T
PRINCIPLES OF SPEECH
AND DICTIONARY OF SOUNDS
I N CI-U DING
DIRECTIONS AND EXERCISES FOR THE
CURE OF STAMMERING
AND
CORRECTION OF ALL FAULTS OF ARTICULATION
BY
ALEXANDER MELVILLE BELL
(B. 1819-D. 1905)
AUTHOR OF
"Visible Speech and Universal Alphabetics,
''Sounds and Their Relations,"
" Principles of Elocution,"
"Line Writing,"
Etc.
1916
VOLTA BUREAU, 1601 35™ STREET
WASHINGTON, D. C.
V1
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Letters and Sounds (Visible Speech) 10
Sounds of R 10
World English : Universal Language 10
World English, Handbook of 10
Popular Shorthand 10
Elliptical Steno-Phonography 10
Reporting Steno-Phonography 10
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CONTENTS
PART FIRST.
VOCAL PHYSIOLOGY.
Page
The Elements of Speech 13
Classification of Elements 13
Articulations, Definition of 14
Vowels, Definition of 14
Voiceless or Breath Articulations 14
Voice Articulations ". 14
Representation of Elements 14
Absence of Articulation Characters 15
Vocal Respiration 15
Regulating the Breathing 15
Breath is the Material of Speech 16
Expansion of the Chest 16
Exercise to Strengthen Respiration 16
Respiration of Stammerers 17
Voice 17
The Organ of Voice 17
Analogies Between Voice and Musical Instruments 17
Illustrating Vocal Principles 17
Describing the Glottal Action 18
Analogy in Cases of Stammering 18
Mastering the Glottal Action 18
Exercise — Coup de la Glotte 18
Exercises to Strengthen the Lungs and Purify the Voice 18
Exercise — Prolonged Voice 18
Exercise— Soft Palate 19
Guttural Tones 20
Teeth Should Never be Closed in Speech 20
Peculiarities of Tone 20
Huskiness of Voice 20
Vowels 20
Vowel Variations 20
Speaking Automatons : Kempelin and Faber 21
Willis's Experiments • 21
Discovering Vowel Principles 21
Three Organic Classes of Vowels 22
Lingual, Labial, and Labio-Lingual Vowels 22
Vowel Modifiers 22
Eight Vowel Positions in Each Class 22
Standard Scale of Vowels 22
First Vowel Position 22
Second Vowel Position 23
Third Vowel Position 23
Fourth Vowel Position 23
(5)
6 CONTENTS
Page
Fifth Vowel Position 23
Sixth Vowel Position 24
Seventh Vowel Position 24
Eighth Vowel Position 24
General Vowel Scheme 25
To Find the Place of Any Vowel 25
Vowel Nomenclature 26
Terms to be Discarded 26
Numerical Notation of English Vowels 27
Thirteen Different Vowel Sounds 27
Exercise on the Numerical Vowel Notation 28
The Aspiration H 28
Breath, Voice, and Nasal Elements 28
General Classification of the Elements of Speech 28
French Semi-Nasal Sounds 29
Articulations 30
Their Percussive Quality Dependent on the Pharynx 30
Want of Pharyngeal Power 31
Breath and Voice Articulations 32
Modes of Articulation 33
First Mode— Complete Contact 33
Second Mode — -Central Emission of Breath 35
Third Mode — Lateral Emission of Breath 37
Fourth Mode — Lax Vibration 38
Clicks or Articulati ve Suctions 38
General Scheme of Articulations 39
Table of English Articulations 40
Elementary Instruction in Speech 41
Children Not Taught an Alphabet of Sounds 41
Teach the Mouth to Speak 42
Phonetic Method of Teaching Reading 43
The Powers of the Letters and Orthographic Tables 43
Sounds of the Vowel Marks 45
Silent Vowel Marks 47
Marks of the Vowel Sounds 48
Sounds of the Articulation Marks 49
Silent Articulation Marks 50
Marks of the Articulations 51
Phonetic Notation of Speech 52
Phonotypes of Messrs. Pitman and Ellis 51
Mr. Pitman's Phonography 51
. Phonetic Notation of Speech Accomplished 52
Quantity and Elementary Combinations 53
Long Monophthongs 53
Short Monophthongs 53
What is a Syllable? 54
Table of Initial Articulative Combinations 56
Tables of Terminal Syllabic Combinations of Breath Articulations 56
Tables of Terminal Syllabic Combinations of Voice Articulations 57
Terminal Combinations of Mixed Articulations 57
Combination of Syllables into Words 58
Table of English Vowel Combinations 59
CONTENTS 7
Page
Accent, Rhythm, Emphasis, and the Grouping of Words 61
Accent 61
Secondarily Accented Words 62
Rhythm • 63
Emphasis 63
The Grouping of Words 64
Example of a Substantive Group 64
Example of a Verbal Group 64
Inflexion, Modulation, etc 64
Simple Inflexions 66
Compound Inflexions — Circumflexes or Waves 66
Applications of the Inflexions 67
Modulation 68
PART SECOND.
DICTIONARY OF ENGLISH SOUNDS.
Section First — Vowels 71
English Monophthongs and Diphthongs 71
First Vowel — as in eel 72
Words to be Distinguished in Pronunciation 73
Words of the Same Pronunciation but Different Orthography 73
Second Vowel — as in ill 73
Words to be Distinguished in Pronunciation 74
Words of the Same Pronunciation but Different Orthography 74
Third Vowel— as in ale 74
Words to be Distinguished in Pronunciation 75
Words of the Same Pronunciation but Different Orthography 75
Fourth Vowel — as in ell, ere 76
Words to be Distinguished in Pronunciation 78
Words of the Same Pronunciation but Different Orthography 78
Fifth Vowel — as in an .» 78
Words to be Distinguished in Pronunciation 70,
Words of the Same Pronunciation but Different Orthography 79
Sixth Vowel — as in ask 79
Words to be Distinguished in Pronunciation 80
Seventh Vowel — as in ah 80
Words to be Distinguished in Pronunciation 81
Diphthong 7-1 — as in isle 81
Words to be Distinguished in Pronunciation 81
W^ords of the Same Pronunciation but Different Orthography 81
Diphthong 7-13 — as in owl 82
Words to be Distinguished in Pronunciation 82
Words of the Same Pronunciation but Different Orthography 82
Eighth Vowel — as in err 82
Words to be Distinguished in Pronunciation 83
Words of the Same Pronunciation but Different Orthography 84
Ninth Vowel — as in up, urn 85
Words to be Distinguished in Pronunciation 85
Tenth Vowel — as in on, all 85
Words to be Distinguished in Pronunciation 86
Words of the Same Pronunciation but Different Orthography 86
8 CONTENTS
Page
Diphthong 10-1 — as in oil 86
Eleventh Vowel — as in ore 87
Words to be Distinguished in Pronunciation 88
Words of the Same Pronunciation but Different Orthography 88
Twelfth Vowel— as in old 88
Words to be Distinguished in Pronunciation 89
Words of the Same Pronunciation but Different Orthography 89
Thirteenth Vowel— as in pull, pool 89
Words to be Distinguished in Pronunciation 90
Words of the Same Pronunciation but Different Orthography 90
The Aspirate H 90
The Stammerer to Study Characteristics 92
Words to be Distinguished in Pronunciation 92
Second Section — Articulations 93
The Stammerer to Study Natural Principles of Speech 93
Table of Articulations 93
First Articulation — P, as in pay 93
Difficult to Stammerers 94
Exercise Before a Mirror Facilitates Correction 94
Words Containing Elements of Difficulty 96
Second Articulation — B, as in bay 96
Stammering, Characteristics of 97
Words to be Distinguished in Pronunciation 97
Words Containing Elements of Difficulty 97
Third Articulation — M, as in may 97
M Difficult for Stammerers 99
Words Containing Elements of Difficulty 99
Fourth Articulation — Wh, as in whey 99
Words to be Distinguished in Pronunciation 99
Words Containing Elements of Difficulty 100
Fifth Articulation — W, as in way 100
W and Wh Difficult to Stammerers 100
Sixth Articulation — F, as in feel 101
Words Containing Elements of Difficulty 102
Seventh Articulation — V, as in veal 102
Words to be Distinguished in Pronunciation 102
Words Containing Elements of Difficulty 102
Eighth Articulation — Th, as in thin 103
An Impediment to the Stammerer 104
Tongue-training 104
Words to be Distinguished in Pronunciation 105
Words Containing Elements of Difficulty 105
Ninth Articulation— Th, as in then 105
Words to be Distinguished in Pronunciation 105
Words Containing Elements of Difficulty 105
Tenth Articulation— S, as in seal 105
Lisping — Hissing 106
Stammerers Find S Difficult 108
Words to be Distinguished in Pronunciation 108
Words Containing Elements of Difficulty 108
Eleventh Articulation— Z, as in zeal 108
Less Difficult to the Stammerer than S 109
CONTENTS 9
Page
Words to be Distinguished in Pronunciation 109
Twelfth Articulation — R, as in rare 109
Burring (Uvular Vibration) no
Suggestions for the Stammerer in
Words Containing Elements of Difficulty 112
Thirteenth Articulation — L, as in lie 112
Suggestions for the Stammerer 114
Words Containing Elements of Difficulty 114
Fourteenth Articulation — T, as in tie 114
Suggestions for the Stammerer 1 16
Words Containing Elements of Difficulty 1 16
Fifteenth Articulation — D, as in die 1 16
Suggestions for the Stammerer 117
Words to be Distinguished in Pronunciation 117
Words Containing Elements of Difficulty 117
Sixteenth Articulation — N, as in nigh 117
Mirror Practice for the Stammerer 118
Words to be Distinguished in Pronunciation 120
Words Containing Elements of Difficulty : 120
Seventeenth Articulation — Sh, as in shy 120
Exercise for Stammerers 121
Words to be Distinguished in Pronunciation 122
Words Containing Elements of Difficulty 122
Eighteenth Articulation — Zh, as in giraffe 122
Words Containing the Sound of Zh between Vowels \ 123
Words to be Distinguished in Pronunciation 123
Nineteenth Articulation — Yh, as in hue 123
Twentieth Articulation — Y, as in you 123
Words to be Distinguished in Pronunciation 124
Twenty-first Articulation — K, as in come 124
Suggestions for the Stammerer 125
Words Containing Elements of Difficulty 125
Twenty-second Articulation — G, as in gum 125
Words to be Distinguished in Pronunciation 126
Words Containing Elements of Difficulty 126
Twenty-third Articulation — Ng, as in sing 127
Words to be Distinguished in Pronunciation 128
Words Containing Elements of Difficulty 128
PART THIRD.
VOCAL PHYSIOLOGY.
Cure of Stammering and Other Impediments of Speech 129
Articulative Exercises 129
Stuttering, Hesitation 129
Stammering 130
Practical Directions, Exercises 132
The Lips 133
- The Teeth 135
The Tongue 135
The Head 137
The Thorax ... 138
10 CONTENTS
Page
Articulati ve Exercises 140
Literal Exercises 140
Breath Articulations 140
Voice Articulations 141
Verbal Exercises 141
Double Articulations 141
Difficult Combinations 142
Alliterations and Difficult Sequences 142
Miscellaneous 143
PART FOURTH.
VOCAL PHYSIOLOGY— VISIBLE SPEECH.
Voice — Vowels „ 145
Primary Vowels 145
Wide Vowels 145
Round Vowels 146
Wide Round Vowels 146
Tongue — Consonants 146
Consonant Curves 146
Vocal Consonants 146
High Vowels 147
Mid-Vowels 148
Low Vowels 148
Wide Vowels 149
Sounds of Round Vowels 152
Sounds of Wide Round Vowels 152
Glides 153
Consonants ; 154
Mixed Consonants 154
Divided Consonants 155
Shut Consonants 156
Nasal Consonants 156
Symbols of Vocal Physiology 157
Supplementary Symbols 158
Exemplification of English Visible Speech 160
Uses of Visible Speech 160
PRINCIPLES OF SPEECH AND DICTIONARY
OF SOUNDS
Including Directions and Exercises for the Cure of Stammering and Correc-
tion of All Faults of Articulation.
By ALEXANDER MELVILLE BELL
Copyright 1914 by the Volta Bureau. All rights reserved
SIXTH EDITION, 1916
EXTRACTS FROM PREFACES TO PREVIOUS EDITIONS
IN PREPARATION of this work the author has endeavored to write, not as
for the use of pupils, to whom a defective description in the book might be
orally supplemented, but for those to whom such additional instruction is not,
and cannot be, available. He has studied to observe the utmost simplicity of
arrangement and to avoid overloading principles by unnecessary rules. He has
not followed in the steps of any preceding writer, either as to his theory or his
plan of developing it; but he has observed nature for himself and recorded his
observations after his own fashion. THE SCIENCE OF SPEECH SEEMED TO WANT
AN A B C, AND HE HAS ENDEAVORED TO SUPPLY THE DEFICIENCY.
With reference to defects and impediments of articulation, the author has
unreservedly communicated the principles and exercises by means of which such
faults may be eradicated ; and by the persevering application of which the stam-
merer, to whom oral instruction is beyond convenience, may work out his own
relief.
Early attention to imperfection of utterance would be in almost all cases
successful in preventing the formation of impediments, if parents, teachers, gov-
ernesses, and tutors were competent to direct the -articulation of children. The
necessary knowledge of principles, with many assistant exercises, adapted for the
youngest pupils, the following pages supply.
Public speakers, whose pronunciation is indistinct, or who suffer from ex-
haustion after vocal effort, will here learn the means of rendering their delivery
mechanically faultless and the most protracted exercise of the voice perfectly easy
and salutary.
Students of language will find the elementary analyses of the vowels and
articulations, the illustrative tables, observations, etc., and the articulative exer-
(11)
12 EXTRACTS FROM PREFACES
cises, of great value in facilitating- the acquisition of foreign tongues, and the
perfection of vernacular utterance ; while to foreigners the attainment of English
characteristics of speech is, by the same means, rendered easy of accomplishment.
The subject of visible speech, introduced for the first time in the fifth edition
as a completing section of the book, cannot fail to be of important assistance to
the student in mastering the "Principles of Speech" for teaching purposes.
I rejoice that this book has been found worthy of so long a life. Through
it I may hope to continue teaching — as hitherto — successions of students in Britain,
America, and wherever English is vernacular.
ALEXANDER MELVILLE BELL.
PART FIRST
VOCAL PHYSIOLOGY, THE PRINCIPLES OF SPEECH, ETC.
THE ELEMENTS OF SPEECH.
SPEECH consists of variously modified emissions of breath. The first modify-
ing agent is the glottis, or aperture of the wind-pipe ; in passing through which,
the breath acquires a rustling, vibratory, or sonorous quality, in proportion to the
degree of tension and approximation of the vocal chords — the edges of the glottis.
When the glottis and the mouth are perfectly open, the breath may be expelled,
even forcibly, without audibility. When the glottal aperture is somewhat con-
tracted, the passage of the breath is rendered faintly audible ; this is the condition
of the glottis in whispering a vowel, or in the softer utterance of the letter H.
The glottis may be adjusted almost to the vocalizing position, and that husky voice
is produced which is the natural expression of fear and of the dark passions; and
when the edges of the glottis are braced to the clearly vocalizing point, the breath
acquires that beautiful sonorous quality which is called VOICE;.
The breath, glottally modified in either of these ways, may be farther modified
in its passage through the mouth, by the shape and arrangement of the plastic
organs of articulation — the soft palate, the tongue, and the lips.
The varying shape of the mouth, with an uninterrupted central channel for
the issue of the breath, gives vowel quality to the breath, whispered or vocalized ;
and the close approximation, partial or complete contact of the oral organs, gives
articulative or "consonant" effect to the same voiceless or sonorous current of
breath.
In the common analysis of Speech, its elements have been divided into two
classes, called Vowels and Consonants. The former class is said to contain those
elementary sounds which are capable of being uttered alone ; and the latter, those
which are incapable of being pronounced without the aid of a vowel. This is
incorrect; for, not only the vowels, but all the "consonants," may be perfectly
sounded alone. The terms Vowel and Consonant, thus understood, do not draw
a clear line of distinction between the two natural classes of elements, intended to
be designated ; and either some other nomenclature must be adopted, or a definition
of these terms received which may effect the object of the classification. The
ordinary definition of the term Voivel would render that name equally applicable
to all the elements of speech ; and the term Consonant, as generally defined, is
inapplicable to any one of them.
To remedy the inconvenience of inaccurate definitions, numerous subdivisions
of the elements have been made, and categorical terms have been multiplied. As
might be expected from such a fundamental error, writers are often not agreed
as to the class to which certain letters should belong. Y and W have been by
some authors declared to be consonants ; by others, vowels ; by others, semi-con-
sonants ; by others, both vowels and consonants. It will be of importance if we
can establish a classification which may be generally admitted.
Dr. Rush, in his "Philosophy of the Human Voice," has proposed a mode
of classification into "tonics" (vowels), "subtonics" (articulations with voice),
and "atonies" (voiceless articulations). But this does not show the primary and
most important division of the elements, intended to be expressed by the terms,
Vowel and Consonant. It does not recognize the difference between a position
and an action, which this acute author seems strangely to have overlooked.
(13)
14 ELEMENTS OF SPEECH
"Consonants" have been subdivided into mutes, semi-mutes, semi-vowels,
demi-semi-vowels, liquids, sharp letters, Hat letters, soft, hard, etc.; but to most
of the terms there has been no clear meaning attached, and in their application
there has been no little inconsistency. The names flat and sharp, hard and soft,
etc., have been applied by different persons to opposite classes of letters ; and, —
so little have these words been made to convey any definite idea, — we have heard
the two former terms explained by a public lecturer to be "just like sharps and
flats in music/' to which, except in an absurd nomenclature, they have not a
shadow of relation.
The most obvious difference among the elements of speech obtains between
those sounds which pass freely through the open mouth, and those which are
forced through interstices, or stopped by organic conjunction. The former may
as well be called vowels as by any other name; only let the term be correctly
defined, and the mere name is of little consequence. Those utterances, then,
which pass freely from the glottis through a certain open conformation of the
vocal canal, and unaffected by any sound of breath, hissing, or compressed within
the mouth, — let us call VOWELS. All other elements of speech will be found to
coincide in this, that their audible effect is either wholly or partly produced within
the mouth; and that an appulsive action of some part of the lips or tongue is
necessary to their formation. Let us call these by a term already in use, —
ARTICULATIONS.* A vowel, according to this definition, is the result of an open
position of the oral organs ; an articulation is the result of an opening action of
the organs.
The Articulations are, on obvious principles, divisible into subordinate classes.
Some of them owe their audibility solely to the mouth, to the action of the breath
against the organs of articulation. As these are accompanied by no glottal vibra-
tion, they may be appropriately called Voiceless or Breath articulations. All oth-
ers will fall under the category of Voice articulations.
The nature of the articulative actions gives reason for subdivisions of each
of these classes. Those actions which altogether stop the flow of breath or voice
may be called obstructive, or shut ; and those which do not, may be appropriately
called continuous; the latter being further divided into close and open.
Thus, the letters P, T, K are shut breath articulations ; and B, D, G, are shut
voice articulations; F, Wh, Th, S, Sh are continuous breath articulations, and
V, W, Th, Z, Zh, R, Y, L, M, N, NG are continuous voice articulations. Of
these last, the first seven letters are close, and the remainder open. The reason
for making a distinction among the continuous voice articulations is that L, M,
N, NG are almost as purely vocal as any vowel — the stream of voice having a
free channel, and suffering but little compression in its passage. Indeed, but for
the distinct organic action necessary to each of these letters, they might be ranked
among the vowels.
Our alphabet gives us 26 letters; — 5 vowel, and 21 articulation marks. Our
language contains 13 radically distinct vowel formations, and 24 varieties of
articulation, besides the variable aspiration H. A perfect alphabet of English
sounds would therefore contain not fewer than 38 distinguishable simple char-
acters. But, on a principle which will be found explained in a subsequent chapter,
this number might be obtained from little more than 12 distinct characters, — the
remainder being produced from these by uniform changes, to represent their uni-
formity of difference.
* The word "articulation" has been sometimes applied to vowels, as well as consonants,
but its limitation to the latter class of elements is not only convenient, but correct. The
vowels are the material of speech, and the articulations are the joints or hinges by whose
motion the vowels are separated from each other, and are affected in their duration.
BREATH— RESPIRATION 15
Not only is the alphabet deficient in the number of its characters; it is also
redundant, and is burdened with letters which do not represent simple elements,
but combinations. The inadequacy of the vowel marks to represent the vowel
sounds is most manifest. We have no regular and consistent way of writing any
one vowel. Single letters represent diphthongs, and the utmost confusion of
diphthongal characters prevails in our modes of writing simple vowel sounds.
The alphabet furnishes no characters by which to represent six of our articula-
tions— namely, Sh, Th(in), Th(is), Zh (as in azure), Wh, NG; and we are thus
forced to the»anomaly of using digraphs to represent simple sounds, while there
are simple characters in the alphabet which represent double sounds ; we have
three letters for one articulation, namely, C, K, Q (besides which we compound
a digraph, Ch : the letter C stands for both K and S ; and the letters J and X
represent combinations of two actions ; the former letter being equivalent to d zh,
and the latter, — doing quadruple duty, — representing k s, and also (their voice
forms) g 2.
The great inconvenience of this faulty alphabet has been long felt ; and how-
ever easy it might be to propose a remedy, it would not be so easy to get the most
advantageous plan adopted. We must content ourselves, in the meantime, with
clearing away the difficulties that have arisen from the want of a correct and gen-
erally recognized principiation of our speech, and leave the reformation of our
orthography to be worked by a more thorough acquaintance with its defects. We
shall have aided the work if we succeed in classifying the elementary sounds
according to their natural order, and in describing popularly and practically the
exact formation of the elements of speech.
BREATH— RESPIRATION.
The importance of knowing how to regulate the breathing with ease and
efficiency, in public speaking, cannot be over-estimated. Many a zealous speaker
has cut short his career of usefulness by injurious action of the chest in respira-
tion ; and complaints are frequent — especially among clergymen — of uneasiness in
speaking, exhaustion after vocal effort, pain in the chest, expectoration of blood,
and other symptoms of serious pulmonary affections, which manifest the preva-
lence of fatal ignorance on this most important subject.
Here is one momentous evil arising from the neglect of vocal training, as a
part of the necessary education of clergymen. Proceeding to the performance
of arduous public duties with the mere instinct of speech, many sink under the
injuries inflicted by zealous but misdirected effort. For want of a principle of
managing the respiration, which should have been acquired before the delivery
of their first sermon, they accompany every accent by a motion of the trunk or
the limbs ; and, with chests almost collapsed, work themselves into vehemence by
dint of sheer bodily labor. To avoid feebleness and monotony, they must be
constantly in action — tossing and swaying the body — rising and falling on the
heels — nodding the head — swinging and jerking the arms — kneading the cushion —
or hammering on the pulpit frame. Some, with little taste or tact, .fall into a
regular rotation of actions, which they perform as uniformly as automata ; and
others, gratifying their sense of the necessity for variety, yield to every impulse,
and indulge in the most out-of-place extravagance ; under which they steam, and
drip, and froth; while the strained, ranting sound which is squeezed or spouted
forth exhausts the powers of nature, and the overwrought speaker, panting and
breathless, sinks into a state of complete prostration.
16 BREATH— RESPIRATION
The amount of air ordinarily inspired for vital wants is quite insufficient for
vocal purposes. The lungs must, before speech is commenced, and during speech,
be made to contain a far greater than the ordinary supply. For breath, let it be
remembered, is the material of speech.
To make the speaker's respiration healthful, the act of inspiration must be
full and deep. No effort of suction is required to effect this; the chest has but
to be expanded, and the air will rush into the lungs, and distend them to the full
extent of the cavity created within the thorax. The chest must then be held up,
to prevent wasteful emission before speech is commenced ; and, during the longest
flow of speech, the chest should fall but little. The upward pressure of the dia-
phragm on the lungs will expel the breath without the laborious action of the
bony structure of the chest.
No straining or muscular effort is needed to elevate, or to keep raised, the
framework of the chest ; the wave of breath inspired should, as it were, buoy it up,
and frequent replenishings should keep it thus afloat on the body of air in the
lungs.
The breathing should always be conducted inaudibly; an inspiration, to ,be
full, must be silent. Noisy inspirations are necessarily incomplete; their sound
arises from constriction of the glottal aperture, and this, of course, lessens the
volume of air that can enter. But even were such breathing as effectual as the
noiseless flowing in of a wave of air, the hideous effect of it would be enough to
keep every speaker of taste from so outraging the feelings of his auditors. This
sort of strangulatory inspiration is most common on the stage, among the melo-
dramatic heroes, whose element and forte are "colored fire" and "desperate
combats."
The common Scotch bagpipe gives an excellent illustration of the comparative
efficacy of a partial and of a complete inflation of the lungs. See the piper, when
the bag is only half filled, tuning the long drones ; how his arm jerks on the wind-
bag!— and hear the harsh, uneven notes that come jolting out from the pressure.
Then see him, when the sheep-skin is firmly swelled beneath his arm — how gently
his elbow works upon it ! while the clear notes ring out with ear-splitting emphasis.
Let the public speaker learn from this an important lesson. He, too, plays upon
an instrument — one not unlike the bagpipe in construction. Let him learn to use
it rationally ; in consciousness, at least, of the mechanical principles of the appa-
ratus. For, as the instrument of speech is more perfect than anything the hand
of man has fashioned, it surely must, when properly handled, be "easier to be
played on than a pipe !"
A very useful exercise for strengthening the respiration consists in reading
in a strong, loud WHISPER. This will be found laborious at first, but practice will
make it more easy. It should not, however, be long continued, on account of the
giddiness which it is apt to produce.
A full inspiration elevates and expands the chest, and, by descent of the
diaphragm, slightly protrudes the abdomen ; and a correct vocal expiration mani-
fests itself, first, in the flattening of the abdomen, and then in its very gradually
falling inward, in prolonged expiration: — the chest making little or no action
downwards, even in the most forcible effort.
In cases of pulmonary and vocal weakness, the very opposite of this mode of
respiration is generally found to be habitual. The chest falls with -every expira-
tion, and has to be again raised when breath is inhaled. The diaphragm is almost
a fixture, and the speaker becomes exhausted by the continual muscular effort
needed to work the massive framework of the chest. The chest should be fully
expanded, once for all, before the first word is uttered, and then kept up by fre-
quent imperceptible replenishments of air, to the close of the longest sentence or
VOICE 17
paragraph. In this way, speaking becomes, instead of an exhausting labor, one
of the most salutary exercises.
Comparatively few persons ever have the chest fully inflated — except, perhaps,
before a yawn or a sigh ; — and many undoubtedly sink into consumption from the
continual state of collapse in which the lungs are kept. Mechanical exercises in
breathing to develop the chest would be of more avail in the cure of consumption
than change of climate or all the drugs in the pharmacopoeia.
Stammerers almost always have the clavicular and unhealthy respiration above
described. The action of the chest is sometimes painfully laborious; and the
natural emission of the breath in speech is checked by spasmodic closures of the
mouth and glottis ; or reversed by attempts to speak with ingoing air. The regu-
lation of the breathing is the most important, and, generally, the most difficult part
of the process of cure.
VOICE.
The organ of Voice is placed beyond the reach of observation in the living
subject, and consequently has seldom been seen in operation. Circumstances have,
however, enabled some qualified observers to see enough of its modes of action
to ascertain analogies between it and certain musical instruments. The vocal
organ combines the qualities of a wind and of a stringed instrument, sound being
produced by means of a current of air — as in the flute; and alterations of pitch
being effected by elongation and contraction, with comparative slackness or tension
of the vocal chords — as in the violin. All other instruments of sound, however
perfect in their kind, fall infinitely short of the compact perfection of this wonder-
ful apparatus; which, within such a tiny space as mocks the art of man, unites
the various registers, and the swell and thunder of the organ, with the flexibility
and minute play of tone of the violin or Eolian harp.
Some important vocal principles may be illustrated by means of a simple
little instrument, whose sonorous vibrations are, in many respects, analogous to
those of the human glottis. This is the reed of the bagpipe drone. An experi-
mental sonifier of this kind may be constructed from a common quill, in the fol-
lowing manner :
Remove from a new quill the feathered end and the dry and tough matter
within and at the other end of the quill, so as to leave only the brittle portion.
Seal up one end of this tube with wax, and cut a tongue in the side of it, beginning
the slit near to the wax. Insert the sealed end within the mouth.
With this instrument, the following principles may be exemplified :
If the slit, and, consequently, the vibrating tongue, be short, the sound will
be shrill and strained ; and, if the tongue be gradually lengthened, the pitch of its
note will become deeper and more mellow with every increase.* In an analogous
manner the glottal aperture is contracted in length when producing high tones,
and elongated in producing grave sounds.
If the tongue of the reed or quill project so as to leave too open an aperture,
the air will pass below the tongue without setting it in vibration ; and, consequently,
no sound will be heard except that of the rushing of the air, more or less audibly,
according to the degree of openness of the aperture, and the force of the breath.
This state of the reed is analogous to that of the glottis in whispering. Every
*The vibrating length of the tongue may be altered by means of a piece of thread.
18 VOICE
gradation of sound, from the softest breathing to the strongest sonorousness, may
be produced either with the reed or by the glottis.
If the tongue of the reed lie quite close, so as completely to cover the aperture,
no sound or breath will issue ; and if, while the effort of expiration is continued,
the tongue should suddenly take the vibrating position, the sound will burst out
with abrupt energy, proportioned to the force of the preceding silent effort. This
condition and action of the reed are analogous to those of the glottis in many
cases of stammering.
To keep the reed in a position for vibrating, an aperture must be maintained ;
and, to produce voice, the edges of the glottis must be in close approximation,
without being absolutely in contact. Too much openness of the aperture renders
the tone husky; and too little openness gives a strained and inflexible character to
the voice. It is important to all persons who labor under difficulties in the man-
agement of the voice, to be perfectly familar with the process by which vocality
is produced ; to make themselves so by experiment ; and to aim at the improve-
ment of their vocal powers, by applying the same principles which they find to
govern the mechanism of analogous sounds.
It will be observed, on experimenting with the reed or quill, that the sound
does not begin by a gradual process from the rustling effect of breath to pure
sonorousness, but with a quick explosiveness ; as if the vibrating tongue shut up
the aperture for a moment on first feeling the pressure of the air ; or, rather, as
if its first vibration occluded the aperture for an instant. So, in the production
of pure glottal sound, there is a sharp and instantaneous opening of the voice, as
if from a momentary holding in of the breath before the vocal emission. This
effect is a great beauty in vocalizing ; a source of ease, power, and distinctness as
well as of grace. When the voice is otherwise commenced, much breath is wasted
before vocality is obtained, and a clear resonant voice can hardly be produced by
the loose expiration.
M. Garcia, of Paris, and other scientific singing-masters, prescribe exercises
on this coup de la glotte as the best means of purifying and strengthening the
vocal tones. And to speakers the principle is not less important than to singers.
The following modes of practice will enable any person readily to master thi.3
glottal action.
Inhale a full breath, and retain it for a second; then, with force and abrupt-
ness, eject a vowel sound, with open mouth, directly from the throat; avoiding,
in the most forcible effort, any bending, or other action of the head or body.
EXERCISE — COUP DE LA GLOTTE.
A, E, I, O, U, Ah, Aw, Oi.
When this has been sufficiently practiced on individual sounds, enounce, in
the same way, but with abated force, as many repetitions of each vowel as can be
effected with one expiration ; taking care that after each sound, the chest is held
up, or the next vowel will probably lose the crisp initial quality. The speaker
should apply this principle of vocal formation to all INITIAL VOWELS.
Imperfectly sonorous voice requires a much greater expenditure of breath
than clear tone. If the preceding theory has not made the reason of this obvious,
the prolongation of vowels will prove the truth of the observation. The less clear
the sound, the greater is the zvaste of breath ; the more sonorous the voice, the
more easy is its production, and the less exhausting its continuous exercise.
The following exercise will strengthen the lungs, and at the same time purify
the quality of the voice.
VOICE 19
EXERCISE — PROLONGED VOICE.
Expand the chest, so as fully to charge the lungs with air, and, after pausing
for a moment without emission of breath, sound the monophthongal vowels.
E, Eh, Ah, Aw, Oo,
as long as the sound can be steadily maintained. When the voice wavers an, I
becomes feeble, stop, and begin again. After practice, and acquirement of the
art of maintaining a steady, equable pressure on the lungs, the vowels should be
continued purely for the space of about thirty seconds.
Another very useful exercise, and one by which the action of the glottis will
be distinctly -felt, consists in again and again shutting off and recommencing the
sound. We may be understood, when we say that this is merely the preceding
exercise, with the vowels clipped up in little pieces, instead of running out in one
unbroken length. Each breath should last, at least, as long in this as in the
preceding exercise. This principle of finishing sound should be applied to all
FINAL VOWELS.
When the voice is feeble, or the lungs apparently weak, the above modes of
practice will be of much benefit. To assist in the development of the chest and
voice in children, the delighted urchins should be encouraged to such noisy bawl-
ing, at convenient time and place. A strong middle tone is the best for ordinary
practice, but, to strengthen particular tones, the voice may range from low to
high, or from high to low. When the ordinary pitch of the voice is too high, the
vowels may be practiced from high to low, beginning softly, and increasing in
strength of sound as the voice descends. To strengthen the higher tones, which
is seldom an object of necessity to a speaker, the voice may increase in energy as
it ascends. In this way, the compass of the voice may be much extended, and a
degree of mellowness and flexibility, seldom acquired without art, will be attained.
The inflexions of the voice will be treated of in a subsequent chapter.
We have hitherto considered only the formation of voice. There are pe-
culiarities of tone, arising from the way in which the voice is directed, — from the
position of the soft palate, teeth, lips, etc. The soft palate is a curtain depending
from the back of the mouth with a small tongue-like prolongation, called the
uvula. The soft palate performs many important functions in vocal modulation
and articulation. It acts as a valve to cover the inner nasal apertures, and so
prevent the issue of breath or voice by the nostrils. The contact of the soft palate
with the back of the tongue forms the English element NG, in which the voice
passes entirely through the nostrils ; its approximation to the tongue divides the
vocal current into an oral and a nasal stream, and thus gives the peculiar character
to the French elements an, en, in, on, un, and causes the
"nasal twang,
Heard at conventicle, where worthy men,
Misled by custom, strain celestial themes
Through the pressed nostril, spectacle bestrid."
The soft palate is in the same way approximated to the tongue for the English
articulations M and N ; in forming which, the voice escapes by the nose only, but
reverberates in the mouth ; where it is shut in, by the lips for M, and by the tongue
and front of the palate for N. The action of the soft palate demands the atten-
tion of all who would speak with purity of voice and propriety of articulation.
EXERCISE — SOFT PALATE.
Let the student place himself before a glass, — his back to the light, — and,
opening his mouth, inhale breath deeply but noiselessly. If he does not, in this
20 VOWELS
process, elevate the soft palate, and depress the tongue, so as to form a visible
arch of considerable height and breadth, he will be the better of practice for that
purpose. Let him retain the velum* at the elevation he obtains, as long as possi-
ble, dwelling on the open vowels ah and aw, without allowing it to fall. He will
distinctly see the position of this organ in sounding these vowels, and he may be
able, by sensation and partial observation, to maintain it in the same position in
sounding the closer vowels, e, eh, oh, oo, etc. In this way, a NASAL TONE will be
purified, and that most disagreeable blemish of speech removed.
A GUTTURAL tone of voice arises, in a great measure, from the too close
approximation of the tongue and soft palate, by which the uvula is laid in the
way of the vocal current.; frequently a guttural tone arises from enlarged glands
(the tonsils) and from contraction of the arch of the fauces, from whatever cause
arising. The nature of the peculiarity indicates the means of cure. The more
the arch can be expanded, the less guttural vibration can there be. So far as
faulty habit is the cause of the guttural tone, it will be susceptible of easy cor-
rection.
The quality of the voice is also affected by the position of THE TEETH. All
the vowels may be sounded with the teeth closed, and they may all be sounded
with the teeth considerably separated ; but the tone of voice is very different in
these cases. When the teeth are closed, the vocal current strikes against them,
and becomes deadened and muffled. In the close vowels, ee and oo especially,
the sound is frequently still farther deteriorated in quality by a degree of vibration
in the teeth.
The teeth should never be closed in speech, but, on the contrary, should be
kept as open as possible, to allow the voice to come freely out from the seat of
its formation.
The LIPS, too, influence the tone of the voice. The best advice for any
peculiarity arising from a faulty disposition of the lips, is — never use these organs
in speech where their action is not indispensable. The most common faults are
projection, and pursing, or contact of the corners of the lips, or of one corner,
contracting the aperture or making it incline to one side of the mouth. By these
ungraceful habits, the quality of the voice is variously affected. The lips should
take the form of the range of the teeth, — but without constraint, — and should
move in a vertical direction only. Any great deviation from this rule is inelegant,
and injurious to the tone.
Huskiness of voice, we have thus seen, is owing to a faulty formation of
voice — to insufficient glottal vibration; and other peculiarities of tone arise gen-
erally from modifications of the mouth — the channel through which the vocal
current flows. Exercise, conducted on natural principles, will be found the best
specific for improving the voice, strengthening the lungs, and regulating all vocal
action.
VOWELS.
The glottis produces voice ; the shape of the mouth gives VOWEL character to
the voice. Variations of musical pitch, of acuteness and gravity in the sounds,
are caused by variations in the larynx f and glottis ; but all voivel variations are
produced by changes in the shape of the oral passage. The action of the hand
enclosing the open end of a vibrating reed or quill modifies the sound sufficiently
* Velum pendulum palati — or soft palate.
T The larynx is the box-like arrangement of cartilages at the top of the wind-pipe, in
passing through the aperture of which (the glottis) voice is produced.
