ation,2 the Report of the Committee on Geography of the
Department of Science Instruction of the N. E. A.,3 the Report
of the Committee on Geography for Secondary Schools of the
Association of American Geographers.4 In the last of these
reports, there will be noted a general progressive tendency
away from the specialized " physiography " that had become
common in 1909 and toward a humanized " general geography "
which emphasizes human adjustments to geographic controls.5
With this movement the writer is in heartiest sympathy.
Three magazines, to which every secondary geography teacher
should have frequent access, are replete with suggestive mate-
rial, on both subject matter and method, School Science and
Mathematics? The Journal of Geography? and The National
Geographic Magazine* and no geography teacher can afford
not to own and study The International Geography? The
Teaching of Geography, by William J. Sutherland, although
intended primarily for grade teachers, is the most helpful guide
for secondary teachers known to the writer ; and is entirely
free from the taint of " faculty " and " formal discipline "
psychology against which the teacher must be on his guard in
most of the pedagogical literature on the subject. It contains
extensive and carefully selected bibliographies and sugges-
tions for laboratory equipment.10
1 American Book Co., 1894.
2 Proc. N. E. A., 1899, pp. 632 ff. and 780 (I.
3 Proc. N. E. A., 1909, p. 820.
4 Journal of Geography, Madison, Wis., Vol. IX, Xo. 3, p. 57 ; Xo. 9, p. 244.
Reports 1,3, and 4 are abstracted in Whitbcck and Martin, The High School
Course in Geography, Bulletin No. 382, University of Wisconsin, an exceed-
ingly valuable pamphlet.
5 Whitbcck, R. II., and Martin, L., op. cit.
9 Published by Smith and Turton, Xo. 2059 E. 7^d Place, Chicago.
7 Published at Madison, Wis.
8 Published by the Xat. Gcog. Soc., Washington, D.C.
9 Edited by Mill, R. H., I). Apple-ton & Cxi., Xc\v York, 83.50.
10 Published by Scott, Foresman & Co., Chicago, 1909.
482 Principles of Secondary Education
PHYSIOGRAPHIC PROCESSES. — The processes which
combine to produce the different land forms are of three general
kinds.
1 . Large areas of the earth's crust slowly sink down in some
parts of the earth and other areas are arched or folded upward.
2. The crust in some places becomes fractured, and lava is
thrust up from the heated interior, either locally as in volca-
noes and fissure eruptions, or over large areas as in the case of
the Columbia River lava plateau.
3. The elevated lands are weathered by the action of the
atmospheric gases and moisture combined with changes of
temperature ; and the water that falls on them as rain or snow
moves downward as streams or glaciers, carrying away the
wasted rock and grinding down the land. The condition of
the land and the forms into which it is molded or carved are
the resultant of these three kinds of processes, just as each of
these processes is itself the resultant of physical and chemical
forces and conditions that are operating in various combina-
tions everywhere and at all times.
The Geographic Cycle. — Because these physiographic
processes follow in sequences of cause and effect, there
results in the case of a plain, plateau, or mountain system a
sequence of changes whereby valleys are carved into the
uplifted lands and are gradually deepened and widened until
ultimately the uplands between are worn away to a very
even and gently sloping plain interrupted only by occasional
portions of the more resistant uplands. Thus the streams
themselves and the lands through which they flow go through
sequences of changes which can be predicted when the con-
ditions are known, and which are somewhat analogous to the
larger changes that go on in the life history of a plant
or animal. This notion of a geographic cycle including the
life history periods of youth, maturity, and old age, when
applied to river systems, lakes, plains, mountains, and shore
lines, is very useful as a means of organizing geographical
The Natural Sciences 483
facts and phenomena into condensed and meaningful concepts
that are easy to remember because of their obvious causal
relations. These concepts in turn are useful in connection
with the understanding of the controls that these physio-
graphic features, when combined with natural and social
forces, exert on the life and activities of the people who live
near them.
Physiographic Controls. — Thus we have the controls of
temperature and moisture, of rocks and soils, of the atmosphere
and its movements, of the mutual interactions of living things
(organic controls), of topographic features and barriers, and
of the forces and motives that direct human conduct (human
and social controls) . So also we have the responses of individ-
uals and social groups to these controls. Some of the most
interesting responses are those wherein organized groups of
men, such as corporations and state or national governments,
through their agents and engineers build roads and railroads,
irrigate deserts, dig a Panama Canal, dredge harbors, dam and
bridge streams, create forest reserves, build fires in orchards on
frosty nights, and do many other things that control nature
herself for human needs. All such actions and reactions
constitute the processes of geographic adjustment whereby
men get on with nature and with one another. The study of
all these controls and adjustments, their causes and conse-
quences, involves the consideration of causes and effects.
Not merely what is this like and where is it located, but how
came it to be, and what will be the consequences, are the ques-
tions for which the inquiring mind seeks answers ; and the
boys and girls have a right to these answers so far as they want
them, can understand them, and can get them mostly through
their own efforts.
PRINCIPLES OF SELECTION AND ORDER. — Summing
up, then, we have the controlling principles of method :
(i) begin with problems and begin at home; (2) connect the
far with the near and the unknown with the known by human
484 Principles of Secondary Education
relationships ; (3) use the textbook as a help in the accumula-
tion and organization of facts ; (4) use the causal notion as a
link for organization in the ordering of concepts ; (5) trace
physiographic features back to physiographic processes and
these back to physical causes ; (6) use the cycle concept and
the concept of adjustment as unifying principles.
FIELD WORK, LABORATORY WORK, AND EQUIP-
MENT. — The textbook has been referred to as a mine of
information, but its information can become meaningful only
when it connects up with knowledge gained by observation
at first hand in the field and laboratory. The laboratory work
is immensely important but is less so than the field observation.
It cannot be presumed that the casual observation of out-of-
door facts by the pupils will be sufficient to make the labora-
tory work and the textbook study meaningful.
As much has been said about field and laboratory methods
as our space will allow.1 One hint for each must suffice.
Study weathering of bowlders, or of monuments in a cemetery
or of stones in old houses, if no exposed rocks can be found.
Study erosion of exposed earth thrown from a building excava-
tion or in a railroad embankment, if no stream is within reach.
Gullies showing in miniature nearly all the stages of stream
work and valley development can be found even in cities.
Make maps and sketches, describe processes, state causes for
variations in form, direction, slope, and width of gullies, and
for speed of water in different parts. Find miniature alluvial
fans and deltas. Compare with text descriptions, maps, and
pictures of similar features on a larger scale in other places.
In the laboratory, study minerals and rocks, wall maps, large-
scale topographic maps. Read and interpret maps and pic-
tures ; infer life conditions ; and verify inferences from gazet-
teers and reports. On topographic maps follow roads and
railroads and infer why they are located as they are. Study
weather maps. Describe weather and make predictions.
1 Ante, pp. 462-470.
The Natural Sciences 485
Follow the storms across the country in a succession of weather
maps and compare observation with newspaper accounts.
These are mere suggestions by way of illustration. The
teacher will find information and hints as to field and labora-
tory problems, and as to equipment of laboratories in the
appendices of Davis' and Tarr's Physical Geographies, in
Sutherland,1 in Whitbeck and Martin's bulletin,2 in any of
the laboratory manuals that are put out to accompany the
well-known texts, and in the references in the bibliography.
It should always be borne in mind that a laboratory exercise,
if it is to be of real educative value, is not to be a disciplinary
task, but a step in the solution of a problem.3
ORDER OF TOPICS. — The general order of topics favored
by the writer is as follows: i. Underground water. 2.
Streams and lakes. 3. Rocks and soils. 4. The lands.
5. The atmosphere. 6. The earth as a whole. 7. Review of
physical geography on a regional basis. 8. Review on the
basis of distribution of vegetation and animal life. 9. Re-
view on the basis of human relationships, economic, industrial,
and social. 10. Review on the basis of locational geography.4
Let the pupils list the significant places mentioned in current
numbers of the daily newspaper and the Review of Reviews,
Literary Digest, or Current Opinion. Locate them accurately
on the wall maps, and drill by locating them on outline seat
maps such as are used in history study. This kind of work
should not be confined to the final review, but should be car-
ried on also in connection with the other phases of the sub-
ject. All places, streams, plains, mountains, and the like,
whose locations are important should be located when studied
as types or examples. For example, if the " fall line " that
marks the boundary between the Piedmont plateau and the
Atlantic coastal plain is being studied, the principal manu-
1 Op. n/,, pp. iQ3 fL, 202 ft., 211 ft., and Chaps. XIX, XX, and XXI.
2 Op. f//., pp. 3(1-41. 3 Cf. p. 462, ante.
4 Cf. Whitbeck and Martin, op. cit., pp. 27 ff.
486 Principles of Secondary Education
facturing cities that mark the line should be located in the
manner described.
The order recommended is not necessarily the best for all
schools. Other orders may be as good ; but the writer is
convinced that it is a pedagogical mistake to begin with
mathematical geography. No better way to kill interest
could be found.
BIOLOGY
BIOLOGICAL PROBLEMS. — Plants and animals may be
either useful or harmful to man and his activities. They
are sources of manifold utilities. Their life activities present
features of dramatic interest, for they are often compelled to
engage in fierce competition in the hard struggle for existence,
- to fight for their lives in the midst of a hostile environment.
Their activities bear many obvious analogies to those of the
human body. Like the human body a plant or an animal is a
living, working machine, whose parts are adapted, both in
form and structure, to perform certain functions in the service
of the whole.
They thus present a multitude of problems that are of
immediate and intense human interest, if approached from
the side that is suggested by such human relations as have
been mentioned. Biological study therefore affords inter-
esting and absorbing opportunities for acquiring information
that is useful to everybody in many fields of thought and
work. Not only that, but it enables the teacher who has
broad biological points of view to lead his pupils in directing
their thinking in the biological field, and also their interpreta-
tions of human activities, from these illuminating and sug-
gestive viewpoints.
POINTS OF VIEW FROM BIOLOGICAL STUDY.
One gets a certain point of view when he has come through
first-hand observation to know that every living plant or
animal is made up of cells which are themselves living individ-
The Natural Sciences 487
uals like the amoeba or the unicellular plant. He has
gained a broader outlook when he realizes that the necessity of
adaptation to more complex and difficult situations is accom-
panied by division of labor, by differentiation of functions, so
that special groups of cells are modified in form, structure, and
distribution, with the result that each group performs some
one of the specialized activities that are necessary to the sur-
vival of the organism in its more complex environment. He
can see farther still if he gets the notion that there is in plant
and in animal life a series of great groups beginning with
unicellular forms and continually increasing in complexity by
such divisions of labor and specializations of organs. If,
through observations and experiments which he makes him-
self, he learns of the responses that plants make to the stimuli
of light, gravity, moisture, soil, pressure, or atmosphere, to
other plants, and to insects ; if he notes the general process of
adjustment of which these responses are the elementary fac-
tors ; if he gets even elementary notions of development, of
variation, of elimination and survival, of mutations and inheri-
tance as factors in biological evolution, he gains an outlook on
life as a whole that will make more meaningful everything that
he afterwards learns about living things.1
Further if the student learns the meaning of biological
observations, experiments, descriptions, and interpretations,
and perceives the relations of form and structure to functions,
he will get the experimental point of view and perhaps habits of
attacking his problems in a methodical way. He may perhaps
come to prefer first-hand knowledge to book knowledge in some
limited field at least. He may not be able to make discoveries,
nor to settle the mooted questions of biology ; but he will be
able to find out for himself some things that are new to him,
and to get some clear notions as to how biological questions
1 In this connection caution is necessary. The reader should stud}' carefully
the discussion by Professor Higelow as to how far the teaching of evolution should
be carried in secondary schools. Lloyd, V. K., and Bigelow, M. A., The Teach-
ing of Biology in Secondary Schools. Longmans, New York, 1004, pp. 286 IT.
488 Principles of Secondary Education
should be attacked. Particularly, he can be taught the
meaning and use of a control experiment,1 and how to tell a
good experiment from the bad one from which no logical con-
clusions can be drawn.
PRINCIPLES TO BE OBSERVED IN A BIOLOGICAL
COURSE. — There are certain biological and pedagogical
principles that should be prominent in the mind of the teacher
in shaping and conducting a course in either botany or zoology
or human biology.
i. The development of the type concept. When we speak
of the frog or the common buttercup (Ranunculus bulbosus),
ordinarily, we do not mean any particular individual, nor do
we mean all the animals or all the plants of the species named.
Rather we mean any one that is typical of the whole species or
group to which it belongs. A hundred individuals of a given
species collected at random will be alike in certain character-
istics, but will vary among themselves in many minor ways.
If then we wanted a specimen that would stand as a fair repre-
sentative or type of the species, we should pick one that was
near the average. This is what is meant by a typical indi-
vidual of a species. When a biologist describes a species, he
describes what he estimates is a typical individual of that
species. So whenever a species is thought of, these individual
differences or variations should be thought of also. Now the
individuals of any species that are near the type resemble
each other more closely than they resemble those of any other
species. In the same way, species which resemble each other
more closely than they resemble other species are grouped in
larger divisions called genera. On a like basis genera are
grouped into families, families into orders, and so on. For
convenience in study an individual of a species may be taken
as a type form of a genus or of a family. The student, after
studying the type in sufficient detail, can then learn in what
1 That is, two experiments are run side by side, in which all the conditions
excepting the one under investigation are as nearly as possible exactly alike.
T/ic Natural Sciences 489
important respects the representatives of the related genera or
families differ from this type, and thus get a relatively large
amount of information in condensed form. It is obvious that
this type concept is of immense importance to the student;
and the teacher should be at some pains to have it grow up
naturally in connection with whatever samples of biological
material the pupils are dealing with. They should get the
notion not only of a typical plant or animal, but of a typical
seed, leaf, or other organ of either plant or animal.1 It is
only by forming type notions through the careful study and
comparison of a relatively small number of types that any-
thing like a general survey of living forms can be made.
Biological teaching therefore must perforce be made through
comparative study of type forms.
2. The comparative principle. This brings us to the
next principle of biological study, the development through
habit formation of a comparative attitude on the part of the
pupil. Having made himself acquainted with a grasshopper,
for example, the pupil is led to compare its near relatives, the
cricket and katydid, with it, so that he knows qualities of
structure, physiology, habits, and life history which they have
in common, and also the important ways in which the other
two differ from the first as a type. Again, making a study of
the crayfish with regard to structure, physiological processes,
habits, life history, and so on, he compares the lobster and
crab with it after the same plan that he pursued with the
grasshopper and its near relatives. He is then in a position
to compare the crayfish as a type of all crustaceans with the
grasshopper as a type of all insects, and learn in what ways
the crustaceans differ from the insects, and why they are
grouped together as arthropods. He will easily accomplish
more and will remember characteristics better, as he goes
along, if he uses the type and comparative notions from the
first. In other words, the crayfish will mean more to him
1 Cf. Lloyd and Higelow, op. cil., pp. 126 IT.
4QO Principles of Secondary Education
while he is studying it if he has a clear notion of the grass-
hopper at the time, and is working with the comparative
attitude. He will then be looking for the resemblances and
differences ; and hence every characteristic of structure,
function, behavior, and life history will mean more to him
than it would if he had no comparisons in mind.
3. Classification. The next principle follows quite nat-
urally from the second. By noting resemblances and dif-
ferences in the process of comparing types, the pupil arrives
in a perfectly natural way at the principle of classification
and gets a first-hand appreciation of its economy and value
as a means of organizing and rendering intelligible a mass
of facts which otherwise handled would be chaotic.
4. Form and structure as related to function. In form
and structure, the animal as a whole, and its organs as working
parts of it, are adapted to the activities in which they engage,
the functions that they are called upon to perform. No child
who has tried to capture a grasshopper in the field will have
the slightest difficulty in grasping the notion that one of
the grasshopper's necessities is to escape his enemies, that
his ability to hop quickly, or to fly, enables him to do so, and
that his legs and wings are admirably adapted to provide
him with this ability. Here then is one of the countless start-
ing points for a lesson problem. What is the mechanism of
the grasshopper's leg that enables him to star in the standing
broad jump? Why can he jump so much farther in propor-
tion to his length than the best boy on the track team can
jump? When this problem of the relation of structure to
function has been solved, others present themselves in pro-
fusion. What is the structure of the wings and body, and the
arrangement of the muscles that enables them all to cooperate
so efficiently in balancing and flying? How are the mouth
parts adapted to eating ? How is the food digested ? How
does the insect breathe? Has he a nervous system, and if so
what is it like ? How is it adapted to the functions that it has
The Natural Sciences 491
to perform? These questions indicate clearly that the right
method of approach is not to study morphology or physiology
or ecology separately, but to study them together by working
out problems on a type. They indicate also that in biology
as in all the other sciences the joint activity of the teacher and
pupils in field work, in laboratory work, and in class con-
ferences is unified in the problems.
5. Adjustment, division of labor, and cooperation. Life
involves a continuous process of adjustment to environ-
ment. \i the environment of the organism is simple, the ad-
justment processes are simple, and few specialized organs are
found to exist. If the environment is complex or difficult,
necessitating many adjustments, more parts or organs are
advantageous, and the organism is found to be complex. There
is division of labor and specialization of groups of cells adapted
to perform the various kinds of adjustments both among the
working internal parts of the living machine and in the organs
by which it responds to stimuli from without. Thus we have
the principle of adjustment correlating with the principles of
cooperation and division of labor on the physiological and eco-
logical side, and with the principle of adaptation and dif-
ferentiation of parts on the morphological side. Physiology
and ecology then present the dynamic phase, and morphology
(including anatomy, histology, and classification) represents
the static phase in the study of the same life process, — ad-
justment. Out of this relation comes the fifth principle in
biological pedagogy: study structure and function together,
as related to adjustment, in one type, and compare with analo-
gous adjustments and the structures and functions related
thereto in other types.
6. Continuity of life, — life history and race history.
Each plant or animal type has a life history. From the union
of two reproductive cells and the fission of the new cell thus
formed until the new individual dies, it goes through a cycle
of changes from a simple to an increasingly complex condition.
492 Principles of Secondary Education
Some of the individuals before they die reproduce their kind
and hand on their progeny to continue the life of the race
of organisms as a whole. In the history of the races of plants
and animals some species as species have become extinct and
others have survived. Just as there is a life history for the
individual of a species, so for the race there is a succession of
changes from simple and undifferentiated forms to complex
and highly specialized forms. These changes constitute a
race history which can be more or less clearly traced in the
successive relationships that the later groups bear to the
earlier.
7. The theory of evolution. Thus life, which is limited
in the individual, is continuous in the race, and in the struggle
for existence those qualities tend in the long run to be handed
on which have survival value — that is, which help to preserve
the lives of individuals so that they can live to reproduce their
kind. So survival is connected with advantageous adjustment
to environment ; and a process of natural selection goes on.
By variation and selection the race of organisms becomes ad-
justed to varying conditions ; and the newer and more complex
forms result.
The young student cannot follow all the evidence in favor
of organic evolution, or go very far into the theories concern-
ing its various factors, or debate the questions which biological
specialists have not been able to settle among themselves ;
but his attention can be called to the most obvious facts and
relations that point in the direction of progress by variation
and selection ; and he can thus get a broad notion of the evolu-
tionary process. The important rule for the teacher is to refrain
from dogmatizing or quoting authorities in place of citing facts,
either for or against any statement of theory, and to lead the
students to maintain an open-minded attitude and get their
own point of view.1
1 Read Professor Lloyd's statement, Lloyd and Bigelow, op. cit., pp. 136 ff.,
and compare it with Professor Bigelow's, p. 286, previously referred to.
The Natural Sciences 493
GENERAL METHOD IN BIOLOGICAL STUDY. — The
preceding principles furnish the basis for a general method
in teaching biology. Start with problems that involve the
study of a type plant or animal. Study it as a whole, with
reference to its general form and structure as related to the
work that it has to do. Note its differentiation into parts
and the work to which each essential part is adapted. Make
comparisons showing the clearest analogies in the case of other
types, carrying the comparisons far enough to give a general
idea of the plant or animal as a working machine or organism
with cooperating parts.
Continue with a similar study of the parts in a somewhat
more intensive way (but with plants, still paying more at-
tention to the comparison of similar organs through a some-
what extensive range of forms than to the intensive study of
the type as a type).
After a good general idea of the working organs as organs
has been gained, concentrate on a more intensive study of the
type, with reference to its physiology and internal structure,
and its ecology, behavior, life history, and economic and human
relations. Proceed with other types in turn in a similar way,
examining them with reference to their morphology as related
to physiology and ecology, but with the exception of two or
three types make the work progressively more extensive and
less intensive — that is, put increasing stress on comparison
of types, and on economic and human relations and gradually
diminishing stress on detailed study of anatomy and physiology.
Lead up to the classification and evolution concepts. In
studying the physiological processes compare these processes
not only in the field of plants or animals, but correlate in plants
and animals and in human physiology. Make the largest
possible use of local and living material and of local human
and economic relations that is consistent with the broader
aims of the course.
SPECIAL METHODS. — The special methods must always
494 Principles of Secondary Education
be worked out by the individual teachers each for his own
school, and no attempt will be made to outline them here.
The best way for a beginner to acquire methods is to master
the principles and notions of general method, study and com-
pare the presentations of the various textbooks and laboratory
guides, study and compare critically the various syllabi with
reference to local conditions, and read the pedagogical litera-
ture that is available on the subject.1 Lloyd and Bigelow,
whose book should be owned and studied by every biology
teacher, discuss laboratory methods and equipment as well
as general and special method in botany, zoology, and human
physiology with sufficient detail to meet the needs even of
inexperienced teachers.
CORRELATION OF BOTANY, ZOOLOGY, AND
PHYSIOLOGY. — For a course of one year in biological study
there are three plans from which to choose : i . A half year
of botany, followed by a half year of zoology, closing with
a brief survey of human physiology;2 2. A year of botany
only; 3. A year of zoology only. From the standpoint of
a well-balanced curriculum for the purposes of general edu-
cation the writer agrees with a number of leading biologists
in favoring the first plan. In case the second is adopted he be-
lieves that sufficient botanical details should be excluded from
the course to give time for frequent comparisons of animals with
1 Especially Lloyd and Bigelow, op. cit.; the current and many of the back
numbers of School Science and Mathematics. The Report of the Botanical Society
of America on Botany in Secondary Schools, in School Review, November, 1908
(Vol. 16, p. 594). Ganong, W. F., The Teaching Botanist, Macmillan, 1910.
The Report of the American Society of Zoologists on Zoology for Secondary
Schools, College Entrance Board, Substation 84, New York, Document 48;
and the Definitions of Units in Botany and Zoology in the Reports of the Com-
mission on Accredited Schools of the North Central Association of Colleges and
Secondary Schools, which may be obtained from the Secretary, Principal J. E.
Armstrong, Englewood High School, Chicago, price twenty-five cents.
2 For excellent outlines of such a course, worked out in a single textbook, see
Bailey, L. H., and Coleman, W. M., First Course in Biology, Macmillan, New
York, 1908 ; Hunter, G. W., Elements of Biology, American Book Co., 1907 ; and
Bigelow, M. A., and A. N., Introduction to Biology, Macmillan, New York, 1913.
The Natural Sciences 495
plants to make their common physiological resemblances
and differences clear ; and in case the third plan is adopted
he believes that a similar comparative use of botanical material
should be made ; and that in any of the three plans the
broader correlations of plant, animal, and human physiology
should be made at every point where they will be clear and
illuminating.
PHYSICS
COMMON-SENSE NOTIONS, AND PHYSICAL PRIN-
CIPLES. — In his Science of Mechanics * Mach has shown that
the early discoveries of mechanical laws and principles grew
out of thinking that was aroused by problematic situations
in which there seemed to be some incongruity between ob-
served physical facts and the intuitive or common-sense
notions about them which crystallize, so to speak, out of the
manifold experiences of the individual and the race in dealing
with the materials and tools of the industries. Physical
principles, such as that of the lever and that of flotation in
mechanics, that of the distribution of heat by convection
currents, that of the equality of the angles of incidence and
reflection for light, or Ohm's law of flow for electric currents,
are merely concise and convenient ways of describing events
that persistently recur under certain circumstances. As
Mach points out,2 such a "law" or "principle" is an econom-
ical device of thought, which enables us to keep in mind by
means of a single statement or formula a multitude of single
occurrences that are alike in certain essential qualities or
relations, although widely separated perhaps in both time
and space. The principle states the relation that these single
1 Open Court Publishing Co., Chicago, 1907, loc. cil., pp. 1-7, also 77-85.
(The word "intuitive " is preferable to the word "instinctive" used in the Eng-
lish translation of Mach's book. Instinctive is probably intended only in a figura-
tive sense; but it is psychologically misleading in the connection used. An in-
stinctive reaction is one that is unlearned; an intuitive one is learned, but
untaught. This evidently is what Mach meant.)
•Op. cit., pp. 481 If.
496 Principles of Secondary Education
occurrences have in common. Those who have discovered
such generalizations, as Mach shows,1 have often used their
intuitive notions, derived from familiar experiences, as guides
in their thinking. So it is with us all, with children no less
than with adults. New experiences which do not conflict
with our intuitive knowledge, or common sense as we are wont
to call it, are taken as matters of course, and do not arouse
any feeling of doubt or incongruity. Understanding of prin-
ciples grows by checking up new particular cases that are
found to come under them, with the aid of these intuitions as
guides. By this trying-out process both the principles and
the guiding intuitions are clarified and made more precise
and meaningful. One gets ultimately " a comprehensive,
compact, consistent, and facile conception of the facts." 2
Intuitions and the Facts of Everyday Life as Starting
Points. — It is very important that the teacher, at
the outset, recognize this function of intuitions and also
that he keep in mind the close interplay of science
and the industries, and so start his teaching of physical
principles with problematic concrete situations in which the
pupil senses a difficulty, or an incongruity with his intuitive
experiential knowledge. Such a situation — one that in-
volves a strange or novel element among the familiar occur-
rences of daily observation, and therefore piques the pupil's
curiosity and arouses his interest — is the only kind of situa-
tion in which he will think. There is a vast difference, from
the psychological and educational standpoint, between think-
ing and merely trying to recall dogmatic statements from the
textbook. In the former case the pupil is acquiring meanings,
learning to reflect, and learning to reason ; while in the latter
he is forming short-circuit memory bonds that cannot, ex-
1 Op. cit., pp. 26 ff. Every teacher of physics should read the entire chapter,
especially Section V. The chapter, for the most part, is not easy reading, but it
affords an outlook that is well worth the trouble required to gain it.
2 Mach, op. ciL, p. 5.
The Natural Sciences 497
cepting by mere chance, function in real situations outside
the schoolroom.
Such short-circuit memory connections furnish one explana-
tion for the condition so often described by teachers when
they complain that pupils " know the principle, but cannot
apply it." In such cases it is obvious that they do not
know the principle. The only association bond existing in
their brain cells is the bond between the situation of being
asked the question, " State (say) Pascal's law of fluid pres-
sure " on the stimulus side, and recalling the sequence of
words, " The pressure in a fluid in a closed vessel is trans-
mitted . . . etc.," on the response side. The necessary asso-
ciation bonds have not been formed between the idea of
undiminished transmission of fluid pressure, on the one hand,
and a lot of concrete cases, on the other hand.
Such bonds can be formed in most cases only by a consid-
erable number of concrete mental and motor experiences
with fluids whose behavior under transmitted pressure has
been intelligently and thoughtfully observed and measured in
some way. Pupils cannot be railroaded into a knowledge of
physical principles. Real knowledge of a law or principle, -
that is, facility or skill in using it, can be gained only by
practice in dealing with problematic situations in which it
is involved. Thus, if the pupil has gained such experience by
measuring, with a pressure gauge, the pressure at several water
taps which are located on the same floor of a building and
which come from pipes that have various diameters and that
turn and twist in various directions, and if he has made similar
measurements on one or two other floors, he will have little
difficulty in grasping the idea and connecting it in the class
conferences with similar cases elsewhere. By such a process
a clear and meaningful concept of fluid pressure can be built
up in his mind.
Words, definitions, statements of laws and principles, alge-
braic formulae, are mere symbols. They are indispensable in
498 Principles of Secondary Education
science for economy in thought ; but they are almost abso-
lutely useless to any individual unless he himself has a clear
and precise notion or concept of the things or relations for
which each symbol stands. A thorough and intelligent appre-
ciation of this fundamental psychological principle is abso-
lutely essential for real success in teaching anything ; but it is
more likely to be fatally overlooked by teachers of physics
and chemistry than by teachers of some other subjects, be-
cause of the highly symbolic, condensed, and technical lan-
guage in which these sciences are set forth in the treatises.
The very excellence of logical organization to which these fas-
cinating sciences have attained is on the one hand a source of
the gravest danger to all attempts to teach them to young peo-
ple, and on the other hand, if rightly used, a means of the high-
est value in forming habits of logical thinking.
Some Intuitive Notions Described. -- What are the
common-sense notions or intuitive judgments that con-
stitute so important a part of the mental raw materials with
which the physics teacher must begin ? We know no logical
order in which to name them ; and, as Mach shows,1 it is
useless to try to ascribe either priority or higher authority
to one of them in preference to another ; for they are all as
it wereswz generis, each being derived from a fund of experiences
which is as worthy of confidence as any other. Hence the
order in which they are here set down is not significant.
Neither is it claimed that the enumeration is complete. It is
intended only to be suggestive.
i. The continuity of nature, the notion that things that
have always been so will always be so under similar condi-
tions.2 In the teaching, the examination of conditions is
the process on which a great part of any given problem
turns.
1 Loc. cit., pp. 80 ff.
2 Cf. Mann, C. R., and Twiss, G. R., Physics. Scott, Foresman & Co.,
Chicago, 1910, p. 17.
The Natural Sciences 499
2. The causal notion,1 the intuitive habit of connecting
in thought two things that always go together, either in se-
quence or simultaneously, and of looking for a similar relation
which intelligibly connects a strange thing or event with things
or events that are familiarly known. This intuitive tendency
finds an outlet in the ubiquitous question of the young child,
" Mother, what makes it do that? " The teacher who can
revive and foster this na'ive desire of the children to know the
why of things — a desire which is universally crushed by our
conventional social and educational procedure in dealing with
it — may know by this token that his methods in so far forth
are right methods.
3. The notion of balancing, and of a connection of balancing
with symmetry about the point or line of support. Here is
a guiding intuition for all problems about center of gravity,
equilibrium, stability, levers, and so on. Every child who has
played with a seesaw, played store with toy scales, balanced
his body, " trimmed " a boat, carried packages in two hands,
and the like, knows something about these problems and will
be keen to know more, if his interest is not stifled by making
him begin with reciting a book lesson about gravity or the law
of the lever.
4. The notion of force, derived from the sensations of
muscular exertion in pushing and pulling things with the
hands, striking balls with bats, chopping with hatchets, driving
nails and pegs with hammers and stones, supporting weights,
and the like. This notion again is usually clear enough in
the pupil's mind if instead of being asked to define force he is
asked how it can be measured.
5. The notion of work, derived from lifting weights, push-
ing and dragging things against resistance, and so on. This
notion, again, is made clear not by defining it metaphysically ;
1 For a complete but simple discussion of the logical and scientific uses of this
notion, see Jones, A. I,., Logic, Inductive and Deductive. Henry Holt & Co.,
New York, 1909, pp. 79-109. Cf. also Mach, op. cit., pp. 483-485 and 579.
500 Principles of Secondary Education
but by showing in many cases that work can be measured
by the . numerical product, pounds force multiplied by
distance.1
6. The notion of inertia, derived from running and dodg-
ing, from starting and stopping massive bodies, riding in
vehicles.
7. The correlative idea of mass, expressed in the common
saying that " large bodies move slowly." This idea is usually
confused with that of weight ; and some care and a good deal
of time and regulated experience in making the proper dis-
tinctions are needed to clear it up. Much of the difficulty
here will be avoided if the teacher always makes the distinction
correctly in his own speech and does not insist on having the
pupils understand and make it before they have had sufficient
experience with the phenomena in which mass and weight can
be differentiated.
8. The impossibility of a perpetual motion against a resist-
ance, derived from the continuous exertion required to keep
bodies moving and their tendency to stop when the urging
force is relaxed, and from observation of swinging bodies
which never rise to higher levels than those from which they
started. This intuition is commonly expressed in the saying
that "water never rises higher than its source," or that, "you
cannot get more work out of a machine than you put into it."
The interest of many boys in suggested conflicts with this
intuitive notion is striking. They will often think hard and
argue keenly with one another in an endeavor to find the
fallacies that lurk in such perpetual-motion propositions.
The Questions of Tyndall's Boys. — In a lecture on
1 Cf. Mann, C. R., The Teaching of Physics. The Macmillan Co., New
York, 1912, pp. 225-233. Xo teacher of physics, experienced or otherwise,
can afford not to read this book, and reflect on the vital questions respecting
physics teaching that are discussed therein. It has the almost unique advantage
among books on science teaching of being written from the standpoint of modern
psychology and is free from the taint of the discredited faculty and forma]
discipline psychology.
The Natural Sciences 501
Physics as a means of Education 1 Tyndall gives a few"
questions selected at random from among those asked by
his boys, students at an agricultural school in Hampshire.
These questions were asked and discussed by the boys and
their teachers at the meetings of a scientiiic club that they
had formed. There were all sorts of questions, most of them
asking for the causes of things. They exhibit the spirit of
wonder that is so important for the science teacher to foster ;
and a few of them are just such problems as best serve for
starting points from which to arrive at important physical
principles.
What are the duties of the Astronomer Royal? What is
frost ? Why are thunder and lightning more frequent in sum-
mer than in winter? What occasions falling stars? What
is the cause of the sensation of " pins and needles "? What
is the cause of waterspouts? What is the cause of hiccup?
If a towel be wetted with water, why does the wet portion be-
come darker than before? What is meant by Lancashire
witches? Does the dew rise or fall? What is the principle
of the hydraulic press? Is there more oxygen in the air
in summer than in winter? What are those rings that we see
around the gas and the sun? What is thunder? How is it
(sic) that a black hat can be moved by forming around it
a magnetic circle, while a white hat remains stationary?2
What is the cause of perspiration ? Is it true that men were
1 In Culture Demanded by Modern Life, edited by E. L. Youmans, Appleton,
New York, 1875, pp. 59-85. Science teachers who have not read this eloquent
and inspiring presentation of the culture value of science, by probably the most
gifted teacher of physics that ever lived, should do so. The same volume con-
tains a lecture by Liebig on "The Development of Scientific Ideas, " which shows
the close natural connection between science and the industries.
- This might have been some conjuring trick or a mere superstitious tradition ;
but it would seem unlikely that such a teacher as Tyndall would neglect the
opportunity to incite the boys to find out in this case the relative merits of
credulity and knowledge by putting this question to the test of experiment.
Cf. Hall, G. Stanley, Adolescence, Vol. II, p. 157, wherein the author calls atten-
tion to the neglected field of scientific toys and conjuring tricks as sources of
problems possessing strong motivating power for study of the principles of
physics.
502 Principles of Secondary Education
once monkeys ? What is the difference between the soul and
the mind ? x Is it contrary to the rules of vegetarianism to eat
eggs?
These are but a few of the many that were asked ; but
they suggest countless nodes of interest from which problems
may be made to bud out at the command of a sympathetic and
resourceful teacher. Tyndall then selects the questions of
the wetted towel, and the deposition of dew, and in his truly
wonderful way shows how they can be explained by means of
a few simple physical principles. The following quotation will
suggest the way in which such principles were led up to and
enforced through some problems that enabled his boys to
apply their knowledge of arithmetic and geometry, not to
" recite " for the teacher, but to find out something that they
were keen to know. The class he describes was supposed to
be studying geometry ; but it is evident that no water-tight
bulkheads existed between mathematics and science for such
a teacher as Tyndall. The selection also exemplifies that
infectious enthusiasm that is indispensable to successful science
teaching.
"It was often my custom to give the boys their choice of
pursuing their propositions in the book, or of trying their
strength on others not to be found there. Never in a single
instance have I known the book to be chosen. . . .
"And then again, the pleasure we all experienced was
enhanced when we applied our mathematical knowledge to the
solution of physical problems. Many objects of hourly con-
tact had thus a new interest and significance imparted to them.
The swing, the seesaw, the tension of the giant-stride ropes,
the fall and rebound of the football, the advantage of a small
boy over a large one when turning short, particularly in slip-
pery weather ; all became subjects of investigation. Sup-
posing a lady to stand before a looking-glass, of the same
1 This is a poser, but is instructive as showing the range of questions over
which some children ponder.
The Natural Sciences 503
height as herself, it was required to know how much of the
glass was really useful to the lady ? and we learned, with great
pleasure, the economic fact that she might dispense with the
lower half and see her whole figure notwithstanding. We also
felt deep interest in ascertaining from the hum of a bee the
number of times the little insect flaps its wings in a second." 1
ECONOMY OF TIME AND EFFORT. — It is often ob-
jected that the problem approach requires too much time, -
that there is so much ground to be covered that conditions
will not admit of it. But of what use is covering the ground
by a cramming process which leaves the pupils with confused
and detached ideas, and a distaste for the subject? On the
other hand, a reorganization of the subject matter about the
larger and more general principles, and the exclusion of topics
that are either too difficult for pupils to comprehend, or are
lacking in significance to them because of not making intelli-
gible connections with their experiences, makes it possible
to save much time. Everybody admits that the current text-
books are overloaded ; then why try to have the pupils
swallow them whole ? 2 Let us see what can be done by better
organization. Instead of having the pupils learn as discrete
ideas a separate law for each of the simple machines, including
three different classes of levers, all these machines can be
shown to come under two general statements. The principle
of moments and the work principle, i.e. neglecting friction,
the work got out of the machine equals the work put into it ;
and by a very elementary and obvious algebraic substitution
any c;ise coming under the former principle can be brought
under the latter. Out of the work principle directly we get
the efficiency equation also. So one single principle, or two
at most, covers all these cases or any others similar to them.
1 Youmans, op. <•//., pp. So ft".
2 Each author during the last twenty years has had to include all the topics
covered by his predecessors and add a few more in order that his publishers'
agents might meet the "talking points" of their competitors. For the manifest
absurdity of the result, see Mann, op. cit., p. 208.
504 Principles of Secondary Education
To this principle add that of the parallelogram of motions,
Newton's third law, and clarified statements of the intuitive
notions of gravity, inertia, mass, and uniform speed, and
you have practically all the principles under mechanics of
solids that it is worth while trying to teach pupils of high
school age. All the other details will be more easily remem-
bered because associated with these few principles, well under-
stood, instead of being scattered in many discrete groups.1
In a similar way, each one of the less comprehensive principles
of heat, electricity, sound, and light may be approached through
simple, interesting problems, some qualitative and more of
them quantitative, all of them starting with knowledge that
the pupils already possess and proceeding by consecutive steps
of experimentation and reasoning toward the goal. Like
those of mechanics, these in turn can be shown to be compre-
hended by a few larger and more inclusive principles which
make up the theoretical framework of the whole subject.
FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS. — Thus we have the few
fundamental concepts of physics, time and space, mass and
inertia, electricity and ether, all related to one another and made
apparent through the transformations and transferences of
energy that take place in connection with phenomena that
are described by them. So also we have the great compre-
hensive principles of action and reaction, of the conservation
of energy, of the degradation of energy, and of relativity which
serve to sum up and connect all the facts and phenomena which
the beginner in physical science can successfully examine
and fairly master. The molecular and electron theories may
perhaps be given at the end of the course, but are not needed
for the effective organization of the most important and sig-
nificant facts. The earlier introduction of these theories will
certainly serve only to confuse the pupils and draw them away
1 To see how this reorganization has been effected in a plan that is working
successfully in many schools, examine the first three chapters of Mann and Twiss,
op. ciL, pp. 17-67.
The Natural Sciences 505
from the safe and firm ground of facts that they can grasp
through first-hand observation and experimentation into what,
at least for them, must remain a treacherous atmosphere of
speculation.1
SYLLABI. — To those teachers who are in such circum-
stances that they must conform to the content of the syllabi
of the College Entrance Examination Board or those of state
authorities, it may be said that the plan of organization and
teaching here outlined can be followed under these syllabi
if careful attention is given to relative emphasis on the various
items that the syllabi call for. None of their makers ever
intended that the syllabi should be followed slavishly as to
order of topics or that the same emphasis should be placed on
every item. Even if this really had to be done, better results
could be obtained by devoting the bulk of the year to real
teaching after the manner here described, and devoting three
or four weeks at the end of the course to a " cramming" re-
view for the examinations.
LABORATORY WORK. — The method for physics out-
lined in this chapter will not necessitate discarding immediately
the laboratory equipment that the school has on hand. A
number of the experiments usually made in the laboratory
are lacking in significance and are not worth the time that is
spent on them ; but the greater part of them may be made
valuable if they are presented in a better way. For example,
take one of those on specific gravity. Approached in the
customary way, the purpose of the experiment is usually
stated as follows, " To find the specific gravity of a solid that
sinks in water." Stated thus, it has no significance. There
is no motive. Why should the student care to find the specific
gravity of " a solid " that he is not going to do anything with ?
Suppose, on the other hand, we raise the question as to how
1 For suggestions as to a detailed elaboration of such a course as has been
indicated, see the chapters on the various divisions of the subject in the Mann
and Twiss Physics and read Mann's Teaching of Physics, Part III.
506 Principles of Secondary Education
much work will be required to lift a large block of stone to
its position in a neighboring building under construction. The
answer, of course, can be obtained by multiplying the weight
by the height to which it is to be lifted ; but how are we to
find the weight? A little questioning will usually elicit from
the pupils the suggestion that the dimensions can easily be
measured and the volume calculated. Then if we knew the
weight of a unit of volume of the stone, we could multiply this
by the total volume and get the weight of the block, also the
weight for unit volume of the stone can be found by determin-
ing the specific gravity of a sample of it. Again, suppose that
instead of assigning an experiment " to determine the specific
gravity of a liquid " the teacher proposes that the pupils
find out whether the milk that they are receiving at their
homes has been watered. There will then be a real motive
for finding the specific gravity of the milk and for making
a hydrometer which they can use for that purpose at home.1
Other changes in attitude of the same sort can easily be made
by every teacher for himself. Thus pupils need no longer
make an experiment " to find the electrical resistance of
a wire," but can find out " whether a tungsten lamp if sub-
stituted for a carbon lamp will save more than its increased
cost," and so on. Under this sort of teaching, the laboratory
experiment, instead of being abstract, formal, and meaningless
to the pupils, becomes a necessary step in the solution of a live
human problem that the pupils have some real, sane reason
for desiring to solve.
THE PROGRESSIVE PROGRAM. — (i) The content of
the modern physics course is not objectionable in itself, but
is too bulky and needs to be cut down.
(2) We must drop out the highly abstract and theoretical,
the incidental and insignificant. Whatever is entirely foreign
to the pupils' present purposes, present knowledge, and daily
1 For such an experiment see T \viss, G. R., Laboratory Exercises in Physics.
Scott, Foresman & Co., Chicago, IQOO, p. 88.
The Natural Sciences 507
experiences, and cannot be connected "up with it through sig-
nificant problems in whose answers they can be vitally
interested, should be eliminated.
(3) There must be a change in emphasis that will result in
paying most attention to the " big dynamic things " * in
physics, and to those facts and minor principles which have
a human bearing, which are exemplified in the pupil's own
locality, and which are therefore significant because they raise
questions in whose answers the pupils can see some use.
(4) Minor and special principles and definitions must be
justified before the pupils are required to learn them. This
can be done only by putting the pupils in situations where
the need for these definitions or principles is apparent in con-
nection with the work they are doing. In other words, defi-
nitions, principles, and generalizations are justified by lead-
ing up to them inductively through concrete problems that
arise out of the pupil's previous knowledge and their spirit
of wonder or intellectual curiosity.
(5 ) There should be a constant grouping of similar phenom-
ena under the definitions or laws or principles which describe
them ; and a continuous process of organization, showing
how each group of phenomena takes its place with other groups
under a broader principle or generalization, thus building up
the content of the science in the pupils' minds as a unified and
classified whole. This means a reorganization of the courses
usually given, and an entire change in the mode of approach
so as to arrive at the abstract and general by the way of the
concrete and particular, instead of vice versa.
(6) The teacher should neglect no opportunity that will
enable him to aid the pupils in forming association bonds
between the physical ideas acquired in the schoolroom and
the various kinds of problems of everyday life which those
principles assist in solving. In other words let them learn
to apply their physical knowledge by practice in applying it.
1 Cf. Mann, op. cit.. Chap. X.
508 Principles of Secondary Education
If these principles are applied in the teaching, lack of in-
terest in the subject will be rare ; and the outcome is almost
certain to be satisfactory.
CHEMISTRY
THE PSYCHOLOGICAL BASIS. — Chemistry is par ex-
cellence the experimental science, inasmuch as little chemical
knowledge of consequence can be learned without making
experiments. Observation here plays fully as important a
role as in the other sciences ; but very little can be observed
of the chemistry of substances without first doing something
with them. Thus, chemical experiments appeal directly to
a fundamental instinct. "To do something and have some-
thing happen as the consequence is, other things being equal,
instinctively satisfying, whatever be done and whatever be
the consequent happening." l This is fortunate for the psy-
chological teaching of chemistry, because perception of its
facts and acquisition of its concepts are not favored so highly
as in the other sciences by familiar experiences and common-
sense intuitions, in terms of which the facts and relations that
are presented in the teaching can be interpreted ; and it is
therefore not so easy to make obvious connections between
chemical lore and everyday-life situations as it is to make such
connections in presenting the other sciences. But although
the chemistry teacher is thus at a disadvantage, he has strong
allies in the original tendencies to manipulate 2 and experiment.
In the case of chemistry, then, if we are to start our teaching
with a problem growing out of the child's experience, we must
let him get the necessary experience by making chemical
experiments himself, and in the beginning depend for motiva-
tion largely on his original tendencies toward manipulation
and toward " doing things to have something happen," plus
1 Tborndike, E. L., The Original Mature of Man. Teachers College, Columbia
University, New York, 1913, p. 142.
2 Ibid., pp. 135-138.
The Natural Sciences 509
whatever liking for purposeful experimentation he may have
been fortunate enough to have acquired through previous
scientific training in school or out.
If this be true, then two conclusions follow, which might
indeed have been inferred from common-sense considerations,
apart from psychology, namely: (i) it is of little avail to
attempt to teach chemistry without a large amount of in-
dividual laboratory experimentation, and (2) the very first
lesson, and every succeeding lesson in which a new topic is
taken up, should be an experimental problem in which the
pupil himself is the experimenter, guided and assisted, of
course, by the teacher.
HOW TO BEGIN. — Many teachers and many textbooks
make the traditional mistake of beginning with general ob-
servations about chemistry, its value, and its relations to the
other sciences, with definitions of physical and chemical
changes, of elements, compounds, and mixtures, and even of
atoms and molecules. This is not only productive of gross
waste of time, but tends also to form the habit in the pupils
of depending for their facts on books and authority instead
of forming in them the habit of making their own judgments
on the basis of what the facts themselves have to reveal to
them through their senses. To create such an attitude at the
start is fatal to the scientific spirit which it is the mission of
science teaching to engender. Furthermore, it is of course
impossible for pupils to form any conception of the meaning
of a generalization or definition unless they have become ac-
quainted through first-hand experience with a considerable
number of the specific facts of which it is a general' or con-
densed statement. The wise teacher then will seek at once
for some problems that can be solved only by experiments
simple enough for the pupils themselves to carry out, and
that at the same time lead straight toward some of the
important facts and principles of chemistry. A number of
these can be found which lead directly to the preparation
510 Principles of Secondary Education
of oxygen, and which grow naturally out of common ex-
perience.
For example, why is iron always nickel plated, or covered
with paint ? If rusting is not at once suggested, let the teacher
then show some specimens of badly rusted iron ; and if the
students think they have solved the problem when they have
said that the nickel plating or painting is to keep the iron from
rusting, let him ask them why. If they answer that the cover-
ing keeps the air away from the iron, let him ask them why they
think the air has anything to do with it. If they are sharp
enough to answer this question logically, let him ask them how
the air causes the iron to rust. Here their experiential
knowledge will stop unless, perchance, some one suggests that
iron does not rust in a dry attic but does rust in a moist cellar.
Obviously, the next question is, " If the rusting of the iron is
connected with the presence of moist air, does the iron take
something from the air to make the new substance, rust;
or does the air take something from the iron ? J The answer
can be obtained by inverting in a dish of water a test tube
into which some moist powdered iron has been introduced so
as to stick to its walls near its closed end. The iron soon rusts,
and water rises and occupies about a fifth of the volume of
the tube, when the action stops, leaving some of the iron
unrusted. The obvious inference is that the iron takes away
one fifth of the air, and that when it has done so, that portion
of the air which was capable of taking part in the rusting
process was used up, so no more iron was rusted. If the tube
be removed and a lighted taper plunged into it, the flame is
extinguished, showing that the part of the air used up was
that part which supports combustion. Powdered iron in
1 For the detailed procedure in solving this problem so as to get to the bottom
of it, see Smith, A., and Hall, E. H., The Teaching of Chemistry and Physics.
Longmans, Xe\v York, 1904, pp. 107 IT. The Chemistry section of this book
should be read and reread by every teacher of chemistry. It is the soundest,
most thorough, and most helpful discussion of the pedagogy of chemistry
that is known to the writer.
The Natural Sciences 511
a watch glass counterpoised on a balance and left in a moist
atmosphere gradually rusts and is seen to increase in weight.
Thus it is proved conclusively that something from the moist
air is added to the iron to make it rust. These experiments
may be followed by heating weighed mercury, tin, and lead in
porcelain crucibles, noting the respective changes in prop-
erties and the increases in weight. The early historical knowl-
edge of these changes can then be recounted, oxygen pre-
pared from mercuric oxide, like that obtained by heating, and
the experiments of Priestley and Lavoisier explained. The
pupils will then be keen to prepare oxygen in larger amounts
from potassium chlorate and " do things with it to find out
what will happen." In this way their memory bonds between
oxygen and its properties will be formed and may be firmly
established by later reviews and drills. Also they are more
likely to catch the scientific spirit than if they began with
definitions and formal experiments " to illustrate and make
clear " the difference between physical and chemical changes,
and the difference between compounds and mixtures.
The teacher who knows how to work experiments for all
they are worth will bring these differences out clearly in con-
nection with the experiments described ; and if so brought out,
they will be better remembered because learned in connection
with problems that can be seen to lead to some significant goal.
The advantage lies in the mental attitude of the pupil. The
formal and didactic approach tends to make him lean on the
crutch of authority, while the problem approach tends toward
the open-minded scientific attitude and the desire to know
and prove truth for its social utility. The experiments sug-
gested are by no means the only mode of problem approach.
Oxygen can be led up to in connection with building fires,
the burning of candles,1 lamps, and Bunsen burners, putting
1 For suggestions see Faraday, Michael, The Chemical History of a Candle.
Harpers, New York, 1890. This classic example of lecture presentation of
chemical facts ;ind principles to youngsters should be read by every teacher of
chemistry.
512 Principles of Secondary Education
out fires, respiration, the useful properties and constitution of
water, and so on.1
HOW TO USE THE TEXTBOOK. — Many of the mod-
ern textbooks of chemistry, though excellent in other charac-
teristics, do not present the facts in an order that suggests
the problem approach. This, however, need not prevent the
teacher from giving the pupils the benefits of this method.
If the teacher remembers the true function of the textbook
as a reference book for facts that cannot be easily obtained
by direct experiment either at the demonstration table or by
the students themselves, and as a guide in the logical organiza-
tion and review of facts, principles, and theories, he will use
his ingenuity in devising suitable problematic situations
through which the different topics can be approached. He
will not send the pupils to the book beforehand to find out
from the printed page what they should find out with their
own eyes, noses, and hands. It is wrong to suppose that in
the early stages of scientific study time can be saved by
learning facts from books. The pupil does not learn the facts
thus. He merely learns words and formula? which for him
can have no content because he lacks the experiential knowl-
edge which alone can enable him to apperceive them.2 Later
on, after he has accumulated a considerable amount of facts
through first-hand experience, has perceived their relations,
and has formulated these relations, largely for himself, in the
form of laws, principles, and generalizations, he is in a position
to use chemical books, articles, and reports with the right
attitude ; and it is then safe to assign book lessons and ref-
1 For an approach through an experiment to detect cotton in alleged woolen
cloth and leading inductively to certain fundamental distinctions of chemical
science, see Smith, Alexander, Elementary Chemistry, The Century Co., New
York, 1914. The entire method of this intensely modern text ought to be given
serious study by teachers.
2 Cf. Thorndike, E. L., The Principles of Teaching, A. G. Seiler, New York,
1906, pp. 42 ff., and Bagley, W. C., The Educative Process, Macmillan, New
York, 1907, Chap. V, or James, William, Talks to Teachers of Psychology, Holt,
New York, 1905, Chap. XIV.
The Natural Sciences 513
erences to such articles and reports. The teacher, however,
can never be too careful in hammering in the notion that every
one of the chemical facts that is to be learned from a book
is simply a statement of results attained by experiment,
observation, and measurement or by reasoning founded
thereon.
THE CONTENT OF CHEMISTRY. — Like other scientific
subject matter, chemical information consists of facts, laws,
hypotheses, and theories and their history ; and this body of
information has been built up and is being extended by the
use of the scientific method. Like the other sciences, chemistry
has its own peculiar special methods of procedure which are
found to be most expedient in the solution of chemical problems.
The facts, of course, are first and fundamental. The laws are
merely convenient condensed statements under which like
facts and like relations between groups of facts are summed up.
The hypotheses and theories are merely convenient ways of
describing the facts by conceiving them to be like facts with
which we are more intimately acquainted.
Since the laws and theories, if they are thoroughly under-
stood, are very helpful for economizing time in memorizing
facts and recalling them when needed, it is very important
that the student should know the laws and theories that he is
capable of comprehending. But he cannot comprehend the
laws and theories, and therefore they cannot be helpful to
him, unless he first knows the facts or at least a consider-
able portion of the facts which the laws summarize or the
theories explain. Hence the following rules are very important
for the teacher of chemistry :
1. Begin with the facts of observation and experiment and
stick to such facts throughout the course.
2. Withhold laws until a sufficient number of the facts and
relations that are specific cases of the law have been studied
and have become familiar. The law can then be appreciated
as a device for the economy of thought.
514 Principles of Secondary Education
3. When a law has once been presented, have the pupils
connect the statement of the law with every new specific case
that comes under it, until they habitually do this for themselves.
4. Withhold theories until they are needed to furnish ex-
planations of observed facts. Do not be in such a hurry to
teach theories that the facts are subordinated to them. Laws
and theories are man-made devices for describing facts. Facts
are not to be degraded into illustrations or examples of the
operation of laws and theories. Laws and theories do not
" operate." They merely say what in general goes on under
certain conditions. If at any time the facts shall be found
with certainty not to agree with them, then they must be al-
tered to fit the facts as the facts are.
5. If the students fail to understand a law or theory when
it is presented, do not insist on their memorizing it so they can
repeat it glibly at once. Give them time and more experience
with concrete cases, and after a while they will have learned it.
They will be all too ready to substitute the memory of a few
words for knowledge of facts unless they are made to form
the contrary habit. Generalizations are of supreme importance
if the facts that they resume are comprehended and can be
recalled and used with their aid ; otherwise they are useless.
6. Laws and theories therefore should be introduced gradu-
ally as the course proceeds, and the more difficult conceptions
should come near the end of the course. This principle is
recognized in greater or less degree in most elementary texts ;
and in many of them the highly theoretical matters — such
as the making of formulae : Avogadro's law, the atomic and
molecular theories, valency, ionization — are placed in chap-
ters by themselves so that they can be deferred or omitted
altogether, according to the judgment of the teacher. In all
cases when they are taught these theoretical matters should be
led up to through quantitative demonstrations or descriptions,
and copious illustration. Whenever chemical theories serve
to muddle and disgust the pupils instead of interesting them
Tkc Natural Sciences 515
and clarifying their ideas, such a result is proof either that the
conceptions are beyond the pupils' abilities or that the teach-
ing is inefficient, or both.1
7. The laws of chemistry should always be expressed in
such language as clearly to imply that they are statements
of the results of experiments. Thus for the law of definite
proportions, " Every sample of any compound substance is
always found to contain the same constituent elements in the
same proportions by weight."
Chemical Laws. — The law of definite proportions, the law of
the conservation of mass, and Gay-Lussac's law of volumes are
among the most important generalizations of chemistry ; and
fortunately they are not difficult for high school pupils to com-
prehend if they are carefully approached. The law of simple
multiple proportions can usually be taught successfully, but
is not especially important to beginners, and may be omitted
with little loss. The law of combining weights, which is a
more general statement of the two preceding, is important, but
probably too difficult and doubtless should not be attempted.
The use of the physical laws of Boyle and Charles and the
law of vapor pressure in correcting measured gas volumes
usually proves to be difficult for high school students ; but
the difficulties can be overcome if the teacher carefully ex-
plains and illustrates the behavior of gases which they describe1,
and does so in direct connection with the actual measurement
of the gases at the demonstration table. Often, the diffi-
culties arise because the teacher assumes that the pupils know
these laws from their previous study of physics. He perhaps
overlooks the fact that in the lapse of nearly a year they will
almost certainly have forgotten how to apply them. Other
1 For a full discussion of this question of chemical theory, read Smith and Hall,
op. cit., pp. 69-84, and also Schoch, K. P., Chemistry in High Schools, Bull.
Univ. of Texas, No. 210, Official Series 64, Austin, Tex., December, ion,pp.
44-60 passim. See also the theoretical chapters of Professor Smith's Elementary
Chemistry and compare those in other texts.
2 Smith, A., op. cit. p. 21.
516 Principles of Secondary Education
difficulties arise from the elevation of these problems of the
correction of measured gas volumes into ends instead of
means.
Type Reactions. — It is wise to develop strongly the type
notion in chemistry and to show at every opportunity that
the reactions encountered are types of many others that are
like them. Thus instead of having the pupils learn that
oxygen can be obtained from mercuric oxide or potassium
chlorate by heating, a fine opportunity for the appreciation
of science as economy of thought will be missed unless the
teacher shows in connection with the experiment that many
other compounds of oxygen, such as BaO2, PbO2, KNO2,
Mn02, break down in a similar manner when raised to high
temperatures, and give up all or part of their oxygen. Thus
the behavior of HgO or KC1O3 is typical of the other reactions
shown. So when hydrogen is obtained by displacing it from
hydrochloric acid by zinc, the reactions of other non-oxidizing
acids with zinc and other metals should be shown and ex-
plained. This reaction then no longer remains a " method
of making hydrogen," but in addition becomes a type of the
general behavior of non-oxidizing acids with metals that
stand above hydrogen in the list of the elements, when the
latter are arranged in the order of their electrochemical
activities.
If the teacher forms the habit of emphasizing such groups of
similar reactions, pointing out their resemblances to one
chosen as a type, and concentrating the students' attention
on the general resemblances and specific differences among
the reactions of the group, he will find not only that he saves
time in the end, but that he secures unlooked-for reviews,
stimulates interest, and forms in the student the valuable
mental habit of using the type notion to organize and relate
his chemical concepts. Practice in thus forming generaliza-
tions that are true only within certain limits, and carefully
confining them in thought to those limits, constitutes a
T/ic Natural Sciences 517
very valuable part of the mental discipline afforded by
science.1
Careful attention to the types of reaction would result in
a much more pedagogical arrangement of the subject matter
than is found in many texts ; for the simplest types of re-
actions could be grouped at the beginning of the course and
the more complicated types near the end. Such an arrange-
ment would bring in the reactions of combination and de-
composition, reversible reactions (which belong to both the
preceding classes), hydration, displacement, and double de-
composition, approximately in the order named, and leave
many of those involving oxidation, reduction, and change
of valence (such as the reactions of nitric acid with the metals)
until later.2
Practical Applications. — Though it is not feasible in most
cases to make the approach to new topics through household
and industrial applications of chemistry, this may perhaps
be done occasionally when the reactions involved are suffi-
ciently simple. The mistake is often made of straining a
point by beginning with some industrial fact or process with
which the students are totally unfamiliar and which at the
same time is so complicated that it presupposes for its com-
prehension knowledge of chemical principles that have not
yet been studied. Nothing could be worse pedagogically
than this. Again the mistake is often made in high school
courses in so-called " applied " or " industrial " chemistry
of requiring the pupils to memorize complicated details of
processes in which no easily perceived applications of chemical
principles are involved and out of which no clear chemical
concepts can be evolved.
Although the industrial applications often involve com-
plicated chemistry and unfamiliar substances, there are
nevertheless in every community some applications that
1 Cf. p. 488, ante, the type notion in biology.
2 Cf. Schoch, op. cil., p. 47.
518 Principles of Secondary Education
can be examined and are simple enough to be understood ;
so the teacher should make himself acquainted with these and
connect them with the chemical facts and principles that
are applied in them, at the time when these are being studied.
There are many fairly simple chemical substances and re-
actions that are very common and very important to know
about, such as the prevention of industrial waste through the
utilization of by-products in manufacturing processes, the
chemistry of flames, raising of bread and biscuits, respiration,
digestion, sanitation, fermentation, drying of paint, setting
of mortar and cement, making of glass, soap, coal gas, domestic
ammonia, soda water, explosives and plastics, inks, dyes, and
varnishes, the nature and sources of alcohol and vinegar, of
oils, petroleum and gasoline, of carbohydrates, fats, proteins,
and cellulose in foods, of soils and fertilizers and insecticides.
How much or how little of these is to be brought into the
course must depend on the knowledge and judgment of the
teacher, the ease or difficulty of bringing the illustrations
into the classroom or taking the class to them, the amount
of knowledge and interest that the pupils bring to them, the
closeness of their relation to the main features of the course,
and many other considerations concerning which only the
teacher himself can decide. Some of these things can be
made the subjects of excursions, others of special home ex-
periments and reports by those especially interested in them.
Others still the teacher may merely explain and illustrate,
leaving the seeds to fall on good ground when they may, with-
out digging them up to see whether they have sprouted. It
is certain that if the teacher is full of such information, and
is enthusiastic about it, some of the pupils will be infected
with this enthusiasm all the time, and all of them some of
the time ; and chemistry in that school will be rated as a
popular and practical subject.
To save time for such work, the less common elements
and compounds may be omitted, and the most of the more
The Natural Sciences 519
highly theoretical parts of the subject can be carefully ex-
plained and illustrated by the teacher and informally dis-
cussed by the class, but passed over without requiring that
it shall be mastered. If the writer's observations and those
of most of the college chemistry teachers of his acquaintance
are reliable, he is justified in the opinion that only in rare
instances are these theoretical parts mastered anyway. There
is no sense in expecting that every student will know every
part of the course as well as every other part. Such an ideal
grows out of a very poor conception of thoroughness. It
is important that the pupils should know well and intimately
a few of the chemical facts and laws that they are likely to
meet with now or later in their active life or their leisure read-
ing, that they should catch the spirit and method and some-
thing of the logic of chemistry, that they should know how to
plan and make an experiment, and that they should know
where to find chemical books and how to get needed infor-
mation out of them. It is not important that they should
become walking encyclopedias of chemical information.
TEE TEACHER
PERSONALITY. — To be successful, the teacher must
be an optimist, must be an enthusiast for the science that
he or she is teaching, must be willing to work hard, must be
genuinely interested in his pupils and their success. He
must himself possess the open-minded scientific spirit, and
must be ready to regard his teaching problems as experimental
problems, to be solved by variation of methods with sys-
tematic testing and selection.
TRAINING. — For success in high school science work pro-
found learning and research ability are not required, but
common sense and sound scholarship are. The teacher
should know well and thoroughly the science or sciences
that he is teaching, and should keep his knowledge up to date
in every phase of it that touches his teaching. Beyond this
520 Principles of Secondary Education
his knowledge is better if it be extensive rather than intensive ;
for he should have a fair acquaintance with the other sciences
and the relations of the others to his own. He should have
a ready command of correct English, and should have mas-
tered the elementary principles of modern inductive logic
as applied in the scientific method. If he teaches physics,
or indeed chemistry either, he must also know mathematics
well, — the more he knows of it the better, for he cannot
grow in scholarship in his subject without the higher mathe-
matics. All teachers of science, but especially those who
teach physics and chemistry, should be able to make pho-
tographs and lantern slides, to operate a projecting lantern,
and to use at least the simpler kinds of tools. A teacher
of physics, especially, who cannot construct simple apparatus
and make ordinary repairs is incompetent. So also is a
teacher of biology who is not reasonably expert in the use
and care of a microscope and the technique of making sec-
tions and mounting them on slides. Some ability to draw
and a considerable amount of skill in experimentation are
also indispensable to success in any branch of science. So
also every teacher of science should have a thorough up-to-
date knowledge of elementary psychology and the principles
of teaching. These are the essentials. Whatever else the
teacher has obtained in the way of general culture and special
training is all to the good. With rare exceptions the requisite
training cannot be acquired otherwise than by four years of
college or normal school study under teachers who have them-
selves had advanced university work. In addition to major
work in the subjects he is to teach, the secondary science
teacher should have minor work in at least one biological
science, one earth science, and one physical science, and courses
on the teaching of his own subject or subjects. No man or
woman who is honest will be satisfied to continue in the work
unless he has had this minimum of training or is persistently
and systematically working towards it. A college degree is
The Natural Sciences 521
not essential, but an amount of training which it is supposed
to represent is absolutely necessary.