VOWELS 21
to illustrate the effect of similar modification on the glottal sounds. Thus : close
the hand around the quill, so as to leave a very contracted aperture for the pas-
sage of the sound, and then expand the fingers, and the vowels oo and ah will be
produced. Reiterate the actions rapidly, and the hand will give out no bad imita-
tion of a cat's wawling — w-ah-oo — w-ah-oo — w-ah-oo. The apparatus of the
mouth is wonderfully calculated to effect the most minute and delicate changes
with definiteness and precision. Nature must ever be infinitely superior to art;
yet art has accomplished the mechanism of the vowel sounds in various ways,
and has even effected intelligible imitations of all the elements of speech. De
Kempelen constructed a speaking machine; and, recently, the highly ingenious
speaking automaton of Herr Faber was exhibited in this country.* Mr. Willis,
another philosophical inquirer into the mysteries of this subject, found that the
vowel sounds might be imitated by drawing out a long, straight tube from a
vibrating reed. "In this experiment he arrived at a curious result ; with a tube
of a certain length the series of vowels
i, e, a, o, u (=ee, a, ah, oh, oo),
was obtained by gradually drawing it out; and if the length was increased to a
certain point, a farther gradual increase produced the same sequence in an inverted
order, u — o — a — e — i ; a still farther increase produced a return to the first scale,
and so on."
Our own experiments corroborate this sequence as the natural order of these
five vowels ; but we have carried out the principle much further, and constructed
a scheme which includes, in regular progression,, all the vowels in the English
language, besides several others characteristic of dialects, and of the French and
other languages. The arrangement, besides, admits of the addition of any other
recognizable vowel formations, so as to form a complete scale of natural or oos-
sible vowel sounds.
If the second of Mr. Willis's series, e (=a), we reasoned, can be obtained
by mere elongation of the sound conductor, beyond its dimensions for the pro-
duction of the first i (=ee), the change from ee to a will probably be gradual;
and, if so, the interval between the two sounds must yield some intermediate
varieties of vowel quality. It should be possible, we thought, to pass from sound
to sound by such delicate progression as to exhibit vowels in the same softly blend-
ing relation that is seen in colors, where melting shades almost imperceptibly lead
the eye from one to another of the prismatic series. And this is possible.
The following simple but conclusive experiment was one of our early land-
marks in the discovery of vowel principles ; and it may serve to give the student
a clear idea of the nature of vowel formation, and of the vowel unity of the voice
as emitted from the glottis.
Prolong with open mouth the vowel ah, and, while doing so, gradually cover
the mouth with the hand, by laying the fingers of the right hand on the left cheek,
or vice versa. At every stage of this process, the ear will recognize a change of
vowel quality ; the sound will become modified to
U(rn), A(ll), O(re), O(we), Oo(ze),
* This instrument illustrated perfectly the mechanism and mutual relations of the ele-
ments of speech. It was operated on by a key-board like that of a piano, containing a key
for every attitude of the mouth, with one additional key governing the sound-producing part
of the apparatus, and an extra key for opening the nasal tubes. Thus : on pressing the key
for P; an explosive emission of air came from the anterior part of the mouth ; on pressing
the P key and the voice key simultaneously, the sound of B was produced ; and on pressing
the P key, the voice key, and the nasal key, the sound of M was heard. A separate set of
keys acted on the vocalizing apparatus so as to produce changes of musical pitch; and by
using both ranges of keys the instrument sang as well as spoke.
22 VOWEL POSITIONS
by the mere contraction of the external aperture, while the internal channel of
the mouth remains uniformly extended.
There are two great agents in vowel modification, the lips and the tongue.
The lips, by their approximation, externally contract the oral aperture ; and the
tongue, by its elevation towards the palate, internally diminishes the oral channel.
The effect of the labial approximation is, what we have seen to result from cover-
ing the mouth with the hand, viz., modification of the vowel quality from ah to oo.
The effect of the lingual approximation is, similarly, to modify the sound from
ah to ee.
The arrangement of the lips, then, produces one set of vowels, and that of
the tongue, another ; though, perhaps, few of the vowels owe their formation to
either organ independently of the other. The labial vowels require an expanded
internal channel ; to maintain which the tongue is slightly depressed at the root,
as the labial aperture contracts ; and the lingual vowels require a clear and broad
external aperture ; to maintain which the lips are gradually elongated as the tongue
rises within the arch of the palate. This gives to the vowels from ah to oo a
solemn and sombre character, associated as their mechanism is with a "long" face
and gloomy contraction of the lips ; and to the vowels from ah to ee, a sprightly,
mirthful character, associated as their mechanism is with a "broad" face and
smiling elongation of the lips.
From the mutual independence of the vowel modifiers — the lips and the
tongue — it is obvious that their vowel positions may be assumed either separately
or simultaneously, or variously combined. This is an important fact, to the dis-
covery of which we were led in our experimental endeavors to find the exact
formation of the vowel in sir, her, etc., and of a peculiar, close sound, which some
Irish pupils gave for the vowel oo. When the principle of separate and simul-
taneous labial and lingual vowel formation revealed itself, these and all other
tested sounds found at once their proper place in the triple scale of lingual, labial,
and labio-lingual vowels. In the labio-lingual class will be recognized those com-
mon French and German vowels, which give such trouble to English learners of
these languages, — the u and en of French, or il and o of German. A knowledge
of the mechanical formation of these sounds will remove all difficulty in pro-
nouncing them. With the exception of the sound in sir, her, etc., the labio-lingual
contains no genuine English vowel.
We recognize altogether eight vowel positions on the lips, and the same num-
ber on the tongue, with, of course, an equal number of combined or labio-lingual
positions ; giving in all twenty- four varieties of vowel sound. But the plasticity
of the organs is so great, that shades of vowel quality are endless, arising from
infinitesimal differences in the relative positions of the lips and the tongue. The
number of possible variations can as little be estimated as the number of possible
shades of color. The eight vowel positions which we shall now describe form a
well defined and standard scale, to which all differences in dialects and individual
pronunciations may be referred, and by which irregularities may be corrected.
STANDARD SCALE OF VOWELS.
FIRST VOWEL POSITION.
The first and last of Mr. Willis's series are the close labial and the close
lingual vowels ee and oo. The approximation of the organs in forming these
vowels is so close, that any further contraction of the oral aperture creates a
vibratory effect upon the tongue or the lips, and so converts ee into the articula-
tion Y, and oo into the articulation W.
VOWEL POSITIONS 23
The simultaneous formation of ee and oo produce the peculiar Irish sound
before mentioned, which is also heard in some of the American dialects, instead
of oo or it.
EE, then, is the ist lingual vowel; oo, the ist labial vowel; and the compound
formation of ee and oo, the ist labio-lingual vowel.
SECOND VOWEL POSITION.
The tongue a little depressed from its elevated position at ee gives a vowel
intermediate in form and effect to ee and a. This is the sound of i as in ill, is, it,
etc., which is therefore the 2nd lingual vowel.
The lips lightly separated from their close position at oo produce a sound
intermediate to oo and d, which is heard in some English dialects instead of o; as.
in Lancashire, "Put some coal" (almost, but not quite, cool) "on the fire." This,
then,' is the 2nd labial vowel.
These two formations, combined, produce an appreciably different sound
from the first labio-lingual vowel — intermediate to it, and the next vowel u French
or ii German. This is the 2nd labio-lingual vowel.
THIRD VOWEL POSITION.
A further slight enlargement of the oral apertures, by the depression of the
tongue, or by the separation of the lips, produces a, the 3rd lingual, and o, the $rd
labial vowel.
The union of these formations gives the French sound of u, as in line, but,
lu, etc., which is therefore the $rd labio-lingual vowel.
It is to be remarked of the two correspondent sounds a and o, as a curious
peculiarity, that in English usage they are both diphthongally terminated with the
closest vowel of their respective classes, — a with e, and o with oo. The omission
of this final element of these beautiful vowels is a marked provincialism.
FOURTH VOWEL POSITION.
A further slight opening of the vowel apertures from the 3rd lingual position
produces a sound heard (short) in Scotland instead of the 2nd lingual, in such
words as ill, in, sit, etc., and very generally heard (long) in London instead of the
3rd lingual, as the radical part of the diphthongal a; as in day, pronounced nearly
but not quite deh-y; and, from the labial position, a correspondent enlargement
produces the monophthongal sound of o as heard in English before r, in such
words as ore, four, soar, etc. ; and in French as the regular sound of an, can, etc.
The labio-lingual vowel resulting from the combination of these positions
occurs as a provincial peculiarity in England, instead of the more open vowel
correctly heard in such words as sir, her, etc.
FIFTH VOWEL POSITION.
An increased depression of the tongue gives the formation of the sound heard
in ^(re), ell, end, etc., the $th lingual vowel; and a correspondent increase of the
labial aperture from 0(re) gives the vowel heard in all, saw, on, etc., — the ^th
labial formation.
From the combination of these positions results the vowel represented by en
in French, and by oe in German.
24 VOWEL POSITIONS
SIXTH VOWEL POSITION.
The next degree of openness produces, in the lingual series, the sound heard
in an, at, etc. ; and in the labial series, the vowel heard in Scotland, in such words
as up, urge, etc.
The combinations of these positions gives the peculiar English sound which
is associated with the letter r; as in sir, her, earn, paper, martyr, theatre, etc.
As before observed, few of the vowels owe their formation, to labial or lingual
position alone; there is for every vowel a necessary arrangement of the whole
mouth: but the preceding sounds are formed by so evident a proportion of the
one over the other, that their being called respectively labial or lingual vowels,
will be perfectly intelligible. The sounds which follow, however, are dependent
chiefly on the internal arrangement of the mouth, and do not so obviously fall
under the same classification. The lips are well spread and open, and the tongue
well depressed, so that the changes of organic arrangement are less manifest ; but
the vowels are all in regular progression, from close labial and close lingual forms,
and do, therefore, truly belong to one or other of these classes. Positions inter-
mediate to any two, likewise, may still be formed, though, from the necessarily
slight differences between their effects, ears untrained to very accurate observa-
tion, may think them, in their separate utterance, "distinctions without difference."
On such minute distinctions, however, often depends the very important difference
between a cultivated speaker and an uneducated or a provincial one.
SEVENTH VOWEL POSITION.
The next more open vowels than a(n), the 6th lingual, and w(p) Scotch, the
6th labial, are two sounds intermediate to these vowels and the most open sound
ah. The former is heard in such words as ask, past, bath, etc. ; and the latter is
the regular sound heard in the English utterance of such words as up, urge, etc.
Let a Scotch and an English speaker pronounce any words of this latter class, and
the difference will be readily recognized by any ear.
The 7th labio-lingual position gives a shade of sound which occurs as one of
the many modes of pronouncing the vowel in sir, h^r, fir, girl, ^arth, etc. These
words, in district and individual peculiarities, exhibit every possible variety of
labio-lingual sound, from the close seur of the rustic Yorkshireman, to the open
sah of the untaught Cockney.
EIGHTH VOWEL POSITION.
In the open vowel ah,— called the Italian a,— both classes of vowels terminate.
The lips are fully spread, the tongue lies flat, and the whole mouth is an even
neutrality between the two modes of vowel formation.
The subjoined diagram may help to make this altogether new subject more
intelligible to the reader. Let those who feel interested in this department of
knowledge test our classification by experiment, and we believe that its correctness
will not be disputed. If this be so, what an assistance must it prove to the student
VOWEL SCHEME
25
in acquiring, and to the teacher in imparting, foreign pronunciations!* Even
those common French sounds, w and eu, are so awkwardly attempted by our
countrymen, in the absence of a knowledge of their formation, that they are often
imperfectly acquired, even in a four or five years' course of instruction in French.
Yet, with a knowledge of the mechanism of these sounds, who could be four hours,
or even many minutes, in mastering them ?
GENERAL VOWEL SCHEME.
LINGUAL. LABIO-LINGUAL. LABIAL
Irish Variety of
1
2
8
Soo
4
5
6
7
i
ifr^ °
UU 00
Provl.
1
English
2
oo3
(re)4
5
tch
(rge)6
(rge>7
\\j\) z
Fre
a Q
O
nch
U/~e O
tch Provl. E
i f 1 1 ^ A. ft c in.
u o-
nglish
Fre
afin ^
sir o
nch
euu o
eu aw
Sco
3/(n) o er,
Varie
ty of
(ask) ( er,
8
ah
This table contains all the vowels that occur in modern European languages,
besides several dialectic varieties. Any new sounds that may be met with in other
languages may be added, so as to complete the scheme for any or for every lan-
guage. In this way a system of notation might be constructed, by which all the
sounds of any dialect might be represented intelligibly to readers of whatever
country or tongue. A table of all recognized elements of speech on this natural
principle of arrangement would be one step towards the realization of that indefi-
nite philological speculation, — a universal language.
To find the place of any vowel not included( in our scheme, put the mouth in
the position for the closest vowels (e, oo, and the intermediate sound respectively),
and from each of those starting points, very slowly enlarge the oral aperture till
the most open position (ah) is reached, — of course continuing the voice the whole
time. In one or other of the three gradations of sound so produced, the ear should
be able to recognize the vowel sought for, and so ascertain its exact formation.
By this experiment, too, the accuracy of the three sequences in our scheme may
be satisfactorily tested.
We have given the formation of twenty-two vowels : — of these, thirteen are
genuine English sounds. The mechanism and application of the latter we shall
later examine minutely.
* Since this was written, the author has had the gratification of hearing from a former
pupil (the Rev. Mr. Robb, Missionary in Africa) that he had found the Vowel Tables in
this work, and the principle of numerically noting vowel sounds, a very great assistance in
acquiring the native dialects of Africa.
26 VOWEL NOMENCLATURE
VOWEL NOMENCLATURE.
The terms, long, short, open, shut, slender, broad, etc., have been applied to
vowels so unsystematically as to confuse very much the notions generally enter-
tained with respect to vowel qualities. Long and short should be applied only to
vowels which are essentially the same in formation, and which differ in nothing
but duration. But we find these terms used with reference to sounds which are
so different in their structure that no change of duration can assimilate them.
Thus, e in them is called the "short" sound of the "long slender" a in tame; a in
man the "short" sound of the "long open" a in father; i in him is called the
"short" sound of the diphthong i in find; and o in not, and u in but, are called
respectively the short sounds of o and u, the long sounds being heard in such
words as owe and you. Of the sound of i, as in him, Mr. Walker has said, "This
sound is the sound of e, the last letter of the diphthong that forms the long i;
and it is not a little surprising that Dr. Johnson should say that the short i was a
sound wholly different from the long one."
The lexicographer had, however, in this case, discriminated better than the
orthoepjst; for the "short i" is a distinctly different formation from either element
of the "long one." Mr. Walker considers that the words bid, lid, rid, and bead,
lead, read, differ only in the quantity of the vowel, — for i, he says, is but the short
sound of c; and this theory, taken up without examination, is still to be found
published and republished, in violation of what the dishonored ear would, if con-
sulted, at once show to be the truth. Consistently with this theory, Mr. Walker
calls the Scotch pronunciation, vee-sion, decee-sion, etc., for vision, decision, etc.,
simply a lengthening of the English sound. Now, the tendency of all vowels is
to open in prolongation ; but "short i" is more open than e, and would not there-
fore naturally be lengthened into e. On the contrary, if any person, guided by
his ear, and not by preconceived classifications, strive to lengthen the generally
short vowel i, in vision, him, ill, etc., he will find that the tendency of the prolonged
sound will be towards a rather than ee. This may be tested by singing the words
to long notes.
Long and short are qualities that cannot be predicated as essential character-
istics of any simple vowel ; for every vowel may be indefinitely prolonged by those
who have sufficient power over the vocal organs to retain them steadily in the
vowel position. A person accustomed to the vowel in nun, short, as we generally
have it in English, may essay in vain to prolong it with purity; but a Welshman,
who is accustomed to the sound as a long vowel, will give it any degree of duration
with ease.
The terms long and short are, in this work, used only with reference to the
same radical sound.
It is to be observed, that the long forms of vowels have a more free and open
aperture than the short ones. The modification of the mouth is the same, but on
a larger scale. Thus the vowels in could and cooed, in pull and pool, in very and
vary, in not and nought, are long and short degrees of the same vowels ; and the
aperture of the mouth for the prolonged sounds is generally .more open than for
the short, while it is of the same shape, and gives essentially the same character
to the voice.
Open and shut are terms, too, very faultily applied to vowels, as no vowels
are ever shut; and all vowels must be open, if these words have any reference to
the oral aperture. Vowels are said to be shut, by Mr. Walker, when they do not
terminate syllables, and open, when they do, but the division of words into sylla-
bles is too arbitrary for any such distinction. Long vowels are frequently "shut,"
and short ones "open" ; so there can be no utility in a classification so vague. Be-
NUMERICAL NOTATION OF VOWELS
27
sides, the junction of an articulation does not affect the formation of the vowel ;
whether alone or in articulate combinations, the vowels are finished where they
are produced — viz., in the glottis. Articulations subjoined affect the length of
vowels ; but the term "shut," or any other, to signify this, would be useless, as all
articulations do not affect the vowels alike.
Broad and slender, also, are terms of no utility. They are applied to vowels
utterly unlike in every characteristic of sound. A in fate is called the slender
sound, and a in fall, the broad sound of the same letter. A classification founded,
like this, on letters, must lead to confusion, while letters are so indiscriminately
used in our orthography. We have the same letters representing half a dozen
different sounds, and the same sounds represented in more than a dozen different
ways.
Discarding all these names, then, we shall adopt a simple numerical notation
and nomenclature for vowels. In this way we shall be the better able to fix the
student's attention on sounds, irrespective of letters, and to direct with certainty
to the practice and application of any vowel sound in connection with whatever
vowel letter or combination of letters.
The following is a table of the English vowels numbered from i to 13.
Those which, when accented, are always long, are marked ( ~ ) ; those which are
always short, ( v ) ; and those which are sometimes long and sometimes short,
(-").
NUMERICAL NOTATION OF ENGLISH VOWELS.
pull, pool
("-) 13
old
(-) 12
ore
(-) 11
on, all
("-) 10
up, urn
r-) 9
,earn
(-) 8*
The above thirteen sounds are all radically different. There are, besides, in
English three diphthongal combinations: 7*1 — isle; 7*13 — owl; 10*1 — oil.
The alphabetic sound of u (7*13) is No. 13 preceded by the articulation 3-, u
being the same in sound as you.
This classification of English vowels may at first sight be thought too difficult
for general adoption, but it is, in reality, greatly more simple than the ordinary
arrangements. True, we require a separate notation for thirteen sounds in Eng-
lish,— and alphabetic learners, we may be told, have, on the old plan, but five
characters to commit to memory. But have we only five sounds? While \ve
possess thrice the number of vowel sounds that we have of letters, it is folly to
think of teaching the sounds by the letters. Each letter has to be studied as rep-
resenting many sounds ; and a tedious enumeration of diphthongs and triphthongs,
arbitrarily compounded to the eye, though generally simple to the ear, have to be
committed to memory, as symbolic of an immense plurality of sounds. By our
plan, thirteen sounds must be associated with thirteen invariable marks, and there
the difficulty ends. We may retain our irregular orthography as long as we like,
* The precise formation of this vowel is given on page 24. All the other sounds fall
exactly into their proper places in this arrangement.
28 THE ASPIRATION H
and trouble our youth little about it, if we only teach them to associate vowel
sounds with a simple numerical notation.
To show the minute accuracy with which Pronunciation may be noted and
taught by means of this vowel scheme, the following marked passage is inserted.*
7-1 28 2827-1985 619 10 10 1 10 2222 4 4
By thef term Liberty, I understand a freedom from all responsibility except
10 11 5 2 2 8 y.13 5 129 2 12 52 1 1J 2 2 8 2 2 2
what morality, virtue, and religion impose. That is thef only liberty which is
10 12 5 2 2 13 2 8 4 10 5 1 12 2 2 8 2 5 4 8 25 12
consonant with the true interests of man — the only liberty that renders his asso-
139 2 2 4 12 8 64 5 52 1 12 2 2 8 2 5 34 2
ciation with his fellows permanent and happy — the only liberty that places him
26 1 13 10 9 6 o 5 10 8 9 10 y.13 2 2 1122282 5 3
in a peaceful, honorab/^| and prosperous community — the only liberty that makes
2 2 9 10 6 5 51 13 2 5 2 2 2 4 5 2 9 4 10 6
him the son of a land that he would inhabit till his death, and the subject of a
3 5 1 13 14 22 10 8 2 5 2 9
state that he would defend with his property and his blood.
THE ASPIRATION H.
All the vowels are, of course, vocal; but it must be evident from preceding
explanations, that the vowel positions of the lips and tongue may equally modify
a voiceless current of breath. In this way is produced a common element of
language — the aspiration H. H is simply an expulsive whisper of the vowels ;
the organs are adjusted to the vowel position before the aspiration of H is emitted.
Thus, h in he, hay, high, hoe, who has a very different effect — just as different
as that of the vowels themselves in these words. H is to the vowels, — exactly
what P is to B, F to V, S to Z, etc., — a breath variety of the same formations.
How then, it may be asked, can h be recognized in whispering? H differs from
a whispered vowel in the greater openness of the glottis, and consequent looseness
of the emitted breath. In whispering a vowel or a vocal articulation, a glottal
effort and effect are distinctly felt and heard. H is a mere expulsion of breath
through the perfectly open glottis. Let this be tested in the whispered utterance
of such words as is and his, eel and heel, art and heart, old and hold, etc., and the
difference between H and a whispered vowel will be manifest.
All the elements of language then, vowel as well as articulate, may be classed
under the three heads, — BREATH, VOICE, and NASAL. H represents the breath
forms of the vowels ; and their nasal varieties are the French elements an, en, in,
on, un, — thus :
GENERAL CLASSIFICATION OF THE ELEMENTS OF SPEECH.
BREATH : VOICE : NASAL :
H All Vowels. French Semi-
nasal Vowels.
Voiceless Vocal Nasal
Articulations. Articulations. Articulations.
Before entering on the theory of articulation, we must notice more fully these
peculiar French sounds — to which we have hitherto merely adverted.
* Exercises on the Numerical Vowel notation will be found in "Principles of Elocution,"
by A. M. Bell, Volta Bureau, Washington. $1.50.
t The article the is pronounced th2 before any articulation and before the 1st vowel ; and
generally th1 before any other vowel.
$ The notation indicates a syllable without a vowel.
ELEMENTS OF SPEECH 29
FRENCH SEMI-NASAL VOWELS.
This formation of vowel, common in French, finds no place in correct Eng-
lish utterance. The only nasal sounds in English are M, N, and NG, in forming
which the voice issues entirely by the nostrils. The soft palate is depressed suf-
ficiently to uncover the inner nasal openings and divide the stream of voice into
a nasal and an oral current. The former escapes freely, the latter is stopped,
by the conjoined lips, for M ; by the forepart of the tongue applied to the palate,
for N ; and by the root of the tongue and palate for NG. M and N are heard in
French, but the beautifully expressive bell-sound NG does not occur in that lan-
guage. Instead of this, however, there is a series of semi-nasal sounds, repre-
sented by an, en, in, on, un, and by various other literal combinations. In forming
these, the soft palate is depressed sufficiently to open the nasal passages, but not
so much, as by contact with the tongue, to obstruct the passage into the mouth.
This is the difference between the English ng and these French elements which
give so much difficulty to English learners of French. The English ng brings the
tongue and soft palate in contact, and consequently prevents the issue of breath
by the mouth. NG has always, therefore, a uniform sound ; it is incapable of any
change of vowel quality. The French sounds, having an oral as well as a nasal
passage, are capable of being affected by changes in the position of the mouth.
There are four recognized varieties of them.
French grammarians evince a high antipathy to the imputation that their lan-
guage contains a greater number of nasal sounds than the English. They grant
the ungracefulness, generally, of such sounds, and exultingly point to the three
marks of our nasal elements, while they have but two (m and n), as a proof that
the English language has in reality the unenviable superabundance. But the
French has unquestionably sLr nasal sounds, four of which are vowels, that is,
they are formed by an open position, and not an appulsive action of the organs ;
and two are articulations. There are, therefore, in French unquestionably double
the number of the English nasal elements. Yet, in truth, the English three occur
as frequently in speech as the French six ; but from their "liquid," or, as we should
say, transparent nature, they are often little more than perceptible : they do not
strike the ear with half the sense of nasality that the long French elements do.
When the English nasals are before voiceless articulations, as in lamp, tent, prince,
inch, ink, etc., they are so abrupt as to be scarcely vocal : and only when they are
final, or before voice articulations, as in some, son, sung, anger, amber, wander,
etc., are they correctly capable of prolongation. The numerous terminations in
ion, ing, nt, nd, nk, nee, etc., produce a very frequent recurrence of them, but it is
in unaccented syllables, where their natural abruptness is shortened to the utmost.
The French nasals, on the contrary, are never short ; but, in most instances, they
are the longest sounds in the language ; and they linger in the unhabituated ear
with an effect which makes the language seem to be almost altogether nasal. And
there can be no doubt that the habit of forming sounds of this mixed character
must incline the Frenchman to give a partial nasality to many other vowels than
those which are legitimately nasal.
With reference to the formation of the semi-nasal vowels, it is amusing to
see the way in which the French grammarians account for their nasal quality.
In a well known grammar of French Rhetoric, we find the following description
of the "organic formation of French nasal vowels" : "The formation of the nasal
sound appears to be generated chiefly from the nostrils" — (all vocal sounds are
generated in the glottis) — "not that the sound is exhaled from them, as is erro-
neously supposed by many, but the air, ascending at first from the lungs to the
nose, seems to acquire there a nasal power ; and descending afterwards into the
30 ARTICULATIONS
mouth, it produces, coming in contact with the atmosphere, that nasal sound which,
although not very gracious, is sometimes manly and powerful." In giving direc-
tions for the formation of these sounds, the author adds, "Let the air, by an in-
ternal motion, be sent immediately from the throat into the nostrils," * * *
"it will then descend into the mouth, and come out with a nasal power."
What a most extraordinary power of direction the French must possess, if
they thus manage to make the obedient vocal stream flow into the open nostrils
without passing through them ! But the thing is absurd. All the air in the nostrils
will "come in contact with the atmosphere" -from the nose ; it must pass through,
unless the nostrils be plugged up by snuff or polypus, pinched with the fingers, or
otherwise obstructed. And though the nostrils are obstructed, the voice may still
gets its "nasal power" in them ; for, as these elements have a partial channel in the
mouth, they are not liable to be more affected by nasal obstruction than to have
their sound slightly muffled. In this respect they are unlike the English elements
M, N, and NG, which, having no oral opening, must have a free nasal passage,
or the obstructed breath will collect in the pharynx, and become percussive ; so that
M, N, and NG will be converted into B, D, and G, with that muffled nasal mur-
mur with which every sufferer from "cold in the head" is quite familiar. The
French grammarians indeed seem ashamed to confess their obligations to the
nose, though they are clearly indebted to that organ for the modification of a
large proportion of their sounds.
To show the difference in quantity between the English and French nasals,
take any words in the two languages, having an equal number of them, and con-
trast their pronunciation. The English word transcendent contains as many nasal
elements as the French transcendant, but they do not produce one-fourth of the
quantity of nasal sound; and many French phrases may be found which do not
contain a single oral vowel, as, for example, "pendant long temps;" "V enfant
mangeant son pain," etc.
A partial nasality of vowels is one of the most prevailing features of the
American dialects. Very few transatlantic speakers are perfectly free from this
habit, especially when vowels precede or follow M, N. or NG. The influence of
imitation, and the almost universality of the custom, render the correction of this
vice, and even its recognition as a characteristic, peculiarly difficult to those who
are "to the manner born."
In English, the slightest nasal quality in a vowel is an impurity and a bar-
barism.
ARTICULATIONS.
All actions of the vocal organs which partially or wholly obstruct, or which
compress the breath or voice in the mouth, are called ARTICULATIONS. The neces-
sary effect of such obstruction or compression is a degree of percussiveness in the
breath, when the conjoined or approximated organs are separated. Hence arises
an element of audibility, produced by or within the mouth, which we have stated
to be the distinguishing characteristic of this class of the elements of speech.
When the current of breath (unvocalized) is altogether stopped by organic
contact, as in P, T, K, the only audibility that the letter so formed can have is the
slight puff or explosion which follows the separation of the organs. This must,
therefore, be clearly heard, or the letter is practically lost. In the mode of produc-
ing this little effect, is involved one of the most important principles of speech, —
a principle on the right application of which depends much of a speaker's distinct-
ness, and all his ease.
Pronounce a word ending with P, T, or K, — as lip, lit, lick, — and endeavor to
make the final letter as long as possible : — The effort only prolongs silence ; for,
ARTICULATIONS 31
until the articulating organs are separated, there is no sound of voice or breath.
The separation of the organs, after contact, is thus necessary for these letters ;
and on this disjunction the compressed air within the mouth makes its escape.
Now, here lies the point of importance. If only the breath in the mouth, and not
that in the lungs, be ejected, a distinct, sharp, quick percussion will be heard,
which gives to these shut breath articulations all the audibility of which they are
susceptible. The issue of breath from the glottis must be checked at the instant
of separation of the articulating organs. The explosive effect of the letters is thus
produced with almost no expenditure of breath.
The common error opposed to this may serve to make the principle more
intelligible. It consists in allowing the chest to fall, and continuing the flow of
breath after the separation of the organs, as in making a prolonged H, thus : —
lip-h-, lit-h-, lick-h-, etc. The letters are by this fault deprived of their essential
percussive quality, and the resources of the strongest lungs are drained most ex-
haustingly, and, in public speaking, to the great injury of health.
This very faulty mechanism of these letters is almost always found in cases
of stammering; and, in a certain degree, it prevails among all speakers who com-
plain of weak voices, or of exhaustion from vocal effort.
Such speakers are sufferers only from ignorance. An organ of power lies
dormant within them, the want of whose natural action is painfully and ineffect-
ively supplied by unnatural and debilitating efforts of the organs of respiration.
This explosive apparatus is the Pharynx. The Pharynx is a distensible cavity
situated at the back of the mouth ; below it is the glottis, in front of it the mouth,
and, opening from it above, are the nares or nostrils. When the soft palate covers
the upper pharyngeal openings — the nares, — the effort of expiration sends the
breath into the month, where, if obstructed in its passage, it will collect, and dis-
tend the pharynx to a greater or less extent, according to the degree of oral con-
traction or obstruction, and the force of expiratory pressure. When the oral
obstruction is complete, — as in forming P, T, K, B, D, G, — the pharynx should so
dilate with the momentary pressure of breath that, on separation of the articulat-
ing organs, the natural contraction of the pharyngeal muscles effects the percussive
audibility of the letters.
When the lips are in firm contact, as for P, a sufficient pressure of breath
must cause distension either of the cheeks, the lips, or the pharynx. Here, then,
is an outward index by which any person may direct his own practice for the
acquirement of pharyngeal power. Give all possible stress to the effort of expira-
tion while the lips are steadily closed, and if the cheeks and lips be not allowed to
inflate, the pharynx must distend, and may be felt distending by grasping the neck
close to the chin. On separating the lips, the breath within the mouth and
pharynx will escape, but it should do so without further emission from the glottis.
The same mode of practice may be adopted with the actions T and K, and with
the correspondent vocal forms of these articulations, as explained farther on.
The want of pharyngeal power manifests itself in various ways : by distension
of the lips and cheeks for P, B, as above noticed ; by protrusion of the tongue,
with incontinency of breath, for T, D, K, G ; by laborious actions of the chest to
create the explosive audibility of these letters ; by their frequent inaudibleness
from feeble action ; by scattering the saliva for S, F, and other Continuous ele-
ments; and by general indistinctness of articulation, and laxity of the lips and
tongue, giving a lumpish, cumbrous, and lazy appearance to the mouth.
The continuous use of the chest instead of the pharynx is painfully fatiguing
in speech ; and its inordinate employment in forcible utterance is directly produc-
tive of serious injury to the lungs.
The practical effect of proper pharyngeal action and buoyancy of the chest in
oratory is to enable the speaker to deliver the longest address with sustained
32 ARTICULATIONS
energy, in perfect ease, and without after exhaustion. The rich orotund voice of
the practiced orator is due to the elasticity of the pharynx ; the finest effects of
crescendo and diminuendo in singing are owing to the same cause ; and the weak-
est voice may be greatly increased in volume by the cultivation of this important
organ.
Every possible action of the mouth may modify either whispered breath or
voice, and thus, from each action, two distinct elements of speech are produced.
The classification into BREATH and VOICE ARTICULATION thus reduces the number
of elementary actions of speech to half its apparent amount.
The distinction-between the vocal and voiceless articulations should be clearly
understood. The compilers of many well known books of reference seem to have
had no knowledge of it. For instance, we find the letters P, T, K classed as
"mutes," and B, D, G, as "semi-mutes." The extraordinary name of "demi-semi-
vowels" has been by one author invented for the last three elements.* Sometimes
the terms "sharp" and "flat," "hard" and "soft," are used; but such names are
unphilosophical and worthless, as they convey no just idea of the real difference
between the elements. From the existence of such a nomenclature, it would seem
as if a veil of most impenetrable mystery shrouded the vocal principles from
observation — or else, as if those who had invented and applied the names had
never troubled themselves to become observers at all. Counterparts of the follow-
ing descriptions may be found under many authorships.
"5 is pronounced by pressing the whole length of the lips together, and forc-
ing them open with a strong breath."
"P is formed by a slight contraction of the anterior part of the lips."
"D is a dental articulation, having a kind of middle sound between the t and
th; its sound being formed by a stronger impulse of the tongue to the upper part
of the mouth than is necessary in the pronunciation of t."
"T is numbered among the mutes or close articulations ; and it differs from D
chiefly in its closeness, the strength with which the breath is emitted in pronounc-
ing t being all that distinguishes them."
"K is usually denominated a guttural, but is more properly a palatal, being
formed by pressing the root of the tongue against the upper part of the mouth,
with a depression of the lower jaw, and opening of the teeth."
"G" has two sounds; one called that of the hard G, because it is formed by a
pressure, somewhat hard, of the fore part of the tongue against the upper gum.
The other sound, called that of the soft G, resembles that of J." Then, if we turn
to J, to be informed what this indefinable sound of soft G = J is, we are told, —
"J has invariably the same sound with that of g in giant."
B and P are thus made to differ only in the quantity of lip compressed : D is
said to have a stronger impulse of the tongue than t, and to be a middle sound
between t and th; while, we are told, t is distinguished from d by nothing else than
the strength with which the breath is emitted. No analogous connection is hinted
at with reference to k and g; but, on the contrary, k is to be formed by the root
of the tongue acting upwards, and g by the fore part of the tongue acting for-
wards. In the latter case, the writer has evidently been thinking of the name of
the letter (jee) while he is speaking of the "hard G," though', strangely enough,
the name of the letter illustrates its soft sound. "Hard G" does not employ the
fore part of the tongue, or the upper gum at all.
To those who really want the information, such careless misdirection must be
most perplexing. No variation. of the mode or degree of labial contact would ever
convert Billow into Mllow, or blunder into plunder; nor could any alteration of
* See "Chambers's Elocution."
MODES OF ARTICULATION 33
lingual pressure or strength of expiration ever make fame become dame, or
drudge drudge. P and B, T and D, K and G are pairs of articulations formed by
exactly the same organic motions, the only difference being in the material which
the actions modify; whispered breath in the one case, vocalized breath in the
other.
MODES OF ARTICULATION.
There are four modes of Articulation, performed at different parts of the
mouth : I. Complete stoppage of the breath by contact of the organs. II. Lat-
eral Obstruction and Central Emission of the breath. III. Central Obstruction
and Lateral Emission of the breath. IV. Lax Vibration of the approximated
organs, in a strong current of breath.
Besides these modes of articulation, in which the pharynx is more or less
distended by the outward pressure of breath, there is a Converse Series, in which
the pharynx is collapsed by inward suction. The Hottentot Clicks and certain
Inter jectional sounds in civilized languages are of this class.
All articulation consists of downward action of the articulating organ. In
most cases of stammering this action is reversed, and the force of articulation is
thrown upward, and made conjunctive instead of disjunctive.
The organs employed in articulation are : I. The lips, in forming P. B, M,
Wh, W, in which the principal action is performed by the lower lip acting down-
wards from the upper lip, the latter being either retracted slightly upwards, or
remaining passive. II. The lower lip and upper teeth in forming F, V, in which
the lip acts downwards, the teeth being necessarily and entirely passive. III.
The tip of the tongue and upper teeth in forming Th, in which the tongue neces-
sarily performs the whole action, being drawn downwards and backwards. IV.
The tongue and various parts of the hard palate in forming S, Z, R, L, T, D, N,
Sh, Y, in which the palate is entirely passive, and the whole action is performed
by the tongue. V. The root of the tongue and the soft palate, in forming K, G,
NG, in which the action of the organs is mutual, the tongue acting downwards,
and the palatal curtain acting upwards and backwards.
FIRST MODE) OF ARTICULATION.
COMPLETE STOPPAGE OF THE BREATH BY ORGANIC CONTACT.
This mode of articulation is performed at three parts of the mouth : I, by
the lips, forming P, B, M ; II, by the fore-part of the tongue and the palate,
forming T, D, N ; III, by the back-part of the tongue and the palate, forming K,
G, NG.
The letters P, T, K have no other sound than the slight percussion which
accompanies the act of separating the conjoined organs. The vocal cords are
relaxed, and the glottis open as in ordinary breathing.
A common defect in the formation of P, T, K consists in making these letters
merely stops of the voice without any audible effect in themselves. This arises
generally from feebleness of action. If the fault were confined to conversational
carelessness, it would be less worthy of notice ; but it is too common even in
public speaking, and it is then very manifestly a defect. Pronounce the syllables
ap, at, ak, without the percussive finish which we have stated to be essential to
the correct formation of these letters, and none but a very attentive ear will
recognize a difference between them. The public speaker must not trust to such
a degree of eager watchfulness in his hearers to unriddle his ambiguities. His
mouth must be so trained as to utter no "uncertain sounds."