PROFESSIONAL SPIRIT. — The teacher of science should
also be a diligent reader of the literature of his subject. He
should support by his subscription and read School Science
and Mathematics, should keep up in a general way with
the progress of science through Science, Nature, or Science
Abstracts, and if possible should read some of the articles in
the professional scientific journals or proceedings of the
national societies of scientists who are specialists in the
branch that he is teaching. He should also read whatever
books there are on the pedagogy of his subject. Whenever
he can do so, he ought to attend the national or local meet-
ings of scientific societies and associations of teachers where
science and science teaching are discussed, and give himself
the opportunity to meet the leading workers in his field and
catch the inspiration that such contact affords. Finally, as
a citizen and a representative of science in his community, the
science teacher, when he can occasionally, ought willingly to
respond to an invitation to give an illustrated popular lecture
on some phase of his subject ; and if he is making some ex-
periments in methods of presentation or has hit upon some
new laboratory device or experiment that others would be
helped by knowing about, he should write a description of it
for School Science and Mathematics. No teacher will be
able for long to inspire his pupils with the love of study unless
he is himself an earnest student and an active professional
worker.
TOPICS FOR FURTHER STUDY
1. Can the antithesis between the standpoint of a "liberal" and
a "vocational" aim in education be reconciled in the teaching of the
sciences by the method of the problem approach? Cf. Bagley, W. C.,
The Educative Process, Chap. Ill, and Snedden, David, The Problem of
Vocational Education, Houghton Mifflin Co., Boston, 1910, pp. 1-8,
26-34, 7i-74, 81.
2. From your own standpoint, compare and criticize the views of
522 Principles of Secondary Education
Herbert Spencer in his Education, Chap. I, of Huxley in his Science and
Education, Chaps. IV, V, and VI, and of Matthew Arnold in his Essays
in Criticism, pp. 37 ff. Can the different ideas be reconciled? How?
If not, where does the truth lie ?
3. What possibilities does geography possess for developing the right
social and moral attitudes in adolescents? See Dewey, John, Moral
Principles of Education, Houghton Mifflin Co., Boston, 1909, Chap. IV,
and his School and Society, University of Chicago Press, 1913, Chap. I.
4. Should we try to "create interest" in a new topic of science, or
to find in it something which connects with the interests of the pupils ?
See Dewey, John, Interest and Effort, Houghton Mifflin Co., Boston,
1913, Chap. II, especially pp. 23, 25, 33-35, 41-45, 86-89.
5. Make a list of life situations, in the occupations of some of your
acquaintances, in which the specific habits that should be formed in
the sciences that you have pursued would probably function.
6. Make a similar list for concepts and ideals of methodical procedure.
7. Make a bibliography of books that should be in every school
library, as supplementary reading for pupils in the various sciences,
especially such books as may have inspirational value.
8. Choose any topic with which you are familiar and make a de-
tailed lesson plan for teaching it. Include plans for field or laboratory
work in connection with the class conference.
9. In several textbooks on any one science apply the criteria for
choice of subject matter ; and find the ratio or percentage that you would
retain. Limit the study to one group of topics, and estimate the amounts
in lines of print.
10. Choose a topic in any one science, and make a list of the infor-
mation on this topic that would probably be possessed as a result of
previous experience by the majority of a class of city children. Make
a similar list appropriate to a class of village or country children. Make
out a list of easy questions which when put to the individuals of the class
would reveal their knowledge or ignorance of the information that you
have listed. Such a list could be used for testing the actual status of
the class when beginning the topic. The same list, given after the study
of the topic, could be used to compare their status after the training
with their status before the training.
11. Write out as good a statement as you can of your concept of ado-
lescence ; read Professor Whipple's chapter on that subject in this book
with a view to converting your psychological concept into a logical one ;
then make a written statement of your new, or logical, concept, and
compare it part by part with the former. Formulate your concept of
the scientific method of study in about 250 to 500 words.
The Natural Sciences 523
12. Make a sketch plan to scale for a physics or chemistry classroom
and laboratory combined, with a stockroom and photographic dark room
in connection. Plan a similar room for biology and geography. Plan
a layout of rooms for two of the sciences, consisting of two laboratories
with a classroom between, and providing for storage room for apparatus
and supplies.
13. Compare your experiences in learning history or studying a
dramatic selection by the textbook-lesson-and-recitation method with
your experiences in working up a topic for a debate or a part which is to
be acted in a play. Make an estimate of the relative amount of in-
terest taken in the two kinds of learning and the relative amount of
useful material retained in memory. Compare also the relative amounts
of interest displayed by your classmates. Do the same in the case of
a textbook science recitation and a laboratory exercise in which you
were set to find out something that seemed to you to be worth while
finding out.
14. Read an article in the National Geographic Magazine and try to
recollect, as you go along, what actual experiences and observations of
yours help you to form a clear mental picture of the places, scenes, and
relations described. Can you find data from your own experience
to support the arguments of this chapter for the approach of topics in
geography, or history and civics, from the "human" standpoint, and
through local problems? To justify class excursions and field work in
the sciences ?
15. To what extent may collections of postcards, pictures from maga-
zines, and advertising matter be used as class and laboratory illustrations ?
Outline a plan for mounting and filing such material.
1 6. Make a list of the ways in which man controls the forces of nature
for his own purposes in your home locality.
17. How much relative importance do you attach to analyzing plants
and making herbaria, as compared with gaining experimental knowledge
of how plants grow and behave ? As compared with knowledge of
forestry, or of methods of testing seed corn ?
18. Many teachers are advocating "general science" courses in the
first year of high school. What are the arguments for and against such
courses ?
19. Admitting that a "general science" course should be introduced
in your home school, should it consist of equal portions culled from all the
sciences, or of a series of problems drawn from the local environment and
its industries, or of a core of a single science (say physical geography,
physiology, or biology, or agriculture) with material from the other
sciences brought in and taught when needed for a broader and clearer
524 Principles of Secondary Education
understanding of the science adopted as the core? For references see
the files of School Science and Mathematics, and the Proceedings of the
National Education Association.
20. Outline a plan for cooperation between teachers for correlating
geography and history, geography and biology, physics and mathe-
matics, physics and chemistry, physics and physiology, household arts
or manual training with any of the sciences.
21. Choose a chapter in any science textbook and make an estimate
of the relative emphasis that should be placed on each topic by arranging
the topics in a list according to their relative worth from the standpoint
of the pupils in your home community who do not expect to go to college.
Assuming that you were a college teacher of the same subject, rank the
topics again with reference to their importance for the students who are
to continue the subject under you in college. What per cent of the topics
are changed in relative rank ? On what grounds did you make each
change ? Debate these grounds with others who are interested in the
same problem.
22. Is it correct or incorrect for a textbook to state a theory or law
first and then justify it by illustrations ? Does the fact that the majority
of authors do this prove that it is correct ? Can you bring forward real
arguments to defend this practice ? Can you bring forward valid argu-
ments to show that it is wrong ? If compelled to use a textbook built
after this plan, in what way would you use it ? Illustrate by a particular
book and lesson.
23. In starting a new subject with a class is it better to begin studying
about the subject, or to begin at once to study some thing or problem in
the subject ?
24. At what point in the study of geography would you introduce the
concept of base level of erosion ? of a peneplain ? of a geographical
cycle ? Of what use are these concepts in a humanistic treatment of
geography ? Answer the same questions for the principle of the con-
servation of energy and the molecular theory in physics, for chemical
equations, the law of the conservation of mass and the atomic theory
in chemistry, and for the cell theory and the principle of evolution in
biology.
25. Make out a plan for your professional study for the next five years.
The Natural Sciences 525
REFERENCES
Geography
BRIGHAM, A. P. Geographic Influences in American History. Boston,
1903.
CHAMBERLAIN, JAMES F. Report of the N. E. A. Committee of 1909 on
Secondary School Geography. Jour, of Geog., 8: 1-9, September,
1909. Also Proc. N. E. A., 1909, p. 820.
DAVIS, W. M. Geographical Essays. Ginn, Boston, 1908.
DAVIS, KING, and COLLIE. The Use of Government Maps in Schools.
Holt, New York. (Price 30 cents. Indispensable to teachers.)
DODGE, R. E. Geography for Secondary Schools. Jour, of Geog., 7:
121-125, February, 1909.
DODGE, R. E., and KIRCHWEY, C. B. Teaching of Geography in Ele-
mentary Schools. Rand, McNally, Chicago, 1913. (High school
teachers will find this exceedingly helpful, especially the bibliog-
raphies.)
GENTHE, M. K. Geographical Text-books and Geographical Teaching.
Jour, of Geog., 2: 227-243, 360-368, May and September, 1903.
(A critical discussion of methods and textbooks.)
GREGORY, KELLER, and BISHOP. Physical and Commercial Geography.
Ginn, Boston, 1910. (College text, correlating the two phases of
geography from the humanistic standpoint.)
Journal of Geography (monthly). Madison, Wis.
MILL, R. H. Guide to Geographical Books and Appliances. George
Philip & Son, London, England, 1910. (Most complete bibliog-
raphy of the kind in English.)
MILL, R.H. (editor). The International Geography. Appleton, New York.
(Comprehensive regional treatment of the continents, exceedingly
valuable and highly authoritative.)
National Geographic Magazine (monthly). The National Geographic
Society, Washington, D.C.
REDWAY, J. W. The New Basis of Geography. Macmillan, New York,
1901. (A manual for the preparation of teachers, with bibliography.)
SALISBURY, R. D. Physiography. Holt, New York. (College text, com-
prehensive and very suggestive.)
SEMPLE, E. C. American History and its Geographic Conditions. Hough-
ton Mifflin Co., Boston, 1903.
SUTHERLAND, W. J. The leaching of Geography. Scott, Foresman & Co.,
Chicago, 1909. (Treats of general and special method, equipment,
etc. Is psychologically sound. Contains extensive bibliography,
selected with great care.)
526 Principles of Secondary Education
WHITBECK, R. H., and MARTIN, L. The High School Course in Geog-
raphy. Bull, of the Univ. of Wisconsin, No. 382, High School Series,
No. 10, Madison, Wis., 1910. (Up-to-date treatment of subject
matter and methods of teaching. Excellent bibliography. An
exceedingly valuable pamphlet.)
Biology
American Naturalist (monthly). Ginn, Boston.
BAILEY, L. H. The Nature Study Idea. Doubleday, New York,
1903.
Bird Lore (bi-monthly). Macmillan, New York.
Botanical Gazette (monthly). University of Chicago Press.
CLODD, E. Pioneers of Evolution. Appleton, New York, 1897.
GANONG, W. F. The Teaching Botanist. Macmillan, New York, 1910.
(With excellent bibliography, outlines of work, experiments, and
other information indispensable to teachers of botany.)
HEALD, F. D. Botany in the High School. Botany Section of Bull, of the
Univ. of Texas, No. 150, Austin, Tex., 1910. (Well-selected bibliog-
raphy, and outline of subject matter.)
HODGE, C. F. Nature Study and Life. Ginn, Boston, 1902.
LLOYD, F. E., and BIGELOW, M. A. The Teaching of Biology. Longmans,
1907. (With extended special and general bibliographies, and full
discussion of laboratory methods and equipment.)
Plant World (monthly). Desert Laboratory, Tucson, Ariz.
Report of Committee on United States Government Publications usable in
Secondary Schools. Proc. N . E. A., 1909, p. 802.
SHALER, N. S. Domesticated Animals, their Relations to Man, and his
Advancement in Civilization. Scribners, New York, 1895.
THOMSOX, J. A. The Science of Life. Stone, Chicago, 1899.
VON SACHS, JULIUS. History of Botany. Clarendon Press, Oxford,
England, 1890.
Physics
CAJORI, FLORIAN. History of Physics. Macmillan, New York, 1899.
DEWEY, JOHN. Science as Subject Matter and Method. Science, 31:
121-127, January 28, 1910.
FRANKLIX, W. S. The Study of Science by Young People. Bull, No.
431, N . Y . State Dept. of Education, September 15, 1908.
GARNETT, WILLIAM. Heroes of Science — Physicists. E. & J. B. Young.
New York, 1885. (Popular and accurate.)
JORDAN*, DAVID STARR. The High School Course. Popular Science
Monthly, 73 : 28-31, July, 1908.
The Natural Sciences 527
MACH, E. The Science of Mechanics. Open Court Pub. Co., Chicago,
1893.
MANN, C. R., and Twiss, G. R. Physics. (Revised.) Scott, Foresman
& Co., Chicago, 1910. (A high school text in which the ideas ad-
vanced in this chapter are worked out for classroom use.)
MANN, C. R. The Teaching of Physics. Macmillan, New York, 1912.
(Psychologically sound, very readable, and exceedingly suggestive.
Valuable bibliographies.)
Science Abstracts, Section A — Physics. Spon & Chamberlain, New York.
(The best single publication for keeping up with the progress of
research and discovery in physics.)
Scientific American and Scientific American Supplement. New York.
SHUSTER, A. The Progress of Physics during Thirty-three Years,
University Press, Cambridge, England, 1911.
SMITH, A., and HALL, E. H. (See under Chemistry. The part by Pro-
fessor Hall contains much information of value to teachers of
physics, including bibliographies.)
STALLO, J. B. The Concepts and Theories of Modern Physics. Appleton,
New York, 1897.
Symposium on the Purpose and Organization of Physics Teaching. Avery,
L. B. — Baldwin, J. Mark — Butler, Nicholas Murray — Chute,
H. N. — Crew, Henry — Dewey, John — Hall, G. Stanley —
Michelson, Albert A. — Millikan, R. A. — Strong, E. A. — Terry,
H. L. — Twiss, G. R. — Woodhull, John F. ; School Science and
Mathematics, December, 1908 and January, February, and March,
1909. (Published also in pamphlet, price 10 cents.)
TERRY, H. L. The New Movement in Physics Teaching. Educational
Review, 37 : 12-18, January, 1909.
THORNDIKE, E. L. Science Teaching as seen from the Outside. Bull.
No. 34, N. Y. State Dept. of Education, August, 1907.
Twiss, G. R. Laboratory Exercises in Physics. Scott, Foresman & Co.,
Chicago, 1906. (This manual is not fully up to date from the author's
present point of view ; and a few of the experiments in it would now
be rejected by him ; but it contains an abundance of others which
are entirely satisfactory, and give excellent results with the pupils.
Contains many valuable hints to teachers on laboratory work and
equipment.)
WATSON, W. A Text-book of Physics. Longmans, New York, 1907. (A
well-balanced college text, very readable.)
WOODHULL, JOHN F. Science for Culture. School Science ant! Mathe-
matics, 7 : 83-93, February, 1907. Also in School Review, Chicago,
February, 1907.
528 Principles of Secondary Education
Chemistry
BAUER, HUGO. A History of Chemistry. Longmans, New York, 1907.
BURNS, E. E. Story of Great Inventions. Harpers, New York, 1910.
FREUND, IDA. The Study of Chemical Composition. The University
Press, Cambridge, England, 1904. (An advanced account of the
method and historical development of theoretical chemistry.
Exceedingly valuable to the teacher who would learn the true spirit
and method of science as well as the theories, past and present, that
have helped to advance chemical knowledge.)
REMSEN, IRA. Organic Chemistry. Heath, Boston, 1909.
ROSCOE, H. E. John Dalton and the Rise of Modern Chemistry. Mac-
millan, New York, 1895.
SCHOCH, E. P. Chemistry in High Schools. Eidl. Univ. of Texas, No.
210, Austin, Tex., 1911. (Hints on methods and equipment,
excellent.)
SMITH, A., and HALL, E. H. The Teaching of Chemistry and Physics.
Longmans, New York, 1 904. (A very complete treatment, as to chem-
istry, both philosophical and pedagogical, including methods of
laboratory management and equipment, and extended bibliog-
raphies.)
SMITH, A. Inorganic Chemistry. The Century Co., New York.
Laboratory Outline of General Chemistry. The Century Co., New York.
THORPE, T. E. Essays in Historical Chemistry. Macmillan, New
York, 1894.
VAN'T HOFF, J. H. Physical Chemistry in the Service of the Sciences.
University of Chicago Press, 1903.
VON MEYER, ERNEST. A History of Chemistry, from the earliest times
to the present day, being also an introduction to the study of the
science. Macmillan, New York, 1898.
WEICHMANN, F. G. Science Sketches, Chemistry. Wm. R. Jenkins, New
York, 1899. "Very readable and very good."
CHAPTER XIII
MATHEMATICS
NATURE AND USE OF THE SUB JECT. — Attempts
to define so broad a subject as mathematics have not been
very successful. Benjamin Peirce, one of the best of the
American-trained mathematicians, said that " mathematics
is the science that draws necessary conclusions." Such a
definition trespasses upon the domain of logic ; but there are
many who would relate logic and mathematics, as sciences,
more closely than is commonly done. Professor Bocher
has suggested a basis of definition : " We may seek some
hidden resemblance in the various objects of mathematical
investigation, and, having found an aspect common to them
all, we may fix on this as the one true object of mathematical
study. Or we may abandon the attempt to characterize
mathematics by means of its objects of study, and seek in
its methods its distinguishing characteristic. Finally there
is the possibility of combining these two points of view."
When, however, we attempt to define the science with respect
to its objects, we are confronted by so many difficulties that
there seems but little hope of success. There seems more
chance of favorable results in attempting to define the science
by means of methods, and numerous efforts in this direction
have been made. Professor J. W. Young has recently sug-
gested the defining of " abstract mathematical system " as a
system of symbols devoid of content except such as is implied
in the assumptions concerning them, and then saying that
" mathematics as a whole might then be defined as consist-
ing of all such abstract mathematical systems together with
2M 529
530 Principles of Secondary Education
all their concrete applications." These attempts at denning
the science serve at least to show the broadening of the subject
from century to century.
Reasons for its Study. — With this broadening of the science
itself has come not merely the difficulty of definition, but also
the difficulty of stating in concise terms the certain reasons
for studying the subject. We may set forth certain reasons for
studying this phase or that, but for studying a science that is
so broad that we can hardly define it, and so far-reaching
in its applications, it is manifestly well-nigh impossible.
In the elementary portions of the general field it is possi-
ble to assign some reasons for studying the science. Among
these, utility stands out prominently, and indeed there are
few parts of mathematics that have not very definite applica-
tions to some other line of science or to some of the arts.
Not only is there the definite application of the present to be
considered, but there is potential application. No one
thought when complex numbers were first suggested that
they would in our day play a part in the theory of electricity,
for example ; nor did the Egyptians and Greeks see in their
shadow reckoning the forerunner of the trigonometry that
uses the slide rule and logarithms in its computations, as at
present. Certain of the reasons for the study of mathematics
are set forth under the various branches considered later.
Branches of the Subject. — There is no well-defined basis
for the satisfactory classification of the branches of mathe-
matics. Indeed, the modern tendency is toward the uniting
of these branches rather than their differentiation. In ele-
mentary mathematics this tendency shows itself in the use
of the simple equation and the introduction of mensuration
in arithmetic ; in the use of the facts of mensuration thus
learned in algebra; in the use of algebra in the elementary
course in geometry ; and in the use of both algebra and geom-
etry to a greater extent than formerly in trigonometry. Many
would like to see the union of elementary mathematics made
Mathematics 531
still more close, and it is probable that the interrelation of
algebra and geometry will become more and more pronounced,
not in their complete fusion, since the methods of reasoning
vary so much in the two branches, but in the emphasizing
of the natural points of contact.
Range of Secondary Mathematics. — At present in America
secondary mathematics includes algebra, geometry, and trigo-
nometry. It is probable that, in the natural course of evolu-
tion, this conception of the subject will be changed to har-
monize with world experience. There is no reason why a
fair working knowledge of the algebra and geometry of the
artisan should not be given in Grades VII and VIII, where
at the present time the mathematics is chiefly sociology and
a low grade of economics, — the subject of taxation, for ex-
ample, having practically no mathematics left in it. There
is no reason why, at the end of Grade IX, a pupil should not
know what algebra and geometry mean and how to solve the
ordinary problems of mensuration by trigonometry. In the
next two years the pupil should be allowed to elect algebra,
geometry, and trigonometry, the experience of the world
showing that this work can easily be covered at this time.
In the twelfth school year a fair idea of the calculus and me-
chanics can be given, and is given in many parts of the world.
The future may reasonably have this in store for American
pupils, but it is a matter of slow preparation to get teachers
ready for such work.
ALGEBRA. General Nature of the Subject. — The term
algebra has had several meanings in the development of the
subject as we now understand it, and even at present it
is used in a rather undefined sense. As first used, the term
referred to the science of the equation, as will be seen in the
remarks below on the history of algebra. With the develop-
ment of symbolism it came to refer to that part of mathe-
matics which teaches the use of letters to represent numbers,
not merely in equations but in operations essential to the
532 Principles of Secondary Education
study of more advanced mathematics, such as the fundamental
operations resembling those of arithmetic. Among the va-
rious attempts to define algebra may be mentioned Newton's
characterization of the subject as " universal arithmetic,"
the more common one of " generalized arithmetic," and
Comte's expression, the " calculus of functions," as distin-
guished from arithmetic, which is the " calculus of values."
None of these attempts is more than a mere epigram. The
fact is that mathematicians do not find it necessary or profit-
able to attempt any exact definition of the science. It is
the calculus of certain functions, and in general these func-
tions are those involving addition and an inverse, multi-
plication and an inverse, involution and an inverse. Thus,
besides a -f- b = c we have a = c — b, and b = c — a ; be-
sides ab = c we have a=c-s-b, b=c + a; besides a6 = c
we have a = -\/c, but b = log c -7- log a is commonly excluded
from elementary algebra, and log a is not considered as an
algebraic number. Algebra is commonly considered at pres-
ent to mean that part of mathematics which uses letters to
represent numbers, which treats of the operations of arith-
metic performed with numbers represented in this manner,
and which emphasizes the use of the equation. Higher
algebra is taken to include such topics as symmetric func-
tions, power sums, the proof of the fact that every algebraic
equation has a root, number congruences, continued fractions,
determinants, and various other theories needed in advanced
work.
Reasons for Studying Algebra. — There has of late been
some justifiable criticism of the conventional teaching of algebra
as the subject has come down to us. This has been accom-
panied, as is usual in such movements, by the attack of the
extremist who would like to do away with the subject alto-
gether. Each of these movements is worthy of attention,
and the essential feature of any reply must ultimately rest
upon the reasons for the study of algebra. There are those
Ma thema tics 533
who object to the reasons usually given because they are too
numerous, as if the varied reasons that a boy has for loving
his mother should be adduced to show that he does not love
her at all, or should not love her. There are various reasons
for studying algebra, as for studying every other subject,
and most of those which arc advanced have a good basis.
Limiting ourselves to a few of the more important reasons
why every pupil, girl as well as boy, should study the subject,
it may first be said that general information requires it. If
mathematics did not touch every great business enterprise,
all kinds of engineering, all our conception of the infinite
about us, all great industries, the work of the twentieth-cen-
tury artisan, the navigation of the ships, and the building of
aeroplanes, then it might be treated as a luxury for the scholar
alone ; but mathematics does touch all these lines of mental
and manual activity, and hence it is a subject about which
every person should be somewhat informed, just as every
person should be informed about the growth of industry, the
emancipation of labor, the history of invention, and his duties
to his fellows.
But is algebra of enough importance to be included in a
course of study for the reason given above ? To-day, yes ;
the question was more debatable yesterday. To-day there
is no artisan who takes a trade journal or who reads a man-
ual devoted to his line of work who does not meet the formula
and who does not need to know how to evaluate and manipu-
late it. To-day is a day of encyclopedias, but no mechanic
reads an article on his subject without finding that he must
know the universal language of algebra. The rules of diet
and the laws of sanitation, in which the woman is coming to
be an expert, are now stated in algebraic terms. Statistics
are given in graphs, conclusions from these statistics appear
in formulas, simple rules of physics are given as equations,
and a knowledge of this language is essential to even a fair
degree of education.
534 Principles of Secondary Education
This, however, is not the inherited algebra, and it is the
latter which is open to criticism rather than the algebra of
the future. And yet the inherited subject has some undis-
puted value. It gives facility in the manipulation of algebraic
expressions which is helpful in the kind of work already men-
tioned, and which has the interest of variety. The pupil
becomes a master of elementary technique by this manipula-
tion, and this technique is valuable to him whether he uses
it only as the artisan may, or proceeds to higher mathematics.
For the girl, who is the one who will direct the education of
the children of the next generation, — her own children or
those of others, — an all-round education is imperative.
The father may be narrow in his training, but the mother
must have touched all the great lines of intellectual activity
if she is to guide her children intelligently.
There are various other important reasons for studying
algebra, such as the influence of exact truth upon character
formation. How much of this can be carried over into the
daily action has never yet been measured, and probably it
never will be weighed with absolute accuracy. That this
influence is real, however, seems undeniable. Furthermore,
the habits of orderly arrangement, of logical argument, of
constantly checking one's conclusions, and of terseness of
expression that are acquired in the study of algebra, seem to
be attributes which carry over from this domain to other
lines of intellectual activity.
Teachers of algebra are realizing the new demands upon
the subject and the new possibilities before them, and with
this realization is coming, by the ordinary process of evolu-
tion, a better science of mathematics.
Present Status in the Curriculum. — In the schools of the
United States algebra is at present generally taught in the
first year of a four-year high school course, or in the ninth
school year beyond the kindergarten, and in half of the eleventh
school year. The general plan is to cover the four fundamental
Mathematics 535
operations with integers and fractions, factoring, powers and
roots, linear equations with one, two, or three unknown
quantities, and quadratic equations with one unknown quan-
tity. This year of work is generally followed by a year in
plane geometry. Half of the next year, the eleventh in the
pupil's course, is usually devoted to algebra, reviewing the
preceding work and completing the elementary work through
quadratic equations with two unknown quantities, including
easy radical equations.
There is at present a strong movement in favor of using
the linear equation with one unknown quantity, and also
simple formulas in algebraic language, in the work in arith-
metic in the elementary grades, and in particular in the seventh
and eighth school years. There is also a very marked ten-
dency to change the traditional high school course of four
years to a course of five or six years, beginning in the eighth
or seventh school year. The effect of this plan will be to
complete the essentials of arithmetic in the elementary school
(the first six school years), to review arithmetic in the high
school (the second six school years), and to extend the in-
struction in algebra over a longer period. This might profit-
ably be done without taking any more time for mathematics
than at present. The result, if we can secure as good candi-
dates for teaching as are secured in the older countries, will
be a much better training in algebra before the pupil enters
college or goes into business.
The textbook in elementary algebra is merely a develop-
ment of the sixteenth-century textbook in arithmetic. One
of the first successful works of this kind was the Algebra
by Christopher Clavius, a Jesuit teacher, who went from
Germany to Rome and published this textbook in 1608.
The general plan of the book is similar to that of his Epitome
Arithmetics Practices, which appeared in 1583 and which
went through several editions, — first notation, then the
operations with integers, then fractions, and then equations.
536 Principles of Secondary Education
There has of late been a tendency to change this plan, and to
introduce algebra by showing the uses of the formula and of
the linear equation with one unknown quantity; in other
words, to make the transition from arithmetic to algebra
less marked.
In European Schools. — In the European schools it is the
custom to introduce abstract algebra earlier than is usually
the case in America. This is accomplished by combining
it with arithmetic more fully than is done here; by having
less arithmetic taught, partly because of the freedom on the
continent, from the difficult system of compound numbers
that is still used in England, Canada, and the United States ;
and by having more vigorous teaching than is the general
custom in the western hemisphere. Thus in the Normallehr-
plan des Gymnasiums of Austria, of 1909, algebraic notation,
the negative number, and the geometric-algebraic significance
of (a + b), (a - 6)2, (a + 6) (a - &), (a + 6)3, etc., are
introduced in the sixth school year. In the seventh school
year linear equations with several unknowns and the quad-
ratic equation with one unknown are studied. In the eighth
year this work is elaborated, and in the ninth year, at a time
when the American schools are usually beginning algebra,
the subjects of logarithms, complex numbers, and the easier
forms of higher equations are being studied. A somewhat
similar state of advancement is seen in the curricula of several
of the German states, in many of the English schools, and
in the mathematical classes of France. These facts have
raised the question as to whether the schools of America are
utilizing to the best advantage the time assigned to mathe-
matics.
GEOMETRY. — Etymologically, the word means earth
measure, from the Greek, 7^7, ge, earth -f- fj-erpov, metron,
measure. It has come, however, to mean the general science
of form, the words " surveying " and " geodesy " being ap-
plied to the measuring of the earth.
Mathematics 537
Reasons for Studying Geometry. — It has always been
held that geometry is studied because of a peculiar training
and pleasure that this science gives, and that other sciences
do not give, at least in the same degree. With the investiga-
tions of modern psychologists there has come a doubt as to
the value of the training that it gives, and this has led many
emotional followers of new doctrines to proclaim that geom-
etry has no such claim upon the pupil's time as the advocates
of this value assert. Modern educators do not claim, how-
ever, that geometry has no value per se, but rather that the
methods of presenting the subject that have obtained in the
past can be improved, and that certain of the values formerly
claimed for it do not exist. To this the more thoughtful
teachers of the subject have long since assented. For ex-
ample, it was poor policy to memorize all of geometry, for
this plan took away the pleasure of the study, and it did not
give the pupil any power that he could carry over into other
lines of work, save as he acquired facts which he could have
obtained as well without the labor of memorizing the proofs
of Euclid.
The advocates of a substantial geometry, as opposed to the
mere acquisition of a few rules of mensuration, claim that
the study of geometry brings great pleasure and an inspiring
mental uplift, when the subject is properly presented. They
place it in this respect upon a plane similar to that upon which
the study of literature and music rests. They claim further
that through geometry a student acquires a knowledge of
space relations that he does not acquire from other subjects,
which knowledge he carries over into the study of the graphic
and plastic arts, of geography and astronomy, and of the
science of mechanics. They also assert that geometry is
the only subject in the secondary curriculum that gives a
specific training in deductive logic, and that this training
gives a habit of thought that is carried over into other lines
of mental activity. And finally they claim that habits of
538 Principles of Secondary Education
persistence, of using only the necessary steps in an argument,
of holding to that which is true, of seeking for exact truth,
and of arranging work in logical order, are instilled by the
study of geometry, and that these habits are unconsciously
transferred to other fields of work. In other words, they
claim that the pleasure and the profit of approach to exact
truth give a power that makes the pupil stronger in his other
activities. This claim is sanctioned by the opinions of most
people who have studied geometry under a worthy teacher,
and no investigations thus far made have shaken it. The
statement that geometry has no value as a mental discipline
is usually found to mean that there is no such thing as mental
discipline as denned by the antagonist, to which most people
would heartily agree.
Present Status of the Teaching of Geometry. — Plane
geometry is now commonly taught in the United States in
the tenth school year, the second year of a four-year high
school. This is usually followed by a half year of solid geom-
etry, frequently elective. It is not the universal custom to
finish all of plane geometry in a single year, although this is
done in many of the best schools, and it probably represents
the future curriculum as to the amount of time to be allowed
to the subject. There is at present a tendency to reduce
the number of basal propositions and to increase the number
of exercises, so as to give a student more opportunity for in-
dependent work. The eastern colleges do not require solid
geometry for entrance to the arts course, while the western
ones frequently do require it. This means that more work
is covered in plane geometry in the secondary schools of the
eastern states, the amount of time spent on the entire subject
of geometry being about the same. From every standpoint
it would be better that a pupil should sacrifice a certain amount
of plane geometry for the purpose of having an introduction
to solid geometry, if he could acquire the latter only in this
manner.
Ma thematic s 539
Certain attempts have been made to teach algebra and
geometry simultaneously, or even to fuse them into a single
subject. This has usually met with only sporadic success.
That the foreign schools have usually run geometry over
several years, as opposed to the American plan, is liable to
be misunderstood. Where serious demonstrative geometry
has been begun early and extended over several years, the
results have not been satisfactory. Usually the early geom-
etry has been mere mensuration, a subject that is taught in
the American arithmetic, and that is coming to be very satis-
factorily taught. It may therefore be said that in America
geometry extends over several years, culminating in a year
or a year and a half of serious demonstrative work. That
the earlier work is capable of great improvement is, however,
apparent. As to the fusing of the two subjects of algebra
and geometry in one, this seems destined to meet with suc-
cess only in schools in which nothing but a little practical
geometry is studied.
The question of the nature of the textbook is one that is
periodically agitated. Several types have been suggested :
(i) A book with the basal proofs substantially in full, to serve
as models, and a large number of well-graded exercises for
original work; (2) a syllabus of basal propositions; (3) a
book of suggested proofs, heuristic in nature. Of these the
first has been the one almost universally used, the objections
to it having little force with a good teacher, and the other
forms being useless with a poor teacher.
Reforms and Improvements. — Numerous reforms and
improvements are being suggested for the treatment of geom-
etry at the present time, and a few of these will be mentioned.
(i) That geometry and algebra be fused into a single subject,
an effort that takes no account of the fact that the two sub-
jects arc distinct in purpose, in results, and in difficulty, and
that each has a peculiar interest that is lost when it sacrifices
its individuality. (2) That the two subjects be taught simul-
54-O Principles of Secondary Education
taneously, two days of one and three of the other during each
school week. This has often been tried in the United States,
but in the main with unsatisfactory results, not because the
plan is unsound, but because of our system. Psychologically
the argument is that the pupil is not mature enough for this
plan, his interest being better maintained by concentrating
his energy on either the one or the other. The argument
that he would see the relation of one science to the other
better by the simultaneous than the tandem arrangement
is partly offset by the custom of the best teachers to bring
into algebra as much of the mensuration learned in arithmetic
as possible, and to introduce into geometry as many appli-
cations of algebra as seem adapted to this purpose. The
plan will probably succeed in America, as it has elsewhere,
when the high school controls the teaching in Grades VII and
VIII. (3) That geometry be converted into an applied
science, joining the general industrial movement of the present.
This would mean that geometry would cease to exist, since
the applications of the subject are merely the rules of men-
suration learned in arithmetic, and learned by a natural form
of induction. If geometry were abolished, it would be possible
to introduce other lines of mathematics, such as trigonometry
(which requires only very little geometry), calculus (which
requires practically no geometry beyond elementary men-
suration for a large number of its applications), and some
little work in the practical problems of vector analysis. For
the great majority of students this seems unwise, since they
have little interest in these applications, but in certain forms
of technical high schools such an arrangement may prove
necessary. (4) That algebra be taught for a half year, fol-
lowed by geometry for the same length of time, and this by
another half year of algebra, followed again by a half year of
geometry. This plan has certain advantages over the year
arrangement, but as yet it has to justify itself, the general
feeling being that the pupil would lose more in immediate
Mathema tics 541
interest in a topic than he would gain in sustained interest in
mathematics as a whole.
While these suggestions for reform are open to question,
other reforms are meeting with general acceptance and are
improving the current teaching of geometry, (i) It is uni-
versally agreed that Euclid is undesirable as a textbook for
beginners, and, even in England where it has so long been the
standard, it is now superseded by books more suited to the
youthful mind. (2) The propositions of the textbook are
coming to be considered more in the light of basal truths, and
the proofs as models, and trie serious work of the pupils is
coming to be more and more in the realm of exercises. (3) The
exercises are coming to be more carefully grouped and graded.
(4) Such legitimate applications as can be found, and as give
interest to the study of geometry, are being sought for and
introduced. (5) More attention is being given to geometric
design, so long as this, does not detract from the scientific work.
(6) The role of intuition is more evident. In brief, serious
effort is being made to make geometry more interesting and
useful, and to recognize its game element and its utility,
without destroying the values that have long made it a recog-
nized standard subject in the curriculum.
ALGEBRA AND GEOMETRY IN THE GRAMMAR
GRADES. — The idea of introducing algebra and geometry
in the elementary school arose from the feeling that too much
arithmetic was required and that the foreign mathematical
curriculum might profitably replace the American. By the
foreign plan, less arithmetic has been required than in the
United States, allowing time for some work in literal notation
at least, and in some form of geometry.
The idea is plausible, but like all new ideas it has not been
sufficiently considered by some of its advocates. Granted
that there is some time available for algebra and geometry
in the last six years of the elementary school, what should be
the nature of this work?
542 Principles of Secondary Education
As to algebra, the first experiments led to an attempt to
use a considerable amount of literal notation simply because
it was part of algebra. Removing of signs of aggregation,
performing the various operations with integers and fractions,
and the solution of a rather meaningless lot of equations,
formed the body of the early work as attempted abroad and
in America. This has, more recently, given place to a more
rational use of algebra as a part of arithmetic. The use of
a: in a simple equation has come to be allowed in the solution
of arithmetical problems, to the material benefit of arithmetic.
The use of the formula, in the ordinary algebraic symbolism,
has come to be a recognized part of arithmetic, as in a = TTT.
In other words, the part of algebra that throws light upon
and correlates with arithmetic has been adopted, not as a
separate subject, but as something to be assimilated with the
older science.
There are, however, many schools in which it seems best to
introduce an elementary textbook in algebra in the seventh
or eighth school year, replacing the arithmetic entirely. For
such schools several good manuals of elementary algebra
have been prepared. The best of these begin by showing
the practical uses of algebra, usually in formulas with which
the pupils are familiar. They then show the use of the simple
equation in the solution of the problems of ordinary arith-
metic. This is followed by the nature of the negative number
and its practical applications. The fundamental operations
with integers and fractions are treated in a simple fashion,
and the work closes with further practical problems in simple
equations and easy quadratics.
Each of these plans is usable, and each is adapted to par-
ticular types of school. The plan of introducing the abstract
algebra of the high school into the elementary grades is not,
however, to be commended.
The introduction of demonstrative geometry into the ele-
mentary grades has not been so successful. It is true that
Mathematics 543
in the best English schools Euclid has been taught in what
we would call the grammar grades, but this does not appeal
to American teachers as an educational policy to be followed.
The work is too abstract and too logical to be understood,
and the gain of mere memorizing is offset by the loss in in-
terest. Recently in England there has been a great improve-
ment in this respect, some excellent propaedeutic work being
done in algebra and geometry. In Germany, there are some
good textbooks in demonstrative geometry, adapted to the
grades. These, however, do not appeal to the American
teacher as usable here. While better for the purpose than
Euclid, they are lacking in interest and in motive. It is a
mistake, however, to feel that America has done nothing in
this field. There has always been a considerable amount of
work in mensuration in our arithmetics. Formerly this
was, like arithmetic in general, merely a matter of rule ; but
for some years back there has been a successful effort made
to render this work clear to the understanding, intuitional if
not logical in the formal sense. As a result, the work in
mensuration now given in the best American arithmetics
seems a very satisfactory solution of the problem of intro-
ducing some geometry into the grades, until the time when
the high school department of mathematics takes over the
work.
Efforts have been made, but with no marked success, to
construct a geometry suited to the grammar grades. These
have thus far taken the form of textbooks on constructive
geometry, on observational geometry, and on an elementary
type of demonstrative geometry. These works serve a good
purpose in that teachers see how to make the subject of men-
suration more real, but they have not had any marked in-
fluence beyond this point. Further improvement in the field
of geometry in the grades seems to lie (i) in the securing of
a larger number of practical problems in mensuration,
adapted to the interests of the children, and possibly (2) in
544 Principles of Secondary Education
the preparation of a textbook in geometry similar to the sev-
eral textbooks in algebra for beginners.
Looking to the ideal arrangement, we should all hope for
the beginning of intuitive geometry in Grade VII, or earlier,
to be followed by the algebra of the formula and equation as
soon as the need arises, and certainly in Grade VIII. In
Grade IX formal algebra and formal geometry may be given.
Thus every child would come to know mathematics in its
general bearing, and to know what algebra and real geometry
mean. Thereafter the subject may be elective, for the door
has now been opened and the youth may enter or not as he
pleases. The intellectual type will continue in such subjects
as mathematics, sciences, history, and languages, while the non-
intellectual type will be content with other fields of activity.
College Entrance Requirements in Mathematics. — The
entrance requirements in mathematics in the American college
were very limited until well into the nineteenth century. At
present there is a rather uniform requirement in the various
colleges of algebra through quadratics and plane geometry.
Many western colleges require plane and solid geometry,
receiving students upon certificate, and demanding a less
intensive course in plane geometry but a broader course in
the entire elementary field. Technological courses usually
require solid geometry for entrance, and often plane trigo-
nometry as well. All colleges give advance credit for higher
algebra, solid geometry, and trigonometry, in case these sub-
jects are not required for entrance but are offered as part of
the preparatory work.
The College Entrance Examination Board, founded
in 1900, a voluntary organization of representatives from
various colleges and universities, at present sets examinations
in the following subjects : (a) Elementary algebra : (i) algebra
to quadratics, and (ii) quadratics and beyond. This is divided
into two examinations, the first including roots and the theory
of exponents, and the second covering quadratic equations,
Mathematics 545
the binomial theorem for positive integral exponents, and
formulas for the wth term and the sum of arithmetical and
geometric progressions. (6) Advanced algebra. This in-
cludes permutations and combinations; complex numbers
with graphic representation of sums and differences ; deter-
minants, chiefly of orders not exceeding four; numerical
equations of higher degree, Descartes's rule of signs, and
Homer's method of solution, (c] Plane geometry. The lim-
itations are not definitely fixed by the board, the statement
being : " The usual theorems and constructions of good text-
books, including the general properties of plane rectilinear
figures ; the circle and the measurement of angles ; similar
polygons ; areas ; regular polygons and the measurement
of the circle. The solution of numerous original exercises,
including loci problems. Applications to the mensuration
of lines and plane surfaces." This practically means the
plane geometry of Euclid, with an algebraic treatment of
ratio and proportion, without the incommensurable cases,
and with a large number of exercises, (d) Solid geometry.
This requirement is also left indefinite, but it covers the
ground of solid geometry as given by Legendre, upon whose
work most of our American textbooks are based, (e) Trigo-
nometry. The requirements are as follows : Definitions and
relations of the six trigonometric functions as ratios ; circular
measurement of angles ; proofs of principal formulas, in
particular for the sine, cosine, and tangent of the sum and
the difference of two angles, of the double angle and the half
angle, the product expressions for the sum or the difference
of two sines or of two cosines, etc. ; the transformation of
trigonometric expressions by means of these formulas ; solu-
tion of trigonometric equations of a simple character ; theory
and use of logarithms (without the introduction of work in-
volving infinite series) ; the solution of right and oblique
triangles and practical applications, including the solution
of right spherical triangles.
546 Principles of Secondary Education
It is hardly probable that, with the present school system,
the entrance requirements can be materially advanced. They
may be changed to cover a broader field less thoroughly, but
the time does not permit of any more extended treatment of
mathematics save as an elective. It is coming to be felt
that two years devoted to mathematics in the high school is
all that can be demanded, and in this time it is not probable
that more can be attempted than algebra through quadratics
and plane geometry.
SPECIAL VISUAL AIDS TO TEACHING MATHE-
MATICS. — There developed in the early years of the twen-
tieth century a great deal of interest in the question of the
role of intuition, experiment, and visualization in mathe-
matics. The lead was taken quite as much by Austria as by
any other single country, with Germany about equally prom-
inent, and with certain parts of Switzerland well to the
front. The movement centered largely, in the early school
years, in mensuration. It has been found that children of
the fifth grade appreciate field measurements involving such
simple apparatus as an angle measure (even a radius on a
paper protractor), and that they draw figures to scale and
compute heights and distances from the drawing. Even
before this grade visual aids are used in the teaching of count-
ing, fractions, and the simple mensuration of rectangles ;
but from this time on it is possible to introduce systematically
and successfully aids of a more scientific character. Among
those that appeal to children in the elementary school may be
mentioned the following : the mirror, for measuring heights ;
the mirror angle for running perpendiculars, useful in com-
puting distances ; the prism, used for the same purpose ; the
hypsometer, a simple instrument that can be made from
heavy pasteboard and used for measuring heights ; the cli-
nometer, easily made from a paper protractor, and used in
measuring slopes ; the pocket compass, or some elaboration
of it that permits of measuring horizontal angles ; the pro-
Mathematics 547
tractor with a moving radius, easily made from paper ; grad-
uated staffs, used in measuring altitudes by means of simple
ratios, and similar aids that can be used in visualizing mathe-
matics in the field or schoolroom. In the mensuration of
solids it is possible to purchase sets of models, the German
ones being superior in workmanship to any others. Ger-
man makers also have for sale models of the solids used in
geometry, from the elementary to the most advanced.
In general it may be said that there is quite as much danger
in the too extensive use of models and instruments as in their
neglect altogether. In the elementary school they add to
the interest by their novelty, and to the powers of visualizing
similar forms. In the secondary school they are capable of
abuse by being used so extensively that the pupil depends
upon them too much and fails to acquire the power of mentally
seeing the solids that he is studying. A moderate use of
simple instruments (homemade, if necessary) for the purpose
of mensuration is of unquestionable value. Similarly, the
making of certain models in solid geometry is of value, and
their moderate use is justified, but to have a model, or even
a picture of one, for every proposition makes for weakness
rather than strength. The general principle, in elementary
as well as higher mathematics, is to use visual aids only so
long as they are necessary to fix a mental picture, thereafter
referring to them only when this picture becomes so dimmed
as to make them again necessary.
TOPICS FOR FURTHER STUDY
1. What arc three of the leading reasons for the study of algebra, and
what improvement in the teaching of the subject will bring out these
reasons more clearly ?
2. What are three of the leading reasons for the study of geometry,
and what improvement in the teaching of the subject will bring out
these reasons more clearly ?
,}. In the teaching of geometry, what changes have been suggested
that do not seem warranted by the experience of the world or by the
philosophy of education ?
548 Principles of Secondary Education
4. Name three of the various types of textbooks in geometry, and
discuss the merits of each.
5. What is meant by propaedeutic work in mathematics, what should
be the nature of this work, and when may it properly be undertaken ?
6. What are the claims of practical mathematics, and how can these
claims be met without making the subject too technical for the general
student ?
7. There has been some effort to fuse all mathematics in one subject,
not teaching algebra by itself, geometry by itself, and so on. The ex-
perience of the world favors teaching these subjects separately, but
relating them whenever there are natural points of contact. State the
arguments for and against each plan.
8. There is a strong movement in Europe at the present time to make
more of the function concept, beginning even in the early stages of mathe-
matics. What is the reason for this movement ?
9. In certain communities much is being done at present to systematize
the use of intuition in elementary mathematics. What does this mean,
and how is the work being carried out ?
10. With the new demand of woman for the same opportunities that
man enjoys has come a demand for a serious study of mathematics.
This is being best worked out in Germany just at present, but the demand
must be met in America. What, in your opinion, should be the oppor-
tunities offered the girl in secondary mathematics, and how, if at all,
should the work be changed to meet her peculiar needs ?
11. Is the calculus suited to the high school pupil in America? If
so, where should it be taught, for what purpose should it be taught, and
what should be its general nature and applications ?
12. What movements have taken place intended to make secondary
mathematics more interesting to the pupils, through recreations, mathe-
matics clubs, the aesthetics of the subject, or through other agencies ?
What steps would you advise in this matter ?
REFERENCES
BRANFORD, B. A Study of Mathematical Education. Oxford, 1908.
CARUS, P. Foundations of Mathematics. Chicago, 1908.
HILBERT, D. Foundations of Geometry. Chicago, 1902.
RUSSKLL, B. Foundations of Geometry. Cambridge, 1906.
SMITH, D. E. Teaching of Geometry. Boston, 1911.
Teaching of Elementary Mathematics. New York, 1900.
YOUNG, J. W. A. The Teaching of Mathematics. New York, 1907.
The files of U Enseigncment Mathematiqitc, of Schotteivs Zeitschrift
fur mathematischen und naturwissenschaftlichen Unterricht, and of
other current educational journals of approximately equal rank.
CHAPTER XIV
THE SOCIAL SCIENCES
HISTORY
NATURE OF HISTORY. — History is concerned with the
past life of man considered as a member of society. It is
thus distinguished from biography, which deals only with
individuals, and from anthropology, which treats of man
as a unit in the animal kingdom ; but these distinctions are
not absolute, for the history of the individual cannot be cut
off from the society in which he lives, and no sharp line can
be drawn between the natural history of man and his social
history. In a looser sense history is often used to denote
any succession of facts, as when we speak of the life history
of a plant or animal or the history of the solar system — an
extension of the term which arises from the general adoption
of the historical habit of thought, which looks upon all things
in the universe, not as fixed and stable, but as undergoing a
process of change. History comprises the whole period of
the development of human society from the earliest ages for
which evidence has been preserved, and includes the various
manifestations of the human spirit in art, literature, and re-
ligion, as well as the vicissitudes of states and their leaders
and the course of economic and social evolution. Certain of
these fields are commonly marked off for separate treatment,
so that we have the history of language, of literature, of art,
of religion, of philosophy, as well as the social and political
sciences which derive their material largely from historical
records ; but such a division is one of convenience only.
None of these more special topics can be understood apart
S49
550 Principles of Secondary Education
from the general course of historical development, and only
the historian can bring them into their proper relations as
parts of the evolution of civilization. Before this broader con-
ception of history the attempt to limit it to " past politics "
is rapidly losing ground, but the life of the state, as the most
important social group of civilized man, must remain prom-
inently in the foreground of history, by reason of its in-
trinsic significance and because on the whole it furnishes the
most natural category for the classification of historical facts.
History thus stands in especially close relations with political
science and economics, not only because it furnishes them
with the greater part of their materials, but also because it
constantly needs their assistance in interpreting the social
and political life of the past ; and for similar reasons it wel-
comes the advance of any new sciences, such as comparative
and social psychology, which promise to throw further light
upon the social life of man.
MATERIALS OF HISTORY. — Unlike the natural sci-
ences, history cannot avail itself of experiment or of repeated
observation. Except for the infinitely small body of informa-
tion which has been acquired by his immediate personal ex-
perience, the historian depends entirely upon indirect sources
of knowledge, arriving at the facts of the past only by work-
ing back from the existing traces which they have left behind
them. These traces, the fountainhead of historical knowl-
edge, are called sources. Originally limited to the oral tradi-
tions handed down in song and story, and then including
written material in the bare lists of early inscriptions and
annals, the conception of what constitutes an historical source
has widened with the growth of knowledge and with the
enlargement of our ideas of the scope of history until it now
includes, not only chronicles and public documents, but news-
papers and private correspondence, buildings and pictures,
ideas, customs, and superstitions, clothing and tools and
implements and every sort of object from which information
The Social Sciences 551
respecting the human past may be derived. For purposes
of convenience, sources are often classified into narrative,
such as biographies, chronicles, and memoirs ; documentary,
including laws, charters, and official acts of every sort ; liter-
ary, so far as literature throws light on the ideas and conditions
of an age ; and archaeological, including the great body of
monuments, works of art, and material remains. The use
of these materials for historical purposes often demands
technical knowledge of a very special sort, and a group of
subjects has grown up which are often called the " auxiliary
sciences " of history. Chief among these are language, as a
means to the understanding of historical records ; palaeography,
or the science of ancient writings ; diplomatics, treating of
official documents ; epigraphy, or the science of inscriptions ;
numismatics, archaeology, chronology, and historical geography.
PROBLEMS OF TEACHING HISTORY. — The teaching
of history, at least in the higher grades of instruction, is con-
cerned with a body of knowledge, a point of view, and a method
of inquiry. The body of historical knowledge is enormous
and is constantly enlarged by the progress of historical in-
vestigation as well as by the lapse of time ; and the problem
of the teacher is, in the first instance, to select those facts
which will make clear the general course of historical develop-
ment and contribute to an understanding of the periods and
countries of special significance with reference to the world
as a whole, and to the particular country and age in which
the student lives. These facts must on the one hand be
seen as actual realities, against their contemporary back-
ground, while on the other hand they must be grasped, not
as disconnected events or dates, but as bound together in
certain relations and forming part of a continuous process of
development. The student must learn that while the past
is vitally connected with the present and can only be recon-
structed by working back from the phenomena of actual ex-
perience, it was never the same as the present ; and he must
552 Principles of Secondary Education
be taught to lay aside for the moment the ideas and standards
of his own age in order to enter into those of the age he is
studying. Impartiality, sympathy, and imagination thus
become necessary qualifications for the study and teaching
of history, and the attitude toward the past which is thus
attained is often called " historical-mindedness." One ele-
ment in this is the critical spirit, and the general student of
history finds it necessary to know something of the way the
historian collects and tests his materials, while the special
student requires initiation into the nature of historical evi-
dence and the processes of historical criticism and construction.
Such training is necessary, not only for the professed his-
torian, but also for those who as investigators of topics in
economics, political science, education, and the history of
literature, art, or philosophy, are, often without realizing it,
obliged to make use of the historical method of inquiry. In
the earlier stages of historical instruction, attention is given
particularly to the teaching of a few simple facts and the
development of the historical imagination ; in the higher
stages the number of facts increases, and more emphasis is
put upon their relations and political and social significance,
and upon the acquisition of a critical and impartial habit of
mind ; while in the most advanced grades of instruction the
student learns to find, test, and combine his facts for himself
until he is able to undertake independent research.
THE CHOICE OF MATERIALS. ORGANIZATION OF
THE COURSE OF STUDY. — The teaching of history in
the secondary school presents two main problems : first, the
relative amount of time which should be assigned to the
subject, with the periods or kinds of history to which this
time should be given; second, the methods of instruction.
Each of these problems must be examined separately for the
secondary and for the elementary school. History is a record
of human experience, the rich variety of which is not indis-
criminately valuable for children of all ages. The effort to
The Social Sciences 553
find answers to these questions of matter and method appears
late in the development of educational systems. This is
due mainly to the fact that not until the nineteenth century
was the study of history well organized in the colleges.
Growth of History in College and School Curricula. -
History received its first recognition as a requirement for
entrance to college in 1847. IR that year Harvard prescribed
Worcester's Elements of Ancient History, and the University
of Michigan prescribed " Keightley's (or Pinnock's Gold-
smith's) Grecian History to the time of Alexander the Great,
and Roman to the time of the Empire." For some years the
requirement was associated somewhat closely with the older
requirement in geography. Both at Harvard and at Michigan
examinations in the two subjects were given by the depart-
ment of history, and the questions set bear evidence of an
intention to keep the two fields of knowledge related. Ameri-
can history to the end of the Revolution was added by Michi-
gan in 1870, and the classical requirements at Harvard were,
during the next decade, occasionally increased by chapters
from Freeman's General Sketch of European History. Cornell,
founded in 1868, introduced at the beginning a requirement
of Greek and Roman history. After 1870, the history require-
ment gained steadily in favor, especially with the newer and
smaller colleges. In 1895, out of a total of 475 universities
and colleges investigated by the Bureau of Education, 306
required American history; 127, general history; 112,
Greek history; 116, Roman history; 57, English history;
9, state and local history; and i, French and German his-
tory. (Rep. Com. Ed., 1896-1897, p. 468.) The knowledge
expected must, however, often have been the merest
outline; for, as late as 1890, some of these institutions
were still using in their own classes textbooks like Swinton's
Outlines, Anderson's General History, and Barnes's United
Stales. The diversity of subject matter required was prob-
ably greater than in any other branch of instruction.
554 Principles of Secondary Education
Report of the Committee of Ten. — The first important
step in the reform of these conditions was taken by the Madi-
son Conference of 1892. The conference did not feel called
upon to frame a definite system of entrance requirements,
but its brief discussion of the problem and its recommenda-
tions for the general improvement of history teaching in the
schools suggested, directly or indirectly, the essential features
of the system afterward adopted. The next important step
was taken in February, 1895, in the appointment, by the New
England Association of Colleges and Preparatory Schools,
of a committee of school and college teachers of history to
deal with the special question of entrance requirements in
history. The report of this committee, adopted by the
Association in October, 1895, proposed a list of seven topics,
each representing one year's work of three periods a week,
and requested the colleges to accept any two of these topics
as a required subject for entrance. The colleges were further
requested to accept " any additional topic or topics from the
list as additional preparation for entrance or for advanced
standing," and to recognize as " a considerable part of the
evidence of proficiency required " certain specified kinds of
written work done in the secondary school. The report sug-
gested that entrance examinations in history should be so
framed as to require on the part of the candidate comparison
and judgment rather than mere memory, and that they should
include tests of geographical knowledge. The use of good
textbooks, collateral reading, and practice in written work
were to be presupposed. The seven topics were: (i) The
history of Greece, with especial reference to Greek life, litera-
ture, and art. (2) The history of Rome ; the Republic and
Empire, and Teutonic outgrowths to 800 A.D. (3) German
history. (4) French history. [(3) and (4) to be so taught
as to elucidate the general movement of medieval and modern
European history.] (5) English history, with especial refer-
ence to social and political development. (6) American
The Social Sciences 555
history, with the elements of civil government. (7) A de-
tailed study of a limited period, pursued in an intensive
manner. Three of these topics were in the course of study
for secondary schools recommended by the Madison Con-
ference. The other features are directly suggested in the
conference report (Publication No. 5, New England History
Teachers' Association, p. 13).
These recommendations were indorsed, a few months
later, by the Schoolmasters' Association of New York and
Vicinity. The latter had, however, already proposed a con-
ference on the whole question of entrance requirements, and
such a conference had, on the invitation of Columbia, been
arranged. It was attended by representatives from Harvard,
Yale, Columbia, Cornell, Princeton, and Pennsylvania, and
made its report on the first of February, 1896. The recom-
mendations of the New England Association relating to
written work and to examinations were adopted, practically
without change. The principle of a choice of topics was also
adopted, but the details were considerably modified. As ad-
ditional preparation for entrance, or for advanced standing,
the Columbia Conference proposed a second group of topics,
each representing two years' work of three periods a week :
(i) A course of Greek and Roman history for those only who
have offered English history and American history as an
elementary subject. (2) A course in English history and
American history for those who have offered Greek and
Roman history as an elementary subject. (3) A course in
the history of Europe from the Germanic invasions to the
beginning of the seventeenth century. (4) A year's study
of any of the elementary fields not already offered as an ele-
mentary subject, combined with a year's study of a limited
period within that field. (Publication No. 5, New England
History Teachers' Association, pp. 16, 17.)
The Committee of Seven. — In the meantime, the Com-
mittee on College Entrance Requirements appointed by the
556 Principles of Secondary Education
National Education Association in July, 1895, had been
seeking the cooperation of organizations interested in the
problem from the point of view of the special subjects. The
response of the American Historical Association was the ap-
pointment of the Committee of Seven, whose report, made
in 1899, remains the standard document on the whole ques-
tion of history in American secondary schools. In framing
recommendations on college entrance requirements the Com-
mittee of Seven recognized two things as essential : (i) " that
the fundamental scope and purpose of the major part of the
secondary schools be regarded " ; and (2) " that elasticity be
allowed that schools may fit pupils for college and yet adapt
themselves to some extent to local environment and local
needs." (Report, 121.) A "unit" of history was defined
as " either one year of historical work wherein the study is
given five times per week, or two years of historical work
wherein the study is given three times per week." The
recommendations may be summarized as follows: (i) In-
stitutions with a " system of complete options in college en-
trance requirements " (e.g. Leland Stanford) were asked to
accept 4 units in history " as an equivalent for a like amount
of work in other subjects." (2) Institutions that prescribed
certain studies and, in addition, required others from an
optional list (e.g. Harvard) were asked to place i unit of his-
tory on the prescribed list, and i, 2, or 3 units on the optional
list. (3) Institutions with prescribed requirements only, i.e.
" without options " (e.g. Yale), were asked to require at least
i unit of history. (4) Institutions with several distinct
college courses requiring different groups of preparatory
studies for entrance (e.g. Michigan) were asked to require i
unit of history for the classical course ; i unit for the Latin
course ; 2 units for the scientific course ; and 3 units for the
English course. (Report, 123-129.) The Committee of the
National Education Association accepted these recommen-
dations, but with the proviso that one year of American
The Social Sciences 557
history and government should be accepted as a requirement
for admission by all colleges and universities. In a similar
spirit the recommendation for a year of intensive study was
qualified by the phrase, " especially of the United States."
(Proc., N. E. A., 1899, pp. 648, 665.) At the present time,
the units most widely recognized are the "blocks" or periods
proposed by the Committee of Seven for a four-year course
in secondary schools: (i) ancient history; (2) medieval
and modern European history ; (3) English history ; (4)
American history and civil government. These are the sub-
jects listed by the College Entrance Examination Board.
The question of entrance requirements continues to agitate
teachers of history. It is admitted that the action of colleges
in recent years in increasing the amount of history that may
be offered for entrance has tended to increase the amount of
history taught in secondary schools, but its influence on
methods of teaching remains questionable. Teachers still
complain, as they complained in the days of the Madison
Conference, that the present examinations compel the use
of " bad methods for college preparation," and they are still
urging, as the Madison Conference urged, " a change by which
schools which use proper methods shall have some advantage."
Recent Modifications. — The complete success of the
movement for uniformity has been hindered by the conse-
quences of the elective system introduced into the schools.
Sometimes also the fact that many colleges have not given
credit for more than one or two units of history has had a simi-
lar retarding influence. An investigation made in 1909, prin-
cipally of schools in the Middle West, showed, however, that
out of eighty-three schools offering a three-year course fifty-
six required all three units for graduation.
Dissent from the recommendations of the Committee of
Seven has usually been prompted by the desire to lay greater
emphasis upon the modern period. In order to satisfy this
desire a Committee of Five, partly of the same personnel,
558 Principles of Secondary Education
also appointed by the American Historical Association, ad-
vised that schools ready to make a change should place Eng-
lish history as far as 1760, with its European connections,
in the second year and give the third year to a course on the
last century and a half of European history.
Modification of Course in New Types of Schools. — The
recent development of commercial and technical high schools
has rendered necessary a course adapted to their requirements.
For them emphasis should be put upon the history of the
arts and of trade. The interests of the two are also distinct,
because, although the achievements of the Greeks and the
Romans, and, in a measure, of medieval peoples, are instruc-
tive to students of certain technical arts, students of com-
merce will find the modern period the most important. Both
should be taught to place the special aspects of life which
they study in a true historical setting, while at the same
time they should not forget other phases of history which
explain the general growth of civilization.
European Courses of Study and Programs. — In France
and Germany the secondary school, lycee or gymnasium, gives
instruction in history throughout a nine-year course. The
course corresponds to a possible course in our schools running
from the fifth grade through the elementary school, the second-
ary school, and up to the third college year. History is also
given in elementary schools distinct from the lycee and the
gymnasium, and is parallel, therefore, to the first part of the
secondary school course. In the elementary school the con-
tent is confined more exclusively to the national history and
omits ancient history. The last seven years of the secondary
course are divided into two cycles, one of four and one of three
years, thus including two journeys through the field from
ancient times to the present day. In the second cycle of the
French course, if the pupil is on the classical side, i.e. has
Latin and Greek, or Latin and the " living " languages, he
devotes four hours to history, two to ancient and two to
The Social Sciences 559
modern ; if he takes the sciences with either Latin or the
living languages, he devotes two hours to modern history.
Except at this period of the course, the time given to history,
both in German and French schools, averages three hours a
week, and the work is closely correlated with geography.
In England the average amount of time given to the sub-
ject is two hours a week both in the preparatory years and in
the secondary school proper. On account of the variety of
type in the organization of the English schools it is difficult
to summarize the practice. The most authoritative recom-
mendation is presented in Circular 599, published by the
Board of Education in 1908, and includes, for the first stage,
with children up to the age of twelve, stories from the history
of England and of other countries, centering about great
characters like Charlemagne, Columbus, and Washington,
as well as famous Englishmen ; for the ages between twelve
and sixteen, a chronologically continuous course in English
history with the European connections; during the final
years, classical history for students going to the universities,
English or modern continental history for others. The cir-
cular records a gradual falling off in the practice of introduc-
ing a special period for more intensive study, and argues that
there should be judicious selection all the way through of
incidents and characters for special emphasis. The circular
also criticizes the concentric method by which in some schools
the whole subject of English history is gone over each year
summarily. In too many instances history is lumped in the
program with " English subjects." The general influence of
the type of questions asked in various public examinations,
in competition for prizes, honors, etc., has been to retard the
development of a plan of study satisfactory to the more pro-
gressive teachers.
From the practice abroad, as well as from the character of
the efforts to promote the teaching of history in American
schools, it is evident that the best opinion is in agreement
560 Principles of Secondary Education
upon the necessity of making the instruction continuous
throughout the pupil's school career. Only by this means is
it possible to form in his mind a useful framework of historical
events and to train him to think of events historically. Time
is also needed for the growth of interest and the formation of a
habit of reading historical books. In the opinion of a recent
French minister of public instruction the habit of reading his-
torical books is an important element of the reading habit,
which, next to the habit of observation, should be the aim of
popular education, and without which the pupils are in danger
of falling into illiteracy after they leave school.
METHODS OF TEACHING.— Upon methods of teaching
there is less agreement than upon questions of program,
although for the attainment of the aims of the subject an
effective method is more important than the choice of any
particular period for study. If the method of teaching is not
effective, the subject is discredited as an instrument of edu-
cation. As the matter now stands, the statement that a
pupil has had a course in ancient or medieval and modern
history means much, little, or worse than nothing. The most
urgent need of the present time is the adoption and the gen-
eral practice of a well-considered method of teaching the sub-
ject. In the management of subjects which are already well
organized pedagogically, like English, chemistry, or Latin,
teachers know what is expected the first month, the first
term, the first year ; they realize what are regarded as the
essential elements of a good method. But the teacher of his-
tory may confine his work wholly to the explanation of the
paragraphs of the textbook, or he may assign selections for
reading in other books, or he may also utilize collections of
source material. He may train his pupils in the use of note-
books or he may never allude to them. What he shall decide
to do seems to depend generally upon his individual prefer-
ence. The well-trained teacher is capable of solving the prob-
lem for himself, but many others are groping about among
The Social Sciences 561
haphazard experiments or apathetically following methods
sanctioned by local tradition.