34 MODES OF ARTICULATION
The percussive effect of T is emitted over the sides, instead of the point of
the tongue, before L, as in outlet, battle, settle, etc.; and through the nostrils
before N, as in outnumber, kitten, mutton, etc. When T is final in a word, the
tongue is completely disengaged from the palate in finishing the articulation.
In some districts of Scotland, a very peculiar substitute for the sound of T,
medial or final, is common. This consists in an abrupt, and audible closure of the
glottis without any articulative action. This glottal catch is heard in such words
as let, catch, better, etc., pronounced le', each, be'er, etc.
The letters B, D, G have precisely the same oral actions as P, T, K; but
while the organs are in contact, the glottis is brought into sonorous position, and
an instantaneous effort of voice is heard before the separation of the organs. It
is important to have the power of producing this shut voice with precision. The
sound cannot be prolonged, as there is no outlet for the breath. The murmur of
voice can last only until the pharynx is fully distended.
Many persons are unable to vocalize these shut articulations, and conse-
quently, words containing B, D, G are liable to be confounded with such as have
the correspondent voiceless letters in the same combinations; as dart and tart,
dread and tread, bill and pill, bride and pride, gold and cold, glass and class, etc.
The Welsh always thus mispronounce English, but a little elementary practice
will supply the deficient power in any case. Care must be taken that the voice
does not find vent through the nostrils.* The percussive finish of B, D, G should
be the same as of P, T, K.
The above six letters (three formations) are all the articulations that com-
pletely obstruct the breath. The letters M, N, NG have the same oral positions,
but the inner end of the nasal passages is uncovered by the soft palate, and, while
the breath is shut in by the mouth, it escapes freely through the nostrils.
The actions of the mouth for M, N, and NG are precisely the same as for
B, D, and G; and though the nasal articulations gain but little percussive audi-
bility by the cessation of contact, yet they cannot, any more than the perfectly
obstructive articulations, be considered finished until the oral organs are sepa-
rated. There is breath within the mouth, pressing against the conjoined organs,
and slightly distending the pharynx, as well as a free current in the nostrils ; and
though the voice may be perfectly finished by merely closing the glottis, the
Articulation would be imperfect, if the breath within the mouth were not allowed
to escape. There is thus a slight — but very slight — effect of percussion heard on
the organic separation, as in come, sun, tongue, etc. ; and when a vowel follows
the articulation, this slight pharyngeal expression gives a sharpness and closeness
of connection to the combination which would be wanting if the voice were
stopped in the glottis before the organic disjunction. This principle is important
to distinctness, and it is especially so in cases of imperfect or difficult articulation.
In finishing these nasal elements, the soft palate must not be allowed to cover
the nares before the articulating organs are separated ; for a momentary closure
will convert M, N, and NG, into B, D, and G. A tendency to compress the breath
in this way is especially felt in finishing ng, in the formation of which the tongue
and soft palate are already in contact, and so in the position for G; to which ng
is consequently more easily convertible than the other nasals are to their corre-
sponding shut letters.
Many English speakers, particularly Londoners, are so much in the habit of
finishing ng with a g, that, even after many attempts, they are utterly unable to
* In Chambers's Elocution, the student is actually directed to commit this barbarism.
We read as follows: "The same disposition of the organs (as for P, T, K), with the sound
directed to go forth partly through the nose, and partly through the mouth, form B, D, and
the sound of G in game."
MODES OF ARTICULATION 35
make the nasal element singly. Singer, hanger, etc., they pronounce as perfect
rhymes to finger, anger, etc. The opposite fault prevails in Scotland, where the
latter words are pronounced so as to rhyme with the former.
The three articulations, M, N, and NG, are the only elements which employ
the nose in English. We have correctly no semi-nasal sounds as in French ; and
as there can be no other obstructive articulation formed by the mouth than those
we have enumerated, there cannot be any other purely nasal element in any lan-
guage ; for the breath must be in some way orally shut in before it can be directed
entirely into the nostrils.
The English nasals are all voice articulations. It is, of course, possible to
form them with unvocalized breath, and bad speakers often do so ; but our lan-
guage does not recognize such sniffling among its sounds. In Gaelic there seems
to be, or to have been, an aspirate form of the nasal letters ; mh is a common
digraph in that language, but it is now generally sounded v, with this peculiarity,
that it nasalizes the adjoining vowel. In a peculiar Scotch affirmative, of very
frequent occurrence, which may be intelligibly represented by "mh'm," the voice-
less m is heard between two vocal m-s.
We have now seen, from three articulations of the mouth, no fewer than
nine distinct elements of speech produced. There are in English fifteen other
articulate elements; these are the result of nine actions, six of which are used to
modify both voice and breath, and three to modify voice only.
The remaining articulations are all Continuous; they have central or lateral
oral apertures more or less free for the emission of the breath or voice.
SECOND MODE OF ARTICULATION.
LATERAL OBSTRUCTION AND CENTRAL EMISSION OF THE BREATH.
The nine articulations already described ; viz., P, B, M ; T, D, N ; K. G, NG ;
are formed, as we have shown, by organic contact. Similar dispositions of the
mouth, but with the organs in contact only at the sides, so as to leave a central
aperture for the emission of the breath, furnish a series of elements of the Con-
tinuous class.
This second mode of articulation is performed by the lips in making Wh, W ;
by the fore-part of the tongue and palate in forming S, Z, R; by the middle of
the tongue and palate in forming Sh, Zh, Y ; and by the root of the tongue and
soft palate in making the German or Scotch gutteral Ch.
When the breath passes between the anterior edges of the lips in close ap-
proximation, the effect of the breathing resembles the sound of F. The Spanish
B is articulated in this way, but with vocalized breath, its sound consequently
resembling V.* When the aperture of the lips is slightly enlarged by the separa-
tion of their anterior edges, and the breath passes between the inner edges of the
lips, the effect is that of the English Wh, W ; the former being the voiceless, the
latter the vocal form of the same articulation. The lips must be in sufficiently
close approximation to present a degree of resistance to the breath, or the W will
lack that faint percussive -quality which alone distinguishes it from the vowel oo
(No. 13). The close resemblance of W and oo has baffled the observation of
grammarians and orthoepists, and led them into confused definitions of these
sounds, and of their respective classes, "Vowels" and "Consonants." W is an
articulation or "Consonant," in virtue of its necessary pharyngeal or percussive
effect, and oo is a vowel, in the absence of this articulative quality.
The letter W is, however, often written in English when there is no sound
of the articulation, as in owe,^ saw, few, etc. W is pronounced only at the begin-
ning of a syllable. When initial W is followed by oo, as in woo, wood, wound,
36 MODES OF ARTICULATION
etc., the combination, which is somewhat difficult to unaccustomed organs, exem-
plifies the difference between the articulation and the vowel of similar formation.
The effect of the articulation W may be produced with lateral apertures
instead of a central opening, and the difference to the ear is scarcely perceptible.
W with this formation, however, gives a constrained and severe appearance to
the mouth.
The plasticity and mobility of the tongue enable that organ to take a variety
of palatal approximations, and to give origin to the greater number of the articu-
late elements of speech. When the tip of the tongue is expanded and presented
to the upper gum, so as to leave a small central aperture for the emission of the
breath, the hissing sound of S is produced.
The nearly horizontal position of the tongue for this element requires the
teeth to be very closely approximated, — but without touching; if the jaws are too
much apart, the tongue cannot sufficiently contract the sibilant aperture, and too
much breath escapes; while, if the teeth are perfectly closed, the breath strikes
against the teeth, or is forced to pass through their interstices, and thus acquires
a lisping modification.
The articulative position of S, giving sibilation to vocalized breath, produces
Z, which differs in no wise from the oral action of S.
If the point of the tongue be depressed behind the lower teeth, and its upper
surface be presented to the gum or front part of the palate, a hissing sound closely
resembling S is produced, which is one of the many modes in which this element
is faultily articulated.
If the point of the tongue be laid in contact with the teeth, gum, or palate,
and the breath escape through lateral apertures, various forms of the defect
called Lisping will be the result. In the most common lisp the breath is forced
over the sides of the tip of the tongue, between the tongue and the teeth. In a
less frequent form of this defect the breath passes over the sides of the middle of
the tongue, between the tongue and the back teeth.
When the tip of the tongue is narrowed and presented without contact to the
upper gum or front part of the palate, the passage of the breath causes the tongue
to quiver or vibrate more or less strongly, and the sound of R is produced. R, as
pronounced in England, differs from Z merely in the narrowing and retraction of
the point of the tongue. In Scotland, in Spain, and on the Continent generally,
R receives a stronger vibration of the whole fore-part of the tongue.
R in English is always a vocal element, but it may, of course, be pronounced
without voice. The existence of Rh in our orthography would seem to indicate
that this voiceless R has been at one time an element in our speech. In Gaelic,
Welsh, and many other languages it is still heard. R is so pronounced in French,
when final after a Voiceless articulation; as after t in theatre, c in. fiacre, etc.
R is liable to many faults of articulation, the principal of which are a labial
seat, instead of, or in connection with, the lingual formation, giving the effect of
w or of w combined with R; and a guttural seat, producing the common defect
called Burring.
If, from the position R, the point of the tongue be depressed and drawn in-
wards, so as to remove the seat of articulation further back on the tongue and
palate, the sound of Sh will be produced. This articulation modifying voice pro-
duces the sound of the letter Z in azure, or S in pleasure, which, as the vocal
form of Sh, may be conveniently represented by Zh. This is the sound of the
letter J in French. The English J has the sound of Dzh, as in Jew ; the voiceless
correspondent of this compound (Tsh) is written Ch, as in chew.
The change of lingual position from S to Sh is analogous to that from the
anterior position of the lips in which the breathing resembles F to the inner and
larger aperture of Wh. The breath in Sh and \Vh has a semi-whistling sound.
MODES OF ARTICULATION 37
A further enlargement of the aperture of either element produces a lingual or
labial sonorous whistle.
If the back part of the tongue be now raised to the back of the palatal arch,
leaving a small central aperture for the breath, the tongue will be in the position
for the articulation of Y, as heard without voice in hue, hew, (=Yhyoo), etc.,
and, with voice, in you, use, cue, pew, tune, duke, etc. This is almost the position
for the vowel ee (No. I). The difference between ee and the articulation Y is
exactly the same as that between oo and W, already noticed. The compression of
the vocal current through a contracted aperture, and the faint percussive effect on
the separation of the organs constitute the articulative quality of Y, while the
absence of this pharyngeal effect constitutes the vowel quality of ee.
Y, like W, has its articulative pronunciation only at the beginning of a syllable
in English. In other positions, the letter Y is a vowel sign, equivalent to I.
When initial Y is followed by ee, as in ye, year, yield, etc., the combination,
which is difficult to unpractised organs, illustrates the difference between the
articulation and the vowel of similar formation.
The approximation of the root of the tongue to the soft palate at the back
of the mouth, gives the last variety of the Second Mode of Articulation. This
guttural breathing is not heard in English. It is common in the Scottish dialects,
as the sound of ch in loch, etc. ; and in the German, Spanish, and many other
languages.
This articulative position, with vocalized breath, produces an element heard
in the Russian, Arabic, and other strongly aspirated languages, and not uncom-
mon in England as the smooth Burr, a cacophonic substitute for R, which bears
the same relation to the rough Northumbrian uvular rattle that the smooth Eng-
lish R does to the strongly trilled Continental or Scottish R. The smooth Burr is
very common in some parts of France and Germany as the favorite vulgar pro-
nunciation of R.
THIRD MODE: OF ARTICULATION.
CENTRAL OBSTRUCTION AND LATERAL EMISSION OF THE BREATH.
This mode of articulation is performed by the lower lip in making F, V ; by
the point of the tongue in forming Th and L ; by the middle of the tongue in the
sound of L before u, as in lute; and by the root of the tongue and soft palate in
making a peculiar sound of L heard in Gaelic.
The characteristic effect of F is very closely imitated by the sound of the
breath passing between both lips, either through a central aperture, or through
contracted lateral apertures. F is correctly formed by applying the middle of the
lower lip to the edge of the upper front teeth, leaving merely interstitial apertures
for the breath between the sides of the lip and teeth. The same articulative posi-
tion modifying vocalized breath produces V.
The works already quoted from, which state P to be formed by a "slight
compression of the anterior part of the lips," make the formation of F to consist
in "compression of the whole lips, and a forcible breath." Certainly the writer
never could have pronounced his own Ps, or fashioned his own Fs, consistently
with this theory. Strange that people will not appeal to their own mouths, to test
the correctness of descriptions, before copying, thus, the careless and conflicting
testimony of books !
The tip of the tongue applied to the edge or the inner surface of the upper
teeth, ,with contracted lateral apertures for the passage of the breath between the
tongue and teeth, gives the formation of th, as heard (without voice) in thin, and
(with voice) in then.
The fore-part of the tongue applied to the palate, with very open apertures
over the sides of the tongue, produces L. This articulation is always vocal in
38 CLICKS
English, but, in Welsh, the voiceless form of L is a very common element — repre-
sented by //. The voice channels of the English L are so open that there is no
vibratory effect created by the passage of the breath. The sound is as pure as
that of any vowel, f and, but for the action necessary to complete the element, it
would be classed among the vowels. The fluency with which L combines with
other articulations has given it (with n, m, ng) the name of liquid.
A form of L with contracted apertures, and consequently, with a rustling
sound produced by the passage of the breath between the sides of the tongue and
the teeth, is often met with among individual peculiarities, as a substitute for S
and Z, to which it bears a very rude resemblance. A similar formation, but with
the apertures at the back of the mouth, between the sides of the root of the tongue
and the soft palate, occurs in Gaelic. This is a peculiarly difficult articulation to
unaccustomed organs.
FOURTH MODE OF ARTICULATION.
LAX VIBRATION OF THE APPROXIMATED ORGANS.
Another set of articulations, — if they are worthy of the name, — is produced
by so loosely approximating the organs that a sufficiently strong current of air
causes them to vibrate and flap against each other.
When the back of the tongue and soft palate are thus loosely approximated,
the relaxed edges of the latter, and especially its narrow prolongation, the uvula,
are easily thrown into vibration against the tongue, and the Northumbrian burr
is produced. When the fore-part of the tongue, — similarly relaxed, — is laid along
the edge of the palatal arch, a smart stroke of the breath will set it in vibration,
and the rough R, as heard in Scotland and in most of the continental languages,
will result. This sort of articulation may be performed, too, by the lips. If they
lie loosely together, a strong breath will produce upon them the barbarous effect
of a vibration, or flapping, precisely analogous to that of the burr and the rough
R. This sound is heard in Scotland in the herd-boy's call to a cow (pwray,
leddie;) and it is sometimes used as a rude inter jectional utterance of impa-
tience— a form of pooh-poohing — probably by all people.
The absence of this sound from general language, while the two kindred
sounds — the trilled R and the uvular Burr — are common, results, no doubt, from
the greater difficulty of producing the labial vibration ; as the force of the breath
is dissipated in the mouth before it reaches the lips.
R is called the canine, or dog's letter ; but the name is strictly applicable only
to the burr, which is precisely the same in mechanism as the snarl of a cur. There
is not much dignity in this mode of articulation by any organism, though the
lengthened R (not the burr) may be expressive enough in some words, as in the
"rude rolling of a rebel drum."
The polishers of continental language might do well to imitate the English in
their treatment of this cur-related sound, and, as Macbeth did physic, "throw it
to the dogs."
CLICKS, OR ARTICULATIVE SUCTIONS.
These sounds have been described ( p. 33) as forming a converse series to the
ordinary obstructive elements. In the latter, as in all the articulations of civilized
languages, the pharynx is distended. In the clicks — which are actual elements of
speech in some African dialects — the pharynx is collapsed, and the separation of
the oral organs produces an inward percussion of air. These sounds are fre-
t All the vowel sounds may. be produced with the tongue on the palate, as in L. The
lateral apertures can be sufficiently modified to form every shade of sound, from e to ah;
and, with the aid of the lips, from ah to oo; and the intermediate varieties of vowel sound
can also be very correctly imitated without removing the point of the tongue from the palate.
There is, even, very little peculiarity in the vowels — singly produced — by this mechanism.
SCHEME OF ARTICULATIONS
39
quently made by stammerers in their untutored efforts to articulate; and they
are also in common interjectional use among all people.
The first of the Clicks is formed on the lips : it is a P with reversed pharyn-
geal action. This sound is heard — with a slightly prolonged effect — in the common
call to a dog; and it is familiar to everybody as the audible part of the act of
kissing.
The second Click is formed on the point of the tongue: it is a T with re-
versed percussion. This sound, reiterated, is universally known as an interjection
of vexation.
The third of the Clicks is formed from the position T, by disengagement of
the sides of the tongue, with reversed action of the pharynx : it is the reverse of a
T as that letter is articulated before L. This sound is in continual use by drivers
as an encouragement to the motion of a horse.
The fourth and last of the Clicks is formed from contact of the whole upper
surface of the tongue with the roof of the mouth. The tongue is disengaged by
drawing down the root first, the tip last; and, as the point of the tongue leaves
the palate, a peculiar flap is heard, such as ventriloquists use in their imitation of
the pouring out of liquid from a narrow necked bottle.
The following Table exhibits all the varieties of Articulations in the order in
which they have been described :
GENERAL SCHEME OF ARTICULATIONS.
BREATH. VOICE. NASAL.
> f P B M..
~- T D N. .
fjj I K G . . Ng . ' *
o
" (Ph) (Bh) (Spanish B) ....
c Wh . . W .
£ o
2 I s z
H g
W— ^ (Rh) R (smooth English) . .
8 Sh Zh .
c
U Yh Y
. Ch (German) . . Gh (smooth burr).. . .
"F V ,
*> §
•« Th(in) Th(en) £
o JH IvK Welsh). . L. .
° *3 %
% = I/ (before ii)
^ I —guttural. . . . Iy (Gaelic)
o f (KRh) (snarl) . . GR (rough burr) . .
I *
£— -{ R(h) R (rough trill) . . . .
> \ a
X I :=hp vibration
3
40
ENGLISH ARTICULATIONS
The nasals are placed on the same line with their relative obstructives, to
show that their oral mechanism is the same ; but M, N, and Ng are in effect Con-
tinuous elements.
Of these various articulations, twenty-four (twelve actions) are elements of
English speech. One, however, — the rough R, — is used only for purposes of
effect and imitative expression.
The following Table exhibits the English articulations in the order of their
formation ; beginning with those that are formed furthest within the mouth, and
proceeding outwards to the labial articulations.
ENGUSH ARTICULATIONS.
BREATH.
ORAL.
Sh
Wh
P .
VOICE.
. G
NG
Yh(liew) . . Y .
R (rough) ... =
R (smooth)
Th(in) .... Th(en)
N
19
. V .
. w .
24
M
We have elsewhere shown (page 15) the defective way in which these twenty-
four articulations are represented by our alphabet. The alphabet contains almost
a sufficient number of characters; for it has 21 letters to represent this class of
elements; but two of these, — namely, C and Q — are altogether redundant; and
two more — namely, J and X — are marks of combinations, and not simple ele-
ments ; and so we have, in reality, only seventeen appropriate characters by which
to write all our articulations. • With what irregularity these letters are used in the
notation of our language will be seen in a subsequent chapter.
ELEMENTARY INSTRUCTION IN SPEECH 41
ELEMENTARY INSTRUCTION IN SPEECH
It really seems strange that speech — a power so common and so invaluable,
a thing "in everybody's mouth," should not have been taught to us elementarily;
and in looking back over the preceding pages, very strange it certainly appears,
that there should be such a phenomenon in cultivated society as a person incapable
of sounding an S, an L, an R, or any of the simple elements correctly; yet we
have even public teachers — in almost every department of knowledge — exhibiting
in their utterance such shameful incapacities, in great variety, and vitiating by
their high example the taste and habits of extensive circles; so that it is really
thought no disgrace to be a burrer, a lisper, a mumbler, a drawler — to twang words
in the nose, to scream, and roar, to foam, to squeak, to whine, to mouth, and
otherwise so to abuse the glorious faculty of speech, that with Shakspere, we
may say, it seems as if "some of Nature's journeymen had made men, and not
made them well — they imitate humanity so abominably."
The reason of the general ignorance of speech, from which such a state of
things results, is, we are told, just the very commonness of the faculty, which
seems to render the subject below scientific inquiry. But is it therefore unworthy
of being understood? Why, then, were not scientific men satisfied with seeing
and hearing on the same ground? Why did they seek to know how we see and
hear? They have elaborated theories of optics — and look at the result? Won-
derful mechanical adaptations of optical principles, before undreamt of, and which,
otherwise, would never have been discovered. Might not an analogous result
attend the philosophical investigation of the faculty of speech ; and acoustic and
articulative principles be developed, which would lead to mechanical inventions
no less wonderful and useful than those in optics? A subject so little explored,
and so open to operations, is, at least, full of promise to science.
In the ordinary mode of teaching children to read, the difficulties, necessarily
attending our defective orthography, are fully laid in the learner's way, so as to
make his task one of as much drudgery as possible. What is called elementary
instruction is not such, — our children have no really elementary instruction in
speech. They are taught the alphabet, such as it is ; but they are not taught an
alphabet of sounds. They are taught to name the letters ; that is to say, they are
taught to associate with the characters a set of words, by which they may in time
become qualified to speak of the letters ; but they are not taught those simple ele-
mentary sounds by which they might at once be enabled to speak the letters; so
that the child has not the most distant idea of the real object ol the characters he
becomes familiar with. It never can enter into his mind that they stand for no
more in speech than those puffs, and blows, and hisses, and other funny noises,
which the youngest in the school could make perfectly, and would make with most
delightful interest ; this is all darkness to him : — and if, by some accidental coinci-
dence between the name and power of a letter, a ray of light flash upon him, and
he seek to trace it to the truth which shot it forth, he soon gives up the search in
despair; the light disappears at the first step from the chink which let it in — and
he can see no way out of the double-you, eye, ell, de, e, are, en, e, double-ess
(wilderness) by which he finds himself surrounded.
The first sad period of his education at last over — he "knows his letters."
Unfortunately, however, he discovers that he is then hardly in the least advanced
in the art of reading, but has a new task to learn, and a new vexation, in every
new combination of letters. One thing, however, is done, beyond the mastery
of the alphabetic names ; he has learned to learn without understanding, to know
without knowing what; — and he is therefore prepared to apply what he knows in
42 ELEMENTARY INSTRUCTION IN SPEECH
any way he may be told, without inquiring or caring to learn the hoiv and why.
A foundation is laid for a mindless after-course. The school he either dislikes,
or loves only for its opportunities of social mischief ; till in due course he "finishes
his education," and leaves the school — with a certain amount of knowledge ac-
quired by dint of preceptorial authority, but without having learned the preemi-
nently important lesson — to teach himself — to love knowledge for its own sake —
to have a "constant care to increase his store" — and to go on a scholar to the end
of his days.
Fraught with consequences momentous as these, is, we believe, the false
initiatory training of the alphabetic class.
An improved orthography would, no doubt, be a ready means of amending
this state of matters, — and a very excellent system of phonetic orthography, that
needed but little to make it perfect, was introduced some years ago as an experi-
ment; but it is to be feared that existing prejudices will be found too strong to
admit of sufficient reformation in this way. Nor is such a mode of improvement
indispensable. A better use may be made of present materials.
The rational mode of teaching to read would surely be to begin with the
mouth, and teach it to speak; to present, first, to the initiative aptitude of children
the simple elementary sounds of language, and get these practically mastered,
before endeavouring to teach the eye to recognize their arbitrary symbols. The
sounds should be the first object of the teacher; and their practice will be an
amusement — not a task — to the child ; while, in learning them, he may be led on,
almost insensibly, to a knowledge of the alphabetic symbols, and so by a most
agreeable method, and in a very short time, gain all, and much more than all,
that is now gained after laborious and protracted effort on the part both of teacher
and pupil.
Distinct and graceful habits of speech, too, would thus be formed; the mouth
would be in advance of the eye: and there would be an end to those abortive
mouthings, and to that hesitancy and stammering which, in a greater or less
degree, are common to all educational tyros now, and which sometimes strike
root into the muscular and nervous systems, and produce most pitiable objects
in society.
A glance at the pages of English writers of past and present times will show
that innovations in orthography are not to be dreaded as novelties without prece-
dent, and of doubtful consequence. Our language has been, in this respect, in a
state of constant change ; modes of spelling, and modes of pronunciation, have
had their seasons of fashion and of desuetude; and people have got on without
perplexity amid these fluctuations, and have as readily adopted the novelties, and
antiquated their antecedents, as they have changed the fashion of their garments.
Noiv, there is less liability to change, and it is more difficult to effect alterations,
on account of the numerous dictionaries which have given something like a stand-
ard to orthography. But even in .these there have been changes, and every new
lexicon registers some alterations. There is, therefore, no ground for a spirit of
etymological conservatism, opposing improvements as destructive to long-instituted
and time-honoured modes of spelling. Changes will take place, and the more the
subject of speech is studied, the more rapid and easy will transitions become, till
letters present, as they might and should, a picture of sounds almost as simple as
the sounds themselves.
An orthographic reformation is commonly deprecated by the educated, though
none can deny that it would afford the readiest means of giving the blessings of
education to the illiterate. The various objections urged against a change are all
of them selfish considerations. They possess no weight in comparison with the
LETTERS AND SOUNDS 43
great advantages which would result from the adoption of a mode of spelling
correspondent to our actual utterance.*
An ill-represented language is a hindrance to foreign communication; and
this must lead to reformations, as international intercourse increases. The incon-
veniences of English orthography are peculiarly great. The language itself is
difficult enough to foreigners ; but its irregular orthography renders its correct use
almost unattainable to those who are not
"Native here, and to the manner born."
The object of the present work is not, however, to attempt a change in ortho-
graphic practice. We believe that a better acquaintance with the elementary
simplicity of speech will in time work all necessary changes; and we therefore
leave speculative reformations, and confine ourselves to practical improvements
in the use of present materials. We have endeavored to frame from actual obser-
vation a complete scheme of the elements of speech — to show the true powers of
our letters, and so to remedy in some degree those inconveniences which result
from ignorance superadded to the systematic absurdities which confessedly char-
acterize our language, as it vainly struggles to preserve an etymological shadow
in the Writing, when the substance has no longer an existence in the Speech.
In a little Nursery Book of "Letters and Sounds," f the "better use that may
be made of present materials" is practically exhibited. A strictly phonetic method
of teaching reading is shown to be possible, without any interference with orthog-
raphy. The eye of the learner is gradually familiarized with anomalous modes
of spelling, while these have no retarding influence on his progress ; and the
confusion attendant on a change from phonetic to literary orthography is alto-
gether obviated. Experiments have proved that the system of teaching Letters
through the medium of Sounds reduces by one-half the time and labour of teach-
ing and of learning to read ; while it may safely be affirmed that, under such a
system of elementary instruction in Articulation, defects and impediments of
speech would be almost unknown. J
THE POWERS OF THE LETTERS AND ORTHOGRAPHIC TABLES.
The orderless condition of English orthography is susceptible of many curious
illustrations. The test of a correct representation of sounds would be that all
letters, in whatever arrangement, and however transposed, should retain their
fixed individual sounds ; as in the case of the word end, the letters of which may
be transposed into ned or den, while each retains its power unaltered.
As a man's character is best known by the company he keeps, so our alpha-
*Any change that may be attempted, however, should be accurately phonetic. Some
orthographic reformers need to be reminded of this. With the view of discarding "re-
dundant" letters, Mr. Webster has introduced in his Dictionary such spellings as honor,
labor, etc., instead of honour, labour, etc. This is a change in the wrong direction, for the
discarded letter happens to be the one that is pronounced, and the redundant letter the one
that is retained. Besides the termination or in English indicates a person, as in sailor, orator,
minor, etc., and our, a quality. This distinction, which is certainly encumbered with nu-
merous exceptions, would be altogether lost, were the proposed change admitted.
t Bell's "Letters and Sounds." Price is., London : Hamilton, Adams & Co. ; Edinburgh :
W. P. Kennedy. [This Work is out of print.]
$ EXPLANATION OF THE PLAN OF THE BOOK.
I. One letter is taught at a time, and the Sounds of the letters are illustrated to the eye
by suggestive pictures, a single glance at which elicits the sound from the child and recalls
it to his mind without any effort of memory. Thus, the picture of a man smoking a pipe
44 POWERS OF THE LETTERS
betic "characters" are only to be sounded with certainty when we know the literal
society in which they are found.
Thus, transpose the vowels in chase, and, not unnaturally, the chase results
in aches. The largest moat may be literally proved to be but an atom. — By mere
disjunction of letters that which was nowhere is now here. — Wo to him who shall
take a / from two, even as to him who shall dare to separate man from woman. —
Though you remove the t from there, yet here it remains. — Put c before hanged —
and lo! how it is changed! — Of all the letters in the alphabet e is of the most use
to us; — though b and y certainly make us busy. — You cannot join / to of, but it
will instantly be off. — S may well be called a "sharp" letter, when it can convert
a word into a sword. — Though you take the first and last letters from know yet it
is now, no, — "Dust we are," and even the heart resolves itself into earth. — We
can take c from cease with ease; but w cannot be removed from wart without art;
and he who would take v from vague will have an ague. — Take g from gown —
it loses nothing of its own; add g to one, and lo! it is gone. — Prefix e to we, it
becomes ewe; unite thy and me, they produce thyme. Add one / to our — the
product is four. — Take off the w from won — it remains on; put it before hat —
it is what? try it before here — it is where? — The three letters in own may be
arranged into won; repeat the transposition, and own them now, not won. R
transforms a cow into a crow, and lengthens eve into ever. E changes the pro-
noun ye into an eye, and the preposition to into a toe, and makes on also become
stands side by side with the letter p, and the imitation of the puff in smoking produces the
sound of the letter. In this way the elements of language are taught one by one, and the
complete alphabet occurs nearer the end than the beginning of the book.
II. Words containing all the letters learned are collected in each section — separately,
and combined in little sentences, as Reading Exercises, — so that the child READS FROM THE
VERY FIRST LESSON. Thus, when the primary sounds of the letters A, O, and S are learned —
which is after a mere glance at the illustrative pictures — the child immediately reads their
combinations in the words "say, so," etc. ; and thereby feels the delight which only a child
can feel, at being able to read in a single lesson ! The first steps thus made easy, the learner
is encouraged to proceed with interest.
III. In two sections (which will be mastered in as many lessons) the sounds of six
letters are acquired, and such words as "aim, same, may, mow, maim, pope, soap, pipe, sigh,"
etc., are added to the vocabulary of legible words. In three sections, eight letters and sounds
have been learned, and such words as "shame, shape, home, hope," etc., occur in the reading
exercises. Another section adds two new elements to the stock of knowledge, and gives the
power of reading such words as "sight, might, state, haste, potato, kite, oak," etc.
IV. This could not possibly be done if the names of the letters were taught as the
elements of a word, or if silent letters were taught at all either by names or sounds; but
it is done without the slightest difficulty; and ivithout any alteration of spelling, by printing
silent letters subordinately, and presenting to the eye in LARGE TYPE THE LETTERS WHICH ARE
ACTUALLY SOUNDED. Thus I —
say, sigh, soap, mow, ma'm, etc.
To the large letters alone attention is directed, while the servile or silent letters are all
printed in their proper places, but in a smaller character, which does not interfere with the
reading of the letters that are pronounced.
V. The presence of silent letters thus gives no trouble to the learner in reading, while,
at the same time, his eye is accustomed to see them in familiar words. The memory for
spelling lies altogether in the eye; and this distinctive printing of silent letters gives promi-
nence to the peculiarities of orthography, and impresses them on the memory without any
direct effort of learning.
VI. All irregularities are kept out of sight until facility in vocalizing known letters, and
in reading their regular combinations, is acquired. The principles of reading are, by the
method employed, so comprehensive that the number of irregularities is extremely small.
By the association of LETTERS with SOUNDS they are reduced to limits, the narrowness of
which will astonish those who have long lamented over their apparently hopeless complexity,
when Sounds have been taught through the medium of Letters.
ORTHOGRAPHIC TABLES
45
one. Take s from shoes they become hoes; if you ask how, s will promptly show
it. Y makes what is ours become yours. Write an / and you will have -fever
for ever!
Such examples might be increased to any extent, but these are sufficient to
show how little of rule there can be, founded on letters, to guide the foreigner or
the youthful learner to the correct utterance of our written words. The follow-
ing Tables show, in separate arrangements, the sounds of our Vocal and Articula-
tion marks, and the marks of our vowel and articulate Sounds.
ORTHOGRAPHIC TABLES.
SOUNDS OF THE VOWEL MARKS
The figures refer to the English Vowel Scheme, page 129.
articulations.
Y and W among the figures are
2 as in orange
A sounds
O "
U
3
ale
4
care, any
5
add
6
path
7
arm
1 10
all, swan
1 as in
eve
2
England
4
ere, ever
7
clerk
8
err
ly
righteous
11 as in
2 "
pique
ill
7.1"
isle
8 "
bird
y "
million
f 2 as
in women
7.13
accompt
9
word, son
10
orb, on
11
' ore
12
' ode
. 13
do, wolf
12 as
in busy
4
bury
9
burn, bud
13
rule, bull
yi3
use
w
4 persuade
Y sounds^
AA
AE
AI
AO
AU
2 as in hymn
7.1 4< by
8 ' ' myrrh
y " ye
4 as in Aaron
5 " Isaac
1 as in Csesar
1 as in aerie
3.1 '4 aerial
3.4 Israel
4 4< aer, Michael-
[mas
2
3
3.2
4
5
7.1
as
in captain
ail
dais
air, said
plaid
aisle
3 as in gaol
3.10 " chaos
3.12 " aonian
10
12
extraordi-
[nary
Pharaoh
3 as in gauge
7 " aunt
10 " aught, laurel
12 4< hauteur
46
ORTHOGRAPHIC TABLES
AWsound
10 as in awful
6w " away
AY
f 2 as in Monday
J 3 " lay
prayer, says
ay
I 3 "
j 4 "
I 7.1"
AOU ' •{ 7.13 as in caoutchouc
AWE" 4 10 as in awe
I 3 as in aye
AYE " j 3.2" gayety
I 3.4 "
gayest
1 as in each
1.3 "
create
1.5 "
react
1.6 "
area
EA " J 2 "
guineas
3 "
great
4 "
wear, health
7 "
heart
. 8 "
earl
f 1 as in bee
EE j 1.4 " re-enter
I 2 breeches
E'E " / l asin
e'en
I 4
ne'er
f 1 as ir
1 i-2 ;;
ceil
reimburse
KI " X ?
forfeit
1 3 "
veil
4 "
heir, heifer
I 7.1 "
height
1 as in
1.10 "
1.12 "
EO " J 4
9
10 "
Iyi3 ««
people
theology
Creole
leopard
dungeon
George
feod (fyood)
EU
EW
EY
EAU
EOT
4 L.I as in amateur
13 " rheum
yl3 feud
• 12 as in shew
13 grew
y!3 " dew
1 as in key
monkey
prey
eyre
. 71" eying
f 12 as in beau
1 y!3 " beauty
\ 10.1 as in burgeois
EWE
f 12 as in sewed
_ 1 13 " brewed
sound (. y!3 "
ewe
EYE "
fl as in keyed
3 surveyed
7.1" eyed
[2 as in parliament
• 1.3
mediate
T. ((
IA
'
•{ 1.5 "
trivial
7.1.3"
hiatus
'
L 7.1.5 "
Iambic
1 as in field
1.1 '
series
1.4 '
veriest
IE "
j 1.8 '
earlier
] 2
sieve
4 '
friend
7.1 «
die
I 7.1.4 '
science
f 9 as in motion
10 "
1.10
< 1.12 "
mediocrity
mediocre
7.1.10"
Ionic
I 7.1.12"
violence
" 9 as in
cupboard
10 '
broad, groat
11 '
oar
OA " v
12 '
boat
12.5'
12.6'
coagulate
oasis
12.7 ' coarct
f 10.1 as in oboe
*12
doe
OE " 4
12.1 "
coeval
12.2 "
poet
{
13
shoe
3 as in connoisseur
^9 ^ avoirdupoise
lu.l c
oin
OI " <
12.2" stoic
13.2" doing
w7.1" choir
. wlO " memoir
\
9 as in blood
11 " door
OO " -1
12 " brooch
12.10^' . zo-ology
12.12" zo-o-logical
13. bloom, book
OU " J
9 as in journal, young
10 bought, cough
11 " four
12 " soul
L 13 through, would
ORTHOGRAPHIC TABLES
47
7.13 as in now
WO sound
!9 as in twopence
11 " sword
OWsoundS JQ « knowledge
13 two
L 12 " know
(7.1 as in dye
OY " -{ 10.1 as in boy
YE "
7.1.1 " hyena
(w3 as in persuade
7.1.8 ' dyer
5 piquant
w5 quack
UB, "
\ y.l as in minutiae
7 ' guard
13.7 guano
IEU "
f 4v " lieutenant
\ y!3 " adieu
wlO ' squall, squat
IEW "
\ y!3 view
wl as in query
4 ' ' guess
IOU "
\ 9 " cautious
w4 quell
8 guerdon
CEU "
-{13 " manoeuvre
UE " 4 w8 cuerpo
13 " rue
OOE "
-{13 " wooed
13.4" cruel
f 7.13.4 " vowel
yl3 ' ' cue
fc y!3.4 " duel
OWE"
I 12 " owed
( 12.4 " lowest
1 as in mosquito
w 1 " suite
OWA"
-{11 " towards
2 " build
w2 quill
UAY sound \ 1 as in quay
7.1" guide
UEA
' \ wl " squeak
UI < w7.1 " quire
w8 " squirt
UEE
\ wl queen
13 " fruit
13.2" fruition
UEU
1 \ 4 LI " liqueur
y!3 ' ' suit
y!3.2 " aguish
110 as in liquor
UOI
, / 1 torquoise
\ wlO.l " quoit
wlO ' ' quondam
UOY " { wlO.l " buoy
wll " quorum
wl2 " quote
IE WE '
' ^ y!3 viewed
y!3.12" duo
!2 as in plaguy
UAYE '
' \ 1 " quayed
w2 " colloquy
7.1 " buy
UEUE '
\ y!3 " queue
WE " -{ 8 as in answer
UOYE '
\ wlO.l " buoyed
SILENT VOWEL MARKS
E is silent in hidden, fasten, soften, etc., and generally when final.