In Germany there is a recognized method of teaching his-
tory. This is true of France also, although French teachers
differ among themselves in regard to the function of the text-
book. In Germany reliance is placed mainly on the teacher
and the instruction is principally oral. Many teachers even
object to the use of a notebook during a class exercise, because
they wish the attention of the pupils concentrated upon what
they are saying. By a process of questioning and repetition
they work the facts literally into the pupil's mind, so that he is
gradually enabled to construct so solid a framework of the
past that it is serviceable for all his future work whether in the
university or elsewhere. Books of simple outlines, or Leit-
faden, are used to supplement the oral work. So complete is
the dependence upon the teacher that few or no references are
given to historical works and there is slight use of selected
sources. This has been criticized as not offering the pupil
enough training for independent work in history and as being
in one respect a poor preparation for the freedom of university
work. Such reliance upon the teacher is possible only because
of the thorough training insisted upon by the state in the case
of every teacher. In both France and Germany the subject
is intrusted almost wholly to special teachers. Although the
French use the textbook more than the Germans, they gener-
ally go over the lesson in a carefully prepared lecture which the
pupils record in notebooks. The reason for this, when a
textbook is also used, is the need of placing the right emphasis
and of stimulating the attention. It is believed that by such a
method the dull pupil obtains more than if he is expected to
master without direction the topics assigned. The French
do not make extensive use of selected sources or of other read-
ing references. In England, with no central controlling au-
thority, the methods of work show less uniformity than those
of France or Germany, but where the subject is well taught it
2 O
562 Principles of Secondary Education
is likely to include excellent training in writing up topics on the
basis of an intelligent use of reading references.
European methods of teaching history should not be trans-
ferred mechanically to American practice, but acquaintance
with them emphasizes the value of a standard of work and
directs attention to the elements of the problem. What may
be suited admirably to the needs of the German boy in the
gymnasium or the French boy in the lycee may not take suffi-
cient account of the more precocious individuality of the
American boy. An adequate method must be the outcome of
a careful study of the child and a wise consideration of the
benefits which he should derive from his work in history.
The study of history should not merely give him a body of
information, it should affect his attitude towards the world
and train his mind for the successful search for certain kinds
of truth.
In the higher grades of the elementary school or the
early years of the extended high school course the pupil
should be enabled to form a picture, fairly accurate in its
details, and in chronological order, of the principal events of
American history and of its European background, in order
that it may be a serviceable framework for later historical
knowledge. More emphasis should be laid upon reading, in
books furnished by the school library or by local public libraries.
Some use can also be made of original sources, with the aim of
illustrating facts easily within the comprehension of children
of this age. Selections which illustrate two sides of a con-
troversy, like that between Parliament and the colonies after
1 765, or between the North and the South before the Civil War,
will train pupils who are beginning to read the newspapers
to read more intelligently and with some effort of judgment.
There should be practice in making simple maps, explaining
geographically an historical situation. Outline maps may be
used for this work. Pictures offer an opportunity not only for
awakening interest, but also for giving training in observation.
The Social Sciences 563
The problem of method for the secondary school is more
complex, because the element of training should receive greater
emphasis. The most obvious requirement of a course is
the mastery of the contents of the textbook. To attain this
result there are needed, besides the ordinary recitation exer-
cises, the preparation of outlines and summaries, the construc-
tion of what the English call " date strips," and the preparation
of reviews. The teachers most interested in the improvement
of the teaching of history would add some reading from his-
torical books other than the textbook, the study of selected
sources of a simple and clearly illustrative character, and the
making of reports upon topics with the use of several books
of reference. There must also be the construction of maps.
How many of these exercises the individual teacher may be
able to embody in any particular course depends upon the
special conditions of the school, that is, the amount of other
work demanded of the teacher, the existence of a school or
public library, the number of available historical maps, etc.
Each exercise should be repeated at least once, because the
first attempt serves principally to make clear the difficulties.
There should be orderly progress in the manner of work from
the beginning to the end of the course. The pupil is studying
history in order to learn how to study history as well as to
acquire a body of historical facts. Each exercise should have
relation to the preceding and to what is to follow.
The teacher's first task should be to construct a calendar
of the course, apportioning the work of each day, and indicat-
ing at what stage any particular exercise is to be attempted.
An examination of the textbook will show what topics are
adequately treated and upon what topics there must be sup-
plementary oral explanations or informal lectures. It is ap-
parent that an exercise in constructing summaries should be
inserted after an epoch of marked characteristics has been
studied. Upon the completion of the study of a long and com-
plex process an outline, chronological or topical, will be useful.
564 Principles of Secondary Education
Teachers may wish to use a simple outline for each day's
work, but the construction of such outlines should not be
required of all the class every day, for this work would soon
become mechanical and wearisome. A review of the geographi-
cal relations of the subject will show at what points illustrative
maps should be constructed. Certain topics should be studied
partly through the medium of pictures. If there are to be
reports on long readings, the place of these will be determined
by the interest of the topic or incident and the availability of
books on the subject. The same is true of topical studies, of
which there should not be more than two or three during the
particular course. The results of these exercises should be
embodied in the pupil's notebook. They should be written
on sheets of paper which may be inserted without copying in a
loose-leaf notebook. The pupil will need careful instruction
upon the manner of preparing this written material for the
notebook.
The teacher may not be able to insert upon the calendar
more than an indispensable minimum of exercises, because
such exercises require efficient supervision, and the burden
upon the average teacher is already heavy. The way to meet
the difficulties of the situation is to agree upon what this indis-
pensable minimum includes and from it as a basis work
steadily toward the desirable.
VISUAL AIDS TO TEACHING HISTORY.— An excellent
description of special aids to the visualization of history, embrac-
ing the United States and the principal countries of Europe, was
published in the History Teacher's Magazine of February, 1910,
and can now be obtained in pamphlet form from the McKinley
Publishing Co., Philadelphia, for ten cents. There is also
available a classified catalogue of similar scope prepared by a
committee of the New England History Teachers' Association,
and published by Houghton Mifilin Co., at fifty cents.
Both of these contain price lists and names of makers, pub-
lishers, and dealers. The extensive German material is more
The Social Sciences 565
fully listed, with prices but without names of makers or pub-
lishers in the Verzeichnis der bewahrtesten Lehr- und Auschau-
ungsmitlcl fur Holier e-, M it Here- und Elementarschulen issued
from time to time in Leipzig by K. F. Koehler. Copies of this
can usually be purchased for fifty cents. It should be noted,
however, that Koehler accepts orders for material only when
sent through regular dealers. Special circulars descriptive of
the remarkable Rausch models are sent gratis on application
to Friedrich Rausch, Nordhausen a. Harz, Germany. The
aids of special practical interest to American teachers of
history, and the question of how to use them, form the subject
of several chapters in Johnson's Teaching of History in Elemen-
tary and Secondary Schools.
CIVICS
THE TERM CIVICS. — The term "civics" is now generally
employed to refer to the teaching of civil government in our
elementary and secondary schools and in colleges. The term
"civil government," which was formerly very commonly used
for describing this study, has been abandoned, because in its
interpretation it was usually narrowed down to a study of the
mere framework of government. The word " civics " is said
to have been introduced by Henry Randall Waite (see Standard
Dictionary], and has the advantage over the term " civil
government" in that it is now generally understood to include :
(i) ethics, or the doctrine of duties in society ; (2) civil polity,
or governmental methods and machinery ; (3) history of civic
development and movement.
Like most subjects outside of the three R's in the elemen-
tary school curriculum, and the classics and mathematics in
the secondary school course of study, the subject matter of
civics was not taught in schools until some years after the
middle of the nineteenth century.
INTRODUCTION INTO THE SCHOOLS. — The study
made but slow progress in the schools, though the need of it
566 Principles of Secondary Education
was urgently felt because of the ever increasing immigration
of foreigners to American shores. As most of the colleges
gave little or no instruction in political science, they took no
steps toward making it an entrance requirement. After 1870
the subject began to find its way gradually into the elemen-
tary schools.
In 1895 appeared the Report oj the Committee of Fifteen of the
National Education Association on the subject of Elementary
Education. This committee recommended in connection with
the subject of United States history that there should be given
a study of the outlines of the Constitution for 10 to 15 weeks in
the last year of the elementary school. In 1897 the Commit-
tee on Rural Schools of the same Association made a report
recommending a course in United States history and civil
government for normal school teachers who were to teach in
the rural schools, and made some suggestions about teaching of
morals and civics in such schools. In 1899 the Committee of
Seven of the American Historical Association — a committee
appointed at the instance of a Committee on College Entrance
Requirements of the National Education Association — made
an elaborate report on history in the schools. They recom-
mended that the fourth year of the high school course be
devoted to American history and civics, and that the two
subjects be taught in separate courses where it was possible
to get the time. Where this was not possible, the committee
advised teaching them together.
The high schools generally pursued the latter method in
order to save time, with the result that the civics work was
mainly in the nature of constitutional history. Very little
attention was given to the other elements of civics : the
duties of citizenship and government in its actual workings.
Because of the failure of the colleges to require a knowledge of
civics for entrance, very many schools neglected the subject
almost wholly. In 1904 the New England History Teachers'
Association published a syllabus upon the lines laid down by
T/ie Social Sciences 567
the Committee of Seven, and made the same recommendations
in regard to civics. This tendency to treat civics as the " poor
relation " of United States history and to make its treatment
only one of constitutional development met with strong op-
position in the Association of History Teachers of the Middle
States and Maryland, in the North Central History Teachers'
Association, in the New England History Teachers' Associa-
tion, and in the associations of teachers of various states.
Vigorous protests were made against considering the history
of an institution the same as the study of an institution in its
actual working to-day.
The results of the agitation of the opponents of a combina-
tion course resulted in the appointment of a Committee on
Civics of the New England History Teachers' Association, and
of another by the American Political Science Association. The
preliminary sheets of a syllabus were published by the first
association in 1908, and the second association published a
report in the same year calling for a separate course in civics
in the last year of the high school and recommending the
making of the subject a college entrance requirement.
Throughout the report there is a strong insistence on that
view of civics which makes it a study of government in its
actual working — national, state, and municipal. The Na-
tional Municipal League has been actively engaged in promot-
ing the study of municipal civics in the schools, and in its
proceedings of 1905 it presented a syllabus for such instruction
in both elementary and secondary schools. So far the recom-
mendations have had little effect. The schools of Cleveland,
Ohio, have had an admirable syllabus drawn up for use in this
subject, and the High School of Commerce in New York City
has established a course in Municipal Activities.
PRESENT STATUS. - - Notwithstanding the great activ-
ity of civic bodies and teachers' associations in all parts of the
country, civics as a subject in the schools is still in a very
unsatisfactory condition. In spite of the emphatic statements
568 Principles of Secondary Education
of various committees, it is still taught in the form of con-
stitutional history, and the pupil gets little notion of the way in
which the government is actually being carried on at the pres-
ent time. In the elementary schools of Boston and vicinity
no attention is paid to it until the last year, though vague
statements are made at times that " civil government shall be
taught throughout the course in history." In the last year
provision is usually made for the study of the Constitution.
In New York City in the elementary schools the syllabus calls
for lessons in civics beginning with the fourth grade, and these
run through the fifth, sixth, seventh, and eighth grades. In
the absence 'of a detailed syllabus the work is not as well
carried out in some schools as it is in others. The city of
Cleveland has prepared the best syllabus for civics in the ele-
mentary schools. It begins in a very simple way in the third
grade, and is carried through the balance of the eight grades.
In the Latin schools of Boston and vicinity the subject is
virtually non-existent. In the high schools it is optional in the
third year, and sometimes required, as in Cambridge. When
optional it is seldom taken. In New York City and vicinity
the course in civics is a part of the course in American history,
and is required for graduation.
Between the two extremes represented by these localities
there are varying conditions, but in the large majority of the
schools where the subject is taught at all it is given as an
adjunct of history. As far as statistics can be gathered, it
may be stated that approximately one fourth of our secondary
schools give no training in civics at all, about one half com-
bine it with American history, and about one fourth give a
separate course in it.
At the present time a Committee of Five of the American
Historical Association is working on a revision of some of the
recommendations of the Committee of Seven, and has made a
preliminary report in which a separate course and a separate
examination in civics in the fourth year of the high school
The Social Sciences 569
course is recommended as required. In New York State va-
rious committees and civic bodies are at work on the subject,
and the same is true in many other states. From such activity
it is probable that much more substantial courses in civics
will be offered in elementary schools and high schools within
the next decade than have ever been offered before.
METHODS OF TEACHING. - - The earliest advocates
of the teaching of civics in the schools had in mind a method
of instruction which should give to pupils a knowledge of the
framework of government as it was outlined in the Constitu-
tion of the United States. This was the idea of Daniel Read
and of the National Teachers' Association. From the resolu-
tions passed by that body in 1869 it is evident that it thought
that instruction in civics consisted in teaching " the principles,
the structure, and the history of our Political Institutions."
Moreover, the study was to be taken up in connection with
United States history, and for this purpose the Constitution
of the United States was appended to the grammar and high
school histories published in the seventies and early eighties.
In the body of the texts almost nothing was given concerning
constitutional government or the working of the local,
state, or national institutions. About two thirds of each text
was taken up with the colonial period, and the emphasis
throughout was laid on picturesque narration.
For civic instruction the method consisted in giving the
pupils the Constitution to read or to commit to memory. No
illuminating material on the actual working of our institutions,
national, state, and local, such as could have been found in
De Tocqueville, was presented, — a fact no doubt due to the
absolute inability of the teachers. This mere " cramming "
on the Constitution was felt to be unsatisfactory, and though
the study of government was still largely conducted by such a
method and felt to be indissolubly connected with the study of
United States history, small texts were published in the
seventies containing the clauses of the Constitution with
570 Principles of Secondary Education
comments on them. Such texts were not generally put in the
hands of the pupils, but were of aid to the teacher. This
method of study of the dry bones of our institutions con-
tinued until the middle eighties, when Jesse Macy of the Uni-
versity of Iowa published his small text entitled Our Govern-
ment. This was an attempt by a competent writer to change
the prevailing method of instruction in government, and to
put interest and life into the mere framework by showing the
actual workings. Attention was not confined to the national
government, as had been the almost general custom in the past,
but considerable time was given to the consideration of local
and state governments. In 1888, with the appearance of
Bryce's American Commonwealth, the revolutionizing of the
methods of instruction was made possible. With this monu-
mental work on our government in its actual workings before
them, the writers of school texts began gradually to change
their methods of treatment. Slowly and almost impercepti-
bly the texts on civics began to treat of actual government.
The committing to memory of the Constitution and the dry
commentary on its clauses began to give way to a study of
government as actually carried on.
Such a change in method, however, was not by any means
general. In most of the schools, grammar as well as high, the
average instruction given was usually nothing more than a
mere " cramming " on the Constitution. Texts still continued
to be written which were nothing except dry commentaries on
the clauses of the Constitution, and the texts determined the
methods of instruction. It was only in a few of the most
progressive schools that good instruction in civics was given.
Meanwhile a very decided change had taken place in the
character of the textbooks on United States history. More
and more space was given to the constitutional and institu-
tional aspects, and the idea was thus perpetuated that all
necessary instruction in civics could be given through the
medium of history — a separate text or course for civics not
The Social Sciences 571
being considered necessary. This method of instruction in
the grammar schools and high schools was favored because it
" saved time " and because of the conditions surrounding
college entrance examinations for which the high schools
largely prepared. Most of the colleges gave either very indif-
ferent instruction in government themselves, or none at all. and
had taken no steps toward demanding a knowledge of civics for
entrance. This prevailing method of instruction gave to the
pupils scarcely anything more than a knowledge of constitu-
tional history. This was to a certain extent encouraged by the
Report of the Committee of Seven of the American Historical
Association, 1899, for though recommending a separate text
and course in civics it left it open for the schools to believe that
the study could well be carried on without such.
Objections to this method of instruction were frequently
heard from teachers and superintendents, but it was not until
the Committee on Civics of the New England History Teachers'
Association, 1909, and the Committee of Five of the American
Political Science Association, 1909, made their reports that
the issue was squarely made that instruction in civics in
schools should be on the actual working of our government and
that the methods to be employed should be such as to give
something more than constitutional history, and should be
through the medium of a separate course. The Report of the
Committee of Five of the American Historical Association on the
revision of the Report of the Committee of Seven, 1910, seems
to agree with the reports of the t\vo committees mentioned
above.
Some schools already have in operation distinct courses in
civics, though in the larger number of schools throughout the
country the older methods of instruction still prevail. In those
schools where the separate course is given there are two ways in
which it is conducted : (i) in some the course comes after the
course in United States history, and (2) in others it is con-
ducted parallel with it. Those who favor the first method
572 Principles of Secondary Education
maintain that it is necessary for the pupil to know the history
before he is able to understand the government in its actual
working at the present time ; and those who favor the second
say that by the parallel method much time is saved by avoid-
ing unnecessary repetition and that a better opportunity is
offered for taking up current topics because of the longer
period during which the course is studied.
In the best high schools of to-day a course in civics is given
which has devoted to it 5 hours a week for 20 weeks or 3 hours
a week for 40 weeks. A substantial text is placed in the hands
of the students, and also a fair number of special works on the
federal, state, and local government,. Not only is the govern-
ment of the United States studied, but its institutions are
compared with those of European governments — the most
effective results being derived from comparison. Each student
is called upon to present reports both oral and written on
topics connected with this comparative study.
In connection with the course a close study of the newspapers
and magazines is made for current political happenings, and
the students are called upon to give three-minute extem-
poraneous talks on political events both at home and abroad.
The material gathered is put on bulletin boards, pasted in
scrapbooks, and used in civic and debating clubs. Govern-
ment reports, journals, legal forms, and material of an allied
nature are consulted in the libraries. Visits are made to
the meetings of legislative bodies, courts, and committees.
Though the course outlined above is far from being in general
use, it is becoming more and more common.
The activities of the National Municipal League have been
responsible for the introduction in some city schools of special
courses in municipal government. Sometimes this course is
placed in the last grade of the grammar school or the first year
of the high school. The method of teaching is largely induc-
tive. The pupil is called upon to look about him for answers
to certain questions given by the teacher and to come to the
The Social Sciences 573
class prepared to report. The pupil in a way is thus the maker
of his own textbook. This simple course of instruction is
supplemented in the last year of the high school with older
pupils by studying the causes for the failures and successes of
municipal government at home and abroad.
In the most modern methods of teaching civics, the idea that
the subject should be used to teach patriotism and to drag out
moral lessons has been abandoned. The aim has been reduced
to the purely practical one of developing good citizens,
intelligent as to their duties, knowing wherein the government
is good or bad, and able by virtue of their intelligence concern-
ing better conditions prevailing elsewhere to try to improve
their own institutions.
ECONOMICS
INTRODUCTION INTO THE SCHOOLS. — This subject
has been denned as the study of that which pertains to the
satisfaction of man's material needs, — -the production, preser-
vation, and distribution of wealth. As such it would seem
fundamental that the study of economics should find a place
in those institutions which prepare children to become citi-
zens,— the elementary and high schools. Some of the truths
of economics are so simple that even the youngest of school
children may be taught to understand them. As a school
study, however, economics up to the present time has made far
less headway than civics. Its introduction as a study even in
the colleges was so gradual and so retarded that it could
scarcely be expected that educators would favor its introduc-
tion in the high schools.
Previous to the appearance, in 1894, of the Report of the
Committee of Ten of the National Education Association on
Secondary Education, there had been much discussion on the
educational value of the study of economics.
Since then the subject of economics has gradually made
its appearance in the curricula of many eastern high schools.
574 Principles of Secondary Education
It has been made an elective subject of examination for
graduation from high schools by the Regents of New York
State, and for admission to college by Harvard University.
Its position as an elective study, however, has not led many
students to take it except in commercial high schools, because
in general it may not be used for admission to the colleges.
Its great educational value, its close touch with the pupils'
everyday life, and the possibility of teaching it to pupils of
high school age are now generally recognized. A series of
articles in the National Education Association's Proceedings
for 1901, by Spiers, Gun ton, Halleck, and Vincent bear witness
to this. The October, 1910, meeting of the New England
History Teachers' Association was devoted entirely to a dis-
cussion of the Teaching of Economics in Secondary Schools,
and Professors Taussig and Haynes reiterated views already
expressed. Representatives of the recently developed com-
mercial and trade schools expressed themselves in its favor.
Suitable textbooks in the subject for secondary schools have
not kept pace with its spread in the schools. Laughlin,
Macvane, and Walker published books somewhat simply
expressed ; but later texts have been too collegiate in character.
There is still needed a text written with the secondary school
student constantly in mind, and preferably by an author who
has been dealing with students of secondary school age. The
methods of teaching mutatis mutandis have been much the
same as those pursued in civics. The mere cramming
of the text found in the poorest schools gives way in the best
schools to a study and observation of actual conditions in the
world of to-day. In the latter schools the teacher has been
well trained in the subject, whereas in the former it is given
over only too frequently to teachers who know little more
about it than that which is in the text.
The Social Sciences 575
TOPICS FOR FURTHER STUDY
1. What aspect of history — cultural, political, institutional, etc. —
is preferable for high school study ?
2. To what extent is the source material method desirable or possible
in the high school ?
3. What are the purposes of the study of history in the high school ?
4. To what extent should the study of history be connected with the
study of civics ? How can this connection be best made ?
5. What relations can or should be established between the study of
history of the United States and the study of economic problems ?
6. What are the best materials of study for United States history ?
7. Can "critical study" of historical problems be developed in the
high school ?
8. What are the tests or the principles involved in a good history text-
book for high school ?
9. What are the principles involved in an examination in history ?
What kind of questions should be asked ?
10. What advance was made in the Report of the Committee of Seven
upon the Report of the Committee of Ten ?
11. What advance upon the Report of the Committee of Seven, by
subsequent reports ?
12. What advantages are involved in the new classification or de-
limitation of historic periods ?
13. What kind of history should be taught in the new vocational
high schools ?
14. What are the merits of the course of studies followed in the
European secondary schools as compared with those of the American
high school ?
15. What are the merits of the methods used in European schools as
compared with those of the American high school ? Of the textbooks ?
1 6. To what extent should visual aids to teaching be used in history ?
17. What topics in the subject of economics can be treated in the
high school ?
1 8. What methods and materials of study are appropriate for high
school work in economics ?
IQ. Outline a course of study in economics for the high school, using
local materials and problems as a basis. For civics.
20. How can the study of civics be made to function directly in train-
ing for citizenship ?
21. What are the advantages and disadvantages of interesting the
pupil directly in local political, economic, and civic problems ?
576 Principles of Secondary Education
REFERENCES
History
ALLEN, J. W. The Place of History in Education. London, 1909.
ANDREWS, C. M., GAMBRILL, J. M., TALL, LIDA L. A Bibliography of
History for Schools and Libraries. New York, 1910.
Association of History Teachers of the Middle States and Maryland.
Annual Minutes, from 1903.
BARNES, MARY SHELDON. Studies in Historical Method. Boston, 1896.
BLISS, W. F. History in the Elementary Schools; Methods, Courses of
Study, Bibliographies. New York, 1911.
BOURNE, H. E. The Teaching of History and Civics in the Elementary
and Secondary School. New York, 1910.
Committee of Eight, Report of the, to the American Historical Associa-
tion. The Study of History in the Elementary School. New York, 1909.
Committee of Five, Report of the, to the American Historical Association.
The Study of History in Schools. New York, 1911.
Committee of Seven, American Historical Association. The Study of
History in Schools. New York, 1899.
England Board of Education. Teaching of History in Secondary Schools.
London, 1908.
FARRINGTON, F. E. French Secondary Schools, Chap. XI. New York,
1910.
HEARNSHAW, F. J. C. Teaching of History by Means of Local Records.
Educ. Times (London), Vol. LXV, February, 1912, pp. 59-60. Con-
tains also Report of Annual Meeting of the Historical Association.
HINSDALE, B. A. How to Study and Teach History. New York, 1893.
Historical Association. Leaflets. London, from 1906.
Indiana University Bulletin. History Teaching in High School. Bloom-
ington, 1909.
JAGER, O. The Teaching of History. Tr. by H. J. Chaytor. London,
1908.
JOHNSON, H. History in the Elementary School. New York, 1908.
KEATINGE, M. W. Studies in the Teaching of History. London, 1910.
LANGLOIS, C. V. Manuel de Bibliographie historiquc. Paris, 1901-1904.
and SEIGXOBOS, C. Introduction to the Study of History. Tr. by
G. G. Berry. New York, 1898.
MACE, W. H. Method in History. New York, 1903.
McMuRRY, C. A. Special Method in History. New York, 1903.
New England History Teachers' Association. Historical Sources in
Schools. New York, 1902. Syllabus for Secondary Schools.
Boston, 1904. Various publications since 1897.
The Social Sciences 577
New York State Education Department Bulletins. Course of Study and
Syllabus for the Elementary Schools. Syllabus for Secondary Schools.
Albany, 1910.
North Central History Teachers' Association, Proceedings, from 1899.
Report of a Conference on the Teaching of History in London Elementary
Schools. London, IQII.
RICE, EMILY J. Course of Study in History and Literature. Chicago, 1897.
RUSSELL, J. E. German Higher Schools, Chap. XV. New ed., New York,
1905.
SALMON, LUCY M. Some Principles in the 'reaching of History.
Chicago, 1902.
Civics
ANDREWS, C. M., GAMBRILL, J. M., TALL, LIDA L. A Bibliography of
History. New York, 1910.
BOURNE, H. E. The Teaching of History and Civics. New York, 1902.
At the beginning of each chapter this book gives extended bibliog-
raphies.
SCOREL. N. E. A. Proceedings, 1899.
WELLING. N. E. A. Proceedings, 1903.
WYER, J. I. A Bibliography of the Study and Teaching of History, com-
piled in Volume I of the American Historical Association Proceedings
for 1899, pp. 559-612, particularly on p. 593.
Sample chapters of an Outline for the Study of American Civil Govern-
ment, published by the New England History Teachers' Association,
also have good bibliographies.
The published proceedings of the various associations mentioned in
this article contain, in addition to the reports referred to, numerous
articles on civics and its place in the curriculum.
The Atlantic Educational Journal published during 1908-1909 a bibli-
ography of history for teachers and is going to add to it material for
civics.
Economics
CLOW, F. R. Economics as a School Study, in the Economic Stiidies of
the American Economic Association for 1899. An excellent bibliog-
raphy is given. It may be supplemented by articles or addresses
since 1899 which have been mentioned above. New York, 1899.
COSSA, L. Introduction to the Sludy of Political Economy; tr. by L. Dyer,
London, 1893.
HAYXKS, Jonx. Economics in Secondary Schools. Education, February,
1897.
CHAPTER XV
FINE ARTS AND MUSIC
ART IN EDUCATION. — A study of education in its earlier
forms, not only in savage communities, but in a civilization as
advanced as the Athenian, reveals the great role played by
the arts. Anthropological investigations have confirmed the
obvious educational influence by showing the great part played
by the arts in the life of the community and in determining
progress. Psychology adds to these convictions the fact of
the fundamental character of the impulsive tendencies which
are the physiological origin of the activities that lead to the
arts. All of these facts are opposed to the common assumption
that the arts represent a kind of educational luxury and super-
fluity.
Classification of the Arts. — Various classifications have been
made of the arts, — they have been subdivided into the spatial
and the temporal, arts of rest and motion, of the eye and the
ear, etc. However correct for their own purposes, these
divisions are educationally defective in that they start from
art products rather than from the psychophysical acts from
which these products originate. More significant from the
educational point of view is the classification of Santayana
according to which arts are distinguished into those that
spring from automatisms, i.e. organic or " spontaneous "
movements which, when rhythmically ordered and accom-
panied by intensified emotion, themselves constitute acts,
and those in which the movements, even if similarly induced
originally, terminate in effective enduring modifications of
natural objects. The dance, pantomime, song, music, etc.,
578
Fine Arts and Music 579
belong in the first class ; the second class Santayana terms
" plastic," including in it architecture, sculpture, painting,
and design.
Principles underlying Art in Education. — Anthropological
and historical inquiry have fairly established the following
principles : first, that art is born of primary impulses of human
nature when the activity, whether automatic or plastic, has
social value ; second, that this social value is conferred by the
tendency of the activity or its product to spread an emotional
mood favorable to joint or concerted action. Otherwise
put, the arts, in their origin, tended to contagion or com-
munication of an emotion, that produced unity of attitude and
of outlook and imagination. From this point of view, no
sharp line divided the fine and useful arts from each other.
Any useful object — a piece of pottery or of weaving, an imple-
ment of hunting — that provokes social reminiscences and
anticipations attaches contagious emotions to itself, and
acquires aesthetic quality. The marked distinction between
useful and fine arts is chiefly a product of slave labor or of
commercial production, making things for a market, under
circumstances where the factor of shared emotional life is
eliminated.
Another significant trait of the arts in their simple and more
natural form is the prominence of the festal element. Tribal
dances are the background out of which music, poetry, and
the drama all gradually differentiated. These pantomime
dances were either occasional or ceremonial, i.e. they were
either community celebrations of more or less choice episodes
happening to attract general attention, or else were stated and
recurrent celebrations of important tribal traditions and cus-
toms, attaching to changes in the season, return of food ani-
mals, gathering of crops, war expeditions, etc.
Some of the educational bearings of these considerations,
psychological and ethnological, come out conspicuously in the
older Athenian education. Music (in the Greek sense) and
580 Principles of Secondary Education
gymnastic were, in general, and in many of the details of their
educational use, very direct outgrowths of the role of the
dramatic and communal arts of more primitive societies.
It is not difficult to detect in Plato's treatment of gymnastics
in the Republic and the Laws the fact that dances, etc.,
originally associated with industrial and military crises in the
life of a people, had become so saturated with elements of
rhythm, measure, and order, and with social memories and hopes,
as to present great value in the training of the young ; while
music was frankly a vehicle for carrying what was of typical
or idealized value in the traditions of the Greek people, by
enhancing their emotional value so that they would deeply,
though unconsciously, modify the character of children's
tastes and' likes and dislikes in the direction that reason would
later consciously approve.
If we attempt to summarize the meaning for present educa-
tional practice, of the facts mentioned in this brief summary,
the following points stand out clearly :
A rts are Essentials in Education. — i . There has been great loss
in relegating the arts to the relatively trivial role which they
finally assumed in schooling, and there is corresponding
promise of gain in the efforts making in the last generation to
restore these to a more important position. Viewed both
psychologically and socially, the arts represent not luxuries
and superfluities but fundamental forces of development.
Expression precedes Appreciation. — 2. Instead of aesthetic
appreciation, the sense of beauty, etc., coming first and leading
to artistic expression in order to satisfy itself, the order is the
reverse. Man instinctively attempts to enhance and perpetu-
ate his images that are charged with emotional value by some
kind of objectification through action. The outcome inevita-
bly is marked by certain factors of balance, rhythm, and con-
structive order, and by the function of representation, i.e. of
recording in some adequate way the values to which emotions
cling. The sense of beauty, or aesthetic appreciation, is a
Fine Arts and Music 581
reflex product of this attempt at production. A product
which is objectively crude but which represents a genuine
attempt at embodiment of an experienced value of unusual
emotional quality, is more likely to be an effective means of
cultivating taste and aesthetic sensitiveness than the presen-
tation for passive appreciation of much more perfect works
produced by others. The latter are indispensable, but their
function is to serve as models which will stimulate to apprecia-
tion of crudities and imperfections that may be refined away,
and will enlarge the emotional images out of which personal
expression springs. In the end, the great majority of pupils
are of course to become appreciators of art rather than its
producers in any technical sense. But only by taking some
part in creative production (and that not for the sake con-
sciously of producing beauty but simply of embodying vital
and significant feelings) can a wholesome and natural attitude
of appreciation finally be secured.
Social Activities furnish the Starting Point. — 3. The social,
or communicable, character of the emotions from which aes-
thetic expression naturally springs, emphasizes the values of
joint experiences and actions of a more or less domestic nature.
Group activity of a joyous character celebrating some event
or fact of common value is the natural soil of artistic creation
in the school as well as out.
Artistic Expression Natural to Children. — 4. Expressive
activity is also especially adapted for educational use in that
the separation, so usual with adults, between the utilitarian
and the artistic does not naturally exist for these. In the
absence of economic pressure the measure of use is simply
value contributed to the enhancement of individual and
group life. Cooking, even such seemingly utilitarian things as
setting a table and serving a meal, easily take on for children
an artistic value so far as they represent a consciousness and
commemoration of things to which children attach a vague
social significance, all the more potent because in its vagueness
582 Principles of Secondary Education
it represents the mysterious and attractive world of adult life.
The separation of the externally and technically useful from
emotional and imaginative enrichment is unnatural psycholog-
ical divorce, and one of the chief functions of the arts in educa-
tion is to maintain the natural union of the socially important
with that which makes strong emotional appeal.
Literature the most General Art for School Purposes. — 5. Liter-
ature is probably the art most generally available for school
purposes. In order that it may be a genuine art it is necessary
that it be presented as a consummation and perfecting of
factors which the child already appreciates as having value.
This means that it is not so much a point of departure for
instruction as it is a focus in which other factors gather
together in a vivid and ordered way. Literature is not to be
used as a means for any other end than this gathering together,
in a vital and readily appreciated way, of scattered and
inchoate elements of experience. It is not, for example, to be
made a means of moral instruction or consciously impressing a
specific moral lesson. It is ethically important simply because
it presents, in a form easily grasped and likely to be enduring,
values which are themselves felt to be intrinsically important.
Any attempt at definite formulation and impressing of these
values and the kind of conduct they require is certainly detri-
mental to the literature as art, and is very likely to be harmful
to the moral influence which the values might exercise, if left
undisturbed in their proper medium of feeling and imagination.
The same principle holds, of course, of methods that utilize
literature simply as a means of teaching grammar, information
about the history of literary men, antiquities, or any of the
diverse topics which have been hung upon literature as upon
a peg.
METHODS OF TEACHING ART. — Methods of teaching
art depend upon the conception of art held and upon the pur-
poses for which the subject is introduced into the curriculum.
If the purpose is to interest the pupil in nature or to develop
Fine Arts and Music 583
the power of observation, or the power of coordinating ideas
and hand manipulation, as is often stated, no strictly aesthetic
purpose is involved and a type of method wholly different
from those adopted for the development of artistic apprecia-
tion is appropriate. Again, the conception of art, whether it is
imitation of nature or the expression of harmonies of form,
tone, and color, has a deciding influence on the type of method
adopted.
The Two Methods. — Individuals vary and modify the de-
tails of their methods of teaching, but all art instruction can
be classified under two heads according to the point of view
and the principles involved. These systems are radically dif-
ferent in character, affecting the entire make-up and conduct
of courses of study. They are, respectively, the academic
(analytic), the structural (synthetic). The academic method
is a reflection of the professional art school. Its origin may be
traced to the later Renaissance. The method is traditional
and scientific, making the acquirement of knowledge of nature's
facts the first step and the foundation of all progress. The
pupil learns to draw, but defers expression until he has at-
tained proficiency in representation. The process is imitative,
and the standard external. The structural is a return to the
natural method of pre-academic days. It was the method
practiced in Europe from ancient times down to the Renaissance,
and is still used by the Orientals and by all who are independ-
ent of scientific domination. The approach is through struc-
ture, — the building up of harmonies of shape, tone, and color,
- and the purpose is the development of power in the indi-
vidual. Self-expression begins at once, involving all forms of
drawing, and leading to appreciation. The process is creative,
and the standard is individual judgment as to tine relations.
The Academic Method. — The academic method is truly
analytic, teaching the pupils " to see," to gather fact upon
fact, to store up knowledge, to acquire skill. Its analogue is
the old way of teaching language through grammar, rather
584 Principles of Secondary Education
than through use of the language. Self-expression in terms of
line, tone, and color is deferred, and appreciation is only a by-
product. It brings about a somewhat sentimental view of ex-
ternal nature as the source of all art. Whistler's remark that
" nature is seldom right " was a blow at this false standard.
Critics of the academic school must refer all excellence to
nature. For example, they interpret Greek art in terms of fact
- making the study of the bodies of athletes the source of
artistic power. They measure Japanese art, not by quality,
but by truth and perspective. This imitative and scientific
system is derived from the eighteenth-century academies and
is being followed in our modern academies of art. It owes its
origin to the late Renaissance, when creative power was feeble
and interest in the sciences dominant. Because one of the
greatest of all artists, Leonardo da Vinci, was possessed of
boundless curiosity and sought the secret of nature with toil-
some persistency, his followers concluded that the pursuit of
truth was the basis of art study. Leonardo himself, like all
the masters of the Renaissance, was trained by apprenticeship
- in fact, by a structural method — • to strive for quality and
mystery and power in expression. His genius controlled his
scientific instruction, and he built all his knowledge into his
art fabric.
Continuing the traditional scientific scheme, the academic
method in these days requires that schools and courses of in-
struction be highly specialized. The relation of object draw-
ing, cast drawing, light and shade work, and still-life painting,
to mural decoration, house furnishing, costume, handicraft,
and the industries is not very clear. It is often forced — for
example, the naturalistic flowers in full modeling repeated over
wall paper, carpets, and china with no reference whatever to
any principle of design. The processes and subjects of aca-
demic teaching are good in themselves, but the emphasis is in the
wrong place. The tendency is to make art in schools either a
pretty accomplishment or an adjunct to some business pursuit.
Fine Arts and Music 585
The Structural Method. — The structural method disregards
the theories of the eighteenth-century academicians, and
ignores their division of the subject into representative and
decorative art. Instead of setting up external nature as the
standard, the action of the human mind in harmony building
becomes the foundation for study. The elements of space art
are shape, tone, and color, the whole visible world being re-
vealed in these terms. Education in space art follows the
analogy of music and literature, beginning with structures
of a simple order — a few lines, a few sounds, a few words —
and proceeding onward by steady growth. Rhythm, subor-
dination, symmetry, proportion, tone values, color schemes are
fundamental to all the arts, at least by analogy. From this
point of view design, instead of being classed as " decoration,"
is seen to be the very primer of art. Nature's beauties are
cases of accidental harmonic structure, to be copied not as a
mere exercise, but because they are beautiful and the study
of them increases capacity for appreciation, or because they
suggest motives for design.
Synthesis (self-expression) is the center of effort, with the
sciences as aids. The fine arts of architecture, painting, and
sculpture have been developed from industries, not from
nature or the bodies of athletes. The beginning and the end
is the relation of forms to spaces, not the copying of anything.
Greek art, from its earliest to the best period, is an effort in
composition — the purpose being to attain finer and finer
relations of line and space. When the artists turned their
attention to copying facts (human bodies), Greek art dis-
appeared. The same may be said of Italian art, of textile
design, and of Gothic art.
What we call art springs from a desire to make things " look
well." The raw materials may be put together in a rude way,
for mere use, or may serve a higher use by being put together
in a line way, satisfying a strong desire of human nature.
This finer way means ability to make the best choice — and
586 Principles of Secondary Ediication
this comes from the trained judgment. The history of art
development shows that whenever the workers constantly
improved upon proportion, tone, and color, there was growth
into fine art. The simple process of adapting forms to spaces
began with painting on clay bowls and carving the handles
of utensils or weapons — and ended in the Greek sculptures,
the Gothic cathedral, the mural painting. There was no
distinction between art and industry, between representative
and decorative art.
A course of structural art teaching begins with simple forms
of creative work, the pupil drawing upon all nature and all the
art of the world for examples. Representation and the sciences
become aids to self-expression rather than preliminary exer-
cises, as under the academic system. There is opportunity for
immediate application in industry, handicraft, home decora-
tion, and costume.
The structural method of art teaching, though comparatively
new in the United States, is not new as a principle. The old
system of apprenticeship taught art in practically this form.
Art is studied in this way in Japan. The Japanese, however,
have introduced the academic system in some of their schools,
and the two are conducted side by side. It is significant that
designers for the great Japanese industries of lacquer, metal,
and textiles are trained by the pure Japanese (synthetic)
method. The art of Persia, India, Turkey, China, in fact of
the whole Orient, is a higher form of industry, developed with-
out copying nature or historic styles. In the United States
the art teaching in professional schools has followed largely the
academic method. Normal art courses for the training of
teachers have been until recently thoroughly academic, the
subjects being object drawing, life drawing, water-color paint-
ing (still-life, figure, landscape), pen-and-ink, perspective,
anatomy, etc. The inadequacy of this and the feeling that
art training must be something more than pastime, together
with the increased interest in industrial education, have forced
Fine Arts and Music 587
synthetic methods into many of the normal schools, adding to
the academic courses composition in line, dark-and-light, and
color, and studies in art appreciation.
The Two Methods in the Schools. — The structural method
is now found side by side with the academic in many schools,
passing under the name of design or composition. These two
influences are reflected in the art teaching in the public schools,
with the academic in the ascendant, though evidently losing
ground from year to year. The old rigid copy books and the
type forms have given way to nature drawing, mass painting,
and illustration. These, however, tending to put art among
the pastimes, cannot hold the monopoly. Design, with its
stimulating application in industry, and the new thought of art
teaching as a development of power, have introduced new
problems and caused the study of spacing, dark-and-light, and
the application in manual training to have more prominence.
In the yearly exhibitions of school art the academic influence is
seen in mass painting, blotty landscapes in color, dictation
exercises in landscape, pose drawing (figures not in action),
illustration in crayon, water color, and cut paper. The
structural influence appears in designs (for panels, book covers,
pages, posters), massing in two and more values, landscape in a
few flat tones, illustrations for books, color schemes, pottery,
baskets, bookbinding, wood and metal construction, brush
drawing, pencil drawing, painting in flat tones with or without
outline. Wood block printing upon textiles and paper has
been extensively adopted in elementary and secondary schools
and in art schools, as a method of studying composition of
pattern and of making experiments in color harmony.
DESIGN AS THE SUBJECT RELATING FINE ARTS
TO PRACTICAL ARTS. The relation of the line arts to
the practical arts is made1 on the educational sick- through the
subject of design. Tin- form of the line arts most generally
found in the schools is that of design. This is because it has
both, the practical and the artistic relations and values, and
because it has the widest appeal.
588 Principles of Secondary Education
As related to the arts, design usually implies the planning
of the form, structure, and decoration of objects so that they
shall satisfy utilitarian and aesthetic demands. The degree to
which an object fulfils these demands determines the excel-
lence of its design. The conditions which meet the utilitarian
demands are obvious ; namely, that the object shall adequately
fulfil its purpose. The aesthetic demands are more complex,
and generally include utility and the beauty which results from
pleasing proportions and outlines, appropriate treatment of
material, and suitable decoration.
Industrial Design. — In the constructive arts the utilitarian
demand has first to be considered. Until this is met as com-
pletely as possible, it is difficult to find in ornamentation any
permanent enjoyment which at all compensates for the dis-
satisfaction arising from imperfect fulfilment of purpose.
Attempts to beautify inadequately planned or constructed
objects by profuse decoration give an impression of effort
misdirected. For example, a chair which is uncomfortable is
poor in design. Expensiveness of material and richness of
ornament or technical excellence of construction cannot com-
pensate for failure to fulfil the function of a chair, a failure
which prevents lasting pleasure in whatever formal beauty
may appear in the details. Closely related to this utilitarian
consideration is the pleasure in fine craftsmanship which is not
content with a crude construction barely sufficient to meet the
needs, but which demands also a mastery of tools and processes.
The satisfaction that arises from the contemplation of an ob-
ject which adequately fulfils its purpose and is well constructed
readily transcends the crude stage of relief because a need is
met, and develops into pleasurable appreciation of the fact
that intelligence has shaped raw material into an effective
creation by means of clear understanding of its purpose and
perfect mastery of the materials. This contemplative appre-
ciation of a well-constructed object which perfectly fulfils its
purpose is an aesthetic satisfaction, and thus in industrial
•Fine Arts and Music 589
products utility and excellence of workmanship appear as the
primary elements of good design.
Design in the Fine Arts. — The conditions which satisfy
the aesthetic demands for formal beauty appear to be as follows :
Beauty of proportion and outline is one of the chief requisites.
Experimentation with the possibilities of different relations of
proportions and areas, for example in placing a given number of
windows in the front of a house or determining the position
of a title to be printed upon a book cover, shows some positions
to be so much more pleasing than others that it leads to a
definite choice. An analysis of the results generally discovers
a consistent thought, not monotonous interrelation of meas-
ures, in the case of the pleasing proportions Experimenta-
tion with curves shows also that some give greater pleasure
than others, and that in the most pleasing forms the variations
of curvature are consistently related. Thus the standards of
excellence in proportions and outlines appear to be based, not
upon fashion, but upon universal and permanent reasons.
An understanding of the mathematical nature of the relations
of measures upon which good proportions and curves depend
is not necessary to an aesthetic enjoyment of these forms.
One may become trained to discriminate almost unerringly
between fine proportions and those that are commonplace,
without knowing why the results are pleasing, or that any
calculable relation exists. The response appears to be im-
mediate in terms of enjoyment, and the adjectives " good "
and " bad " as used by the designer with regard to propor-
tions and curves are meaningless except in terms of pleasure
awakened.
After the demand for utility has been met, the next impor-
tant condition of excellent design is this of good proportions
and fine outline. The opportunities offered by the arrange-
ment and refinement of necessary parts of the structure itself
should be utilized to the full before ornament is added, for in
the placing and shaping of essential features lies the greatest
5 go Principles of Secondary Education
possibility for beauty. For example, in the instance of the
chair which has been so planned as to fulfil all the demands of
utility such as strength and comfort, there is abundant oppor-
tunity, without transgressing these, to vary the position of
braces and panels and the shape of the back and arms and legs
so that pleasing proportions shall result. These same essential
parts may also be so modified as to give the chair a consistent
character throughout. It may be solid and heavy, or light and
delicate, and yet still outlined by straight lines, or it may
repeat curves of a particular sort. When the interest of a
skilled and artistic workman continues beyond the satisfaction
of utilitarian demands, and he lingers over his work, experi-
menting with its proportions and outlines till they show the
same character throughout, the object gains an individuality
which is the basis of style. When the object is one of a kind
which the builder repeats indefinitely, he is able to embody
in each successive product the hints gained by previous experi-
ments, and gradually to perfect a type. Where many artisans
are at work in the same line, a still more thorough exploration
of the possibilities of a given theme occurs. Thus styles of
architecture, furniture, metal work, etc., have developed.
The same interest that leads to utilizing to the full the
possibilities of beauty in the proportions and outlines of the
necessary structural elements frequently influences the artistic
craftsman to carry the manipulation of his product still
further, by playing with and echoing its nature and structural
features by such treatment as calls forth the beauty of the
materials; for example, the grain or polish of wood and the
color or texture of metal, sometimes making even the tool
marks a decorative feature, as in hammered metal or carved
wood. This interest finds expression also in ornamentation
which emphasizes and perfects the style, or symbolizes the
history, use, or surroundings of the object. Such ornament is
not an accidental or unrelated addition to an object, but an
essential expression and organic part of it. Such decoration
Fine Arts and Music 591
as this is clearly differentiated from that sort of ornamentation
which results from inability to respond to the stimulus of a
perfected idea and which therefore depends upon the barbaric
love of heterogeneous collections unorganized by any domi-
nating thought, resulting in a competition of interests. Good
design in ornament is not assured by mere technical excellence.
For example, an Indian's head may be realistically painted
upon a vase, but neither has any organic relation to the other,
and neither enhances the beauty of the other. They arc
competing artistic interests accidentally juxtaposed, and
therefore poor in design.
Good industrial design demands that an object adequately
fulfil its purpose, that its workmanship be skillful and its
construction sincere, that the possibilities of beauty in the
materials and in orderly and consistent arrangement and
shape of necessary parts be utilized to the full, and that
ornament where used shall be a fulfilment or reenforcement
of the idea of the object.
Relation of Design to the Arts of Representation. — In
painting and sculpture the utilitarian demand is not so evident
as in the industrial arts, but is still a prominent element of
excellence. The mural painting should primarily be a paint-
ing designed for the wall in a sense that is not fulfilled by merely
suiting its dimensions to those of the wall and its subject to
the surroundings. The technical treatment, the qualities of
color, and the disposition of lines and areas must conform to
the mural idea. Even the apparently independent easel pic-
ture is not at best advantage if it must be made with no
regard for its permanent location. Statuary is usually re-
quired to be an integral part of an architectural or landscape
setting. Some correspondence exists between the subject of a
painting or piece of sculpture which determines the kind of
response it seeks to awaken, and the ultilitarian purpose of an
article of industrial art. The appropriate purposes of arts of
design are those which cannot be so well accomplished by
592 Principles of Secondary Education
literature or music, and are those which depend for their effect
not only upon what things are represented, but largely upon
such an arrangement of them as shall result in the formal
beauty of consistently related areas, balanced masses, pleasing
flow of line, and harmonious color. The artist must be suffi-
ciently master of his facts to justify his courage and be con-
vincing when he uses natural material for his own creations,
but he must also understand design, or his creation will lack
the quality which justifies a modification of facts as presented
by nature and distinguishes a work of art from a photograph
or cast from nature, namely, that a work of art is the embodi-
ment of a human idea.
Place of Design in Education. — The purpose of a study of
design in education is to develop the desire and capacity to
enjoy beautiful things, to establish standards of taste, to raise
the aesthetic sense from the level of response only to those
accidental stimuli which are powerful enough to arrest and
hold attention without effort, to an appreciation of what gives
increasing pleasure because of elements that are permanent
and universal. Such training should result in new sources of
enjoyment for the individual, and in a higher standard of in-
dustrial products. The production of a great amount of raw
material is not so valuable an outcome of civilization as the
ability to convert raw material into the highest grade of
finished product.
Present School Conditions. — Design has a large place in the
elementary and secondary schools of nearly all countries prom-
inent in education. Individual towns and cities, even in the
same country, often vary greatly in their methods, but perhaps
the most significant and general difference in methods in the
United States as compared with other countries is that in the
schools of the United States the chief emphasis is usually laid
upon the exercise of originality from the earliest years, while in
most other countries a broad acquaintance with the best design
of the past and a thorough training in drawing from nature and
Fine Arts and Music 593
historic ornament is generally insisted upon as a necessary
foundation for originality. In the schools of the United States
design has in the past been largely in the field of ornament
worked out according to the principles of formal beauty, and
used, if at all, as decoration applied to completed objects.
Probably this has been true because design has been taught
so frequently by a department having no organic relation with
that which has taught constructive work. On this account the
teachers of construction have emphasized the phase of design
relating to utility and technique, while the teachers of art
have given chief attention to that relating to the formal beauty
of isolated shapes. Under these circumstances the relation of
ornament to structure and that other important phase of
design, namely, the possibilities for beauty that lie in the dis-
position of structural parts even where no decoration is used,
have often been overlooked. The study of unrelated principles
of formal beauty, however, is gradually giving way to an ac-
quaintance with concrete problems which embody all phases of
design and offer opportunity to give to each the consideration
warranted by its relative value.
The study of design usually begins in the lowest grades and
continues through the high and normal schools. The prob-
lems are increasingly those related to actual conditions in
school, home, and community. The lines of study may be
generalized as follows. A consideration of the utilitarian
conditions which the problem must meet, experimentation
with the forms involved, to discover the best shapes and
arrangement, appropriate ornamentation in form and color,
and study of the best available examples. The phases of
design which emphasize simple decoration with repeated
forms, as in borders and surface patterns, are considered as
best adapted for the youngest children. Those which call
for original judgment as to utility and formal beauty and
harmonious color demand increased maturity.
In England and in the leading European countries emphasis
2 Q
594 Principles of Secondary Ediication
is laid upon the relation of the arts of design to the industries
of the country. The present trend appears to be toward
developing originality in design. The directing idea under-
lying this tendency is that design develops best, not when the
mind depends largely upon its spontaneous activity, but
when it is furnished with the widest possible knowledge as a
fund of suggestion. The acquaintance with the best examples
and the training in drawing as a means of securing data are
much more thorough than in the United States, and design is
more intimately related to the industries of the country. The
British and European attitude toward the teaching of design
is suggested in the definitions of its purpose made by the British
Department of Practical Art in 1852, which have not been
departed from, and which are practically true for other Euro-
pean countries, (i) General elementary instruction in art as
a branch of national education among all classes of the com-
munity, with the view of laying a foundation for correct judg-
ment both in the consumer and the producer of manufactures.
(2) Application of the principles of technical art to the im-
provement of manufactures, together with the establishment
of museums by which all classes may be induced to investi-
gate those common principles of taste which may be traced
in the works of excellence in all ages.
MUSIC TEACHING IN THE SCHOOLS. — The motive
that has placed music in the school curriculum has been pri-
marily a humanitarian or social one. There are two reasons
for this. The first is negative, due to the fact that the tech-
nique which the practice of music develops serves no pur-
pose .outside the art itself. In this respect it is unlike
drawing, for example, which, while serving as a basis for the
fine arts, trains the eye and hand in ways that are valuable for
the scientific student as well as the artisan. The second and
the positive reason is that music lends itself, especially in con-
certed work, more perhaps than any other human form of ex-
pression, to arousing and expressing a common social feeling.
JFine Arts and Music 595
For this reason it has constantly been looked upon by the
schools as an excellent activity for developing and manifesting
school spirit.
Recent Tendencies towards a Broader Use and Appreciation
of Music in the School. - The tendency in modern education
to demand standards and scientific results for what is done
would seem at first glance to militate against the increase of
musical activity in our schools. This perhaps is true about
secondary schools that make the preparation for college their
sole aim, but where the secondary school is fulfilling its own
task in our educational system, the tendency to broaden the
field of music is very evident.
Instrumental Music. — First, with reference to new work,
a recognition of the value of instrumental music is growing
rapidly. School boards are buying the necessary instruments
for carrying on successful bands and orchestras — instruments
that are essential to such organizations but are not valuable
from a solo point of view and hence would not be likely to be
bought by pupils themselves. For instance, Oakland, Califor-
nia, has bought some $6000 worth of band instruments and has
over twenty-two amateur bands in its schools. The Los
Angeles school authorities are reported as investing $10,000 in
musical instruments. Brookline, Massachusetts, at the other
extreme of our country, has a number of the necessary orches-
tral instruments as part of the equipment of its high school ;
and simultaneously in many parts of the country, especially
in the West, a like encouragement of instrumental organiza-
tions is going on.
But this is not all. Further encouragement is given by the
offering of credit as well for work done. Minneapolis, for
instance, gives credit for practice on orchestral instruments if
the pupil takes at least one lesson a week and attends two
school rehearsals and plays at school functions. Not only
this, but in many schools, such, for instance, as in Lincoln,
Nebraska, private piano and violin lessons, when meeting the
596 Principles of Secondary Education
standard set up by the school, are credited as part of the re-
quired work of the school. This makes it possible for a tal-
ented high school student to keep up his technique and at the
same time get a general education.
Parallel with this widening use of music is the increased
attention being paid to historical and appreciative courses,
having for their main feature the use of the mechanical means
that have recently put within the reach of communities so
much of vocal and instrumental music that would not have
been possible a few years ago. The study of the folk songs
and music of a country is now being correlated in a most ef-
fective way with its geography, literature, and social organiza-
tion, and music is thus serving a truly cultural purpose, wider
than it has ever been possible for it to do before. More inten-
sive still, but limited to a smaller number of students, are the
new courses in composition which are taking the place of the
old-fashioned harmony classes and giving opportunity for
talented students to discover their ability in composition.
Singing. — - While the work described in the above courses is
greatly widening and intensifying the influence of music, the
main aim, after all, in the teaching of school music is to develop
the singer ; for in the vocal apparatus we have an instrument
that is under the perfect control of practically every one and
needs but little work, compared with the playing of instruments,
to make such ability effective in chorus singing. The chief
obstacle for the singer has been the reading of the musical
notation. There is little doubt of the prime importance of
this subject, but unfortunately there is a tendency to make
skill in sight reading the ultimate test of musical instruction in
schools. The accomplishment of such a standard often pre-
vents the necessary practice for both tone quality and rendi-
tion that the broader view of music teaching would demand.
Not only this, music is also a literature, and it is of prime im-
portance that students who have spent more or less time on
music study in the schools during eight to twelve years should
Fine Arts and Music 597
have at least a small but choice repertoire of fine songs that
they really know how to sing well, and so thoroughly learned
that they will not be dependent on the printed page any more
than is the concert singer or player. Unfortunately, such
work demands individual attention and musical capacity on
the part of the teacher, and where much of the work has been
done by teachers of other subjects, this artistic side of music
teaching has been necessarily neglected. It is, however, a
hopeful sign of educational development that with the broad-
ening of the scope of music there is also an increasing demand
for greater aesthetic values as the result of its study. In
view of the practically universal scope of vocal music in the
schools, the consideration of the methods employed will deal
primarily with this aspect of the subject, especially as the
part of the work that deals with the structure and notation of
music is equally important for the player of an instrument and
the student of appreciation and composition.
Methods in School Music. — Methods in music teaching
deal with two kinds of activities : (i) What is necessary for
producing the music, such as the control of the instrument, or
voice, and the understanding of the notation. (2) What is
done under the term of " nuance," popularly called " expres-
sion," and the slight notation that indicates it. The first
may be said to deal with the structure of music, the second
with its interpretation. It is obvious that the first application
of a method in music will be to produce tones, following which
there will be a constant effort toward control for expression.
This is especially true for the instrumentalist. Even the voice
teacher spends the first few years in what is called " voice
placing," practice for producing a good singing tone, before
he does much with song interpretation.
In teaching school music, however, this order of activities is
reversed. The voice in most children, through the exercise of
speech, is already under wonderful control. So the aim of
school music is not to produce professional singers with de-
598 Principles of Secondary Education
veloped voices, or professional players, but to cultivate a taste
for music by good singing and to prepare the individual to
aid in the social uses of music. Consequently, it is better to
commence with rote songs, or singing by imitation. Two
things are thus of special importance in school music : (i) the
pupil must know how to render many fine songs in order to
develop his taste and appreciation ; and (2) he must be able
to read from notation.
Interpretation. — Learning songs and learning how to sing
them expressively in school is largely carried on through
imitation. The pupil is required to match or imitate the model
tones given as well as the style or way in which the songs are
sung. Supporting this work, the thought of the text and the
character of the melody are brought home to the student's
mind. Thus his feeling for the thought and the character of
the song aids in getting the quality and rendering desired.
Besides this work, vocal habits are developed in the pupil
based on the distinction between chest and head tones. The
former are what the child or youth largely employs in his
play, and there is a natural tendency to do the same in music.
But when sustained pitch is attempted with this register above
B in the middle of the treble staff, the tone becomes hard, and
the vocal mechanism strained. The head tone that the child
naturally uses when singing above D of the fourth line of the
treble staff is clear and sweet. Vocal method in school music
is largely concerned in strengthening this upper head tone and
developing it downwards. For this reason most teachers
agree that scale practice and technical work should commence
with the upper part of the voice, with the head tone, bringing
this quality down as far as possible, and that the lower tone
should be sung softly, developing by constant practice an
automatic control of the voice. Thus, the "first method in
school music deals largely with musical interpretation, and
consists in: (i) imitation of a good example; (2) attention
to the thought of the composition, both text and style; (3)
development of clear head tones.
Fine Arts and Music 599
Structure. — We turn now to the second element in learning
to read music. The instrumentalist, by the time he has
learned to play, has associated the action necessary to produce
the tones with the notes on the staff that represent these tones,
so that when he sees the note, he can produce the tone. He
can thus, unfortunately, especially if he is unmusical, avoid
the necessity of thinking music. The mental process of such a
person consists in thinking the physical motions necessary to
produce the tone called for by the note, but not the tone itself,
which he only hears as the result of his action. On the other
hand, the singer has no definite movement in his throat that
he can associate with a given note on the staff. F and F sharp
feel the same to him. The singer is obliged to learn his nota-
tion, not by connecting it with the actions that produce the
tones, but by connecting the notation with the way the tones
sound. The first few tones heard tend to establish a key to
which all the tones that follow are related, the task of the
singer being to associate these tone relationships with the nota-
tion that represents them. His mental process, instead of being
connected with the physical movement necessary to produce
the tone, is a thought process ; for he must hear mentally the
sound that the note represents before he can produce the tone.
As in interpretation the starting point here also lies in imita-
tion. Tone progressions, such as scales or simple songs, are first
learned by imitation. These are then sung in connection with
their notation, until an association is formed between what is
sung and what is seen. Such association is not as simple as it
seems, for the notation of music presents three different kinds
of tonal relationships : pitch, duration, and metrical grouping.
It is through the combination of these three kinds of relation-
ships that the pupil is able to form a concept of the musical
movement of iiis tune. The problem here is essentially the
same as that of reading language. From what the notes in-
dicate, the pupil's mind must be capable of forming concepts
of the musical movement sufficiently far ahead of what the
600 Principles of Secondary Education
voice is producing not to interfere with the even flow of the
music. Unlike language, the signs and notes that represent
these relationships are not grouped into musical units as let-
ters are combined into words standing for the same idea in
whatever combination the words may appear. Every musical
unit has its own peculiar combination. The music reader
must think these musical units by combining the separate
relationships that go to make them up. The most complex
part of the training, and the one that requires the closest
attention in the methods employed, is concerned with the
problem of rapid conception of the tune from its notation. A
musical child will often make his associations between the
appearance of the notes upon, the staff and the movement of the
music, so that he is able to read music fairly well, without
being able to tell definitely the separate intervals of duration
and pitch, representing the musical thought.
Key. — The large majority of people, however, need help in
associating the position of the tones in the keys with the notes.
Such a device we have in the famous do, re, mi, or syllable names,
dating back to the eleventh century, and attributed to Guido of
Arezzo. This association is made possible when the key is
established, the tones of the scale taking on certain charac-
teristics. Since, therefore, a certain syllable is always sung
to a certain tone in the key, when the sign for a syllable is
written, it suggests the relative tone in the key it represents.
The principle underlying this use of the syllable names had a
revival in France under the leadership of Pierre Galin, a music
publisher of the early nineteenth century, who indicated the
relationship of tones by numbers. In England John Curwen
utilized the sound names attributed to Guido. In the system
thus developed, called the " Tonic sol-fa," the fixed pitch
representation of the staff was ignored, and the first letter of
the syllables, do, re, mi, etc., was printed instead of numbers;
for example, d, r, m. The spacing of these letters indicated the
duration of the tones. These letters, like the numbers, drew
Fine Arts and Music 60 1
attention to the relationship of the sounds to be sung, and not
to any given pitch, and is evidently a vocalist's notation.
The American methods follow the English usage. Some
places even adopt the Tonic sol-fa notation as an introduction
to sight reading. But the ordinary practice is to use the
syllable names with the staff notation. This brings about a
complexity that does not exist where the syllables are used
with the Tonic sol-fa notation. For reading by note requires
a student of harmony to determine the proper relative name
from the fixed notation that the staff represents, especially in
modern music, which tends to be more and more chromatic,
and makes it difficult to determine what the exact key rela-
tionship of a tone is. Another difficulty grows out of the con-
stant use of the Tonic sol-fa names, especially where the syl-
lable names have been too slavishly used. The tendency is to
associate the tone to be sung not simply with the sight or
sound of the name, but with its actual physical production, so
that the pupil is able to sing the tune if he can sing sound
names, but is unable to think the tune apart from the names.
In order to avoid this difficulty many schools use numbers
instead of sound names. The objection to this is that the
number names do not lend themselves to good tone production,
and this method, when too closely followed, is open to the same
objection as the use of the sound names. The chromatic
tendency of modern music above referred to is making these
methods less and less effective.
Interval. — Besides thinking of tones in their relation to key,
we may think of them as determined by their distance from
each other as intervals of seconds, thirds, and fourths hav-
ing certain common characteristics. When this has been
thoroughly grasped, one is enabled to sing these distances by
thinking the nature of the interval. Mr. Samuel Cole of the
New England Conservatory in his sight singing course has
given specific names for each interval. By always using the
name with the interval whenever it occurs, associations are
602 Principles of Secondary Education
formed between the interval character of tones and the name,
so that, when the interval name is thought, the tones occur to
the mind.
Rhythm. — The teaching of duration and time grouping of
tones does not present such a variety in the methods employed.
The demand on the pupil, unlike that of thinking pitch rela-
tions, is identical for both singer and player. A few fundamen-
tal differences in tone lengths are used over and over, whatever
the key, although confusion is caused to young students by
changes in the note used to represent the beat. This diffi-
culty is being reduced, there being a tendency among pub-
lishers to use uniformly a quarter note to represent the beat
in simple time. Besides beating the time, other physical move-
ments for strengthening the feeling for pulse in music are being
employed in a more varied way.
In Europe much interest has been awakened by the work of
M. Jacques Dalcroze, who has developed a remarkable feeling
for rhythmic character through dancing and gesture. Move-
ments of the march and folk dance are advocated for develop-
ing rhythmic feeling as a support for musical work.
Present Procedure. — The pressure of more and more studies
in the school is tending to lessen the time given to singing. A
fair average allotted to this subject is one hour a week. This
is sometimes given in two half hours, sometimes in fifteen-
minute periods. This hour is often supplemented by another
period of music work and general exercises. The music study
period generally commences with some breathing exercises,
followed by scale and vocal practice. Then technical matter
pertaining to notation is followed by reading new music or
exercises, and the lesson ends with a review of familiar songs.