I devil, etc.
O mutton, prison, etc.
AI Britain.
UA victuals.
UE plague, barque, harangue, etc.
48
MARKS OF THE VOWEL SOUNDS
MARKS OF THE VOWEL SOUNDS
>>
re as in eve
^
r e(r) as in her
T3
i ' fatigue
|
i(r) firmness
1
se ' minutiae
00
-H J
y(r) hyrst
a
ae aerie
11
ea(r) " earnest
09
ee ' bee
ue(r) " guerdon
£
e'e e'en
>
^ we(r) " answer
^%
ea eat
H
ei conceive
o as in world, done
co
1
eo people
ey key
eye ' keyed
ie ' field
1
u furnace, ugly
eo dungeon
io motion
oa cupboard
>
^ uoi ' turquoise
.2,
oi avoirdupoise
oo blood
a as in cabbage
r-!
ou journey, young
e ' ' pretty
1
ow bellows
£
i "ill
wo twopence
T3
o ' ' women
iou cautious
-M
u ' ' busy
. olo colonel
C
y ' ' hymn
OJ
ai ' ' mountain
r a as in fall, \\ant
Oo
ay ' Monday
o order, often
OJ*
JH
ea ' guineas
£
ao extraordinary
.2
ee ' breeches
o
au taught, laudanum
Cxi
ei ' forfeit
rH
^_^
aw ' awful
U
ey ' monkey
1
awe " awe
|
ia ' ' parliament
l>
eo George
>
ie ' ' sieve
J>
oa ' abroad, groat
ui build
ou thought, hough
t uy plaguy
^ ow ' ' knowledge
r a as in age
o as in ore
O
ai aim
ew sewer
ao gaol
*°
oa oar
<U
au gauge
*"* \
oo door
tn
ay pay
•3"
ou four
•T- <
aye " aye
§
wo sword
^
ea steak
>
owa " towards
1
ei ' ' vein
ey obey
^ orps ' ' corps
>
eye ' preyed
o as in old
oi ' ' connoisseur
ao ' ' Pharaoh
a as in fare, many
•e
au hauteur
^>
e ere, ever
OH
ew shew
u bury
>H
eau ' beau
£
aa Aaron
.2
ewe ' sewed
a
flj
ae aer, Michaelmas
<M^
oa oak
a
OJ
ai air, said
^
oe foe
1-
ay prayer, says
ea wear, health
0)
1
oo brooch
ou soul
in
e'e ' ne'er
^
ow ' ' crow
^
ei heir, heifer
owe ' ' crowed
1
eo leopard
ey eyre
ie friend
„ ue ' guess
'o as in do, wolf
u rule, pull
eu rheumatism
ew grew
5 by
{a as in amber
aa Canaan
ai raillery
ti
u
VH
ewe ' ' brewed
oe shoe
ceu ' ' manoeuvre
6 by
\ a as in ask
S
oo " bloom, book
ooe ' wooed
1 a as in ardour
1
ou ' through, would
e clerk
O
ue ' rue
^ _o
< au haunt
^
ui ' fruit
o
ea hearty
. wo two
t ua " guardian
SOUNDS OF THE ARTICULATION MARKS
49
*
d,
i as in isle
y by
ai ' ' naivete"
111
II? I
o as in accomptant
ou " thou
ow ' ' bow
ay ' ay
OD
ei height
'^
ey ; eying
^
eye * eye
,_
ie « lie
— i >> f
oe as in oboe
1
ui ' guide
uy buy
K*
oi ' ' c6in
oy ' ' boy
ye ' ' dye
>s[
eoi ' ' burgeois
SOUNDS OF THE: ARTICULATION MARKS
B sounds as in babe
s k tsh
tsh k sh
ch sounds as in chapter, character, chaise
C "
cell, cake, vermicelli,
dzh
sandwich
sh
special
chm
m km
" " drachm, drachma
z
sh ks
sacrifice, (verb)
chs
" " fuchsia, stomachs
t dzh
t
D " "
deed, stopped, soldier
cht
" yacht
1? < < «
V
feoff, of
ck
" back
G "
dzh zh
gig, gem, rouge
ckb
'« '* Cockburn, cock-boat
g
H "
he, hay, high, hoe, hue,
etc. (the vowel for-
ckg
" " blackguard
mation modifying un-
cq
4 ' " acquire
t ksh kt
vocalized breath )
th
ct
" " indict, diction, active
eighth
cz
" Czar
dzh y
d dd
T « («
jay, hallelujah, jambeaux
dd
11 " haddock, head-dress
K "
kick
dhh
" Buddhist
r
dzh dg
I, "
lull, colonel
dg
" " judgment, Edgar
M "
main
ng m
dn
11 dn
" " Wednesday, madness
N "
noon, an-ger, Banff
ds
z dz
" " Windsor, winds
P
S°P
ff
f ff
" " ruffle, half -fee
Q
queen
f ft
R "
rare
ft
" " soften, softer
S
z sh zh
this, as, sugar, lesion
gh
" " hiccough, hough, ghost
f
T "
sh zh
tight, action, transition
laugh
t
V "
vivid
ght
" " bought
W "
wag (this letter is also a
vowel mark)
ks gz z
gl
gm
" " seraglio, ugly
m gm
" " phlegm, phlegmatic
X "
Y »
expect, exists, xystus
yard (this letter is also a
gn
n gn
" " gnomon, signet
n
vowel mark)
hn
" John
Z " "
zh
zeal, azure
kn
n
' ' ' ' know
d 1 Id
bb "
b bb
clubbist, club-book
Id
11 " would, Guildford, builder
f if
d bd
If
" half, self
bd "
bdellium, obdurate
Ifp
P
" " halfpenny
bt " , "
t bt
debt, subtend
fr
Ik
k ik
" walk, elk
k ks
i n
cc "
tobacco, accede
11
" falling, soulless
k
m Ira
cch "
Bacchus 1m
" " psalm, elm
50
SILENT ARTICULATION MARKS
Iks
In sonnd as in kiln, fulness
sc
sh 8k
sound as in conscience, sceptic
1 III
s sh
Ix " " calx
sch
" schism, schedule,
m mb
stsh sk
mb " " dumb, rhumb
mischief, school
m
sh z
mm " " hammer
sh
" shape, dishonour,
m n
s-h
mn " " hymn, mnemonics,
mishap
mn
1 si
amnesty
si
" isle, asleep
m n mp
n sn
mp " *' Campbell, comptcr, lamp
sn
" puisne (Pr. puny), snare
ng nrt
S S-S 7.
nd handkerchief, hand
ss
loss, mis-sent, scissors,
ngg n-g
sh zh
ng ; sing, single, ingraft
mission, abscission
ndzh
s st
fringes
st
" castle, history
n un
s
nn " " minnow, meanness
str
mistress (colloquial),
b pb
pb " cupboard, cupbearer
str
stress
v r p
ph nephew, philter, diph-
sv
" " Grosvenor
p-h
thong, loophole
sw
a aw zw
" " sword, sward, Boswell,
t th
phth " phthisical, apophthegm,
Chiswick
pth
b tb
triphthong
tb
" " hautboy, potboy
n pn
t-h
pn pneumatics, cheapness
th
" " thigh, thy, pothouse,
p P P
t tth
pp '* supple, soup-pan
thyme, eighth
i ti
pph " " sapphire
tl
" bristly, ghastly
s ps
t 1 1
ps psalm, perhaps
tt
" *' hatter, boot-tree
sh psh
th
psh " pshaw, upshot
tth
" Matthew
t pt
t tw
pt " receipt, apt
tw
" two, twain
kw k
s
qu " " quake, quay
tzs
" britzska
r rh
h
rh " rhetoric, perhaps
wh
" " what, who
r T r
i
rr : error, poor-rates
wl
" knowledge
r
r
rrh " " catarrh
wr
" ' ' write
rs rsh rz
s z
rs " u person, Persian, bars
ws
" " bellows, bellows (verb)
r rt
V
rt " " mortgage, heart
zv
" " rendezvous
k •%* a z
z tz
sc viscount, science, discern zz
" " buzzing, mezzotint
SILENT ARTICULATION
MARKS.
DOUBLE LETTERS are generally sounded as one ; as in cannon, better, missile, pepper, hammer,
beckon, acquire, etc. One, therefore, in such pairs is silent.
B is silent in bdellium, dumb, debt, etc.
C ' science, Czar, muscle, black, acquiesce, indict, schedule, etc.
D " " Wednesday, handkerchief, etc.
F " " halfpenny.
' bagnio, seraglio, phlegm, etc.
" 'heir, thyme, rheum, khan, John, ghastly,
diphthong, character, etc.
K ' know, wreck, etc.
L " alms, salmon, would, half, etc.
M " mnemonics, etc.
N " hymn, kiln, etc.
" cupboard, ptarmigan, pneumatics, psalm,
bumpkin, assumption, pshaw, etc.
' demesne, isle, viscount, chamois, etc.
T ' fasten, soften, trait, mortgage, hautboy,
Matthew, etc.
MARKS OP THE ARTICULATIONS 51
W is silent in whole, who, sword, two, write, knowledge ; and when final.
Y " " when final after a vowel.
Z ' " rendezvous.
Ch ' " drachm, yacht, bacchanal, schism, etc.
Ck ' " blackguard.
Dh ' " Buddhist.
Gh " thought, etc.
Ph " phthisical, apophthegm, etc. •
Rh " catarrh, etc.
Tr " mistress (colloquial).
Tz " britzska.
MARKS OF THE) ARTICULATIONS.
The figures refer to the Scheme of English Articulations (page 142, March).
ARTICU-
LATION.
1 is represented by c, k, q, cc, ch, ck, gh, ke, kh, cqu, que, cch, qu, cq, Ik; as in can, kill,
quit, account, character, neck, hough, lake, khan, lacquer, pique, Bac-
chic, quay, acquire, walk.
2 " " " g, gg, gh, gue, ckg; as in leg, egg, ghost, plague, blackguard.
3 " " n, nd, ng, ngue; as in ink, handkerchief, song, tongue.
4 " " " h ; as in hue.
. / few, / osier, hallelujah, use, you.
5 ^''J'11'^*5111 1 duteous, i million.
6 " " " c, s, t, ch, chs, sc, sh, ss, sch, psh; as in ocean, tension, nation, chaise,
fuchsia, conscience, shape, omission, schedule, pshaw.
7 " " " g, ge, s, ss, t, z, j ; as in giraffe, rouge, leisure, abscission, transition,
azure, jambeaux.
8 " " rr, as in "horrible, most horrible!"
9 " " " r, rh, rr, rh; as in race, rhubarb, mirror, myrrhine.
10 " " " 1, le, 11, In, si, sle, tie, gl; as in late, tale, all, kiln, island, isle, thistle,
seraglio.
1 1 " " t, te, th, tt, bt, ct, cht, pt, ght, phth, ed ; as in at, late, thyme, cottage,
debtor, indictment, yacht, ptarmigan, sight, phthisis, stopped.
12 " " d, de, dd, bd, ddh, Id ; as in bad, bade, add, bdellium, Buddhism, would.
13 " " " n, ne, nn, dn, gn, hn, kn, mn, sn, sne, mp; as in dun, done, inn, Wednes-
day, sign, John, know, mnemonics, puisne, demesne, compter.
14 " " c, ce, s, sc, se, ss, ps, tzs; as in cell, ace, gas, scent, base, loss, psalm,
britzska.
15 " " ce, cz, s, se, sc, sh, ss, z, ze, zz, ds, x; as in sacrifice (v.), Czarina,
as, ease, discern, dishonour, scissors, zeal, baize, buzz, Windsor,
xystus.
16 " " h. th, tth, phth ; as in eighth, thing, Matthew, apophthegm.
17 " " " th, the; as in this, breathe.
18 " f, fe, ff, gh, ph, pph, ft, If; as in leaf, safe, stiff, laugh, physic, sapphire,
soften, half.
19 " v, ve, f, ph, zv; as in vain, save, of, nephew, rendezvous.
20 " wh ; as in what.
21 " w, o, u; as in way, one, quick — persuade.
22 " " p, pe, pp, ph, gh, Ifp; as in pay, tape, tippet, ophthalmia, hiccough,
halfpenny.
23 " b, be, bb, pb; as in crab, glebe, ebb, cupboard.
24 " " m, mb, me, mm, mn, chm, gm, 1m, sme; as in aim, lamb, same, common,
condemn, drachm, paradigm, palm, disme.
To these may be added the common combinations ks-gz, alphabetically represented by x;
and tsh-dzh, the latter alphabetically represented by /; the former being commonly denoted
by ch.
1-14 are represented by x, xc, xe, cc, chs, ks, cks, ques ; as in ox, except, axe, accept, stom-
achs, works, wrecks, barques.
2-15 ' x, gs, ggs ; as in exalt, legs, eggs.
1 1-6 ' : c, ch, tch; as in vermicelli, chair, watch.
12-7 ' ; d, dg, dge, g, ge, gg, j, ch; as in soldier, judgment, judge, gem,
range, exaggerate, jay, sandwich.
52 PHONETIC NOTATION OF SPEECH
PHONETIC NOTATION OF SPEECH.*
It would really be a matter of but little difficulty to reconstruct our alphabet,
and furnish it with invariable marks for every appreciable variety of vocal and
articulate sound. So few as 12 radical letters might be made to represent all the
English articulations. Thus: we have 12 forms of articulative action, most of
which do, and all of which may, modify both voice and breath; so producing. 24
elements of speech. Let some uniform change to represent breath and voice be
made on each of the 12 characters, and these 24 varieties of articulate sound may
be not only fully represented, but with a natural analogy and consistency, which
would explain to the eye their organic relations.
A further uniform change made on those letters which have a nasal corre-
spondent would complete the scheme, and, with perfect analogy between marks
and sounds, exhibit, by 12 radical letters, every articulation in our language.
Some equally simple and analogical notation might be arranged for the vowels,
on the principle of their sequence, so that a really Scientific Alphabet could be
easily constructed.
The system of Phonotypes — or letters representing sounds — introduced by
Messrs. Pitman and Ellis, though a great improvement on the ordinary alphabet,
does not carry improvement beyond supplying deficient letters, and discarding
redundant ones. If ever a change in our orthography should be authoritatively
made, it should be based on an alphabet as perfect a picture of our sounds as
science and ingenuity could produce. We have shown a principle by means of
which the formation of such an alphabet would be an easy matter.
Mr. Pitman's phonographic scheme of marks is much more scientific than
the alphabet of phonotypes; but even the former is, — for the purpose of accurate
notation, — far short of what a more intimate knowledge of the vocal mechanisms
should have made it. In a system of writing by sound, there must be a very
accurate appreciation of sound, and a faultless principiation of language. In both
these respects, this phonographic system is somewhat defective.
FIRST. The vowel notation, for instance, represents the sounds in the fol-
lowing pairs of words as the same in quality, and different only in quantity; the
vowels in the first line being called "long," and those in the second "short."
"seek, pate, psalm, stalk, cote, fool,
sick, pet, Sam, stock, cut, pull."
True />7z0w<?graphy cannot recognize such "longs" and "shorts."
SECOND. A phonographic writer should be able to delineate on his page the
very peculiarities of a speaker's pronunciation; but in this system no means are
furnished for the writing of four of the most distinctive of all the vowel sounds
in English : those heard in the words
ere, err, ask, ore.
THIRD. The articulations, also, are arranged on false principles. They are
classed as "mutes," which include such letters as B and J ; "semi-vowels" which
include such as F and S ; "liquids," which include only R and L : and the letters
M, N, and NG, which are also liquids, are classed as simply "nasals."
. _«
* This chapter foreshadows the idea which was subsequently materialized in "Visible
Speech."
COMBINATIONS 53
FOURTH. Voice Articulations are called "Hats," and Breath Articulations
"sharps;" but of the "liquids" and "nasals," which are all voice letters, four are
represented as "sharps," while the fifth, NG, is represented as bearing the same
relation to N that V does to F, B to P, etc.
FIFTH. The articulative function of the letters Y and W is not recognized.
These elements are considered to be always vowels — vowels only. The result is,
that this lack of characters to represent two articulations has to be supplied, and
is supplied by no less than 40 symbols, to denote their combinations with different
vowels. The cumbersome result of such a theory, one would have expected to
operate to its rejection, even were it strictly correct; but it is clearly erroneous.
SIXTH. As there is no articulation w in this system, there is of course no
wh; and this Breath Articulation is considered to be identical in sound with the
word who (=wh =hoo). Thus, the sentence, "/ saw the man WHET the knife"
is phono graphic ally (?) perverted into the rather startling assertion, "I saw the
man WHO ATE the knife" Let the most glib upholder of this theory pronounce
the latter sentence as rapidly as he can, and see if he will ever make it express
the former. Yet it should do so by the mere accident of abruptness, if the theory
were correct.
The phonetic notation of speech being now perfectly accomplished in the
three forms
(1) Line Writing,
(2) World-English,
(3) Visible Speech,
the employment of a stenographic alphabet for phonetic illustration is discon-
tinued, as unnecessary (see page 128).
QUANTITY, AND ELEMENTARY COMBINATIONS.
Different degrees of quantity may be recognized in the simple elements of
speech, vowel and articulate, as well as in their syllabic and verbal combinations.
Among the English VOWELS, singly uttered, we distinguish three degrees of quan-
tity. The longest are those vowels which consist of two qualities of sound, viz. :
DIPHTHONGS. A diphthong may be composed of either an open vowel tapering
into a closer, as a-e (=3 i), ah-e (=7 i), ah-oo (=7 13), aw-e (= 10 i),
o-oo (=12 13), — heard in ail, isle, owl, oil, old; or of any monophthong-vowel
flowing into the open and peculiar sound er (=8), — as e-er (= i 8), eh-er
(=4 8), ah-er (=7 8), uh-er (=g 8), aw-er (= 10 8), o-er (=11 8), oo-er
(=13 8), = heard in ear, air, arc, urn, drawer, ore, poor. These are all diph-
thongs; though only the 2nd, 3rd, and 4th of the first set are generally enumerated
as such.* The initial elements of all these diphthongs give LONG MONOPHTHONGS,
which are the next in quantity to the diphthongs. The first sounds of a-e (3),
o-oo (12), eh-er (4), uh-er (9), o-er (n), do not occur separately as long sounds
in English : the first two do not occur separately at all.
The next and shortest class of vowels are those abrupt utterances of voice
heard in ill, ell, an, us, on, book, etc., which are SHORT MONOPHTHONGS. There
is not, as seems to be generally supposed, any degree of duration essential to any
of the monophthong vowels. The longest may be pronounced as shortly as the
regularly short sounds ; and any of the latter may be prolonged to the full quan-
tity of the longest of the former class. Thus, if we endeavour to prolong the
* In Smart's Dictionary, the last class of sounds is noticed in the scheme of vowels,
under the separate head of "VOWELS WHICH TERMINATE IN GUTTURAL VIBRATION/'
54 QUANTITY COMBINATIONS
short monophthongs, or to stop abruptly the long ones, we shall discover that the
vowels in ere (4), all (10), ooze (13), are essentially the same vowel formations
as tf(ll), 0(n), (b)oo(k) ; and also that w(s) is precisely the same sound as the
initial element of the diphthong ur.
The monophthongs e (i) and ah (7) are never short in accented syllables in
English ; but that they can be shortened as readily as those which are sometimes
long and sometimes short, will be evident from experiment. In Scotland their
short sounds are often heard; they constitute, indeed, a main feature in the
Scottish dialect. The vowel in an (5), though short in English, is often heard
long in Scotland ; and it is pronounced long in Ireland instead of 6 or 7, in such
words as aunt, pass, papa, etc.
Among the ARTICULATIONS there are various degrees of quantity. The vocal
articulations are essentially longer than the non-vocal, but in each class there are
varieties :
Thus : The Breath Obstructives, P, T, K, are the shortest.
The Breath Continuous Elements, F, Th, S, Sh, are the next longer.
The Shut Voice Articulations, B, D, G, are the next in length.
The Close Continuous Voice Articulations, V, Th, Z, Zh, are longer still.
The Open Continuous Voice Articulations (or Liquids) L, M, N, NG, are
the longest simple articulations.
Wh, W, Y, and R are not included, because these articulations do not occur
after vowels, but only as initials in English ; and all initial letters, whether voice
or breath, are alike in quantity.
These differences of articulative quantity will be best observed by prefixing
to each articulation the three classes of vowels. The short vowels will be found
to have degrees of shortness, according to the kind of articulation they precede, —
and the long monophthongs and diphthongs will also be found to be considerably
affected in quantity by the succeeding articulation. Thus :
Short Monophthongs: ip, if, ib, iv, il.
Long Monophthongs: eep, eef, eeb, eev, eel.
Diphthongs: ipe, ife, ibe, ive, ile.
There are other differences of quantity which arise from the COMBINATION
of LETTERS into SYLLABLES, and SYLLABLES into WORDS. And first — What is a
syllable ? We have no non-vocal syllables ; voice, therefore, is the first requisite ;
and the syllabic voice may be either confined to one letter, or distributed among
several letters. The vowel part of a syllable may consist of two elements, form-
ing either a closing diphthong, as aye, owe, eye, hoy, how, etc., or an opening
diphthong, as ear, air, ore, your, etc. If such words as fire, our, etc., which con-
tain three vowel elements, = a closing diphthong followed by the open sound
er(S) — be considered monosyllables, then the vowel part of a syllable might be
said to contain a triphthong; but when these words are fully pronounced, they
are undoubtedly dissyllables, and perfect rhymes to higher, power, etc., which are
never reckoned monosyllabic words.
In colloquial speech, fire, higher, our, power, and all words of this formation,
are frequently contracted into one syllabic impulse, by a slurring of the vowels,
the close elements I and 13 being converted into 4 or 5 and 10 or n ; ire being
thus pronounced nearly ah-air (7-4-8) and our nearly ah-orc (7-11-8). The
mouth undergoes but little increase or diminution of vowel aperture in these latter
combinations, and consequently they blend with smooth indefiniteness into one
concrete utterance. Indeed, the whole of the possible shadings of vowel-sound
between ah and e, or ah and oo, or conversely, might be blended monosyllabically ;
ELEMENTARY COMBINATIONS 55
but no return from the closing progression to an opening one, or conversely,
could take place without creating a new syllable.*
We have said that the syllabic voice may be either confined to one letter, or
distributed among several letters. Thus: Before and after the vowel may be
placed an open vocal articulation or "liquid." Take for an example, the vowel ai
(3), to which let us add an initial and final articulation of the open class; thus,
/ ai n. • This is still one syllable, and we may prefix and affix to it an Obstructive; —
thus, bl ai nd. A Continuous Voice Articulation might still be added before and
after — though we have not in English any initial continuous voice articulation
followed by an obstructive: — this would give us the monosyllable zbl ai ndzh.
An Obstructive might yet be added before and after this combination, without
destroying the unity of the syllable; thus, dzblaindzhd. This barbarous-looking
word is not so foreign to our language as at first sight it may appear. With the
exception of the initial dz, the combination is a perfectly English one, occurring
in such words as cringed, changed, bulged, etc.
The organs slide from point to point in these clustered articulations, and there
is no openness in the sounds. The open continuous elements (liquids), it will be
observed, are immediately before and after the vowel. They could not be else-
where without creating other syllables — because for them the voice has a vowel-
openness and purity. Thus, / and n, as elsewhere shown, often of themselves
make syllables in English utterance, — though not in orthography, for we write a
silent e, — as in middle, bidden, bible, even, -fasten, thistle, etc.\
The liquid / may be prefixed to either of the other liquids in the same syllable.
Thus, we still write In and Im, though we no longer pronounce the former, and
only in a few words the latter; but neither of the other liquids (which are nasals
and orally obstructive) can be uttered before / in one syllable, because the nasals
shut the mouth and are, therefore, before I, which opens a free oral passage, the
same as the obstructives B, D, G. We might then insert / before the n in the
illustrative word before given, and so present, as a monosyllabic combination, no
fewer than five articulations after a vowel — dzblailndzhd.
No voiceless articulations could be introduced among these vocal letters with-
out cutting up the combination into as many syllables ; nor could any voice-letter
be inserted in a combination of breath-articulations without creating for every
voice articulation so added, a new syllable. Thus, the letters spsftinktsths, in this
arrangement, constitute a monosyllable; but separate the vocal articulations from
the vowel, and insert them among the articulations, and the same letters will
constitute a trisyllable; thus, splsfiknsths. Both these words are capable of dis-
* Dr. Rush, in his excellent work, "The Philosophy of the Voice," says, "It is the con-
crete function of the voice which alone constitutes a syllable." By the concrete function,
however, is meant that tapering quality of all spoken sounds, as distinguished from the even
tenor of the sounds of song. These tapering and even qualities have reference, not to vowel
formation, but to musical pitch. All speaking sounds thus taper, acutely or gravely, — while,
in song, the sounds maintain, for a definite time, one musical note. The "unbroken concrete"
may, however, be continued through more than one syllable: — for instance, in to^-tng,
jo^-ous, pray-tfst, high-est, show-y, etc. What, then, is it that syllables these words? Is it
not the necessary opening of the sound for the last vowel, after the closing diphthong which
precedes it?
t Our orthographic process refuses to acknowledge any syllable that has not a vowel
letter; so when we write a vowel with the liquid, the syllabic effect of the liquid is not
disputed; but if, as in spasm, rhythm, etc., we write no vowel, then, though the syllabic
sound is the very same, the syllable is not acknowledged. While listen (= lis-n) is reckoned
a dissyllable; rhyth-m is inconsistently excluded from the same class, and called a monosyl-
lable. Either these words are both monosyllables or both dissyllables, for their elements
' of sound are letter for letter of the same class.
56
INITIAL ARTICULATIVE COMBINATIONS
tinct articulation; but it may cost the reader a little practice before he is able to
enounce them with fluency.
The following are all the articulative combinations which occur at the begin-
ning of English syllables.
INITIAL ARTICULATIVE COMBINATIONS.
bw as in buoy
by
bl
br
py
Pi
dr
dzh
ty
tw
tr
tsh
gw
gy
beauty
blade
bride
pew
place
price
due
dwarf
draw
jew
tune
twelve
try
chair
guelph
gewgaw
gl as
in glass
gr
great
kw '
queen
ky '
cue
kl '
cleave
kr
crime
my
muse
ny
' neuter
r
1 few
' flight
fr
fright
vy
view
thw
thwart
thy
thew
thr
three
sw
sway
sy
sue
si as
n slave
sm
smile
sn
snow
sf
sphere
sp
spire
st
steam
sk
sky
spl
spleen
spr
spring
spy
spume
str
straw
sty
stew
skr
scream
skw
squint
sky
skew
shr
shrine
In the following quantitative Series of Vowels we have shown the effect
of single articulations on the vowel quantities. We shall now show the numerous
degrees of syllabic quantity which arise entirely from articulative combinations.
Quantity is generally considered to have reference to Vowels only ; but if it
is intended to mean the duration of the enunciative process, it must include Articu-
lations also.
The Liquids, — or as their functions in syllables would rather require them
to be called, transparent letters, — before a single final articulation, give the next
degree of quantity greater than that of the single articulation ; double articulations
are the next longer ; then liquids before double articulations; then treble articula-
tions; next liquids before treble articulations, and so on. But as the articulations
are not all of the same duration, their combinations present a great many slighter
differences of quantity. The liquids are so thin a veil before Breath Articulations
that they hardly for an instant intercept our view of the adjoining letter; — before
Voice Articulations they become more massive, and two liquids are the longest
liquid articulations in the language.
Let the student read the following combinations in the order in which they
are arranged, and he will be able to trace the nice gradations, which connect by
no fewer than nineteen steps, the quantitative extremes of voiceless combinations;
and by fifteen, those of the vocal combinations.
The practice of the following words will be found extremely useful in giving
distinctness and fluency of articulation. The test of correctness is, — HEAR
LETTER.
TERMINAL SYLLABIC COMBINATIONS OF BREATH ARTICULATIONS.
LIQUID AND SINGLE ARTICULATIONS.
1. Help, felt, milk, tent, lamp, dreamt, ink, etc.
2. Self, health, else, Welsh, ninth, dance, nymph, strength, etc.
DOUBLE ARTICULATIONS.
3. Apt, act, etc.
4. Steps, depth, nets, eighth, watch, ox, etc.
5. Left, wasp, fast, ask, etc.
6. Safes, fifth, broths, etc.
COMBINATIONS OF BREATH ARTICULATIONS 57
LIQUID AND DOUBLE ARTICULATIONS.
7. Gulped, milked, stamped, succinct, etc.
8. Alps, bolts, belch, silks, prints, French, imps, tempts, thanks, etc.
9. Ingulfed, fail'st, against, com'st, sing'st, etc.
10. Gulfs, healths, tenths, nymphs, lengths, etc.
TREBLE ARTICULATIONS.
11. Adepts, expects, etc.
12. Sharp'st, sat'st, patched, look'st, etc.
13. Eighths.
14. Thefts, asps, costs, desks, etc.
15. Fifths.
LIQUID AND TREBLE ARTICULATIONS.
16. Help'st, halt'st, filched, milk'st, hint'st, flinched, limp'st, attempt'st, think'st, etc.
17. Twelfths.
QUADRUPLE ARTICULATIONS.
18. Texts.
19. Sixths.
TERMINAL SYLLABIC COMBINATIONS OF VOICE) ARTICULATIONS.
LIQUID AND SINGLE ARTICULATIONS.
1. Bulb, old, rhomb, hemmed, finned, hanged, etc.
2. Delve, ells, aims, bronze, pangs, etc.
DOUBLE ARTICULATIONS.
3. Stabbed, begged, etc.
4. Cabs, adze, edge, eggs, etc.
5. Saved, seethed, grazed, rouged, etc.
6. Graves, bathes, etc.
7. Helm, etc.
LIQUID AND DOUBLE ARTICULATIONS.
8. Bulbed.
9. Bulbs, folds, bilge, rhumbs, lands, change, etc.
10. Involved, bronzed, etc.
11. Wolves, etc.
12. Overwhelmed, etc.
13. Elms, etc.
TREBLE ARTICULATIONS.
14. Besieged.
LIQUID AND TREBLE ARTICULATIONS.
15. Bulged, changed, etc.
TERMINAL COMBINATIONS OF MIXED ARTICULATIONS.
From what has been said on the component elements of syllables, it will be
evident that voice articulations cannot follow breath ones in the same syllable,
but that breath articulations may follow vocal ones. The following mixed combi-
nations (besides the Liquids already given in the first of these Tables) are all
that occur in English.
1. Width, etc.
2. Brib'st, midst, hugg'st, etc.
3. Striv'st, sooth'st, etc.
4. Hold'st, etc.
5. Delv'st, etc.
58 TERMINAL COMBINATIONS
A further variety of syllabic quantities arises from the COMBINATION OF
SYLLABLES INTO WORDS.
An accented syllable — whatever its constituent elements — followed by one
unaccented, is shorter than a monosyllable containing the same elements ; followed
by two unaccented syllables, it is still shorter; by three, shorter still; and so on,
it decreases in quantity as its terminal unaccented syllables increase in number.
Thus, lit, litter, literal, literally.
It is further to be observed, that the accented syllable is longer when the
syllable next to it begins with an articulation than when it begins with a vowel.
A comparison of love, lovely, loveliness, with love, loving, lovingly, will manifest
this distinction.
We have now shown the differences of quantity essential in the separate
elements of speech; and the quantitative influence of Articulations on Vowels,
and of Unaccented on Accented Syllables. The influence of another vowel imme-
diately succeeding the accented one, as in theatre, drawing, etc., remains to be
noticed. If we compare any words of this class with others which have the
shortest articulation interposed between the vowels — as,
seeing, fluid, * sawest,
seated, fluted, soughtest,
we shall find that (in their ordinary pronunciation) the vowels are shorter in the
first than in the second class of words. The judge of this is, of course, the ear.
For an accurate test, however, it will be necessary to compare the words —
not separately, but in a sentence, that they may have their ordinary colloquial
quantity ; for as the words of the first class more easily bear an increased quantity
than those of the second, they would be very liable to receive an unconscious
addition in separate comparison. Test them in the following sentences :
Seeing you seated here, I came to you.
Lucky fellow ! thou sawest that for which thou soughtest not.
That fluted glass looks very like a streaming fluid.
As a general principle, then, accented monophthong vowels preceding another
vowel are shorter than when they are before any articulation.
In the preceding Quantitative Tables, the nature and extent of our Articu-
lative Combinations have been shown. To complete the view of English Ele-
mentary Compounds, we shall now exhibit a corresponding arrangement of Vowel
Combinations.
The English language is usually supposed to be more deficient of vowel com-
binations than it really is. It certainly has a great proportion of articulations,
and long — because final — clusters of these elements ; but they give a strength and
dignity to utterance, for which euphonious vowel-smoothness would but ill com-
pensate.
The apparent scarcity of vowels, however, arises in great part from the rude
way in which these soft elements are slurred, and curtailed of their "fair pro-
portion" by our speakers. Let the sounds be fully given, with all their tapering
qualities, and softly blending in their combinations, without careless elisions and
clippings, and the English Tongue will be found to possess as much of vowel-
euphony as is consistent with the masculine character of its utterance.
The following instances of Vowel-Combinations, — accented and unaccented, —
are commended to the student's tasteful practice. The perfect enunciation of
these combinations, without either of the sounds being impaired in quality, is one
of the neatest acts of speech, and a sure criterion of the cultivation of the reader.
ENGLISH V Oil7 EL COMBINATIONS 59
ENGUSH VOWEL COMBINATIONS.
Vowels i-i Caries, congeries, minutiae, periaeci, pre-elect, sanies, series.
1-2 Being, seeing, zeine, deity, theism, deism, cuneiform, deicide, corporeity,
nereid, howbeit, seity, spontaneity, velleity, reiterate, atheist.
1-3 Create, creator, re-agent, enunciation, verbiage, ideate, permeate, affiliation,
lineage, depreciate, initiate, excoriate, foliage, malleate, muriate, obviate,
recreate, satiate.
1-4 Re-echo, arietta, Vienna, acquiesce, oriental, pre-eminent, siesta, ambient,
requiem, inscience, orient, lenient.
1-5 Ideal, paean, Sabean, pharisean, react, zodiac, myriad, pancreas, lineal, deal-
bate, meander, genealogy, adamantean, alias, encomiast, bronchial, burial,
cardialgy, caveat, anteact.
1-6 Agreeable, screable, cochleary, area, zea, diarrhoea, dulia, mania, dyspnoea,
malleable, nausea, scoria, trachea.
1-7 Dearticulate, pianist, linear.
1-8 Near, bier, deer, appear, cheerful, afeard, veneer, barrier, moneyer, courier,
rapier.
1-9 Theurgy, lyceum, mausoleum, museum, idiot, idiom, curious, permeous,
cupreous, axiom, amphibious, calcareous, carneous, furious, geranium,
igneous.
I- 10 Deaurate, geology, oeolipile, areotic, areometer, ebriosity, curiosity, georgic,
geotic, heliolatry, meteoric, periodical, teleology, deobstruct, junior, senior,
meteor.
1-12 Leo, peony, zeolite, pleonasm, graveolent, deodand, geode, embryo, neoteric,
helioscope, aposiopesis, ratio, urceolate.
1-7- 1 Radii, Agnus-Dei.
i-io-i Helioid, cardioid.
i-12-i Vitreo-electric.
The third vowel, it will be remembered, is a diphthongal sound. Its finishing
quality of e (1) or before very open vowels of i (2) must in all cases be heard, —
often with extreme delicacy of shading ; but the total omission of it is un-English.
Vowels 3-1 Aerial, phaeton.
3-2 Playing, grayish, laity, mosaic, trochaic, hebraic, clayey, judaical, hebraist,
archaism, Judaism.
3-4 Obeyest, weigheth, prayest.
3-5 Naiad, abeyance, conveyance.
3-6 Affraiable, weighable.
3-8 Weigher, player, gayer, delayer.
3-10 Aorta, archaiology, chaos, chaotic.
3-1 1 Aorist.
3-12 Aonian, kaolin.
3-7-1 Grey-eyed, hebraize, judaize.
The 4th vowel occurs initial in but one combination — 4-8, as in air, heir, ere,
prayer, care, etc. In Scotland, a diphthong compounded of 4-1 or 4-2, is com-
monly heard instead of 7-1, in my, buy, sigh, etc.
The 5th vowel (an), with the I2th or I3th, is often heard among English
speakers, instead of the more open vowel which correctly forms the first sound
of the diphthong ou. Thus, bough, thou, how, etc., are pronounced with 5-13,
ba-oo, tha-oo, etc. There is a mincing effect of affectation in this peculiarity.
Vowels 7-1 Buy, try, sigh, I, fye, lie.
7-13 How, noun, drought, thousand.
7-1-1 Hyena, hyemal, empyema, trieterical, syenite, dietetic, diesis, quietus, striae.
• 7-1-2 Buying, sighing, dying, trying, thyine, skyey, shyish.
7-1-4 Buyest, dieth, science, quiescent, dioeresis, scientific, lien, client (variety,
quiet, notoriety, piet)% propriety, ubiety).
60
ENGLISH VOWEL COMBINATIONS
The words within brackets are often — if not generally — pronounced 7-1-2.
In Scotland they are contracted into 7-1, and pronounced pah-eety, varah-eety, etc.
Vowels 7-1-5 Diameter, iambus, dialogist, eyas, sciatica, biangulous bias, sialogogue, al-
liance, phial, elegiac, sciagraphy, trial.
7-1-6 Via, viaduct, diapason, pianet, friable, striature, siriasis.
7-1-8 Fire, crier, .dyer, trierarch, dire, briery, fiery.
7-1-9 Orion, lion, pious, triumph, scion, triumphal, iron, diurnal.
7-1-10 Ionic, triobolar, myology, scioptic, dioptrics, diorthosis, prior.
7-1-12 Iodine, violent, sciolist, pioneer, myopy, bryony, inviolable, diocese, violin,
meionite, meiosis.
7-13-1 Advowee.
7-13-2 Ploughing, allowing, vowing.
7-13-4 Allowest, voweth, vowel, bowel, rowel, towel.
7-13-5 Allowance, avowal.
7-13-8 Our, power, shower, dowery, hour-glass, towering.
7-1-7-1 Dry-eyed.
10-1 Boy, oil, noise, adroit, conoidic, avoid, soil, alloyed, join, point.
10-2 Sawing, pawing, drawing, flawy, gnawing, rawish, thawing.
10-4 Drawest, gnaweth, sawest.
io-5 Withdrawal.
10-8 Drawer, rawer, war.
10- 1 -2 Boyish, enjoying, annoying, toying, coyish, cloying.
10-1-4 Destroyest, joyeth, employest, annoyeth.
10-1-5 Buoyance, annoyance, royal, royalty.
10-1-8 Employer, alloyer, coyer.
The 1 2th vowel, like the 3rd, is diphthongal. With less or more distinctness,
its compound quality should be heard in every combination in careful reading.
Colloquially, however, and especially before very open vowels — the more open and
simple o (n) is used instead of o-oo (12). Care must be taken that the lips do
not too much modify the I2th vowel, or there will be a tendency to produce the
articulation w, instead of the vowel oo, before another vowel.
Vowels 12- 1 Coeval, proemial.
12-2 Stoic, owing, doughy, coincidence, poet, poetry, heroine.
12-3 Boation, acroamatical.
12-4 Owest, knowest, proem, poetical, aloetics, coheir, coefficacy, soever.
12-5 Coagulate, coadjutor, coagment, coadunition, salsoacid, retroaction.
12-6 Oasis, zedoary, proa, boa, coacervate.
12-7 Coarct, coarctation.
12-8 Coerce, lower, mower, borrower.
12-10 Co-operate, zoology, zoography, co-ordinate, co-optation.
12-12 Zoolite, zoophyte.
12-7-1 Polychroite.
13-2 Bruit, wooing, truism, druid, fluid, dewy, ruin, fortuitous, impuissance, puis-
sant, assiduity, pituitary, comminuible, Jesuit, Jesuitical.
13-3 Sinuate.
13-4 Cruel, fluent, duel, incruental, inuendo, circumfluence, affluent, minuet.
13-5 Pursuant, renewal, truant, accentual, casual, manual, mutual.
13-6 Suable, pursuable, estuary, mantua, mulctuary.
13-8 Brewer, tour, your, cure, poor-house, moorish, reviewer, durable, mure, lure,
surely.
13-9 Sinuous, innocuous, assiduous, vacuum, fatuous.
13-10 Fluor, sinuosity, impetuosity.
13-12 Actuose.
" 13-7-1 Pituite.
ACCENT, RHYTHM, EMPHASIS 61
ACCENT, RHYTHM, EMPHASIS, AND THE GROUPING OF WORDS.
ACCENT.
Every word of more than one syllable has what is called an accent, — that is,
a superior decree of prominence, by stress or inflexion, — on one of its syllables.
Without accent, speech would be drawling, monotonous, and unemphatic. Accent
ties syllables into words, and enables the ear to comprehend at once the boundaries
of each verbal utterance. Accent, besides being thus a source of much variety,
provides a simple means of increasing our stock of words, and enhancing their
utility. By accent, for instance, we can make two syllables serve for four pur-
poses ; three syllables might serve for six, four for eight, etc. Thus, the syllables
man and kind, separately uttered, are two words ; united by the accentual tie, they
form the words mankind, as distinguished from womankind, and mankind, the
whole human race. In this way, by placing the accent alternately on the first,
second, third, or fourth syllable, the same set of sounds might be varied in their
application to the expression of many of the nicer distinctions of meaning, which
are at present confounded under one invariable term. This is a means of ex-
pressiveness but little employed, yet it might be made use of to a considerable
extent, especially in scientific and philosophical terminology, with much advantage
to accuracy.* Such accentual change is common on dissyllables in English as a
distinction between nouns or adjectives, and verbs of the same orthography. The
nouns, etc., have the higher accent, the verbs the lower; as in ac'cent accent',
con'cert concert', des'cant descant', ire'quent frequent', pres'ent, present', rec'ord
record', sub'ject subject', trans'port transport', etc.
In words of three or more syllables, when the accent falls on the third, there
is also an accent, but of secondary force, on the first syllable. If the primary
accent is on the fourth syllable, the secondary accent may be either on the first or
second ; if there are four syllables before the primary accent, there will be either
a secondary accent on the second syllable, or two secondaries — namely, on the
first and third; and if there are five syllables before the primarily accented one,
there must be two secondary accents, but they may fall either on the first and
third or first and fourth syllables.
The following are single examples of each of these classes of Secondarily
Accented Words :
Primary accent on the third syllable, and secondary on the first: — En'tertain",
fun'damen"tal, em'blemat"ical, su'pernu"merary.
Primary accent on the fourth syllable and secondary on
t^ j first, ma'themati"cian.
( second, ency'clope"dia.
Primary accent on the fifth syllable, secondary on
the I second, exem'plifica"tion.
| first and third, cir'cumna'viga"tion.
Primary accent on the sixth syllable, secondary on
t^e j first and third, in'commu'nicabil"ity.
( first and fourth, in'comprehen'sibil"ity.
*In Smart's Dictionary, we find the word "perfunctory" marked with the primary accent
on the first syllable, and the secondary on the third — per"functo'ry ; — its meaning being "done
with the sole view of getting through, regardless how done; slight, careless, negligent;" and
in a note the author remarks,— "The original of this word is a Latin adverb, of which the
verb is the participle, and the other related words have just the contrary meaning; so that
if it had been derived from them instead of the adverb, it would have signified completely
done, thoroughly performed, IN WHICH CASE ITS ACCENTUATION WOULD HAVE BEEN PERFUNC'-
TORY; but, formed as it is from per'functo"ri-e, its proper accentuation is deemed to be that
assigned to it above."
62 ACCENT, RHYTHM, EMPHASIS
When three or more syllables follow the accent, there sometimes is, but more
frequently is not, a secondary accent on one of them. When there is, it generally
falls on the second, but sometimes on the third syllable after the primary accent.
The following are instances :
Secondary accent on the second syllable after the primary: — ab"dica'tive.
Secondary accent on the third syllable after the primary: — al"dermanlike'.
The secondary accent is, in all the preceding instances, separated from the
primary, by unaccented syllables ; but there may be a secondary force on a syllable
which is not separated from the primary.
Any prefix may receive emphatical importance in this way, — as coV'qual,
con'join", de'hort", e'duce", ilVgal, im'mense" ! in'deed"! pan'soph"ical, pre'
mer"it, re'ech"o, un'told", etc. The same accentuation occurs in the common
words, so'so", tee'to"tal, etc. ; and the word amen, which is universally acknowl-
edged as a doubly accented word, has not two equal accents, but a secondary and
a primary, thus, a'men". The word farewell, also, has two accents, — the primary
accent sometimes on the first and sometimes on the second syllable.
When words differing only, or chiefly, in one of their syllables are used
antithetically, the opposition is expressed by transposition of the accent to the
syllable of difference. Thus, instead of forgiv'ing, injustice, undone', etc., we
say /or'giving, when opposed to giving in' justice, when opposed to justice, uri-
done, when opposed to done, etc.
When the opposition is between two prefixes otherwise unaccented, they take
the primary force, and the ordinarily accented syllable retains the secondary
accent, — as in in"crease', when opposed to de"crease'.
And so with antithetic terminations; we might give them the primary accent,
and mark the ordinarily accented syllable by secondary force, — as in sym'bol"
when opposed to cym'bal".
When the syllable of difference happens to be under the secondary accent,
we mark antithesis by transposing the primary to the place of the secondary, and
the secondary to the place of the primary accent ; as in prop"osi'tion when opposed
to prep"osi'tion.
RHYTHM.
The succession of the accents in sentences constitutes RHYTHM; — a subject
which has been involved in much obscurity by the way in which writers have
treated of it, but which is sufficiently simple to be reduced to practice, long before
the complex theories of rhythmical writers could be fairly studied. To express
the pulsation and remission, time and rest, which constitute the elements of
rhythm, sets of symbols have been invented, which are as unnecessary to the full
understanding of the subject as they are clumsy and deforming to the didactic
page.
Rhythm, good or bad, is an element of all speech. In every sentence, how-
ever uttered, there is a rhythm; it may be stiff — like the action of a person on
stilts ; regular and firm — like the march of a soldier ; irregular and weak — like
the sliding progression of a simpleton ; undecided — like much .ordinary walking ;
limping— like the motion of a cripple; hurried or slow; leaping or creeping;
staggering or steady ; jolting or smooth ; graceful or vulgar : in short, it may have
every characteristic of action. As various as are the modes of walking, between
the courtier's gait and the hobble of a clown, or the styles of gesticulation between
the expressive elegance of an accomplished actor, and the thumping of a ranting
preacher, so numerous and so characteristic are the kinds of rhythm heard in the
different departments of oratory, and in colloquial speech.
The succession of the accents in poetry is marked by a uniformity of thesis
ACCENT, RHYTHM, EMPHASIS 63
and arsis — of heavy and light syllables — which is varied within very narrow
limits ; — one, two, or three unaccented syllables preceding or following the accent
with a musical regularity. This metrical accentuation, in skillful writing, coin-
cides with the accentuation of sense; but the latter does not require nearly the
number of accents that the former demands. Consequently, the judgment and
skill of the reader are peculiarly tested in clearly discriminating and in vocally
distinguishing the accents of sense, without losing or concealing the accents of
the metre or rhythm of the poetry. The succession of the accents in prose is
irregular and fluctuating ; susceptible of variety from every impulse of the writer,
and no less susceptible of variety from the intelligence, the taste, and the vocal
ability of the reader.
The regulation of the accents so as perfectly to bring out the sense and
expressiveness of a passage is often a very nice point, requiring much judgment
and skill; it affords, therefore, ample scope for the display of these admirable
qualities in a public reader or speaker; and no more useful exercise can occupy
the attention of the elocutionary student.
The various readings of disputed passages in the poets, especially in Shaks-
pere, which occupy the pages of critics, and afford such exercise and opportunity
for mental and vocal discrimination, are just so many varieties of rhythm. The
pulsation of accent on this syllable, and the remission on that, are the topics of
the most voluminous and learned disquisition.
EMPHASIS.
Emphasis is among accents what accent is among syllables; — a prominence
given to one accent at the expense of the subordination of other associated
accents. Emphasis depends on contrast or antithesis, expressed or implied. All
antithetic words are not necessarily under emphasis. The first of any contrasted
pair will be accented feebly or strongly with reference only to the preceding con-
text ; the second of the contrasted words will be necessarily emphatic, to mark its
relation to the first.
Those words in a sentence which express ideas new to the context are pro-
nounced with the first degree of emphasis, while, conversely, all words involved
in preceding terms are unemphatic; words contrasted with preceding terms are
more strongly emphasized; and words suggestive of unexpressed antithesis are
emphatic in the highest degree.
Any quality of utterance may render a word emphatic to the ear, — tone,
time, force, pitch, pause, etc. The expressive distinction of emphasis depends
more on the relative subordination of associated words than on any absolute
quality imparted to the utterance of the emphatic word.
THE GROUPING OF WORDS.
Every single word is not the sign of a distinct idea. Grammatical words are
rather, merely, syllables of what has been called the "oratorical word," which
fully expresses the idea, or completes some part of it. Words, therefore, in
correct utterance, fall into expressive groups, which are separated from each
other, not always by a pause, but by some break, some change of modulation,
inflexion, or other appreciable variety of style, which clearly marks to the ear
and mind, the boundaries of each group or oratorical word.
The principal grammatical words in every sentence are the Noun and the
Verb; and these, when the ideas they express are both new to the context, are
kept accentually separate. With either of these primary words may be associated
qualifying words — adjectives with nouns, or adverbs with verbs, or clauses equiva-
64 INFLEXION, MODULATION .
lent to adjectives or adverbs ; and such qualifying words or clauses are, by accent,
compacted with the noun or the verb into one substantive or verbal group, or
"oratorical word." The adjective, adverb, or equivalent clause may itself be
qualified by another word or clause, — called also adverbial — and this' secondary
qualifying expression will be united with the substantive or verbal group. A
conjunction, a preposition, or an article, or all of them, may further be associated
with the substantive group; and a conjunction, a pronoun, or an auxiliary verb,
or all of them, may be associated with the verbal group. Thus :
EXAMPLE OF A SUBSTANTIVE GROUP.
conj. prep. pro. (art.) adv. adv. adj. noun.
and to his (the) very greatly increased displeasure
EXAMPLE OF A VERBAL GROUP.
conj. pro. aux. adv. aux. aux. adv. phr. verb.
and it will not have been almost at all impaired
Words which are thus grammatically related are accentually joined, as it
were, into one compound word ; but proximate words between which there is not
a mutual relationship or grammatical government, are kept accentually separate;
as, for instance, two or more adjectives, nouns, or verbs, in apposition. It is to
be noted also, that grammatical sequences of words are often interrupted by a
pause, as an important means of expressing emphasis.
The relation of primary and secondary accents among the words which con-
stitute a grammatical group, depends on the sense intended to be conveyed. The
primary accent may be placed even on the least important grammatical word — an
article, preposition, or a pronoun — if the ideas conveyed by the other words have
been already expressed in the context, or if such ideas are necessarily involved
in preceding terms. Wherever the point of the sentence lies — and the apprehen-
sion of this depends on the reader's discrimination — there the primary accent will
fall. The oratorical group may be compared to a diamond cut with facets corre-
sponding to the grammatical words or syllables in the group; and the skillful
reader turns now this facet and now that to the mental eye of the hearer, and so
reflects a flash of meaning from one particular surface of the many-angled thought.
INFLEXION, MODULATION, ETC.*
All spoken sounds, however abrupt, have, correctly, an inflected formation;
though ears unaccustomed to very accurate observation may not readily detect it
in the little tittles of sound heard in many of our syllables, — it, at, ate, up. etc.
But sufficiently close attention will discover inflexion in the shortest as well as in
the longest of our sounds. Those prolonged monotones which are heard in what
is called a sing-song delivery, are, therefore barbarisms; they belong neither to
speech nor song : they are a sort of recitative, passionless, senseless, and unnatural,
to which, nevertheless, good sentiments are often chanted and drawled by worthy
men.
* For a more complete and practical treatment .of these subjects, and of the various
departments of Rhetorical Delivery, the reader is referred to the Author's "Elocutionary
Manual" of Principles and Exercises, and to the "Standard Elocutionist" (Readings and
Recitations).
INFLEXION, MODULATION 65
Animated conversation is the most inflected kind of speech, and the language
of solemn warning or of prayer the least inflected. Reading, and speaking from
memory, are generally much less inflected, and therefore less natural, agreeable,
and impressive, than conversation and extemporaneous delivery ; and that reading
must be considered the best which approaches most nearly in its tones to conver-
sational and extemporal variety.
The subject of Inflexion has been more fully treated of by most authors than
any other department of Elocution; and the mass of Rules, Observations, and
Examples which they have accumulated have so overloaded the simple natural
principles that lie at the bottom of all genuine rules, that not one student in fifty
can discover them. The consequence too often is, that Elocutionary students
either throw up the study in disgust ; or else, judging "Elocution" to be regulated
by no fixed principles, but only by taste or caprice, form styles of their own,
founded on some favorite model, or combination of incongruous models ; and thus
gradually swell the ranks of tuneful ranters, or level drawlers.
Elocution, according to the great majority of modern writers on the subject,
appears to consist in nothing else than the management of Inflexion. Ask them
"what is the chief point to be studied?" repeat, and reiterate the question; the
answer is still the same, "Inflexion ! Inflexion !"
Demosthenes declared the most important part of a speaker's study to lie
in "Action" — that is, in Pronunciation, Modulation, Gesture, and all the essentials
of manner — in other words, in Delivery generally ; and what part of Delivery he
considered of the first importance, his own procedure showed,— Articulation, dis-
tinctness, fluency, energy of utterance. How very small a part of oratory Inflexion
is, and how small a part of a speaker's study it is worthy to be, cannot fail to be
felt by every practical orator at the present time, as it undoubtedly must have been
by the matchless "thunderer" of ancient Greece.
Oratory was of old a very comprehensive subject, and its study was the
labour of a life. It included the arts of Logic, Rhetoric, and almost every depart-
ment of general knowledge, and mental or moral discipline, as well as Pronuncia-
tion, or what we now call Elocution or Delivery. Hoary hairs were considered
indispensable to the consummate orator, whose laborious preparations were sup-
posed to require the length and vigour of the youth and prime of life. Consistently
with this, Oratory was emblematized under the figure of an Old Man: threads
of amber issuing from his lips, and. winding into the ears of gaping auditors.
Our orators expect to jump into the rostrum, and oratorical ability, at once ; and
without preparation even for the first and most indispensable requisite of public
speaking, — Articulation. Our learned men affect to despise the very name of
oratory. May not the reason be, — they are not orators? They neither feel nor
know the power of Eloquence. They can prepare the beautiful anatomy of a
discourse or declamation, but to animate it with the voice, the look, the action of
natural utterance, is beyond their skill ; it falls lifeless from their hands.
The leading error of Elocutionists consists in this, that, overlooking the
paramount importance of general principles, they enter at once on a series of
rules, which a proper rationale of the vocal movements would enable students to
deduce for themselves. Thus, without any explanation of the mechanism, extent,
or general functions of the inflexions, they begin at once to teach their application
to sentences of various construction : and in laying down precepts, they seem more
desirous to teach their pupils to Meet than to reflect. The principles which regu-
late the application of the inflexions are so simple, so natural and consistent, that
no reflecting pupil can fail to apprehend and apply them, almost immediately,
when intelligibly explained. On the proper mechanism of the inflexions depends
much of the melody and variety, as well as the appropriate expressiveness to
sense and sentiment, of the voice.
66 COMPOUND INFLEXIONS
It has been well remarked of the system of Mr. Walker, — the founder of
the Inflexion School of Elocutionists — that "no system could have been invented
better adapted to please all parties ; as every one is at liberty to make use of those
'intervals' which habit has rendered easy to him in his common accent. Thus,
the teacher residing in Cork, or Dublin, or Belfast, in Glasgow, Edinburgh, or
Inverness, in the East or in the West, the North or the South of England, can
use the system of Walker, read according to his rules, though not one of them
may agree with another in regard to the interval or the extent of the inflexion ;
and while, in fact, they are merely teaching their own manner to the pupil."
SIMPLE INFLEXIONS.
There are but two modes of vocal progression, — namely, upwards and down-
wards, in the musical scale, — and, consequently, there are but two simple inflexions.
Each inflexion has an opening force and fulness, from which it tapers softly to
its acute or grave termination. The beginning of the inflexion is therefore the
emphatic part ; and, as the inflexions are named "rising" or "falling," from their
progression upwards or downwards, without reference to the pitch of their com-
mencing note, some confusion is apt to arise at first between the name and the
sound, from their apparent opposition, in abrupt and emphatic tones. For, the
more emphatic an inflexion is, the lower it begins when it is called rising, and the
higher it begins when it is named falling.
This principle is of much importance to public speakers, whose general igno-
rance of it, as evidenced by their strained or monotonous voices, is, doubtless in
great part, owing to the almost universal silence of Elocutionary books upon the
subject.
COMPOUND INFLEXIONS, — CIRCUMFLEXES OR WAVES.
The two modes of vocal progression, united on one syllabic utterance, form
those expressive compound inflexions called circumflexes, or more accurately, as
Dr. Rush has named them, waves. These vocal waves are very common in all
natural speaking. They are capable of much variety by the different proportion
of their parts. A strong rise may be united to a fall of a semitone or an octave,
or of any extent; and a full downward sweep may be blended with an equal
variety of rising intervals.
The circumflexed or waved inflexions generally give to language an illusive
or referential expressiveness, or add to it a meaning which the words do not
literally convey. Thus, the Rising Wave is used for Suggestive Emphasis — it is
the appropriate intonation of inuendo ; — and the Falling wave for Positive Em-
phasis— with an allusive or referential effect. This vocal progression is the in-
tonation of derision and irony. The Rising Wave is used suggestively, when
Brutus says to Cassius —
••^
"For / can raise no money by vile means :"
it insinuates and hints at, rather than openly expresses, an accusation. The
Falling Wave directly and unmistakably points an accusation, as when
"Nathan said unto David, 'Thou art the man !' '
•"^
As a general principle, it may be affirmed that words intended to be under-
stood literally should be inflected with simple turns — which are, invariably, the
APPLICATION OF THE INFLEXIONS 67
intonations of candour, sincerity, and artlessness : — while words to be accepted in
some peculiar, figurative, or with some added sense, require the compound turns,
which are the natural intonations of artifice. Figurative language of every kind
abounds with circumflexes.
APPLICATION OF THE INFLEXIONS.
The application of the vocal inflexions to sentences is governed by principles
equally simple with those which regulate their mechanism. As all inflexions may
be resolved into two kinds, — upward and downward, — so all rules for their appli-
cation may be resolved into two corresponding Fundamental Principles.
The rising progression connects what has been said with what is to be
uttered, or with what the speaker wishes to be implied or supplied by the hearer ;
and this, with more or less closeness, querulousness, and passion, in proportion to
the force and extent of the rise. The falling progression disconnects what has
been said from whatever may follow ; and this with more or less completeness,
exclusiveness, and passion, in proportion to the force and extent of the fall.
The melody of speech requires that every emphatic inflexion should be pre-
ceded by a minor inflexion, of opposite pitch, — high before a low accent, low
before a high accent. According to the emphasis of the utterance, this prepara-
tory inflexion is turned towards or from the pitch of the accent: — the former
being the less, the latter the more, emphatic arrangement.
Rules for the application of the Inflexion have generally been founded on
the grammatical forms of sentences and clauses; as if all members of like con-
struction must needs be uniformly inflected! The principle of Nature is rather
that Rules for the Inflexion of sentences must be founded on the inherent ex-
pressiveness of the Voice. The vocal turns communicate to language a meaning
and force which are altogether independent of constructive forms; which are
inherent in the tones, and which may apply with equal justice to all possible
arrangements of words, according as the intent of the speaker requires the vocal
effects. A grammatical assertion may be pronounced interrogatively, and a con-
structive enquiry may have the tones of dogmatism or imperativeness.
The habit of reading with other than natural tones, with limited inflexions,
or with monotonous repetitions of the same radical or pitch-notes, will be most
readily broken by the practice of strong and varied inflexions on single words,
either as they occur in a vocabulary or in ordinary composition. The latter will
at first afford the easier and the safer exercise ; for, in reading tables of uncon-
nected words, the voice most naturally inclines to a sameness of tone, which it
requires a constant effort to counteract. Nevertheless, the reader who cannot, at
will, pronounce unconnected words in any manner, or with any degree of in-
flexion, has not acquired sufficient control over the fundamental movements of
the voice.
The custom of inflectively anticipating the next word, phrase, or sentence,
because it is before the eye, is one of the most common causes of ineffective
reading, especially of that kind which consists in too frequent elevations of the
voice. Few readers err in the opposite way by the misplacement of conclusive
turns ; this constant linking-on of sentences may be said to be the most prevailing
form of defective expression in reading. The worst reader generally lets slip
a natural note, when he has to turn over a page to conclude a sentence. If the
utterance is querulous, doubtful, or progressive, or if the sense is undeveloped,
his voice will rise into naturally suspensive elevation ; and if the utterance is
positive, or if the sense is formed, however incomplete the sentence may be, his
68 MODULATION
voice will fall here: and this because he does not see in advance of his utterance*
Let the reader reflect that his hearers are in precisely the same predicament at
every word — they do not see the next; and their ears as naturally expect, as his
voice naturally makes, a suspensive or conclusive turn, correspondent to the
mental effect of the utterance. If he concludes a clause or sentence with a rising
turn, because he sees another after it, they are led to consider what has been said
as incomplete, and dependent on, or importantly qualified by, what is to follow ;
and they feel disappointed and annoyed when the expected utterance comes out,
and contains no reference to what preceded. Not only so, but that which in
composition was meant to be conclusive and convincing, leaves on the minds of
the hearers an unsatisfactory and indecisive impression — the natural effect of the
reader's inappropriate intonation.
The way in which school exercises are generally allowed to be rattled and
gabbled over, is productive of much mischief, both to articulation and vocal ex-
pression. Habits of speech are formed at public schools which cannot be thrown
off in after-life without more labour and watchfulness than nine out of ten persons
could either encounter or afford to bestow. Stammering, even, is often traced to
the uncontrolled emulation of a class ; and all impediments and defects of speech
are, from the same cause, almost invariably aggravated at public schools. Quick-
ness of utterance being the quality most prized by mistaken schoolmasters, the
thoughtful boy, who is often shy, and who is generally of better parts than the
pert, guessing lads, that are always first with their answers, has no chance ; and
in his efforts to expedite his thoughts, he confuses them, or they come faster than
his tongue can utter them, so that jumbling rapidity, inarticulate hurry, stuttering,
or convulsive impediment, is very naturally created.
Expressive inflexion prevents hurry, and favours distinctness of articulation ;
it may, besides, be made an index of mental advancement, and used with much
advantage to taste, as an instrument of mental cultivation. If words are enunci-
ated without inflexion, they must be in monotone and SUNG.
Let, then, every teacher of youth take this fundamental axiom of speaking
tones into ordinary class application : — All words, whether pronounced in a high
or low, loud or soft tone ; whether uttered swiftly or slowly, forcibly or feebly,
with passion or without it, must necessarily be pronounced with inflexion, that is,
with the voice sliding either upwards or downwards.
Let this one principle be systematically enforced in every school, and the
monotony, drawling, screaming, and sing-song that are now so common, will be
at once banished from the class-room, — and, through it, from the pulpits, the
courts, and from every arena of oratory ; from all but, perhaps, the mimic stage ;
which might shake the sides of the next-risen generation by imitating the grave
chanting of a bygone age.
MODULATION, ETC.
Modulation has reference to the prevailing pitch of the inflexions in a sen-
tence, and the key-notes, as it were, of periods or clauses. -Thus, a passage may
be modulated in a high or low key, without at all affecting the direction or the
extent of its inflexions.
* It is not to be inferred that good readers do not look in advance of their utterance ;
on the contrary, the best readers exercise the longest prevision. But they look onward in
order to catch the relations of clauses and sentences, and to regulate their utterance accord-
ingly. The anticipatory effect which we condemn has no connexion with regulated express-
iveness : it is indiscriminating, and is governed not by ideas, but by words.
MODULATION 69
A change of modulation is always necessary at any change in the style of
composition — as from Narration to Description, or from Literal to Figurative
Language, and vice versa; to express feeling and changes of sentiment; to dis-
tinguish what has been previously expressed or implied, or what is merely ex-
pletive, from what is new and emphatic to the sense ; to detach from the main
body of the sentence words or clauses which are explanatory or parenthetic; and
to distinguish generally those parts of a sentence which are necessary to its con-
struction from those that are subordinate and dispensable.
The degree in which the Modulation is changed, and even the direction of
the change, — whether to a higher or lower key, — must depend on the reader's
judgement, taste, temperament, etc.
No exercise will be found more improving to the style of reading than the
distinguishing, — by changes of Modulation, — the principal from the subordinate
words in a sentence; the subjective and the predicative clauses from the mass of
inferior clauses, and of relative, adverbial, or parenthetic sentences in which they
are often found embedded. These necessary component members of every sen-
tence should be so delivered as to strike upon the hearer's mind with unencum-
bered distinctness among the most multitudinous assemblage of particulars. The
Subject and Predicate are generally the most emphatic parts of a sentence: they
are so always, indeed, except when either of them has been previously expressed
or implied; or when some opposition or contrast of particulars or subordinate
clauses requires the elevation of such inferior words.
The same principle which dictates variety of Modulation, requires also a
corresponding variety in the Force, Time, and general Expressive Manner of
Utterance. The modification of the various qualities of style is greatly dependent
on the reader's sympathetic appreciation of sentiment, situation, etc. No unvary-
ing uniformity in any particular of delivery can be effective ; for it is unnatural.
[For Tables of Inflexion, Modulation, Force, Time, and Expression, with
Practical Exercises, see the "Elocutionary Manual" : The Principles of Elocution,
with Exercises and Notations. By Alexander Melville Bell. Seventh edition.
240 pages. Volta Bureau, Washington, D. C. $1.50.]
[In the preceding portion of this Work, the Theory of Vowel and Articulate
Formations has been developed. In the Practical Observations that follow,
minute directions will be found for the attainment of Distinctness and Accuracy
of Pronunciation, the Correction of Provincialisms, and the Removal of Stam-
mering and other Individual Peculiarities, Faults, and Impediments of Utterance.]
[END OF PART FIRST.]
PART SECOND
DICTIONARY OF ENGLISH SOUNDS
SECTION FIRST— VOWELS
THE following Table shows the order in which the Vowels are treated of in
the succeeding Dictionary of Sounds. Under each element instances are
collected of words that, to avoid ambiguity, depend on exactitude in the pronun-
ciation of their unaccented syllables. The perfect preservation of all vowel differ-
ences in unaccented syllables furnishes the best criterion of a cultivated pronun-
ciation.
MONOPHTHONGS AND DIPHTHONGS.
in tfduce, expedient, bee.
impose, differ, verily,
mediate, ague, gay.
embrace, ambers, end.
^rewhile, vary, fair,
admire, admiral, act.
arouse, sofa, bath,
partake, pardon, papa,
t'dea, mmdful, sky.
however, doubtful, how.
herbaceous, martyr, sir.
supply, cudgel, cut.
curtail, curtain, hurt,
obtain, dogma, on.
awstere, auction, all.
envo;y, bot'l, boy.
portray, afford, pour.
omit, motion, slow,
together, footman, should.
issue, ruthless, ooze.
The English Vowel Letters, A, E, I, O, U, have each two regular sounds ; the
first sound corresponding with the alphabetic name of the letter, heard when the
vowel is final in a syllable, as in ma, me, mi, mo, mu; the second heard when
the syllable ends in an articulation, as in am, em, im, om, um.
These ten sounds correspond respectively with the following in our numerical
arrangement (page 27) :
a in ma = No. 3 (ale),
e " me = " i (eel).
I " mi = " 7-1 (isle).
6 " mo= 12 (old),
u " mu — " y.i3 (use).
a in am = No. 5 (an).
e " em = " 4 short (ell).
i " im = " 2 (ill).
6 " om =r " 10 short (on).
u " um = " 9 " (up).
Of the remaining vowel sounds in the Numerical Table,
No. 6 is generally represented by a before ss, st, th, etc.
7 a before r final.
J3 " oo ; or by u after /, /, or r.
10 (long)^ a after w, or by aw.
7-13 ou or ow.
lo-i oi or oy.
^ i, or y before r final; or by r after any long
vowel.
11 is the English form of 6 before R.
4 (long) a before R.
9 (long) u before R final, or followed by any articulation.
(71)
72 FIRST VOWEL
Of the vowels in the English Numerical Scheme (p. 27),
Nos. i, 3, 6, 7, 8, n, 12, y.i3 are always long.
2,5, short.
10, 13, variable.
4, 9, are long only before R.
FIRST VOWEL — as in eel.
This is the alphabetic sound of E in English, and of I in the French and other
continental tongues. It is the closest of the Lingual Vowels. In its formation,
the tongue rises convexly within the arch of the palate, and presses laterally
against the palate and back teeth, leaving only a very narrow aperture for the
voice, between the middle of the tongue and the palate.
A very common fault in the formation of this vowel consists in the depres-
sion of the point of the tongue to the lower teeth — a position which, besides being
injurious to the quality of the vowel, is unfavourable to the action of the tongue
for many of the Articulations. The tongue must be kept back, and its point
directed horizontally, to guide the sound out of the mouth without striking the
teeth. The teeth must, of course, be sufficiently apart : they should, for no vowel,
have a less opening than a quarter or a third of an inch.
Many persons fail to pronounce this vowel with purity, when it is under em-
phasis, especially when final ; as in "to be or not to be," "me miserable," "they
shall be free," "to sleep, perchance to dream." The breath is heard rustling in
the mouth, from too close organic approximation. To correct this,xpronounce
words ending with e (i), as agree, trustee, glee, etc., and dwell on the vowel for
some time, observing that the tongue is kept perfectly still until the sound is
finished m the glottis.
In Scotland this vowel is generally deficient in openness and quantity; the e
in meet, mean, etc., being sounded as abruptly as that in mechanic. In many dis-
tricts the 3d vowel (but very short, and without the English diphthongal termina-
tion) is substituted for the ist; thus, meal, steal, deal, etc., are pronounced male,
stale, dale, etc. This peculiarity seems to be almost confined to words spelled
with ea.
A similar exchange of vowels takes place in Ireland ; but such words as sweet,
chief, scheme, etc., where the sound is variously represented, partake of the
peculiarity. The Irish sound is more open and prolonged than the Scotch ; and
its vocality is Jess pure, being mixed with the articulative Aspiration which is
characteristic of the Irish dialect.
Vowel i is seldom exactly sounded in an unaccented syllable immediately
after the accent, as in appetite, antithesis, penetrate, etc. In such cases the more
open and easier form of the 2nd Vowel is substituted. Before the accent, how-
ever, as in edition, beseech, precocious, return, etc., the 1st formation should be
carefully preserved.
The combination of e (i) with R gives the diphthong 1-8. The omission of
the 8th vowel from such words as ear, here, cheer, etc., is a Scotticism. There
is, besides, a harshness in the junction of e (i) with the articulative effect of R,
which is gracefully avoided by the interposition of the open element always heard
in English.
Care must be taken to avoid the intervention of any similar sound between
e (i) and L or N. The habit of inserting another vowel in this situation prevails
in Scotland; but these articulations must be directly joined to the simple and
unchanged vowel.
THE FIRST VOWEL
73
WORDS TO BE DISTINGUISHED IN PRONUNCIATION.
ablegate
abligate
allegation
alligation
decertatipn
dissertation
deduction
diduction
deform
difform
descent
dissent
deviser
divisor
diesis
diocese
elaborate
illaborate
elapse
illapse
elation
illation
elicit
illicit
elide
allied
elude
illude
elusion
illusion
emaculate
immaculate
emerge
immerge
emersion
immersion
emission
immission
enate
innate
enumerate
annumerate
eradiate
irradiate
eruption
irruption
legation
ligation
WORDS OF THE SAME PRONUNCIATION BUT DIFFERENT ORTHOGRAPHY.
be
bee
beach
beech
beat
beet
beer
bier
ceiling
sealing
cere
sear
seer
chagrin
shagreen
creak
creek
crease
creese
dear
deer
deem
disme
demean
desmene
discreet
discrete
feat
feet
fees
feaze
flee
flea
freeze
frieze
here
hear
key
quay
kneel
neal
leak
leek
least
leased
lee
lea
mean
mien
mete
meat
meet
need
knead
peace
piece
peek
pique
peal
peel
peer
pier
please
pleas
queen
quean
read
reed
seem
seam
see
sea
seed
cede
sweet
suite
sheer
shear
teem
team
tear
tier
weak
week
weal
we'll
weald
wield
SECOND VOWEL — as in ill.
This sound is of very frequent occurrence in English, and is comparatively
little used in other modern languages. It has been generally reckoned — but erro-
neously— the short form of the ist vowel. The shortest utterance of e (i) is a
distinctly different sound from vowel 2, which, as its position in our Table indi-
cates (p. 24), is a formation intermediate to e (i) and a (3) ; the tongue, from
its position at e (i) being depressed about half way to its position for a (3).
There is no longer form of this vowel in English, than that in the word
hinge; but the prolongation of the sound is of course quite practicable.
The 2d vowel is not heard in English before R, final or followed by any
articulation ; in these cases, the 8th vowel is substituted. When the R is followed
SECOND VOWEL
by another vowel, as in miracle, mirror, etc., the letter i retains the sound of the
2d vowel, — as before other articulations.
In Scotland, we hear, instead of this vowel, a peculiar and more open sound,
nearly approaching to that of the 4th English Vowel, being a formation inter-
mediate to the 3d and 4th. This will be found noted in our General Scheme,
(page 24), as the 4th of the Lingual series.
Among Northern speakers, ambitious of an English enunciation, but who
have been taught to believe that the vowels ee (1) and i (11) are identical in
formation, we frequently hear the ist instead of the 2d vowel, as in vision, con-
dition, suspicion, etc., pronounced veesion, condeetion, suspeecion, etc. This need
not any longer be a mark of Northern English, for there is no difficulty in pro-
ducing the true sound of the English element when its formation is understood.
The 2d vowel is common enough in Scotch, under another form. It is heard
instead of the short sound of the French u (the 3d Labio-lingual vowel), which is
vernacular in Scotland. Thus the word gude (good), is in many districts pro-
nounced exactly like the first syllable in giddy; and, where this custom prevails,
we hear the sound opened into an a (3) in long syllables, as in do, pronounced da
(3, without the English diphthongal quality) ; thus practically illustrating and
corroborating the remark at page 25, on the tendency of i (2) to be lengthened
into a (3) rather than .into e (i). We have, besides, numerous instances in
English of a (3) being shortened into i (2), as in the final syllables of carriage,
marriage, cabbage, orange, etc., pronounced carridge, oringe, etc.
In the Irish dialects we hear i (2) opened into a (3) and sometimes into
the proximate Scotch vowel noticed above. Thus, ill is by Irish speakers pro-
nounced nearly like ale, his nearly like haze, forgive nearly like forgave, etc.