In the first stages, whether in elementary or high schools,
learning songs by imitation, or " rote singing," as it is called, is
largely emphasized, and in some schools this is carried on in
diminishing extent through subsequent grades. This makes it
possible to introduce a great deal of excellent music, which
Fine Arts and Music 603
might otherwise be too difficult, to read. On the other hand,
those schools employing sight reading do little rote work after
the first year, paying much more attention to the singing of
exercises intended to improve sight reading. This procedure
reduces the artistic musical material used, but tends to increase
the proficiency in reading. In either case, much depends upon
the amount of individual work demanded from the pupils.
The great difficulty in accomplishing any thorough teaching
along ordinary lines lies in the fact that music is universally
taught collectively, thus reducing the individual responsibility
to a minimum, so that students can go through years of school
work, and at the end be unable to give the simplest description
of what they have done.
New Tendencies. — The new trend in modern education is
bringing about a decided change in the attitude toward the
popular teaching of mucic. This change in aim puts the
emphasis not so much on what is taught as on what the pupil
can do with what he is taught. The point of interest is the
pupil rather than the subject. Under this new influence the
teacher aims to make the tone quality, the dynamics, the
pronunciation, and the musical form, as to both pitch and
rhythm, grow out of one central thought, — the expression of
the feeling suggested by the words of the song. The child
must sing it in a way to show that he realizes the significance
of what he docs.
But this is not all ; the child must not only make the musical
thought of another his own, but he must have experience in
expressing his own poetic and musical thought, not that in
so doing he can express anything of value for others, but for
the sake of the musical development both in thought and taste
that such practice brings about. It is parallel to theme
work in the teaching of the mother tongue. This attitude
toward music treats it more as a language, and seeks to make
the form expressive of the feeling. In making a melody fit
the words of a song the child is constantlv led bv the teacher to
604 Principles of Secondary Education
observe the relationship between the music and the text.
Such effort on the part of the pupil brings about the most
searching observation and thought with reference to the song
he is producing. When such song-making is the collective
effort of the whole class, different members offering their
versions of the wording and thought of their couplets and their
melodic expression there is a much more intensive exercise of
aesthetic faculties and discriminative thought than ordinarily
takes place by the old methods.
Thus the new methods seek to develop the poetic, imagina-
tive, and discriminative power of the pupil in his relation to
music, laying the basis for musical appreciation, which after all
is the most important use to which the pupils in our public
schools will put their musical education.
TOPICS FOR FURTHER STUDY
1 . What evidences are there in the life of the adolescent child or in
the activities of modern society to indicate that the art interests and in-
stincts are fundamental ?
2. What are the anthropological and historical evidences that the
art impulses and interests are fundamental and of educative significance ?
3. What activities of the school or of the life of school children of
the adolescent period possess educational value for aesthetic ends ?
4. What are the comparative values of the analytic or academic and
the synthetic or structural methods of art instruction as revealed by a
study of any given school system ?
5. Outline in detail a course of study according to each of the two
methods (analytic and synthetic). What are the educational advantages
and disadvantages of each ?
6. What practical methods for the development of art appreciation
among the high school pupils might be employed in your own commu-
nity or any selected community ?
7. What are the values and advantages of the methods of teaching
art in any one European country compared with those in vogue in America
or in any selected American city ?
8. How can the art work be correlated with the other activities of
the school ? The music work ?
Fine Arts and Music 605
9. Work out the exercises of a course in design relating the fine and
the constructive arts.
10. What opportunity or demand or need is there in present American
life for instruction in design for secondary school pupils ? How can these
needs be correlated with work in the schools ?
11. Trace the development in purpose, conception, and method of
instruction in art and music in any selected school system.
12. What is the place of instruction of music in the high schools?
How does it differ from its place in the elementary school?
13. What criticism or suggestion can you make on the music work in
any selected city school system or high school ?
14. What place should the modern mechanical methods of music
representation have in the schools ? Give advantages and disadvan-
tages of their use.
15. How can instruction in art and music be used as a means to moral
instruction and character building ?
REFERENCES
Fine Arts
American Art Annual, 10 vols., 1898-1013. F. N. Levy, editor. Biog-
raphies of American Painters and Illustrators and Crafts Workers.
Art Schools and Organizations, Art Sales, etc. Xew York.
Art and Industry. I. Edwards Clark, editor. 4 vols. Part I, 1885,
Drawing in Public Schools; Part II, 1892, Industrial and Manual
Training; Parts III and IV, 1897-1898, Industrial and Technical
Training; Bureau of Education, Washington, D.C.
Art Education in the Public Schools of the United States. J. P. Haney,
editor. London and Xew York, 1908.
BARXES, EARL. Studies in Education. 2 vols. Illus. Stanford Uni-
versity and Philadelphia, 1807.
COLIN, PAUL. Enseignement des Arts du Dessin. Paris Exposition
universelle, 1889. Rapports du jury intcrnaCl, 1890-1892, Vol. VI,
pp. 121-1248.
COURAJOD, Louis C. L. Ilistoirc dc V cnscigncmcnt des arts du dcssin au
XVIII sicclc ; VEcolc royale des elhrs proteges. 8vo, Paris, 1874.
Dow, A. W. Composition. ~(\\ ed. Xew York, 1013.
Theory and Practice of Teaching Art. Publication of Teachers College,
New York, 1912.
GOTZK, W. Das Kind als K Hustler. Hamburg, 1898.
606 Principles of Secondary Education
GREAT BRITAIN. COMMITTEE OF COUNCIL ON EDUCATION — Science
and Art Department. Directory with regulations for establishing
and conducting science and art schools. London.
Instruction in Fine and Manual Arts in the United States. Statistical
monograph; H. T. Vailey, editor. Bull. VI, 1909, U. S. Bureau of
Education, Washington, D.C.
Jahrbuch fiir den Zeichen- und Kunstunterricht. Edited by G. Freise,
Hanover.
KERSCHENSTEINER, G. Die Entwickelung der Zeichnerischen Begabung.
Munich, 1905.
LEREZ. UArt et la Poesie chezT Enfant. Paris, 1888.
Proceedings Eastern Art Teachers' Association (now Eastern Art and
Manual Training Teachers' Association). 6 vols., 8vo. Pub. by
the Association, E. E. Struble, Sec. Newark, N.J.
Proceedings National Education Association. Annual; see Reports of
Department of Art Education. Pub. by the Association, Winona,
Minn.
Proceedings Western. Drawing Teachers' Association (now Western Draw-
ing and Manual Training Teachers' Association). 16 vols. Pub.
by the Association, W. T. Bawden, Editor, Normal, 111.
Report of Examiners, National Competitors, Board of Education, South
Kensington. Annual. Wyman and Sons, London.
School Art Book. Monthly magazine. 9 vols. Illus. Pub. by the
Davis Press, Worcester, Mass.
SPARKES, JOHN C. L. Schools of Art, their origin, history, work, and'
influence. In Report International Health Exhib., Vol. 8, pp. 721-
880. London, 1884.
Transactions International Art Congress, Vols. 1900, 1904, 1908. Vol.
Ill, 1908. Pub. by the Congress, 151 Cannon St., London, S.C.
Yearbooks of the Council of Supervisors of the Manual Arts. 7 vols., 8vo.
1901-1907. Illustrated Studies in Art Education by various writers,
Pub. by the Council; address E. D. Griswold, Hastings-on-Hudson,
N.Y.
It is to be noted that practically all the large cities in the United States
and England publish their art courses of study for the public schools ;
various cities and localities on the continent do the same.
Design
BATCHELDER, ERNEST. The Principles of Design. Chicago, 1904.
CHRISTIE, Mrs. A. II. Embroidery and Tapestry. New York, 1906.
COCKKRKLL, DOUGLASS. Bookbinding. New York, 1902 ; London, 1906.
Fine Arts and Music 607
CRANE, WALTER. The Bases of Design. London, 1898.
DAY, Louis F. Nature in Ornament. 2 vols. London, 1894.
Dow, ARTHUR W. Composition. New York, 1905.
JACK, GEORGE. Woodcarving. New York, 1903.
JOHNSTON, EDWARD. Writing, Lettering and Illuminating. New York,
1906.
Ross, DENMAN W. A Theory of Pure Design. Boston, 1907.
Music
The Voice:
BATES, JAMES. The Care and Use of the Voice. London, 1907.
ELLIS, A. T. Pronunciation for Singers. London, 1888.
HENDERSON, W. J. The Art of the Singer. New York, 1898.
HOWARD, F. E. The Child Voice in Singing. New York, 1898.
JONES, DORA DUTY. The Technique of Speech. New York, 1909.
MILLER, FRANK E. The Voice. New York, 1910.
Rix, FRANK R. Voice Training for School Children. New York, 1910.
RUSSELL, Louis A. English Diction for Singers and Speakers. Boston,
1905.
TAYLOR, D. C. The Psychology of Singing. New York, 1910.
Methods :
CADY, CALVIN B. Music Education in Outline. Chicago, 1902.
CRANE, JULIA E. The Manual of the Music Courses. Plattsburg, N.Y.,
1909.
FARNSWORTH, CHAS. H. Education through Music. New York, 1909.
FORSEMAN, ROBERT. Lyric Music Method. Chicago, 1914.
GIDDINGS, T. P. School Music Teaching. Chicago, 1910.
HARDY, T. MASKELL. Practical Lessons in School Singing. London,
1906.
NEWTON, E. W. Music in the Public Schools. New York, 1909.
New York State Education Dept. Syllabus for' Secondary Schools.
Albany, 1910.
Rix, FRANK R. Manual of School Music. New York, 1909.
SMITH, E. The Eleanor Smith Music Course Manual. New York, 1908.
TUFTS, J. W. A Handbook of Vocal Music. Boston, 1896.
CHAPTER XVI
HOUSEHOLD ARTS
PRACTICAL ARTS IN EARLY EDUCATION. — In the
early days of our educational history the work in practical
arts was carried on at home. We laud the " little red
school house " and point to the famous men and women who
received their training within its walls. But we are forgetting
that their best training was gained, by the boys in shop or
field, and by the girls in a home, under the efficient guidance
of a homemaker ; — a homemaker who realized that a home
was the place for the rearing and training of children. There
was no need of Montessori methods, for the little ones learned
to button their own and their brothers' and sisters' pinafores,
and the busy mother had no time to interfere with the
child's self-activity. There was no demand for industrial
arts in the elementary grades, for the children participated in
the simple manufacture of the materials and equipment
necessary to their daily life. The girl learned of textiles in no
artificial fashion, but was thoroughly acquainted with the
whole process in the production of the wool which she made
into her winter dress. She understood detergents and dyes,
for both the soap and the indigo blue were made at home.
The girl spun and wove, knitted and embroidered, made dresses
and the lace with which to trim them. She not only learned
to make bread, but she made the yeast as well. She under-
stood food preservation, for its learning was motivated by
keen necessity.
The " little red school house " then fulfilled its function
well in teaching the three R's. Pestalozzi wished the home
608
Household Arts 609
and the school to be supplementary to each other. His school
curriculum included some work in the practical arts because
the home was even then neglecting these industries. Our
schools are still seeking to supplement the home, but the in-
dustrial processes have been largely removed from the home
and the home often converted into a mere lodging house for
the family. This striking change in the character of home
life, whatever causes have contributed to it, is at the bottom
of the great educational problem. It accounts for the ever
increasing paternalism of the schools. It compels the schools
to introduce carefully planned work in household arts, if girls
are to enter life well equipped.
BROAD CONTENT OF HOUSEHOLD ARTS. — The
well-being of a democracy demands that all should have an
opportunity to become informed upon subjects affecting the
prosperity of the community. A knowledge of how men
and women earn a livelihood is essential to an appreciation of
the dignity of labor. In some way schools have failed to
make their students realize that there is dignity in all forms of
honorable labor. Any educational system that registers such
a failure among its products is fundamentally unsound, if not
actually vicious. Social sympathy and stability must be
secured by putting work in its proper place of honor and by
imparting a knowledge of the conditions that govern that work.
It is quite as important for the girl to be trained in citizenship
as for the boy. We have come to recognize that development
of the individual is not a matter of sex, that all children have a
right to be well born, well fed, sheltered, and clothed, and that
all, regardless of sex, must be given the opportunity for free and
full development. In order to meet present-day conditions,
the girls need training for life. Our conception of the scope
of household arts has been enlarged, therefore, to include the
larger housekeeping, and each department and process grow-
ing out of homemaking must be studied as affecting not
only the individual home, but the homes of the community.
610 Principles of Secondary Education
House sanitation concerns a girl in her own home, but she
must be also concerned with the housing problem of the ten-
ement. Feeding her own children is by no means her whole
duty, for the milk and other foods which she will buy come
from the same sources that feed the poor. This common
source becomes her responsibility. Knowledge of food values
should not be restricted by sex, for though one may never cook
a meal, food must often be selected from a menu card and the
proper selection is of greatest importance. The course which
deals with cookery only becomes trade training as distin-
guished from household arts education. Education in house-
hold arts is for a business which lasts as long as life lasts, and
through it one should find a purposeful share in the outside
world's work. The household arts prepare girls for good
citizenship and make of them active workers in bringing
about better living conditions for all.
The Purpose of the Household Arts. — Household arts
treats of the final distribution, the ultimate preparation for
use, and the consumption of the earth's products. It aims to
enlarge the sum total of human happiness by improving the
average of human health and increasing the purchasing power
of the small purse. It seeks to teach values, to teach methods
in the preparation of materials used for food, clothing, and
shelter, to teach the principles of hygiene and sanitation. This
is an age believing in prevention rather than in cure. Realiz-
ing the soundness of such belief, household arts endeavors to
teach the child the principles of right living, so that she will
become healthy, happy, and efficient. It tries to teach econ-
omy in the home management, and this by neither skimping
nor doing without. It seeks to teach the purchasing power of
the individual purse, not so much in the number of pounds of
flour or beef that the contents of the purse will buy, but in
what, in terms of caloric or food value, the purse holds ; not
so much how many yards of cloth or ribbon may be purchased,
but such a knowledge of textiles as will enable the purchaser to
Household Arts 611
secure a fair value. It includes the study of the consumption
of time and energy, since efficiency is as necessary to the proper
management of the home as it is to that of the factory. The
big directing purpose of household arts may be defined as a
desire to improve social conditions through teaching the effec-
tive control of physical environment.
SCHOOL WORK SHOULD CONNECT CLOSELY WITH
LIFE. - Training in household arts should fit actual life con-
ditions. This is a necessity. The teacher must know the
home conditions of the individual members of her class be-
fore she can adapt her work to their needs, but she must also
know the home conditions of the community at large and
point the way for cooperative work, for without some such
knowledge she is in danger of educating her girls away from
actual conditions. The kindergartner, by means of her home
visits and gatherings of mothers, is exerting a greater in-
fluence in the home than is the teacher of household arts.
The Mothers' Associations might easily include the parents
of older students. The kindergartner would welcome the as-
sistance of the household arts teacher, not only in the pro-
gram, but also on the social side, which is always more
intimate when combined with appropriate refreshments.
The mothers might accept suggestions from their daughters
concerning things learned in a domestic science lesson if they
were acquainted with the teacher and respected her opinion.
A word of warning may be in place. The teacher will not
gain the mother's respect unless she is willing to give a respect-
ful consideration to that mother's home methods. Unless
very careful, the teacher may quite unconsciously offend
some foreign mother. Furthermore, social workers claim
that much of the lawlessness of children of foreign parentage
is due to the loss of filial respect, engendered in our schools
through lack of considerate attention to the customs of other
nations. In a cookery lesson, it is wise, after giving the fun-
damental principle in the effect of heat upon a given food-
612 Principles of Secondary Education
stuff, to illustrate or at least indicate the different modifications
in its preparation or service in other countries. Often the
same dish is merely cloaked with a different name. Similar
consideration should not be neglected in the study of costume
or housewifery. Comparison of methods, eliciting the good
from each, is a quick way of securing mutual respect and
social sympathy.
CLOTHING AND HYGIENE. — The Gertrude of Pesta-
lozzi was most careful of the toilet of her children. They
were taught habits of neatness, the arrangement of their hair
and the condition of their dresses was a part of the teacher's
responsibility. The domestic art teacher presents no new
principle of education \vhen she introduces talks on personal
hygiene and gives instruction in the care and maintenance of
the wardrobe. Habits of dress have an economic importance
far in excess of the cost of cloth per yard or the size of the
milliner's bill. It is of primary concern that the girl who is
entering a business or professional life possess an attractive
personal appearance ; an appearance neat, appropriate, and
becoming. She will find this a decided asset in securing not
only employment, but the respect of her employer.
Blind and stupid following of fashion is to be met by
instruction in costume design and color harmony. The study
of proportion and form carried out in garment construction
will train the girls to an appreciation of beauty and appro-
priateness. The study of domestic art, however, should go
below the surface and deal with both toilet and dress. A study
of the proper kind of corsets and shoes is as necessary as the
consideration of those garments which the girls themselves
may make in the classroom. This whole subject of dress
should be in close coordination with that of physiology. An
ethical question is also involved which must not be passed by.
Every teacher of household arts has a heavy moral respon-
sibility. Clean-minded men remonstrate, while others stare,
at the hobble or slit skirt, the extremely low neck, the ab-
Household Arts 613
surdly short sleeves, and the high-heeled pumps so commonly
worn. This is a fact not to be controverted, a fact presenting
a problem more important than sewing or pattern drafting.
Teachers of household arts should recognize this. They should
go further than cultivating an appreciation of the beautiful, the
becoming, the appropriate, and not hesitate, from any false
modesty, to teach true modesty. It is admitted that home is
the best place for such instruction and the mother the proper
one to give it. Unfortunately some girls lack proper home
environment and even mothers ; and all girls discount what is
told them, until, through study, the fundamental laws impress
upon them the wisdom of what their mother said. If the
students' brothers and sisters are taken as concrete illustra-
tions, care and clothing of infants and small children can be
taught in a way to avoid self-consciousness. Older sisters
have a great influence on the younger, and the " little
mothers " thus secure a training that will later stand them in
good stead. It is more important for them to know how to
bathe the baby, dress it properly, and use the power of sug-
gestion in the formation of its habits, than to embroider a
petticoat or make Hollandaise sauce. Whether the girl
marries or not, she should bear her part in the prevention of
infant mortality, and a knowledge of child hygiene will make
her an intelligent worker both in her home and civic life.
FOOD AND NUTRITION. — Satisfaction is felt in the
ownership of a body and brain, only when the mechanism of
the body runs smoothly and supplies due energy for the mind
to apply. That energy is secured by the adequate intake of
air, water, and food, and the proper elimination of waste.
We eat to live ; the direction of that life and energy is another
problem. Efficiency, however, is to be secured only through
the maintenance of nutritive equilibrium. The food for in-
fancy is nicely balanced by nature in the mother's milk, and
the food of the mother affects this supply. It is acknowl-
edged that much of the sickness or failure to nourish the
6 14 Principles of Secondary Education
child properly comes from ignorance on the part of the young
mother, which might have been avoided by a little timely in-
struction. Lack of natural food and the necessity of artificial
feeding is a large factor in infant mortality, and, therefore,
the food for infants and small children is a practical and most
important phase of household arts instruction. Food habits
are acquired early and need guidance and direction. Malnu-
trition is prevalent among the wealthy as well as among the
poorer people. This is due to ignorance of the proper food to
buy rather than to a lack of money with which to buy it.
Increased facilities of transportation have brought to our
doors the products of every clime ; a new problem, that of
choice, has been laid upon the homemaker. This requires a
knowledge of food values and food requirements.
The housewife must have an appreciation of what constitutes
cost and its contributing factors, for the price one pays for
an article may be no criterion of its food value. Cheap food
is not necessarily either unappetizing or lacking in food value.
The cost of production and manufacture, the keeping qualities,
ease of transportation, nearness to markets, all influence the
price placed upon an article. Cleanliness in the handling
and delivery of goods increases the cost legitimately, and
cleanliness is worth paying for. Sanitary science is closely
linked with the marketing problem.
Technical Skill to be Gained. — Skill in manipulation
should be secured through individual work under conditions
calculated to develop responsibility and initiative. It is
important that the individuality of the young cook be en-
couraged. While the fundamental principles in the applica-
tion of heat to foodstuffs are definite, the art of cookery is
the result of imagination applied to " tasteful " combinations,
attractive forms, and interesting seasonings. There are but
a limited number of foodstuffs, and any girl who succeeds in
modifying some monotonous dish or inventing a new one has
conferred a blessing upon humanity. The correct serving
Household Arts 615
of simple meals is of equal importance with their preparation.
These should be appropriate to the lives of the girls, and all
display of fancy cookery should be carefully avoided.
Scientific Knowledge. — The girl attending a secondary
school cannot be expected to comprehend organic chemistry
such as is involved in food composition. She lacks the
maturity necessary to become scientific minded. When the
attempt is made to teach her food chemistry the usual re-
sult is a superficial understanding or a memorizing of sweep-
ing generalities. She cannot appreciate the intermediate
steps in such complicated chemical changes and is apt to
believe that her knowledge of results indicates a mastery of
a subject, which, in fact, she has scarcely entered. There is
a thought content to this work, however, of such practical
importance as to demand attention. A knowledge of the
general classification of foodstuffs and the effect of the heat
as applied in the processes necessary to their preparation for
the table is essential. The changes in the foodstuffs thus
affected must be considered with reference to appearance, tex-
ture, taste, digestion, and metabolism.
Waste. — Waste is a topic of especial importance, affecting
the cost of living in more ways than are usually recognized.
The self-evident waste in the garbage can is the most easily
governed. Skillful preparation of left-overs can be taught
satisfactorily, but the avoidance of left-overs is more sensible.
To buy or cook a larger quantity than is needed is evidence
of bad management, but the application of the wrong degree
and quantity of heat in the cookery of a given food may render
it difficult of digestion and necessitate the utilization of a dis-
proportionate amount of energy in order to bring it to a form
capable of absorption, and there is also apt to be a high per-
centage of waste in undigested material. It is a truism to
say that it is not what we eat, but what we digest, which
nourishes us. Water and air are important factors in body
nutrition and elimination, and if these are unclean or in-
616 Principles of Secondary Education
sufficient, arrested development and illness are likely to
result.
Prevention is the keynote of this study, the prevention of
the human ills which are so costly in their cure. To quote
from Mrs. Richards : "The healthy, happy person is not liable
to be a criminal. Prisons and reformatories are filled with
those whose twisted nerves and starved muscles mean knotted
brains, and troublesome, uncontrolled impulses." Is it not
true economy for a community to prevent by adequate in-
struction the production of this class ?
HOUSING CONDITIONS, HOUSE PLANNING, AND
HOME KEEPING. — Increasing numbers of people are crowd-
ing into cities which are already badly congested. This ex-
treme congestion has caused housing conditions under which
health and strength have small chance for development. In-
vestigation shows that disease and death are in direct propor-
tion to the light and air space in the tenement, and that
criminality grows \vhere unsanitary housing conditions exist.
Infant mortality in houses fronting on alleys is nearly three
times that in houses fronting on streets. The problem thus
presented is an intensely human one, as the efficiency of our
citizenship is dependent upon the decent housing of our people.
The coming generation must be instructed in house sanitation.
Our schools now contain the future landlords and tenement
dwellers. In the schools, then, the work must be done.
Proper ventilation is of first importance. The need of a
sufficient supply of clean air for breathing creates a problem
as grave as that of securing clean water for drinking or for
bathing. The schoolgirl should be taught these facts and
given some knowledge of heating, ventilating, and plumbing
systems.
Care of the sick should be taught. This training includes
practice in proper bed making, bathing, emergency bandages,
poultices, compresses, and first aid to the injured. There is
no attempt to develop professional nurses, but rather an
Household Arts 617
effort to make every woman able to meet the accidents which
occur, and to care for small ailments which do not require a
physician's attendance. Physicians claim that the lack of
proper care and feeding often sends a patient back to the
hospital a second, and even a third, time. Moreover, the
work is preventive. Such a high school course might also
constitute prevocational training for professional nursing in
private institutions, or public welfare nursing.
Moral and Economic Values of Such Instruction. — The
physical environment of individuals has an undoubted effect
upon their character, happiness, and health. A pleasant view
from the dining-room windows affects the flow of digestive
juices and the consequent ease of digestion. Unpleasant
environment, cither social or physical, is often the cause of
malnutrition and indigestion. Harmonious coloring of walls
and hangings, pleasing pictures, and comfortable furniture
are of economic and social importance. These cost no more
in dollars and cents than their opposites. Indeed, the un-
comfortable furniture and inharmonious decorations may cost
more. The important thing is that the girl understand the
principles of aesthetics and be trained in their application to life.
The paths to be traveled in performing the common duties
of housekeeping must be studied in order to save steps and
confusion. There are so many calls upon the time and strength
of the housekeeper that conservation of both should receive the
careful attention of those who are qualified to advise and teach.
The homemaker of the future will be a household engineer,
acquainted with the labor-saving devices and equipped to
apply these through her knowledge of physics and elec-
tricity. This will be letting her head save not only her heels,
but her hands and her time. Efficiency and scientific manage-
ment are more important in the home than in the factory,
where the product is less important than that of the home.
Again we have here a fundamental prevocational training for
institutional housekeeping.
618 Principles of Secondary Education
EQUIPMENT. — A school system is frequently erroneously
judged by its handsome buildings and elaborate equipment,
when too often these are but proofs that the school is training
girls away from the home and real life rather than for it.
Over-equipment is worse than under-equipment, for the latter
at least develops initiative and resourcefulness. The average
woman in most localities will not have an electric stove in her
kitchen for some years to come ; therefore, the girl needs to
learn the control of that type of stove with which she will
probably have to deal. Neither should the adequate equip-
ment for teaching household arts be looked upon merely as
expense, but rather as investment. No investment can be
more safe, nor guarantee a surer and larger interest. Usually
lessons requiring the use of the oven fail to put responsibility
upon the individual students, because of an inadequate num-
ber of ovens. Baking bread and roasting or broiling meat are
fundamental processes which all should master. Educating
away from the home is also evident in the use of sewing
machines too expensive for the average home to afford.
This criticism is a plea for sound economy, and not at all
intended to encourage the purchase of cheap equipment which
in the end must prove a poor investment. A low cost is by
no means synonymous with economy.
The furnishings of the school fitting for life in rural communi-
ties should be adapted to rural conditions, while those of the
urban school must be adjusted to the conditions found in
tenement or flat. One of the most needed reforms in every
home is a more convenient arrangement of kitchen equipment.
The proper juxtaposition of stove, sink, and cupboard saves
hundreds of steps. The drain board to the left of the sink
means the saving of several extra motions in the washing
of each dish, while the proper height of sink and table means
less backache. Proper ventilation prevents overheating,
and a tireless cooker secures economy of time and fuel. A sink
of the right type equipped with drain basket can be con-
Household Arts 619
verted into a modern dish washer and lessen what is con-
sidered by every one to be the most unpleasant part of house-
work. A school equipment made up of many units, each a
complete kitchen providing opportunity for individual work,
will develop self-reliance.
Elimination of the Artificial. — As the teacher of commercial
subjects is confronted with the problem of eliminating the
artificial so that he may make the work approach most nearly
to actual business, so the household arts teacher must strug-
gle with the same difficulty in her own field. In either
case, unfortunately, there must remain too much of the arti-
ficial. The students are too old not to realize the make-
believe, and as a consequence are slow to acquire any vital
interest. Various plans have been devised to offset this diffi-
culty, one of which is the use of an apartment or group of
rooms where the girls may actually keep house. The cooking
laboratory furnishes too little opportunity for testing the girls'
habits of neatness and orderliness. In the apartment, which
should be furnished for use and not for display, not only the
ordinary duties of the housewife may be performed, but the
aesthetic and social side may also receive due attention.
Value and Results of Training in Housekeeping. — This
work in household administration necessitates the most care-
ful planning, and must be conducted by a teacher well ac-
quainted with her subject. If the apartment is wisely selected,
much may be learned of wall and floor treatment, of house
sanitation, and of plumbing. The selection and arrang-
ing of simple furniture teaches the girls how to economize
both time and energy. Division of income and household
accounts assume a real interest to the group of girls living as
a small family. Marketing is taught by actual doing, and
the division of income tested by a real balance sheet. But
at best this too is make-believe, and whenever the girl can be
stimulated to use her own home as the laboratory for her
practical experience, a school can well afford to credit such
620 Principles of Secondary Education
work. This plan has been actually worked out in several
places with success and is to be recommended. Wherever
there is cooperation with institutions or organizations con-
cerned with the professional or business use of the processes
growing out of housekeeping, the students secure control
of the processes and confidence in themselves ; but best of
all they come to look upon this work of housekeeping as a
profession or a business. There is no questioning the better
attitude of the trained homemaker toward housekeeping and
child care as compared with the one who is ignorant of the
possibilities. She sees that it is a business worthy of her
best effort and mental capacity. She is willing to invest in
it and she finds joy and satisfaction in attacking the problem.
Keeping accounts is not for her a matter of accounting to
another for moneys received, but rather one of money invested
in a business which she is anxiously interested in making pay.
EXHIBITIONS. — Too much time and energy are given to
the preparation of work for exhibition. An exhibition can
only be material at best, as the really effective work of the
department cannot be displayed in any such manner. The
exhibition can be justified only on the ground that it may act
as some stimulus to student endeavor and may offer the public
some concrete idea of what their children are doing. Unless
supervisors are watchful, the teacher's work will be much
handicapped by the thought of some annual exhibition.
Indeed, not only will time and energy be wasted, but there
will be great danger of her losing sight of the purpose under-
lying the work. She will work for the exhibition instead of
for the girl. The wisely arranged exhibition will show what
has been accomplished by the poor and mediocre as well as
by the excellent students. Failure to make it thus inclusive
means that the public must be misled and the students given
a lesson in bad ethics. To repeat, the planning of the year's
work should not be affected by a possible exhibition looming
up ahead. If that work reaches the vital needs of the girls
Household Arts 621
and harmonizes more and more closely with the actual con-
ditions, there will be an abundance of material for a creditable
exhibition. School principals are often the ones at fault.
By their ambition to make their school show material results,
the teacher is forced against her better knowledge to accede
to their wishes.
TEACHERS. — In the last analysis, the success of any
scheme of education depends upon the teacher. All depart-
ments of school activity are continually calling for better
teachers, but perhaps none of them are in such need as the
comparatively new department of household arts. It demands
teachers with vision and character as well as thorough tech-
nical training. A housekeeper, a dressmaker, or a young
woman clever at sewing or cooking is not necessarily a good
teacher of household arts. The good teacher must, of course,
have a natural or acquired deftness in the management of
needle or rolling-pin, but she must also be well trained in the
principles of chemistry, physics, biology, physiology, psy-
chology, sociology, English, mathematics, economics, and peda-
gogy. The department has suffered, because of its newness,
from certain types of teachers. One is the woman who, after
years of teaching pure science, has taken up the subject too
late to become skillful on its technical side. Another is the
trade worker, who may possess high manual dexterity combined
with good taste, but who necessarily has the trade point of
view, which is narrow, if not selfish. A third type secures
a position through influential friends and then hastens to
a summer school, there to receive a smattering of the subject,
which, combined with bluff, will carry her through. Still
others, after failing as teachers of the humanities, have
shifted to household arts work, wrongly believing that it
requires less capacity. Finally, in this department, as in all
others, teachers may be divided into two classes — the job
teacher and the professional teacher — one working for salary
only and the other for the girl as well.
622 Principles of Secondary Education
Probably no other department, barring that of physical
training, touches the lives of the girls so intimately as this.
It is of the utmost importance, therefore, that its teachers
should be women of vision, refinement, and consecration ;
women who know the meaning of life and the dignity of labor,
and who appreciate the aim of household arts. Fear the issue
one may, but avoid it one dare not, — that seriously important
necessity of teaching our girls of the dangers to be met, dis-
ea,ses to be avoided, disaster to be escaped, and death to be
prevented. It takes the highest type of woman to approach
girls on the subject of social prophylaxis, and much harm will
be done if the instruction be undertaken by one less pure in
mind than the girls themselves. Mothers are shirking their
duty or are unqualified to perform it, but the ethical responsi-
bility remains. Wise legislation can do much, but it cannot
lift the individual duty we owe in protecting the womanhood
and motherhood of succeeding generations. If the teaching
of sex hygiene is deemed advisable, let us frankly face the
question and, as we can, work out the best method of bring-
ing our girls to a sane comprehension of the responsibility
they hold, the self-respect they must maintain, to guard their
womanhood. There should be no roughshod methods,
and we question the advisability of class instruction for the
self-conscious adolescent girl. Only mature wisdom can
dictate the psychological moment, but the household arts
teacher should not neglect her opportunities.
Women who have taken their degrees as Doctors of Medicine
and others who are graduates of the best schools of household
arts, confess that they failed to make the application of physio-
logical facts themselves. The bridging over between theory
and life is not being accomplished, and girls enter married
life quite ignorant of its responsibilities. There may be found
here one means of combating infant mortality and of diminish-
ing the number of unhappy marriages. This really amounts
to vocational training, but for a vocation which from the
Household Arts 623
time of the cave woman to the end of human existence must
belong to woman.
THE HOME IDEA MUST BE PRESERVED. — The appli-
cation of steam and electricity to transportation, communica-
tion, and manufacture has altered the human environment
more in the last three quarters of a century than had been
done in the six thousand years preceding. These changes
have been made manifest in the home in many ways. Though
industries have been removed from the home, the absence of
the industries has not destroyed the home, and if in the course
of events other processes should be taken away, indeed, if
even the kitchen stove and the sewing machine should become
useless, it would still be home, because home is a place for the
shelter, privacy, and rest of a group of individuals bound to-
gether by ties of affection.
In the final analysis, that which makes the home is not
purely material, and teachers of homemaking must never
lose sight of this fundamental truth. From the economic
standpoint alone, the home cannot successfully compete with
a larger grouping of individuals. If material wants are to
be satisfied, man will go where that satisfaction can best be
obtained, and this will not be in the home. If one believes
that the integrity of this country is dependent upon the in-
tegrity of the home, he must realize at once the vital importance
of teaching the young how to preserve that home. The home
developed from a feeling of the need of protection, and it still
has that ideal, but the office of a real home is also to teach
right habits of living, as well as to develop individuality and
responsibility. Though the home of to-day may be different
in outward appearance from the home of yesterday, it still
offers an opportunity for the development of obedience,
reverence, unselfishness, and love.
This ideal has been set for all teachers of household arts
by the pioneer worker in the application of science to the home.
Mrs. Ellen H. Richards states: " When mothers become so
624 Principles of Secondary Education
careless or ignorant that half their children fail to reach the
first birthday, and of those that live to be three years old,
a majority are defrauded of their birthright of health, some
agency must step in. If the state is to have good citizens,
it must provide for the teaching of the essentials to the genera-
tion that will become the wiser mothers and fathers of the
next."
VOCATIONAL ASPECT OF HOUSEHOLD ARTS. -
Large numbers of girls who complete a high school course
of study must immediately enter some wage-earning position
and are therefore forced to seek information and training
for economic ends. A still larger number have been entering
the field of industry immediately after leaving the grammar
schools. Legislation is being quite generally enacted to re-
tain the girl in school, and the school must therefore see that
her time is profitably spent in preparation for a vocation.
The Trade School. — The Manhattan Trade School in New
York City paved the way for others of a similar character in
New Britain and Bridgeport, Connecticut, and in Worcester,
Massachusetts. " These short-term trade schools with neces-
sary academic and specific intensified trade courses are for
those who must become wage earners as early as possible.
The Worcester Girls' Industrial School has lengthened the
course to twro years. Wage earning is the goal and not
home dressmaking. Quality and speed are the two points
emphasized in order that the tasks may bring adequate re-
turns."
In view of the facts that of the seventy-five thousand
women workers allied with women's trade unions, twenty-two
thousand are permanently out of work all winter, and that of
all industrial workers among women not a tenth are allied
with trade unions, it is a pretty safe estimate to say that at
least one hundred thousand women workers in industries are
out of work in the big cities of the East today. When one
realizes that more than twenty-two thousand are working on
Household Arts 625
half-time in the white goods work alone, and that at wages
from $3.50 to $4.50 a week, one can but question the cause
and ask whether we do well to train the nimble fingers of our
youth for this fierce battle. There is the greatest need of
vocational guidance and that by means of a well-organized
bureau with experienced and trained advisers. The misfits,
more than the untrained, are among these idle workers. It
is devoutly hoped that the standardization of housework, of
homemaking, and of child care may win for them their proper
place as a vocation for girls, many of whom are better fitted
to be house workers than factory workers.
The following is the program for girls of the day classes :
FIRST YEAR
I. Trade work in one trade 22-25 nrs- Per week.
II. Cookery, 2 lessons \\ hrs. each per week.
III. Class instruction 3 to 4', hrs. weekly.
1. Trade arithmetic (not given all year except to girls back-
ward in arithmetic).
2. English — oral and written.
a. Business letters.
/;. Compositions based on trade work.
3. Spelling — trade terms, phrases and words in common use.
4. Writing.
5. Citi/.enship — social ethics.
The above subjects are not necessarily presented parallel
to each other. One subject, such as arithmetic, is pre-
sented for one term", as necessary, and another substi-
tuted as advisable.
IV. Art.
1. Color scales.
2. Line, such as arrangement of tucks, rows of insertion, etc.
3. Spacing and proportion of arrangement of trimmings, etc.
4. Designs for garments, trimmings, hats, etc.
V. Physical education, 2 lessons of 45 min. each weekly.
1. Short drills in marching, wand drills, etc., for cooperation.
2. Games, such as tag, pass ball, volley ball, etc.
3. Folk dancing.
4. Hygiene.
626 Principles of Secondary Education
SECOND YEAR
I. Trade 22-25 hrs. per week.
II. Advanced cooking (elective), 2 lesson of \\ hrs. weekly.
III. Class instruction 3-4^ hrs. weekly.
1. Advanced trade arithmetic given for one term of fourteen
weeks.
a. Shop organization.
b. Estimates of material for garments.
c. Economy of material.
d. Estimates for prices on single garments and large orders,
such as underwear, etc.
2. English.
«. Accurate descriptions of work, etc.
b. Directions for making garments or parts of garment.
3. Textiles.
a. Study of weaves, textures, adulterations, etc., through
practical tests.
b. Short history of common textiles — cotton, linen, wool,
and silk.
4. Industrial history and geography as related to women's work.
5. Citizenship — practical civics.
6. Apportionment of income — expenditure.
IV. Art (elective).
1. Applied design — designs for dress trimmings, hat trimmings,
buckles, bands, etc.
2. Costume designing.
3. Designing of hats.
V. Physical education.
i. Continuation of first year's work.
The Girls' Technical High School. — The technical high
school is of a widely differing type, having broad academic
and general vocational courses extending over three or four
years for those able to devote so much time to stud}' and prep-
aration for a life work. Since few girls who enter high school
know what their future work is to be, the high school course,
if constructed upon broad lines, will help determine for each
girl to what she can best afford to devote herself as a means
of livelihood. The program for the practical arts high school
is outlined to include as many of the liberal or non-vocational
Household Arts
627
studies as possible, together with the necessary vocational
studies. These are given with as broad an educational value
as possible but must represent exact industrial conditions.
By the third year the girl is expected to show her preference, and
real specialization takes place in the senior year. In addition
to the special line of work the girl is " given the English,
mathematics, history, and science which will be most helpful
in future competition."
The cooperative plan is followed in some cities with success,
and an increasing number of opportunities to cooperate in
office, shop, factory, and institution are being found.
GIRLS' PRACTICAL ARTS COOPERATIVE COURSE
FIRST YEAR SECOND YEAR
English 4
Mathematics 4
Applied art 5
Cookery 4
Sewing 8
Music i
Physical training 2
English
Mathematics
Applied art
Cookery and home economics
Millinery and dressmaking
Music . . . .
Physical training
4
5
4
6
10
i
2
THIRD YEAR
English
French, German, or Spanish .
Applied art
Cookery
Millinery or dressmaking
Music i
Physical (raining 2
Cooperative plan; alternate weeks
in school and shop.
FOURTH YEAR
English . , 4
French, German, or Spanish . 4
History (American) .... 4
Civics i
Applied art 2
Cookery 6
Millinery or dressmaking . .10
Music i
Physical training .... 2
Cooperative plan; alternate weeks
in school and shop.
628 Principles of Secondary Education
SOMERVILLE COURSE
FIRST YEAR
Required Studies
PERIODS POINTS
English 4 4
Mathematics 5 5
Ancient history . 4 4
Science lectures i
Ethics i
Music i
Physical training i
Cooking, sewing, and drawing . 10 5
SECOND YEAR
Required Studies
PERIODS POINTS
English 2 4 4
Ethics i
Music i
Physical training i
Elective Studies
Group I. (Choose two)
Geometry 5 5
European history 4 4
French 5 5
Household physics 5 5
Group II. (Choose one)
Drawing and applied arts . . . . 10 5
Cooking 10 5
Millinery and dress-making . . . 10 5
THIRD YEAR
Required Studies
PERIODS POINTS
English 3 4 4
Physical geography 5 5
Household Arts 629
Ethics
Music
PERIODS
I
I
POINTS
Physical training
I
Elective Studies
Group I. (Choose one)
French 2
Practical arithmetic ....
Cooking and household chemistry
• 5
• 5
5
5
5
5
Group II. (Choose one)
Domestic arts
Drawing and applied arts 2
. 10
. 10
5
5
FOURTH YEAR
Required Studies
English 4
United States history and civics .
Ethics
PERIODS
• 4
• 4
i
POINTS
4
4
Music
Physical training
I
I
Elective Studies
Group I. (Choose one)
French 3
Review of mathematics
Physics
Biology
4
5
5
• 5
4
5
5
5
Group II. (Choose one)
Dressmaking
Millinery
Household management
. 10
. IO
. IO
5
5
5
The Household Arts in the Academic High School. -
The program for household arts in the general academic
high school course differs from that in the practical arts high
school as the natural result of its differing aim. The girls
following this course do not feel the economic pressure of
630 Principles of Secondary Education
those entering the practical arts high school course, and may
continue their studies into the college. Therefore this program
must include college entrance requirements. Some colleges
are granting from two to four credit units for household arts.
These courses are given with a view to the girls' own needs
and are made as broadly educational as possible. The experi-
mental method in laboratory practice, and the broad economic
and social content of household arts make it a subject as truly
educative as any in the school program. Its value, like that
of any study, lies largely in the way in which it is presented.
It may also form a basis for later specialization during the
college course and lead to several vocations, such as the teach-
ing of household arts, institutional management, dietetics,
nursing, social service, public health work, etc. The fortu-
nate thing about a household arts course is its dual value, as
a preparation for living as well as for earning a livelihood.
ACADEMIC PROGRAM INCLUDING HOUSEHOLD ARTS
FIRST YEAR SECOND YEAR
English \ English 4
Elocution i Elocution i
Latin or German (adv.) or Ger- Latin or German (adv.) or Ger-
man (beg.) 5 man (beg.) 5
Algebra 4 Geometry 5
Garment making and laundry Millinery and dressmaking . . 8
work 8 Applied art 2
Applied art 2 Music i
Music i Physical training 2
Physical training 2
THIRD YEAR FOURTH YEAR
English 4 English 4
Elocution i Elocution i
One from Two from
Latin or Latin or
German (adv.) or \ German (adv.) or
German (beg.) or } ... 5 German (beg.) or
German (ist year) j German (ad year)
Household Arts 631
French 4 French 4
Spanish 4 Spanish 4
History (ancient) 4 Physics (2 lab.) 6
Botany 2 History (American) .... 4
Chemistry (2 lab.) 6
Home economics 8 Civics i
Home economics 6
Applied art 2 Physiology 5
Music i Applied art 2
Physical training 2 Music i
Physical training 2
SOMERVILLE COURSE
FIRST YEAR
Required Studies
PERIODS POINTS
English 4 4
Mathematics 5 5
Science lectures i
Ethics i
Music i
Physical training i
Elective Studies
Cookery 5 i\
Choice of one language 5 5
SECOND YEAR
Required Studies
PERIODS POINTS
English 2 4 4
Ancient history 4 4
Ethics i
Music i
Physical training i
Elective Studies
Cookery 5 2\
Choice of one language 5 5
632 Principles of Secondary Education
THIRD YEAR
Required Studies PERIODS POINTS
English 4 4
European and English history ... 4 4
Ethics i
Music i
Physical training i
Elective Studies
Household arts 5 2^
Choice of one language 5 5
FOURTH YEAR
Required Studies
English 4 4 4
United States history and civics ... 4 4
Ethics i
Music i
Physical training i
Elective Studies
Household arts 5 2\
Choice of one language 5 5
HOUSEHOLD ARTS IN THE SCHOOLS OF THE
UNITED STATES. —Legislation setting up systems of state
aid for vocational education has been secured in several states
and is under consideration in others. This legislation is con-
cerned with the establishment of practical arts high schools
in which shall be given instruction in household arts. The
status in a few of the states which have most advanced legis-
lation is as follows.
Massachusetts is one of the few to have adopted a state
system of vocational education. The existing schemes differ
principally in regard to the amount of support given and de-
gree of control exercised by the state. Massachusetts provides
for household arts, agriculture, and industrial training. Here,
Household Arts 633
as in Connecticut, New York, and Wisconsin, " the instruction
given state grants must be open to pupils over fourteen years
of age who are able to do the work successfully, even though
they have not received a common school diploma. The effect
of this is to set up a new kind of secondary school paralleling
the regular high school for those over fourteen years of age."
In Massachusetts the local community builds and equips
the plant and the state pays one half operating expenses.
Payment is in proportion to results accomplished. The State
Board of Education is responsible for the administration of
vocational education as well as for general education. The
amendment to the act of 1911 raises to sixteen the compul-
sory school age for attendance on a vocational or continuation
school by children regularly employed. Boston opens con-
tinuation schools September i, 1914.
New York established a system of state-aided vocational
schools to be administered by the State Board of Education,
and those grants have been extended from day schools of various
kinds giving training in home economics, agriculture, trades and
industries to part-time, continuation, and evening schools, as
well as increasing the aid to two thirds the salary of the first
teacher and one third the salary of each additional teacher.
This aid amounts to 28 per cent of the operating expenses
of the school in the larger centers and 29 per cent of the schools
in rural communities. A local option measure empowers
local boards of education to extend the compulsory education
law to " permit " children between the ages of fourteen and
sixteen years of age to attend part-time and continuation
schools. This new legislation substitutes day attendance of
from four to eight hours a week for evening attendance.
State aid to industrial schools for boys and girls between
fourteen and sixteen is given where girls put in half the day
in household arts work. In some of the schools the girls take
a little of each subject for two years and in other schools a
little of each for the first year and specialize in the second.
634 Principles of Secondary Education
A department of homemaking in connection with a school
of agriculture is state-aided, and the household arts work is
given more time than in ordinary programs.
The last general legislature made available for Canning
Club work in Tennessee about $5000. It is necessary for
the counties to raise at least $200 and the state will then give
$100, the state giving one half as much as the county raises,
up to $500. The Canning Club work has encouraged interest
in gardening and home work. Similar practices with regard
to stimulating interest in household arts through Canning
Clubs have been adopted in other southern states.
In Ohio any board of education may establish and main-
tain domestic science, manual training, and commercial de-
partments, vocational and trade schools, also kindergartens,
in connection with the public school systems, and pay the ex-
penses of establishing and maintaining such schools from the
public school funds as other expenses are paid. The state
does not compel nor provide support for any of these subjects
excepting agriculture, which is left optional for city districts.
Ohio was the first state to enact a law compelling part-time
schooling for those engaged in wage-earning occupations
and requiring attendance of all under seventeen years of age
who have not completed the fifth year of school. Any who
have not completed the eighth year of school and are not regu-
larly employed must attend regular school until they have either
completed the eighth grade, secured employment, or reached
the seventeenth year. Household arts is offered girls in
regular and continuation schools in those cities that have, by
referendum to the board of education of the community,
established continuation and part-time classes. The recent
school survey has awakened wide interest which will doubtless
result in early legislation. The public school system of Cin-
cinnati has taken advantage of the state right to establish
vocational training departments, as have also the cities of
Toledo, Cleveland, Columbus, and some others.
Household Arts 635
Iowa has no special legislation along the lines of vocational
education, strictly speaking. They have some legislation
relating to industrial work in the public schools, and the 34th
general assembly passed a law, amended by the 35th general
assembly, providing state supervision and state financial
aid for a normal training course in the high schools. This
course includes elementary pedagogy and art of teaching
elementary agriculture and home economics. One hundred
and twenty-nine of these high school normal training courses
have been established under authority of this law. In each
of these high school districts, domestic science is taught, and
many other high schools not having the normal courses are
teaching domestic science. The law provides an appropria-
tion of $100,000 for the first year and $125,000 for each year
thereafter. It also provides that the aid given each school
shall be $750 annually. So general and widespread has become
the interest in this subject in Iowa that the last legislature
passed a law making the teaching of agriculture and domestic
science compulsory in all public schools of the state after July i ,
1915. Another law provides for state aid to consolidated schools;
provided that there is the necessary department and equipment
for teaching agriculture, home economics, and manual training,
and employing teachers qualified to teach these subjects. Iowa
shows a fine record : specially equipped trains which make
tours of the state with short stops where brief lectures are
given ; extension work and short courses attended last year by
15,400 women regularly enrolled ; Farmers' Institutes ; health
contests — • all supported by the extension department of the
state. A survey of the rural districts made under supervision
of the child welfare department to secure vital statistics and
complete information in regard to the health of children, the
first of the kind ever undertaken in the United States, indicates
the interest taken in the science of right living. " Home Eco-
nomics in Iowa is not a mere question of cooking and sewing ;
it is demanding the best thought and highest culture in the
636 Principles of Secondary Education
study and the solution of the most vital problems that concern
the physical, mental, and moral development of our people
and that make for a better civilization."
The Indiana legislature established, by means of the most
comprehensive statute yet enacted, a state system of vocational
education, giving state aid in domestic science, industries,
and agriculture, through all-day, part-time, continuation, and
evening schools. It provides that elementary domestic
science be taught in all grades of city, town, and township
schools and outlines the course of study, but provides no
state aid for what it terms prevocational instruction to dis-
tinguish it from the work to be done in the special vocational
departments or schools further provided for by the law. It
also provides that the board of education shall outline a
course of study in domestic science as well as agriculture and
industrial work, which it may require high schools to offer as
regular courses. The state regulates the qualifications of the
teachers and provides aid in the maintenance of approved
vocational schools or departments for domestic science, in-
dustries, and agriculture by payment annually of an amount
equal to two thirds of the sum expended annually for instruc-
tion in these technical and vocational subjects. Schools, cities,
and townships are reimbursed to the extent of one half the sum
expended for tuition in approved vocational schools. The
law requires each local community to erect and equip rooms or
buildings in which to teach these vocational subjects and for use
as social centers suitable for the legal voters of any township.
A special tax of one cent is authorized, and any surplus not
allotted to schools is to be placed in a permanent fund for
the support and encouragement of vocational education.
'In Wisconsin a recent law grants special aid to county
schools of agriculture and domestic science equal to two
thirds of the amount actually expended for maintaining such
schools during the year, provided that the total amount
shall not exceed S6ooo to any one school in one year when the
Household Arts 637
average daily attendance shall not be less than one hundred
and twelve pupils, nor exceed the sum of SSooo when the average
attendance shall not exceed one hundred and eighty-seven
pupils. Minimum wage for teachers of domestic science is es-
tablished by the provision that state aid shall not be granted
to any school where the salary paid to any teacher is less than
$60 per month. The act of 1912 extended aid from the
treasury of the commonwealth to classes in household arts,
approved by the board of education, for women, no matter
what occupation they engage in during the day ; whereas pre-
viously state aid for evening instruction was confined to those
classes made up entirely of those who were employed during
the daytime in occupations for which the work of the evening
class gave more or less direct preparation.
Federal Subsidies. — Federal aid for vocational education
is likely to be granted at an early date, providing for extension
teaching and preparation of teachers for service in vocational
schools giving instruction, through all-day, part-time, and con-
tinuation and evening classes, for the farm, the home, and the
shop. The conditions surrounding the appropriation of
moneys to the states is the only debatable question, and the
working out of this problem as to the relationship of the
national government to the states in the field of education is
of interest to all.
TOPICS FOR FURTHER STUDY
1. What principles should control the organization of a course in
household arts in secondary schools ?
2. Would it be possible to relate the work more directly to both home
and school life by the choice of problems ?
3. Would you recommend a course of study being planned upon the
basis of problems related to the girl, the environment, the locality, and
other subjects in the school program, rather than upon topics?
4. What would you have our girls become at the end of their high
school course ?
638 Principles of Secondary Education
5. Is the school contributing all it might to the production of this
kind of young womanhood ?
6. What have been the causes contributing to the changes in the char-
acter of home life ?
7. What is feminism, and what its relation to instruction'in the public
schools ?
8. What has necessitated the introduction of household arts into the
schools ?
9. Are you content to have this subject taught merely as sewing and
cooking ?
10. What vocational outlets are there for girls following this course ?
n. What minimum of time for household arts recitations per week
should be demanded ?
12. How may the work be motivated ?
13. What equipment does the work require?
14. If household arts in high schools is to emphasize the reasons for
doing things, and is to be given largely from the point of view of applied
science, how can the curriculum be arranged that the girl may have
some science to apply ?
15. Can a course in general science be given in the first year and the
course in foods left until the second year ?
16. Should class work in household arts which is purely manipulative
be given high school credit ? If so, in which course ?
17. Should a high school offer elementary courses in cooking and sew-
ing without credit, where such courses are not provided by the elementary
schools ?
18. How many units in household arts should be required ?
19. Should there be a better standardization of teachers of household
arts ?
20. To what extent are textbooks advantageous in the teaching of
this subject ?
21. What is the standard in household arts as taught in England,
Switzerland, and Germany compared with its standard in the United
States ?
22. Are the states doing as much for girls as for boys in specialized
instruction ?
23. What distinction is there between household arts taught in trade,
practical arts, vocational, or technical schools and in a general high school
course ?
24. Localities have adopted various names for the subject here called
household arts. The National Society has adopted the term home
economics. Domestic science and domestic art are names used in
Household Arts 639
secondary schools ; domestic economy is adopted by some. What name
do you consider best, and why ?
REFERENCES
BEVIER, ISABEL, and USHER, SUSAXXAH. Home Economics Movement.
Boston, igo6.
Conference of Association of Domestic Science Teachers. Liverpool,
1909.
COOLEY, ANNA M. Domestic Art in Woman's Education. New York,
1911.
England, Board of Education. Regulations for the Training of Teachers
of Domestic Subjects, 1909. Circular 719. Teaching of Needlework,
1909.
Regulations for Secondary Schools, 1907, 1908, 1909.
Special Reports on Educational Subjects. Vol. I, 1896-1897, Domestic
Economy Teaching ; Vol. II, 1878, The Heuristic Method of Teach-
ing or the Art of making Children discover Things for Themselves ;
Vol. VIII, 1902, Education in the Netherlands; Vol. XVI, 1896,
School Training for the Home Duties of Women, Belgium, Sweden,
Norway, Denmark, Switzerland, France; Vol. XIX, 1907, School
Training for the Home Duties of Women (Germany and Austria).
HODSON, F., editor. Broad Lines in Science Teaching. London, 1909.
International Council of Women. Health of the Nations. Aberdeen,
1906.
Ireland, Department of Agriculture and Technical Instruction. Program
for Day Secondary Schools. 1908.
Program of the Irish Training School of Domestic Economy, 1909-1910.
KIXXE, HELEX. Equipment for Domestic Science Teaching. New York,
1909.
Methods of Teaching Domestic Science. New York, 1912.
Lake Placid Reports on Home Ecomonics. Boston, 1899-1909.
NORTOX, A. P. Teaching of Home Economics. Boston, 1910.
RAVENHILL, ALICE. Housecraft in Secondary Schools for Girls. Edu-
cation, February 14, 21, 28, March 6, 13, 1908.
Teaching of Domestic Science in the United States. In English
Board of Education, Special Reports, Vol. XV. London, 1905.
Report of Proceedings of Fourth International Congress on Technical
Education (London, 1897), containing (i) History of Training Schools
for Teachers of Domestic Economy in England; (2) Treatment of
Domestic Science as an Element in Girls' Education; (3) The Relation
between General and Technical Education; (4) Technical Education
640 Principles of Secondary Education
in Secondary Schools; (5) The Teaching of Domestic Economy in
Girls' Secondary Schools.
Report of the London County Council Conference of Teachers, 1910.
(i) The Correlation between the Teaching of Domestic Economy and
Experimental Science; (2) Practical Domestic Economy Teaching
in a Secondary School.
SMYTH, A. WATT. Teaching of Domestic Subjects. Physical Deteriora-
tion. London, 1904.
Women's Industrial Council, (i) Technical Education for Girls in England
and Elsewhere, 1897. (2) Domestic Science Teaching, 1904. (3)
Technical Education for Women and Girls, at Home and Abroad,
1904-1905.
WOOLMAN, M. S. The Making of a Trade School. Boston, 1910.
Sewing — A History of Education. Household Arts Review, February,
1910.
CHAPTER XVH
VOCATIONAL EDUCATION
SCOPE OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION. — In a certain
sense, all education is vocational in that it aims to prepare
one for the more efficient and satisfactory performance of the
activities of life. Even liberal education is in a sense voca-
tional, for in its various forms it has aimed to prepare for the
life or calling or " vocation " of a statesman or man of public
affairs, of the gentleman, of an ecclesiastic, or whatever form
the particular social concept of the liberally educated man
may have taken. Even in the classical period, when the con-
ception of liberal education was formed, it aimed to produce
the philosopher in Greece, the orator in Rome, each denned
as the man efficient in the application of his knowledge. In
its earlier historic stages elementary education was always
vocational, in that it was merely a preparatory stage to some
form of higher education, whether the vocation to be followed
was that of a scholar, an ecclesiastic, a gentleman, a trades-
man, or a craftsman.
But in the ordinary usage of the term, vocational education
is differentiated from the more general aspects of education,
in that the chief concern of education in its vocational form
is the training in the practical application of knowledge
acquired in early stages of the educational process and the
education of selected or differentiated groups. In this sense,
vocational education includes all the various forms of higher
or professional education, as that for the law, for medicine,
for the Christian ministry, and for the various phases of en-
gineering. So also agricultural education, commercial educa-
tion, and allied subjects all represent phases of vocational
2 T 641
642 Principles of Secondary Education
education, though frequently considered as professional edu-
cation as distinguished from those vocations where the manual
element is more prominent and the intellectual or scientific is
more elementary in character. This last phase, the one gen-
erally indicated as vocational education, is termed industrial
education.
The instruction of girls in general household activities
under the name of household arts or ecomony is in a very
broad sense vocational.
The prominence into which these various phases of voca-
tional education have come of late is due to very profound
social and economic changes which are taking place in modern
society. Since these changes affect each special aspect of the
subject, they are enumerated in the following discussion of
industrial, commercial, agricultural education, and in the
chapter on Household Arts. The general educational bearing
of these fundamental changes is presented in the concluding
chapter of this volume on the Reorganization of Secondary
Education.
INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION
INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. General Definition. — The
term " industrial education " may be used in a very compre-
hensive sense or in a more restricted meaning. In a large way
the term includes all education relating to the industries, and
in this sense would include instruction in industrial arts in the
elementary school, trade and technical instruction designed
for the industrial worker, and the professional education of
the engineering schools. In common usage, however, the
term is employed in a more limited fashion as denoting the
field of vocational education designed to meet the needs of
the manual worker in the trades and industries, and in this
sense it is used in this chapter. In this conception industrial
education has to do with the secondary field, beyond the point
at which boys and girls leave the elementary school and below
the college.
Vocational Education 643
Origin of the Present Problem. — The need for industrial
education, as far as it is a matter of schools, has arisen since
the industrial revolution of the eighteenth century, which in-
troduced the factory system as the universal type of modern
industrial organization. During the four or five centuries
when the handicraft system of small masters and establish-
ments was the prevailing basis of production, the matter of
industrial training was met in a simple and, on the whole,
a competent manner within the conduct and organization of
trade procedure.
The effects of the factory system were: (i) that division
of labor, constantly extended, no longer allowed the learner,
if employed to the greatest economic advantage, to obtain
a broad experience in all branches of a craft; and (2) that
the entire relation between employer and learner was changed.
The master craftsman, no longer taking direct part in the
processes of production, became the capitalist employer,
whose first concern is the development of highest immediate
productive efficiency. The learner, on the other hand, enter-
ing into such an organization, faces, for the most part, a wage-
earning career in which his place will be determined not alone
by his abilities and ambitions, but by the particular oppor-
tunities afforded him for breadth of experience and for com-
prehension of these experiences. In such a situation it has
ceased to be the immediate interest of the employer to bestow
more attention upon the learner than will suffice to make
him most rapidly into a productive unit at some process in
the range of the establishment. Still less is there economic
incentive for the wage-earning worker in a commercial estab-
lishment to give time and effort to extend the training of the
learner. Productive efficiency is the sole aim of the modern
organization of industry. For this purpose it is a highly
adapted instrument, but education lies outside of this purpose.
These latter considerations operate so powerfully upon the
case that even in trades representing very little division of
644 Principles of Secondary Education
labor, the value of apprenticeship training has often fallen
to a very low point.
Factors in the Problem. — To sum up, in this connection,
the situation presented by modern industrial conditions, the
following facts should be noted. First, grades of skill and the
extent to which division of labor is carried vary greatly in
different industries. Second, the typical manufacturing in-
dustries employ a large number of workers of low-grade skill,
who require little initial instruction or experience to adapt
themselves to their narrow range of machine operations ; and
a smaller number of highly skilled workers demanding for their
equipment breadth of experience and trained intelligence.
Third, the economic interest of the employer is mainly con-
cerned with the supply of the latter class of workers, and
any measures undertaken by him to train such a class are
necessarily based on the prospect of future return and not
of immediate profit. Fourth, such training on the part of
the employer involves labor in addition to the purely pro-
ductive work of an industrial organization, and for that reason
an additional element of expense. This element of expense
and the extreme mobility of labor under modern conditions,
permitting no guarantee to the employer that the learner
will remain in his employ after receiving a training, constitute
the chief obstacles to the development of adequate measures
of industrial training within commercial establishments. To
these obstacles is added the fact that, besides skill of hand,
modern industry requires in its expert workers increasing
knowledge of mathematics, science, drawing, and technical
matters in order to insure proper comprehension of new
methods and new forces ; and for instruction in these branches
the organization and personnel of an industrial establishment
are not well adapted.
These conditions, under which modern industry finds the
task of competently training high-grade workers within its own
organization difficult, expensive, and not assuredly profitable,
Vocational Education 645
have brought forward the demand for an outside agency,
viz., the school, to assist in the task. The problem thus pre-
sented of supplying the deficiencies of training under com-
mercial conditions, and of supplementing this training by
additional instruction, is evidently one that must find its
solution in particular and varied measures adapted to the
needs prescribed by different localities and different industries.
From the nature of the case there can be no general solution,
but only a multitude of particular solutions.
The precise ends, then, placed before industrial education,
looked at from this purely economic aspect, are to supply
cither breadth of practical experience along particular lines,
or knowledge leading to the comprehension of technical
practice, or both, to young people having opportunities or
ambitions to fit themselves as high-grade workers.
European Experience. — To this problem the leading coun-
tries of western Europe have addressed themselves with in-
creasing seriousness for something over half a century, and
in the United States conviction as to its importance has been
rapidly developing during the last few years. The particular
ways in which European countries have approached the prob-
lem have been markedly differentiated by racial temperament,
institutional development, and industrial conditions. Ger-
many, with her policy of fostering the old trade gilds and their
supervision of apprenticeship, has found her particular problem
met to a large extent by specialized industrial continuation
schools, at first conducted in the evening and now to an in-
creasing extent in the day. These schools have devoted them-
selves almost wholly to supplementary technical instruction ;
but in the continuation schools of Munich, Dr. Kerschensteiner
has introduced trade work both to broaden the commercial
routine and to lend zest and point to the other instruction.
One of the chief reasons why the continuation schools fulfil
such an important function in German life is the fact that
apprenticeship is not only general, but is entered into at the
646 Principles of Secondary Education
age of fourteen, at the time when youths leave the compulsory
Volksschule. Another feature that distinguishes the German
continuation schools, though shared to some extent with those
of Austria and Switzerland, and which marks their seriousness
of purpose, is that attendance upon them is generally com-
pulsory until seventeen or eighteen years of age. In the cases
where the continuation school classes have been brought into
the day, employers are compelled by law to allow their ap-
prentices time for attendance. Compulsory attendance upon
the primary school is in this way immediately followed by the
compulsory attendance at continuation schools of all boys,
and sometimes girls, who do not attend higher schools.
United States. — In the United States the conditions which
force attention to the problem of industrial education have
only recently appeared. This country has lived over the
long industrial history of western Europe in the brief span of
little more than a century. Beginning with many of the ac-
tivities of the hunting and fishing stage, as illustrated in the
life of the pioneer and settler, eastern America passed in rapid
succession through the agricultural or farming stage and the
handicraft period, with its independent town economy, and
reached in the closing years of the nineteenth century a highly
developed national system marked by immense manufacturing
growth.
Throughout this rapid evolution, almost to the present time,
the great demand for intelligent labor, consequent upon the
exploitation of the enormous natural resources of the country,
has afforded countless opportunities for advancement to the
individual workman gifted with superior wit and adaptability.
Practical ingenuity and power of quick comprehension and
adjustment have often under these conditions been of more
importance in winning positions of leadership and master-
ship than highly trained skill and technical knowledge.
When to this situation has been added an enormous current
of immigration that has served to supply not only skilled work-
Vocational Education 647
men, but a great army of unskilled and semi-skilled workers
increasingly needed for manufacturing operations, it is appar-
ent why for a generation of advanced industrial organization
both the American employer and the native-born American
workman have remained comparatively indifferent to the need
of industrial education.
This period, however, has come nearly to an end, and the
stress of international competition and lowered margins of
profit make it more and more evident that American industrial
development can be maintained only by recourse to old-world
methods, and the adoption of comprehensive and effective
measures that will insure a competent supply of highly expert
workers. What has already been accomplished in the United
States is largely the result of private enterprise and philan-
thropy. Until within a very few years, the public school
system has given little or no attention to industrial education
and has devoted its energies entirely to general and non-
vocational instruction.
Evening Schools. — The first serious efforts to react upon
the industrial situation were represented in the establishment
of a number of important evening schools affording instruction
in drawing, science, and mathematics. Cooper Union and
the Mechanics Institute of New York, Franklin Union and the
Spring Garden Institute of Philadelphia, the Ohio Mechanics
Institute of Cincinnati, and the Virginia Mechanics Institute
of Richmond were all founded or opened their classes about
the middle of the nineteenth century. Such schools and many
others, among which should be mentioned the evening classes
of the Young Men's Christian Association, have accomplished
an important work in supplying supplementary technical
instruction to the ambitious young workingman in the larger
cities. Even in this direction, however, which represents
the simplest and least expensive approach to industrial educa-
tion, the public schools have been slow to follow. Their
concern has been almost entirely with general studies, and it
648 Principles of Secondary Education
is only of late years that differentiated and specialized courses,
related to industrial practice, have been introduced in the
public schools of a few of the more important cities.
The early work of the evening industrial and technical
schools consisted of various lines of drawing, to which were
gradually added courses in science, mathematics, and technical
subjects. Beginning about 1890, certain of these institutions
established practical shop courses in a few of the high-grade
mechanical trades, intended to broaden the experience
obtained by the student during the day. In a few cases such
classes have been incorporated in public evening schools,
where they have sometimes performed a valuable practical
service in advancing those employed at like occupations during
the day, and sometimes have served merely to give a little
tool dexterity to the amateur or the clerk.
Technical Schools. — The next important reaction of or-
ganized education upon the industrial situation was that which
took place for the most part in the period of mining and rail-
road expansion following the Civil War, and which resulted
in the establishment of many engineering schools or institutes
of technology. The establishment of such schools was at
first through private foundation, but the passage of the Morrill
Act in 1862, by which large land grants were made to the states
for the support of instruction in the agricultural and mechani-
cal arts, resulted shortly in the inclusion of engineering de-
partments in most of the western colleges and universities.
The development of this type of institution has been wide-
spread in the United States, and has produced an institution
equal, and in some respects superior, to anything of its kind
to be found abroad. The function of such schools is to pro-
duce engineering and technical experts, the men needed to
design industrial constructions, to devise technical processes,
and to superintend industrial production.
Manual Training. — The first serious agitation for the
inclusion of industrial training in the public schools was not
Vocational Education 649
for real vocational training, but for the inclusion of manual
work in the general course of study as an element of culture
and general efficiency. This is to be considered in a sub-
sequent section of this chapter.
Trade Schools. — The first important attempt to deal with
the problem of industrial training in day schools took the form
of a trade school for the building trades. In 1881 the New
York Trade School was founded by Richard T. Auchmuty.
The founder was an architect by profession, and felt very
keenly the small part played by American-trained mechanics
in the various building trades. Convinced that the apprentice-
ship system in the building trades was no longer effective, and
that modern conditions gave no hope of its revival, he turned
to the plan of a trade school as the only solution of the problem.
To meet the economic difficulties involved in attendance, the
courses in the school are only four months in duration, and
only young men between the ages of seventeen and twenty-
four are admitted. The aim of the school is to give a knowl-
edge of processes and a skill of hand sufficient for immediate
practical usefulness, leaving speed and perfected skill to be
developed in after experience.
The development of schools which aim to take the place
of apprenticeship after this point, in whole or in part, was very
gradual. In the first twenty years after the New York Trade
School was founded, only two important institutions were
added, viz. the Williamson Free School of Mechanical Trades
near Philadelphia, and the Baron de Hirsch Trade School of
New York. Since the year 1910 some ten or twelve institu-
tions that may strictly be called trade schools have developed
in different parts of the country under either public or private
support, as well as a number of commercially conducted schools
in the building and other trades. In 1907 the trade school
entered upon the stage of public administration. In that year
the already established Milwaukee School of Trades was taken
over by the city under the terms of the industrial education
650 Principles of Secondary Education
law passed by the Wisconsin legislature. Since that date
public trade schools have been opened in Philadelphia,
Pennsylvania; Portland, Oregon; Worcester, Massachusetts;
and Indianapolis, Indiana.
Certain of these schools — the New York Trade School and
the Baron de Hirsch School — represent the short-course
type ; the others offer courses of two or three years in which
practical trade training is supplemented by instruction in
drawing and technical practice, and in some cases by science
and mathematics. Tuition in such schools is either free or on
a nominal basis, a condition made possible either by large
endowments or by public support. Such schools are still some-
what in the experimental stage. They labor under very severe
economic difficulties, first among wrhich is the problem of
support presented to the student worker during the period
of instruction. Training for the skilled trades in the United
States is in common practice restricted to the period above
sixteen years of age, and as the great bulk of the youth who
will form the mechanics and industrial workers of the country
must of necessity enter upon remunerative work at sixteen
or shortly after, the sacrifices necessary to permit attendance
at a trade school can be expected only from a comparative
few. The second aspect of the economic problem in relation
to such schools is found in the large expense of administration,
instruction, materials, and physical maintenance in proportion
to the number of students that can be instructed. Further-
more, it is only in a few high-grade trades, the full command
of which involves extensive subject matter and breadth of
experience, that trade-school training can claim sufficient
advantages over training under commercial conditions to
repay its expense. It is, consequently, only in cities repre-
senting exceptional concentration of such industries that trade
schools can expect support, and it is not yet entirely clear
whether the results obtained will prove proportionate to their
expense.
Vocational Education 651
In the earlier agitation for industrial training in the United
States, the trade school occupied the forefront of discussion
and was usually considered as the one institution. needed to
solve the entire problem, but as the great economic difficulties
of attendance for youth and young men who are to become
ordinary workmen have come to be better apprehended, it is
seen that such institutions can, so far as numbers are con-
cerned, fulfil only a very subordinate office. This office in
the case of the long-course schools will probably be to train
a comparatively small number of highly equipped workers in
a few of the skilled trades.
Preparatory Trade Schools. — Conditions similar to those
noted above in the case of England have recently brought
forward in the Eastern states the type of school called a pre-
paratory trade school or intermediate industrial school. The
situation of the fourteen-year-old boy in the United States
is more acute even than in England, inasmuch as the disin-
clination on the part of employers in the skilled trades and
high-grade industries to employ youths below sixteen years
of age is much more general. Since the report of the Massa-
chusetts Commission on Industrial and Technical Education in
1906, which pointed out the large numbers of boys and girls
in that state who leave school at fourteen before graduation
from the elementary school, the demoralizing influences that
surround them, and the lack of economic progress made by
such children, interest in a type of industrial school that shall
aim particularly at the ages from fourteen to sixteen has been
steadily growing.
The first school of this type to be established was at Roches-
ter, New York, in 1908. Since then a considerable number of
schools providing practical work in one or more of the large
trade groups, together with related instruction in drawing,
elementary science, history, English, shop calculations,
accounting, and business forms, have been organized in Mass-
achusetts and the state of New York. Such schools aim to
652 Principles of Secondary Education
give the advantage of some degree of industrial intelligence
and some knowledge of shop methods and materials to the
boy or girl of sixteen entering upon industrial employment,
rather than to impart a trade training.
This type of school points to the facts that forces other than
the purely economic enter into the movement fo,r industrial
education, and that responsibilities are involved in the con-
duct of such education beyond those of developing industrial
efficiency. The causes that have brought into being the
preparatory trade schools in the United States are not alone
the economic advantage to the industries in preparing better
material for entrance therein — an advantage that employers
would be quick to perceive yet slow to bring about — but
rather the recognition on the part of the public of a social
obligation to better the opportunities for great numbers of
young persons to enter upon more substantial careers. These
schools also serve to illustrate the fact that any institution
which enters upon the task of industrial education cannot
escape the responsibility of advancing at the same time the
training of its students in social and civic efficiency. It is
very evident that, under any form of representative govern-
ment, no school that does not attempt to instruct the indi-
vidual in his relations to the state as well as to promote his
economic efficiency can command public support or claim a
large place in dealing with the education of youth.
Part-time and Cooperative Plan. — The two schools just
described aim to prepare for entrance into the industries by
training beginners, a task economically justifiable only when
such training cannot be obtained under commercial conditions.
Of late years new types of school — the part-time day school
and the cooperative school — that aim to give instruction
to the individual at the same time that he is gaining practical
experience in the industry have assumed importance. Such
schools do not attempt the entire task of training the learner
at any period, but divide the work with organized industry,
Vocational Education 653
leaving to industry the practical training, and providing in
the school those elements that industry cannot readily supply.
These schools, together with evening industrial schools and
correspondence schools, bring formal instruction into essentially
cooperative relations with industry, avoiding the large finan-
cial burden of practical trade training, with its many diffi-
cult problems, and undertaking only those lines of instruction
with which the school is prepared to deal readily and effectively.
The important practical results of the German, and, in par-
ticular, the Munich, continuation schools, which have brought
instruction into the period of the regular working day, have
produced a growing conviction as to the importance of such
schools in the development of industrial education in America.
The more individualistic spirit under which industry is con-
ducted in the United States, and the great variety of condi-
tions represented, make progress toward such an arrangement
necessarily a very gradual matter, and it will undoubtedly
be a considerable time before manufacturers will reach any
general agreement to allow learners in their establishments to
attend industrial schools during the working hours. Never-
theless, the increasing discussion and study of this plan, and
the recognition of its important advantages, indicate that its
considerable extension may be expected in the near future.
Such a plan is more rapidly applied in cities, where the con-
centration of a few high-grade industries gives a large number
of apprentices and learners in particular lines. If such schools
are to increase beyond the field of these few skilled trades, it
is evident that the problems of instruction become complex
and difficult. In the case of low-grade factory industries,
where little opportunity for technical instruction is to be
found in industrial content, school instruction must neces-
sarily assume other directions and find its opportunity in in-
creasing the social horizon or home-keeping usefulness of the
pupil, or in aiding to develop capacity for change of occupa-
tion. It is evident that the beginnings of such schools as are
654 Principles of Secondary Education
represented at Cincinnati and Worcester, Massachusetts, must
of necessity be upon a voluntary attendance basis, and many
years must obviously elapse before public opinion in the United
States reaches the point of authorizing compulsory attend-
ance for a term of years, as is the case in southern Germany.
The cooperative plan by which the students spend half
their time at work in industrial establishments and half in
school, and which was first developed in the Engineering
Department of the University of Cincinnati, has lately been
applied to students of high school grade. This plan differs
from the part-time plan in some important respects. In the
first place the student body consists of enrolled high school
students and not of apprentices already employed in com-
mercial establishments. This fact insures a higher grade of
academic preparation than is generally the case with appren-
tices, and the larger amount of time spent in school allows
the general education to be carried much further. Encourag-
ing beginnings have been made with this type of school at
Fitchburg, Massachusetts, and Cincinnati, Ohio ; but it is too
early to define its future place. Whether, on the one hand, any
considerable number of those aiming at and fitted for regular
mechanic's work in the trades will be drawn to such schools,
or whether, on the other hand, the schools will develop ca-
pacity for training leaders of the foreman and expert type,
remains to be seen.
In this same group of supplementary or cooperating
schools might be included the correspondence schools, which
enroll a great number of young men engaged in industrial
employment in the United States, and afford instruction by
mail in a large number of technical subjects.
Apprenticeship and Corporation Schools. — The apprentice-
ship or corporation school, which has been developed in
several industrial corporations of large size in the United
States, is in a sense a part-time school in which both instruc-
tion and practical training are given within the commercial
Vocational Education 655
establishment. Such a plan, which allows a maximum
coordination of all lines of instruction, will probably be
increasingly adopted in the case of railroads and other
large corporations dealing with high-grade workers ; but
for the great majority of industrial establishments such
a system is hardly practicable, and division of labor between
the employer on the one hand and the public school on the
other is the method making for greatest efficiency and
economy.
Secondary Technical Schools. — The middle technical schools
of Germany have no exact counterpart in the United States,
but the several schools for the textile industry correspond
closely to this type. Most prominent among these institu-
tions are the Textile School of the Pennsylvania Museum at
Philadelphia, established 1884 and noted for the high grade
of its instruction, three state-aided schools in Massachusetts,
at Lowell, New Bedford, and Fall River, and the Textile
Department of the Georgia School of Technology at Atlanta.
None of these schools requires previous practical training
in the textile industry for admission, but in each school there
are a number of mature students with such experience, and
the character of the work approximates closely to that of
the German schools.
Of late years other technical schools or classes of secondary
rank have appeared, such as the day courses in machine
design and applied electricity of Pratt Institute, Brooklyn,
the Technological High School of the Ohio Mechanics In-
stitute at Cincinnati, and certain courses in the Drexel In-
stitute, Philadelphia, and in the Lewis Institute of Chicago.
Technical High Schools. — The question whether technical
high schools with the same requirements of admission as
regular public secondary schools can be incorporated into the
American public school system has received considerable
discussion of late years. The manual training schools, as
above noted, do not contribute trained workers to the in-
656 Principles of Secondary Education
dustries, and strong arguments have been made toward the con-
version of these schools into technical high schools, having the
distinct purpose of preparing pupils for industrial leadership ;
that is, for positions in industrial life requiring skill and techni-
cal knowledge, and of greater importance and responsibility
than those of skilled mechanics. The serious question facing
such a proposition is whether such results can be secured from
a type of school that does not require practical experience
before entrance, as in the case of the German technical schools,
or provide parallel experience, as in the case of the cooperative
schools.
Legislation. — • Laws have been passed in a number of states
providing for state supervision of industrial education and
in several cases for the establishment and assistance of in-
dustrial and trade schools. Massachusetts was the first to
act in this direction. In 1906 a State Commission on In-
dustrial Education was created, with power to superintend the
establishment and maintenance of industrial schools for boys
and girls. The act further provided for the reimbursement
to cities and towns of a part of the amount expended for the
support of such schools. After two years of trial, the plan
of an independent commission was found to be unsatisfactory,
and the administration of the law was vested in the reor-
ganized State Board of Education, with provision for a special
commissioner to deal with the field of industrial education.
Since the reorganization the state board has accomplished
very important work in standardizing, as to scope, courses
of study, and methods of instruction, the various types of
schools that come under its control, as well as in furthering
the establishment of a considerable number of schools.
New York State enacted a law in 1909 authorizing the estab-
lishment of general industrial schools, trade schools, and schools
of agriculture, mechanical arts, and home making, and pro-
viding for the award to such schools of a certain measure of
state support. The disbursement of state moneys to the
Vocational Education 657
schools is by the terms of the act placed in the hands of the
State Board of Education and made dependent upon its
approval of the courses of study maintained. The estab-
lishment and conduct of these schools is referred to the local
boards of education, but the appointment of advisory boards
representing the local trades, industries, and occupations is
made compulsory. The duties of such advisory boards are
to counsel with and advise the boards of education in regard
to the establishment and conduct of the schools.
In 1907 a law was passed in the state of Wisconsin empower-
ing cities or school districts to establish, conduct, and maintain
schools for the purpose of giving practical instruction in the
useful trades, and placing such schools under the supervision
and control of the local school boards. Permission was given
to the school boards to appoint advisory committees to assist
in the administration of the trade schools, and provision was
made for the levy of a special local tax for the establishment
and maintenance of such schools. The law was amended
in 1909, and the minimum age of entrance to a trade school
reduced from sixteen years to fourteen years for both young
men and young women. In 1911 the state passed a number
of acts relating to industrial education, which among other
measures provide : (i) for a modification of the apprenticeship
laws of the state by which apprentices shall receive instruction
for not less than five hours a week; (2) that whenever any
evening school, continuation classes, industrial school, or com-
mercial school shall be established for minors between the
ages of fourteen and sixteen, working under permit provided
by law, every such child shall attend such school not less than
five hours per week for six months in each year, and every
employer shall allow all minor employees over fourteen and
under sixteen years of age a corresponding reduction in hours
of work ; (3) that employers shall allow a reduction in hours
of work at the time when the classes are held whenever the
working time and that of the class coincide ; (4) that a state
2 U
658 Principles of Secondary Education
board of education be appointed to control the . distribution
of state moneys under the act.
Other states have recognized industrial education through
legislative measures to the extent of providing official machinery
for the development and supervision of such work, and in still
other states investigating commissions have been appointed
with the object of ultimate legislation in this direction.
MANUAL TRAINING. — In spite of many objections, the
term " manual training " has come to be generally applied
to all forms of constructive handwork when used as an agent
in general education. When used in the broadest sense, in-
struction in domestic art and science, and constructive work
in various materials in the lower grades are included. In
a narrower conception, the term is restricted to work with
mechanical tools given to boys. The tendency in American
usage is to distinguish sharply between manual training as
a feature of general education and specialized tool instruction
given to selected groups for purely vocational ends.
Educational Value. Underlying Theory. — In the early
agitation for the introduction of manual training in the eighties,
the claims put forward for the new subject were in the main
based on the conception of formal discipline. Manual train-
ing was entitled to a place in the school because it exercised the
observation, trained the reasoning powers, and strengthened
the will. Although it is doubtless true that public support
of the new movement was due to a vague but sincere con-
viction that the introduction of handwork stood for industrial
training, educators as a rule most carefully, refrained from
advancing a claim for utilitarian value in the work, and all
utterances were for the most part expressed strictly in terms
of the prevailing faculty psychology.
The early practice of manual training in the elementary
school was experimental and formal. The type exercise was
the universal form in which handwork appeared, and it was
not until the influence emanating from the Slovd School of
Vocational Education 659
Boston (established in 1888) began to be felt that toolwork for
boys assumed a more invigorating form. The fundamental
principle of sloyd, which places emphasis on the value of
working for a useful end, and so enlisting the interest of the
worker, soon found acceptance in the general practice in the
elementary school, and to a certain extent modified the methods
of the manual training high school.
About the same period, the doctrine of formal discipline
began to lose its place as the corner stone of manual training
philosophy. By the beginning of the present century the
conviction had developed that constructive work comes into
natural relations with the worker only when he contributes
something of his own thought to attain the end placed before
him. Out of this attitude, aided by a deeper study of the
thought of such educational leaders as Froebel, Pestalozzi,
and Herbart, and clarified by the emphasis of the psychologists
on the unity of the mental processes, has developed the con-
ception of manual training as a means of expression — a means
of expression in terms of form, color, materials, muscular
activity, and concrete ends — -a means of expression peculiarly
adapted to child life.
During the last seven or eight years the growing emphasis
placed upon the social meaning of education has caused atten-
tion to be turned more and more to the subject matter or
content side of manual training, and the conception of manual
training, at least in the elementary school, has come more
and more to be that of an educational instrument interpreting
the fields of art and industry in terms adapted to child life
and the limitations of the school.
All of this development in the philosophy of manual training
has tended away from the employment of self-contained,
formal courses towards the use of handwork as a medium of
social experiences leading to the acquisition of knowledge.
One of the most complete expressions of this idea is the employ-
ment of constructive activities in the lower grades in the form
660 Principles of Secondary Education
of social occupations, which serve as centers for instruction in
other branches. This type of work was developed to a notable
extent in the University Elementary School conducted by
Professor John Dewey from 1896 to 1905 in connection with
the University of Chicago.
Content of Course. — The early work in manual training
in the elementary school was almost uniformly limited to the
two or three upper grades, and consisted of shopwork for boys
and sewing and cooking for girls. From these grades hand-
work slowly made its way downward, and at the present time
such work, dealing with a variety of materials, is given in all
grades in many of the larger cities. The report of the Com-
missioner of Education for 1910 states that in more than
seven hundred cities of the United States, public schools have
manual training in several years of the course, generally in
the elementary grades, but frequently in all the years from
kindergarten through the high school.
Place of Manual Training in the Various National Systems.
- Manual training was first recognized as a valuable feature
of school work in European countries. As early as 1858
Otto Cygnaeus, who later organized the public schools of
Finland on a modern basis, outlined a plan of handwork for
the primary schools of that country, and in 1866 some form
of manual work was made compulsory in all primary schools
for boys in country districts as well as in the training colleges
for male teachers.
In the United States, manual training came into being
partly as the expression of a new educational philosophy and
partly from dissatisfaction on the part of the public with the
results of the purely bookish curriculum of the schools. The
first appearance of constructive work for clearly definite
cultural purposes appears to have been in connection with the
classes of the Workingmen's School founded in 1878 by the
Ethical Culture Society of New York. In 1880, through
the efforts of Dr. Calvin A. Woodward, the St. Louis Manual
Vocational Edit cation 66 1
Training School was opened in connection with Washington
University. This school was a completely equipped high
school, giving instruction in various lines of shopwork and in
mechanical drafting, as well as in the regular secondary school
subjects with exception of the classics. The work of this
school attracted wide attention, and the success with which
mechanic arts instruction had been incorporated in the cur-
riculum led to the rapid organization of similar schools in other
large cities. In Chicago, Toledo, Cleveland, and Cincinnati
privately supported schools were organized from 1884 to
1886, and public manual training schools were established
in Baltimore in 1884, Philadelphia, 1885, and Omaha, 1886.
The first provision for girls' work in these schools was made in
the case of the Toledo Manual Training School, and included
sewing, dressmaking, millinery, and cooking. The shopwork
instruction given in these institutions comprised joinery,
turning, pattern making, forging, and machine work, and
sometimes foundry practice and tinsmithing. The character
of this work has been very similar in different schools, and
until late years has been almost uniformly based upon the
principles of the " Russian System," so called because the
ideas involved first gained recognition in the United States
through the exhibit of the Imperial Technical School of St.
Petersburg at the Centennial Exhibition in 1876. The
central idea of this system of shopwork instruction, which was
developed in a technical school for the instruction of engineers,
is the analysis of a craft into its fundamental processes and
typical constructions, and the presentation of these elements
in an orderly and sequential scheme as separate exercises.
The rapid development of this type of secondary school,
which has continued steadily since its inception, has resulted
in an institution peculiarly American. In other countries
the introduction and spread of manual training has been con-
fined to the elementary school, and no institution of a purely
educational character exists in Europe that represents any
662 Principles of Secondary Education
parallel to the comprehensive and costly equipment of these
schools, nor, it should be said, to their rather vague and indefi-
nite educational status. Established with the double purpose
of affording a more liberal and realistic training for boys of
secondary school age, and of developing capacities for in-
dustrial careers, the records show that apart from the large
number that go forward into engineering schools, only a trivial
percentage of graduates 'from manual training high schools
enter directly into industrial work, and that this small number
go almost wholly into the " white shirt " occupations of drafts-
man or administrative assistant. Of late years a tendency
has become apparent to intensify the industrial side of the
curriculum in such schools, and to transform them into techni-
cal schools with a definite vocational basis.
Industrial Education and Manual Training. — With the
attention given to industrial education in the United States
of late years, manual training has undoubtedly lost something
of its importance in the public mind. It is probable, however,
that this attitude is only temporary ; for all thoughtful con-
sideration agrees that manual training in elementary schools
constitutes an invaluable basis and, under the peculiarly un-
settling influences of American life, a most necessary founda-
tion for an effective system of industrial education. On the
other hand, it seems probable, from many experiments now
being conducted, that a semivocational or a prevocational
type of manual training is likely to assume importance in
large cities, which will afford to boys and girls, compelled
to leave school at the compulsory age limit, an elective op-
portunity for one or two years before that time to acquire some
measure of industrial intelligence and to learn from a number
of industrial experiences the general field for which they may
be best fitted. Recent development has all been along the
latter line, though no one type of school has demonstrated
its superiority.
Vocational Education 663
COMMERCIAL EDUCATION
ORIGIN AND NEED OF COMMERCIAL EDUCA-
TION. — Commercial education is now generally understood
to include all education which prepares specifically for busi-
ness careers. It is no longer limited to the narrowly tech-
nical or practical training which fits the student to perform
the various operations that are necessary in the exchange of
commodities, but it is generally taken to exclude the training
that prepares for the work of production. With the practical
training there is usually associated a certain amount of the
liberal, or cultural, element of education. The proportion
of this element differs widely in the almost innumerable forms
of commercial education found in the United States and in
foreign countries. In some it is practically nil ; in others,
it comprises over nine tenths of the whole amount of time given
to study.
Recognition of this branch of education has been somewhat
tardy, and can hardly be said to be complete even now. One
reason for this is obviously the fact that a century ago the
transaction of business was a simple matter compared with
the complexity of our present organization. Commercial life
itself was not very highly developed, and was, indeed, con-
sidered too humble a form of activity for the exercise of great
talents, or for any special preparation. All this has been
changed now. Commerce has so extended its sphere and
has so developed its organism that it has become a field
for the greatest intellects. Thorough preparation for it has
become recognized as necessary, though there are still great
divergences of opinion as to the form this preparation should
take. Until recently it was not thought to be a function of
either public or private schools — not a function of education,
in the sense the word was used. For that matter, the very com-
bination of the words " commercial education " is somewhat
anomalous. Opposition to the conjunction came from both cle-
664 Principles of Secondary Education
ments. The ideals of education and of business were regarded
as directly opposed. The earnestness with which educators
opposed the introduction of the commercial aim, or com-
mercialism, into their methods is only paralleled by the cor-
diality with which the majority of business men condemned
the aims and methods of education as impractical and useless
for their purposes. Within the past quarter century utterances
by each party to the detriment of the other have been frequent,
but they are nearly absent now.
Recognition of commercial education has come, and the
two warring elements have been partially reconciled. That
they have been brought to realize the essential unity of their
interests and their mutual helpfulness is not the least impor-
tant advance made by education in the past quarter century.
For, although the recognition of commercial education has been
tardy, and although it is still in an experimental stage, its
growth has been rapid enough to leave no doubt of its useful-
ness. If the figures were not in themselves sufficient proof of
the fact that commercial education has grown in response to
a real need and a real demand, it would only be necessary to
examine its early history both in this country and abroad.
COMMERCIAL EDUCATION IN THE PUBLIC HIGH
SCHOOL. — Commercial education in the public schools is
still in the experimental stage. It has never been conspicu-
ously successful, nor has it until recently been of a kind that
promised much advance on the private commercial schools.
It has made its way with difficulty, and there is still a good deal
of suspicion and some antagonism directed against it. In its
history, the weakness of our public educational system is made
apparent. In the first place, our educational system has
nothing of the compactness and unity of those of many foreign
countries, notably Germany. Control is so largely local that
there is difficulty in instituting a new movement with any de-
gree of unanimity. Much time and energy are wasted by the
several states and cities in making experiments, and much
Vocational Education
more time is lost in waiting for others to make the experime.
It was with difficulty that even such so-called " innovation
as music, drawing, and physical training obtained recognition
as desirable factors in public school education. In a similar
way, the introduction of commercial studies was retarded by
the lack of any unified system and the general conservatism
of educators. Another objection was that there was no place
for it. In the primary schools it was of course out of the
question. The secondary or high schools were generally
regarded as stepping stones to college and were dominated
by the classical element. Certainly commercial studies were
not academic. And although only a small part of the students
in the high schools went to college it was felt that even those
who did not should be given a substitute in the way of culture,
so far as possible. There was no room for practical or voca-
tional instruction. Nor were there any properly equipped
teachers.
But the demand became too insistent to be unheeded.
Many students left the public high schools early in their course
to enter the private business schools, where they might obtain
preparation for their future careers. Naturally there was some
murmuring on the part of taxpayers, who felt that the public""
schools they paid for should give the education for which
their sons and daughters asked, whether it looked toward
a professional or a business career. Scientific courses were
given in most of the larger high schools — why not commercial?
In response to the demand, short commercial courses, of two
years (and sometimes of only one) , were offered in many high
schools before 1890. The movement rapidly extended through-
out the country. In 1893 there were 15,220 students in the
United States in these courses; in 1895, there were 30,330.
In the years 1893-1899 their numbers increased, while the
enrollment of the private business schools decreased. This
might seem to indicate that the courses were successful and
were a good substitute for the private commercial school
666 Principles of Secondary Education
courses. Such was far from being the case. The majority
of them were poor ; some were bad. They had come because
the demand was too strong to be resisted, but they had little
encouragement from above. The public educational system
had simply accepted them as a necessary evil, and had slavishly
imitated the private schools. The methods and the quality
of instruction were inferior. There was little attempt to
relate the cultural to the practical studies. A few new and
alien branches had been grafted on an old tree, but they were
poorly nourished by it and did not grow. The short com-
mercial course in high schools was distinctly not a success,
and began to fall into disrepute. The work of its graduates
was compared unfavorably with that of regular four-year
students. The private schools improved to meet the new com-
petition, and far outstripped the public school courses, ham-
pered as these were by all manner of difficulties. This is seen
in the statistics of attendance. As has been said, the number
of students pursuing commercial courses in the public high
schools increased in 1893-1898, while that in the private com-
mercial schools decreased. In the next five-year period, 1898-
1903, both increased at about equal rates. In 1903-1908 the
public high school enrollment in commercial courses seems
actually to have decreased, while that of the private com-
mercial schools increased. Doubtless the decrease was not
so great as the government statistics make it appear, because
of a change in the method of reporting. Indeed, the average
number of students in the well-established commercial courses
in public high schools has shown a fairly steady increase every
year. For all that, the public school has not been a successful
competitor of the private school in the latter's own field of
short courses and purely technical training.
Within recent years, however, a movement has begun which
promises to place commercial education upon a stable basis
in our public school system. In many of the larger cities
of the country since 1900 separate high schools of commerce
Vocational Education 667
have been established. As early as 1892, far-sighted educators
saw the necessity of this, if commercial education were to
be successfully undertaken. In that year Professor Edmund
J. James, then of the Wharton School in the University of
Pennsylvania, in a notable address before the convention of
the American Bankers' Association at Saratoga, made a plea
for the establishment of separate commercial high schools.
Interest in the proposition grew, and although it was some time
before results showed, there was a general tendency to lengthen
and broaden the commercial courses then given in the public
high schools. In 1898 the Central High School of Phila-
delphia founded a separate commercial school with an entirely
distinct curriculum. Soon after, the High School of Com-
merce in New York was opened. Others followed in Pitts-
burgh, Chicago, Brooklyn, Washington, and other cities. In
the majority of these, the courses given were not materially dif-
ferent from those of the ordinary high school, except that the
classical studies were generally omitted, and commercial
branches were taught. They had the advantage of segregating
students of common aim and of affording superior facilities
for work. The length of the course was ordinarily four years,
instead of three, two, or one, as in the commercial course of
the ordinary high school. Beyond these, there were no
very great advances in them. They were better, but not
essentially different from the earlier type. But in a few cities,
notably Philadelphia and New York, a different plan was put
in operation. There was some attempt to look behind the de-
mand for commercial education, to find the real need, and to fill
it. It was a problem to be solved, and the school set itself
to the task of solving it. If a business career was to be the
goal, then all preparation should have that in mind. The
whole course of study had to be reconstructed and made to
serve an entirely different function from that of the classical
high school. Not merely the commercial branches proper,
but all the studies in the curriculum, should be adapted to
668 Principles of Secondary Education
business needs. This was the solution proposed. The de-
velopment of the plan has been slow, partly because of the
need of much experiment, partly because of the dearth of
suitable teachers. It was not an easy task to change pedagogi-
cal methods to fit the new ideal. Some help was obtained
from the study of German and other foreign commercial
schools. The experimenting is still going on and much re-
mains to be done. There has been little outward change in
the curricula of these schools recently, but inwardly there
has been great development. For instance, in the foreign
languages, a fair ability in speaking is regarded as more im-
portant than reading. In biology, chemistry, and the like,
the commercial importance is demonstrated. Throughout
the list, the practical application of knowledge is made and
new relations between the studies shown. The whole scheme is
becoming a unit, rather than a mixture of conflicting elements.
There are only a few high schools of this type in the country
now, but two recently established high schools of commerce
- that of Boston and that of Cleveland — are based upon this
new idea of commercial education. Many of the older ones
are gradually tending toward it. It is beginning to be realized
by educators that, if vocational instruction is to be given by
the public schools, it should be given whole-heartedly, and
not in a grudging acquiescence to a demand. It should pre-
pare a student not merely to accomplish certain set tasks, but
to grapple with new problems.
The five-year course of study of the High School of Com-
merce of New York City is as follows :
FIRST YEAR. — Required : English (4) ; German, French,
or Spanish (4) ; algebra (4) ; biology (with especial reference
to materials of commerce) (4) ; business knowledge and
practice 1 (6) ; drawing (second half year) (i) ; physical
training 2 (2) ; music (i) ; Total, 26 periods.
1 Including local industries and government of the City of New York (2) ;
business writing (2) ; business arithmetic, business forms and methods (2).
2 Including Physiology.
Vocational Education 669
SECOND YEAR. — Required : English (3) ; German, French,
or Spanish (4) ; plane geometry (3) ; chemistry (with especial
reference to materials of commerce) (4) ; history l (with
especial reference to economic history and geography) (3) ;
stenography (3) ; drawing and art study (2) ; physical train-
ing (2) ; Total, 24 periods.
Electives : German, French, or Spanish (4) ; bookkeeping
and business forms (3) ; business arithmetic (i) ; commercial
geography (i).
THIRD YEAR. — Required : English (3) ; German, French,
or Spanish (4) ; geometry and algebra 2 (3) ; physics (5) ;
history 3% (with especial reference to materials of commerce)
(3) 5 physical training (2) ; drawing and art study (i) ;
Total, 21 periods.
Electives : German, French, or Spanish (4) ; bookkeeping
and business arithmetic (3) ; stenography and typewriting
(3) ; drawing and art study (2) ; commercial geography (i).
FOURTH YEAR. — Required : English (3) ; German, French,
or Spanish (4) ; economics and economic geography (4) ;
history of the United States (with especial reference to indus-
trial and constitutional aspects) (4) ; physical training (2) ;
Total, 17 periods.
Electives : A foreign language (4) ; advanced chemistry
(4) ; economic biology (4) ; trigonometry and solid geom-
etry (4) ; elementary law and commercial law 4 (4) ; ad-
vanced bookkeeping, business correspondence, and office
practice (4) ; stenography and typewriting (4) ; drawing
and art study (4) ; modern industrialism (i).
FIFTH YEAR. — • Required : English (3) ; logic, inductive
and deductive (3) ; physical training (2) ; Total, 8 periods.
1 First half year, Beginnings of Nations to 1300 A.D. Second half year, Mod-
ern History to 1750.
2 In the second half year, students may elect additional stenography and
typewriting or bookkeeping in place of the second course in mathematics, or
may give double time to mathematics by omitting either stenography or
bookkeeping.
3 First half year, English and colonial history, 1620 to 1750. Second half
year, modern history (England and the Continent), 1750 to present time.
4 Students who do not elect law in the fourth year may receive instruction in
commercial law in connection with advanced bookkeeping.
670 Principles of Secondary Education
Electives : A foreign language (4) ; advanced mathe-
matics (4) ; advanced physics (4) ; industrial chemistry (4) ;
economic geography (4) ; nineteenth century history,
Europe and Orient, diplomatic history, United States and
modern Europe (4) ; banking and finance, transportation
and communication (4) ; administrative law and interna-
tional law (4) ; accounting and auditing (4) ; business
organization and management (4) ; drawing (4) ; advanced
economics (3).
It is too early to obtain more than a glimpse of the results
of the new type of commercial secondary school. Undoubtedly
it is an advance over the earlier. The instruction given is
practical, but it is said that the cultural value of education
is by no means lost. It is certain that there is a well-con-
sidered and intelligent purpose to meet the real needs of a
large body of students for whom the classical high school
offers no attractions. Some high schools go so far even as
to plan their courses to meet the needs not only of those who
will remain until graduation, but also of those who \vill leave
after a year or two. High schools of commerce that are
working along these lines report that they have a large pro-
portion of students who would not enter any other school,
or would not stay for any length of time. The graduates find
it easy to obtain positions in business life. In purely mechani-
cal lines they are not so well prepared as those of the private
commercial schools, but in capacity to acquire new knowledge
and ability to use it they are far superior. Many of them,
indeed, find the first-year work of excellent university schools
of commerce almost elementary for them. This is merely
because such schools are so few in number that the university
schools have not been thoroughly correlated with them. They
suffer from the general lack of unity in our education plan,
which makes it difficult for the student to gain a coherent,
consistent education from beginning to end, other than that
which prepares for one of the well-recognized professions,
such as law, medicine, teaching, and the like.
Vocational Education 671
A similar difficulty under which they labor is the dearth
of well-trained teachers. These the university schools are
beginning to supply. A beginning at least has been made, and
it is not too much to expect that within the next decade the
commercial secondary school will have become a very impor-
tant part of our public school system, with a clearly defined
relation to the other parts. More than that, it is probable
that vocational schools of other types will have gained a firm
footing, as they even now promise to do, under the leadership
of the commercial high school. Many cities even now have
vocational high schools of several distinct types.
AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION
DEVELOPMENT OF THE INTEREST IN AGRICUL-
TURAL EDUCATION. — While the art of agriculture has
been of popular interest and of practical necessity since the
earliest periods, the academic study of the sciences underlying
the art and of its practical processes are of very recent de-
velopment. In the late eighteenth and early nineteenth cen-
turies great popular interest in agriculture arose, partly as a
result of the social and political changes of the times, partly
as an accompaniment of the industrial and economic changes
incident to the industrial revolution. In the United States
one result was the formation of many agricultural societies.
Such societies became centers of agitation for the promotion
of agricultural schools. A few such schools were actually
founded, one in Maine in 1821 and one in Connecticut in
1824. The development of the agricultural interest of the
South, and the opening of the Middle West transferred the
agricultural interests to those sections. This was followed,
especially in the Middle West, by a similar development of ag-
ricultural societies and agitation for the formation of agricul-
tural colleges. Two such, Pennsylvania and Michigan, were
founded before the Civil War. This movement coalescing
672 Principles of Secondary Education
with the one for industrial education resulted in the Land
Grant Colleges established by the first Morrill Act of 1862.
The distraction of interest and the unsettling of all such
efforts consequent upon the Civil War, together with the great
industrial revival following the war, and the opening up of
the almost unlimited resources of the great West again with-
drew most interest from the problems of agricultural educa-
tion. In the last decade of the nineteenth century and the
early years of the twentieth century other conditions are forc-
ing this question again to the front and are making of it an
educational problem of national, even of world- wide importance.
Among such conditions are the expansion of the public domain,
the great rise in prices, especially of agricultural products, the
decrease or cessation of the export surplus in the agricultural
crops of the United States, the fertility exhaustion of farm
lands, the relative decrease in agricultural population, and the
general recognition that the existing institutions of agricul-
tural education were not meeting the problem. On the other
hand, advancement in the field of applied science has dem-
onstrated vast possibilities in the application of science to
the problems of agriculture. All of these have done much to
bring the question of agricultural education again into great
prominence.
AGRICULTURAL INSTRUCTION IN THE SCHOOLS. -
The agricultural colleges have done much, during the past forty
years, to prepare the way for an extension of agricultural in-
struction and to stimulate an interest in the subject. The very
important work which they have done in laying a foundation
of sound agricultural knowledge was a necessary prerequisite
to any general movement for the extension downward of agri-
cultural instruction. Knowledge had to be accumulated, ex-
tended, and popularized before agricultural instruction below
the colleges could become possible. The recent activity of the
United States Department of Agriculture in stimulating and
encouraging the many efforts looking toward the extension
Vocational Education 673
of agricultural knowledge and agricultural instruction have
been of great service. The movement has also been greatly
aided by the knowledge, which has come to us within recent
years, of what European states and nations have been and
are doing in agricultural instruction, and the success which
has attended their efforts. The work of France in particular
has been an inspiration to us. Another influence which has
greatly aided the movement has been the growing realization
that this nation must, ultimately, be a great agricultural
nation, and that our present wasteful and unintelligent
methods of agriculture will not do for the future. To find a
means of disseminating proper ideas as to how best to con-
serve and to improve our great national resource has been a
strong motive underlying the movement.
Certain movements within the schools themselves have
fitted in with and helped to prepare the way for the develop-
ment of agricultural instruction. The general introduction of
nature study into our schools, which came with the populari-
zation of science, has been of very material value in preparing
the way and in developing teachers capable of taking up the
agricultural work. The still more recent school garden move-
ment, and the general demand for more practical instruction
in the public schools, both elementary and secondary, have
also contributed their share in preparing the way for the
somewhat general introduction of agricultural instruction.
As the movement has grown in importance and definiteness,
the far-reaching results, both economic and educational,
have come more clearly into view, and the movement in turn
has begun materially to change our conceptions of the methods
of procedure, purposes, and needs of the rural school and of
the high school in particular, and bids fair to modify for good
our whole educational work.
Agricultural High Schools. — Schools of secondary grade
for theoretical and practical training in agriculture exist in
France, Germany, Austria, Sweden, and Japan. The ecoles
674 Principles of Secondary Education
pratiques of France, first established in 1875, of which there
are now about 50 in existence, are in reality secondary
schools for the training in agriculture of the sons of peasant
proprietors or small farmers, and with a two-year course
of instruction. In Germany many agricultural schools have
been established, beginning at the close of the Realschulen
course, or at the end of unter-sekunda of the Gymnasia or Real-
gymnasia, in which natural sciences and agriculture take the
place of the languages and mathematics of the gymnasial
course. In Japan any city, town, or village may establish a
secondary school, if the local finances will permit of so doing
without detriment to the elementary schools of the place.
By 1904 there were 57 such schools in Japan, and the number
is increasing every year.
It was thirty years after the establishment of agricultural
colleges in this country before the first successful agricultural
high school was established. This one, established in 1888,
was in connection with the University of Minnesota, and its
success was pronounced from the first. By 1898, however,
the number of agricultural high schools had only increased
to 10, and the teaching of agriculture in the normal schools
and the elementary schools of the country had only begun.
Since then the development of secondary instruction in agri-
culture has been much more rapid, though the development
has not been so fast as in the case of agricultural instruction
in the elementary schools.
To provide instruction in agriculture in the high schools is
a very much easier problem than to provide such instruction
for elementary schools. The age and mental capacity of the
pupils, the nature of the school, and the character of its work
and equipment, all tend toward a specialization in subject
matter, and specialized agricultural subjects are much better
organized and are easier to teach than the more generalized
work of the elementary school. The equipment needed, on
the other hand, is more extensive, few good textbooks of
Vocational Education 675
secondary grade have as yet been provided, just what is to
be taught has not as yet been definitely decided upon and
put into practice, and the number of properly equipped
teachers is relatively small, and probably will continue to be
much less than the demand for some time to come.
Statistics collected in May, 1909, showed that the number
of agricultural high schools, or colleges offering definite second-
ary agricultural courses, had increased to 60 ; that 346 public
high schools were teaching agriculture as a part of the high
school course; that 119 state and county normal schools and
1 6 agricultural colleges were training teachers to teach agri-
culture in the schools ; that a number of private secondary
schools were aiding in the work; and that 16 institutions
offered correspondence or reading courses of secondary grade.
In all about 500 institutions were giving secondary instruc-
tion in agriculture in May, 1909, and the number has materially
increased since then. Some instruction in agriculture is
now being added to secondary school courses so fast and in so
many parts of the country that it is difficult to know in how
many schools and where it is given.
The schools giving secondary work in agriculture may be
classified as follows :
(a) Secondary schools of agriculture in connection with
the colleges of agriculture. The Minnesota school is of this
type, and similar schools of agriculture, or two-year or three-
year practical courses, are now maintained in connection
with the colleges of agriculture in Alabama, Arkansas, Cali-
fornia, Colorado, Connecticut, Delaware, Florida, Idaho,
Kentucky, Louisiana, Maine, Maryland, Minnesota, Mis-
sissippi, Montana, Nebraska, Nevada, New Hampshire,
New Jersey, New Mexico, North Dakota, Ohio, Oklahoma,
Oregon, Pennsylvania, Porto Rico, Rhode Island, South
Dakota, Texas, Utah, Virginia, Washington, West Virginia,
Wisconsin, and Wyoming. In addition, a number of the
agricultural colleges are giving instruction which is secondary
676 Principles of Secondary Education
in nature, though it may not be recognized as such. The 16
land grant colleges for the colored race in the Southern states
are in large part secondary schools, their subcollege courses
representing at least two thirds of their work. These in-
stitutions have chosen to produce a large body of practical
negro farmers for the South rather than to produce a few
highly trained negro experts.
(6) Agricultural high schools located in large districts,
such as those in Alabama, Georgia, Virginia, and Minnesota.
Alabama was the first state to organize such schools, and now
has 9, one located in each congressional district. Each
school has a branch experimental station connected with it;
it is provided with land for experimental and instructional
purposes ; has an equipment of buildings, animals, and ma-
chinery; and receives a state appropriation of $4500 a year
for maintenance. Georgia has n such schools, similarly
located. Land, buildings, and equipment were furnished
almost entirely by local contributions, and out of the in-
come from fees and taxes the state grants about $7500 a year
to each school for maintenance. Each school has not less than
200 acres of land. The schools in each state give a four-
year course. Other states having somewhat similar schools
are California and Minnesota, where one state school is pro-
vided ; New York, with three such schools ; Oklahoma, with
one such school provided for each of the five judicial dis-
tricts of the state ; and Virginia, where it is proposed to es-
tablish one in each of the ten congressional districts of the
state. In Massachusetts a comprehensive scheme of special-
ized agricultural high schools was planned by the State In-
dustrial Commission, the plan being to locate ten schools at
different places in the state, and to divide the state into ten
large agricultural districts. Under the supervision of the Board
of Education, which succeeded to the work of the Industrial
Commission, about a dozen schools have been established.
Some of these have the county as a basis, some the town.
Vocational Education 677
The district plan is perhaps the best arrangement for such
schools, as the state can then be divided into natural agricul-
tural districts, and a school located in each.
(c) County agricultural high schools, as in Michigan and
Wisconsin. The first of these was established in Wisconsin
in 1902, and four are now in existence. These schools are
built and equipped at the expense of the counties where they
are located, but the state makes a grant of $4000 a year for
each school. The Marathon County school at Wausau, and
the Dunn County school at Menominee were opened in 1902,
and similar schools have since been opened at Marinette and
Winneconne. The course of study in each is two years in
length, and contains much practical and little academic work.
There is a county agricultural high school also at Menominee,
Michigan ; and Mississippi has recently provided for state
aid of $1000 a year to county agricultural high schools, one
to be located in each county in the state. County agricul-
tural high schools are also to be found in Maryland. Expe-
rience so far seems to indicate that the county is too small a
unit for the proper equipment and maintenance of a good
agricultural high school.
(d) State and county normal schools. Over 100 normal
schools in the United States were giving instruction in agri-
culture in 1909. In some schools a regular course is given
by a trained agricultural teacher, while in others the work is
done as a part of the science work. In all such schools the
aim of the work is to prepare teachers of the subject for work
in the elementary schools.
(e) Regular high schools, offering instruction in agriculture
as a part of their course of instruction. In such schools no
uniform plan is followed. In some the work consists of but
one or two courses ; in others a number of elective agricultural
studies are offered ; while in still others a regular agricultural
course is given parallel with the other courses of the school.
In a few schools the work is somewhat limited and specialized
678 Principles of Secondary Education
along such lines as horticulture or floriculture. Something
like 400 schools were offering such instruction at the close of
the school year in 1909, and the number has increased since
then. In Missouri alone over 200 high schools reported some
instruction in agriculture. In some places, and even through-
out some states, the existing high schools are being reorganized
so as to make them in large part agricultural high schools. Cir-
cular No. pi, Office of Experiment Stations, U. S. Department
of Agriculture, gives detailed courses of instruction in horti-
culture and agriculture, as these have been adopted by the
Association of American Agricultural Colleges and Experiment
Stations.
(/) Private schools, or semi-private schools. In this class
should be placed the National Farm School, at Doylestown,
Pennsylvania, established in 1896 to provide instruction and
practical farm work for about 40 boys ; the agricultural de-
partment of the Mount Hermon School, near Northfield,
Massachusetts, where instruction was begun in 1903 ; the
Smith Agricultural School and Northampton School of Tech-
nology, at Northampton, Massachusetts, opened in 1908 ; the
Winona Agricultural and Technical Institute at Winona Lake,
Indiana, established in 1902; Tuskegee in Alabama; and a
number of privately endowed colleges, which afford secondary
instruction in agriculture as a part of their work, and nearly all
of which are located in the upper Mississippi valley. The
schools at Doylestown, Northampton, and Tuskegee also re-
ceive some state aid. At Groton, Massachusetts, a school of
horticulture and landscape gardening for women has been
opened, and a course in horticulture is now given at Wellesley
College.
THE PRESENT PROBLEM. —What is the best way to
develop secondary instruction in agriculture is as yet a some-
what unsettled question. Whether it is better to aid the
present school system to evolve agricultural instruction out
of the present work, and thus make agricultural instruction
Vocational Education 679
an integral part of the regular school system ; or whether
special and independent schools for the teaching of agriculture
and domestic subjects should be established, has not as yet
been decided. The latter method at present seems to meet
with greater favor from practical men, but many educators
favor the former plan, believing that the inclusion of agricul-
tural instruction in the regular work of the secondary schools,
rather than its separation as a special kind of education for
which special and independent schools need to be established,
is best for us as a nation. It was this conception of the unity
of all education which led to the opposition, from educational
workers, to the congressional proposal of 1908 to grant aid
from the national treasury toward the establishment of sepa-
rate secondary schools of agriculture in the different states.
It is probable that both types of schools will be needed, and
will exist side by side, the larger and more specialized schools
being organized for agricultural districts, as was proposed for
Massachusetts, and some agricultural instruction being intro-
duced into most of the town and rural high schools.
TOPICS FOR FURTHER STUDY
1. What is the attitude of the modern trade union towards industrial
education ?
2. What is the attitude of the modern employer or of organizations
of employees towards industrial education ?
3. What are the advantages and the disadvantages of the evening
school as an instrument of industrial education as seen in concrete
cases ?
4. What arc the merits and the difficulties in the actual details of
arrangement of the part-time cooperative plan as seen in American
attempts ? In German ?
5. What are the social and economic conditions which render desirable
the public support of commercial education ?
6. What place has commercial education in public high schools ?
In the high school of the small city or town ?
7. Is a part-time cooperative plan possible or desirable in the com-
mercial field as it is in the industrial ?
680 Principles of Secondary Education
8. What are the merits and advantages of the German system of
commercial education over our own ? Of that of any other European
system over our own ?
9. What is the attitude of the business or commercial classes towards
commercial education ? How can cooperation between them and the
school be brought about ?
10. What differences exist in the social and industrial conditions at
the time of the manual training movement of the eighties and nineties
and similar conditions producing the industrial and trade education
demands of the present ?
11. What differences or similarities are found in a comparison of Amer-
ican conditions with those of any one European country where in-
dustrial education has been developed ?
12. What can we learn direct from the industrial or trade schools
of Germany regarding curriculum, method, or organization ? Of France ?
Of any other European country?
13. What are the advantages or disadvantages of the old appren-
ticeship system of industrial training over the present ?
14. Trace out the actual workings of the apprenticeship system of
industrial education in any one country or in any one industry.
15. In any one industry or in any one community what are the diffi-
culties existing at the present time in operating a system of industrial
education ?
16. What facts can be adduced to support the reasons given in the
text for the decline of interest in agricultural education following the Civil
War?
17. What facts can be adduced to support the reasons given in the
text for the recent growth of interest in agricultural education ?
1 8. What should be the relation between the agricultural colleges and
the agricultural high schools ?
19. What should be the relation between the agricultural colleges
and the farming population ? What between the agricultural high
schools and the farming population ?
20. What concrete problems of agriculture can be studied in a high
school course in agriculture ?
21. What are the merits and demerits of each type of the agricultural
high school given in the text ?
22. What can we learn from the work of the secondary agricultural
schools of Germany applicable to conditions in the United States?
From France ? From other European countries ?
23. What differences in curricula should be made between the various
types of agricultural secondary schools mentioned in the text ? What
in method ?
Vocational Education 68 1
REFERENCES
Industrial Education
A comprehensive bibliography of works on Industrial Education is
given in the Twenty-fifth Annual Report of the U. S. Commissioner of
Labor, pp. 521-539. In the following list only the most important and
most accessible titles are given.
CARLTON, F. T. Education and Industrial Evolution. New York, 1908.
CRP:ASEY, C. H. Technical Education in Evening Schools. London, 1905.
DRAPER, A. S. Our Children, our Schools, and our Industries. Annual
Report, New York State Education Department. Albany, 1908.
DUTTON, S. T., and SNEDDEN, D. S. Administration of Public Education
in the United States. New York, 1908.
GERMER, B., editor. Die Fortbildungs- und Fachschulen in den grosser en
Or ten Deutschlands. Leipzig, 1904.
HANUS, P. H. Beginnings in Industrial Education. Boston, 1908.
HOWARD, E. D. The Cause and Extent of the Recent Industrial Progress
of Germany. Boston, 1907.
KERSCHENSTEI.VER, GEORG. Organisation und Lchrpldne der obligato-
rischenFach- und Fortbildungschulen fiir Knaben in Munchen. Mu-
nich, 1910.
Jahresbericht der manulichen Fortbildungs- und Gewerbeschulen Miin-
chcns. Annual since 1907. Munich.
Staatsburgerliche Erziehung der deutschcn Jugcnd. Erfurt, 1909.
KIMMINS, C. W. Trade Schools in England. Elem. Sch. Teacher. Vol.
X, pp. 209-219.
LAUTZ, TH. Fortbildungs- und Fachschulen fiir Madchen. Wiesbaden,
1902.
Massachusetts Commission on Industrial and Technical Education,
Report. Boston, 1906.
Second Annual Report. Boston, 1908.
National Society for the Promotion of Industrial Education. Bulletins,
New York.
New York State Department of Labor. 26th A nnual Report of the Bureau
of Labor Statistics, Part I. Industral Training. Albany, 1909.
PACQUIER, J. B. L'Enseignement professional en France; son Histoire;
ses differcntcs Formes; scs Resultats. Paris, 1908.
PERSOX, H. S. Industrial Education. Boston, 1907.
Place of Industries in Public Education. Proceedings, N. E. A. 1910.
SADLER, M. E. Continuation Schools in England and Elsewhere. Man-
chester, 1908.
682 Principles of Secondary Education
Technical Education in France. L ' Enseignement technique en France.
Etude publiee a I' Occasion de V Exposition de igoo. Paris, 1900.
U. S. Bureau of Labor. Conditions of Entrance to the Principal Trades.
Bulletin, No. 67, 1906. Washington.
U. S. Commissioner of Labor. Industrial Education. Twenty-fifth An-
nual Report. Washington, 1910.
U. S. Commissioner of Labor. Trade and Technical Education. Seven-
teenth Annual Report. Washington, 1902.
U. S. Department of Commerce and Labor. Industrial Education in
Germany. SpecialConsularReports,Vo\.~KKX.III. Washington, 1905.
WARE, FABIAN. Educational Foundations of Trade and Industry. New
York, 1901.
WRIGHT, C. D. The Apprenticeship System in its Relation to Indus-
trial Education. U. S. Bureau of Education, Bulletin, No. 6.
Washington, 1908.
Manual Training
BALDWIN, W. A. Industrial Social Education. Springfield, Massa-
chusetts, 1903.
CLARKE, I. E. Education in Fine and Industrial Art in the United States.
U. S. Bureau of Education. 4 vols. Washington, 1885-1898.
Council of Supervisors of the Manual Arts Year Books. 1903-1909.
DEWEY, JOHN. The School and Society. Chicago, 1899.
DOPP, KATHARINE. The Place of Industries in Elementary Education.
Chicago, 1903.
Educational Monographs. New York College for the Training of Teachers.
New York, 1888-1890.
GOETZE, WALDEMAR. Hand and Eye Training. London, 1894.
HAM, C. H. Manual Training. New York, 1886.
Ireland, Reports and Minutes of Evidence of the Commission on Manual
and Practical Instruction in Primary Schools under the Board of
Education in. 7 vols. London, 1897.
Manual Training Magazine. Peoria, 1899-
N. E. A. Various Papers. Proceedings, 1884-
Report of Committees on Place of Industries in Public Education, 1910.
SALOMON, OTTO. Theory of Educational Sloyd. Boston, 1896.
SCHMITT, E. La Pedagogic du Travail Manuel. Paris, 1895.
Teachers College Record. The Elementary School Curriculum. New
York, 1908.
U. S. Bureau of Education. Reports. Washington, 1887-
WOODWARD, C. M. The Manual Training School. Boston, 1887.
Educational Value of Manual Training. Boston, 1890.
Manual Training in Education. New York, 1891.
Vocational Education 683
Commercial Education
BARBER, E. M. A Contribution to the History of Commercial Education.
Brooklyn, 1903.
Bulletins of University of Pennsylvania, Dartmouth College, New York
University, University of Wisconsin, University of Chicago, University
of California, Harvard University, University of Iowa, and others.
HARTOG, P. J. Commercial Education in the United States. Board of
Education, Special Reports on Educational Subjects, Vol. XI. Lon-
don, 1902.
HASKINS, CHARLES WALDO. Business Education and Accountancy.
New York and London, 1904.
HERRICK, CHEESMAN ABIAH. Meaning and Practice of Commercial
Education. New York and London, 1904.
HOOPER. F. and GRAHAM, J. Commercial Education at Home and Abroad.
New York and London, 1901.
JAMES, EDMUND JANES. Commercial Education. Albany, N. Y., 1900.
Education of Business Men. New York, 1893.
London Chamber of Commerce. Conference on Commercial Education.
London, 1898.
London School of Economics and Political Science. Brief Report of the
Work of the School since 1895. London, 1899.
Michigan, Political Science Association. Higher Commercial Education.
Ann Arbor, Mich., 1903.
Proceedings and Addresses of the Department of Business Education in
the National Education Association, 1897-1909.
Reports of the U. S. Commissioner of Education, 1885-1909.
SADLER, MICHAEL E. Higher Commercial Education in Antwerp, Leip-
zig, Paris, and Havre. Board of Education, Special Reports, Vol.
III. London, 1898.
Recent Developments in Higher Commercial Education in Germany.
Board of Education, Special Reports, Vol. IX. London, 1902.
VANDERLIP, FRANK ARTHUR. Addresses on Commercial and Technical
Education. New York, 1905.
WARE, FABIAN. Educational Foundation of Trade and Industry. New
York, 1901.
WHITFIELD, E. E. Commercial Education in Theory and Practice. Lon-
don, 1901.
Agricultural Education
BAILEY, L. H. On the Training of Persons to teach Agriculture in the
Public Schools. Bull. No. I, 1908, U. S. Bur. Educ., pp. 53, 2 pp.
bibliography on agricultural education. Washington, 1908.
684 Principles of Secondary Education
BAILEY, L. H. The Training of Farmers, The Century Co., 1909.
BAILEY, L. H. Education by Means of Agriculture. Cyclopedia of Ameri-
can Agriculture. Vol. IV, ch. viii, 1909. Historical and descriptive.
BETTS, G. H. New Ideals in Rural Schools. Boston, 1911.
CARNEY, MABEL. Country Life and the Country School. Chicago, 1912.
CUBBERLEY, E. P. Rural Life and Education. Boston, 1907.
ELLIS, A. CASWELL. The Teaching of Agriculture in the Public Schools.
Univ. of Texas, Butt. No. 85, 56 pp. Austin, 1906.
EGGLESTON, J. D., and BRUERE, R. W. The Work of the Rural School.
New York, 1913.
FISKE, G. W. The Challenge of the Country. New York, 1912.
FOGHT, H. W. The American Rural School. New York, 1910.
JEWELL, J. R. Agricultural Education. Bull. No. 2, 1907, U. S. Bur.
Educ., 140 pp. Bibliography of 123 titles. Washington, 1907.
HART, J. K. Educational Resources of Village and Rural Communities.
New York, 1913.
KERN, A. J. Among Country Schools. Boston, 1906.
N. E. A. Report of the Committee on Industrial Education for Rural Com-
munities, 1905. 97 pp. Supplementary Report of 45 pp. in 1907.
Published separately, and also in Proc. N. E. A. for 1905 and 1907.
SEERLEY, H. W. The Country School. New York, 1913.
U. S. Bureau of Educ. Annual Reports.
The Teaching of Agriculture in the Schools of France and Belgium ;
in Rept. for 1905, Vol. I, pp. 87-96.
Agricultural High Schools; in Rept. for 1909, Vol. I, pp. 146-150.
U. S. Dept. of Agriculture ; Office of Experimental Station, Circulars :
No. 49, TRUE, A. C. Secondary Courses in Agriculture. 10 pp. 1902.
No. 60, TRUE, A. C. The Teaching of Agriculture in the Rural Common
Schools. 20 pp. 1904.
No. 69, TRUE, A. C. A Four Years1 College Course in Agriculture.
36 pp. 1906.
No. 73, TRUE, A. C. Country Life Education. 13 pp. 1907.
No. 77, TRUE, A. C. A Secondary Course in Agronomy. 44 pp. 1908.
No. 83, TRUE, A. C., and CROSBY, D. J. The American System of
Agricultural Education. 27 pp. 111. 1909.
No. 84, HAYS, W. M. Education for Country Life. 40 pp. 1909.
No. 90, ABBEY, M. J. Normal School Instruction in Agriculture. 31 pp.
1909.
No. 91, TRUE, A. C. Secondary Education in Agriculture in the United
States, ii pp. 1909. Outline courses of study in Horticulture
and in Agriculture.
U. S. Dept. of Agriculture ; Office of Experimental Stations, Bulletins :
No. 186, CROSBY, D. J. Exercises in Elementary Agriculture. 48 pp. 1907.
CHAPTER XVIII
HYGIENE AND PHYSICAL EDUCATION
HYGIENE. — Hygiene (from vytela, hygiene, health) is
usually defined as the science that treats of the prevention of
disease and the preservation of health. It is especially an
applied science, and, in a certain sense, an art. It aims, in
the words of a modern writer, " to make growth more perfect,
life more vigorous, decay less rapid, death more remote." The
positive note in this definition of aims is characteristic of recent
hygiene. It is no longer satisfied with the mere attempt to
prevent disease, but it emphasizes especially the need of nor-
mal healthful development and the acquisition of vigorous
habits of health that shall be prophylactic against disease.
PERSONAL HYGIENE. — Personal hygiene consists of
two important parts, somatic hygiene and mental hygiene.
On account of the great individual differences in strength,
endurance, ability to work and to resist disease, the problem
in both these fields must be an individual one. Mental
hygiene is quite as important for the teacher and pupil as
somatic hygiene, and the teachings of mental hygiene and the
hygiene of instruction are so important for sound education
that for pedagogical as well as hygienic reasons the school
cannot ignore them.
The subject has also important social aspects. In its wider
sense personal hygiene is the very basis of disease prevention
and health preservation. All plans for community or national
freedom from disease must rest upon and depend upon the
care with which the individual members of society settle
their problems in personal hygiene. If every member of any
685
686 Principles of Secondary Education
given social unit would persistently apply his rights of fran-
chise in favor of more stringent and effective laws of hygiene
and sanitation, the problems of personal hygiene would be
far easier. The difficulties of personal health control are
largely difficulties which are of a community origin. The
transgressions of one member of a community are visited
upon the lives of his innocent fellow citizens. Equity in
matters of this kind is secured only through law backed by
strong popular sentiment. Then, if every member of any
given social unit is protected from hygienic or sanitary injury
inflicted by his fellow citizens, he may organize his policy of
personal health control with every prospect of success. Under
such circumstances it would be possible to develop a com-
munity in which each member practiced intelligent habits of
bodily nourishment, supervising the food he would eat, the
food he would drink, and the food he would breathe ; intelli-
gent habits of excretion ; intelligent habits of exercise ; in-
telligent habits of rest ; and intelligent habits of cleanliness.
Men of such habits are men of health, men of strength, men
of efficiency. A community or a nation with such habits
would have solved the problem of prevention of disease and
have conserved its resources in terms of human life, human
happiness, and human prosperity, with all that such con-
servation means economically, socially, and politically.
Another very important relationship of personal hygiene is
its relationship to intellectual efficiency. The uncorrected, in-
capacitating, remediable physical defects of school children ;
the time lost through absences due to preventable disease ; the
paralyses and other organic degenerations following the pre-
ventable diseases and leaving chronic incurable conditions
obstructive of further mental development and destructive of
that already attained ; the disturbed home conditions producing
nervous strain, poverty, undernourishment, and lowered resist-
ance, following parental disease or death — all are samples of
serious avoidable and preventable conditions affecting the intel-
Hygiene and Physical Education 687
lectual activities of school children. If the personal hygiene of
school children and the personal hygiene of the communities in
which they live were what they ideally ought to be and what
they could be, these destructive conditions could not exist.
Furthermore, the aggressively healthy child is the most
efficient child academically as well as physically considered.
The teacher working with sound healthy minds will secure
larger educational results than under less normal conditions.