In the unaccented terminations, il, in, we, etc., we generally hear element 9
in Ireland ; as in peril, motive, genuine, etc., which are pronounced as if spelled
ptrul, motuv, genuwn, etc. Another Irish peculiarity is to sound Y final, unac-
cented, like e (i) instead of i (2), as in pretty, many, etc., pronounced pretty
manee, etc.
WORDS TO BE DISTINGUISHED IN PRONUNCIATION.
analysis
analyses
aspirate
asperate
germin
German
idyl
idle
passible
passable
rabbit
rabbet
subtile
subtle (pr. suttle)
surplice
surplus
WORDS OF THE SAME PRONUNCIATION BUT DIFFERENT ORTHOGRAPHY.
build
billed
candid
candied
cliff
clef
empirical
empyrical
gild
guild
links
lynx
signet
cygnet
tint
teint
THIRD VOWEX — as in ale.
The depression of the tongue to a position as much more 'open than that of t
(2) as the latter is more open than e (i), produces the vowel which is the alpha-
betic sound of E in French, German, etc. This sound is not heard singly in
English, but is always diphthongally tapered into, or towards, the closest lingual
vowel ee. The omission of this diphthongal termination is a marked provincialism,
and is one of the leading features of the Scottish dialect, in which the monoph-
thongal A is a very common vowel. When the English A (= a-e) occurs before
a voiceless articulation, the second sound (e) is so abrupt, and so blended with
THIRD VOWEL 75
the radical a, as to be with difficulty distinguished by the unpractised ear ; but the
contrasted utterance of such words as mate, cape, lake, etc., as pronounced by an
Englishman and a Scotchman, will show that even in the shortest utterance of
this vowel the two elements are really present in English pronunciation. When
the 3d vowel is final, or before voice articulations, its compound quality will be
unmistakably manifested.
The English custom of making this vowel a diphthong is very apt to throw
the radical part of the sound into a too open position, so that we often hear 4-1
instead of 3-1, from careless speakers; as dehy, lehy, etc., instead of day, lay, etc.
The 3d vowel is never heard before R in the same syllable. R, which has
the sound of the 8th vowel, could not follow the close finish of the English a
without creating a new syllable ; and therefore a more open vowel which readily
blends with the 8th is substituted ; as in air, care, etc., pronounced eh-ir, keh-ir, etc.
The Scotch a, being a monophthong, unites with R in the same syllable, and
therefore is retained in those words which in English have the more open sound
(4) ; so that there is a very marked difference betwixt the English and the Scotch
pronunciations of such words as air, care, pear, heir, etc., (see R, and 8th vowel).
In Scotland the 3d vowel is used in many words instead of the English I2th;
as in stone, bone, alone, etc., pronounced stane, bane, alane, etc. This is another
indication of the analogy between a (3) and o (12), which has been noticed at
page 60.
From the diphthongal nature of the 3d vowel it is comparatively seldom heard
fully in unaccented syllables. In the terminations age, ace, ain, etc., the 2d vowel
is generally substituted ; but in deliberate speaking, the 3d would not be pedantic,
and is often heard, especially in such words as dotage, herbage, mortgage, etc.,
where the preceding syllable is long. In the termination ate, as in dedicate,
estimate, etc., the colloquial tendency is to open the vowel to et (4) ; but the 3d
element is uniformly heard from good speakers.
WORDS TO BE DISTINGUISHED IN PRONUNCIATION.
gayer
gare
mayor
mare
prayer*
prayer
swayer
swear
layer*
lair
payer
pair
stayer
stair
weigher
wear
WORDS OF THE
SAME PRONUNCIATION
BUT DIFFERENT
ORTHOGRAPHY.
ale
ail
day
Dey
.grate
great
mane
main
bale
bail
Dane
deign
hale
hail
maze
maize
bay
Bey
fane
feign
lade
laid
nay
neigh
braid
brayed
faint
feint
lane
lain
pane
pain
break
brake
gage
gauge
made
maid
phrase
frays
clamant
claimant
gate
gait
male
mail
place
plaice
* In bricklayer, stage-player, rate-payer, etc., when layer, payer, etc., are unaccented, the
monosyllabic form 4.8 is generally heard; but when these or similar words are emphatic, as
in the sentence "a good worker makes the best player," the dissyllabic form 3.1.8 should be
preserved. So in pray-er (one who prays) which thus distinguished from prayer (a petition).
The former is a dissyllable, the latter a monosyllable.
76 FOURTH VOWEL
plane raze tale wane
plain rays tail wain
plate tray waste
plait sail trey waist
pray vale wave
prey stake vail waive
prays steak veil way
praise stade vane weigh
staid vain
stayed vein
rain
rein
reign
FOURTH VOWEL — as in ell, ere.
In forming this sound, the oral channel is enlarged by the depression of the
fore-part of the tongue, from its position at a (3), about as much as it was
increased from ee to a. This formation is one of the cardinal points in the
vowel scale, being about midway between the closest and most open formations
ee (i) and ah (7) ; the vowel is one of the commonest in all languages. It is
the sound uttered by the sheep in bleating.
A vowel intermediate to this and the preceding formation is heard in Scot-
land, as the vernacular sound of i, in ill, in, it, etc. (G. V. S., p. 25). This is
one of the most common vowels in the Scottish dialect ; it is heard instead of the
English 4th in cherry, merry, etc. ; instead of the 8th in her, sir, etc. ; the Qth in
does, etc. ; the I3th in put, foot, etc. ; combined with ee, it makes the Scottish form
of the English diphthong 7-1, as in ay, child, idle, mine, etc.; and it is heard,
besides, in numerous unaccented syllables.
The organic change from the 4th vowel to the succeeding formation is com-
paratively minute ; and consequently the sounds 4 and 5 are liable to be con-
founded. The English long form of vowel 4 (heard only before R) often verges
on 5; and in Scotland the short form is characteristically subject to the same
change ; perish, being pronounced almost like the English parish, very like varry,
heaven, like hav'n, etc. In some districts, or in some words, the converse of this
change takes place, and we hear kerrier for carrier, merry for marry, etc.
A peculiarity similar to the former occurs in the northern dialects of Ireland,
in which such words as men, pen, bed, etc., are pronounced nearly like man, pan,
bad, etc.
The long form of the 4th vowel — identical with the French e in meme, bete,
etc. — is the sound which is substituted for A (3) before R (8) in English. It
is heard in no other position in the language. In Scotland this sound is common
as a substitute for the English diphthong 7-1, when final, as in eye, high, buy,
my, try, etc. The same vowel is also heard instead of A (3) in emphatic or
strongly accented syllables; as, / say, away! admiration, etc., pronounced I JEH,
awEH ! admiration, etc.
An ear unaccustomed to analyze vocal sounds may possibly, at first, fail to
recognize the same vowel formation in the words ell and ere, arising from its
combination in the latter word with the open R (8) ; but close observation and
careful experiment will satisfy the demurring ear of the correctness of the classi-
fication. When we find all our orthoepists at fault with this sound, — and see even
Mr. Walker, in his laborious analysis of the principles of our language, omitting
to notice this lengthened sound of eh (4) ; nay, asserting that ea in bear, e in
there, etc., are the same in vowel quality as a in trade, ai in pain, etc., we cannot
expect our assertion of the difference of these sounds to be received without
question. It is, however, certain that all English speakers at the present day do
FOURTH VOWEL 77
make a difference in the sound of a as in care and in cane; and there can be little
doubt that Mr. Walker must have made a correspondent distinction between them
in his 9\vn practice, or else the very obvious difference now general in England
must have grown with marvellous rapidity and obstinacy, at variance as it is with
the theories of orthoepists. Mr. Walker had probably failed to discriminate these
sounds, on account of early associations ; for in Scotland the e in there and a in
trade are identical. To the qualified ear we appeal to corroborate our well tested
conclusion, that the a in vary and e in very are identical in quality, and different
only in quantity or fulness ; just as the long sounds in yawn and pool are — con-
fessedly by all orthoepists — the same in quality with the short ones in yon and pull.
The combination of this long vowel with R, it must be remembered, consti-
tutes a diphthong, viz., 4-8. Thus :
48 48 48 482
pa-ir, be-ar, sha-re, va-r-y*.
Let the reader pronounce the first word of each of the following pairs,
omitting the vowel-sound of the r and joining the articulative effect of R to the
preceding vowel, and his pronunciations should correspond to the second words:
or conversely, let him pronounce the second word in each pair, with the interposi-
tion of the vowel-sound of R between the articulate R and the preceding vowel,
and his utterances should give the first words.
fairy . . . ferry. chary . . . cherry. dairy . . . Derry.
vary . . . very. Mary . . . merry. airing . . erring.
But it is not every ear that will be at once competent for this experiment.
We see every day how difficult it is for unpracticed organs to analyze even the
simplest words into their elementary sounds ; and how hard it sometimes is to
get the judgment to assent to the correctness of what seems so strange and peculiar
as the separate utterance of the elements of language. The ear requires peculiar
training, as well as natural acuteness, to catch and distinguish the transient shades
of vocal sound with accuracy. Even excellence in utterance or in the practice
of music, would appear to be no certain qualification for this peculiar province
of the critical ear. Thus Mr. Rice, in his Art of Reading, wishing to prove the
untenable assertion, that speaking sounds do not range between tones of various
acuteness or gravity, but differ only in force or intensity, like the notes of a
drum, — says, "That I might not be mistaken, however, myself, in this particular,
I repeated at different times several passages from Milton and other poets in the
hearing of one of the greatest masters in that science (Music), who, after paying
the utmost attention to the several articulate sounds in each sentence, declared
them to be all of the same tone !" No fact in the science of speech is better
established than that all speaking sounds partake of an upward or downward
movement — called an inflexion — of the voice ; and that, consequently, there is not
a sameness of tone throughout any correctly-delivered articulate sound ; but here,
were a Professor of the Art of Speech, and "one of the greatest Masters in
Music," deceived in that particular.
We cannot, therefore, wonder if critics, less apparently qualified than these
professional Masters of Sound, should be unable — or unwilling, against general
theoretic authority — to corroborate by accurate experiment our Vowel-Theory and
classification. Accustomed to a false scheme of representative letters, few per-
sons find it easy to examine sounds by the ear alone, irrespective of their signs ;
but this must be done by the philosophical student of speech.
* In all words which contain R after a long vowel and followed by another vowel, the
R has both its vowel and articulate sounds. The pronunciation of vary is thus, veh-ir-y.
78
FIFTH VOWEL
WORDS TO BE DISTINGUISHED IN PRONUNCIATION.
Abel
able
adept
adapt
cornet
cornate
delectation
delactation
effect
affect
effluent
affluent
element
aliment
elocution
allocution
enallage
analogy
ereption
eruption
erogate
arrogate
essay (v.)
assay
evocation
avocation
except
accept
fellow
fallow
hermetical
hermitical
magnet
magnate
palette
palate
pendent (a.)
pendant (s.)
read (part.)
read (infin.)
terrace
tarrass
terrier
tarrier
travel
travail
whether
whither
WORDS OF THE SAME PRONUNCIATION, BUT DIFFERENT ORTHOGRAPHY.
bare
bear
knare
ne'er
fair
fare
hare
hair
pair
pare
pear
stair
stare
tare
tear
there
their
ware
wear
glare
glaire
berry
bury
bread
bred
breast
Brest
read
red
lead
led
whether
wether
Ayr
air
ere
e'er
eyre
heir
FIFTH VOWEL — as in an.
The formation of this vowel is slightly more open than that of the preceding
sound. The enlargement of the formative aperture is caused by the depression
of the middle of the tongue backwards. The vowels from ee (i) to eh (4) are
produced by depressions of the -fore part, while the middle or back of the tongue
remains elevated; those from eh (4) to ah (7) bring down the middle of the
tongue, and so evenly enlarge the whole cavity of the mouth.
The tendency to interchange the vowels 4 and 5 has been noticed under the
former of these. In Scotland, the 4th sound is commonly heard in the first efforts
to acquire the peculiar English formation 5, which the unaccustomed organs do
not readily take with precision. Affected speakers in England pronounce 4 in-
stead of 5, as — "The ettitudes were edmirable." In some words this change is
established by almost universal custom ; as in any, many, pronounced enny, menny.
The 5th vowel, when initial, is liable to be confounded with the 6th in the
article a, as in
arrode
a road
attest
a test
appeal
a peal
accustom
a custom, etc.
There is a shade of difference in the articulation as well as in the vowel-sound of
these combinations, though the distinction is not generally attended to.
In Scotland, the 5th vowel is seldom heard; the usual pronunciation of all
words with that element in English, being a short sound of a, as'in are (7). Thus
the verb tarry has in Scotland the same sound as the adjective tarry in England —
but more abrupt; cap has a short sound of ca(r)p, back of ba(r)k, etc.
In Ireland, the 5th vowel is used regularly instead of the 6th, as in pass,
bath, after, ask, etc., and even instead of the 7th, in the words papa and mamma,
which are pronounced with the 5th element long in the final syllable.
SIXTH VOWEL 79
WORDS TO BE DISTINGUISHED IN PRONUNCIATION.
accite appose coral matrass
excite oppose corol mattress
allective apposite cymbal metal
elective opposite symbol mettle
allude bridal feracity missal
illude bridle ferocity missile
carat leman principal
carrot lemon principle
WORDS OF THE SAME PRONUNCIATION, BUT DIFFERENT ORTHOGRAPHY.
bad adds
bade adze
SIXTH VOWEL — as in ask.
Usage is considerably divided in England with respect to the pronunciation
of some words ending in and, aunt, ath, ass, ast, ask, etc. ; some speakers give
them the open sound of ah, while others pronounce them with the 5th vowel.
With reference to the more open sound in these cases, Mr. Walker has re-
marked,— "This pronunciation of a seems to have been for some years advancing
to the short sound of this letter, as heard in hand, land, grand, etc. ; and pronounc-
ing the a in after, answer, basket, plant, mast, etc., as long as in half, calf, etc.,
borders very closely on vulgarity." But between a(t) and a (re) there is a great
organic difference, sufficient to admit of at least one distinctly intermediate sound ;
and such a sound is undoubtedly the most common variety of vowel-quality heard
in these irregular cases. The extreme pronunciations 5 and 7 are at the present
day comparatively rare. The precise quality of the prevailing intermediate sound
cannot be correctly noted; for it ranges among different speakers through every
practicable shade of sound within these limits. But the recognition of a middle
sound may give us more uniformity in its employment.
Speaking of this sound (intermediate to vowels 5 and 7), Mr. Walker re-
marks : "As every correct ear would be disgusted at giving the a in such words as
past, last, chance, etc., the full sound of a in father, any middle sound ought to
be discountenanced, as tending to render the pronunciation of a language obscure
and indefinite." The theoretical discountenancing of any sound in general use
has undoubtedly this tendency; but the classification of all varieties of sound
distinguishable in common usage must have the opposite effect, and tend to remove
obscurity and indefiniteness. The vowel noted as the 6th in our scale is unques-
tionably in our mouths every day, and it must therefore find a place in the cata-
logue of our vocal elements.
This variableness of vowel quality is not observable in all words containing
the combinations in which No. 6 occurs. We never hear band, gas, hath, etc.,
with No. 7, but uniformly with No. 5.
In the Scottish dialects we hear in some the 4th, and in others the 7th, instead
of the English 6th vowel. Thus grass, brass, etc., are generally pronounced gress,
bress, etc., and bath, dance, etc., bahth, dahnce, etc. (short).
Unaccented a in the syllable immediately preceding the accent, as in abolish,
alacrity, bazaar, etc., has the sound of the 6th vowel. Among careless speakers,
the sound of this pre-accented a obscurely ranges through many shades of open
sound from 5 to 9.
The unaccented final a in comma, sofa, villa, etc., has always a more open
80 SHVHNTH VOWHL
sound than that of the a in jat, which is assigned to it by Mr. Walker; but its
sound is less open than that of the a in far. In such words, we have instances
of the 6th element. In Scotland, the a in this situation is closed into a (3) or
even into i (2) ; thus, sofa is pronounced as if written so fay, or sometimes sofy.
In words ending in nee and nt, custom wavers between the 5th and 6th
vowels, as in dance, glance, chance; grant, plant, slant, etc. In words spelled
with au before nt, we generally hear the 6th, or even the 7th, as in aunt, gaunt,
flaunt, taunt, etc.
The Article a generally has the 6th sound; though some speakers use the
alphabetic vowel a (3).
WORDS TO BE DISTINGUISHED IN PRONUNCIATION.
abrade avert foremast passable aunt can't khan
upbraid evert foremost passible ant cant can
SEVENTH VOWEX— as in ah.
This Vowel, which is often called the open Italian A, is formed with the lips
drawn back, the teeth considerably separated, and the tongue evenly depressed,
so as to spread the sound in the mouth, and direct it in a broad current out of
the expanded oral aperture. The slightest alteration in the position of the tongue
or the lips will affect the quality of the sound ; and thus, though this element is
very common in all languages, there are often minute differences, which give it a
distinct character.
Habits of oral action — such as pouting the lips, keeping them close at the
corners, allowing them to cover the teeth, etc., — influence all the vowels, — the
open ones especially; so that this, the most open sound, is peculiarly liable to be
faultily affected. The correct speaker cannot be the slave of any habit of this
kind. His lips and tongue must be pliable and plastic, and their action light and
agile, that the most minute and momentary movements, either for articulation or
emotional expression, may be performed with facility.
In English the 7th Vowel occurs chiefly before R final, or followed by an
articulation; but it is heard almost uniformly before Ive, and Im (I not sounded),
as in halve, calve, palm, calm, alms, etc. Before //, as in calf, half, etc. ; and in
laugh, haunt, etc., the less open sound of the preceding vowel, (6) is frequently
heard.
In words spelled with au before n (except vaunt [10]) good usage is pretty
equally divided between the 7th and the 6th vowels.
The 7th vowel is never short in English. In Scotland we hear an abrupt
form of it in words which in English have the 5th and 6th sounds, as in man,
mask, etc. ; but we comparatively seldom find the 7th vowel sounded in words
which have that sound in English. Thus, bar, jar, star, calm, palm, father, etc.,
are generally pronounced almost as if spelled bawr, cawn, fawther, etc. ; farm,
heart, alarm, etc., are very commonly pronounced with the 4th vowel feh-rm,
heh-rt, etc. ; and guard, Serjeant, large, etc., as regularly take the sound of the 3d
vowel (monophthongal), and are pronounced as if written gayrd, sayrjeant,
layrge, etc.
The combination of the 7th vowel with R forms the diphthong 7-8, though,
from the slight difference in the vowel quality of these elements, the diphthongal
effect is not very obvious. The comparison, however, of such words as arm and
aim, barm and balm, carve and calve, farther and father, will sufficiently prove
the diphthongal quality.
SBVBNTH VOWHL 81
WORDS TO BE DISTINGUISHED IN PRONUNCIATION.
altar collar lumbar balm
alter choler lumber barm
psalm alms calve
Sam arms carve
DIPHTHONG 7-1 — as in isle.
This combination is the alphabetical sound of the letter I in English, and a
very common element of speech. The first part of the diphthong is liable to
considerable dialectic and individual modification, as are all the open formations, —
5, 6, 8, 9, etc. ; but the combination of the extremes of the vowel scale, — 7-1 =
ah-ee, — is generally recognized as the correct English diphthong. The most usual
departure from this in England is to 6- 1.
In Mr. Knowles's dictionary this diphthong is analyzed into 10-1, which,
however, confounds it with another diphthong, — as in isle and oil, — from which
that author makes it differ only in some ill-defined abruptness of maxillary action.
The student has but to blend the most open sound he habitually makes in such
words as far, papa, palm, etc., with the ist Vowel, to produce that form of this
diphthong which suits his habit of speech ; but, if he open his ears to the utterance
of educated Englishmen, free from peculiarities of oral action, he will find that
the radical part of the diphthong is nothing short of the open ah. It must be
remembered, however, that .the sound is necessarily more abrupt than in the
separate or inter jectional utterance of that vowel. (See page 58.)
There is a tendency in all diphthongs, in careless utterance, to slide into a
sound intermediate to their component elements. Thus, we often hear the 5th
or even the 4th vowel substituted for 7-1. In Scotland especially, this is com-
mon: the almost regular utterance of this English diphthong, when final, being
vowel 4 or 5, as in I, eye, my, buy, etc., pronounced eh, meh, beh, etc. Sometimes
the same sound is used before R; and fire, wire, etc., are pronounced fehr, wehr,
etc. When the vowel is in other situations, as in night, idle, crime, wild, etc., a
diphthong is compounded of the peculiar Scotch vowel (4th Lingual, G. V. S.,
page 25) with the ist vowel. This combination is heard, independently, in the
Scotch pronunciation of the word aye; also in pay, Tay, etc., and frequently
otherwise instead of vowel 3; probably from the same tendency that opens the
radical part of the latter vowel to 4, in English mouths.
In Ireland the general form of the English long I (7-1) is 9-1, or even 10-1,
abruptly uttered; which has doubtless led Mr. Knowles to set down 10-1 as the
formation of the English diphthong.
The letter R, always having a vowel sound in itself, when it follows a long
vowel, forms, in combination with this diphthong, a triphthong, the elements of
which are 7-1-8, as in fire, wire, higher, etc. These words are sometimes reckoned
dissyllables and sometimes monosyllables: when fully pronounced they are un-
doubtedly dissyllables; but colloquially the middle element is often slurred over,
or opened to vowel 3 or 4, so as to remove or lessen the dissyllabic effect.
WORDS TO BE DISTINGUISHED IN PRONUNCIATION.
lyre line quite right sign vile
liar lion quiet riot scion viol
WORDS OF THE SAME PRONUNCIATION BUT DIFFERENT ORTHOGRAPHY.
died Her rime right side sight sign tide time
dyed lyre rhyme rite sighed site sine tied thyme
82 EIGHTH VOWEL
DIPHTHONG 7-13 — as in owl.
This diphthong, which blends the extremes of the vowel scale, on the labial
side, as the preceding diphthong does those on the lingual side, is a very common
element of language. Its radical part is liable to fluctuations of the same nature
as those to which that of the preceding diphthong is subject. The most usual
English deviations from 7-13, are to 5-13, or 6-13, though we sometimes hear 8-13.
In Scotland, the general pronunciation of this diphthong is 9-13. In Ireland it
is 10-13.
This diphthong forms one of the characteristics of American pronunciation.
The first element is rarely made more open than 5, often not more than 4; and
the radical vowel is long, and in general strongly nasal.
When the diphthong 7-13 occurs before R, the triphthong 7-13-8 is formed
as in our, sour, power, etc.; words the full utterance of which is dissyllabic; but
colloquially the middle element is often slurred over, or opened to 10 or n to
remove or lessen the dissyllabic effect.
WORDS TO BE DISTINGUISHED IN PRONUNCIATION.
bow (of a ship) lower (to darken) slough (7-13)
bow (window) lower (adj.) slough (uff)
sow (swine) wound (part.)
sow (v.) wound (n.)
WORDS OF THE SAME PRONUNCIATION BUT DIFFERENT ORTHOGRAPHY.
bough our
bow (salute) hour
EIGHTH VOWEL — as in err.
This is a characteristically English vowel. Its position in the General Scheme
(page 24) indicates its exact formation. It is intermediate to ah and the French
sound eu; seeming to the attentive ear to partake of the quality of both sounds,
and to be thus analogous to the tint produced by the amalgamation of two shades
of colour. As the colour varies with the varying proportions of its elements, so
this vowel, among different speakers and in different dialects, partakes in a greater
or less degree of the ah or the eu. In London, it is often heard as open as ah
(but this is a vulgarity), as in sarve for serve, sar for sir, etc., and, in some of
the English provinces, it is pronounced almost identically with the French sound,
as in sceur for sir, peur (feet) for per (feet), etc.
The sound of this element differs but slightly from that of vowel 9 (up, urn) ;
but the difference, though not strongly marked, is clearly appreciable; and the
distinction between such words as fur and fir, urn and earn, should always be
preserved.
"John's wife and John were tete-a-tete;
She witty was, industrious he;
Says John, 'I've earned the bread we've ate/
'And I/ says she, 'have urned the tea.' "
The changes which take place in the organic arrangement for vowels of this
open class are not all within reach of observation. The vocal passage is modified
by the root of the tongue, and the parts immediately above the larynx. The visible
difference between the formations 8 and 9 is a slight elevation of the forepart of
the tongue which directs the voice against the palate somewhat farther forward
for the 8th than for the 9th vowel. With so little accuracy have sounds been
EIGHTH VOW HI 83
observed, and their formations studied, that many of our orthoepists — Mr. Walker,
for instance — consider this vowel the same as our ^th, and mark the er in ermine,
perfect, etc., to be sounded with the same vowel as in ell. Other authors, — as,
for instance, those of the "phonotypic" scheme, — consider this sound identical
with our Qth, and write the same vowel in sir and surly, myrrh and murder, etc.
Vowel 8 is inseparably connected with the letter R in English. That letter
alone, after a long vowel, has invariably the sound of er (8), as in fai-r, nea-r,
poo-r, ca-re, co-re, lu-re, ac-re, luc-re, wond-er, broth-er, etc. The R in the
equivalent terminations r, re, and er, has little or no articulative effect, but in such
words as fairy, cheering, moorish, fury, etc., where a vowel follows the R, that
letter has both its vowel and articulative effect.
Er in all unaccented syllables, even when followed by a vowel, has the sound
of 8, as in funeral, general, liberal, etc.
In such words as far (7.8), fur (9.8), etc., the separate vowel quality of R
is not so perceptible as when a closer vowel precedes the r; but sufficiently nice
observation will detect the same final element in these words, and the really diph-
thongal nature of the combinations.
There is a tendency among some speakers to retain the radical vowel-sound
of err, prefer, infer, etc. (8), in the derivatives erring, preferring, inferring, etc.,
but e and i before R followed by a vowel, have otherwise the same sounds as
before other articulations in the same predicament, as in mirror (i = 2), herring
(€=4), etc.
Welsh and Irish speakers use the Qth instead of the 8th vowel. In Scotland,
though the 8th vowel is not heard, the Qth is not its substitute. The letters e
and i before r have the same sound as before other articulations ; — fill and firm,
still and stir, etc. (No. 4 Lingual, General Vowel Scheme, p. 24) ; send and serve,
pension and person, etc. (No. 4 English), having respectively the same vowel
sounds. The reason of this is, that R, in Scotland, has always an articulative
effect; it is trilled in all situations ; it has no vowel effect even when final. The
terminations er and re have the peculiar Scotch vowel-sound (as in firm, etc.),
followed by the trilled R.
The 8th vowel and its associate softening of the letter R, are so peculiarly
English, that they constitute a shibboleth to Scotchmen over the Border. In
practising to acquire this English sound, the Northern student may at first pro-
nounce the syllables ir, er, re, etc., simply as ah, — and without any R. By a little
practice he will thus check the tendency to raise the tongue to the palate, and
be enabled to produce the true sound with precision. Frequently the mere effort
to open the vowel to ah, and omit the R, falls short of that point, and produces
at once the precise English element.
The article the is often pronounced 8, when the next word does not begin
with a vowel.
A peculiar pronunciation of the vowel sound of R is one of the most striking
characteristics of American speech. The trill of the articulate R is wanting, as
in England ; but the vowel effect is much closer and more labial than the English
8. It is the No. 4 Labio-lingual, of the General Vowel Scheme (p. 24), a sound
between the French u and the German o.
WORDS TO BE DISTINGUISHED IN PRONUNCIATION.
anker auger concert firs
anchor augur consort furze
asperate circle earn kerb
aspirate surcle urn curb
asperation circulate fir kernel
aspiration surculate fur colonel
84 NINTH VOWEL
literal myrrhine pertinance sailer
littoral murrain purtenance sailor
manner onerary pervade ternary
manor honorary purveyed turnery
miner pearl raiser wert
minor peril razor wort
WORDS OF THE SAME PRONUNCIATION BUT DIFFERENT ORTHOGRAPHY.
berth earnest herd verge
birth Ernest heard virge
NINTH VOWEL — as in up, urn.
In forming this vowel, the tongue is drawn back a degree farther than for
the preceding element, but hardly midway to its position for aw. The sound is
always short in English, except when it occurs before R, final or followed by an
articulation. When vowel 9 has to be' prolonged, in singing, it is very liable to
be changed to the more familiar long sounds ah or aw. This arises, not from
any difficulty in maintaining the Qth position, but merely from the English organs
being unaccustomed to maintain it. A Welshman would have no trouble in pro-
longing the vowel to any extent, because he is accustomed to pronounce it as long
as our ah or aw.
Among English speakers, there is too little precision in this sound. All the
open vowels are liable to considerable variation among individual speakers ; but
the Qth vowel is perhaps one of the most indefinite and variable of any. It would
be well if at least a clear distinction were preserved between it and the preceding
vowel (8), in such words as urn and earn, fur and fir, purl and pearl, etc., but
the erratic'habits of both these vowels render it the more difficult to confine them
to a settled location in the mouth. When the Art of speech shall be more gener-
ally studied, such confusions and diversities will be condemned as unworthy of
an educated speaker. The perfect distinction of minutely differing vowels is no
less a test of polished and elegant speech than is the clear enunciation of unac-
cented syllables the test of a good pronunciation. The power of marking these
vocal and articulate niceties with clearness, evidences a degree of command over
the vocal organs which is rarely obtained without considerable application. It
gives, besides, a refinement and graceful variety to utterance, which should, of
themselves, sufficiently recommend its cultivation to the tasteful student.
In some English dialects, we hear, instead of 9, a sound approaching to oo
(13) — ranging in some cases between oo and o (re), (n), and in others between
oo and the French vowel u or eu. It was probably a dialectic habit like this of
sounding o (n or 12) for the 9th vowel, which seduced a recent writer on English
sounds into the assertion, that the vowels in cup and cope are identical in quality,
and differ only in quantity.* All these peculiarities arise generally from a habit-
ual contraction of the labial aperture, and a too close position of the teeth. Let
the defective vowel be practised with a very open formation — even though, at
first, the sound be as open as ah, and the ear and organs will soon be able to
distinguish and form the 9th vowel with precision.
In Scotland, this element is slightly less open, and of a deeper formation than
in England, — the tongue being farther retracted towards its position for aw. This
Scotch sound will be found separately noted in our General Vowel Scheme (page
24). The open character of the English u (9) will be readily acquired, by simply
opening the mouth well, and retracting the lips so as to uncover the edges of the
* See early editions of Pitman's Phonography.
TENTH VOWHL 85
teeth ; and, when the vowel is followed by R, final or before another articulation,
by guarding against any lingual vibration for the R.
The Irish pronunciation of this element has, like the Scotch, a deeper forma-
tion than the English, — partaking more of the quality of aw; it will be Anglicised
by the same means.
[We take occasion here to notice the peculiar French sound eu, which, in
ignorance of its mechanism, is often so difficult to the English mouth; and to
bring it in contrast with the English u (9) — the formation of which is equally
difficult to French organs. The 9th vowel is not heard in French: the nearest
approach to it is the vowel eu, as in jeune, peur, etc. Frenchmen do not, however,
pronounce eu instead of u (9), but generally aw or o (10 or n). They may .
with little difficulty acquire the true sound of No. 9, when they compare its for-
mation with that of their eu. The French eu is formed with the organs internally
arranged as for the French e or the English No. 4, and externally as for aw ( 10) ;
it is the compound, or Labio-lingual vowel corresponding to these simple Labial
and Lingual Formations. (Let the English student of French apply this theory,
and he will at once produce the perfect French eu. The simplest way to practise
is to dwell on the sound of eh (4), and, while doing so, to contract the labial
aperture to its ordinary shape for the sound aw.) The English u (9) is inter-
mediate in formation to aw and ah. The French student of English cannot fail
to produce it by sounding the vowel ah, and, while doing so, allowing the tongue
slowly to adjust itself upon the sound, as if to modify it into aw without con-
tracting the lips. The sound is then to be pronounced as abruptly as the vowel
in que, de, etc., and it will be perfect.]
WORDS TO BE DISTINGUISHED IN PRONUNCIATION.
carious serious
caries series
TENTH VOWEX — as in on, all.
The loth vowel is formed by an increased retraction and abasement of the
root of the tongue from its position for the last element, coupled with a slight
contraction of the labial aperture. It is perhaps the richest and most mellow-
toned of all the vowel-sounds.
Mr. Knowles considers this the most open vowel-formation, but our experi-
ments (see page 20), prove that the oral aperture is considerably smaller for this
than for the 7th vowel ; and the latter may be proved, by a simple and conclusive
experiment, to be the most open possible vowel-formation. Thus, let the mouth
be opened to the uttermost, — by widely separating the teeth, — flattening the tongue,
and drawing back the lips; and if a vocal effort be made, ah will result. En-
deavor to sound aw, and it will be found impossible to do so without relaxing the
lips or approximating the teeth, and manifestly reducing the oral aperture. In
the light of experiment, there can be no question as to the relative openness of
these vowels.
The sound of the loth vowel is often too much modified by the lips; their
projection and corrugation — faults very common — are injurious alike to grace
and distinctness of articulation. It may be stated to be one of the characteristics
of a good and practiced speaker, that he forms his vowels as much within the
mouth as possible. The beautiful Oratorical Voice — the Orotund — which many
speakers acquire from long practice, but which may also be attained by cultiva-
tion, tends very greatly to subdue the action of the lips in speech; and this is
attended with another advantage, that it leaves the lips free for their higher
offices of emotional expression.
86
TENTH VOWEL
The habit of contracting the lips for this vowel is apt to modify it into the
next, viz., n, or even into 12, to the confusion of such words as war and wore;
scald and scold, etc.
In practising the loth vowel for the reduction of labial action, the tongue
should be drawn back as far as possible, while the lips — merely covering the teeth
a little — remain retracted as for ah. With the ringer placed under the chin, close
to the neck, the downward pressure of the root of the tongue should be distinctly
felt.
This vowel and the 7th are most irregularly used in Scotland: — words pro-
nounced with the 7th in England having the loth in Scotland, and others having
the loth in England being pronounced with the 7th in Scotland. Thus what and
walk (10) are what and walk (7) in Scotland, while star and calm (7) are staur
and caulm (10). This exchange does not take place in words in which the loth
vowel is represented by o or ou. In these cases, the vowel is closed into 12 in
Scotland; as in morn, bought, cost, etc. (10), pronounced mourn, boat, coast (12),
etc. To correct these irregularities, let words containing the 7th, loth, and I2th
vowels be frequently and carefully read. The English pronunciation will soon
become habitual ; for the formation of the vowels can present no difficulty.
A peculiarity similar to the above is characteristic of the Irish dialect; for
while in the diphthongs 7-1 and 7-13 the first element is changed into 10, we hear
the loth vowel (short) changed into, or almost into, the 7th, in the great majority
of words in which it occurs ; as not, off, on, etc.
The letter a after the labial articulation w (or wh) is in a large proportion
of words pronounced 10, instead of 5 or 7; as in wadding, want, wander, war,
was, wasp, wharf, what, etc. This arises, no doubt, from the same principle of
assimilation which changes con into com before a labial formation, and which
alters the sound of n in Banff to that of m, and the sound of m in accompt to
that of n. In wax, wag, whack, etc., where a guttural formation follows the a,
this tendency is resisted, and the vowel, pronounced 5, is assimilated to the k or g
rather than the w.
The loth vowel combines with the 1st to form a common English diphthong —
heard in such words as joint, joy, etc.
WORDS TO BE DISTINGUISHED IN PRONUNCIATION.
aucupation
occupation
auricle
oracle
awed
odd
awn
on
fawned
fond
gaud
God
gnawed
nod
lord
laud
lorn
lawn
obduction
abduction
occidental
accidental
pawed
pod
pawned
pond
sawed
sod
shorl
shawl
stalk
stock
stork
stalk
yawn
yon
WORDS OF THE SAME PRONUNCIATION BUT DIFFERENT ORTHOGRAPHY.
all
awl
ball
bawl
DIPHTHONG IO-I — as in oil.
call
caul
This is a beautiful diphthong, compounded of aw and ee. It is generally
somewhat longer than the diphthong 7-1, because of the less easy fluency of its
elements. To modify the voice from ah to ee the tongue has only to ascend,
ELEVENTH VOWEL 87
while to modify the sound from aw to ee, the whole attitude of the tongue has
to be reversed: the root is depressed and its surface concave for aw, and it is
elevated and convex for ee, while the lips also take part in the action — and slightly
contract the labial aperture while the tongue rises.
The first part of the diphthong is very uniform among English speakers:
the second is less so, being very often stopped at i (2), and sometimes even at a
more open position. The Irish pronounce almost 7-1, for this diphthong, but
with the 7 longer than in the English utterance of that combination. In Scotland
the first part of the diphthong is closed into II or 12 (monophthong) which is
usually united with the 2d Vowel for the second part, forming the diphthong
n-2 or 12-2.
R never occurs after 10-1 in the same syllable in English: the word choir
is pronounced quire as a monosyllabic contraction. In such words as coyer,
destroyer, etc., the full dissyllabic combination 10-1-8 is clearly preserved.
ELEVENTH VOWEL — as in ore.
This formation, intermediate to a (11) and 0(ld), (and identical with the
sound of an or eau in French) is used in English instead of the alphabetic O,
when before R in the same syllable. The latter vowel is a closing diphthong,
and the open element 8(R) could not be pronounced after it without forming a
new syllable. This has led to the omission of the second, and the opening of the
first, constituent of the diphthong before R, to render the combination smoothly
monosyllabic.
The open vowel quality of the English R draws all preceding closer vowels
to a greater degree of openness than they have before articulations. This is
particularly noticeable in the 3rd and I2th vowels, which are regularly changed
into the 4th and nth before r (8) ; but the ist and I3th — the closest vowels —
equally illustrate the tendency. Very few English speakers pronounce ee (i)
and oo (13) distinctly before R, — at least in conversational utterance. Such
words as beard, hereafter, earzvig, merely, etc. ; cure, your, poor, etc., are flip-
pantly pronounced 2-8 and 11-8, instead of 1-8 and 13-8. However this may be
passable in ordinary conversation, it must be reckoned objectionable in more
deliberate speaking, or in reading. In some cases, the close element, instead of
being opened, is altogether omitted before r (8), as in cheeriul, future, etc.,
pronounced by many speakers, cherful, futyur, etc., but the full pronunciation of
these words che-er-ful, fute-yure, etc., is more elegant, and always given by those
who "speak by the card."
There is a delicacy in the softly blending English combination n-8 (o-re),
which is worthy of attention from provincial speakers — especially in Scotland
where the pronunciation of these letters is peculiarly harsh. In this lies one of
those little points which are, perhaps, the most difficult to be separately appreci-
ated, yet which give to dialects their most prominent features.
That the English n (o-re) is not the same as the radical part of the I2th
vowel (O-oo), but a more open formation, will be evident on comparing the
Scotch and English pronunciations of such words as ore, shore, chorus, porous,
etc. The Scotch o is the simple radical part of the English O-oo (12) ; but it is
distinctly different from the o (n) before R in English. The rapid alternation
of the proximate formations aw — oh, or oh — aw, repeatedly uttered, will lead the
ear to recognize the medial sound. The R, when final or before an articulation,
must not be trilled: but when a vowel-sound follows the R, as in glory, story,
victorious, etc., the R receives both its vowel and articulate effect. In such words,
therefore, there is a double difference between Scotch and English pronunciations.
88
TWELFTH VOWHL
The monosyllabic combination n-8 does not invariably supersede the dis-
syllabic form 12-8: in nouns formed by the addition of the personal termination
er to a verb, as rower, sower, mower, etc., the o retains its diphthongal quality,
and these words are thus distinguished from such as roar, soar, more, etc.
WORDS TO BE DISTINGUISHED IN PRONUNCIATION.
blore
blow-er
borne
born
form (a seat)
form (figure)
gore
go-er
hoar
ho-er
hoarse
horse
lore .
low-er
more
mow-er
mourn
morn
ore
ow-er
roar
row-er
shore
show-er
sore
sow-er
store
stow-er
tore
tow-er
torus
taurus
wore
war
import (11)
import (10) [to signify]
WORDS OF THE SAME PRONUNCIATION BUT DIFFERENT ORTHOGRAPHY.
board
bored
soared
sword
borne
bourne
four
fore
gored
gourd
pour
pore
oar
ore
core
corps
TWELFTH VOWKL — as in old.
The alphabetic or name-sound of the letter O is, in English, invariably asso-
ciated with a closing sound of oo, forming a labial diphthong, 12-13, corresponding
to the diphthongal name-sound of A (3-1).
The radical part of the sound of O is somewhat closer than the preceding
element n (ore), but it is hardly, perhaps, so much as half-way between it and
13 (ooze). The diphthongal habit tends to make the initial element of No. 12
too open in common pronunciation, so that the combination is sometimes even in
danger of being confounded with 7-13, as in the Cockney pronunciation of no,
almost the same as now; but this is an extreme: less degrees of openness, how-
ever, particularly to o (n), are very common. In this respect, as well as in
several other points already noticed, there is a striking analogy between vowels 3
and 12.
A very common fault in the mechanism of this sound consists in a pursed
projection of the lips to "something like the shape of the letter o," (as the student
is actually directed in many of our Elocution books;) but the roundness of the
mouth must be internal, not external. The lips, for expression's sake, should be
used as little as possible in speech. To form this vowel the tongue .should be
well depressed backwards, while the lips simply approximate a little. This inward
formation of O is, besides, productive of a mellowness of tone which is particu-
larly agreeable, especially in public speaking.
The tendency of diphthongs to slide colloquially into a sound intermediate
to their component elements, is illustrated in a common provincial English utter-
ance of this vowel — noted in the General Vowel Scheme (page 25), as the 2nd
Labial Formation.
In Scotland, the long o is pronounced monophthongally. The vowel may be
perfectly Anglicised, by simply allowing the sound to taper into oo before closing.
Thus, foe (=fo-oo), home (=ho-oom), note (=no-oot).
The Northern student will at first be apt to overdo this in quantity, but
practice will enable him to give the requisite abruptness to the combination. In
T&IRTBMNTH VOWEL 89
the shortest utterance of the English vowel, the diphthongal quality is really heard.
By comparing the English and Scotch pronunciations of such words as hope,
moat, yoke, etc., this fact may be made obvious to any ear.
In Scotland the sound of a (3 monophthong) is common instead of o (12),
as in hame for home, stane for stone, alane for alone, etc. In some districts a
closer lingual sound is used in such cases, and we hear steen for stone, been for
bone, etc.
The 1 2th vowel is comparatively seldom heard in Scotland: its most usual
substitute, however, is the roth. Words in which the I2th vowel is represented
by ou or o before /, as soul, mould, folk, bolster, etc., are pronounced with the
diphthong 9-13 in Scotland. In Ireland a similar pronunciation occurs, but not
to the same extent. The I2th formation (but monophthongal) is usually sounded
in Ireland in words pronounced with that vowel in English.
Many words containing the letter o before II, It, Id, ss, st, are anomalously
pronounced with No. 12 instead of No. 10; as roll, toll, poll (head), bolt, old,
gross, engross, most, post, etc. Vowels before elisions, or before silent letters,
generally have long sounds: thus, don't, won't, folk, yolk, etc., are pronounced
No. 12 instead of 10.
WORDS TO BE DISTINGUISHED IN PRONUNCIATION.
bow (for shooting) row (a range)
bow (salute) row (disturbance)
diocese proceed
diesis precede
WORDS OF THE SAME PRONUNCIATION BUT DIFFERENT ORTHOGRAPHY.
no toe beau doe lo roe
know tow bow (knot) dough low row (v.)
THIRTEENTH VOWEL — as in pull, pool.
This is the closest of the Labial class of Vowels. In its correct formation,
the base of the tongue is depressed, and the lips are evenly approximated. The
mechanism of No. 13 is very often rendered deforming to the mouth, by the lips
being "thrust out like a funnel." Indeed this is the mode of formation described
in many books which profess to give directions on the subject; but it is faulty in
many ways, both to the eye and the ear. It muffles the voice; it is a hindrance
to expressive utterance ; and it impedes articulation, greatly aggravating difficulty
in cases of stammering. The corners of the lips should meet, and their central
edges approximate, without projection; and the depression of the root of the
tongue should be so firm as to round off the angle of the neck and chin. The
close position of the lips is merely required to lessen the external aperture of the
mouth, and, in whatever way this may be effected, the sound will be modified
into oo (13). The projection of the lips is therefore as unnecessary as it is
unquestionably graceless.
This element, like the ist, has an Articulative effect, when the modifying
organs are further approximated during the continuance of the sound. By a
slight appulse of the lips, the vowel oo becomes the articulation W. Thus, if the
lips be momentarily compressed between the finger and thumb while sounding oo,
the voice will be modified into woo, woo, woo, etc.
Words ending with oo are liable to the fault noticed with respect to E (page
73) • the sound dies away in breath as the organs assume their close position.
This habit will be easily corrected by prolonging the sound, and sharply finishing
it in the glottis, without waste of breath.
90 THIRTEENTH VOWEL
The thirteenth vowel is so associated with the sound of the articulation Y
in English, from the alphabetic monograph U bearing the compound name Yoo,
that the English student has often some difficulty in believing that u = yoo, is
more than a simple vowel ; but he must lose sight of letters in his study of sounds,
and then he will be able to analyze this seemingly simple element, and detect in it
an articulative action, as well as a vowel sound.
In Scotland we commonly hear the 3rd Labio-Lingual formation u (French)
instead of oo (13). This is the general Scotch pronunciation of words contain-
ing No. 13, represented by o or oo, as in do, too, etc. In some districts the
Lingual sound i (2) or ee (i) is used, — as in dee for do, seen for soon, skill
for school, fill for fool, etc. ; and in long syllables, — as when the vowel is final, —
the Third vowel (monophthongal) is not uncommon; as tae for too, day for do,
etc. Thus the sentence,
3 12 3 3 u 3 13 2
"Poor John's so heated that he's just gone out to cool himself,"
conveys to an English ear the rather startling assertion, that "John is so hated
that he has just gone out to kill himself."
Element thirteen is the common Scotch sound of the English diphthong 7-13,
as in house, plough, now, cow, etc., pronounced hoose, ploo, noo, coo, etc.
In Ireland this vowel is seldom heard exactly as in England ; the sound used
instead of oo is the Labio-lingual formation produced by the union of the posi-
tions -{ 0J. This gives a very peculiar sound, which an English mouth will have
some trouble to mould. The Irish vowel will be Anglicised by simply holding
the tongue well back ; the labial position being the same as for oo.
The sound of the alphabetic U (=y-i3) is one of the shibboleths of Ameri-
can pronunciation. Instead of the articulate Y, the vowel ee (i) is heard with
a distinctly syllabic effect, as in tune, pronounced tee-oon; or the formative posi-
tions of ee and oo are combined, as in the Irish sound above noticed.
Vowel thirteen is always long in the combination y-13 (u =). The following
are the principal words in which No. 13 is short: book, bosom, brook, bull, bullet,
bulletin, bullion, bullock, bully, bulwark, bush, butcher, cook, courier, crook,
cuckoo, cushion, foot, full, fuller, fully, good, goody, hood, hook, look, pull,
pullet, pulley, pulpit, push, puss, put, rook, stood, sugar, to, took, woman, wood,
wool, would.
WORDS TO BE DISTINGUISHED IN PRONUNCIATION.
could (") look(w) wood(w) sue
cooed (Jt) Luke (~) wooed (~) shoe
full r ) should D Jew
fool ( ) shoed (~) dew suit
pull ( v ) to ( v ) jewel shoot
pool ( ) two(~) duel soot
WORDS OF THE SAME PRONUNCIATION BUT DIFFERENT ORTHOGRAPHY.
due room few too wood rude choose
dew rheum feu two would rood chews
THE) ASPIRATE, H.
We have shown, at page 28, that the letter H does not represent any fixed
formation, but simply an aspiration of the succeeding element. Thus, H before
e is a whispered e, before a a whispered a, etc. — differing, however, from the
simple whispered vowel by the expulsiveness of the aspiration, as before ex-
THE ASPIRATE, H 91
plained; — and H before alphabetic u — which, it will be remembered, represents
the combination y-oo — denotes a whispered Y, as in hue, human, etc., pronounced
Yhue = Yhyoo, Yhuman, etc.
Some writers analyze the sound Wh into Whw, correspondently to Yhy;
and it must be acknowledged that many persons do pronounce such words as
what, which, when, etc., with a Vocal as well as a Breath W, — Whwat, Whwen,
etc. — but this is by no means the general mode. Wh — the breath W — should be
in such words used independently; although its lingual correspondent, the Breath
Y, is not so employed in English. The latter is always associated with the sound
of Y ; and it occurs only before the alphabetic sound of U.
English speakers too commonly omit the aspirate of Y and W, and so con-
found in their pronunciation such words as hue and you, which and witch, whale
and wail, whither and wither, whig and wig. These aspirations are very unwel-
come to the English mouth, but they can only be omitted at the expense of
ambiguity. How very awkward to have a brother named Hugh: "I assure you
I gave the book to 'Ugh." "I beg your pardon — that you certainly never did."
"Upon my honour! — 'Ugh cannot have forgotten it." "I ! — come, come?" "You!
no, no, I did not mean you, but 'Ugh, your brother 'Ugh!"
The Vowel aspirate is very irregularly used in many parts of England ; it is
heard when it should be silent, and silent when it should be sounded; and that
with such perversity that pure initial vowels are almost unheard, except in cases
where they ought to be aspirated. A gentleman dining on cold hare, astonished
his entertainer by exclaiming, "The hair is very 'ot." Explaining himself, when
he observed the misapprehension, he said, "I mean the hair we breathe^ and not
the 'are we're heating."
This remarkable perversity of custom has been amusingly made the subject
of a petition in verse from the letter H to the inhabitants of Shrewsbury, who
are notorious for their haddiction to this obit.
Whereas by you I have been driven
From House, from Home, from Hope, from Heaven;
And placed by your most learn'd society
In Ills, and Anguish, and Anxiety:
Charged, too, without one just pretence,
With Atheism and Impudence, —
I now demand full restitution,
And beg you'll mend your Elocution !
To this petition by the Rev. R. W. Evans, an aspiring Shrewsbury poetess
aptly rejoined:
Whereas we rescued you, ingrate,
From Horror, Havoc, and from Hate,
From Horse-pond, Hungering, and from Halter,
And consecrated you on Altar,
And placed you, where you'd never be,
In Honour, and in Honesty;
We think your talking an intrusion,
And shall not change our Elocution.
Many public speakers contract a very disagreeable habit of giving a vocal
commencement to H, — uhold, uhundred, etc. — as if fearful that otherwise the
letter would not reach the ears of their auditors. But if it be legitimately as-
pirated, and no more, it will not fail of audibility: the succeeding vowel makes
it heard far better than can the tasteless expedient of putting a vowel sound
before it.
A Northern habit of forming, or rather deforming the H, consists in giving
92 THE ASPIRATE, H
a degree of guttural compression to the breath, by approximating the base of the
tongue and the soft palate, producing the effect of the Scotch ch, which otherwise
is not used as an initial sound in Scotland. There is something in this peculiarity
extremely harsh and grating to English ears. It should be studiously avoided,
and easily may be, — by all who aim at propriety in speaking English.
Let the Stammerer study attentively the characteristics of the letter H. It
is invariably a severe stumbling-block. He will find that, in his fruitless efforts
to pronounce it, or rather to pronounce the vowel after it, his chest is bearing
down with collapsing force, and the breath welling out in heavy spouts from his
convulsed glottis. A useful exercise to check this, consists in prolonging an
expiration as much as possible. Let the lungs be fully inflated, by expanding the
chest to its utmost breadth, and then let the breath be emitted slowly, softly, and
equably in one unbroken stream. After a little practice, the whispered expiration
will be continuable almost as long as a vocal one — a vowel. The junction of this
breathing with the vowels must next be aimed at. Thus : — alternate, in the pro-
longed expiration, the voice and the whisper of the same formation, h-e-h-e-h-e,
etc., h-o-h-o-h-o, etc. If the difficulties with initial vowels have been first re-
moved, the stammerer will not be long in subduing this — perhaps the most
troublesome feature in his impediment. Habit will, for a time, baffle his skill,
or try it sorely ; but steady perseverance will overcome even the tyranny of habit.
In the following words, though H is written, the vowels are not aspirated :
heir, heirship, heirloom, etc. ; honest, honesty, etc. ; honour, honourable, etc. ;
hostler ; hour, hourglass, etc. ; humble, humbly, etc. ; humour, humourous, etc.
WORDS TO BE DISTINGUISHED IN PRONUNCIATION.
had
heat
add
eat
hair, hare
heel
air, ere, e'er, Ayr, heir, Eyre
eel
hall
hell
all
ell
hand
her
and
err
hasp
hide
asp
eyed
hat
high
at
eye, I
hate
hill
eight
ill
hear
his
ear
is
hoe
owe, oh
hive
I've
hold
old
hone
own
howl
owl
Hoyle
oil
Hugh, hue, hew
you, yew
WORDS OF THE SAME PRONUNCIATION BUT DIFFERENT ORTHOGRAPHY.
whole
hole
ARTICULATIONS
93
DICTIONARY OF ENGLISH SOUNDS
SECTION SECOND— ARTICULATIONS
In the first part of this work the leading principles of articulation have been
explained, and a complete scheme given of the Articulate Elements of Language.
We shall now proceed to offer some practical observations on each of these ele-
ments, with reference to their formations, defects, combinations, etc.
This department of our work will be of especial service to teachers, parents,
and others who have the management of children, in enabling them to prevent,
or check the formation of defective or uncouth habits of articulation ; and to direct
the vocal efforts of children in such a way as to insure fluency, grace, and dis-
tinctness of speech.
To the lisping, burring, mumbling, and mouthing "children of a riper growth,"
who are conscious of their cacophonies, and desirous to correct them, these obser-
vations and exercises furnish the means of removing such articulative blemishes.
To the public speaker they offer principles and praxes such as, in application,
cannot fail to give articulation its highest effectiveness.
The stammerer will find many remarks under the different elements, which
will be of much service to him, both as directory and cautionary assistances. An
intelligent practical acquaintance with the mechanical principles of speech is the
only rational foundation for a system of cure. We cannot better advise the
stammerer than bid him study well the natural principles of speech. Knowing
them familiarly, he must be dull indeed if he does not work out a large measure
of improvement from them. For perfect freedom from impediment, however,
oral instruction, and the vigilant eye and ear of a master may be, in almost all
cases, necessary; for stammering is generally accompanied by a great want of
perception of the causes of error as well as by a nervous agitation, which unfits
the stammerer for self-observation and correction.
The following table exhibits the articulations in the order in which they are
treated of in the succeeding dictionary of sounds :
I. P, as
II. B,
III. M,
IV. Wh,
V. W,
VI. F,
VII. V,
VIII. Th,
IX. Th,
X. S,
XI. Z,
in whey
pay
bay
may
way
feel
veal
seal
thin
then
zeal
XII. R, as in rare
XIII. L,
XIV. T,
XV. D,
XVI. N,
XVII. Sh,
XVIII. Zh,
XX. Y,
XIX. Yh,
XXI. K,
XXII. G,
XXIII. ng,
lie
tie
die
nigh
shy
giraffe
hue
you
come
gum
sing
P.
The formation of P consists, ist, in a steady equal contact of both lips, so
as to retain the breath perfectly behind them; and, 2nd, in an equal and rapid
disjunction of the lips, to allow the breath to escape. If the contact of the lips
be not sufficiently firm to stop the breath, the letter will strike the ear like F;
and if their action be heavy, the p will be inaudible when final, and very ungrace-
ful in other situations.
While the lips are in contact, there should be no pouting, or motion of any
kind ; and their separation should be by one light and uniform action, so that the
94 ART I CU LA TIONS—P
whole edges may be simultaneously disengaged; for if they are projected and
pushed asunder — as they not unfrequently are — the features are deformed, and
many faults, both of articulation and expression, are created. P before F or V,
is in this way rendered an jmpossible combination, or at least an excessively ugly
one, in the attempt; and many of the vowel sounds also suffer in quality from
the contracted and rounded aperture of the mouth. The corners of the lips must
be brought apart in finishing P, or all the vowels from ee to ah will be more or
less injuriously affected. Besides, the habit of forming the labial-articulations
in a loose and wriggling way interferes much with the expressive power of the
lips in the manifestation of feeling. The mouth is the most expressive index of
emotion, and that whose signs are least capable of suppression. The eyes have
been called the "windows from which the soul peeps forth" ; — we should call the
mouth the door by which she actually comes forth. But if, by ungainly habits
of speech, the delicately-varying expressiveness of the mouth may be defeated,
how important — to the orator and physiognomist at least — must be the power of
regulating the articulative motions of the lips.
Where there exists any fault in the formation of this letter, the following
exercise will be found highly improving. Practise words containing the letter P,
and keep the lips in firm contact -for some seconds at each P — observing that
while the pressure of the breath is continued, there is no motion of any kind in
the lips. Observe, also, that there is no escape of breath by the nostrils.
This exercise will subdue and, with a little care, soon remove the tendency
to mal-articulation of P. It will be found very useful to stammerers also in
giving power over the facial muscles. The lips, in many cases of stammering,
are so tremulous and feeble in their motions, that they cannot retain the breath
under the slightest pressure, but start off again the instant they meet, causing
repetitions of the labial syllable — pa-pa-pa-paper. Sometimes in the effort to
separate the lips, the upper lip descends with the lower lip, dragging down the
nostrils, and deforming the whole countenance. The upper lip should have as
little motion as possible, and it should never be depressed below the edges of the
upper teeth.
The letter P presents another difficulty to stammerers, from an upward
pressure of the lower jaw locking the under teeth within the upper range, while
the lips are in contact. This renders a downward motion of the jaw, as well as
of the lip, indispensable to finish the letter; and the teeth are forcibly jerked
down, again to be jammed upwards in fruitless repetitions; often, instead of
disengaging the jaws by the descent of the lower teeth, the stammerer puts the
effort of separation into the head, and tosses it backwards, or draws it from side
to side. P is a formidable difficulty under such circumstances ; but a careful study
and practice of the correct formation of the letter will soon remove this source
of impediment and correct any fault that may interfere with grace or distinctness.
Exercise before a mirror greatly facilitates the correction of any fault of oral
action. To see the error is half-way to its cure.
P is an obstruction of breath only ; there is no effort of voice in its forma-
tion ; it has no sound but the slight explosiveness of breath which finishes it. A
fault is often created by the conjunction of the lips while the breath is being
drawn in, so that a degree of audibility is given to their meeting. This, in an
aggravated degree, accompanied by deficient glottal power, produces stammering
of a very heavy and convulsive kind. The lips, and the organs of articulation
generally, should assume the positions required for the different elements, gently
and after the act of inspiration is finished — retain them firmly while the breath
is compressed behind or between the articulating organs, and by a light disjunc-
tion, give off the final effect of the articulation with rapidity. The letter P,
ARTICULA TIONS—P 95
having no other element of audibility than that which accompanies the organic
separation, can never be deprived of this without indistinctness or impediment.
We may express in a sentence the great leading characteristics of good and
bad articulation. The energy of vocal action is disjunctive in good speaking, and
conjunctive in heavy or impeded utterance ; that is to say, the contact or approxi-
mation of the organs is light in the one case, and heavy in the other ; — the general
direction of the actions is downwards from articulations to vowels in good speech ;
and in indistinct or stammering speech, the force of the actions is upwards from
vowels to articulations. In order to be clearly understood, then, with reference
to the letter P, we observe, that it is not made by the conjunction of the lips, but
by their separation; and this of course implies previous contact. If the Stam-
merer, and the Mumbler, and all classes of bad speakers, could comprehend and
apply this principle, they would soon rejoice in distinctness and fluency.
We must farther observe, that in separating the lips there should be no jerk-
ing of the jaw. If a vowel follow the P in the same syllable, the teeth should
descend freely for the vowel, but the P itself must have no motion of the teeth,
either upwards when the lips meet, or downwards when they separate. The teeth
should remain apart even when the lips are in contact.
There is some little art required to make P audible when it occurs in con-
nexion with any of the other obstructive articulations, as in nap-kin, step-quickly,
slep-t, cheap-tea, scape-goat, etc. To master this difficulty, lightness and precision
of action are the essential requisites.
EXERCISE.
ape tay ape kay ape day ape gay
ap tap ap cap ap dap ap gap
In finishing P and other articulations, it is highly important in every case of
difficulty, to notice that the issue of breath be restrained immediately on the
organic separation. If the breath pour out continuously, and the chest fall, the
lungs will soon be exhausted. It is the want of this power to retain the breath
after articulations which causes the great difficulty which Stammerers experience
in joining articulations to succeeding vowels. They will often get smoothly over
the consonants, and stumble at the vowel, utterly unable to connect the two. They
must bear in mind that the breath in articulation is exploded from the mouth, and
not from the chest. The space within which the air is compressed is above the
glottis, and the effect of the compression must not be communicated below the
glottis.
When a word contains the combination pp, the effect of only one p is heard ;
as in apprise, upper, supplicate, etc. ; but when one words ends with P, and the
next commences with the same letter, the final and initial elements should in
general be separately articulated. Two p's can only be made by a repetition of
the action of one. B and M, being formed by the same labial action as P, will
not blend with that letter; but the P must be separately finished when it comes
before them. Not, however, when it is in the same word, as in upbraid, upborne,
upmost, topmast, etc., where the P is a mere stop of the voice and loses its final
percussiveness. In cupboard, the b only is heard, and in subpoena the b is sunk,
and p heard.
It was noticed at page 29, that the nasal letters M, N, NG, must have the
breath perfectly obstructed by the mouth, in order that the current of sound may
pass completely through the nostrils; it follows, therefore, that any of the ob-
structive letters coming before either of the nasal elements, must be finished inde-
pendently of the nasal letter, or the explosive effect of the obstructive letter must
pass through the nose. This creates a degree of sniffling which is very ungrace-
96 ART I CU LA TIONS—B
ful, and which may be easily avoided by a light and rapid articulation of the
obstructive element. P or B before M, must, from the hiatus caused by the
repetition of the same action,, be allowed to nasalize their final breathings when
they meet in one word, or in common phrases ; but there is no excuse for sniffling
the terminations of T, D, K, and G before M, for these linguals and gutturals
are produced by actions which may be rightly performed without at all disturbing
fluency of articulation. On the same principle, T and D before N in the same
word, must lose their oral explosiveness ; but the other obstructives (B, P, K, G)
should never be allowed to do so in the same situation. So, too, T before L, as
in outlaw, battle, etc., is not finished by removing the point of the tongue as in
other situations, but by extrusion of the breath over the sides of the tongue,
through the apertures of L.
P initial combines only with I, r, and 37 in English, as in play, pray, pew, etc.,
therefore in all the other combinations which we write, namely, pu, as in pneu-
matic ; ps, in psalm; pt, in ptarmigan, etc., the p is silent. Pw is a common
French combination, as in poids (pronounced pwah).
WORDS CONTAINING ELEMENTS OF DIFFICULTY.
Apt, chapter, cupful, fop, heptarchy, kept, leapt, mapped, napkin, naphtha, pamphlet,
papaverous, pauper, pavement, peep, people, peevish, pepper, pebble, pimple, pipkin, pivot,
popped, public, puff, puppet, wrapt, stopped, stopcock, upmost, upward.
B.
This articulation differs from the preceding in no degree, extent, or continu-
ance of labial pressure (as has been erroneously supposed), but in the employment
of an apparatus unused tor P, — i. e., the vocal organ — in addition to all the action,
compression of breath, and explosive force of P. The external action of both
letters being the very same, our remarks on the formation of P, will apply equally
to this articulation. If the junction of the lips be too feeble to intercept the
breath, the letter will sound like V; and if their action be heavy and sluggish,
pouting, or unsteady, the same faults and difficulties will be produced which were
noticed under the head of P. While the lips are in contact for P, there is no
sound produced; the prolongation of the contact only prolongs silence; but in B
there is a sound heard, while the lips are closed. The glottis is in the vocalizing
position, and the breath in passing through it creates sonorous vibration ; during
the continuance of which, the neck, at its junction with the chin, will be observed
to distend. This arises from the swelling out of the pharynx, into which the
stream of air from the glottis, unable to escape by the mouth or nostrils, forces
itself. The muffled vocal sound which is heard during the distension of the
pharynx ceases as soon as that compartment is filled, and it can only be renewed
after the pharyngal muscles have been allowed to contract. Many persons, from
deficiency of pharyngal power, are unable to produce the shut voice in these
elements ; so that B, D, and G are hardly distinguishable from P, T, and K. This
whispering of the Voice Articulations is a remarkable characteristic of Gaelic,
Welsh, and Irish speakers. After a little practice the power of vocalizing the
obstructive formations may be perfectly acquired, and the national defect will
disappear. Let the student dwell on the articulation as long as possible in its
various situations ; and though, at first, he may be able to produce only a momen-
tary stroke of voice, he will soon develop such an elasticity in the pharynx as will
enable him to continue the sound for a couple of seconds. It is necessary to
guard against the slightest nasal sound in this exercise. The nasal tubes open
from the pharynx, and if they are not perfectly closed by their natural valve —
ARTICULA TIONS—B 97
the soft palate, — the pharynx will not distend ; it is then a leaky bag, and cannot
be inflated.
In forming B, and indeed the Obstructive articulations generally, the com-
pression of breath must not cease until the external contact terminates, or the
explosive finish of the elements will be lost. It is a peculiar characteristic of
some varieties of Stammering, that the vocal part of B, D, and G, will be heard
perfectly, while the letters will not out. The Stammerer repeats the articulation
again and again with the pharyngal murmur distinct, yet without the least emis-
sion of breath following. He is consequently unable to connect the initial letter
with the succeeding vowel. In this case, the muscles which constitute the sides
of the pharynx contract too soon; the instant they yield to the pressure of air,
they again collapse, — either from a want of power in the muscles themselves, or
from the Stammerer's inability to continue the effort until his lips are separated.
Expedite the latter action, and the former difficulty will cease. Whatever be the
cause of the impediment, energetic and intelligent practice will soon remove it.
B initial combines with /, r, and yf as in blue, brew, beauty. Bw — which is
a common French combination, as in boire (pr. bwahr) — is heard in English in
buoy, buoyant, etc.
In the final combinations mb and bt, b is silent, as in dumb, bomb, doubt,
de&t, etc.
B before M, in the same word, as in cabman, is not finished by a separation
of the lips ; but before N this final action of the B should not be wanting.
EXERCISE.
abe tay abe kay abe day abe gay abe nay
ab tab ab kab ab dab ab gab ab nab
The combination BB in the same word, sounds like single B ; but when one
word ends with B, and the next begins with that letter, or with M, both elements
should be heard, and — unless the words form an unimportant phrase, — the lips
should be separated between the articulations.
WORDS TO BE DISTINGUISHED IN PRONUNCIATION.
back bail bath beach bear belt
pack pail path peach pear pelt
birch best bet bill bind blunder
perch pest pet pill pined plunder
boor bore bother breach bull bunch
poor pour pother preach pull punch
cab cub mob
cap cup mop
WORDS CONTAINING ELEMENTS OF DIFFICULTY.
^Abracadabra, babe, babble, baptism, bauble, beblot, bedaub, beef, bepeppered, beverage,
biblical, biped, blubber, brabble, bribe, bobbin, bubble, bump, hubbub, probable.
M.
This letter has the same orally obstructive formation as P and B, but the
nasal passages are uncovered, and the air, instead of collecting within the mouth
and pharynx, flows continuously through the nostrils. The soft palate is the valve
which covers or uncovers the nares; its action in doing so is extremely limited, as
may be seen by forming G and ng with open mouth before a glass ; the sound may
be intercepted and nasalized at pleasure, by a very slight but perceptible motion of
98 ARTICULATIONS— M
the upper part of the velum, while the contact of its edges with the tongue remains
undisturbed. This contact is the necessary formation of G, of which ng is the
nasal form. We have said that the stream of breath cannot be directed entirely
through the nostrils, unless it be obstructed in the mouth. It is a common mistake,
however, to think that the soft palate must, in order to open the nares, lie on the
tongue for all nasal sounds. If the breath were thus uniformly intercepted at the
posterior articulating part of the mouth for all the nasal elements, there could be
no difference between M, N, and ng. The contact of the anterior organs would
not influence the sound, unless the vocal current reached those organs. The for-
mation of the English Nasals requires that the oral aperture be closed, and the
breath directed against the obstructing organs; while the withdrawal from the
nares of that part of the soft palate which lies opposite to them, gives the breath
a passage through the nostrils ; and the articulation is not finished until the organs
which close the oral passage are separated. If the obstructing organs be not dis-
joined, the element loses its articulative quality, and is merely a nasal vowel.
Great indistinctness arises from the want of this action when m, n, and ng are
final. The French seldom sound the nasal articulations when final, or when before
another articulation ; in these cases they give, instead, a nasal quality to the pre-
ceding vowel, making the voice issue partly by the mouth and partly by the nose.
There are no such sounds in English. (See French Semi-Nasal Vowels, page 29.)
The English nasals are all purely vocal. They are often faultily formed in
this respect: — sometimes the voice is breathy and ill-formed in the glottis; and
sometimes its sonorous quality is injured by some contraction of the nostrils. In
order to remove these blemishes, let the nasal elements be practised separately
with the same prolonged vocality which was recommended for vowel sounds.
When the vocalizing of the nasals has been perfected by this exercise, they should
be practised with the requisite articulative actions, and in their various combi-
nations.
The nasal elements, and also the letter L, are often called Semi-vowels, be-
cause they are perfectly sonorous, and capable of separate and prolonged enuncia-
tion, like vowels. These semi- vowels may each separately form a syllable ; L and
N often do so in English, as in castle, fasten, etc. ; and M has a similar syllabic
effect in rhythm, chasm, prism, etc. In the pronunciation of such words, care
must be taken that no vowel sound is heard between the m and the preceding
articulation.
The letters of this class are also called Liquids, because they flow into other
articulations, and seem to be absorbed by them. This peculiar quality might per-
haps be better understood, were we to call it transparency; they show through
them the nature of proximate articulations. When the Liquids occur before
voiceless articulations, they are so short as scarcely to add any appreciable quantity
to the syllable ; wilt, bent, brink, lamp, etc., have thus but very little more duration
than wit, bet, brick, lap, etc. The liquid or transparent letters in this situation
cannot be prolonged without producing drawling, and an un-English pronunciation
of the words. When these letters, however, come before Voice Articulations, they
form the longest syllables in the language, — as in willed, bend, tongues, lambs,
film, helm, etc., which have as long quantity as any syllables containing the same
vowels can have. The liquids have the same quantity as other Voice Articula-
tions before vowels. They are, however, longer when final; and it is one of the
greatest beauties of good speaking, to give them, then, their "fair proportion."
The "liquid" quality should not extend to proximate words, but only to letters in
the same word.
M before f, v, or w, presents a difficult combination that is seldom heard with
distinctness from ordinary speakers. M is especially awkward before / and wh,
ART I CU LA TIONS—WH 99
which, being voiceless, shorten the liquid, and render rapidity of action necessary,
as in comfort, amphibious, somewhat, somewhere, etc.
EXERCISE.
aim fay aim vay aim way
am f am am vam am warn
M generally presents a serious difficulty to the Stammerer. Voice feeble and
ill-formed, — collapsing chesi,^-adhesive lips, — motion in the nostrils, — descent of
the upper lip, — upward pressure of the lower jaw, — ascent of the chin, — twisting
and protrusion of the lips ; — and the very smoothness of the letter which will not
bear such rough antagonistic treatment, — all combine to render M one of the
greatest difficulties, and the Liquids generally, the greatest obstacles to fluency
that the Stammerer meets with. The explosive letters will bear a good deal of
harshness, but these delicate articulations are impracticable amid such violence of
effort.
Careful and patient practice, with the aid of a glass, and sometimes with the
temporary assistance of direct appliances to check convulsive action, will, however,
surmount even these apparently impassable barriers to speech.
M initial combines with y, as in muse, but with no other articulation in
English. It is written, but silent, before N, as in mnemonics. Mw is a common
French combination, as in moi, pronounced mwah.
WORDS CONTAINING ELEMENTS OF DIFFICULTY.
Amphib, anemone, comfort, emphasis, film, helm, lymphatic, mammalian, mammon, map,
member, memnonian, memoir, memorable, mime, mimetic, mimic, minimum, mob, mumble,
mummery, nymph, rythm, spasm, triumph.
WH.
This element is the voiceless form of W. In its formation the lips are closely
approximated, and then rapidly separated while the breath is not obstructed.
Sometimes a slight degree of vocality is added to the action : in consequence of
the common but erroneous theory which resolves the sound of wh into hw or hoo.
Wh should, analogously to P and the other Breath Articulations, be pronounced
entirely without voice. If the action be confined to the lips, Wh will be found
to be so unexceptionable and delicate in its articulative effect, that even the Cock-
neys, who, in their inconsistent horror of aspirations, confound it with W, need
not reject it as uncouth. In Scotland the action of Wh is often not confined to
the lips, but thrown back to the soft palate also, so that the breath is at once
modified into the guttural ch and the labial Wh. The effect of this guttural modi-
fication is peculiarly harsh and ungraceful.
Wh is not heard before o or oo. In these cases, the vowel is simply aspirated
without the articulative action: this gives H instead of Wh before these vowels,
as in whole, whose, etc., pronounced hole, hooze, etc.
Wh and W should be contrasted in practice till the ear and organs recognize
and execute the difference satisfactorily.
EXERCISE.
whawa wa wha wha wa wha wa wha wa whim wim
whip wip, etc.
WORDS TO BE DISTINGUISHED IN PRONUNCIATION.
whey whale wheel when where which whether
way wale weal wen ware witch weather
I'OO ARTICULATIONS— W
whig while whin whine whit white whither
wig wile win wine wit wight wither
WORDS CONTAINING ELEMENTS OF DIFFICULTY.
Wharf, whelm, whiff, whiffle, whim, whimper, whimwham, whip.
W.
This letter has been called a Vowel by some orthoepists, — by others a Con-
sonant,— and by others both a vowel and a consonant. When W occurs before a
vowel, it is unquestionably an Articulation; and in other situations, it is either a
redundant letter, as in flo w, or an auxiliary mark to make up the writing of some
sound which has no fixed symbol. The combination aw, for instance, sounds 10
as in saw; ew sounds 12 as in sew, and 13 as in grew; ow sounds 12 in flow, and
7-13 in now, etc. The only regular sound of W is that of the initial articulation.
In forming W, the lips are very closely approximated, — but not necessarily
projected — and an effort of voice is made, which produces a sound resembling oof
but with a more contracted aperture ; and the articulation is finished by the smart
recoil of the lips to give egress to the succeeding vowel.
When W is before oo, the combination is rather difficult, from the little scope
the organs have for the articulative action ; the w is in consequence often omitted
by careless speakers, wool being pronounced ool, — woman, ooman, etc. The fol-
lowing experiment will clearly show what the formation of W really is. Sound
the vowel oo, and, with the thumb and forefinger, momentarily approximate and
again separate the middle of the lips during the continuance of the sound, and the
word woo will be pronounced. After a little exercise, the lips will be able to
originate the necessary action, and perform it with precision and rapidity.
W and wh occasion many a difficulty to the Stammerer. Sometimes the seat
of the impediment lies in the production of voice in the iv; sometimes in the
junction of the articulation with the succeeding vowel. The Stammerer, blind to
the principle that articulations are made by disjunctive actions, jerks his chin
forcibly upwards ; the lips meet and close upon each other, in struggle ; while the
head, eyes, and whole body, partake of the effort, and undergo a paroxysm of
convulsive action ; and it is not until the face is reddened with the straining, and
the chest almost collapsed, that the sound ungovernably rushes out.