This fact is effectively proved by the experiences of our
open-air schools ; the introduction of school lunches ; the
progress of pupils who have been relieved of incapacitating
physical defects ; and the studies of men who have compared
schools and school children representing various types of
physiological health.
The Scope of Personal Hygiene. — In its narrower sense,
personal hygiene has been construed as including only those
physiological and anatomical and very intimate personal
relationships and habits which are obviously personal. Such
a conception would bring the following topics under the head-
ing of " Personal Hygiene " : Care of the clothing, skin, scalp,
nails, eyes, ears, nose, teeth, mouth, throat, heart, lungs,
alimentary canal, genito-urinary organs, bones, joints, brain-
and nervous system, food, water, ventilation, tea, coffee,
alcohol, and tobacco. In some texts " first aid to the in-
jured " is included.
A wider construction of the scope of personal hygiene in-
cludes everything that bears upon the health of the human
body. Such a scope would include the various subtopics
connected directly and indirectly with the following subjects :
Bodily nourishment, including food, water, and air ; the ex-
cretions ; exercise ; rest ; the influence of abnormal con-
ditions on health (e.g. defective vision, bad teeth, adenoids,
constipation) ; the influence of certain habits on health (e.g.
rapid eating, bad habits of vision, smoking, drug habits,
sexual habits, etc.) ; the causes of disease ; the carriers of
688 Principles of Secondary Education
disease ; our defenses against disease ; and the nature of our
common diseases.
Personal hygiene considered from this point of view would
be rational and comprehensive. Its relationship to sex
hygiene, domestic hygiene, school hygiene, medical inspec-
tion, school nursing, community hygiene, industrial hygiene,
military, naval, and national hygiene is obvious. These
special divisions of hygiene are important because they repre-
sent personal hygiene under special conditions. The hygiene
of all society and of all the enterprises of society depends
upon the hygiene of the individual. On the other hand, the
individual is more than powerless unless society as a whole
stands for such regulations and such customs as will make
possible, easy, and practical the application of the laws of
health.
TEACHING OF HYGIENE. —The importance of the
teaching of hygiene can hardly be overestimated. Health
represents a universal human interest. Its importance can
be estimated only in terms of human value. Efficiency, to
adopt the modern slogan, is impossible without it. Both
directly as contributing to personal well-being and indirectly
as contributing to the welfare of others, health is a prime con-
dition of human happiness and even of morality. Such
truths, which are so commonplace as to be merely platitudes,
should not only be taught to the young, but should be made
vital by training. Hence the aim of education from the point
of view of hygiene is the development of habits of healthful
activity both physical and mental. This training in habits
of health should be supplemented by suitable instruction at
different stages. To insure such training and such instruc-
tion, proper training and an adequate course in hygiene are
imperative in the preparation of all teachers. This is the con-
sensus of opinion of hygienists, and a resolution to emphasize
this need was passed by the Second International Congress
of School Hygiene at London, 1907.
Hygiene and Physical Education 689
Instruction in Hygiene in the Schools. — The extent to
which instruction in the principles and practice of hygiene
has been introduced into the schools of the United States is
indicated by the recent investigations of the American School
Hygiene Association. Meylan reported on 116 colleges, of
which 75 per cent were giving instruction in hygiene. Twenty-
six per cent of the colleges reporting on the details of their
work were giving instruction hi personal hygiene only ; 24
per cent were giving instruction in general hygiene ; others
reported in smaller percentages that instruction was being
given in emergencies, community hygiene, industrial hygiene,
and mental hygiene. Seventy-nine per cent of these colleges
reported that students were required to undergo a medical
examination before taking up their work. Seventy-nine per
cent reported ^regular sanitary inspections of school build-
ings and dormitories ; 77 per cent inspected kitchens ; 83
per cent inspected the water supply and grounds. Twenty
per cent of these colleges accepted hygiene as a credit for
admission.
Gulick reported on 90 public normal schools and on 2392
public high schools. Seventy-four per cent of the normal
schools and 16 per cent of the high schools were giving instruc-
tion in hygiene. At the last Congress of the American
Hygiene Association, Gulick reported on 758 cities having
graded public school systems. He found that 45 per cent of
those cities " have regular organized systems of medical in-
spection in their schools " and " about one quarter of the
cities have systems under the Board of Health " and three
quarters are under the Board of Education. " Only a little
more than one half of them undertake physical examinations."
Seventy-six of those cities were employing school nurses, and
forty-eight, school dentists. Twenty-five per cent of those
cities were using individual drinking cups, and 75 per cent had
sanitary drinking fountains. In some of the cities both
systems were in use. " Over one half of these schools use
2 Y
690 Principles of Secondary Education
moist cloths for dusting ; in nearly all of them dust-absorbing
compounds are used in sweeping ; and in nearly a tenth of
them the schools are supplied with vacuum cleaners." Most
of these cities reported that their schoolroom floors were
washed once in a month or once in three months, " although
it is by no means rare to find cities in which they are washed
once in five months or never washed at all." Adjustable
desks are reported in about one half of the cities heard from.
" Ninety-five per cent of the cities teach their children the
effects of alcohol and tobacco ; 61 per cent have special
courses on the prevention and cure of tuberculosis, and 48
per cent give lessons in first aid." It is very evident from
these reports that a large number of the larger cities in the
United States have made provision for instruction in the prin-
ciples of hygiene and have organized systems of medical and
hygienic supervision which must be more or less effective in
establishing the practice of hygiene.
Scope of a Course in Hygiene. — Authorities differ as to
the proper content of a course in the principles of hygiene.
The older texts combined a study of anatomy and physiology
with a study of the influences that act injuriously upon the
organs and therefore upon their physiological activities.
Some of the later texts minimize the amount of anatomy and
physiology presented and emphasize the presentation of more
purely hygienic material.
Leaving out of consideration the essential value of an in-
telligent knowledge of the main facts of human anatomy and
physiology, there remain obviously very strong reasons why
an intelligent knowledge of hygiene is impossible without
an equally intelligent knowledge of anatomy and physiology.
The teacher must be well informed in these fundamentals,
for he cannot afford to be ignorant of the basis of his subject.
The pupil must necessarily be content to take many things
for granted, but his hygienic education will be more valuable
in the proportion in which it is based on a real knowledge of
Hygiene and Physical Education 691
its scientific basis. The amount of time necessary to give
an adequate knowledge of physiology and anatomy will de-
pend on whether or not physiology is taught elsewhere in
the curriculum as well as on the age of the pupil and on the
phase of hygiene under consideration.
There are different points of view also concerning the con-
tent of elementary, intermediate, and advanced courses in
their relation to each other. A common plan is to consider
the same subject matter year after year, going more deeply
into the details each time. The opposite plan is to take up
new phases of hygiene each term, utilizing at the same time
the facts already presented. Another variation in the con-
ception of the proper content of a course in hygiene is that
which includes procedures calculated to develop the practice
of hygiene. Habit is most important. We must have the
knowledge, but the knowledge is of little use if it is not ap-
plied in the daily habits of the individual. The procedures
that tend to develop habits of hygiene are physical exercise
(games, sports, plays), swimming, bathing, toothbrush drills,
hygienic and medical inspection with the correction of bad
habits of hygiene, and of remediable incapacitating physical
defects, routine exclusions for contagious cases and cases
exposed to contagious disease. This conception combines
instruction in the principles of hygiene with instruction in
the practices of hygiene. It unites classroom instruction
with the applications of hygiene in the various departments
and divisions of the school.
It is most desirable from the standpoint of educational
method and effective results to combine the essentials of
related anatomy and physiology with a carefully graded se-
quence of hygienic subjects ; at the same time insisting on
the practice of health habits and procedures from those of
simple cleanliness and exercise up to those of individual relief
from the handicap of physical defect and those of community
protection against communicable disease.
692 Principles of Secondary Education
Methods of Instruction in Hygiene. — There is the same
necessity for sound educational methods in presenting the
subject of hygiene to school children or college students as
there is in the presentation of any other subject taught them.
The object of this instruction in hygiene is the establishment
of right habits of living based upon a rational knowledge of
the reasons why those habits are right. The subject is es-
sentially scientific in its foundations and logical in its applica-
tion. All the arguments that have been advanced in support
of better educational methods of teaching scientific subjects
and all the arguments that have been advanced in support of
educational methods that will best develop the power of
reasoning are arguments in favor of the employment of the
best educational methods in the teaching of hygiene. The
subjects which are basal to hygiene, such as physiology, anat-
omy, and bacteriology, should be taught by the methods that
have been found most effective for those subjects. The need
for dissections, models, illustrations, diagrams, charts, speci-
mens gross and histologic, and clay molding in anatomy ; of
illustrations, references, laboratory experiments, and so on in
physiology; of cultures, experiments, and specimens in bac-
teriology is as urgent when these subjects are a portion of a
course in hygiene as when they are independent.
The Teaching of Hygiene in the High School. — The
curricula of our schools are already overcrowded. The addi-
tion of hygiene as a complete subject means a large addi-
tion. For these reasons there are very few schools in which
hygiene is presented in anything like its complete form. The
commonest school method is that which utilizes a selected
textbook from which the pupils prepare their recitations.
Charts, diagrams, illustrations, and practical questions ac-
company the recitations. Where departments of biology
exist, or where physiology or bacteriology is taught, these
subjects are often made to cover hygiene or various parts of
it. Many of our high schools and colleges are placing hygiene
Hygiene and Physical Education 693
in the Department of Physical Education, where it has a
peculiar appropriateness. A good deal of hygiene is taught
by the medical inspectors and nurses in some of those schools
that have an efficient system of medical inspection.
There should be careful correlation between the instruction
in the principles of hygiene on the one hand and on the other
hand the procedures and conditions of applied hygiene and
sanitation as they exist in the school system, its buildings,
grounds, and material equipment. The educational influences
from these various sources should be harmonious. There should
be no inconsistencies between general scientific hygienic prin-
ciple and local hygienic practice. The subject matter in any
given course in hygiene should include particularly the hygienic
features connected with the health problems which occur in
the daily lives of the individuals concerned. Such a course
would logically include the following topics : Food ; its
physiological importance and requirements ; its source ; its
contaminations ; its preparation ; its ingestion ; the influences
of emotional states on its digestion ; its assimilation and its
excretion. Water; its physiological importance; its con-
tamination. Air ; its physiological importance ; its con-
taminations ; its alterations under various meteorological
conditions ; ventilation. The excretions ; their physiological
significance ; care of the bowels ; the kidneys ; the skin ;
the lungs. Physical exercise ; its importance ; its necessity ;
its varieties ; its abuse. Rest ; mental and physical rest ; rel-
ative rest and recreation ; sleep. The influence of abnormal
conditions on health ; e.g. defective vision ; obstructed breath-
ing ; adenoids ; tonsils ; defective and unclean teeth ; dis-
eased gums ; sluggish ulcers, wounds, and old areas of irrita-
tion ; exposures to heat, to cold, to moisture, and to drafts ;
fatigue. The effects of bad habits on health ; e.g. rapid eat-
ing; mouth breathing; unwise use of the eyes; sex habits;
the abuse of tea, coffee, alcohol, and tobacco; opium and
cocaine habits. The causes of disease, such as pathogenic
694 Principles of Secondary Education
bacteria and other parasites. The carriers of disease, such as
the fly, the mosquito, the flea, the rat, and careless human
beings. Our defenses against disease, such as fresh air, sun-
shine, cleanliness, and good health. Special hygiene, such as
domestic hygiene, municipal hygiene, community hygiene,
industrial hygiene, school hygiene, " sex hygiene." First
aid to the injured, and the care and feeding of infants.
Legal Requirements. — In most city school systems special
emphasis is laid on the unhygienic influences of alcohol and
tobacco. A number of state legislatures have enacted laws
requiring such instruction in the schools of the state. The
importance of this instruction is great. No course in hygiene
can be complete without including a discussion of alcohol and
tobacco. There is, however, a question as to the wisdom of
specifying through state law that these subjects be included
unless the law is made to cover in addition other equally im-
portant subjects such as dental hygiene, the hygiene of ali-
mentation, pathogenic bacteria, the fly and the mosquito as
carriers of disease, spitting, and so on. Emphasizing the im-
portance of instruction concerning the unhygienic effects of
alcohol and tobacco through legal procedure must inevitably
make other seriously important phases of hygiene seem to be
a matter of secondary consideration.
SCHOOL HYGIENE. — School hygiene, one of the most
important departments of public hygiene, is concerned with
the conditions of health in the schoolroom and the sanitation
of the school surroundings. During the last fifty years the
scientific method has been more and more employed in this
field, and a solid nucleus of scientific fact has been collected.
A rich literature has been contributed in the form of articles,
not only in the special periodicals devoted to the subject, in
reports, proceedings of societies, and the like, but in the ar-
chives of hygiene, of medicine, physics, psychology, anthro-
pology, and even in those of architecture and engineering as
well as in the educational journals.
Hygiene and Physical Education 695
School hygiene draws its facts from many sources, and
naturally it overlaps other related subjects, such as general
hygiene, sanitary engineering, medicine, child hygiene, etc.
The subject naturally divides into three parts — the construc-
tion and sanitation of the schoolhouse, the hygiene of the
school child, and the hygiene of instruction. All of these are,
of course, ultimately concerned with the health of the child,
but the classification is a convenient one. The aim of all of
these is positive, the development in the school child of habits
of healthful activity. Especially and directly is this true of
the last two divisions — the hygiene of the school child and
the hygiene of instruction.
Hygiene of the School Child. — Child hygiene in an impor-
tant sense is a special subject because the child's body differs
from that of the adult. The hygiene of the school child de-
mands special consideration because of the special work re-
quired in the school. It is based upon the character of the
child's body and the laws of growth, and it seeks to determine
the needs and to avoid the dangers of each stage of develop-
ment. Hence among the important contributions to school
hygiene in the last twenty-five years have been many scientific
studies of growth and development, of the diseases and ab-
normalities of school children, and of the defects of the various
sense organs. Thus the relation of physical development to
intelligence, the incidence of disease by years, by grades, by
seasons, by months of the school year, the relation of defects
to school progress, etc. Methods of detecting and controlling
contagious diseases have been investigated, and certain im-
portant correlations have already been established. By the
introduction of health inspection into the public schools in
recent years not only is the importance of school hygiene em-
phasized, but a large amount of valuable material for the study
of the subject is being collected. The school should be made
the most important factor in public hygiene ; for in it practi-
cally all the children are collected, and conditions can be con-
696 Principles of Secondary Education
trolled in the interests of health. The prime importance of
this part of school hygiene for the teacher is obvious.
Hygiene of Instruction. — While this department of school
hygiene may be said to have begun with the Greeks and been
treated by Comenius, it has been developed only in recent
years. It is now so important, however, that Burgestein de-
votes some four hundred pages to it in the second edition of
his handbook, and each year brings important new contribu-
tions. It emphasizes the hygienic importance of the mental
habits formed by education and of the secondary effects of
instruction, and it studies every educational principle and
method and the matter of instruction from the point of view
of hygiene. Thus each subject of instruction is considered
with regard to the effect of the discipline on health.
The many problems concerned with the period of study -
fatigue, the best alternation of periods of work and rest, the
length of the school day, one session or two, recesses, pauses,
etc. — have all been made the subject of scientiiic investiga-
tion. The importance of this newer field of school hygiene
is seen when one considers the fact that an important means
of curing nervous and mental disorder is reeducation, the
development of healthful habits of mental activity, — whole-
some interests, habits of attention, self-control, and orderly
association, — in fact, the very habits that are essential for
hygienic school work. And when one further reflects that the
inmates of such institutions were a few years ago pupils in
the public schools, the advantage of developing such habits
as prophylactic against nervous and mental breakdown is
obvious. More and more scientific investigation and obser-
vation are showing the hygienic importance of such mental
training ; and the hygiene of instruction has become of vital
significance to the teacher.
The Construction and Sanitation of the Schoolhouse. -
First of all the sanitary surroundings of the schoolhouse have
been made the subject of investigation. The schoolroom
Hygiene and Physical Education 697
is a workshop. The conditions must be made hygienic for
the work to be done in it. The work required is performed
chiefly by the brain, by the eye and ear, and by the hand
under the control of the eye and the brain. Thus the condi-
tions necessary are not merely the avoidance of whatever
would be injurious, — a stagnant, poisonous, arid, or over-
heated atmosphere, too intense light, glare from surrounding
buildings, noisy occupations, unsuitable rooms, etc. ; but in
every way the optimum conditions for such work — especially
abundant and properly regulated light and an ample supply of
oxygen. So important is the condition last mentioned both
for the health of the pupils and for the work to be done that
the desirability of schools out of doors, or in conditions ap-
proximating those out of doors, is now being emphasized.
Since in most parts of the country, however, a large amount
of indoor work seems necessary on account of inclement
weather, it is becoming more and more important to provide
hygienic conditions in the schoolroom.
Thus this department of school hygiene is concerned first
of all with the optimum conditions for a workshop where the
laborers are growing children and the labor brain work.
Architectural and artistic considerations are important, but
secondary. First of all must be considered the health of the
workers. For example, the unit in a schoolhouse is the school-
room, and the size of the room should be determined by con-
sideration of the average limits of normal sight and hearing ;
while the problem of construction is that of grouping a sufficient
number of such units in a schoolhouse in a convenient way to
give suitable light, air, etc. Many scientific studies have been
made of the best forms of construction, and of methods of
heating, ventilation, lighting, etc. ; and from these and the
experience in building millions of schoolhouses certain definite
norms for construction have been established. If we could
bring together into one schoolhouse all the good features that
are actually incorporated in various schoolhouses throughout
698 Principles of Secondary Education
the country, features which actual experience has shown to be
of practical utility, we should have a model schoolhouse.
Most schoolhouses, however, are seriously defective in cer-
tain aspects, and some apparently ignore modern hygiene
altogether.
PHYSICAL EDUCATION. Early Conceptions. — In time
past and in our own time physical education has been exalted,
tolerated, neglected, or denounced, according to the prevailing
conceptions as to the nature of the human body and of its
relations to the human mind. The character of these con-
ceptions has depended chiefly on the ideals of human ex-
cellence held at different periods in the history of education.
Those ideals may be characterized as the Greek or aesthetic,
the monkish or ascetic, the military or knightly, and the
modern or scientific.
The Greek ideal recognized the unity or symmetry of body
and mind as expressed by Plato in the Timceus. " Every-
thing that is good is fair, and the fair is not without measure.
Now, we perceive lesser symmetries and comprehend them,
but about the highest and greatest we have no understanding,
for there is no symmetry greater than that of the soul to the
body. This, however, we do not perceive, nor do we allow
ourselves to reflect that when a weaker or lesser frame is the
vehicle of a great and mighty soul, or conversely, when a little
soul is incased in a large body, then the whole animal is not
fair, for it is defective in the most important of all symmetries ;
but the fair mind in the fair body will be the fairest and loveli-
est of all sights to him who has the seeing eye." Gymnastics
were accorded a large and important place in the educational
program of Greek youths. The teaching of gymnastics
afforded positions of honor and emolument to distinguished
and ambitious men. Bodily training furnished themes for
poets, philosophers, and historians ; sculptors and painters
sought models in the gymnasium, and Greek physicians
studied and adopted exercises and procedures originated by
Hygiene and Physical Education 699
teachers and gymnasts. In the breadth and sanity of its
aims, the completeness of its development as a national
institution, and its abiding influence upon succeeding genera-
tions, Greek physical education has no parallel.
Modern Views. — The modern or scientific ideal of physical
education owes its origin to the belief " that to work the mind
is also to work a number of the bodily organs, that not a feeling
can arise, not a thought pass, without a set of concurring bodily
processes." The sciences of biology, physiology, and psychol-
ogy have furnished a basis for the study and application of the
laws governing the growth, development, and education of
the body and mind. Man's knowledge of himself has been
immensely increased, and his conception of nature and his
place in nature radically changed. One of the most promi-
nent results of the progress made in these sciences is a deeper
appreciation of the vital importance of motor training in
education.
The modern or scientific ideal of physical education recog-
nizes two chief aims : (i) health, normal growth, and develop-
ment of the body as an efficient organism; (2) psycho-motor
education, with emphasis on bodily control and the expression
of personality or character of the individuals.
These ideals are based on the sciences of biology, physiology,
psychology, and education, but physical education itself has
not yet attained the dignity of a definite science. Since the
somewhat crude attempt of Ling early in the nineteenth cen-
tury to devise a system of gymnastics based on physiology and
coordinated with educational procedure, much progress has
been made in placing physical education on a scientific basis.
During the period of evolution from crude empiricism to
scientific principles, physical education has passed through
many phases.
Three distinct systems originated in Europe and developed
simultaneously : the Swedish system of educational, military,
and medical gymnastics devised by Ling and his followers ;
yoo Principles of Secondary Education
the German system of gymnastics developed by Guts Muth,
Jahn, and Spiess ; and the British scheme of athletics and
games fostered and developed in the universities and public
schools. The Swedish and German systems had for their
chief aim the training of strong, self-reliant, and patriotic
citizens. The athletics and games of England developed
naturally in response to the normal play instinct of English
boys and young men.
These well-defined national schemes for physical education
have survived to the present day and spread to many lands.
The Delsarte system of exercises was devised by Francois
Delsarte in Paris, about 1840, to train actors in dramatic
expression. The Delsarte plan had such a limited scope
that it could not gain recognition as a system of physical
education.
Forms of Exercise. — There are two main classes of
gymnastic exercises : first, calisthenics, which includes free
movements of arms, legs, trunk, etc. and exercises with dumb-
bells, wands, bar bells, Indian clubs, rings, hoops, balls, etc. ;
marching ; and dancing. Second, apparatus gymnastics, which
includes parallel bars, vaulting and horizontal bars, horse,
buck, vaulting box, stall bars, jump stands, ropes, poles,
ladders, and many kinds of developing appliances, such as
chest weights, and other machines built on the principle of
weight and pulley or friction.
Gymnastics and Athletics. — The main difference between
gymnastics and athletics is one of aim. The aim of gymnastics
is discipline or training for its effect upon the health, normal
development, and general efficiency of the individual. The
chief aim of athletics is pleasurable activity for the sake of
recreation ; in the athletic games of boys and young men we
see the highest and fullest expression of the play instinct.
While the characteristic aims of gymnastics and athletics are
essentially different, some of the most important results of
physical training are secured from both forms of activity. This
*.*
Hygiene and Physical Education 701
is true especially of the hygienic effects of muscular activity
upon the circulation, respiration, digestion, assimilation, and
excretion. These effects vary over wide limits according to the
kind of exercise selected.
Educative Value. — In considering the educative value of
gymnastics and athletics the most important principle is, that
neither of these activities can serve as a substitute for the
other. Each contributes some essential parts of a complete
physical education. Gymnastic exercises are largely subjec-
tive in character ; they serve particularly to stimulate normal
physical development and to promote good carriage and easy
coordination in motion and locomotion. Every gymnastic
exercise is given for a deiinite purpose. The object may be
to secure motor coordination, hygienic benefit, or some aes-
thetic effect. In this respect, gymnastics differs radically from
athletic exercises, for in the latter the primary object is
always to produce some effect outside of the individual, as
hitting a ball, throwing an object as far as possible, or
reaching a goal before an opponent. The effect of such ex-
ercises upon the individual is always incidental and second-
ary. Another advantage of gymnastics is, that selection
based on scientific principles of anatomy, physiology, and
mechanics makes it possible to adapt each exercise to the
particular needs of the individual, with a view to producing the
effect desired. The educative, hygienic, and aesthetic effects of
exercise are susceptible of definite control in gymnastics, but
in athletics the effects produced on the individual are indefinite
and accidental. The particular effect produced by gymnas-
tics depends partly upon the movements selected, but mostly
upon the manner of their execution. The best hygienic effects
are produced by adapting the movements to the strength of
the individual, bringing into play the large muscles of the
trunk and thighs, and accompanying the exercise with music,
which adds pleasure to the work. The educative effects are
best secured by careful selection and sequence of exercises
SUM
702 Principles of Secondary Education
suited to the state of psycho-motor development of the indi-
vidual, and by a method of teaching which demands accuracy,
precision, and speed in execution. The aesthetic effects of
form, carriage, and grace of motion and locomotion result from
gymnastic dancing and other exercises of the same type.
The recreative value of gymnastics depends upon the ability
of the teacher to make the work interesting, and in a measure
upon the attitude of the student toward the work.
In general, the relative effects secured from gymnastics and
athletics are as follows :
GYMNASTICS
Primary Effects: Secondary Effects:
Educative Organic (vigor)
Hygienic Recreative
^Esthetic Psycho-motor
Moral
ATHLETICS
Primary Effects: Secondary Effects:
Organic (vigor) Educative
Psycho-motor Hygienic
Recreative ^Esthetic
Moral
It is very evident from this table that gymnastics constitutes
an essential part of a rational scheme of physical education.
The results obtained from gymnastic training vary widely
for the same reasons that results vary in all branches of educa-
tion. Poor teaching and inadequate facilities always produce
unsatisfactory results in gymnastics as in any other subject-
The need for systematic psycho-motor training and vigorous
muscular activity for organic development tends to increase as
life becomes more complex and specialized. The growing
appreciation of the physical basis of human efficiency cannot
fail to bring about increased recognition for gymnastics in the
school curriculum, more competent teachers, and increased
material equipment.
Hygiene and Physical Education 703
In Schools. — In the private secondary and preparatory
schools, physical education is organized much the same as in
the colleges. The importance of motor education, health su-
pervision, and moral education during the adolescent period
is generally recognized by educators in the secondary schools.
All the large schools and most of the smaller ones have well-
organized departments of physical education in charge of
professionally trained directors. The first attempt to include
physical education in the program of the public schools was
during the decade 1860-1870, when the calisthenics advocated
by Dr. Dio Lewis had a wave of popularity. The interest
lasted only a few years, and physical education was again
neglected until the decade 1880-1890, when a number of
Western cities with a large German population introduced
light gymnastics of the German type in the public schools.
The growth of cities, industrial development, and the rapid
expansion during this period were factors in arousing the inter-
est of educators and the public to the importance of providing
physical training for the children in the schools. The city
homes could not furnish the necessary environment for the
normal physical development and motor training of the
growing generation, and the need of modifying the school
curriculum to meet the new conditions was recognized. In
1889 a conference in the interest of physical education took
place in Boston. The conference was presided over by United
States Commissioner of Education William T. Harris, and
addresses were made by prominent educators, physicians, and
specialists in physical education. The purpose of the confer-
ence was to " place before educators different systems of
gymnastics and to secure discussion of the same, with a view to
ascertaining clearly the needs of schools, and determining how
they may best be met." A direct result of the Boston confer-
ence was the organization of a department of hygiene and
physical training and the adoption of the Swedish system of
gymnastics in the public schools of Boston. New York and
704 Principles of Secondary Education
many other cities soon followed, with the result that by 1900
nearly all the cities in the East, Middle West, and West had
some form of physical education in the school program. The
most common system of gymnastics in use in the school is the
Swedish, or some modification of this system. A few large
cities, particularly in the Middle West and Southwest, have
adopted the German system.
Special directors and teachers are employed for physical
training in about half of the cities where this subject is taught.
The most common form of organization is a department with
a director of physical training for the city, special teachers in
the high schools, and supervisors in the elementary schools,
who visit each class once or twice each month to criticize and
help the grade teacher. The athletic activities of the school-
boys were developed by the boys in many cities without
direction or supervision from the school authorities. Since
the organization of the Public Schools Athletic League the
school authorities in many cities have taken control of this
important phase of physical and moral education.
Gymnastics for Girls. — In all schemes of education, the
tendency has been to provide better facilities and a more
extensive curriculum for boys than for girls. This has been
true particularly in regard to physical training. In Germany,
England, and the United States various forms of physical
training were provided for boys, while this subject was entirely
neglected in schools for girls. Adolf Spiess, the founder of
German school gymnastics, was the first to advocate gymnas-
tic training for girls, but the traditional idea that womanly
deportment is in contradiction to exercise has hindered the
development of physical training for girls. Organic vigor and
psycho-motor development are as essential to girls as to boys.
The results to be accomplished are the same, but the methods
employed must vary because of physiological differences in the
two sexes.
The gymnastics best suited to girls include marching,
Hygiene and Physical Education 705
calisthenics without hand apparatus and with wooden dumb
bells, wands, bar bells, Indian clubs, rings, hoops, etc. ; simple
exercises in vaulting and climbing (omitting, in general, all
exercises requiring support of the body on the arms for more
than an instant) ; easy exercises in jumping ; and dancing.
/Esthetic and folk dancing constitute one of the most valuable
forms of physical training for girls of all ages. By means of
judicious selection and adaptation, it is possible to secure
from dancing most of the essential values of exercise, such as
organic vigor, psycho-motor training, and recreation. Girls
need also the training that comes from participation in ath-
letic sports and team games. The qualities of courage, self-
reliance, loyalty, and capacity to cooperate with others and
subordinate personal interests to the interests of the team, which
result from participation in team games and sports, are as de-
sirable for girls as for boys. This training is especially valuable
to counteract the tendency of some girls to be sensitive and
introspective — to live too much on the subjective side of life.
In general, girls .under twelve or thirteen years of age can do
all except the very strenuous exercises indulged in by boys
of the same age. With the onset of puberty, considerable
modification of the forms of exercise given to girls is made
imperative by the anatomical and physiological changes which
occur at that time. The most important modifications nec-
essary are the elimination of exercises requiring the support
of the whole body by the shoulder girdle for more than an
instant, the restriction of exercises involving jumping to those
involving very little jarring of the body, and in general the
elimination of violent exercises. The introduction of competi-
tive athletic games in schools and colleges for girls from 1890
to IQOO was accompanied in some places by public contests
between teams representing different institutions. This fea-
ture of athletics for girls has been abandoned by the leading
schools and colleges because it was found to be detrimental
to the best interests of education.
2Z
706 Principles of Secondary Education
TOPICS FOR FURTHER STUDY
1. Should personal hygiene be taught as a special subject or in con-
nection with the work in physical education ?
2. What are the general educational and social values of a study or
training in personal hygiene ?
3. What are the relations between moral education and instruction
in personal hygiene ?
4. Should instruction in sex hygiene be made a part of instruction in
personal hygiene ? If so, how should instruction be given ?
5. In any given school system in which you have had experience,
what aspects of hygiene are taught and how ?
6. What should be the scope of a course in personal hygiene for the
high school ?
7. What are the merits and demerits, educational, moral, social,
of compulsory teaching of the effects of alcohol and tobacco ?
8. To what extent are the generally accepted principles of school
hygiene violated in your school ?
9. What are some of the problems of school hygiene that could
properly and profitably be studied by the high school pupil ?
10. What are the forms of instruction in physical education in any
given school ? What are their merits and how could they be improved ?
11. To what extent is gymnasium work desirable or necessary?
12. What modification of the standard forms of activities in physical
education are desirable for high school girls ?
REFERENCES
Personal Hygiene
BLAIKIE, WM. How to Get Strong and How to Keep So. New York, 1899.
CLOUSTON, T. S. Hygiene of Mind. London, 1906.
FOREL, A. H. Hygiene of Nerves and Mind in Health and Disease.
Authorized translation from the second German edition by H. A.
Aikins. New York, 1907.
GALBRAITH, A. M. Personal Hygiene and Physical Training for Women.
Philadelphia, 1911.
GREENE, C. A. The Art of Keeping Well. New York, 1906.
GULICK, L. H. The Efficient Life. New York, 1907.
HOUGH, TIL, and SEDGWICK, W. T. The Human Mechanism, i/s Physi-
ology and Hygiene and the Sanitation of its Surroundings. Boston,
1906.
Hygiene and Physical Education 707
LE BOSQUET, M. Personal Hygiene. Chicago, 1907.
PYLK, W. L. .-1 Manual of Personal Hygiene. Philadelphia, 1907.
STOREY, T. A. Individual Instruction in Personal Hygiene. Proceed-
ings of the Fifth Congress of the American School Hygiene Association,
February, 1911, pp. 149-152.
WOODHULL, A. A. Personal Hygiene. New York, 1906.
School Hygiene
ABBOTT, A. C. The Hygiene of Transmissible Diseases. 2d ed. Phila-
delphia, 1901.
BERGEY, D. H. The Principles of Hygiene. Philadelphia, 1906.
BLYTH, A. W. Manual of Public Health. New York, 1890.
DRESSLAR, F. B. School Hygiene. New York, 1913.
HARRINGTON, C. A. .-1 Manual of Practical Hygiene for Students,
Physicians, and Medical Officers. New York, 1901.
MACFIE, R. C. Air and Health. London, 1909.
NOTTER, J. L., and FIRTH, R. H. Theory and Practice of Hygiene.
London, 1908.
PARKES, L. C., and KENWOOD, H. R. Hygiene and Public Health.
Philadelphia, 1911.
SEDGWICK, W. T. The Principles of Sanitary Science and the Public
Health. New York, 1902.
SALEEBY, C. W. Health, Strength, and Happiness; a Book of Practical
Advice. New York, 1908.
STEVENSON, T., and MURPHY, S. F. A Treatise on Hygiene and Public
Health. Philadelphia, 1892.
WEYL, T. Handbuch der Hygiene. Jena, 1893. 10 vols. and Supple-
ment, 4 vols., 1901-1904.
Periodicals:
Archiv filr Hygiene. Herausgegeben von M. Grubner. Munich, 1896-.
Journal of Hygiene. G. H. F. Nuttall, editor. Cambridge, 1901-1910.
Journal of the American Public Health Association. B. R. Rickards,
editor. Urbana, 111., 1904- .
Journal of the Royal Sanitary Institute. Edward Stanford, editor.
London, 1899- .
Teaching of Hygiene
CABOT, R. C. The Problem of Teaching Sex Hygiene. Proceedings of
the American School Hygiene Association, Vol. III.
ELIOT, C. W. School Instruction in Sex Hygiene. Proceedings of the
American School Hygiene Association, Vol. III.
708 Principles of Secondary Education
GARTNER, A. Hygiene-unterricht in Schulen und Seminaren. Schul-
hygicnisches Taschenbuch, pp. 290-297. Leipzig, 1907.
GULICK, L. H. Status of Physical Education in Ninety Public Normal
Schools and 2392 Public High Schools in the United States. Pro-
ceedings of the American School Hygiene Association, Vol. II.
What American Cities are Doing for the Health of School Children.
Proceedings of the American School Hygiene Association, Vol. III.
HINES, L. N. Some Suggestions for a Course of Study in Hygiene.
Proceedings of the American School Hygiene Association, Vol. III.
STOREY, T. A. Individual Instruction in Personal Hygiene. Proceed-
ings of the American School Hygiene Association, Vol. III.
Gymnastics
ALEXANDER, A. Healthful Exercises for Girls. London, 1887.
BANCROFT, JESSIE H. School Gymnastics with Light Apparatus. Boston,
1900.
BETZ, C. The Public School Gymnastic Course. Chicago, 1894.
DUDLEY, GERTRUDE, and KELLOR, FRANCES. Athletic Games in the
Education of Women. New York, 1909.
MAUL. TurnuntcrrichtinMadchcnschulcn. Karlsruhe, 1893, 1895, 1897.
NISSEN, HARTVIG. A. B. C. of Swedish Educational Gymnastics.
Philadelphia, 1892.
CHAPTER XIX
ATHLETICS
EDUCATIONAL VALUE OF ATHLETICS.— The educa-
tional values of athletics are primarily those of all vigorous
neuromuscular exercise, (i) Exercise secures organic develop-
ment, i.e. the development to the limit of inherited possibilities,
during the growth of the individual from infancy to maturity,
of those organs and functions that give vitality, vigor, func-
tional power for health. (2) Exercise secures psycho-motor
development, i.e. the development of that control of the mus-
cular system which gives skill, body resourcefulness, and
the fundamental basis for a broad " manual," industrial, and
artistic training. (3) Exercise gives the opportunity for se-
curing a mental and moral discipline (a) by giving a drill in
vigorous activities which require alertness, effort, determina-
tion ; (&) by giving self-knowledge of physical powers through
comparison with others ; (c) by giving standards for intelligent
care of the body, especially the nervous system, to secure the
greatest physical efficiency ; (d) by giving discipline in self-
control ; (c) by giving concepts of " team work " or coopera-
tive self-subordination and social experience under conditions
that identify the youth with the social interests of the group
demanding cooperation.
These values may be secured with different emphasis through
industrial labor, gymnastics, vigorous play, or athletics. The
aim in 'each of these activities is different, hence the bodily
results vary. In industrial activities, the aim is industrial
results ; the bodily results may be and usually are very un-
balanced. In gymnastics, the aim is physical development
709
710 Principles of Secondary Education
through set, formal movements, definitely arranged and sus-
ceptible of predetermination as to results. In athletics
(though they may also be taken consciously for the exercise),
the aim is the contest, and the movements depend upon the
exigencies of the contest. The exercise is not so easily prede-
termined as to results. This gives gymnastics the advantage
in the precision of physical results that may be secured. In
athletics the movements are more specialized and less easily
controlled, though they may be graded loosely to fit individual
needs and tastes. While athletics, generally speaking, secure
all results, gymnastics will succeed in some cases where ath-
letics will fail. The advantages of athletics over gymnastics
arise from their competitive and social nature. While ath-
letics may be used as gymnastics, and some forms of gymnas-
tics may be used in the spirit of athletics, and each made to
grade one into the other, athletics are fundamentally competi-
tive and social ; gymnastics are so only by consent. Ath-
letics, being competitive and social, rouse a broader range of
social impulses and emotions than gymnastics. They furnish
possibilities for a deeper social stimulus and training. Gym-
nastics gain all fundamental results, but cannot compare with
athletics in these broader disciplinary values. From the view-
point of general education and a broad physical education,
athletics must be considered coordinate with gymnastics in
composing the technique of physical education for youth.
Athletics probably possess the larger values, but no broad
rational system of physical education can be based on either
alone.
Athletics, being contests between two or more individuals,
are essentially social, and require organization through mutual
agreement. Several possible groupings of individuals for
contests may take place in any social community, (i) Two
or more individuals or groups of individuals may organize
spontaneously, day by day, irrespective of social affiliations,
for a contest or a period of play. This is the usual method
Athletics 711
among town boys, town men, schoolboys, and many college
men untouched by an athletic association. (2) Permanent
associations may be organized to furnish facilities for contests
among members, as is usually the case in local clubs such as
tennis and golf associations. (3) Institutional groups or asso-
ciations organized for other functions than athletics may or-
ganize for the development of facilities and the promotion of
interest, as is usually the case in schools and clubs. (4) Finally
the members of the whole complex group, the institution, town,
city, or nation, may organize under the name of the group for
intergroup, interinstitutional, or international contests with
other groups. The conditions affecting the development of ath-
letics in these various groups differ. Many of the tendencies
to evil grow with progress from the simpler to the more complex
forms of organization. Under simple conditions the manage-
rial function is undifferentiated. With the development of
athletics in formal organization the managerial function arises
as a distinct special force.
Athletics, like all games, are passed on by tradition — by
imitation and by the older and experienced teaching the younger
and inexperienced. As athletics progress in formal organiza-
tion, the instructional function tends to be differentiated and
specialized, and the instructor or coach develops, with special
powers for good or evil.
CREATIVE FORCES IN ATHLETICS. —All the various
forms of athletics are created and all the different tendencies in
development are determined by two different classes of in-
terests in contests common to all men : the participant's or
contestant's impulses, pleasures, and interests in the activities
and result of the contest, and the spectator's impulses, pleas-
ures, and interests in the contest and its results as a spectacle.
The Contestant's Incentives. — The contestant's pleasures
and interests develop out of a series of play tendencies which
must be understood to understand athletics. At the founda-
tion of all vigorous muscular play there is a pleasure in the
712 Principles of Secondary Education
mere motor discharge exhibited by the young of all animals —
a satisfaction of the primitive hunger for activity. To these
fundamental pleasures there are added a long series of pleas-
urable emotional states. There is the conflict of daring and
fear in feats, the pleasure in accomplishment and success, the
pleasure and pride in overcoming difficulties and encountering
risk or danger with all its emotional tension, the exaltation that
comes in the rebound from fear, from the tension of expecta-
tion, and from the shock of surprise, the pleasure of enduring
hardships and suppressing pain, the pleasure in mastery of self,
the inspiration of being a cause, and all the emotional content
which holds attention and heightens the reality of life, which
is opposed to ennui, and which for the adolescent is a neuro-
logical necessity. Then there are the impulses which influence
the form of play. Through all childhood there is intense
pleasure in being chased and chasing, hiding, being sought and
seeking. The combative social and egoistic impulses, appear-
ing in play from early childhood, become especially prominent
with adolescence. Simple running for its own sake soon loses
its charm and must be turned into a contest, thus satisfying the
combative impulse. Rolling about on the floor is turned into a
tussle. The egoistic impulse combines with the combative to
give keenness to do something as well as or better than some
one else. This tendency becomes peculiarly strong in the
adolescent period, the athletic age.
The social impulses, with perhaps some sexual elements, add
their force. A desire for social applause and approbation leads
often to self-exhibition and a display of skill or courage.
Especially keen is the pleasure of achievement in competition
under social conditions, perhaps the highest stimulus and
satisfaction in youth to the egoistic impulses and emotions.
Cravings for self-testings, self-evaluation, the determination
of one's social status, become prominent. Where these im-
pulses come in contact with developed or traditional play ac-
tivities, as in athletics, there arises spontaneously a craving
Athletics 713
to gain one's place in the social system, to become a member of
the team, to represent one's fellows, to support the honor of the
group, and to win the satisfaction and applause of achievement,
to gain honor. Public interest intensifies these expressions.
To be prominent in social activities is one of the most stimulat-
ing of social motives.
Athletics are then the more formal contests among plays and
games, limited by set rules and arranged by social usage or
agreement to give the largest satisfaction to the combative,
egoistic, and social impulses and emotions. The primary
incentive in athletics is to secure these pleasures. Uninflu-
enced from without, there is no other conscious aim than these
pleasures. With the development of athletics in social prom-
inence, motives become more and more social, centering in
honor. A series of secondary interests and motives arise, such
as a desire for social prominence, leadership, or power. Under
the stimulus of social applause and the desire for honor, the
primary pleasures in the contest may be replaced by discomfort
or hardship, or even pain, yet the motive sustains the effort.
If to these highly developed motives the desire for material
gain is added, the aim becomes professional. How the motives
in the individual shall develop is determined by his tempera-
ment and the social conditions surrounding him. It is in the
soil of specialized social motives, so far as the athlete is con-
cerned, that most of the difficulties in athletics develop.
The nature of the incentives that create play and athletics
and the need of vigorous neuromuscular activities during the
entire period of growth and development in. order to realize
bodily powers, reveal the functions and meaning of athletics.
Nature made the play impulse the guardian of physical and
mental needs. As contests appear with, and are especially f
characteristic of, the adolescent period, they may fairly be
considered the natural vigorous exercise of youth. In this
sense they may be interpreted as nature's means of physical
education during the adolescent period. The primary motives
714 Principles of Secondary Education
in athletics and the normal results are purely educational;
the youth's aim in contests is pleasure ; nature's aim is educa-
tion. In these activities, youth has inherent rights, and so-
ciety is profoundly affected morally and socially by neglect
or protection of these rights. The place of athletics among the
social customs of a people and in an educational system must
be determined theoretically by the necessary amount of daily
vigorous activity required during the successive years of youth
to develop complete organic power and fundamental psycho-
motor skill, by the relative superiority of athletics to any
other vigorous activity for moral and social discipline, and by
the influence of these activities on the general recreative and
social customs of the people.
The Spectator's Incentives. — The spectator's interest in
athletics, like the participant's, arises from a deep-seated tend-
ency in human nature. It is closely related to the dramatic
interest. The struggles of others excite, fascinate, sway.
Through sympathy the spectator enters into the struggle.
Especially strong is the excitement in lighting contests. Hu-
man nature loves to see a light. The extremes of emotion
aroused are best illustrated by the world's great fighting spec-
tacles : the gladiatorial contest, the chariot race, and the bull
fight of earlier times ; the horse race, the prize fight, and the
professional baseball contest of modern times. The less
extreme expressions are seen in the support of traveling
acrobats, foot racers, and games not intended for spectators.
Out of this primal interest in a struggle, common to all human
beings, evolves the spectator.
The nature of the contest that will satisfy different indi-
viduals depends on character, intelligence, training, culture, and
life conditions. On one side there are those who are satis-
fied with the pleasures of a skillful contest between gentlemen,
on the other those who are satisfied only with a fierce personal,
often brutal, combat that reveals and rouses primitive human
passions. Between these two extremes are all pleasure seekers
AtJilctics 715
at an athletic contest. In the development of all sports these
two classes are ever in opposition. The desires of the one,
therefore its influence, are in direct opposition to the other.
Neither can be satisfied permanently with what pleases the
other. The development of athletics in the group will be
according to which element dominates in the creation of public
sentiment. In proportion as the extreme spectacle-loving ele-
ment can make its desires felt, will the anti-social tendencies,
revealed in the destruction of many sports in the past, reappear.
The human tendencies exhibited in the more or less extinct
or disgraced contests of the past are still active, and reveal
themselves in athletics to-day as in older times.
Many characters are not satisfied with the emotions con-
nected with the spectacle alone. They must play with the
emotions of chance and intensify the pleasures in the spectacle
by a wager on the result, hence gambling becomes associated
with the contest. Furthermore, many live over an emotional
reverberation of the contest after it is finished, thus developing
athletic gossip and the sporting sheet in newspapers, which in
turn arouses the same tendencies in others.
The spectator everywhere tends to take sides and become
a partisan. With the development of athletics, the organiza-
tion of intergroup contests, and the selection of a team to
represent the group, partisan athletics arise ; the spectator
becomes an institutional partisan and takes on a new power
for influence. Social pride, clannishness, rivalry, and all the
emotions exhibited by a group in competition with another
group, surround the contest. Group becomes arrayed against
group. The contest tends to take on the characteristics of
group war. Public interest becomes partisan, and the par-
tisan aim becomes the dominant aim. Interest centers in the
emotions connected with the chances of winning, and shifts
to an emphasis on results. Partisan demonstrations add
to the spectacle, which attracts an ever-widening circle of
spectators.
716 Principles of Secondary Education
The influence of the spectator on the more complex develop-
ment of athletics has been profound. The spectator's pleasure
in the skilled exhibition or contest, and his willingness to
pay for the pleasure, added to the economic needs of some
skillful performers, have created the professional athlete and
professional athletics. The professional makes a business of
training and developing. personal skill to supply a social de-
mand for amusement. His activities can no longer be classified
as play. Again the spectator, as indicated in the social ele-
ments of the contestant's incentives, supplies the more stim-
ulating applause, approbation, and honors, and, as his in-
terest centers on the more exciting contests and the most
skilled athletes, he tends to mold the athlete's motives and the
form of his activities. The athlete's motives and the specta-
tor's interests tend to complement each other. This tendency
is particularly conspicuous in intergroup partisan athletics.
The susceptibilities of different individuals to the influences
of the spectator vary greatly, but the combination of the
specialized social motives in some athletes and the spectator's
desires tends to the development of a form of specialized, highly
skilled athletics primarily for the amusement of the spectator.
The athlete requires special training, thus emphasizing the
coaching function ; the spectator's interests require manage-
ment, thus emphasizing the managerial function. Therefore
the influence of the spectator, while a stimulating, though
unessential force in the development of athletics, tends toward
a narrow, highly skilled form of athletics rather than toward a
widening sway of the athletic interest as an educational force.
Hence, the spectator and his influence are the most serious
problem in the advancing power of athletics.
EVILS OF ATHLETICS. — A number of evils are associ-
ated with athletic activities, but a distinction should be made
between elemental tendencies to evil and the exaggerated com-
plications of these evils through specific influences in the de-
velopment of athletics.
Athletics 717
1. There is the tendency, associated with all vigorous activ-
ities, to physical injury. This tendency is increased by an
individual's competing in activities for which he is unfitted,
inadequately trained, or improperly equipped, or against in-
dividuals out of his class, or while fatigued, etc. The tend-
ency may be minimized by proper inspection, classification,
and training.
2. There is the tendency, associated with many pleasurable
activities, to over-indulgence which results in physical harm
and a dissipation of time. This is chiefly a product of ill-
advised enthusiasm, and is exaggerated by the pressure of
partisan rivalry. It is eliminated by competent supervision
or leadership.
3. There is the tendency to specialization which may result
in unbalanced development and unfortunate play habits.
It is exaggerated artificially by the pressure of partisan rivalry
in intergroup competition. It may be eliminated by com-
petent supervision.
4. There is the tendency, common to all social competition,
to bad manners, to irritability in defeat and gloating in victory,
though individuals differ greatly in these tendencies. The
tendency is exaggerated by bad play traditions in the group,
by bad leadership, by disrespect for rivals, by bad treatment
on the part of rivals, and by the pressure of partisans. It
may be controlled by strong leadership in building wholesome
play standards, and by good management, instruction, and
discipline.
5. There is a tendency to evasions of the rules of the game.
The rules are articles of agreement under which a trial of skill
is to be made, violations of which are dishonest. The limita-
tions of the rules offer temptations which test character and
training. The tendency is exaggerated by bad play traditions,
by vicious instructions from coaches, by suspicion of rivals,
by partisan pressure to win, etc. The tendency may be con-
trolled by strong leadership in the development of sentiment
718 Principles of Secondary Education
among athletes and by an administration that counteracts the
influence of the spectator.
6. There is a tendency to violations of the principles of
classification in any group which under the law of participa-
tion narrows participation. This tendency is seen under sim-
ple conditions and in small groups where the older, stronger,
and more aggressive eliminate the younger, weaker, or timid
from certain games. It is seen under complex conditions in
large groups where there is a temptation to neglect players
less skilled than the few best or to use players not legitimately
members of the group. The tendency to violate an accepted
classification and thus to gain an advantage is strikingly
exaggerated through the pressure of partisan rivalry, the
interests of the professional coach, and suspicion of rivals
in intergroup contests. This tendency may be minimized
by educational leadership that will control the influence
of partisan and coach. Public opinion may here be very
effective.
7. There is the tendency for athletics to come under the
control of the spectator and develop into specialized intergroup
partisan contests, which in turn tends to destroy general
participation and the social respect for athletics. This tend-
ency is especially strong in the later years of youth. With
the development of intergroup contests, the desire to win tends
to become extreme. Group pride is involved, and success
coveted as an honor. This intensification of the desire to win
and the exaggeration of the importance of winning tend to
destroy the character of athletics as play. Training for skill
is pushed to the limit of youthful endurance. This, though the
discipline may be commended, few individuals are capable
of enduring. Exceptional individuals must carry the burden,
so there is selected a special group of athletes on which specta-
tors, coaches, and managers focus their attention, leaving the
majority of the group forgotten and neglected. Exceptional
individuals are scarce, hence partisans search for them, and
Athletics 719
proselyting or recruiting methods develop, which promote
violations of the laws of classification. Even for the excep-
tional athlete, play is changed into work, and the maximum
energy and time become consumed. As a natural result there
arises for some athletes the question : What is there in it ?
This the partisan tends to meet by extra encouragements,
inducements, honors, and rewards, and petty professional
practices develop which are perpetuated by custom and the
enthusiasm of partisans. The extreme specialized training
aggravates the lesser tendencies to evil, to counteract which
artificial methods are adopted. Trainers, rubbers, and the
training table are employed to meet the physical needs ;
officials are multiplied to minimize the tendencies to unsocial
acts and violations of the rules of the game ; and complex
eligibility codes are formulated to reduce the tendency to ig-
nore the laws of classification.
Both managerial and instructional functions tend to be-
come totally divorced from the play needs of the masses of
youth and to become highly specialized agents of the spectator.
The coach, being judged by the results of contests, concen-
trates his efforts on exceptional athletes. The manager, being
dependent on the spectator for finances, tends to manage
solely in the interest of the spectator. This management and
the expenses connected with the equipment of teams, cost of
games and trips, officials, training tables, coaches, trainers,
rubbers, doctors' bills, medical supplies, honors, rewards,
privileges, etc., tend to surround athletics with a strong com-
mercial atmosphere, unwholesome and destructive to the play
spirit. The final tendency of partisan athletics is toward a
business, involving a few specialized athletes performing for
the satisfaction of partisans, which is essentially professional in
methods and commercial in character. Youth tends to lose
all sense of athletics as a natural, valuable, and dignified ac-
tivity, and public opinion tends to consider athletics merely as
a spectacle. How far this evolution will proceed in the organ-
720 Principles of Secondary Education
ized athletics in any group will depend upon the age of the
contestants and the elements to be controlled.
Several factors tend to exaggerate the specializing influence
of the spectator. The press associates partisan contests not
with educational topics, but with professional baseball,
prize fighting, and horse-racing gossip, thus misguiding public
opinion. Educators, concentrated on intellectual education,
tend to avoid leadership in the outdoor life of youth. They
tend to leave managers, coaches, and players without super-
vision, subject to the domination of partisans, and free to use
their own methods. Winning teams have been associated with
the advertising movement, especially in colleges, and this
leads educators to tolerate unwholesome practices. The same
results flow from suspicion of rivals.
Of these several tendencies to evil in athletics, the first three,
or the tendencies to physical injury, over-indulgence, and
specialization, reduce or destroy the valuable physical results
of play ; the fourth and fifth, or the tendencies to bad manners
and violations of the rules of the game, reduce or destroy the
valuable moral results ; the sixth and seventh, or the tenden-
cies to violations of the law of classification and to control by
spectators, reduces or destroys the educational values of ath-
letics for the many, and the social respect for athletics among
serious people.
It is clear that the tendencies to evil increase in seriousness
as youth approaches maturity, as the intergroup organization
becomes emphasized, and as the partisan spirit develops.
CONTROL OF ATHLETICS. — The importance and the
values of athletics in the life of youth, the factors controlling
participation, and the tendencies to evil, show a need of admin-
istrative authority with larger vision and broader educational
powers than are possessed by youth. Experience has shown that
the play life of both children and youth must be supervised, if the
values of play are to be secured and the evils eliminated. This
control becomes increasingly important with the advancing
Athletics 721
years of youth because the factors tending to eliminate from
participation and the tendencies to evil become more influential.
The values of athletics are the normal product of the athletic
impulse ; the evils are the product of the ignorance of youth,
social influences beyond its understanding, and the neglect of
natural leaders or teachers. Youth is helpless alone to under-
stand or control the factors influencing participation or the
factors causing tendencies to evil. Educators or social workers
start a reform wave when they realize that neglect has divorced
athletic influences from the aims of education, that the masses
of youth have lost the habit of and respect for participation,
and that public opinion through lack of respect is unfavorable
and depressing to the general spirit of play among youth.
Attempted reform often precipitates an athletic struggle
between the reform interests and the interests in control of
the athletics to be reformed. Potentially or actually this
struggle exists under all conditions because of the contrast in
tendencies between the two primary interests in contests and
a corresponding contrast in public opinion. Between the
two primary interests a transitional mixture of the two exists
which causes most of the struggle. These three interests
give three general concepts of what athletics are for and whom
they are for, to which all current opinions and attitudes refer
and which determine all policies and methods in the administra-
tion of athletics. These concepts may be formulated as fol-
lows : (i) Athletics are solely for the pleasure of the specta-
tor and the profit of the athlete who furnishes the pleasure.
(2) Athletics are primarily for the pleasure of the spectator,
especially the partisan sympathizer, and secondarily for the
pleasure or honor of the athlete. (3) Athletics are primarily
for the benefit of the athlete seeking pleasure and achieving
organic and social power, for the fellowship, sympathy, unity,
and loyalty among members of the team and (where inter-
group teams exist) among the members of the social group
which the team represents. If athletics are organized and
3A
722 Principles of Secondary Education
administered on the first of these concepts, there arise pure
professional athletics, or athletics for the spectator. This
concept has its legitimate place ; to it, in respectable expres-
sions, there have been no serious objections so long as it keeps
its place. If athletics are organized and administered on the
third of these concepts, " educational athletics," as defined
above, are the result. If athletics are organized and adminis-
tered on the second of these concepts, there develops a class
of athletics somewhere between " educational athletics "
and professional athletics, which are seldom truly educational,
and more seldom frankly professional. The tendency they
take depends upon the class of characters dominant in the
control of their organization and administration. In this
concept there is nothing that is distinctly independent of the
other two. It is a transitional mixture of the two primary
interests. In it there is nothing that does not logically belong
to the first or the third concept. It is based on misguided
notions, half-evolved customs, and incomplete logic.
Again, if the first concept is accepted, the policies will center
in one position : " Get the best talent possible " and satisfy
the spectators. If the second concept is accepted, the desires
of partisans and anxiety concerning questions of material for
winning teams will be paramount in the development of ad-
ministrative policies, always with an exaggeration of tenden-
cies to evil. If the third concept is accepted, the only position
that can be taken is : athletics are for the education of all
youth, irrespective of athletic skill or ability to make pleasure
for spectators, bring " honor " to a group, or satisfy the pride
of partisans. This concept and its interpretation does not
necessarily abolish pleasure for the spectator, nor the possi-
bilities of his education as a spectator, but it determines ab-
solutely the primary point of view in the creation of adminis-
trative policies and methods. It determines the relative
amount of time that should be devoted to vigorous muscular
activities as compared with other educational activities, the
Athletics 723
obligations of institutions to furnish opportunities for par-
ticipation by all and instruction for all, the organization of
activities to meet all needs and capacities and to conserve
primarily the interests of the many, the attitude on violations
of the law of classification, recruiting and uneducational
methods of developing teams, the supervision of the conduct
of athletes in games, in training quarters, and on trips, the
character and number of games played, the character of in-
structors and managers, the financial methods, the kind of
training methods, such as training tables, trainers, and sup-
plies, the attitude in inter-institutional relationships, etc.
An effective control depends on public opinion and expert
educational leadership. Effective leadership will be ham-
pered by an unintelligent, careless, or vicious public opinion ;
public opinion, even educationally the best, can be effective
only through technical leadership. Educational athletics
for all can be fully realized only when the public sees clearly
the distinction between athletics as an educational force in
the life of youth and athletics as an amusement for the public,
until it respects athletics as an essential element in the educa-
tion of youth, fosters a spirit of competitive play, and supports
an educational administration. Public opinion will take this
position only when educational leaders see and cultivate this
viewpoint. Effective leadership requires technical skill,
knowledge, authority, and character to secure the participa-
tion of all and to avoid the evil tendencies.
To secure effective participation an educational adminis-
tration must do three things: (i) It must supply oppor-
tunities in the form of equipment and activities that will meet
the capacities, needs, and tastes of all. (2) It must supply
for all instructors who are primarily interested in the education
of youth, who are trained to recognize individual capacities,
needs, and tastes, and who will give sympathetic leadership,
encouragement, and stimulus, especially to the less fortunate,
in the development of effective play habits. (3) It must
724 Principles of Secondary Education
supply an organization that is primarily concerned in con-
serving the educational rights of youth in athletics, that will
inspire respect, and that will maintain a fair classification for
competition.
To- avoid the evil tendencies an educational administration
must also supply three additional influences, (i) It must
supply the technical knowledge and skill to give physical ex-
aminations, supervise the amount and character of activities,
and care for minor injuries, thus avoiding the tendencies to evils
that destroy physical results. (2) It must supply a moral
leadership with knowledge and skill and character-power
sufficient to control bad manners and tendencies to violations
of the rules of the games and all tendencies that destroy moral
results. (3) It must supply a social leadership with educa-
tional ideals, independent character, and honesty sufficient
both to lead the earnest, honest, and reasonable spectators
and to control or ignore the narrow or selfish partisan in all
tendencies to violations of the law of classification, the edu-
cational viewpoint, and the social status of athletics.
All these requirements in an efficient educational leadership
demand specialists trained as educators in the use of vigorous
play activities as educational subject matter.
ATHLETICS IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS. Stages of
Development. — Athletics for high school boys seem to
be passing through three distinct stages as regards the atti-
tude of the school authorities : first, opposition ; second, tol-
eration ; third, cooperation. It is not many years since
school authorities looked upon athletics as a positive evil,
and not only refused to allow the schoolboys to take part,
as representing the schools, but absolutely opposed such ac-
tivities. After a time they began to realize that boys were
sure to engage in athletics, whether the school authorities
gave their permission or not, and a period of toleration fol-
lowed. The result was that teams competing under the
school name frequently brought discredit upon the school
At klc tics 725
and caused principals and teachers considerable annoyance.
The difficulties were practically solved when the teachers
took hold with the boys and helped to organize the sports
and to provide the necessary accommodations.
Organized Athletics. — The problem of control has been
made difficult through neglect, but organized athletics in the
elementary school are helping to improve the situation by de-
veloping a proper spirit among the boys and bringing them
to appreciate the necessity of rules of eligibility and compe-
tition. It is reasonable to hope that well-organized athletics
in the elementary and high schools of the country will help
solve the problems of athletic control in colleges and universi-
ties. The cooperation of other athletic associations, as the
Amateur Athletic Union, the Military Association, etc., is ab-
solutely necessary in order to enable the school authorities to
enforce their authority, and it is usually given. A few test
cases bringing home to schoolboys the fact that they can have
no standing in other clubs or associations unless they pre-
serve their athletic standing in their school are sufficient to fix
the authority of school officers.
Rules of Eligibility. — The following rules of eligibility are
taken from the handbook of the Public Schools Athletic
League of New York City.
No high school pupil shall represent his school unless he
has attended a school for twenty school weeks, unless
(a) He has been promoted from an elementary school,
whereupon he shall be eligible immediately ;
(b] He has been admitted from a school outside the New
York public schools, whereupon he shall be eligible after an
attendance of twenty school days.
No high school pupil who has reached the age of twenty-one
shall be eligible to represent his school in any branch of
athletics.
A boy shall be eligible to represent his school in athletics
during any "marking" interval who has placed 14 hours
726 Principles of Secondary Education
(13 hours) of prepared work to his credit at the last rating in
the office records.
In those high schools where physical training is not con-
ducted according to the syllabus 13 hours, instead of 14, shall
be considered as constituting eligibility.
Drawing and shopwork in manual training schools shall
count one hour for two.
Any extraordinary case shall be submitted to the High
Schools Games Committee.
A graduate of a three years' course in the high schools who
returns to take up postgraduate work is permitted to take
part in athletics, providing he is eligible according to the rules
of the Public Schools Athletic League.
No pupil who is a graduate of a four-year secondary school
course shall be eligible to represent any school.
Only those pupils who are taking full work in a regular course
shall be eligible to represent the school.
No pupil shall be allowed to compete in the mile run unless
he has reached the age of sixteen years and six months. No
pupil shall be allowed to compete in the junior events if he is
sixteen years old or older. A birth certificate shall be ac-
cepted as proof of a high school junior's age. If such certifi-
cate cannot be secured, other evidence may be submitted to
the High Schools Games Committee.
Any boy who has matriculated in any college or who has
played on a college team shall not be eligible to represent a
high school.
No entry shall be accepted unless countersigned by the
principal or the school's representative on the High Schools
Games Committee.
Any high school pupil known to have bet or acted as an
agent for others in betting on athletic contests shall be de-
barred from competition for one year.
Safeguards. — In the secondary schools the events are
graded on a plan similar to that in the elementary schools,
and a limit is placed upon the number of events in which a boy
may enter. All boys taking part in the interschool competi-
tions are required to present a certificate signed by a reliable
Athletics 727
physician stating that they arc physically able to participate.
Effort is made to eliminate from the list of events those that
present any danger of serious injury to the participants. As
an example of this, football under college rules has been dis-
couraged by the League. In New York City soccer football
is played as a substitute. The game of soccer is free from
the dangers of mass plays and tackles, and offers an oppor-
tunity for all boys to take part. The small boy has an equal
chance with the larger fellows. In fact, he is frequently able
to outplay his bulky opponent.
Events. — The generally accepted events for secondary
schoolboys are : loo-yard dash, 22o-yard run, 44o-yard run,
88o-yard run, i-mile run, loo-yard hurdles, i2O-yard hurdles,
22o-yard hurdles, half-mile and mile relays, running broad
jump, running high jump, pole vaulting, putting 1 2-pound
shot, discus throw, basketball, baseball, soccer football, cross-
country running, tennis, swimming, skating, marksmanship.
Summary of Values. — Among the objections that are
raised against athletics for schoolboys are the following :
overstrain, unfair tactics, too much publicity, and too much
time and attention. On the other side there are positive
advantages of well-organized athletics, such as the develop-
ment of courage, decision, alertness, tenacity, resource,
obedience, restraint, fairness, cooperation, self-sacrifice, and
generalship. The outlook is exceedingly hopeful because the
advantages so manifestly outweigh the disadvantages, and
because under a well-organized system the evils may be
practically eliminated.
Summary of Effects upon the School. — The leading con-
sideration in athletics for school children must always lie that
of the effects upon the school. In cities where this work has
been organized and given a fair test, school authorities are
practically unanimous that : (i) Class work is better. (2) The
health of the school children is improved. (3) A wholesome
school spirit is developed. (4) There is less trouble about
728 Principles of Secondary Education
discipline, owing to the closer relation and better understand-
ing between the pupils and teachers. A district superintendent
in the New York City schools recently declared at a public
meeting that organized athletics had done more to break up
truancy in his district than any other thing that had been
tried. The following quotation from a letter written to the
Secretary of the New York City League by a school principal
is typical of the attitude of teachers, principals, and superin-
tendents. " Permit me to add a word of commendation to
the many you have received, for the excellent work your as-
sociation is doing toward developing a love in our public
schoolboys for clean athletics. These sports, I believe, im-
prove our boys, not only physically, but also mentally and
morally. This conclusion has been the result of my personal
observations extending over about four years. I have known
of many cases where boys who had previously been quite
neglectful of both studies and conduct in their classes, showed
marked improvement in both lines after entering into athletic
contests. I have yet to find the boy who has done poorer
work at school because of these sports. Many times the
leaders in athletics have also been the leaders of their class
in their studies."
Athletic Courtesy. — One of the benefits of organized
athletics for schoolboys is the opportunity that is afforded
for practicing those manly virtues that mean so much for suc-
cess in after life. One public school athletic league prints
in its handbook the following standards, and emphasizes
them to the boys as the ideal in athletic competitions : (i) The
rules of games are to be regarded as mutual agreements, the
spirit or letter of which one should no sooner try to evade or
break than one would any other agreement between gentle-
men. The stealing of advantage in sport is to be regarded
in the same way as stealing of any other kind. (2) Visiting
teams are to be honored guests of the home team, and all
their mutual relationships are to be governed by the spirit
Athletics 729
which is understood to guide in such relationships. (3) No
action is to be taken nor course of conduct pursued which
would seem ungentlemanly or dishonorable if known to one's
opponent or the public. (4) No advantages are to be sought
over others, except those in which the game is understood to
show superiority. (5) Officers and opponents are to be re-
garded and treated as honest in intention. When opponents
are evidently not gentlemen, and officers manifestly dishonest
or incompetent, future relationships with them may be avoided.
(6) Decisions of officials are to be abided by, even when they
seem unfair. (7) Ungentlemanly or unfair means are not to
be used, even when they are used by opponents. (8) Good
points in others should be appreciated and suitable recognition
given.
TOPICS FOR FURTHER STUDY
1. What are the relative merits of athletics as compared with gym-
nastics for physical education ? For moral education ? For social
education ? Which contributes most to the school ? Study these in
reference to particular schools.
2. What is the best type of organization of athletics in schools or in
a given school ? What are the merits and demerits of such plan of or-
ganization, — individual groups, permanent associations, institutional
groups, or interscholastic associations?
3. What are the dangers of professional athletics in our high schools ?
In what forms does professionalism seek to come in ?
\. To what extent should athletics for spectators be allowed to in-
fluence ?
5. What are the forms taken by this demand of the spectators or of the
public ?
6. In what ways is the influence of the alumni in athletics exerted
in a given school ? Which of these influences are good ? Which bad ?
7. What can American schools learn from English schools in the matter
of athletics ?
8. What are the evils of athletics as seen in any given school? The
benefits ?
o. Through what stages of development have athletics passed in
any given school ? What actual growth in principle is observable ?
730 Principles of Secondary Education
10. To what extent should cooperation with other athletic organiza
tions be permitted or encouraged ?
11. How can school athletics be used to promote public manners as
well as public morals ?
REFERENCES
General:
JOHNSON, GEORGE E. Education by Plays and Games, with Bibliog-
raphy. Boston, 1907.
LELAND, ARTHUR, and LORNA, H. Playground Technique and Playcraft,
with Bibliography. Springfield, 1909.
McCuRDY, J. H. Bibliography of Physical Training. See p. 9, group
013, Philosophy : Relationships, which gives the best references up
to 1905. Springfield, 1905.
MERO, E. B. American Playgrounds, with Bibliography. Boston, 1908.
Official Handbook of the Athletic League of the Young Men's Christian
Association of North America. American Sports Publishing Co.,
New York.
Official Handbook of the Public Schools Athletic League, published
yearly since 1904. American Sports Publishing Co., New York.
Official Handbook of Sunday School Athletic League of Brooklyn, New
York. The Walden Press, 64 Fulton Street, New York.
Playground Association of America. Proceedings of Annual Playground
Congress, 1908, 1909. New York.
Proceedings of the Athletic Research Society. American Physical
Education Review, Vol. XV, Nos. 3 and 4. March and April, 1910.
Proceedings of Intercollegiate Athletic Association of the United States.
Published yearly since 1906. (These papers are the best on college
athletics, and all are published in the American Physical Education
Review.}
Reports and Proceedings of Athletic League of Baltimore, 1909.
Report of Committee on An Amateur Law. American Physical Edu-
cation Review, Vol. XV, No. 3. March, 1910.
Year Book of the Public Schools Athletic League of the City of New
York. Published since 1905.
Public. School Athletics:
BISHOP, E. C. How Should the Athletics of the Y. M. C. A. supplement
that of the Public School. Hygiene and Physical Education, Vol. I,
No. 10, p. 880. Springfield, Mass.
CLINE, EARLE. The Advisability of Inter-High School Contests in
Athletics 731
Athletics. Physical Education Review, Vol. XV, No. i, p. 22. Spring-
field, Mass.
Handbooks of the Public Schools Athletic Leagues of Baltimore, Md.,
Buffalo, N. Y., Newark, N. J., New Orleans, La., New York, N. Y.,
Seattle, Wash. (These will be sent free on application.)
LARNED, C. W. Athletics from Historical and Educational Standpoint,
Physical Education Review, Vol. XIV, No. i, p. i. Springfield,
Mass.
MEANWELL, W. E. The Team Game Tournament. Hygiene and
Physical Education, Vol. I, No. 9, p. 896. Springfield, Mass.
NICHOLS, E. H. Competitive Athletics. Physical Education Review,
Vol. XIV, No. 9, p. 589. Springfield, Mass.
Report of the Committee on Athletics for Boys and Athletics for Girls
of the Playground Association of America, i Madison Avenue, New
York City. (Sent free on application.)
Pamphlet on Public Schools Athletics. Department of Child Hygiene of
the Russell Sage Foundation, i Madison Avenue, New York City.
(Sent free on application.)
CHAPTER XX
SOCIAL ASPECTS OF HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION
THE SOCIAL VIEWPOINT. — In the light of present
knowledge it is evident that education, even in its most naive
form, has always had a social bearing. The earliest groupings
of persons for the sake of learning were in themselves social
activities, and even though the intellectual or other gains thus
made were desired entirely for individual ends they neverthe-
less had consequences for society as a whole. But previous to
the nineteenth century : the value of education other than that
to the individual had little place in human thinking. With
the perfection of the processes for dispersing knowledge, how-
ever, there occurred a profound deepening of social self-con-
sciousness. Society began to understand the secrets of its
own development and to manipulate with a confidence never
before possessed the various forces and conditions that deter-
mine social progress. One of the most important manifesta-
tions of its new ability took the form of self-government.
Having been made possible by the spread of learning, it was
inevitable that democracy should include the promotion and
administration of education among its own obligations, to be
fulfilled henceforth as a rigorous measure of self-preservation.
The perpetuation of popular government is, however, only
one phase of modern educational utility. Society looks to the
school for richness and beauty of existence as well as for safety.
The transference of accumulated knowledge to rising genera-
tions ; the cultivation of sensibility to, and proficiency in,
the arts ; preparation for economic life ; protection against
1 See Paul Monroe, Influence of the Growing Perception of Human Inter-
relationship on Kducation, Proc. Am. Sofiolo'.'J-.'n! Society, Vol. VII, p. 47.
Social Aspects of High School Education 733
disease ; and the physical development of the species, — these
constitute only a partial list of the services now being exacted,
but they well illustrate the more obvious form of the social
viewpoint — the school as an instrumentality of society. The
changes, tendencies, antl considerations which have arisen in
public education in response to the demands of society have
been called its external social aspects.1
INTERNAL VIEWPOINT. — Modern developments in so-
cial psychology, anthropology, and the social sciences in gen-
eral have greatly increased our knowledge of the laws governing
the educative process. Intellectual growth, it has been dis-
covered, is largely conditioned by the contacts of the individual
with other individuals. In the approbation of the group lies a
powerful incentive to achievements in learning. The micro-
cosmic character of the school itself gives it capacities for train-
ing which, if properly utilized, yield important cultural results.
The innate tendencies on the part of the young to initiate
social organization have been revealed as allies ready for em-
ployment in the exercises preparatory to citizenship. Many
generalizations of equal educational import have been formu-
lated by sociology and genetic psychology during the last few
decades. The modifications and problems which they have
occasioned may be called the internal social aspects of educa-
tion.
Ever since the school became an agency of society it has
changed with the changes in the objects it was designed to
serve. These modifications have been multiplied, not only
by the urgency of successive social needs, but also by the per-
ception of the new educational ways of meeting them which
have been revealed by social psychology and its allied sciences.
So that to-day the school finds itself at the confluence of t\vo
streams of influence : the demand of an extraordinarily com-
plex social situation and the suggestions emanating from a
rich mass of scientific data. The phases of education they
1 See Irving King, Social Aspects of Education.
734 Principles of Secondary Education
turn into view are vast in number, but for purposes of discus-
sion they may be conveniently grouped under the following
heads: (i) content of instruction, (2) methods, (3) organi-
zation, and (4) supplementary, or extension, activities.
CONTENT OF INSTRUCTION. — The social demand be-
ing made upon the secondary curriculum, in obedience to
which it is undergoing rapid modification, is that it shall con-
tain material preparatory for all — not as in the past for a few
- of the actual relations which its students will sustain in af-
ter life. Thus to the traditional groundwork for professional
careers are added the fundamentals of many other callings.
Indeed, so strong has the demand for vocational education
been that special schools giving a technical training in all the
leading commercial and industrial occupations, including agri-
culture, are now to be found in the secondary field, while in
the general high school it is seldom that the academic course
is not accompanied by courses in bookkeeping, stenography,
manual training, and the domestic arts.
Besides the insistence upon a vocational preparation, society
is calling for a more adequate fitting of young people for the
obligations of citizenship. Hence economics, civics, and
socialized historical courses now find place in the most' com-
plete curricula. The importance to the community of good
health has added emphasis to physiology and chemistry and
helped to bring courses in physical training and personal
hygiene into the body of secondary instruction. The vice-
preventing and character-forming qualities of proper recrea-
tion have made athletics a matter of conscious control by
faculty and students, while the finer potentialities of well-
used leisure are recognized in the elaboration of the fine arts
courses and the requirement, increasingly made, that whatever
is cultural in the curriculum shall be actually realizable in the
student's probable future environment.
Finally, as has been pointed out in Chapter I, society is now
demanding for its own sake that secondary education be so
Social Aspects of Jfigh School Education 735
specialized and so adapted to personal variations that the
particular aptitudes of individuals, whether for social leader-
ship, economic production, or any other kind of human activity,
shall through it reach the fullest development that is feasible
within the limits of time and circumstance.
SOCIALIZED METHODS. — With a growing emphasis
upon an education " related to life "it is natural that its pro-
cesses should more and more be surrounded with the same con-
ditions as those which envelop the affairs for which the edu-
cands are being prepared. Thus in the industrial courses there
is a tendency to have the pupils make products having a com-
mercial or real value under conditions as far as possible like
those existing in the manufacturing world. Repairs are made
on real school or home furniture. Plans are drawn for build-
ings which are actually to be erected. Periodicals are printed
which serve as bona fide mediums of intelligence ; designs are
contrived which will ornament actual pages, book covers, or
wall papers. Thus in all vocational courses there is a dispo-
sition to take advantage of the stimulus which comes from a
genuine need felt by the student and filled by the products of
his own hands, a pedagogical situation that is much more ex-
citing than that afforded by an artificial problem and an
academic solution.
In the teaching of science a similar relatedness to the
students' familiar environment is obtained by basing the
laboratory exercises upon analysis of everyday foods, the
piping of city water, the disposal of sewage, or the home appli-
cations of the electric current. In the domestic arts the pupils
are more and more given the kind of equipment they will use
in their homes and allowed to learn how to furnish and deco-
rate a real suite instead of being drilled in formal prescriptions
about a hypothetical one. The languages, ancient as well as
modern, are early made the means of classroom communica-
tion, and the niceties of the mother tongue are self-taught by
literary societies, and newspaper competitions. The rudiments
736 Principles of Secondary Education
of finance and the practice of thrift are naturally inculcated by
student-managed banks having connections with solid outside
institutions. Historical facts are dug out by self-governing
groups using early documents, evaluating evidence, and re-
incarnating the past situations with fresh lineaments drawn
by their own imaginations. Civics, politics, social ethics, -
these also are self-developed with the aid of newspaper and
magazine accounts of current happenings in the students'
own ward, municipality, or state, while practice in handling
the new conclusions and applying the homemade standards,
as well as a familiarity with governmental machinery, are ob-
tained by means of miniature legislatures or congresses sitting
in the high school auditorium. Reality is given to musical
training by granting credit for orchestral work or membership
in the student band. These examples do not by any means
exhaust the social aspects of modern pedagogy, but they illus-
trate some of the more palpable methods of utilizing group
stimuli and biological grooves in secondary educative processes.
SOCIAL ELEMENT IN ORGANIZATION. — This comes
primarily through the recognition by principal, teachers, and
students that they constitute a social organization and that
merely through membership and participation in its activities
pupils derive a certain kind of training for the larger outside
social relationships. If the consciousness of these social aspects
have its logical effects, it will perceptibly modify the govern-
ment of the school. Without surrendering his final authority
the principal will give both the staff and the student body a
share in the management of affairs and thus secure full loyalty
and at the same time impart the important educational effects
of self-government. Common expressions of this principle
are observed in the various forms of student government,
student management of athletics, and the honor system at the
time of examinations.
Another phase of this subject is disclosed in the constructive
attitude now appearing in high school administration toward
Social Aspects of High School Education 737
" student activities " and student organizations. It is per-
ceived that through these spontaneous groupings pupils may
receive a preparation for after life of a kind which the school
has not in the past given, but which is now more and more
expected from it. A social training, in the more restricted
sense, is a factor in success ; and the young person whose home
life has not afforded it and who passes through the secondary
school without receiving it, is seriously handicapped in his
future endeavors. To meet this need principals and teachers
are now devising methods whereby student societies may be
directed, kept in their proper place, and all their legitimate
usefulness may have the widest enjoyment. This policy goes to
the extent in some quarters of giving credit towards gradua-
tion requirements for exceptional proficiency in social leader-
ship, student journalism, or the management of an organization.
Concern for the pupil's future economic relationship has led
to increasing attention to the subject of employment and vo-
cational guidance. While the methods for performing the
latter function have not been successfully formulated as yet,
the school is feeling such a responsibility in the matter that it
is now recognized as a genuine administrative problem. Em-
ployment bureaus are found in many high schools.
The new viewpoint in instruction has occasioned organization
changes of a novel character. These are the connections exist-
ing between certain schools and local industries, commercial
societies, or municipal departments. Whether the activity is
that of making products of market value, taking an industrial
census, or protecting the city water supply, the object is the
same, to subject the student to the powerful stimuli of the
natural social environment. How far this tendency will go
no one can prophesy, but that it is just now a very real one is
indisputable. It has also the reenforcement of the vitalizing
effect which is wrought upon the teacher's influence through
his participation in the concrete activities of the outside
world.
3B
738 Principles of Secondary Education
Another organic change is that which inevitably follows the
principal's perception of his school as a social undertaking
that is amenable to the dictates of public opinion. When he
realizes that the financial support of his institution depends
upon the taxpayer's approval, he begins to seek some certain
means of retaining popular approbation. When he appre-
ciates how easily the results of his efforts to mold the habits
of his pupils can be offset by the hostile conditions outside of
the school, he begins to plan for sympathetic cooperation
between his institution and the home and the other construc-
tive forces of the community. As a result more direct connec-
tions are established between the high school and the adult
members of its constituency. These frequently take the form
of parent-teacher, fathers', or improvement associations. By
means of them the school staff and the citizens are brought into
immediate contact, and the interchange of ideas, sentiments,
wishes, and plans between them is greatly facilitated.
HIGH SCHOOL EXTENSION. — The activities under this
head find their raison d'etre in two main sets of conditions :
(a) the school's need, for the sake of the completest discharge of
its primary function, of more direct connections with society,
and (b) society's need of new and larger services from the school.
The first of these has already been broached in the preceding
section, and regarding it there remains to point out only the
consideration that the opportunity for its full satisfaction is
afforded in the discharge of the new responsibilities being laid
upon the school by society. Thus the most effective way of
justifying the huge expenditures of public funds now being
made upon high school plants is to utilize them to their fullest
possible capacity. To do that requires the bringing in of addi-
tional groups of people to be benefited in some way by the
school facilities. Keeping the school policy in harmony with
public sentiment can best be accomplished by allowing and
stimulating popular utterances within school halls. The
public can best be informed about school conditions by being
Social Aspects of High School Education 739
brought into the building where they can be seen. The
school staff can be kept in vitalizing contact with social prob-
lems by engaging directly in the enterprises that are set in
motion to solve social difficulties; and, finally, the school will
experience less trouble in securing the cooperation of patrons
in the carrying of school ideals, practices, and regulations into
the pupils' homes if, in return, the school will facilitate through
the loan of its assembly rooms and other resources the attain-
ment of patrons' ends in the other phases of the community
life.
SUPPLEMENTARY ACTIVITIES DEMANDED BY SO-
CIETY. — At the outset it may be said that in putting forth
the following demands society's attitude is strongly reenforced
by the consciousness of the vast investment represented by
secondary school property and of its incomplete utilization
when devoted solely to its primary function. In keeping with
the prevalent inclination towards the conservation and eco-
nomical exploitation of all its resources, society makes its
growing demands with confidence, and the trend of present
developments in the wider use of the high school buildings
shows that it is not a mistaken feeling. These demands
when classified upon the basis of their dominant effect fall into
three classes : (i) moral, (2) cultural, and (3) civic.
i. The comparatively recent discovery of the significance
of leisure-time activities in the determination of character
has been followed by a public movement to safeguard youth
through a constructive surveillance over the periods of play
and recreation. Translated into specific high school measures
this means the appropriation by young people in general of
the gymnasium for basket ball, folk and social dancing, calis-
thenics, and other physical activities during the marginal
periods of day and evening. In the same way the auditorium,
with its stage, organ, curtain, and other appurtenances, is
requisitioned for motion pictures, amateur theatricals, concerts,
debates, and popular entertainments of all kinds. In this
740 Principles of Secondary Education
room, as well as other suitable quarters, choral societies,
amateur orchestras and bands, social, literary, and debating
societies, and social clubs of all sorts carry on their respective
activities, while in the laboratories and other workshops those
who find recreation through hobbies find means and oppor-
tunities which are not available elsewhere.
The inevitable result of any prolonged and systematic at-
tempt to enrich people's recreations is a marked and wide
stimulation of individual talent. Entertainments demand en-
tertainers. Performances require performers. The keenest en-
joyments known to human beings are always related to the
activities of other human beings. Where the enchainment of
the attention is desired, somebody's special abilities are always
called into play. Accordingly it is quite understandable
why dramatic, orchestral, and wind instrument performances
find so large a place in recreational programs, why out of play-
grounds and social centers play festivals and pageants are now
proceeding, and why finally this aspect of the subject makes
such a natural transition to the next topic, the cultural effects.
2. The constant craving for knowledge of the best things
which have been written, composed, or depicted, that is found
in every community may be fed by the high school in a variety
of ways. The most common is that of arranging popular
lectures, readings, and concerts and by the provision of even-
ing courses in literature, the foreign languages, and art appre-
ciation. Some schools offer also the privileges of a public
circulating library, but the most striking example of this kind
of service is to be found in devotion of the lobby, corridors, or
some specially designed space to the uses of an art gallery.
In the instances already existing, loan collections, artists' ex-
hibitions, the stored-away surplus of the local museum, and the
treasures assembled by art societies have formed the material
for undertakings which are as stimulative to the students as
they are productive of enjoyment and cultivation for the
community. Esthetic resources are also increased through
Social Aspects of High ScJwol Education 741
the encouragement involved in the letting of rooms for meet-
ings or rehearsals to musical, literary, or art societies and or-
ganizations. Not only the amateurs, but the professional
performers and teachers, are benefited by every increase in
the opportunities and occasions for attention to the things
that delight the eye, the ear, and the spirit.
3. The opportunities for aiding the civic life of a community
that are open to the high school arise (a] partly from the
manner in which our institutions are being modified, and
(b) partly from the intellectual and spiritual needs of a people
not all equally qualified for bearing the responsibilities of a
democracy.
(a) The alterations, improvements, recastings of municipal,
state, and national machinery are usually made, in the first
instance, by groups of specially interested individuals generi-
cally called voluntary organizations. Bodies of this type not
only devise the new perfections but also undertake to bring
about their adoption, and oftentimes maintain the new ac-
tivity, for demonstrative purposes, until society is ready to
incorporate it in the regular governmental routine. The ex-
istence, efforts, and efficiency of such organizations can usually
be greatly furthered by the provision of quarters for meeting
and working. This service high schools are increasingly per-
forming for all sorts of welfare and improvement associations
and institutions.
(7>) Ignorance of local civic affairs may be due to foreign
birth or parentage. This defect high schools can aid in remedy-
ing by offering courses in English, and by giving to foreigners
in other ways knowledge of our customs, history, and insti-
tutions. The dignity of American citizenship is being im-
pressed upon newly naturalized immigrants in some schools
by special occasions presided over by leading citizens and
surrounded with suitable ceremonies. The familiarity with
civic affairs which is usually so inadequate among the general-
ity of people can be improved through the institution of ad-
742 Principles of Secondary Education
dresses and discussions by persons of prominence and authority
upon topics of governmental import.
Finally, the system of party-promoted political education,
now subject to so many abuses, can be greatly elevated and
renovated by bringing its occasions into the light and giving
them a dignified setting. The use of school auditoriums for
political rallies will also tend to lessen the need of campaign
contributions and thus cut off some of their train of evils.
But more important still, the recognition of this function as
an educational responsibility will hasten the time when civic
intelligence will be publicly inculcated and not longer be sub-
ject to the subversions and distortions incidental to promotion
at the hands of selfish and mercenarily biased factions.
In conclusion, the consciousness of social needs and social
processes in the direction of secondary education means its
approximation in content and method to the life for which it
endeavors to prepare its students. Complete identification
with life would be a disaster. But getting the full strength
of its vital forces behind the ideals brought down from above
will bring a wonderful quickening.
TOPICS FOR FURTHER STUDY
1. Enumerate the purely individual aspects of elementary public
school instruction. Of secondary education.
2. Contrast expressions of the social motive in early American educa-
tion laws with those to be found in the recent enactments of Wisconsin,
New York, and other states.
3. Make a complete list of the social demands upon public education
and distinguish those which apply respectively to elementary and to
high schools.
4. Describe briefly the teaching process as it existed among two
primitive peoples.
5. State all of the disadvantages you would experience if you under-
took to acquire the equivalent of a high school education by yourself;
that is, without attending school or having tutors.
6. Rank the various subjects in your curriculum in the order of
their importance as preparations for citizenship.
Social Aspects of High School Education 743
7. Differentiate by means of illustrations the typical learning pro-
cesses of the classroom and of daily life outside the school.
8. Which do you find more enjoyable, writing an essay that is re-
quired in the English course, or a letter of equal length to a friend?
Analyze the reasons for your preference.
9. What occasions outside of those connected with the school and
the civil service are most similar — in character, not significance — to
term examinations?
10. In the case of which subjects in your curriculum could the in-
struction be organized upon a more cooperative, democratic basis?
Which not ? (rive reasons.
11. Characterize the form of government in the usual classroom.
What changes would need to take place to make it democratic ?
12. Expound the relation of recreation to morality.
13. Give the reasons for holding political discussions in public school
buildings.
14. What is community art ?
15. How far does the education law of your state authorize school
boards to undertake the various extension activities outlined in the
foregoing chapter ?
REFERENCES
BI.OOMFIELD, MEYER. The Vocational Guidance of Youth. Boston, 101 1.
BOOXE, R. G. Manual Training as a Socializing Factor. Education,
22: 305.
DENISON, ELSA. Helping School Children. New York, 1912.
DEWEY, JOHN: School and Society. Chicago, 1899.
The School as a Social Center. Elementary School Teacher, 3:73.
DUTTON', S. T., and SXEDDEX, D. Administration of Public Education
in lite United States. New York, 1908.
ELLWOOD, C. A. Sociology and Modern Social Problems. Chap. XY
of Education and Social Progress. New York, 1910.
GRICE. MARY Y. Home and School. Philadelphia, 1909.
GULICK, LUTHER H. Popular Recreation and Public Morality. Annals
of American Academy of Political and Social Science, July, 1909.
JKXKS, JEREMIAH. Citizenship and the Schools. New York, 1906.
JOHXSTOX, CHARLES H, and others. High School Education. New
York. 1912.
The Modern High School. New York, 1914.
Kixo, IRYINT,. Education for Social Efficiency. New York, 1913.
Social Aspects of Education. New York, 1913.
LEE, JOSEPH. Play as a School of the Citizen. Charities, 18: 486-491.
744 Principles of Secondary Education
MONROE, PAUL. Influence of the Growing Perception of Human Inter-
relationship on Education. American Journal of Sociology, March,
1913, p. 622.
MOWRY, D. Use of Schoolhouses for Other than School Purposes. Edu-
cation, 29 : 92.
PERRY, CLARENCE A. School as a Social Center, in Cyclopedia of Edu-
cation, Paul Monroe, ed. New York, 1914.
Wider Use of the School Plant. New York, 1910.
SCOTT, C. A. Social Education. Boston, 1908.
Students' Aid Committee of the High School Teachers' Association of
New York City, E. W. Weaver, Chairman. Choosing a Career,
and other vocational bulletins. 1909.
Tenth Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education.
Part I, "The City School as a Community Center"; Part II,
"The Rural School as a Community Center." Edited by the Sec-
retary, S. Chester Parker, University of Chicago. 1911.
WARD, E. J. Rochester Social Centers. The Playground Association
Proceedings, 3 : 38?-395- JQ10-
WARD, E. J., and others. The Social Center. New York, 1913.
Pamphlets of Department of Recreation, Russell Sage Foundation,
New York.
CHAPTER XXI
THE REORGANIZATION OF SECONDARY EDUCATION
THE FORCES PRODUCING THE PRESENT REORGAN-
IZATION IN EDUCATION. — The educational systems of
all civilized countries are at present in a state of profound
disturbance and transition. As a consequence of the eco-
nomic and social developments of recent decades, the demands
upon education have multiplied and grown more diversified.
Increasing knowledge of the fundamental principles of social
economy on the one hand and of individual human psychol-
ogy on the other have had the effect of revealing to us the
inadequacy of the aims which now control in education, as
well as the uncertain and arbitrary character of the methods
usually employed in instructing and training young people.
These changes are, in the last analysis, due to two funda-
mental causes. The first is the modern political or social
demand for universal education as a necessary means in a
democratic society. The second is the increasing effort among
leaders to found educational practice, so far as may be, on bases
of scientific knowledge, rather than on tradition or on practices
which have grown to be customary. To the first cause are
due the demands for free elementary and higher education ;
for compulsory school attendance ; and for diversification of
educational opportunities to fit the differing needs of the
various groups of young people, for all of whom society pur-
poses to secure a fair and generous start in life. To the second
cause are due modern efforts to enrich educational programs ;
to ascertain the actual values of the historic subjects and of
the methods of study and teaching which have become tradi-
tional in schools ; to study experimentally the learning pro-
745
746 Principles of Secondary Education
cesses of children and adolescent youth ; and to scrutinize
the fields of modern social economy with a view to ascertaining
what are actually the valid aims of an education which should
be purposefully directed towards the attainment of such valu-
able ends as those embraced under the broader conceptions
of physical efficiency, vocational power, good citizenship, and
broad personal culture.
THE REORGANIZATION ALREADY ACCOMPLISHED
IN SECONDARY EDUCATION. — Within the field of sec-
ondary education many important changes in practice and
theory have been effected, and others of even greater impor-
tance seem to be impending. High schools of general or
liberal education have been so widely established as now to
be accessible without fee almost everywhere in America.
Attendance on these schools has increased during recent dec-
ades at a rate several times greater than that of population.
Programs of instruction have become more flexible. A few
of the historic subjects of study have been reshaped so as to
become less formal and perhaps more adapted to contem-
porary needs. The general conviction has arisen, and has
been widely accepted, that the workshop and other commer-
cial agencies no longer give satisfactory vocational training.
It may well become a legitimate function of special sec-
ondary schools to insure, at least in part, opportunities for
specialized vocational teaching. In a number of respects,
educational dogmas and traditions hitherto influential in the
field of the general theory of secondary education seem to be
giving way. There is a growing tendency to demand a more
scientific analysis of purposes and methods in secondary
schools.
THE REORGANIZATION TO BE ACCOMPLISHED. -
In the main, however, the changes which have already taken
place in the theory and practice of secondary education have
been due to a growing public demand for the provision of more
accessible and more varied educational opportunities. Sec-
The Reorganization of Secondary Education 747
ondary schools as yet exhibit relatively few modifications of
practice due to current demands for, and tendencies toward,
more scientific educational theory and methods based upon
scientific principles. It is not surprising that this should be
so. The two sciences upon which, in the last analysis, scien-
tific educational practice must be based — namely, sociology
and psychology — are as yet in only the very early stages of
sound development. It is from sociology and its concrete
applications in social economy that we must eventually de-
rive our conscious educational aims ; and it is upon a well-de-
veloped knowledge of psychology that we must ultimately rely
for the foundations of method — a term which, as here used,
includes not only the actual methods of giving instruction and
training, but also the ways and means of organizing the
materials wherewith to realize educational aims.
In the meantime, in addition to administrative changes,
a great variety of more or less fragmentary empirical studies
are in progress whereby the needs of society and the individual
are being ascertained, with a view to at least a clearer defini-
tion of educational aims than now prevails. On the other
hand, experimental work is being done in the direction of dis-
covering more effective methods of teaching. In consequence,
some of the traditions of secondary education are being under-
mined and much conscious effort is being given to more scien-
tific formulation of purposes, ways, and means.
UNIFORMITY IN EXISTING AIMS AND PRACTICES.
The controlling aims and the prevalent practices of Ameri-
can secondary education, as that has been and still largely is
organized, are capable of comparatively simple description,
notwithstanding the enormous recent increase in the number
of secondary schools. A very great degree of uniformity in
training of teachers, textbooks used, organization of classes,
methods of instruction followed, and standards to be met,
wTill be found in public high schools from Maine to California
and from the northern to the southern boundaries of the
748 Principles of Secondary Education
nation. This uniformity is due largely to the fact that the
customs and traditions which had become established when
public high schools first came into existence have continued
in great measure unchanged to the present day. The agency
most immediately responsible for this has been the American
college. In the college the large majority of high school
teachers have been trained. College men have written the ma-
jority of texts, and have constituted the controlling influence
in committees organized to make special reports dealing with
particular phases of secondary school work. The colleges
have, through their admission examinations or system of cer-
tification, indicated quite definite goals to be reached, espe-
cially in those forms of organized knowledge and skill which
written examinations can test. But, in fact, the so-called
"dominance of the college" has persisted mainly because
educators, whether as superintendents or as teachers and prin-
cipals of secondary schools, have not been disposed or have
not been free to discover and formulate more serviceable ends
and means than those which they found already fixed in cus-
tom and which the college continued to reflect.
We find, therefore, that in nearly all public and private
secondary schools in America the direct and controlling
purpose is to teach, according to certain accepted methods,
historic academic subjects — of which Latin, Greek, German,
French, algebra, plane geometry, various phases of history,
English, physics, and chemistry are the more prominent.
The content actually taught within each subject, as well as
the methods employed in instruction and training, have been
slowly developed through the imperfectly analyzed and tested
experience of many decades, or even centuries. In practice,
the " mastery " of these subjects constitutes the controlling
aim of all instruction — the mastery, that is, as measured
by currently approved tests, such as college admission ex-
aminations, the standards of college instructors assigned to
inspect secondary schools, etc.
The Reorganisation of Secondary Education 749
It is alleged, to be sure, with great frequency and insistence,
that other and more fundamental aims in reality control in
secondary academic education. These are variously described
by such general and vague terms as " mental training,"
" general culture," " formation of character," " development
of the historic sense," " mastery of scientific method," " im-
provement of ability to use English," " development of think-
ing powers," etc. There is, however, no conclusive evidence
that these aims have, in any conscious way, affected either
the choice of the material constituting the course of study in
each subject, or the methods actually employed in giving
instruction in it. What is clear to almost every teacher and
supervisor is that the intellectual standards of attainment
defined in examination papers, textbooks, and manuals actually
serve as indicating aims to be realized and therefore control
the formulation of methods of instruction.
RECENT SPECIALIZATION IN HIGH SCHOOLS. -
Besides high schools devoted primarily to the giving of so-
called " academic education," we find in recent years, espe-
cially in large centers of population, the development of
special high schools, or of non-academic departments within
general high schools. These have come into existence pri-
marily in response to a public demand for forms of second-
ary education reflecting more positively the practical or
vocational activities of contemporary life. In practice, the
schools or departments thus formed — including not only
technical or manual arts high schools, but also commercial
departments and schools, agricultural schools, etc. — do not
actually realize vocational ends except in rare instances.
They constitute essentially a new and modern form of gen-
eral secondary education. The vocational purpose, as judged
by the means and methods adopted, is incidental. Their
methods of instruction are usually patterned closely after
those of general high schools.
Some vocational secondary day schools are now to be
750 Principles of Secondary Education
found, both in the industrial and in the commercial field. A
very few vocational schools of agriculture and of home mak-
ing also exist. So few in the aggregate, however, are these
vocational schools that one must recognize them as constitut-
ing the beginnings of the realization of a new demand, rather
than in any large measure the satisfaction of that demand.
FUNDAMENTAL NEED FOR FURTHER ADVANCE
IN THE REORGANIZATION OF AIMS. - In all second-
ary schools the greatest single necessity and opportunity for
reorganization during the next generation will be found in
such a formulation and statement of valid aims as will enable
these schools to direct their energies more purposefully than
hitherto towards the attainment of ends that are demon-
strably worth while, and to discover and define the methods
by which these aims can be most effectively realized. It
should be clear that no scientific educational program can
be based permanently upon the mere mastery of certain sub-
jects of study. Such mastery must be regarded, not as an
end in itself, but only as a means to other and more fun-
damental ends, which should gradually become capable of
examination, definition, and evaluation.
The probable futility of much of contemporary secondary
education is undoubtedly due to the fact that teachers in
secondary schools, and to a large extent those who direct
these teachers, have accepted as definite and working goals
the memorization or other specific form of mastery of certain
bodies of highly organized knowledge, as shown in the ability
to pass prescribed examinations. When these teachers are
asked to explain why it is desirable that the subjects or phases
of subjects in which they train their pupils are preferable to
other work that might be done, they fall back upon certain
ancient vague and general platitudes as to the clisciplinary
value of studies, the value of the study as a tool in further
investigation or study, or the contribution of the study to
character formation.
The Reorganization of Secondary Education 751
For example, in almost all academic high schools the study
of Latin has gradually assumed a fairly definite form. The
grammar, text, and composition to be mastered are quite
clearly indicated in college entrance requirements, textbooks,
committee reports, and the like. The annual examinations
in this subject, or the standards of accrediting authorities,
serve to indicate to the teacher quite definitely the degree
of proficiency which the pupil is expected to attain. The
goals which determine the teacher's activities are, therefore,
to be expressed in terms of the mastery of this clearly defined
body of Latin. When the educational desirability of Latin is
questioned, the teacher, shocked by the impertinence or the
ignorance shown by the query, falls back upon vague general-
izations about the use of such a study as a means of training
the mind, or giving increased capacity to use the mother
tongue, or opening the doors to richer conceptions of the
sources and developments of civilization. But it is now
becoming clear that all of these generalizations express only
hopes and faiths. They do not in any positive way shape
the methods employed in teaching Latin and never have done
so ; nor has any demonstration been made of the extent to
which the study as now pursued actually contributes to their
present realization.
Another example can be found in the study of algebra and
plane geometry. Even when Latin, in many schools, was
placed upon an elective basis, these branches of mathematical
study continued to be universally prescribed. It is excep-
tional to find a high school from which pupils are permitted
to graduate without having passed in these two subjects.
It is still more exceptional to find colleges admitting students
to degree courses unless such students have met certain re-
quirements in algebra and geometry. The content of these
subjects has been, for many years, quite definitely outlined.
In textbooks, college entrance requirements, and the reports
of committees the material which is expected to constitute
752 Principles of Secondary Education
these studies will be found mapped out, often in great detail ;
and here, again, the standards of attainment are indicated
with considerable precision in entrance examinations and
the requirements of accrediting authorities. Only rarely
are teachers called upon to prove the value of these studies,
so universally have educators and citizens been induced to
accept, without questioning, their validity for educational
purposes. The aims of the teachers of these subjects are,
therefore, quite definite ; but obviously, these aims cannot
be described as ultimate, in any true sense. Here, too, when
inquiry is pressed, educators generally fall back upon easy
generalizations as to the value of these subjects in mental
training, as instruments required in further study, etc. -
ends which have actually never been worked over and estab-
lished in any scientific manner.
Similar illustrations may be found in almost all of the so-
called " academic " and even in the vocational subjects now
taught in secondary schools. What are the actual ends which
do control, as contrasted with those which should control, in
the teaching of physics, chemistry, and biology? Is there
any evidence that the study of history as now pursued in
secondary schools contributes in any important degree to
genuine educational ends? In American high schools we
expend vast sums in the teaching of French and German ;
what are the results? What objects have we actually in
view in teaching these modern languages? Are these objects
realized, and to what degree? What modifications of aim
are necessary if we are to find aims which are worth while
and which are capable of being realized with the resources
at our disposal? These and hundreds of similar questions
are to be very carefully analyzed in the near future, as the
demand for efficient education becomes more insistent and
educators assume a more scientific spirit toward the problems
involved.
But at the outset one fundamental fact must be accepted :
Tke Reorganization of Secondary Education 753
namely, that a formulation of the ends of secondary education
merely in terms of the mastery of subject matter cannot be
long held as an efficient basis for the making of programs and
the devising of educational methods. Furthermore, we must
view with skepticism all attempts to formulate educational
aims in terms of vague statements expressive of social worths.
These are not only misleading, but they serve no useful pur-
pose in indicating the means and methods by which they are
to be realized. Such generalizations nearly always, of course,
indicate ends that are worth while ; but they serve no more
useful purpose than would the general assertion that it is the
business of human beings to strive for health, without indicat-
ing any of the means by which disease may be remedied and
various forms of health and strength conserved.
REORGANIZATION IN METHODS OF TEACHING
AND OF PROCEDURE. — In the reorganized secondary
education of the future, the general principles upon which
teaching practice will be based may be expected to differ
greatly from those which have now become customary. So
long as methods of teaching are developed more or less un-
consciously, it is unavoidable that certain practices should
early become stereotyped, and should long continue with the
effect of excluding experimental work in the direction of
newer and better methods. For example, until recent years
verbal memorization as the chief method and test of learn-
ing prevailed, almost to the exclusion of every other form.
More recently there has been substituted for verbal memori-
zation, drill in question and answer, looking to the analysis
and statement of facts as verbally presented in textbooks.
There is no insistence that the student shall use the words
of the text, but there is constant expectation that he shall
describe the facts substantially as presented in the text.
Under these conditions, the use of the constructive imagi-
nation and an inductive approach to knowledge become
practically impossible. In a few subjects, the so-called
754 Principles of Secondary Education
11 topical method " has gained vogue, while in science teach-
ing the introduction of laboratory work has resulted in still
another type of method of teaching and study which has now
become almost stereotyped.
But methods of systematic teaching and learning are still
unscientific, and tend to assume the rigidity of all practices
resting mainly upon custom and belief. In the pedagogy of
secondary education as thus far organized, there is as yet
little recognition of the value and the possibilities of informal
or so-called " natural " learning.
Owing to the character of the aims and tests now prevailing,
methods of teaching are, as stated above, almost invariably
shaped to produce the particular results in mastery of organized
knowledge which are demanded and which will show in writ-
ten examinations. This produces, for example, the curious
anomaly which we find in the teaching of English literature.
It will be readily agreed that the most satisfactory definition
we can give of what should be the valid purposes of the second-
ary school in the teaching of literature is appreciation of the
best writings. The methods now employed, however, are
such as to put a premium, not upon appreciation, but upon
intellectual mastery, usually in the form of memorization of
innumerable details, coupled with some ability to analyze
texts and to make approved deductions.
But in a reorganized secondary education, suited to an
age of science, conscious and purposeful method must ulti-
mately be worked out experimentally in the light of clearly
defined aims. The few present and imperfect examples of
this are to be found in our systematic attempts to prepare
students for examinations, in the teaching of modern languages,
and in the teaching of written composition. In these cases,
aims, whether valid or not in the better sense, tend to be-
come somewhat clear, and experimental work to find the
best methods of realizing them has, in a measure, developed.
But in such subjects as science, history, literature, mathe-
T/LC Reorganization of Secondary Education 755
matics, the classical languages, and some of the so-called
" practical subjects," where as yet no clearly denned aims
exist, it is still impracticable to develop method experimentally.
We possess no standards of attainment either in quality or
in degree.
EXISTING NEED FOR REORGANIZATION CAN BE
UNDERSTOOD ONLY THROUGH A STUDY OF THE
EVOLUTION OF EXISTING PRACTICES. —To under-
stand secondary education as it is now organized, we must
examine the various stages of its evolution. Its present
aims, content, and practices have been necessarily developed
in prescientilic stages. Most of the subjects of study now
found represented at one time ends valuable in themselves.
Learners sought teachers in these fields, and men undertook
the teaching of these subjects as a profession. Gradually,
bodies of organized knowledge were shaped. We know, of
course, that Latin and Greek were eagerly studied at one
time by persons needing to use them as tools, or for the pur-
pose of gratifying higher forms of intellectual curiosity. The
commoner branches of mathematics were introduced into
secondary schools largely as fundamental means of preparing
for certain occupations. During the nineteenth century
the widespread interest in science had the effect of inducing
many persons to seek, in the various branches of physical and
biological science, either means of gratifying other intellectual
interest or instruments that might be used vocationally.
What a few first needed, demanded, and prized, finally
became through imitation the demand of the many. Second-
ary schools found, in these subjects, knowledge well organized
for teaching purposes, and the means of holding students to
definite tasks. In time, the subjects thus established became
ends in themselves, even long after their intrinsic value had
disappeared. This process of evolution has given us in large
measure, not only the organized subjects as they now stand,
but also the well-established methods of teaching them.
756 Principles of Secondary Education
CHARACTER OF PROSPECTIVE REORGANIZATION.-
It is probable that such reorganization of secondary education
as will take place during the next quarter of a century will be
effected in part by modifications and new adaptations of exist-
ing subjects, and in part by the development and formulation
of new subjects of study and training, perhaps under names
not widely used now. Obviously, the most rational way to
reorganize secondary education would be to investigate and
define, as far as practicable, the fundamental needs of con-
temporary society and of individuals in that society, and
then so to analyze these needs as to discover by what means
and methods and to what extent they can be reasonably
satisfied through educational activities in schools. An analy-
sis of objectives of this character would give us a basis whereon
we could develop experiments with a view to discovering the
best methods of teaching. The field for such an analytical
study is the larger social economy of the day, coupled with
the needs and possibilities of individual development, and
finally the actual and potential educational accomplishments
of other agencies than schools. In this way could be estab-
lished finally the specific functions which it should be the
obligation of the schools to undertake, and which it should
be within their means to carry out.
A complete analysis of the kind here suggested must be
the work of many years. Nevertheless, even within the
present field of organized experience and with the rapidly
increasing scientific knowledge of society, it should be possible
to devise in large measure a series of educational aims or ends,
which can be made the basis of further study and experimental
work. To this end, the analysis given below is submitted as
a tentative contribution.
AGENCIES OR INSTITUTIONS CONTRIBUTING TO
EDUCATION. — For the purposes of this analysis we may
consider the rounded individual whom it is the 'ultimate aim
of society to produce, as manifesting the effects of three
The Reorganization of Secondary Education 757
different sets of influences — namely, those due to heredity,
those due to nurture (food, shelter, play, etc.), and those
due to education (education being here limited to the more
or less conscious control by individuals and social agencies
of the formation of habits, appreciation, sentiments, knowl-
edge, and ideals).
Education as a means of contributing to the development
of the completed individual is effected through many agencies
of a more or less purposeful nature. Among these the home,
the school, and the church are the most immediately con-
spicuous. There should be included, also, the workshop
(meaning thereby any place where young people are em-
ployed in systematic productive activities), the club, the play-
ground, the press, the stage, the library, the police power, and
others less clearly differentiated and perhaps less influential.
The relative capacity of the foregoing educational agencies
to perform specific and effective educational functions will
vary greatly from age to age. The school itself, as well as
the library, the police power, the church, the press, and the
stage, are later differentiations from the household and larger
group activities of earlier times. Vocational education, so
far as the vast majority of occupations are concerned, has
always been obtained under the conditions of the workshop.
Nevertheless, we find that vocational schools were established
even centuries ago, to give vocational training in such fields as
medicine, law, theology, and war leadership. For these call-
ings the apprenticeship methods previously employed had
proved inadequate. More recently, schools have been or-
ganized for certain of the commercial callings, and in a few
instances for agriculture, and for a few of the trades. The
establishment of vocational schools has resulted from a grow-
ing recognition of the fact that in many occupational fields
the right kind of vocational training, if it is to be had at all,
can be obtained only by creating and setting apart special
educational agencies for these purposes.
758 Principles of Secondary Education
Again, we find that the church as an agency of moral
education fails to reach a considerable element in the com-
munity. There is a tendency to demand that schools under-
take to make up for the deficiency. There is now a dis-
position to bring the police power, through the juvenile court
and the reform school, into close relationship with systematic
school education. The library and the school are coming
nearer together. There are prospects that stage and press,
as educational agencies, will also be influenced by cooperation
with schools. f Everywhere we find a tendency to enlarge the
functions of the school as a specialized educational agency,
notwithstanding the fact that to some extent the other
agencies, such as the library, the police power, the play-
ground, and the club are also increasing in educational
efficiency.
Each of these educational agencies contributes in a special
way to final and complete forms of efficiency. The home is
concerned fundamentally with the formation of moral habits,
and with such primitive cultural factors as the acquisition of
vernacular speech, the inheritance of family customs and
traditions, etc. The church undertakes primarily to effect
the formation of moral ideals and to insure social intelligence
in certain quite definite directions. The function of the
workshop is found primarily in connection with vocational
education. Each one of these agencies may, therefore, be
analyzed from the standpoint of its actual or potential con-
tribution to a rounded and complete education.
THE SCHOOL AS THE SPECIAL AGENCY OF
EDUCATION. -— Because the school is a specialized and
derivative institution, it is evident that we may continue
this process of analysis to the point where, the possibilities
of the other educational agencies having been defined, the
essential function of schools in the educational process can
be stated and measured. This may properly be described
as a residual function. Historically and politically it is cor-
The Reorganization of Secondary Education 759
rect to look upon the school as a special agency created pri-
marily by society for the performance of those educational
functions which society needs under existing conditions, and
which other less specialized educational agencies cannot
easily, economically, or effectively perform.
CLASSIFICATION OF THE AIMS AND PROCESSES
OF EDUCATION AS DETERMINING ITS REORGAN-
IZATION. — The process of analyzing educational aims and
possibilities may be carried further in the direction of or-
ganizing into categories the results which education is ex-
pected to accomplish. In the light of present knowledge,
the four principal categories may be described under the
heads of physical education, vocational education, social edu-
cation, and cultural education. Physical education is here
defined as any form of education whose primary and con-
trolling purpose is to establish those habits, to impart that
knowledge, and to inculcate the ideals, which make for pro-
longed physical efficiency. Vocational education is defined
as any form of education whose primary and controlling pur-
pose is to fit youths for specific occupations whereby men
support themselves in the world of contemporary economic
activity. Social education is here defined as any form of
education the primary and controlling purpose of which is to
affect group activities in accordance with the demands of
modern civilized society. Social education includes moral,
ethical, political, and a large part of religious education. It
is directed toward the formation of the habits, the develop-
ment of the appreciations, the imparting of .the knowledge,
and the formation of the ideals that underlie effective partici-
pation in group activities, such as those of the home, the state,
and society generally. Cultural education is defined as any
form of education whose primary and controlling purpose is
to develop in the individual intellectual and aesthetic apprecia-
tions, tastes, ideals, and interests that make for the refine-
ment of manners and the aesthetic and intellectual develop-
760 Principles of Secondary Education
ment which are comprised under the general term " personal
culture."
From the point of view of this analysis, it is also obvious
that the various agencies of education described above differ
as regards the departments of education in which their best
results are achieved. For example, we think of the church
as being primarily concerned with socal education, the work-
shop with vocational education, the home and the playground
with physical education, the library, the press, and the stage
with cultural education, etc.
In order, however, to discover goals which shall be of use
in framing programs of school education, it is expedient that
we continue the process of analysis further, with a view to
defining various social utilities (i.e. ends that are socially
worth while) in a sufficiently concrete and definite form to
make possible the use of such clearly perceived goals as guides
in the development of educational methods. The following
are tentative proposals to this end.
Physical Education. — The ends or objects of physical
education, for example, may in part be analyzed into the
specific procedures which shall result in: i. The formation
of various groups of personal habits which have demonstrated
value in efficient physical well-being. 2. Clearly defined
knowledge of certain established principles and practices of
hygiene, the possession of which, under ordinary circum-
stances, will enable the individual to secure healthful living,
and to withstand unhygienic conditions and influences.
These ends may be further subdivided and treated under
such specific heads as " hygiene of nutrition," " hygiene of
organs of sight," " hygiene of the teeth," " prevention of
bacterial infection," etc. 3. The establishment, by proper
educational processes, of ideals of physical well-being. Non-
school agencies such as the Boy Scout movement are even
now making suggestive and important contributions in this
direction. Athletics and gymnastics, properly inspired and
The Reorganization of Secondary Education 761
conducted, also have important bearings on the formation of
ideals of physical well-being. 4. The physical development,
through specific training, of malformed or unformed organs,
or the promotion of functional activities by suitable educa-
tional exercises. Many of the valid special aims of physical
education are already fairly well denned in the best of current
practice both in private and in public schools.
Vocational Education. — In the field of vocational edu-
cation, it is only within the last few years that there have
been organized schools designed to reach the rank and file of
our workers and to train for the non-professional occupations.
For many centuries, a few select schools have existed for those
entering the so-called " professions." It is now apparent that
apprenticeship and the other means of so-called " shop train-
ing" for vocation have diminished greatly in their efficacy
as agencies of vocational training. Intelligent workers in all
phases of social economy now realize that it is indispensable
for society to undertake, in a systematic way in schools, the
vocational education of those to whom skill and technical
knowledge will be necessary assets in their future callings.
The specific objectives, or utilities, to be realized through
vocational education must, of course, be as numerous and
varied as are the specialized occupations which men and
women enter under present conditions. It is now generally
recognized that there can be no such thing as general voca-
tional education. The only true vocational education is that
which bases its aims and practices upon the recognized needs of
some definite calling, or group of very closely related callings.
To this end, we can classify occupations, although not com-
pletely, under such general heads as : the professions ; the
agricultural callings ; the commercial callings ; the industrial
callings ; the household arts callings ; and the nautical call-
ings. Within each of these fields it is possible to differentiate
many occupations for which specific training in schools may
now be given.
762 Principles of Secondary Education
Expert opinion is inclining strongly to the view that suc-
cessful vocational education will require as a condition of its
efficiency in most fields, and more particularly in those fol-
lowed by the rank and file of workers, a large degree of con-
centration in the actual practice of the activities characteristic
of the calling towards proficiency in which pupils are being
trained. The so-called related technical education and
whatever other training may be designed to give vocational
insight must be effected largely upon foundations of habits,
knowledge, and ideals already established through actual
practice of the more vital phases of the occupation itself.
It is for this reason that so many educators are now turning
towards employers and others in charge of industrial activities
with a view to procuring their cooperation in devising pro-
grams of satisfactory vocational training. If such cooperation
cannot be achieved in any particular calling, it will be incum-
bent upon the school itself to develop the proper shops, farms,
commercial activities, or other means of providing a basis of
practical experience as a means of giving an effective education.
Social Education. — Under the general head of social edu-
cation are here included all those special forms of training
in habits, appreciations, sentiments, knowledge, and ideals
which have an important bearing on social or group life. It
is recognized, of course, that physical education and cultural
education make important, but nevertheless incidental, con-
tributions of by-products to social education as here defined.
It is clearly possible and desirable to make social education
an end or aim in itself, within due limits, especially in second-
ary schools. .But to define a profitable field of activity for
the school, careful attention must be given to the vast possi-
bilities, and to the actual accomplishments, of the home, the
church, the club, and miscellaneous associations, in shaping
social habits and ideals, and in developing social intelligence.
After due recognition shall have been given to the efficacy
of the more or less organized efforts of these non-school
The Reorganization of Secondary Education 763
agencies, the function of the secondary school in social educa-
tion then remains to be defined. Emphasis has often been
laid, and rightly, upon the fact that the secondary school,
dealing, as it does, with adolescents, possesses a peculiar field
of opportunity in the shaping of the finer social ideals, such
as those connected with general service to society, altruism,
and political insight.
The making of an effective program of social education will
require the formulation of a large variety of ends, each repre-
senting some form of social utility, towards the attainment
of which secondary school practices may be directed. It is
here practicable only to give samples of these.
1. Team play, whether in physical, vocational, or cultural
matters, offers an opportunity for the development of certain
habits of cooperation which, once established, may- be expected
to blend into the larger social effectiveness of the adult.
2. Knowledge of the common civic activities carried on in
the community, with provision that in the process of learning
these the student may observe and even participate where
practicable, constitutes a valuable end of local civic education.
3. Habituation to a sound moral working order, including
a measure of self-government, may be an important factor in
social training.
4. It is possible to inspire ideals of social service, — these,
as far as practicable, being developed in connection with
the pursuit of attainable and practical ends, such as those
found in local community civic activities, local forms of
charity, etc.
5. It is also possible, in the secondary school, to develop
perspective and vision as to special forms of social activities,
such as the economic development of the community, rec-
reational opportunities, cooperative sanitation, cooperative
industrial development, territorial differentiation of industry,
and the like. As a means of promoting this vision or per-
spective, history will contribute valuable elements. It is
764 Principles of Secondary Education
essential, however, that the pursuit of these ends should always
be begun in the environment, and that only after this begin-
ning should there be a spreading outward.
6. It is also possible to do much at this stage in creating
moral and social ideals in definitely differentiated fields,
such as the humane treatment of animals, reverence for the
helpless or the aged, thoroughness of work, and the like. For
this purpose art, literature, and history may contribute im-
portant elements, no less than the close study of the social
environment of the pupil.
In these and scores of other directions it will be possible
to set up more or less definitive goals, each of which may be
attained at an appropriate time and through the use of ap-
propriate materials and personal agencies. Educational
efforts in these directions are all designed to promote the
development of those habits, sentiments, appreciations, ideas,
and ideals that finally blend themselves into what we call
" moral character," " ethical standards of conduct,'' " the
social individual/' etc.
Cultural Education. — Finally, we can recognize in the
completed individual, and as the actual or potential product
of educational agencies like the school, a variety of forms of
culture which ultimately merge in the rounded, cultivated
man or woman. These may be described, on the one hand,
as powers of execution or expression. For example, we
describe an individual as capable of speaking correct English,
conversing fluently in a foreign tongue, reading the literature
of a foreign language, as being able to paint, to play music,
or to write poetry. But on the other hand the larger part
of such cultural attainments are properly to be described
mainly in terms of appreciation, — the capacity for making
wise and social choices for utilization or enjoyment. With
reference to such fields as music, art, literature, science, his-
tory, economic production of all sorts, and skilled service gen-
erally, we can recognize in the cultivated individual well-de-
The Reorganization of Secondary Rducation 765
vclopcd powers of choice. The qualities found in all of these
specific products and forms of service are themselves deter-
mined ultimately by the educated powers of consumers. A
conscious and deliberate plan of liberal education can produce
better capacities of appreciation than are now found. Such
powers of appreciation will be discovered to be consistent with
the more rapid progress of culture and civilization.
How far the existing secondary school subjects can be ad-
justed to the requirements of cultural education as here defined
is now problematical. In the case of many of them it may
indeed be doubted whether any extensive development in this
direction is possible. We have, for example, no sufficient
evidence that a profound, varied, and lasting appreciation of
literature generally results from a study of literature as now
carried on in high schools. Science teaching as at present
organized is open to criticism on the ground that, whatever
else it produces, it does not result in enduring satisfactions
based upon the attainment of scientific knowledge, nor in
the abiding scientific interests which constitute the cultural
ends that should be reached in a true educational process. It
is also obvious that secondary school education to-day fails
to realize ends of true culture in such fields as the fine arts
and music.
In defining a variety of fairly concrete cultural ends, each
one of which may be made a definite educational objective,
we certainly should greatly increase the possibilities of the
secondary school as an agency of genuine liberal education.
This would give opportunity for the more satisfactory con-
sideration and use of native interests and inclinations than is
possible under existing conditions in secondary education.
Culture, it is clear, being an individual possession, may well
vary greatly in character and actual content as between in-
dividual and individual. One person may have highly de-
veloped powers of appreciation of music and other forms of
art, and nevertheless remain relatively uncultivated in such
766 Principles of Secondary Education
fields as science and history. Another individual will find
his satisfactions and the enrichment of his leisure in the latter
fields. A third may have his powers of appreciation developed
in the direction of the more material economic products of
modern life, and may by his standards of appreciation con-
tribute his share to the general elevation of these fields of
production.
It is to be expected that in certain departments of common
or general utilization, the secondary school will do all that it
can to promote standards for all alike. For example, we all
utilize, in greater or less degree, the products of the modern
press, such as the newspaper, the magazine, and current
books. The secondary school can do a large service for
culture, by deliberately improving standards of taste within
these fields, employing for this educational purpose the actual
products themselves, and holding definite standards of desir-
able quality before the pupils.
Culture Primarily Based on Contemporary Life. — It should
be obvious that a program of cultural education of the sort
here suggested, like the other programs referred to above,
must generally have its foundations and primary sources in
contemporary life. Only upon the foundations of a strong
and varied knowledge and appreciation of contemporary
situations and tendencies, with a deliberate forecasting of
the possible developments of these in the future, will the
teacher and pupil be able finally to reach back into the his-
toric world. It is reasonable to expect that with suitable
pedagogical programs devised for this purpose, there will be
a constant tendency for exceptional minds to become keenly
interested in the historical antecedents of the particular fields
which are being studied at any one time. It is natural and
desirable that all that material which we call the historical,
as well as that which deals with the more recondite and more
remote phases of any subject under consideration, should
appeal to individuals of exceptional native powers. But it
77/6' Reorganization of Secondary Education 767
is not wise or profitable to impose upon all individuals alike
the tasks and goals of learning that really appeal to exceptional
individuals only.
Personal Culture and Achievement. — Under the head of
personal culture as indicated above are to be included those
powers of accomplishment or achievement, or "doing," which
are of a cultural, rather than of a vocational, nature. Under
this head may be included the mastery of a foreign language
as a tool of appreciation. Similarly, a mastery of certain of
the technical processes of science, mathematics, history, or
art, when such mastery is sought primarily with a view to
enhancing the powers of appreciation or execution in these
fields, would be considered cultural education. A student
might give effort to the mastery of gardening or of music or
drawing, for cultural purposes, that is, non-vocational ap-
preciation, which would belong properly in this field.
Obviously, prior to the period of the beginning of secondary
education, the study of the mother tongue, of arithmetic, and
of elemental processes in drawing, as these constitute a part
of the program of elementary education, might also be included
under this head.
REORGANIZATION OF SECONDARY EDUCATION
NECESSITATED BY FOREGOING ANALYSIS. — The fore-
going attempt to suggest beginnings in defining valid educa-
tional aims, if carried to the point of producing definite results,
would probably involve some fundamental alterations in the
educational means and methods now employed. Some of the
present traditional studies of the secondary schools, represent-
ing, as they do, organized bodies of knowledge, or definite
forms of skill to be acquired by painstaking effort, would sink
into the 'background as to importance. In their place would
appear wholly new subjects, with corresponding demands for
new types of method, varied according to the ends held in view
and according to the degree of attainment expected in any
given direction. Only a few illustrations of these possible
768 Principles of Secondary Education
changes can be suggested here. It should be apparent that,
having once denned in a clear-cut way the social utilities that
are to be made the ends of educational effort, the develop-
ment of appropriate means and methods of attaining them
would not be difficult. This would be accomplished partly
through proper application of experiments in educational
method. Justifying this approach, we have the analogies of
medicine, engineering, agriculture, and mechanical communi-
cation. In these fields it is evident that whenever the ends
of attainment have been somewhat clearly defined, many
persons are found capable of attacking the problems of the
means and methods of realizing such ends.
In Physical Education. — When, for example, a particular
form of physical development or health becomes denned as
something to be attained by educational means, many de-
vices for meeting it soon appear. If the development or
cultivation of bodily organs is made an end, gymnastic prac-
tices result. If it is found that the promotion of natural ex-
ercises and advanced forms of play can best be accomplished
by team activity, team games and athletics are the outcome.
If the school perceives that it is its duty to fix in the pupil
habits of oral hygiene, definitive processes of information-
giving and inspection of actual practice may follow in such
a way that within a comparatively short time appropriate
habits are fixed. If the school finds justification for giving
definite instruction as to hygienic precautions to be taken
against bacterial infection of various sorts, such instruction
becomes easily possible by means of lectures, printed matter,
pictures, practices of disinfection, etc.
The significant fact to be noticed is that we multiply means
and methods in any direction as soon as definite needs and
purposes are defined. Practices are adapted to the results
sought ; for one purpose, perhaps, we employ a lecturer ; for
another, a field exercise. In one case we may employ the
method of class compulsion ; in others, the method of individ-
T/LC Reorganization of Secondary Education 769
ual interview and personal contact. For some purposes of
instruction, a thousand pupils may be assembled and addressed
by a competent leader ; while in other cases individual con-
ference only will achieve the results desired. Books and labora-
tory practice may be used for some purposes, while for others
only directed practices in the field will be valuable.
In Vocational Education. — Similarly, in the field of voca-
tional education, when we have once defined our objectives,
we find ourselves rapidly moving towards definite forms of
practice, which will differ widely from the historic school
practices of academic education because of difference of
fundamental aim. The modern vocational school presents
endless characteristics differentiating it from secondary
" schools " as we have known them. The greatest difficulty
encountered in the development of vocational education is,
indeed, due to the attempt to utilize the means and methods
of academic instruction as these have become fixed in custom.
But gradually, as definite objectives for vocational education
become formulated, we are now discarding historic practices,
and for each particular type of vocational education we are
developing appropriate ways and means, of which the most
dominant characteristic, perhaps, is that the learner shall
actually participate in the elementary stages of the practice
of the calling into which he purposes to enter.
In a good school for the training of machinists to-day, shop
conditions are faithfully reproduced ; technical instruction is
closely related to practical experience ; the shop seeks to pro-
duce a marketable product ; the school day and school year
approximate those of the industry itself ; and, to some extent,
pupils differentiate into those exercising specialized operative
functions and those exercising foremanship functions in the
industry.
Modern farm schools, at their best, require of their pupils
long and painstaking application to the processes of actual
tillage, each pupil endeavoring to reproduce, as far as prac-
30
770 Principles of ^Secondary Education
ticable, the economic cycle of operations appropriate to
agriculture.
Similarly, wherever practicable, vocational schools seek to
share with actual economic agencies the responsibility for the
full vocational education of the pupil. Undoubtedly, in
time a system will be devised whereby the pupil will remain
under the general direction of the school during the earlier
stages of learning, his services being loaned or hired out from
time to time to the industry itself, as this proves expedient
or necessary, in the process of vocational training.
In Social Education. — Within the field of social education
it is a.lso easily apparent that means and methods of instruc-
tion must vary largely according to the specific social utili-
ties held in view. For example, it is a large function of such
education to produce moral or social ideals. Ideals are to
be produced by educational influences that are far removed,
in their essential characteristics, from the drill methods
characteristic of historic academic education. With reference
to many forms of social action, the school seeks to give com-
prehension, perspective, insight; but it does so, as far as
possible, upon the basis of actual experience. The attainment
of this experience, of course, will be largely along lines that
are at present quite foreign to secondary school practice.
Such experience may be obtained in various forms of service,
in activities such as those found in the Boy Scout movement,
in young people's clubs, and in various other forms of modern
social life.
The school social group will more and more become a self-
governing body ; in other words, more self-consciously social
and self-controlled. Books, lectures, library practice, and
participation in social activities will all have a place in social
education at its best ; but it is obvious that at the present
time we possess few formulas for this purpose.
In Cultural Education. — The accepted methods of second-
ary school instruction seem best adapted perhaps to the
The' Reorganization of Secondary Education 771
production of what is here called " personal culture." Never-
theless, the changes that must take place even in this field,
before the specific ends suggested above can be effectively
utilized, may be described as almost revolutionary. These
will be especially conspicuous in the production of those forms
of culture which are characterized chiefly by appreciation and
the power of choice, rather than by specific powers of intellec-
tual execution. We know little as yet about the psychological
principles involved in producing fine appreciation ; but what
we do know convinces us that it must come,. in a large measure,
as a result of social activity built on tastes and interests already
in evidence and capable of extended definition and develop-
ment. If specific ends of culture are set before educators,
it may not be so difficult to devise methods of realizing such
ends. For example, suppose we define, as one aim of cultural
education, the development of a discriminating appreciation
of good music. The definition of this as an end carries with
it suggestions as to how such results can be achieved. Let us
again define, as an aim, the development of a generous and
sympathetic appreciation of the contributions of the modern
doctrine of evolution to contemporary thought. Here, again,
the suggestion of the end carries with it ideas of lectures, of
skillfully directed reading, and the like, the outcome of which
would be the same as that produced in a good college or ex-
tension course of lectures for this purpose.
Let us again define, as an aim of secondary education in this
field, a discriminating and helpful attitude toward modern
magazine literature. Many examples of this literature would
obviously be brought into a class organized for this purpose.
A discriminating pedagogy would learn how, by questioning,
by appealing to native and already established tastes, gradually
to raise the student's standards in this field.
In these and hundreds of other directions it seems to be
possible, having once defined valid educational aims, to devise
methods by which these aims can be realized.
772 Principles of Secondary Education
Effect on the Traditional Subjects. — It has been assumed
that it is not within the province of the present chapter to dis-
cuss the reorganization of secondary education as that will be
affected by changes now taking place, or probably soon to take
place, within the field of the content and method of the his-
toric subjects of study in secondary schools. The preceding
chapters, together with the large amount of educational litera-
ture now available in this field and to which references have
already been given, render such discussion unnecessary.
It is the conviction of the writer that changes and readjust-
ments made within the historic subjects can be effective and
of permanent value only when the teachers of these subjects
already possess quite clearly defined objectives which conform
to the requirements of a scientific program of education. We
may, for example, readily assume that in the field of so-called
English composition the aims now commonly accepted are
sufficiently definite, scientific, and based upon a sound scheme
of social values, so that readjustments within that field, both
as to scope and as to method, will finally result in making the
subject what it should be educationally. It is possible, also,
that in the case of the modern languages it will be practicable
to shape definite programs, both of content and of method, on
the basis of aims already in part defined. In other words,
it may be that the scientific aims which should ultimately
control in the teaching of French and German, for example,
are even now sufficiently possible of definition to make re-
adjustments of content and method purposeful and effective.
In a few other departments of secondary education, such
as the biological sciences and the practical arts (manual
training, agriculture, home economics, etc.), it is possible that
aims are now in process of being clarified to an extent which
will enable more scientific and effective programs, based upon
genuine social utilities, to be developed within the next few
years.
In other subjects, however, such as mathematics, history,
The Reorganization of Secondary Education 773
the classical languages, and such sciences as physics and
chemistry, it is the conviction of the writer that no readjust-
ments within the field of either content or method will give
satisfactory results until such time as valid aims for these
subjects shall have been defined, examined, and carefully
tested. An illustration of this may be found in the case of
Latin. There can be little doubt that during the last quarter
of a century the methods of teaching this subject have enor-
mously improved, but notwithstanding this fact the subject
itself does not to-day " function " educationally to any better
advantage than in former times. The difficulty now lies not
so much in the methods of teaching Latin as in the more
fundamental problem as to the purposes of this study in a
scientific scheme of secondary education.
Administrative Changes Necessitated. — In this chapter,
also, there has been a deliberate omission of any discussion of
administrative changes that must necessarily accompany the
reorganization of secondary education. An adequate treat-
ment of possible administrative changes can be based only
upon accepted theories as to the ultimate purposes, means, and
methods of secondary education. Such possible changes have
already been suggested in Chapter V.
It is still uncertain, for example, whether vocational educa-
tion can be effectively carried on through and by the same
administrative agencies that control liberal, or general, edu-
cation. The experience of several European countries has
been decidedly in the direction of providing separate adminis-
trative agencies for vocational education. The question is
still under debate in American states, with the present tendency
strongly in the direction of differentiating vocational educa-
tion as simply one phase of all the education under public
educational authorities. It is by no means certain, however,
whether this will prove to be the most effective means, once
clearly defined aims for vocational education are established
and accepted.
774 Principles of Secondary Education
It is clear, also, that in the field of more adequate training
for citizenship, and perhaps in physical education, the require-
ments of the future will necessitate extensive changes in the
internal administration of schools. This, however, is a subject
which is too problematical to be capable of adequate discus-
sion at the present time.
THE FINAL WORD IS THIS.— In' America, as in other
civilized countries, society is in process of developing a sound
and scientific social economy. This economy will necessarily
be based upon a more or less scientific scheme of social values,
thoroughly analyzed. It will be the province of education
to minister to a realization of these values by training boys and
girls in directions quite definite and demonstrably worth while.
The content, the method, and the administrative agencies
suitable to such education must be worked out as instrumen-
talities, and must be shaped and changed according to the
requirements of the particular aims held in view. Until
educators learn to think of the final purposes of education in
terms other than mastery of so much knowledge or training
in particular forms of skill, progress will necessarily be slow.
When, however, educators cease to think of educational ends
in terms of subjects and proceed to define their aims in terms
of an ascertained scheme of values based upon a scientific
social economy, then rapid reorganization of means and
methods will undoubtedly take place.
NOTE. — The list of topical questions and the bibliography appended to each
of the preceding chapters of this volume all relate more or less directly to the
subject matter of this concluding chapter.
INDEX
Abilities of students, as determining
secondary education, 10, 13.
Academy, 44 ; catered to students' inter-
ests, n.
American : origin and development, 54-
57 ; developed into high school, 63 ;
difference from high school, 67 ; de-
cline of, 66.
English : characteristics of, 46-47. See
also Realschule.
Acceleration and retardation, 248-249.
Accrediting of high schools, 161, 16,5-17?;
Eastern system, 170-172; Western
system, 163-169. See also Adminis-
tration ; College Entrance Examina-
tion Board Examinations.
Addams, Jane C., quoted on narrow in-
fluence of high school teachers, 350;
on recreation, 334.
Administration, in England, 132-134, 135;
in France, 74-101 (outlined, pp. xii,
xiii) ; in Germany, 102-105, 115-117.
In United States : changes now in prog-
ress, 747 ; changes necessitated by
formulation of new aims and methods,
773 ; high school systems, 64-68, 146-
172 (outlined, p. xv) ; organization of
high school, 174 214 (outlined, pp.
xiv— xvi) ; socialization of, 736-737.
Sec also Accrediting of high schools;
Age of beginning secondary education ;
Budget, school ; Education Act of 1899 ;
Endowed -Schools Act; Examinations;
I ligh Schools ; Hygiene, School ; Inspec-
tion of high schools ; Number of
schools ; Principal of high school ; Re-
organization of secondary education ;
Salaries; School population; Teach-
ers, preparation of ; Text-books; Tui-
tion ; Types of schools.
Adolescence, biological definition, 246;
importance in education first em-
phasized by Rousseau, o; intellectual
growth during, 207- 2<jS ; mental
pathology of, 21)2-208; method of
studying, 257, note; physical char-
acteristics, 248-257 ; psychological
phenomena of, 257-272, 321 ; psy-
chology and hygiene of, 234, 312;
religious and moral aspects, 285-292 ;
275, note; social aspects, 272-285.
Advisor system in high schools, 194.
Aesthetic side of vernacular teaching, 369.
Age, of beginning secondary education in
America and in Europe, 9; as deter-
mining ideals, 289-290; physiological,
psychological, and " pedagogical," 248 ;
physiological, in relation to success in
high school, 249; physiological and
psychological, delimiting secondary
education, 9, 10, 13.
Agencies contributing to education, 756-
758.
Agregation, 89, 100.
Agricultural education, history of develop-
ment, 671-673 ; present problem, 678—
679 ; types of schools, 673-678. See
also Vocational education.
Agricultural high schools, seldom realize
vocational ends, 749, 750.
Agriculture, as an element of cultural
education, 767; position in the cur-
riculum, 476. See also Agricultural
education.
Aim, relation to content and method, 203 ;
of the academies, 55 ; of commercial
education, 663; of Greek schools, 17,
23 ; of industrial education, 642 ; of
realistic education, 45 ; of the Renais-
sance-Reformation schools, 38 ; of sec-
ondary education as it is, 748, 749;
of secondary education as it is often
claimed to be, 749 ; of the various
subjects: algebra, 532; art. 582;
athletics, 709 ; biology, 752, 753 ; civics,
573: geometry, 537; Greek, 400-407;
household arts, 610; hygiene, 685;
Latin. 388; literature. 358; manual
training, 658 ; mathematics, 530 ;
modern language study, 424; music,
003; physical education, 699; natural
sciences, 446-449.
776
Index
Aims, clearer definition now being sought,
747 ; formulated, suggest methods of
attainment, 768, 768-769; inadequate
character of present, 745 ; inadequate,
the cause of much futility in education,
750; more scientific analysis of, de-
manded, 746.
Algebra, 530; definition, 531-532; in
grammar grades, 541-544 ; in second-
ary schools, 534-536; in European
schools, 536; reasons for studying,
532-534. See also Geometry ; Mathe-
matics.
Attgemeine Landrecht, 123.
Altruism, in adolescence, 275.
Angell, as to transfer of training, 304.
Approbation, love of, in adolescence, 274-
275-
Argument, as a form of composition, 374.
Aristotle, quoted on the distinction be-
tween elementary and secondary edu-
cation, 20.
Arnold of Rugby, 125; and the classics,
344 ; and religion in education, 349 ;
and sources of energy, 319, 323, 347.
Arrested development during adolescence,
292-294.
Art, adolescent interest in, 308 ; as an ele-
ment of cultural education, 767 ;
gallery, use of school as, 740; impor-
tance in education, 578, 580; methods
of teaching, 582—587 ; in education,
principles underlying, 570-582.
Arteries, growth during adolescence,
254-
Arts, classification of, 578 ; design as relat-
ing fine to practical arts, 578-594;
distinction between fine and useful,
579; university work in, originally
given in secondary schools, 72. Sec
also Art ; Fine Arts ; Household Arts ;
Music; Vocational education.
Ascham, 43 ; a tutor, 46 ; and the classics,
344;
Association, of Colleges and Preparatory
Schools of Middle States and Mary-
land, 383 ; of Southern Colleges and
Preparatory Schools, 383.
Astronomy, in high schools, 475.
Athletics, in American schools, 720—729 ;
contestants w. spectators, 711-716;
control of, 720-724, 725-727; defini-
tion, 713; educational values, 709-
716, 727-729, 736; in English public-
schools, 128-129; evils of, 716—720;
socialized, 739. See also Hygiene;
Physical education.
Auchmuty, Richard T., founder of New
York Trade School, 649.
Bacon, mentioned, 50.
Bagley, W. C., on investigation of ado-
lescent criminal tendencies, 296; as
to transfer of training, 304.
Bagster-Collins, E. W., contributor, p. ix,
Modern Languages, 424-443.
Baker, F. T., contributor, p. viii, Composi-
tion, 373-379 ; College Entrance Re-
quirements, 383-384 ; and Krapp, G.
B., p. vi, English Literature, 356-
373-
Baron de Hirsch Trade School, 649, 650.
Basedow, 51.
Bedford Grammar School, 131.
Bell, monitorial scheme in America, 61—62.
Bell, Sanford, on adolescent love, 264-266.
Biographical interest in literature, 366-367.
Biology, actual vs. true aims, 752, 753;
aims now being clarified, 772; in the
curriculum, 476 : advantages, 486—488 ;
correlation of botany, zoology, and
physiology, 494-495 ; method, 488—
494 ; subject matter, 486. See also
Natural sciences.
Bocher, Professor, definition of mathe-
matics, 529.
Bones, growth during adolescence, 253 ;
hygiene, 253.
Botany, see Biology.
Bourne, H. E., contributor, p. ix, History,
549-565.
Boy Scout movement, 272, 760, 770.
Bradford Grammar School, 131.
Brain, growth during adolescence, 257.
Brinsley, on neglect of arithmetic, 40, 43.
Brooks, on causes of school mortality, 271.
Budget, English school, 136; French, 93-
94, 100. See also Administration.
Canning Club work, 634.
Censor of studies, a discipline master, 88.
Centennial Exhibition, and manual train-
ing, 66 1.
Central High School of Philadelphia and
commercial education, 667.
"Central Schools" of France, 73.
"Certificate of secondary studies," in
girls' lycec, 99.
Certification of high schools, see Accredit-
ing.
Index
777
Character building, as aim of education,
749-
Charter-house, 124.
Chemistry, actual vs. true aims, 752, 753;
in the curriculum, 475, 476 : beginning
point, 509-5 1 2 ; method, 508-509, 513-
515, 5'6; practical applications, 517-
519; subject matter, 51.5, 515-516;
textbooks, how to use, 512-513. See
also Natural sciences.
Church, its assumption of school control,
30-31 ; a factor in education, 757, 758,
760, 762.
Cicero, quoted, on oratory, 26.
Circulation, disturbances during adoles-
cence, 255.
Citizenship, good, as an end of education,
746.
Civics, definition, 565 ; introduction into
schools, 565-5(17 ; methods of teach-
ing, 560-572 ; position in curriculum
567-569, 572; purpose in teaching,
573; socialized methods, 736, 741;
textbooks, 570, 573. 5ft- also Econom-
ics ; History.
Civil polity, as a part of civics, 565.
Class conference vs. recitation, 460.
Class distinction, conferred by secondary
education, 6, 7.
Classics, in English "public'' schools, 125.
Claxton, Commissioner, suggestions for
greater efficiency of high schools, 201.
Clergy, the sole profession in Middle Ages,
5, 30.
Club, a factor in education, 757, 758, 762.
Coeducation, in relation to adolescent de-
velopment, 308-310; nonexistent in
Germany, 115.
College, de Guyenne, curriculum, 42 ;
d'Harcourt, oldest secondary school,
72 ; de la Rive, curriculum, 41-42.
College, developed from academy, 57;
dominance of, 748 ; French communal,
75> 95 I relation to high school, 188 ;
Entrance Certificate Board, of New
England, 170-172; Entrance Exami-
nation Board, 163, 383, 384, 433-434,
473. 544 ; effects on high school science-
teaching, 474-475 ; entrance require-
ments, early, 58; in English, 382-384 ;
in mathematics, 544-546 ; in history,
early, 553 ; in modern languages, 433 ;
in natural sciences, 473-475.
Colvin, S. S., (moled on transfer of train-
ing, 303-304-
Comenius, 51.
Commerce, High School of, New York City,
667 ; course of study, 668-670.
Commercial education, in public high
schools, 664-670; origin and need of,
663-664 ; results, 670 ; socialized
methods, 735-736; teachers, 671.
See also Types of schools; Vocational
education.
Commercial high schools, seldom realize
vocational ends, 749, 750.
Commission of Accrediled Schools, pur-
poses, 167; recommendations, 168;
Southern, 169.
Committee, on college entrance require-
ments, 473-474; recommendations in
science, 476 ; of Eifteen, civics, 566 ;
of Five, civics, 568, 571; of Seven:
civics, 566, 571, history, 557.
of Ten..: appointed, 76; economics, 573 ;
kngush, 383 ; history, 554-555 ;
same education for all students, 194;
science teaching, 473.
of Twelve, 433, 445.
Composition, aim in language, painting,
sculpture, 373; aims Cin language)
already well defined, 772; definition,
373 ; distinguished from rhetoric, 373 ;
four fundamental forms, 373-3/4 ;
teaching of, 374-379. Sec also Litera-
ture ; Vernacular.
Concordat, abrogation of, 73.
Conduct, ethical standards of, as result of
education, 764.
Content of subject, to be determined by
purpose in teaching it, 203-204; from
social viewpoint, 734.
Control of schools during the Renaissance-
Reformation period, 38, 39.
Cooper Union, of New York City, 647.
Cooperation between school and home,
335 ; between school and industries,
627, 652-654, 762, 770.
Coover, as to transfer of training, 304.
Corderius, method, 43.
Correspondence schools, 654.
Crampton, on relation of physiological age
to success in high school, 249.
Criminality during adolescence, 294-297.
Crosswell, James G., contributor, p. viii,
The Private Secondary School, 233-
243-
Cubberley, E. P.. contributor, p. vii. State
Systems of High Schools, 146-140 ;
Maintenance and Support, 154-1(11.
778
Index
Cultural education, analysis of aims, 765-
767 ; definition, 759, 764-766 ; reor-
ganization based on new aims, 770-
771.
Culture, as the aim of education, 746, 749.
Curriculum, the academies, 57-60; E.
Armston's school for girls, 59; place
of design in : Europe, 593-594, United
States, 593 ; English public schools,
33, 34; failure to prepare for parent-
hood, 337-338; of French secondary
schools, 78-80, 96 ; German secondary
schools, 49-50, 108, 109, no— in, 113.
High school : changes and characteristics,
214-216; early development, 67-68;
factors in determining, 177; rural,
150-151; similar in all high schools,
147-148 ; socialized, 734.
Latin grammar schools, Renaissance-
Reformation period, 40 ; in America,
53; Roman grammar school, 27;
service of the academy to, 45 ; social
viewpoint, 734~735 ; vocational idea,
333. See also Elective system; Pro-
gram of studies ; and Biology ; Chem-
istry, etc.
Cygnaeus, Otto, pioneer in manual train-
ing, 660.
Dante, quoted, on exposition, 35.
Davis, as to transfer of training, 304.
Declamation, the teaching of, 379.
Degrees, Erench, agregalion, 89 ; bacca-
laureate, 85-87 ; substitutes for, in
the case of girls, 99.
Delsarte system of exercises, 700.
Dementia preecox, 292.
Democratic function of secondary school,
9, 13. See also Universal education.
Denominational schools, 241.
Description, as a form of composition, 373-
374-
Design, place in education, 592-594 ; in
fine arts, 589-592 ; the link between
fine and useful arts, 587-588; in prac-
tical arts, 588-589, 590-591. Sec also
Art; Arts; Fine arts; Industrial
education ; Manual training.
Development, arrested during adolescence,
292-294.
Dewey, John, contributor, p. ix, Art in
Education, 578-582 ; quoted on con-
duct, 315; on cultivation of will, 32(1,
note; on means of gaining power.
313-314; on media of training in
School, 338; on the teaching of his-
tory, 205-206 ; and the University
Elementary School of Chicago, 660.
Direct method of language teaching, see
Oral method.
Discipline, dependent on understanding of
adolescence, 188; relation to public
sentiment of school, 189. See also
Formal discipline ; Self-government.
Diversification, of secondary schools, in
Europe, 14 ; needed in America, 15 ; of
educational opportunities, 745.
Dogmas, educational, now giving way, 746.
Double periods, 180.
Dow, A. VV., contributor, p. ix, Methods of
Teaching Art ; Design, 582-594.
Drexel Institute, Philadelphia, 655.
Dulwich, day school, 131.
East India School, 51.
Ebert, as to transfer of training, 303, 304.
Ecule Polylcchnique, 47,9.
Ecoles pratiques, 673-674.
Econome, bursar, 88.
Economics, definition, 573 ; introduction
into the schools, 573, 574; methods,
574; textbooks, 574. See also His-
tory ; Civics.
Eddy, W. H., on teaching of sex hygiene,
270.
Edclschulen, 44.
Education, causes of present multiplied
demands upon, 745 ; its agencies in de-
veloping the individual, 757. See also
Agricultural education ; Commercial
education; Elementary education;
Industrial education : Moral education ;
Physical education ; Primary school ;
Religious education ; Secondary edu-
cation ; Social education ; Vocational
education.
Education Act of 1899, England, 132-134.
See also Administration.
Efficiency, attained only by arousing will,
315; demanded by society, 734-735;
of German secondary school system,
reason for, 105 ; of high school deter-
mined by its administration, 174-175;
how to attain, in American industries,
647 ; impossible without, valid aims in
education, 750; secondary education
must be a training in, 14, 15.
Eighteenth-century conception of second-
ary education, 6, 7.
Elective system in high schools, 220-226;
Index
779
French, German, and American sys-
tems compared, 114-115. See also
Curriculum ; Program of studies.
Elementary education, distinction from
secondary education :
First made by Greeks, 16; origin of the
practical distinction, 16-19; origin of
the theoretical distinction, ig-2i.
Factors in the distinction : badge of class
distinction, 6, 7, 12, 13, 71-72, 77, 105-
106, 130; deference to student's inter-
ests and abilities, 10, n, 1,5 ; method,
3, 4, 12; peculiar subject matter, 4,
12; preparation for profession, 5, 12;
preparation for professional training,
6 ; physiological and psychological age,
9, 10, 13, 246, 249-250, 298; social
selection, 7-9, 13, 123-124; training,
not instruction, 3, 12.
At present : a complex of these factors,
11-14; i'1 addition, social service and
personal efficiency, 14, 15. Srr iilso
Primary school ; Secondary education.
Elementary school, superseding secondary
school in fundamental importance, 2.
"Elementary science" courses, 475.
Elocution, as a separate branch of English
training, 381-382.
Endowed Schools Act, England, 125. Sec
also Administration.
Endowments in Middle Ages, 31-33.
Energy, sources of mental, 318.
England, the academics, 46-47, 49-50;
Greek in, 417-418; history in, 559-
560; modern languages in, 442-443;
school population, 140-141 ; second-
ary education in, 71, 122-141 (out-
lined, p. xiii, xiv).
Englewood High School, coeducation but
not construction, 309.
English, ability to use, as aim of education,
749-
English Classical School, the first American
high school, 61.
Erasmus, quoted, 43-44. 344.
Ethical ideals of adolescence, 291.
Ethics, as part of civics, 565.
Eton, 124; program of studies. 127-128.
Examinations, French, So. 90; German.
116; Regents', 202: teachers', in Ger-
many, 104. Sir <;/.?() Accrediting of
schools; Administration; College En-
trance Examination Hoard: College
entrance requirements; Inspection of
schools.
Excursions, school, 271-272; for science
study, 467-470.
Exposition, as a form of composition, 373-
374-
Fall River, Mass., state-aided textile
school, 655.
Farnsworth, C. II., contributor, p. ix,
Music Teaching in the Schools, 595-
604.
Farrington, Frederic E., contributor, p. vii,
European Systems of Secondary
Schools, 71-140.
Fees, school, see Tuition fees.
Fellenberg, 51 ; his scheme in America,
60.
Fine arts, study of, failure to develop true
culture, 765. See also Art; Arts;
Household Arts; Music; Vocational
education.
Finland, manual training in, 660.
Formal discipline, problem of, 298-306;
and algebra, 534 ; experimental studies
of transfer of training, 302-305 ; and
geometry. 537-53*5; and Greek, 407;
and Latin, 387-388 ; and manual train-
ing, 659; and modern languages, 424;
and natural sciences, 446-447, 454-
458.
Foster, Dr. \\. L., on physiological age in
relation to success in high school, 249-
250.
France, agricultural education in, 673-674;
history in, 558-559, 560; modern
languages in, 439-442 ; school popu-
lation, 140-141; secondary education
in, 71, 72-101 (outlined, p. xii, xiii).
Francke, 48.
Franker, as to transfer of training, 304.
Frankfort-plan schools, 113.
Frankfort system, and teaching of Greek,
41 6.
Franklin, Benjamin. 53, 54.
Franklin Union, of Philadelphia, 647.
Frawnschule, i U>, 117; weekly program,
119.
Free schools, see Tuition fees.
Freud, on sex manifestations, 259, 261,
2(13; therapeutic measures, 294.
Froebcl, i; a tutor, 46, 51.
Fiirstcnschulcn, 44. 47.
••Clangs," 275-276.
"General science" courses, 476.
Geography in the curriculum, 475, 476; be-
;8o
Index
ginning point, 477-470; concepts to
be given, 476-477, 482-483 ; method,
477-479, 483-485 ; order of topics,
485-486 ; textbooks and other sources
of information, 479-481. See also
Natural sciences.
Geology, 475.
Geometry, 530; definition, 536; position
in grammar grades, 541-544 ; position
in secondary schools, 538-539 ; re-
forms and improvements, 539-541.
See also Algebra ; Mathematics.
George, W. R., his " Credo, " 296-297 ; and
sources of energy, 319.
George Junior Republic, 323.
German Association for the Secondary
Education of Girls, 115.
Germany, agricultural education in, 673-
674; commercial education, 668;
Greek, 406, 415-416; history, 558-
559; industrial education, 645-646,
653,655; Latin, 415-416; modern
languages, 436-439 ; physical educa-
tion, 704 ; school population, 140-
141; secondary education, 71, 72, 101—
122 (outlined, p. xiii).
Ginnasio, 36.
Girls, first form of secondary education for,
7 ; first secondar3r schools for, in Amer-
ica, 59-60; education in England, 141 ;
education in France, 94-101, 141;
education in Germany, 115-120, 141;
education in United States, 50-60,
648, 704-705. See also Coeducation;
Household arts; Program of studies.
Goodell, T. D., contributor, p. ix, Greek,
406-420.
Grammar, origin, 4; mastery of, a profes-
sion, 5 ; change in content, 30.
Grammar school, relation to high school,
186-188. See also Latin grammar
school.
Greard, M., quoted on boys' and girls'
secondary education, 94.
Greek language, mastery for cultural ends,
767; method for beginners, 408-415;
purpose and value, 406-408 ; place
in schools, 125, 415-419; valid aims
not yet formulated, 773; visual aids,
420-421.
Greek view, of gymnastics and music, 580;
of value of gymnastics, compared
with present view, 328; of recreation,
needed to-day, 334 ; of secondary
education, 3, 16-21.
Gregariousness in adolescence, 273.
Griscom, John, and the high school, 61.
Groton, Mass., school of horticulture and
landscape gardening for women,
678.
Group work in classroom, 284-285.
"Growing pains," 253.
Growth, arteries, 254; bones, 253; brain,
257; anrl health, 252; heart, 254; in
height, 250; lungs, 255; muscles, 254;
by parts, 252 ; in weight, 250.
Guts Muth, system of gymnastics, 700.
Gymnasium, and agricultural education,
674; course of study, 108-109;
Frankfort system, 113; German form
of the Latin grammar school, 36 ;
graduates compared with those of lycee
and England public school, 1 29 ; and
Greek, 415-416; and history, 558-
559 ; and mathematics, 536. See also
Germany ; not reached through ele-
mentary school, 107 ; one of the types
replacing Riltcrakadcmicn, 47.
Gymnastics, see Athletics; Greek view of
gymnastics; Hygiene; Physical edu-
cation.
Habits to be developed by study of natural
science, 449.
Hall, Stanley, adolescent altruism, 275 ;
appetite in adolescence, 261 ; on bone
growth, 254; change of voice, 256;
high school science, 306; leading in-
vestigator of adolescence, 257, note;
love for older persons, 265 ; mani-
festations of sex instinct, 259; moral
idealism, 347.
Handwork, sec Manual training.
Harrow (1571), 124.
Hartwell, on death rate in Boston, 252.
Health in relation to adolescence, 252.
Heart, growth during adolescence, 254.
Hecker and real education, 48, 49.
Height as an index of physiological age
249, note; growth in, during adoles-
cence, 250-252.
Hellenism, value of acquaintance with,
406-408.
Herbart, j ; a tutor, 46; on failure of
external forces to change character,
f
313-
Heredity, a factor in developing the indi-
vidual, 757.
Hero worship, and moral training, 344-345.
Sec also Moral education.
Index
78
Ilcrtcl, on health during adolescence,
2SS-
Hetherington, Clark W., contributor, p.
x, Athletics, 700-720.
High school, comparison with Latin gram-
mar school and academy, 60-6 1, 67 ;
definition (1840), 65; organization of,
i74-22g(outlined, pp. xiv-xvi) ; origin
of term, 61, 64, 65; origin and devel-
opment, 61-63, M°t 235 > social as-
pects of, 732-742 (outlined, p. xxvii).
Systems: development of, 64-08; high-
est types in the United States, 158 --
1 60 ; means of securing, 148.
High schools, basis of apportionment of
support to, 160-161 ; legal provisions
for, 146; maintenance and support in
various states, 154-158; method of
transferring pupils to college, 161, by
examination of applicant, 162-163,
by accrediting the school, 162, 163-
172; political unit of organization,
148—149; uniformity in, 146-148,
747—748. Sec also Administration.
Higher Training School, German, n6, 117 ;
weekly program, 120.
Historic sense, development of, as aim of
education, 749.
Historical side of vernacular teaching, 367-
368.
History, aims: actual vs. true, 752, 753:
valid, not yet formulated, 773 ; defini-
tion, 540-550; as an element of cul-
tural education, 767 ; materials, 550
551 ; as means of moral training, 343,
314-345; methods: 564, Dewey quoted
on, 205-206, socialized, 773; place in
the curriculum, 552-555 ; place in Eu-
ropean schools, 558-559; problems of
teaching, 551-552; visual aids to
teaching, 564-565. See also Civics;
Economics.
Home, a factor in education, 757, 758, 760,
762.
Home life, as determining ideals, 290.
Hoole, method in the Grammar schools,
43-
Hopkins, Edward, and the Latin Grammar
Schools, 52.
Horace Mann period, 63.
Household arts education, aims now being
clarified, 772; close connection with
life necessary, 611-612; clothing and
hygiene, 612-613; content, 600 610;
equipment, 618-619 ', exhibitions, 620-
621; food and nutrition, 613-616;
home formerly the place for teaching,
608; housing and home-keeping, 6 1 6-
617, 619-620,623—624; purpose, 6 10—
611 ; socialized, 735 ; status in schools
of United States, 632-637; teachers,
621-623; vocational aspect, 624-632.
See also Types of schools ; Vocational
education.
Humanism, long persistence, in England,
125—126; in France, 73.
Humanizing the school, 193, 732-742.
Sec also Social aspects of high school
education; Social education; Soci-
ology.
Huxley, on the intellectual ladder in
America, 106.
Hygiene, of bone growth, 253-254; defini-
tion, 685; personal, 685-688; position
in curriculum, 688-690, 692-694;
scope of course, 600-691, 693-694;
methods, 692.
School, 694 ; of the school child, 695 ;
of instruction, 696; construction and
sanitation of schoolhouse, 696—698.
Sex, instruction in, 266—270, 694; of
voice during adolescence, 256-257.
See also Administration ; Athletics ;
Physical education.
Ideals, adolescent, 330—331 ; developed by
scientific study, 453-454; of sexual
honor, 336-337 ; studies of, 289-292.
Sec also Moral education ; Reorganiza-
tion of secondary education.
Imperial Technical School of St. Petersburg,
6(> i .
Industrial education, definition, 642;
European experience, 645-646; factors
in present problem, 644-645; manual
training, 658-662; origin of present
problem of, 643 ; socialization of
methods, 735;. United States, con-
ditions in, 646-658. See also House-
hold arts; Industries; Types of
schools; Vocational education.
Industries, chart showing proportion of
workers to boys in training, 196-199;
cooperation with schools, 199-200,
737> 77°- See also Industrial educa-
tion.
Inspection of high schools, 161, 164-169;
not required for accrediting, 170-172.
See also Accrediting of high schools ;
Administration.
782
Index
Institutions contributing to education,
757-758.
Instruction, type of, as determining ideals,
290-291.
Interests of students, as determining sec-
ondary education, 10, 13.
Jahn, system of gymnastics, 700.
James, E. J., and commercial high schools,
667.
James, \Vm., on formal discipline, 303, 304.
Japan, agricultural education in, 673, 674.
Jesuit system, selective function, 8; Ratio
studionim, a model for generations, 72.
Johnson, Joseph H., contributor, p. x,
Commercial Education, 663-671.
Kerschensteiner, Dr., quoted on inde-
pendent thinking, 315-316; on
trade work in continuation schools,
645-
Key, Axel, study of health in adolescence,
252, 255.
Kline, on cause of truancy, 271.
Knowledge, as well as feelings, indicated
by tastes, 364-365-
Krapp, George P., and Baker, F. T., con-
tributors, p. viii, English Literature,
356-383-
Laboratory, in biology, 493-494 ; in chem-
istry, 513, 517-518; double periods,
180; in geography, 484-485 ; in phys-
ics, 505—506 ; in science teaching, 462—
467. Sec also Natural sciences.
Lancaster, E. J., on adolescence, 260, 262 ;
on types of reading preferred by adoles-
cents, 308.
Lancaster, Joseph, his monitorial ideas in
America, 61-62.
Land Grant Colleges, 672. See also
Morril! Act.
Language study, during adolescence, 307 ;
socialized methods in, 735. Sec also
Greek ; Latin ; Modern languages ;
Vernacular.
Lantern slides, in study of Latin and
Greek, 420; in natural sciences,
467.
Latin, mastery for cultural ends, 767 ;
methods of teaching, 389-405 ; place
in the curriculum, 125, 387; reorgani-
zation needed, 751 ; valid aims not
yet formulated, 773; value, 387-389;
visual aids, 420—421.
Latin grammar school, in American colo-
nies, 37 ; narrow conception of abili-
ties, 8 ; origin and development, 51-53.
in Renaissance-Reformation period,
36-37 ; selective function, 8. See
also Lycee ; Gymnasium; "Public"
schools.
Leadership, training for, in ancient Greece,
20; in England, 123, 128-129; in
France, 77, 101 ; in Germany, 106-
107.
Lecture demonstrations in science teach-
ing, 467.
Lehrplan of 1901, on Greek, 406.
Lewis, Dr. Dio, system of calisthenics,
703-
Lewis, W. D., contributor, p. vii, Organi-
zation of the High School, 174-214.
Lewis Institute, Chicago, 655.
Library, a factor in education, 757, 758,
760.
Life, influence of new conditions of, 234,
558, 608—610, 623, 644, 663, 672 ; re-
lation of secondary education to, 732—
742; in England, 123, 128; in Ger-
many, 101 ; in United States, 194-201.
See also Humanizing the curriculum ;
Reorganization of secondary educa-
tion ; Social aspects of high school
education ; Social education ; Soci-
ology ; Vocational education.
''Lime-hunger," 253.
Lindsey, Ben., on sources of energy, 319.
Ling system of gymnastics, 699, 700.
Linguistic side of vernacular teaching, 365-
366.
Literature, adolescent interest in, 307 ;
as an art, 582 ; failure of its study to
develop appreciation, 765 ; as means
of moral training, 343-344 ; Greek
views of principles underlying its
teaching, 356-357.
English, in secondary schools, 357 ; ap-
preciation, 358; cultural value, 362;
grading of material, 363 ; literary
language, 359-360; moral value, 362;
philological method, 360; structure
and technique, 361 ; vocabulary, 358-
359. Sec also Composition.
Locke, a tutor, 46; quoted, 50.
Lodge, Gonzales, contributor, p. viii, 387-
405-
"Log college,'' preceding Princeton, 54.
Logic, origin, 4 ; mastery of, a profession,
5 ; change in content, 30.
Index
783
J,ove, development of, in adolescence, 264-
266.
Lowell, Mass., State-aided textile school,
055.
Ludus Literarius, and the neglect of arith-
metic, 40.
Lungs, growth during adolescence, 255.
Lycee, a boarding school, 87-88; delined,
75; degree awarded, 85-87, gg; a fin-
ishing school — comparison of gradu-
ates with those of gymnasium or Eng-
lish public school, 120; French form of
the Latin grammar school, 36 ; for
girls, 94, 05; graduate courses, 80;
history in, 558-550; modern languages
in, 439-442 ; preparation of teachers,
100; program of studies, 80-85, 97~
g8; teachers and officers, 88 ; tuition
fees, 93, 100. See nlso College; Col-
lege, French communal ; France, sec-
ondary education in.
Lyte, Sir Maxwell, on education for public
life, 124.
Lyzeum, 115, 116; weekly program, 118,
1 19. Sec also Germany ; Gymnasium ;
Obcrlyzeum ; Realgymnasium ; Real-
schule.
MacKenzie, on voice training during
adolescence, 257.
Manchester Grammar School, 131.
Manhattan Trade School, 624.
Manual arts high schools, seldom realize
technical ends, 740.
Manual training, definition, 658; content
of course, 660; educational value, 658-
660 ; place in various national educa-
tional systems, 660-662 ; relation to in-
dustrial education, 662. See also Indus-
trial education ; Vocational education.
Maps, in teaching the classics, 420.
Massachusetts Commission on Industrial
and Technical Education, 651.
Mathematics, branches of the subject,
530 ; college entrance requirements,
544-546 ; as an element of cultural
education, 767; nature and use, 520;
reasons for studying, 530 ; reorganiza-
tion needed, 751 ; scope of secondary,
531; valid aims not yet formulated,
773 ; visual aids to teaching, 546-547.
See also Algebra ; Geometry.
Mechanics Institute of New York, 647.
Melanchthon, 43.
Mental training, as aim of education, 741).
Merchant Taylors', 124.
Meteorology, 475.
Method, wider definition of, 747.
In various schools : the academy, 60 ;
service of the academy to, 45 ; develop-
ment of: in high school, 67, 68; in
Latin grammar schools of America, 53 ;
in schools of Middle Ages, 34; in Ren-
aissance-Reformation schools, 42-44;
Roman contribution to, 27-29.
In the various subjects: to be deter-
mined by purpose of leaching the sub-
ject, 203-204; art, 582-587, 592-593;
biology, 488-494 ; chemistry, 508-
509; composition, 375-379; English,
370-373 ; geography, 477-481, 483-
486; Greek, 408 415; history, 560-
564; Latin, 389-405; modern lan-
guages, 424-431, 437-439; music,
597 604 ; natural sciences, 450-472;
physics, 496-498, 500-504, 505-508.
Scientific, how to build up concept of,
in mind of pupil, 456 ; value of the ac-
quisition, 458-459; mastery of scien-
tific method, as aim of education, 749.
Methods, depend on aims, 754-755; more
scientific analysis of, demanded, 746;
new, have developed in secondary
schools, i ; often uncertain and arbi-
trary, 745 ; reorganization needed,
753 ; socialized, 735-736.
Meumann as to transfer of training, 303,
304-
Meylan, G. R., and Storey, Thomas A.,
contributors, p. x, Hygiene and Physi-
cal Education, 685-705.
Michigan plan of accrediting high schools,
164-167.
Middle Ages, view of secondary education,
5 : contribution to secondary educa-
tion. 20. 30 ; use of Latin, 387.
Migratory instinct in adolescence, 270-272.
Military schools, private, 240.
Milton, 46, 49; on value of classical study,
343-344-
Milwaukee School of Trades, 649.
Minister tier xeislliehen und Unterrichts-
A ngelcgenheiten, 102.
Minister of education, French and German,
difference in responsibility, 102-103.
Minnesota agricultural college. 674.
Models, of geometric solids, 546-547 ; use
in teaching Latin and Greek, 421.
Modern Language Association, 433.
Modern languages, actual -cs. true aims,
784
Index
752, 753 ; alms already well defined,
772; mastery for cultural ends, 767;
methods of teaching, 424-431, 437-
439; place in curriculum, 431-443;
purpose of study, 424 ; results of
school work, 431 ; socialized methods,
737-
Modistenschulen, 44.
Monitorial high schools, 61-62.
Monroe, Paul, editor and contributor, p.
vii, Meaning and Scope of Secondary'
Education, 1-15; Historic Sketch of
Secondary Education, 16—70.
Montaigne, quoted on method, 50.
Moral aspects of adolescence, 285-292.
Moral character, as result of education, 764.
Moral education, 313-34?, 35°, 353 (out-
lined, p. xviii, xix). See also Reli-
gious education.
Moral instruction, direct, 317, and note.
Morrill Act, 648, 672.
Mt. Hermon School, Mass., agricultural,
678.
Municipal activities, course in, 567.
Municipal civics, syllabus of, 567.
Municipal government, courses in, 572.
Muscles, growth during adolescence, 254.
Music teaching in the schools, aim, 594-
595 ; failure to develop true culture,
765; methods, 597-603, 736, 740;
present broadening of use and appre-
ciation, 595-597, 603-604. See also
Art.
Narration, as a form of composition, 373-
374-
National Conference on College Entrance
Requirements in English, 383.
National Council of teachers of English,
384-
National education, see Universal educa-
tion.
National Farm School, Doylestown, Pa.,
678.
Natural sciences, aims, actual and ideal,
752; alleged inadequacies, 306-307;
methods, 450-472, 735 ; mastery of
scientific method as aim of education,
749; relation to college entrance re-
quirements, 473-475 ; subjects taught,
475, 476: values, 44&-45Q, 7^5- 767-
See also Biology ; Chemistry ; Geog-
raphy ; Physics.
Nautical callings, in vocational training,
761.
New Bedford, state-aided textile school,
655-
New England Association of Colleges and
Preparatory Schools, 383, 554.
New England Commission of Colleges, 383.
New York Trade School, 649, 650.
Newton High School, study of cost of
various subjects per pupil-hour of
recitation, 199.
Non-conformity, effect on secondary edu-
cation, 47, 54.
Normal schools, developed from academies,
57-
S ormallchr plan dcs Gymnasiums, and
algebra, 536.
Northampton School of Technology, 678.
Number of schools, increase in Renaissance-
Reformation period, 37-40 ; academies
in America, 56; English "public,"
124; English secondary, 136; German
secondary, 1 1 i-i 1 2 ; high schools,
65-66 ; lycee s and communal colleges,
87 ; rural high schools, 151—154. See
also Administration.
Nurture, a factor in developing the indi-
vidual, 757.
Oberlehrer, 121.
Oberlyzeum, 116, 117; weekly program, 119,
120. See also Lyzeum.
Oberrealschule, 49, no, 116; weekly pro-
gram, in. See also Rcalgymnasium ;
Realschule.
Occupational ideals, variety of, 291.
Ohio Mechanics Institute, of Cincinnati,
047, 655.
Oral method of language teaching, 395—
396, 410-411, 424-427.
Orator, sole type of educated man in Rome,
28.
Oratory, the teaching of ancient, 23, 26;
modern, 379-381.
Organization of high school, sec Administra-
tion.
O'Shea, M. V., quoted, on method, 203.
Oster, Sir Wm., quoted, on value of Greek,
406.
Palmer, Erastus, contributor, p. viii, Oral
Speech, 379-382.
Parents' meeting, 335-336-
Partictdarschulen, 44.
"Passing,"' system encourages mental
loafing, 329.
Pathology, mental, of adolescence, 292-298.
Index
Paulsen, on voice control during adoles-
cence, 256-257.
Pedagogia, 44.
"Pedagogical" age vs. physiological and
psychological, 248.
Peirce, Benj., definition of mathematics,
529-
Perry, Clarence A., contributor, p. x,
Social Aspects of High School Educa-
tion, 7,52-742.
Perse School, Cambridge, program of
studies, 128; experimental work in
teaching classics, 41.5.
Pestalozzi, 5 1 ; his ideas in America, 60.
Phelps, Jessie, on teaching of sex hygiene,
270.
Philanthropinists, 51.
Phillips' academies, 55.
Physical education, adequate teaching will
necessitate changes in administration,
774; analysis of aims, 760-761; defi-
nition, 759; early conceptions, 698-
699 ; forms of gymnastic exercise,
700 ; gymnastics for girls, 704 ;
gymnastics vs. athletics, 700-702;
modern views, 690-700, 709; position
in schools, 703-704 ; reorganization
based on these aims, 768—769. Sec
also Athletics; Hygiene.
Physical efficiency as an end of education,
746.
Physics, actual vs. true aims, 752, 75,5;
beginning points, 495-50,5 ; in the cur-
riculum, 475, 476; method, 496—498,
500-504, 505-508; subject matter,
495-496, 504-505 ; valid aims not yet
formulated, 773. Sec also Natural
. sciences.
Physiological age, concept of, 248 ; relation
to success in high school, 249 250;
vs. psychological and "pedagogical"
age, 248.
Physiology, see Biology.
Physique, mental and moral advantages of
developing the, 327.
Plato, and the choice of studies, 34,5 ; on
education for leadership, 20; on the
teaching of literature, 356-357.
Playground, a factor in education, 757,
758. 760.
Police power, a factor in education, 757, 758.
Political evils, one remedy may lie in high
school extension, 742.
Practical arts, aims now being clarified,
772. See also Household arts.
3 E
Pratt Institute, Brooklyn, 655.
Preparatory schools, private and public,
239-240; in England are not second-
ary schools, 130.
Press, the, a factor in education, 757, 758,
760.
Primary school, distinction from secondary,
in France, 76-77, in Germany, 105-
107. See also Elementary education.
Principal of high school and board of edu-
cation, 211-213; as critic of class
work, 206 ; not to be a czar, 174 ; and
the heads of departments, 206; and
the narrow teacher, 201-202; open-
minderlness necessary in adjusting
school to life, 200-201, 738; and the
principals of grammar schools, 186-187 ;
relation to various activities of the
school, 184; spirit reflected in school,
201, 738; visits to classes, 206. See
also Administrations.
Principalship, how to attract first-class
men, 213-214.
Private schools, definition, 233 ; advantages
and disadvantages, 233-235 ; types of,
2,53-234, 237-241.
Probcjahr, 121.
Problem, defined, 446, note.
Problems of youth, 320-321; discussed,
327-338; named, 325-326; points of
contact between educator and edu-
cand, 325 ; sources of information con-
cerning, 321-323.
Professeurs, teachers in a lycec, 88.
Professions, secondary education a prep-
aration for, 5; secondary education
preliminary to preparation for, 6.
Program of studies, College de Guyenne,
Bordeaux (1572), 42; College de la
Rive, Geneva (1559), 41-42; English
grant school, 138-140; Eton, 127;
Frauenschide, 119; French secondary
schools, 80-85,97-98; Gymnasium, 109.
High school : academic including house-
hold arts, 630 ; of Commerce, New
York City, 668-670; girls' technical,
627; typical examples of, 216-219.
Lyzeum, 118-119; Oberrealschule, in;
Perse School, Cambridge, England, 128;
RealRymnasium, no; Somerville, 628-
629, 631-632; Sturm's at Strassburg
0565), 40-41 ; teachers' training
school, Germany, 120: Worcester
Girls' Industrial School, 625-626.
See also Curriculum.
;86
Index
Programs of studies, now flexible, 746.
Progymnasium, 108, in, 112.
Promotion by subject, daily roster for,
177-
Provincial Schidkollegium, 103.
Proviseur, headmaster, 88.
Psychological age vs. physiological and
"pedagogical," 248.
Psychological phenomena of adolescence,
257-272 ; pathological, 292-208.
Psychology, effect of increasing knowledge
of, on education, 745, 747. See also
Adolescence.
Puberty, vs. adolescence, 246 ; date of on-
set, 247-248.
"Public" schools, English form of the
Latin Grammar School, 37 ; and
public life, 123-131; Winchester, the
oldest, 32. See also England.
Public Schools Athletic League, rules of
eligibility, 725.
Quintilian, quoted, 27, 28.
Reading, adolescent love for, 307-308.
Realgymnasium, 49, 109, 113, 114, 116;
weekly program, no; and agricultural
education, 674. See also Realschule.
Realistic schools, characteristics in Renais-
sance-Reformation period, 44-45.
Realprogymnasium, 108, 112.
Realschule, 47-40, 108, 114, 674. See also
Realgymnasium.
Recitation vs. class conference, 460.
Recreation, and moral training, 334-336;
socialized, 739.
Reform Gymnasium, 113.
Reforms in secondary education, 76, 746,
753, 767-774.
Regents' examinations, proportion of fail-
ures, 202.
Rcisepriifung, 116.
Religious aspects of adolescence, 285-292,
275, note.
Religious education, 347—353 (outlined, p.
xix). Sfc also Moral education.
Renaissance, effect in America, 54 ; influ-
ence on secondary' education, 4 ; in-
terest in Greek, 415 ; methods of teach-
ing art, 583 ; use of Latin, 387.
Reorganization of education, forces now
producing, 745 ; must attack aims
first, 750-753 ; need of, to be under-
stood only through a study of the
evolution of present conditions, 11-13,
755; that already accomplished, 746;
that still to be accomplished, 746-747,
756; final word upon, 774. See also
Administration.
Repetileurs, tutors, 91.
Requirements for college entrance, see
College entrance requirements.
Retardation and acceleration, concept of,
248-249 ; developmental, during ado-
lescence, 292-294.
Rhetoric, origin, 4 ; mastery of, a pro-
fession, 5 ; change in content, 29, 30.
Ribot Parliamentary Committee, 76.
Richards, C. R., contributor, p. x, Indus-
trial Education, 642-662.
Richards, Mrs. Ellen H., quoted on neces-
sity for teaching household arts, 623.
Richter, Jean Paul, quoted on youth and
age, 347.
Ritterakademien, 44, 47.
Robison, C. H., contributor, p. x, Agricul-
tural Education, 671-679.
Roman contribution to method, 27-29;
view of secondary education, 5.
Roster, daily, for promotion by subject,
177-182.
Rousseau, first to emphasize importance
of adolescence, 9; quoted on adoles-
cence, 246; on moral training, 317;
a realist, 51.
Ruediger, as to transfer of training, 304.
Rugby, 124.
Rural high schools, 140-154.
Russian system of manual training, 661.
Saint-Cyr, military school at, 439.
St. Louis Manual Training School, 661.
St. Paul's, English public school, 124. •
Salaries, England, 135, note; France, 91-
92; Germany, 121-122; in Roman
schools, 25 ; in United States, 214.
See also Administration.
School, a factor in education, 757, 758,
75S-759-
"School City," 282-283.
School life, as means of moral training, 338-
339 ; work, as an instrument of moral
training, 341-342.
Schoolmasters' Association of New York
and vicinity, 555.
School plant, wider use of, 738-742.
School population, England, 137 ; France,
87,98; Germany, ii i-i 12 ; compara-
tive statistics, including United States,
140-141. See also Administration.
Index
787
Science, see Natural sciences.
Scientific knowledge, not tradition, as basis
for educational practice, 745, 747.
Scientific method, mastery of, as aim of
education, 740.
Scope of secondary education, 1-3.
Scripture, as to transfer of training, ,504.
Secondary education,
Definition: in France , 75, 76; in Ger-
many, 107; in England, \.<,\; in
United States vs. European countries,
71-
Disagreement as to scope and meaning,
1-3; fundamental importance, i.
General characteristics: English, 122-
123; English " public " schools, 130;
French, 100-101; German, 101-102;
United States, 146-148, Chapter XX.
Historic sketch, 16-64; recent recon-
struction of foreign, 76 ; reorganiza-
tion needed everywhere, 745—774 ; is
special domain of private schools,
236-237. See also Administration ;
Elementary education ; Primary
school.
Secondary school, democratic function, g,
13 ; function in social education, 763;
diversification of: in Europe, 14;
needed in .America, 15; begun in
United States, 740-750. See also
Administration ; Elementary educa-
tion ; High school ; Secondary ed-
ucation ; Types of school.
Secularization of the schools, 347-348 ;
reaction, 348 ; danger of the secular
school, 349.
Self, realization of the, 327-331.
Self-activity, essential to intellectual and
moral advance, 329-330.
Self-government in high schools, 189-192,
736; its future, 770; as a means of
moral training, 330-341 ; types of,
282-283. See also Discipline.
Seligman, E. R. A., contributor, p. ix,
Economics, 573-574.
Seminary, 44.
Sensory development during adolescence,
259-262.
Seventeenth-century conception of second-
ary education, 6, 7.
Sex, characters, primary and secondary,
258; charms and fetishes, 263-264;
as determining ideals. 200; develojv
ment of love, 264-266 ; hygiene, in-
struction in, 266-270; instinct, 262-
263 ; relations, and moral training,
336-338.
Shrewsbury, 124.
Sisson, E. O., contributor, p. viii, Moral Ed-
ucation in the High School, 313-353.
Six-year high school, 201, 226-229.
Smith, I). E., contributor, p. ix, Mathe-
matics, 529-547.
Smith, Dr. \V'm., and King's College, 53.
Smith Agricultural School, Northampton,
Mass., 678.
Snedden, David, contributor, p. viii, The
Curriculum, 214-229; Reorganization
of Secondary Education, 745-774.
Snyder, Edwin R., contributor, p. vii,
Rural High Schools, 149-154.
Social aspects, of adolescence, 272-285;
of high school education : content of
instruction, 734 ; extension work, 738—
742; methods, 735-736; organization,
736-738; point of view, 732-733;
underlying principles, 733. See also
Humanizing the school ; Social educa-
tion.
Social economy, effects on education of
increasing knowledge of, 745, 746, 747.
Social education, analysis of aims, 763-
764; definition, 759, 762; reorganiza-
tion based on these aims, 770. See
also Social aspects of high school edu-
cation.
Social individual, as result of education,
764.
Social nature of adolescent ideals, 291.
Social sciences, see Civics, Economics,
History.
Social selection by secondary school, 7-9 ;
in England, 123-124, 128-129, 13°-
131 ; in France, 77 ; in Germany, 101 ;
in private schools, 241-243.
Social service, secondary education a prep-
aration for, 14, 15.
Social station, as determining ideals, 290.
j Societies, high school secret, 279-282, 335;
maxims for organizing, 276-277 ;
school, types of, 278-282; 284; self-
organized ('"gangs"), 275-276; varie-
ties of adult-made, 277-278.
Society, effect of complexity of modern, 2.
Sociology, its arguments for and against co-
education, 309 ; moral training through
school study of, 345-347. See also
Social aspects of high school education.
Somerville school programs showing house-
hold arts, 628-629, 631-632.
788
Index
Spaulding, Supt., quoted on adjusting
education to needs of industry, 196.
Specialization, in Germany, 112; of high
schools, 740-750; among teachers,
French custom, 90, 91. See also Types
of schools.
Speech, training in oral, 370-392. See also
Composition ; Oratory.
Spiess, system of gymnastics, 700.
Sprachgefuhl, 425, 431.
Spring Garden Institute, of Philadelphia,
647.
Stableton, and sources of energy, 319,
323.
Stage, the, a factor in education, 757, 758,
760.
Standards of quality and of degree, great
need of, 755.
Storey, Thomas A., and Meylan, G. R.,
contributors, p. x, Hygiene and
Physical Education, 685-705.
Strayer, G. D., study of markings given by
teachers, 202.
Strong, Ann G., contributor, p. x, House-
hold Arts, 608-637.
Structural side of vernacular teaching, 369-
37°.
Student advisor system, 193, 194.
Studio, vs. studies, 342-343.
Studienanstalt, 116— 118.
Studies, relative moral value of, 343-346 ;
certain, may be replaced by others as
valid aims are formulated, 767.
Subject matter, its effect on character,
342-374-
Subjects, relative cost per pupil-hour of
recitation, 199.
Subnormal, attention to, in America, 9.
Suetonius, quoted on the beginnings of
secondary education in Rome, 24-
25-
Sullivan, James, contributor, p. ix, Civics,
565-573-
Supernormal, attention to, in America, 9.
Sweden, agricultural education in, 673.
Swift, on criminal tendencies in adolescence,
295, note.
Sylvius, tineas, a tutor, 46.
Sympathy, in adolescence, 273-274;
growth of, during youth, 319-320.
Syms, and the Latin grammar school, 51.
Tacitus, quoted on oratory, 26.
Taylor, Dr. F. \V., quoted on relation be-
tween principal and board, 212.
Teacher, as a factor in formal discipline,
305 ; as an interpreter of literature,
363-373 ; more interested in subject
than in students, 203.
Teaching congregations suppressed in
France, 73.
Teaching force, in France, 88—91.
Teachers, assignment of work to, 182-184;
conduct of meetings of, 207—208 ;
moral influence : limited by school
conditions, 351, potential, 353; num-
ber of pupil-hours should determine
allotment of work to, 210—211 ; prep-
aration : in France, 89, 99—100, in
Germany, 120—121; qualifications:
for household arts, 621—623, for natu-
ral sciences, 519—521 ; scientific meas-
urement of ability, 209—210; teach-
ing only " lessons," 350. See also
Administration.
Technical high schools seldom realize
vocational ends, 749, 750.
Technological High School, Cincinnati,
655-
Tenure of office, French teachers', 92.
Textbooks, in algebra, 535 ; in chemistry,
how to use, 512; in physical geog-
raphy, way to use, 479-480. See also
Administration.
Textile Department of the Georgia School
of Technology at Atlanta, 655.
Textile School of the Pennsylvania Museum
at Philadelphia. 655.
Thinking powers, development of, as aim
of education, 749.
Thomas, \V. Scott, contributor, p. vii, In-
spection and Accrediting of Schools,
161-172.
Thorndike, on transfer of training, 303.
Thring, of Uppingham, 125; and the
classics, 344 ; and sources of energy,
319, 323, 347-
Toledo Manual Training School, 661.
Traditions, educational, now giving way,
746.
Training, experimental studies of transfer of,
302-305. Sec also Formal discipline.
Training of teachers, see Teachers, prepara-
tion of.
Travel, as means of education, 46.
Truancy, one cause for, 271.
Tuition fees abroad, 72; England, 32, 33,
34, 129, 135, note, 136; in France,
93, 100; in Germany, 112; in high
schools, 160-161 ; in lycecs, for girls,
Index
789
100; now abolished almost everywhere,
746. Sec also Administration.
Tuskegee Institute, 678.
Tutorial education, 45, 46, 50.
Tutors, duties of French, gi.
Twiss, G. R., contributor, p. ix, The
Natural Sciences, 446-521.
Types of schools, agricultural, 673—678.
Industrial : apprenticeship, 654 ; corre-
spondence, 65,5—654; evening, 647-
648; manual training, 648-649; part-
time, cooperating with industries, 652-
654; preparatory trade, 651-652 ; sec-
ondary technical, 655 ; technical, 648;
technical high, 655-656 ; trade, 649
651.
American high, 219-220 ; High School of
Commerce, 668-670; English, 12,3,
131-132 ; French, 75, 95 ; German, 108,
115-116; Greek, 22-24; Middle Ages,
30-31; private, 23,3-243; Renais-
sance-Reformation, 38-39, 46-49. Sec
also Administration.
Uniformity in secondary education, 146-
148, 747-748; lack of, among German
state systems, 102.
Union School District, developed into high
school, 63.
"Unit" in science work defined, 476.
United States, agricultural education, 671-
672; definition of secondary educa-
tion, 71 ; early schools, 51—68; Greek,
418-419; high school organization,
172-229 (outlined, pp. xiv— xvi) ; high
school systems, 146-172; household
arts, 632-637; industrial education,
646-658 ; Latin, 396, 398, 404 ; manual
training, 660— 062 ; modern languages,
432-436; physical education, 702-
703. See also Universal education.
United States Department of Agriculture,
educational work, 672-673.
Universal education, beginnings in America,
55; effort to attain secondary, in
United States, 67, (>8 : how obtained
in high schools of California, 161 ;
necessary in secondary education as
well as in elementary, 14, 15; present
demand for, 745 ; present situation in
high schools, 148.
University, influence on secondary educa-
tion, 6.
University Elementary School, of Chicago,
Ooo.
Variability, characteristic of adolescence,
248 ; of ideals during adolescence,
291.
Vernacular, as an element of cultural edu-
cation, 767 ; socialized methods in
teaching, 735 ; structural side of
teaching the, 360-370. See also Com-
position ; Literature.
Virginia Mechanics Institute of Richmond,
647-
Visual aids, history, 564-565 ; Latin and
Greek, 406-407 ; mathematics, 546-
547-
''Vital capacity," training to increase, 256.
Vittorino, a tutor, 46 ; and the classics,
344 ; and spiritual power, 347.
Vives, on method, 43.
Vocational education, analysis of aims
needed, 761-762 ; conviction of its
necessity, 746 ; definition, 759 ; past
and present, 757 ; present demand for,
734 ; the question of separate ad-
ministration of, 77,3 ; in relation to
moral training, 331-334; reorganiza-
tion based on new aims, 769-770; so-
cialized methods in, 735 ; scope, 624-
632, 641-642. See also Agricultural
education ; Commercial education ;
Household arts education ; Industrial
education ; Manual training ; Voca-
tional schools.
Vocational guidance, methods not yet sat-
isfactorily formulated, 737; moral ef-
fect, 333-334; necessity recognized,
Grand Rapids scheme referred to, 201.
Vocational power as an end of education,
746.
Vocational schools, private, 237-239;
slow development in United States, 7 ;
suitable courses in history for, 558.
Sec also Vocational education.
Voice, changes during adolescence, 256 ;
hygiene and training, 256.
Wagner, Charles, quoted, on adolescent
love, 337; on sexual purity, 336-337.
Washington University and the St. Louis
Manual Training School, 661.
Weight, increase during adolescence, 250-
252-
Wellington, Duke of, and Waterloo, 124.
Westminster, English public school, 124.
Whipple, G. M., contributor, p. viii, Psy-
chology and Hygiene of Adolescence,
246-310.
790
Index
Will, develops only through its own
activity, 313-314, 320; finds exercise
only in problems, 317-318, 320; in-
fluences intellectual growth, 315-
316.
Williamson Free School of Mechanical
Trades, 649.
Winchester, 124.
Winona Agriculture and Technical In-
stitute, Ind., 678.
Wissenschaftliche Prufungs-Kommissionen,
104.
Woman's movement, educational aspect of,
IS-
Woodward, Dr. C. A., and the St. Louis
Manual Training School, 660.
Woodworth, R. S., on transfer of training,
303-
Worcester Girls' Industrial School, 624-626.
Workingmen's School of the Ethical Cul-
ture Society, New York, 660.
Workshop, a factor in education, 757, 758,
760.
Young, Prof. J. W., definition of mathe-
matics, 529.
Young Men's Christian Association, bicy-
cling trips, 272 ; and technical in-
struction, 647.
Zest of life, 334-336.
Zoology, see Biology.
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I. Historical. II. The Function of the High School. III. The Programme of
Studies. IV. Organization and Management. V. Material Equipment. VI. The
Teacher. VII. The Principal. VIII. The Pupil. IX. The Class Exercise.
X. Government. XI. Social Life. XII. The High School and the Community.
XIII. Present Problems and Future Development.
The Training of Teachers for Secondary
Schools in Germany and the United States
Cloth, I2mo, $f.2j net
Dr. Brown has served in a Prussian Oberrealschule as exchange teacher of
English from the United States. He has made a special study of German second-
ary schools and particularly of the methods of training teachers for them. His
official position gave him unusual advantages for observation and for gathering in-
formation. In Part I of the new book he has given a brief historical account of the
certification and training of German secondary school teachers, together with a
more extended account of existing laws, institutions, and methods. There is also
a chapter on his impressions of the German system. In Part II is given briefly an
account of existing laws concerning the certification of high school teachers in the
various states of the United States and of the institutions for the training of second-
ary school teachers. This is followed by the discussion of a much needed higher
standard of training in the United States, and the presentation of a feasible plan for
the training of American teachers. This plan, which, in the author's opinion, in-
cludes the best features of both the German and the American system, requires
cooperative effort on the part of college and secondary school under the supervision
of the state.
THE MACMILLAN COMPANY
Publishers 64-66 Fifth Avenue New York
The American Secondary School
And Some of Its Problems
BY JULIUS SACHS, PHD.
Professor of Secondary Education in Teachers College, Columbia University
Cloth, i2inot $/.fo net
EXTRACT FROM THE PREFACE
It has been realized by the author that it is wiser to concentrate attention upon
some of the problems of the secondary school and indicate their significance rather
fully, than to compass all, or even a majority, of the questions that attach them-
selves to our system of middle schools. He has subordinated all questions of
method, of curriculum, to what has appeared to him the determining factor in a
secondary school system, the fitness of the teacher for his task; the book has, in
consequence, become an appeal to and for the teacher. It traverses many topics
which other writers have found it necessary to elaborate into special treatises ; the
value of these he does not disparage, though he thinks their appeal might often
with profit be presented more compactly.
In accord with this dominating thought, there have been added to the body of
this book, besides two excursuses, a series of outlines on The Teaching of several
subject groups in the Secondary School Course ; their object is to rouse the indi-
vidual teacher to such study of his chosen field as will give him the widest possible
survey of the questions involved in the presentation of the subject.
CONTENTS
PART I
The Teacher.
PART II
Chapter I. The Present Status of the Public High School.
Chapter II. The Private Secondary School.
Chapter III. The Educational Policy of the Secondary School.
Excursus I. The Continuation School.
Excursus II. The Function of the Educational Expert.
Appendix : Outlines for the Teaching of Certain Subject Groups in the Secondary
School Course.
THE MACMILLAN COMPANY
Publishers 64-66 Fifth Avenue New Tork
Principles of Secondary Education
BY CHARLES DE GARMO
Professor of the Sciences and Art of Education in Cornell University
IN THREE VOLUMES
Volume I. Studies. (New and Enlarged Edition) ismo, $f.2j net
Volume II. Processes of Instruction .... I2»io, $/ .00 net
Volume III. Ethical Training I2mo, $1.00 net
VOLUME I. — "In his treatment of the studies in secondary school
instruction the various chapters deal with the Bases for Selection ;
Classification of Studies into Convenient Groups ; Function and Rela-
tive Educational Worth of the Studies and Study Groups ; and the
Organization of Studies into Curricula. Under each of these subdivi-
sions the treatment is exhaustive, lucid and fair, the author avoiding
novelties and efforts at contributions, restricting the book to exposition
and to argument that grows naturally out of analysis." — Education,
Review of First Edition.
The appendices of the first Edition have been omitted and six chapters upon
" Basic Ideals for Educational Progress " added. These consider progress in
education from the following standpoints: prosperity, health, general or cultural
education, special or vocational education, eugenics and euthenics, and the recip-
rocal relations that should exist between individuals and social groups.
VOLUME II. — "The first section of the volume is devoted to an
examination of the scientific basis for high school methods ; the three
topics discussed are the acquisition of facts, the meaning of facts, and
forms of solution for the problem. The second part treats of scientific
method in high school instruction. . . ." — Atlantic Journal of
Education .
VOLUME III. — "The author blazes a trail through ethical theory in
order that the regulative principles of moral conduct may be made clear
and unmistakable to the young.
" To secure the completest possible utilization of the agencies for
ethical training now available to the American High School is the
dominating purpose of the whole work.'1
THE MACMILLAN COMPANY
Publishers 64-66 Fifth Avenue New York
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