The cure of this distressing impediment must be founded on the clear con-
viction that the lips cannot produce the sound — that they only modify it, gently
and instantaneously ; and that consequently, any effort thrown into them is unnat-
ural, and must be a cause of difficulty. Let the Stammerer but observe the
mechanism of W from the vowel oo in the way above described, and the hold of
the impediment will be at once greatly loosened. Guarded practice and careful
application of the principle of its articulation will soon obviate the difficulty which
this element presents.
The 7th vowel is never heard after W in English. The contracted labial
aperture for the articulation would render its combination with so open a vowel
abrupt and harsh ; and the more congenial formation No. 10 (aw) is used instead.
All the other vowel-sounds occur after W. No articulation ever follows it, in
English.
Wr is a digraph retained in our orthography, but the w is not sounded. The
combination is, however, perfectly practicable, and it was no doubt articulated in
the earlier ages of our language. In the Scottish dialect, both letters are still
often heard in such words as wretch, wright, etc.
W combines with the initial articulations, B, D, G, T, K, Th, S, as in buoy,
dwindle, gnava, twice, queen, thwart, sway.
ARTICULATIONS— F 101
In the French language, W follows almost all of the articulations : it is heard
after R in roi, after F in fois, L in loin, M in moi, N in noir, P in paid, V in voir,
etc.
WORDS TO BE DISTINGUISHED IN PRONUNCIATION.
wooes buoy
ooze boy
WORDS CONTAINING ELEMENTS OF DIFFICULTY.
Wafer, waft, warfare, weave, weep, weevil, wife, wipe, wives, wigwam, wolf, woman.
womb, women, woof, wove.
F is formed by apposition of the middle of the lower lip to the edges of the
upper teeth, followed by the rapid withdrawal of the lip to finish the articulation.
The breath must not be stopped during the organic contact. The obstruction
offered by the lip, however, gives the breath sufficient compression in the mouth
to produce a degree of percussiveness when the lip is removed. We have already
spoken of the necessity of attending carefully to the labial action, so as to avoid
redundancy or ungracefulness. An awkward formation of F and V is so common
as to render a repetition of the caution here necessary. The lip is frequently
rolled outwards, so as to bring its interior surface against the front of the teeth ;
and the upper lip is twitched up towards the nostrils, to avoid collision with the
clumsy usurper from below. The mouth is sadly deformed by these ungainly
actions, and the wriggling lips look in profile like a couple of "uneasie worms/'
twining in agony. There is nothing in the mechanism of F, or of any articulation,
or in any combination of sounds in speech, that requires these loose and protrusive
actions of the lips; they should be* studiously avoided by every person of taste.
The lips should, in all their actions, retain as nearly as possible, the form of the
dental ranges. For F the upper lip should have no motion; and the under lip
should merely rise sufficiently to bring its edge against the tips of the upper teeth.
A too labial formation of the vowels aw, o, oo, creates an awkwardness in articu-
lating F in syllables containing these vowels ; — as in azvful, wolfish, uvula, over,
etc.
Redundancy of labial action in forming F, aggravated by the upward pressure
of the jaw, creates a trying difficulty to the Stammerer. F, properly continuous,
becomes perfectly obstructive, and acquires all the difficulty of P, with a more
awkward position of the lips : for the lower lip frequently forces its ascent to the
upper gum, and wedges itself in between that and the upper lip. — But Error is
too various to be traced in all its vagaries ; and the erroneous actions of Stammer-
ing are so eccentric as to present new features in almost every case. Let the true
principles of articulation be investigated, and brought in contrast with any error,
and, if the source of the error be not at once made apparent, the means of re-
moving it will, at least, be so.
F is sometimes formed by the close approximation of both lips, instead of the
lower lip and upper teeth : but the tension of the lips necessary for this formation
is ungraceful and fettering to the general maxillary action. A loosely formed P
sounds like F, by the breath not being perfectly 'intercepted.
EXERCISE.
ap fa af pa pa fa fa pa pa fa pa fa pa fa
pifpip fipfif
F and Th sound very much alike. F is /afo'o-dental, and Th /w#wa-dental ; —
and the manner of their formation is precisely the same, namely, a continuous
102 ARTICULATIONS— V
breathing between the apposed organ and the teeth, followed by the quick removal
of the articulating organ.
Breath Articulations are frequently vocalized before Vocal ones, and between
vowels: thus, ph is sounded v in nephew and Stephen. Careless speakers pro-
nounce if like iv in such situations, and of is always pronounced with v instead
of / (ov or uv) ; but this change has perhaps been sanctioned for the purpose of
distinguishing the word from off.
F initial combines with /, r, and y, as in flight, fright, fury. In French it
combines also with w, as in fois. F in English unites with no initial articulation,
except S, as in sphere.
WORDS CONTAINING ELEMENTS OF DIFFICULTY.
Faith, falsify, fame, fathom, favour, feather, febrifuge, feeble, feoff, fervour, fib, fifty,
flap, flippant, fop, frippery, froward, fume, muff, phenomenon, phlebotomy, phosphorus, puff.
V.
This articulation adds to the action of F a vocal sound. With this difference
of sonorous quality, F and V are in every respect the same. Our remarks on the
articulation of F will therefore equally apply to V. V is liable, however, to an-
other kind of mispronunciation in the absence or but partial presence of voice.
The clear vocality of the voice articulations is a source of much beauty in speech :
and the vocal vibration should not subside until the disjunctive action which com-
pletes the articulation is made. All vocal articulations are more or less capable
of Inflexion — the continuous formations especially so, — and much of the effect of
an expressive voice lies in the varied intonation of these elements.
Londoners often pronounce w instead of v, and, with strange perversity, v
instead of w. Thus we hear wessel for vessel, and voter for water; werry veil
for very well, etc. ; — but of course only or mainly among the uneducated.
Rapid alternations of W and V are organically so difficult — not to Stam-
merers only — that they form a useful exercise to bring the lips under control.
EXERCISE.
va wa wa va va wa va wa va wa
As a general exercise on the Labial Articulations, the following arrangement
of the Three Modes of action will be useful. Reiterate the combinations rapidly.
EXERCISE.
wa ba va va ba wa ba va wa
wiv bib wib viv biv wiv
V initial combines only with y, as in view. Vr is a peculiar French combina-
tion, as in Vraie.
WORDS TO BE DISTINGUISHED IN PRONUNCIATION.
vain van vast vault veal iveer. veil
fain fan fast fault feel fear fail
very vetch view vile vine voiced vase
ferry fetch few file fine foist phase
five rive save serve wave wive
fife rife safe serf waif wife
WORDS CONTAINING ELEMENTS OF DIFFICULTY.
Immovable, movement, thieve, throve, valuable, vamp, vapid, velvet, verb, verify, viper,
vivid, vivification, vivify, vociferate, voluble, volume, vomit, votive, wove.
ARTICULATIONS— TH 103
TH — as in thin.
This articulation is that which gives the most forward action to the tongue,
the front edge of which rests equally and lightly against the inner surface or edge
of the upper teeth, while the breath escapes over the sides of the fore-part of the
tongue. The breath must not be obstructed, or a thick and indistinct T will be
produced. The necessary mechanism of Th is simply obstruction of the breath
by the tip of the tongue, and a lateral passage for the breath (on one side or both
sides) over the fore-part of the tongue. The tongue may lie either between the
teeth, — on the upper teeth, — on the gum, — or even on the rim of the palatal arch ;
and the sound of Th will be produced if the issue of the breath be in the way
described.
The second of these is the proper formation, as it is that which most readily
combines with other lingual movements. The first formation, — namely, the plac-
ing of the tongue between the teeth, — is a very common mode of untutored articu-
lation ; and frequently the "unruly member" is fulsomely protruded, as if lapping
the air. School-boys have a way, — often a painful one, — of curing this vice, by
striking the chin upwards, and making the teeth bite the obtrusive member. Yet
the number of speakers who continue thus to thrust their tongues into unnecessary
observation, shows that the biting specific is either not very generally adopted, or
not of permanent efficacy ; and the adult organ often rolls in luxurious ease upon
the dental pillows, and stretches itself out even to the softer lip, as if rejoicing in
full-grown security from the terrors of "chin-whack."
Another faulty formation of Th consists in a movement of the lower lip
inwards to meet the tongue. This gives so much of the character of F to the
articulation, that it is often difficult to know which is the letter intended. F and
Th are mechanically much alike. The action of the lip for F is precisely analogous
to that of the tongue for Th. Both organs partially obstruct the breath by central
contact with the teeth ; and the breath is in both cases emitted through lateral
interstices. The following Exercise on the actions of F and Th will give clis-
tinctiveness to these elements.
Pronounce — not the name, but- the articulate sound of the letters F and Th,
without an intervening vowel. Dwell for some seconds on the F, keeping the
whole range of the upper teeth in sight, then quickly. disengage the lip, and place
the tongue in the position for th, resting in this position with both ranges of teeth
in sight for a few seconds ; then withdraw the tongue energetically, and assume
the position for F, as before : and so on alternately, till the actions can be reiterated
with rapidity.
EXERCISE.
f-th-f-th-f-th-f-th-f-th-f-th, etc.
fatha fathafa fith tha f a tha fatha thif
Th is sometimes sounded instead of s: this constitutes one form of the defect
called Lisping. Combinations of th and s present an articulative difficulty which
should be mastered by careful practice. (See S.)
A voiceless L is a common substitute for Th among children ; and even older
tongues will sometimes be found to utter the cacophony. Nothing can be more
simple than the cause of this error, and the means of its correction.
Th is not heard in French or German: the digraph is written, but it is pro-
nounced t. Foreigners generally have so great a difficulty in articulating the
English Th, that it is a rare thing to find one of them so far naturalized to the
English tongue as to be capable of uttering this shibboleth. The difficulty arises
only from ipnnrflnr* Of rtir mtnrr nf tlir formation : just as the Englishman's diffi-
104
ARTICULATIONS— -TH
culty in giving the Gallic effect to the French semi-nasal elements is the result of
a want of knowledge of the true mechanism of these sounds. A clear under-
standing of the formation of the peculiar elements would make their easy pro-
duction the work of half an hour's practice.
To the Stammerer Th presents another source of impediment besides those
already noticed. This lies in the action of the tongue. The heavy conjunctive
force of the articulative action, impels the tongue with unmanageable pressure
against the teeth, till it is either protruded from the mouth, or rolled up behind
the lower teeth, so as to occasion a complete blockade. The mere occlusion of
the mouth would not necessarily lead to difficulty, for many of the articulations
are perfectly obstructive ; but continued pressure creates impediment. The organs
must in all cases start off from their articulating positions with lightness and
rapidity. The tongue in forming Th, for instance, takes its articulative position
against the teeth, as above described ; but the articulative action — without which
the element is incomplete — is a smart recoil of the tongue, so as perfectly to
separate it from the teeth.
It is an important general principle of lingual articulation, that the point of
the tongue should always be directed upwards, or at least horizontally. It should
never touch the lower teeth, and it should never descend into the lower jaw. In
practising the recoil from the various articulating positions to lighten a heavy
lingual action, the movements should be carefully watched before a glass ; and if
the string of the tongue (the frsenum) be always kept in sight, the protrusive and
downward habits of impeding action will soon be subdued. The muscular power
of the tongue may be so greatly increased by exercise, and brought under the
control of the will, that in a mechanical sense the lingual organ certainly cannot
be called an "unruly member." We have often in a few days drilled into activity
and precision of action, a tongue which formerly lay lumpish and inert in the
mouth; and the apparent bulk of the tongue has been so reduced by the exercise,
that, instead of being, or seeming to be, too large for the mouth, it has learned to
stow itself within the ample cavity, almost out of sight. Very rarely does the
heaviest and hughest looking tongue need more than such a drilling to give it
nimbleness and tapering elegance.
When the formation of Th is from any cause imperfect, let the following
practice be pursued. Place the tongue carefully in the articulating position, and
continue it steadily there for some seconds: then quickly withdraw it, by one
action, as far back and down in the mouth as possible, with its under surface kept
in sight. The finger may be placed at the angle of the neck and chin, and the
descent of the tongue should be distinctly felt. In a short time, lingual power
will be so developed, that not only Th, but all the elements produced by the agency
of the tongue, will be greatly improved.
Th, though a double character, is a simple articulation, and should be repre-
sented by a single letter in the alphabet. H, the sign of aspiration, is added to P,
to represent a continuous formation by the lips, viz. F; and it is on the same
principle added to T and S, to represent continuous formations by the tongue, viz.
Th and 57*. In some languages, we find other combinations with h; in Gaelic,
for instance, Bh and M h, which sound V ; but Mh has this peculiarity, that it gives
a nasal effect to the adjoining vowel.
The vowels exhibit a tendency to prolongation when before Th; for the
articulation being continuous, and its seat far advanced in the mouth, the vowels
cannot be so readily stopped by it as by obstructive and posterior formations.
The words path, bath, etc., illustrate this tendency.
Th initial unites in English with w, r, and y, as in thwart, throne, thews. It
blends with no initial articulation.
ARTICULATIONS— -TH 105
WORDS TO BE DISTINGUISHED IN PRONUNCIATION.
death thought loth oath ruth
deaf fought loaf oaf roof
sheath thew thief thigh thill
sheaf few fief fie fill
thin thirst threat three thrill
fin first fret free frill
WORDS CONTAINING ELEMENTS OF DIFFICULTY.
Fifth, sixth, eighth, ninth, twelfth, breadth, depth, length, width, faithful, healthful,
plinth, thirtieth, thistle, thoroughfare, thrift, thwart, truthful.
TH — as in then.
This is the same articulation as the preceding, but with the addition of voice
during its formation. There is no distinction made in our Orthography of these
elements, but the difference between the sounds is the same as between F and V,
P and B, etc. Thus not only is our alphabet deficient of simple characters to rep-
resent this and the preceding element, but we confound the two sounds by using
for both the same digraph. To be consistent, we should write this sound Dh.
Our remarks on the formation of Th (breath), and on the difficulties and
peculiarities of its articulation, equally apply to the vocal Th; and the exercises
recommended for the former will, with voice added, be equally effective for the
correction of faults in the latter. In forming this element the voice should be
clear and flexible; though, from the interstitial nature of the apertures through
which the breath passes, a degree of hissing will at the same time be heard. The
retraction of the tongue which finishes the articulation should not be followed by
any sound of voice. This is an important general principle of articulation; for,
if a vocal sound escape after the articulating organs are disjoined, it must evi-
dently be a vowel; and this addition, — by no means uncommon, — gives a drawling,
"humming and hawing effect" to speech, which is most disagreeable to the listener.
Custom has vocalized the th in the plural of a few words which have the
breath th in the singular : as in path — paths, oath — oaths, mouth — mouths, bath —
baths, lath — laths. The reason of this change does not seem very obvious ; for it
is just as easy to pronounce ths in these cases as thz. A similar change, however,
takes place in F, which is vocalized from calf to calves, loaf to loaves, etc. The
analogy between the mechanisms of F and Th (already explained, page 101), may
account for these elements being thus correspondingly influenced.
WORDS TO BE DISTINGUISHED IN PRONUNCIATION.
clothes lathe lithe nether oaths than
close lave live (adj.) never owes van
that thine thou withe withes writhe
vat vine vow wive wise rive
WORDS CONTAINING ELEMENTS OF DIFFICULTY.
Blithely, gathereth, litheness, loatheth, loathsome, mouths, paths, sheatheth, soothest,
therewith, thither, wreaths.
The peculiar mechanism requisite to produce the clear hissing sound heard in
this letter, is a single and very contracted aperture for the emission of the breath
over the centre of the fore-part (not the tip) of the tongue, when, without much
elevation from the bed of the lower jaw, it is closely approximated to the upper
106 ARTICULATIONS-^
gum. The tongue is otherwise in contact with the teeth and gum, so as to obstruct
the breath at all parts but the point, which is sufficiently squared to prevent its
touching the front teeth. The slightest projection of the tip brings it against the
teeth, and, by partially intercepting the breath at that point, modifies the sound
into that of th; and the least retraction of the tongue from the precise point of
the true formation, causes the middle of the tongue to ascend towards the arch of
the palate, and modifies the current of breath into the sound of sh. No element
of speech is so often and so variously faulty as S, and yet there is rarely much
trouble required to correct its irregularities. Among the most common imperfec-
tions of this sound, we may note four leading varieties.
The first is caused by contact of the tongue with the teeth, or its projection
between the teeth. This produces the sound of Th. Some people reckon this a
fascinating charm, — especially in maiden mouths, — a mark of guileless innocence
and simplicity; because, forsooth, the "thame thweet thort of thound" is often
heard in the innocent prattle of childhood. There can be but one opinion as to its
puerility; it is therefore an unbecoming habit in those who have outgrown the
years of childishness.
Another form of defective S arises from the Hat expansion of the tongue
over the lower teeth. This is a lazy-looking and peculiarly unprepossessing fault.
It is too much allied to the aspect of imbecility to be tolerable from any other
cause.
In a third form, the point of the tongue is depressed behind the lower teeth,
and the breath hisses between the elevated middle of the tongue and the palate.
In this case, the teeth are too much apart to allow of sufficient sharpness in the
sound ; and the lower lip is frequently employed to direct the stream into a nar-
rower channel, by rising towards the upper teeth. By these means a very close
resemblance to the sound of S is produced ; and if we could not see its mechanism,
we might pass it without notice, but it is so conspicuously deforming to the mouth,
that we are glad to turn our eyes from the speaker's face. These defects are
commonly called, indiscriminately, by the general name of LISPING.
Another cacophonic substitution for S is a hissing over the sides of the back
of the tongue, like the breath form of L, which is heard in Welsh, and represented
in that language by LI. This is a cluttering disagreeable sound ; and it is gener-
ally accompanied by other faults of lingual action. The inarticulate confusion of
speech which results is commonly called "thickness."
With reference to the method of correcting these and other imperfections,
we would be less careful to point out the exact cause of the defect, than to illus-
trate the true mechanism of the sound which is defective ; and, by exercises on
analogous and kindred formations, to induce the organs to fall into the unaccus-
tomed position, unconsciously and unexpectedly on the part of the pupil. In this
way, the association between the letter and the malformation is most readily
broken, and the new form of articulation fixed into a habit.
The analogy between the articulative actions of R and S is generally of much
service in leading the tongue to the position for the latter element. A whispered
R may be modified into S, by bringing the teeth as close as possible without actual
contact, and depressing the tip of the tongue to a horizontal position, during the
flow of the breath. Sometimes mechanical assistance facilitates the acquisition of
the S ; a paper cutter held between the teeth furnishes a convenient ledge on
which the point of the tongue may lie until it acquires the power of adjusting
itself to the required shape.
We have hitherto described only the articulating position of S, — but the ele-
ment is not finished without the retraction of the tongue from that position. The
energetic practice of this part of the articulation will greatly tend to give ease and
ARTICULATIONS— S 107
rapidity in executing the S, and in managing the tongue in the- various evolutions
of speech.
Another improving exercise consists in stopping the hissing sound of S, by
repeated appulses of the tongue against the palate, — producing the combination
st-st-st, etc. The action of the tongue from S to T should be backwards and up-
wards:— a common heaviness of speech arises from striking the tongue forward
to the gum or teeth, or from simply pressing it upward, without a change of posi-
tion. In the combination st (and sts, which the quick reiteration of st produces
also) there are few persons who exhibit distinctness and lightness of articulation.
A little careful practice will give facility to all who desire that their speech shall
be something more than a ''mere brute instinct, by which," as Dr. Rush remarks,
"some persons only bleat, bark, bray, whinny, and mew, — a little better than
others."
St is common in English, both as final and as an initial combination. Such
awkward clusters of consonants as in the following words are of frequent occur-
rence:— fits and starts, tastes and distastes, states, statists, statistics.
Similar combinations of S with P and K are likewise very common ; but they
do not present so great a difficulty as the preceding, because the obstructive ele-
ments are produced by the action of a different part of the mouth from that which
forms the S.
„ EXERCISE.
ast sta ast stast
asp spa asp spasp
ask ska ask skask
S and Th present an articulative difficulty when they meet without an inter-
vening vowel. The action of the tongue from one to the other of these elements
is exceedingly limited — but it must be firm and decided, to render the combina-
tion distinct. The change from the position of S to that of Th, consists in taper-
ing and advancing the tip of the tongue. The ivhole tongue must not be pushed
continuously forward, but the mere tip should just touch the teeth — as high as
possible. Let the student endeavour to produce a long series of these elements
alternately.
EXERCISE,
s-th-s-th-s-th-s-th-s-th-s-th-s-th, etc.
Syllables containing S and Th alternately initial, should also be practised.
The difficulty they present, renders them well worthy of the student's care : for in
overcoming this difficulty a great degree of organic power is gained, which must
produce a beneficial effect upon articulation generally.
EXERCISE.
ace tha as thas tha sa tha sa tha thith sis
aith sa ath sath sa tha sa tha sa sis thith
When S final comes before S initial, as in "The Alps .sublime," the neat
articulation of the double consonant requires a little art.
The difficulty of doubling articulative actions without awkward hiatus has
led many Elocutionists to advise the omission of one of the elements in such com-
binations. Whoever could rest satisfied with saying "the Ethiopian's kin and the
leopard's pots," when he meant "the Ethiopian's skin and the leopard's spots,"
may follow the tasteless counsel ; but we trust all others will rather spend an hour
in drilling the organs into lightness of action, or else — be distinct, even at the
expense of hiatus.
108 ARTICULATIONS— S
S is an extremely difficult articulation to Stammerers. In general, they have
no difficulty in producing the hissing sound ; they can take the articulative position,
but they cannot add to that the necessary action to finish the element, and connect
it with the succeeding vowel. The hissing is thus continued till the lungs are
almost exhausted. The fault here lies mainly with the glottis, which, in a non-
vibrating position for the S, will not take the vocalizing posture for the succeed-
ing vowel with sufficient readiness; and the chest aggravates the impediment by
bearing down heavily "upon the lungs, while probably the ungovernable jaw adds
its share also to the difficulty. General practice on the actions of the various
organs implicated in the defect, furnishes the only sure ground of cure. When
the power of governing these has been in some degree acquired, exercises on the
special articulations will be of service ; but until the chest and glottis — the pro-
ducing organs — are brought under voluntary control, it will be of little use to
practise the merely modifying actions of articulation.
The English language has been called the "hissing tongue," as if, more than
its neighbour languages, it abounded with this serpent sound. The removal of S
from some of our combinations might certainly add to the euphony of our speech ;
but a comparison either of letters or sounds with the French, Italian, and Spanish
languages, will show that the English is far from having the unenvied distinction.
We have taken the trouble to compare some passages of equal length in these four
languages, to ascertain the number of the hissing •lements S and Z, actually pro-
nounced in them, and the following is the result. In a French, Spanish, and
English translation of the same passage — there were found to be in French, 60,
in the English, 65, and in the Spanish, no of these sibilants actually sounded.
In the French paragraph there were 93 sibilant letters, while in the English one,
there were only 77.
Still further to test this, we took a passage in Italian, containing the same
number of words as in the Spanish portion, and found, even in this smooth eu-
phonic tongue, a preponderance of 5 of these sibilants over the n'umber contained,
in our decried English : which is thus proved to be "more hissed at than hissing !"
S initial combines with P, T, K, F, M, N, L, W, Y, as in sport, store, scope,
sketch, square, sphere, smile, snow, slow, swear, sue. The combination sy as in
sue, suit, etc., is difficult to unaccustomed organs, which are apt to substitute soo,
soot, etc., or shoo, shoot, etc., for the more elegant and the correct pronunciation
syoo, syoot, etc. S enters into combination with no initial articulation in English
utterance. In such words as psalm, psychology, etc., the p is therefore silent.
WORDS TO BE DISTINGUISHED IN PRONUNCIATION.
cess erse face force gas kiss lease
saith earth faith forth Gath kith Leith
looser moss mouse pass race souse
Luther moth mouth path wraith south
WORDS CONTAINING ELEMENTS OF DIFFICULTY.
Assassins, assesses, asks, asps, assists, busts, ceases, costs, cystus, desks, discuss, feasts,
fifths, necessaries, necessitous, sashes, sassafras, sauces, saucers, see-saw, scissors, Scotch,
scratches, seethe, seize, sessile, sixths, sloth, snatches, sneeze, sources, sphinx, splash, squash,
statics, statist, statistics, statutes, success, such, sues, suicide, suscitate, system.
Z.
This element unites a vocal sound with the hissing of S. The articulative
position and action of Z are in every respect the same as those of S. Both letters
are consequently liable to the same kind of defects, in lisping, etc.; and the exer-
cises prescribed for S, will, with voice added, be equally effective in perfecting Z.
ARTICULATIONS— Z
109
thaza
zatha
tha za tha
za tha za
EXERCISE.
za tha va
za va tha
tha va za
tha za va
va za tha
va tha za
Z is generally less difficult to the Stammerer than S, on account of the vocal
sound in the articulation which renders its junction with a following vowel com-
paratively easy. But the buzzing sound of Z is apt to be feeble and intermittent,
and in this case all the difficulty of S will be experienced. Glottal power must
first be acquired in the formation of clear and firm vocality, and the chest re-
strained from undue pressure -in expiration. The tongue will soon be trained to
finish the articulation with lightness and without interrupting the voice, if the
principles of lingual action be clearly understood and carefully applied.
The letter S has the sound of Z after all voice articulations, except (in a few
words) m, n, I, and r, as in temse, tense, else, hearse, etc. S between vowels also
is very generally pronounced Z, as in visit, reason, etc.
Z" initial combines only with Y, as in zeugma. It joins with no initial articula-
tion.
WORDS TO BE DISTINGUISHED IN PRONUNCIATION.
abuse (v.)
abuse (n.)
cores
course
ells
else
his
hiss
pews
puce
sows (n.)
souce
analyses
avers
analysis
averse
curs
dies
curse
dice
eyes
fours
ice
force
house (v.)
Jews
house (n.)
juice
rues
saws
ruse
sauce
Thames
vies
temse
vice
baize
cars
base
carse
diffuse (v.)
doze '
diffuse (adj.)
dose
grease (v.)
hens
grease (n.)
hence
lies
lose
lice
loose
says
seize
cess
cease
zeal
seal
close (v.)
close (adj.)
dues
deuce
hers
hearse
pays
pace
sores
source
WORDS CONTAINING ELEMENTS OF DIFFICULTY.
Jesuit, schism, spasms, xyst, zest, zeugma, zigzag.
R.
This element is produced when the breath is directed over the upturned tip
of the tongue, so as to cause some degree of lingual vibration. In order to effect
this, the breath must be obstructed at all other points, that the force of the stream
may be concentrated on the tip ; and the tongue must be held loosely, to enable it
to vibrate readily. The vibration may be produced in every degree from the soft
tremor of the English R, which merely vibrates the edge of the tongue, to the
harsh rolling of the Spanish Rr, which shakes the whole organ. The trilled or
strongly vibrated R is never used in English ; but there are various degrees of
vibration which characterize the English R in different situations.
Between vowels, as in merit, the R is strongest, but it has only a momentary
tremor ; for articulations between vowels are always short in English. R is never,
like n or /, prolonged when two articulations meet in a compound word ; (as in
meanness, foully, etc.;) the reason is, that R final is differently formed from R
initial, and both letters have their regular formation in this position ; as in wi-re-
wr ought, rear-rank, etc. R initial has the articulative vibration, — but only of the
edge of the tongue.
When the tongue is raised just enough to mould the passing stream of air
but not yield to it, we have the condition for the final R. The aperture for the
emission of the voice is so free that the vowel quality of the sound is scarcely, —
110 ARTICULATIONS— R
if at all, — affected. When the succeeding word, however, begins with a vowel,
the final r has generally the effect of medial r, to avoid hiatus — as in her own, or
else, etc.
A description of the Final r (the 8th vowel) will be found on page Si.
No letter is more frequently faulty than R. The extremes of error are to
throw the articulation back to the uvula, or forward to the lips; but these are
found in all degrees of modification and combination. The sound of the former
R, when roughly executed, as we often hear it, is like the snarling of a cur:—
the latter formation produces the effect of W — with which more or less of the
guttural modification is generally combined.
The uvular vibration constitutes what is called burring, — a fault almost uni-
versal in some of the northern divisions of England. Ask a person who burrs to
open his mouth, and you will see the little uvula dancing and leaping in the chan-
nel of the tongue. To cure this fault, the first care must be to keep this restless
little organ out of the way. There would be but little difficulty in getting suffi-
cient vibration of the point of the tongue from a few very simple exercises ; but
we should still have the guttural effect remaining. The Burrer should therefore
exercise himself in separating the uvula and soft palate from the tongue as far as
possible. After a little practise, he will generally be able to do this so effectually,
that the uvula will shrink to a point, and the soft palate will form but one arch
instead of two.* When he can retain the organs in this position at will, let him
commence his practice to acquire the new articulation, by very gradually raising
the point of the tongue, during the prolonged utterance of the open vowels ah
and aw, till it comes upon the palate obstructively, and so forms the letter D. If
the under jaw be kept still, it will be almost impossible to carry the tongue slowly
upwards without sounding an R during the progress of the tongue to the palate.
The tongue should then be stopped at an intermediate elevation, while the voice
is continued, and the teeth and lips are kept perfectly motionless. When some
power of action in the tongue has been thus acquired, strike it upwards quickly
and repeatedly during the flow of voice ; and, probably, a very tolerable R will be
at once produced. Further improvement will then be gained by the following
exercise. Sound Z with the edge of an ivory paper-cutter between the teeth ; and,
during the continuance of the sound, gradually open the teeth till they admit the
breadth of the paper-cutter between them. The effort to continue something like
the buzzing sound of Z, while the teeth come apart, will draw the point of the
tongue backwards and upwards almost to the position for R initial ; and the sound
thus produced may at once be used as initial R in practising words beginning with
that letter. At first it may sometimes be necessary to give the subsequent vowel a
separate commencement, by a momentary pause after the R, — thus, r-each, r-ide,
etc., to prevent the possibility of habit foisting in a little of the old guttural vibra-
tion between the new R and the vowel. Fluency of connexion will very soon be
gained, and the roughest Burr may be, by these means, perfectly cured.
R is a very harsh letter in the mouth of a Scotchman. This forms one of
the points by which a Northern utterance is most readily detected in England;
for few Scotchmen get over their vernacular habits in forming this letter. Yet
there is no reason why they should not. If the true formation of the English R
be understood, and the difference between it and the Scottish R clearly appre-
hended, any one may soften a rough R almost at the first effort. There is not the
slightest difficulty when the principle of formation is known.
There is a difficulty, however, to unaccustomed organs, in producing a rolling
or vibrated R. Many persons cannot, from want of lingual power, attain it. If
the tongue is too much tied to the bed of the jaw, burring will arise from the
* See the back part of the Mouth.
ART I CU LA TIONS—R 1 1 1
effort to make the rough R ; and a labial modification of sound, something like w,
will be produced by the attempt at the smoother sound. This latter peculiarity
would almost appear to be cultivated among affected English speakers : — it is too
common to be accidental. "The wuffness of the anwdinawy awh/' these sonorous
reformers seem to say, "wendews its ewadication fwom wefined uttezvance desiw-
able and weally necessawy."
An easy method of developing vibratory power on the point of the tongue,
is to repeat, with open mouth, and with the utmost softness and rapidity, articula-
tions of the letter D. Thus, de-de-de-de-de-de-de, etc. ; or, idididididid , etc.
R is difficult — often peculiarly so — to the Stammerer. The breath pours out
from the open channel with destructive impetuosity, and the waste of the material
of speech induces a series of efforts in head, and chest, and limbs, to supply the
place of the ungovernable agents of utterance. When the Stammerer has brought
the valve of the throat — the glottis — under due control, he will have but little
difficulty in restraining the pressure of the chest, and completely obviating all the
distressing distortion of the impediment. He must carefully study the mechanism
of R, and enounce the sound, if necessary, separately at first, to break the asso-
ciation between it and the stammering paroxysm. A little practice will render
this expedient unnecessary, and enable him to effect its combination with fluency.
R final is, we have said, so purely vocal, that it can hardly be reckoned an
articulation. The student, desirous of acquiring the smooth pronunciation of this
English element, should practise words terminating in r, re, or er, giving to the r,
etc., the vowel sound of i in sir. Let him at first sit before a glass, and, while he
sounds this vowel, observe that the tongue rises very gently ; but not so much as
to create a hissing of the breath, or vibration of the tongue. If the vowel ah be
sounded for r final with an observed elevation of the point of the tongue, the
English element will be very speedily perfected. Uneducated Cockneys pro-
nounce ah, without this lingual elevation, and say sah for sir, heah for hear, etc.
An English peculiarity not confined to Cockneys, or to the uneducated, is the
insertion of an R between vowels. Thus, when one word ends and the next
begins with the open vowels 6 or 7, the tongue strikes glibly up on the palate, and
gracelessly obviates hiatus, by interposing an r. "Is papa r at home?" . ."What
an idea r it is!" This obtrusion is only heard after these open vowels; the
formative apertures of which are but little different from the aperture of the
English r (8). Thus we never hear "Go r away" "I see r it now," because the
final vowel in the first word does not leave the tongue in a position for the easy
formation of R, which is never pronounced without the open vowel effect (No. 8)
after long vowels. This interpolation of R is one of the most inveterate of all
habits of speech. The only cure is to finish the first vowel by a momentary occlu-
sion of the glottis ; and thus give the subsequent vowel a separate commencement.
Children may easily be prevented from falling into this habit. Prevention is
better than cure.
R and L, are very liable to be confounded when they occur in proximate
syllables. The vocal aperture for the former is over the point of the tongue, and
for the latter over the sides of the back part of the tongue ; and there is a diffi-
culty in passing quickly from one to the other of these positions : thus in the sen-
tence, "Little Richard wrote a letter; look at the letter little Richard wrote" — or
in the quick reiteration of "a lump of raw red liver" etc., few persons will avoid
some confusion of the R and L. A similar difficulty presents itself in such words
as literally, literary, literarily, etc.
On all such organic difficulties highly useful exercises may be arranged. The
following will be found beneficial in giving power and precision of action to the
tongue.
1 12 ARTICULA TIONS—L
EXERCISE.
ra la la ra ra la ra la ra la ra la la ra la ra ra la
ril rin ril nil rin lin
R initial receives no articulation in combination with it in English. In French
we find rw, as in roi, roideur, etc.
R unites with the initial articulations P, B, F, Th, Sh, T, D, K, G, as in
pretty, bride, freeze, three, shrink, try, dry, crime, grief.
W seems to have been at one time sounded before R; it is still written, and
in Scotland we frequently hear it pronounced by old people in such words as
wretch, wrong, write, wright, etc. It has been noticed that w is often sounded
instead of R as in affectation.
WORDS CONTAINING ELEMENTS 01? DIFFICULTY.
Aerial, airily, auroral, crural, drollery, granary, honorary, horary, laurel, literally, literary,
literarily, lyrical, orrery, plural, prurient, raillery, rarity, real, recklessly, regally, regularly,
reiterate, re-resolve, revelry, roarer, roller, rookery, ruler, rural, sorrily, stroller, truly,
verily, warrior, warily.
This is the most clearly sonorous of all the articulations. It is formed by an
uninterrupted current of pure voice, flowing over the sides of the back of the
tongue — and little if at all affected by vibrations of the apertures through which
the sound passes. The fore-part of the tongue is in contact with the rim of the
palatal arch, and laterally with the teeth. This is the articulating position of L,
and were there no subsequent action necessary to complete the element, L would
be simply a vowel. But the oral aperture is changed by the removal of the fore-
part of the tongue ; and this action constitutes the letter an articulation. The nasal
elements, as elsewhere noticed, (see N) have a similar vowel-vocality ; — with
them as with L, it is the removal of the apposed organs which constitutes the
letters Articulations. This accounts for the syllabic function which these elements
perform in such words as saddle, kettle, mutton, sadden, etc., where / and n with-
out any vowel sounded, form distinct syllables.
The formation of L is very often faulty — sometimes from the apertures
through which the voice flows, being contracted so as to cause a degree of vibra-
tion on the sides of the tongue; sometimes from the breath not being perfectly
intercepted by the point of the tongue; — sometimes from the tongue being too
thickly pointed — and not sufficiently spread out in front — so that the breath escapes
too far forward, and by too elongated openings ; — often from the tongue habitually
taking the unfavourable position of turning its tip downwards to the bed of the
jaw, — thus causing the rounded back of the tongue to rise into the palatal arch —
and depriving the articulation of the clear, sharp, and percussive effect of the
removal of the obstructing fore-part of the tongue ; — sometimes from rounding
the lips — either with or without the lingual action — so as to modify the voice
almost into oo, or W ; as "the wady is weh-oo," — (the lady is well;} and, in not
a few cases, from making the articulative position perfectly obstructive, and pass-
ing the sound through the nose — with the effect of ng, or a modification of nasal
quality, between that of ng and n. These and other minor diversities of mal-
formation of this most mellifluous element, are remarkably common.
A Scotch peculiarity consists in prefixing a vowel sound, — nearly that of u
(9) to L ; the / being thus made to sound almost like ul in ultimate. This is not
heard when L is initial, but when a vowel precedes the /, as in ale, sell, etc.,
pronounced a-ul, seh-ul, etc. When L should make a separate syllable, as in
ARTICULATIONS— L 113
mettle, etc., the same sort of sound is frequently heard. There is a greater ten-
dency to this fault when L follows the close, than when it follows the open vowels.
There is indeed an organic preference for the interposition of some open vowel
between e (i) and I, arising from the difficulty of shifting the tongue rapidly from
its lumpish position at ee to the very different expanded attitude of L ; as in feel,
Held, etc. The incombinable nature of these formations is seen also in the want
of fluency in the junction of L with the y of u (=yoo). When L and u occur
in one syllable — the tongue would fain pass over the y, and pronounce lure and
lute simply loor and loot; but polite usage forbids this, yet authorizes a com-
promise of the difficulty ; and, instead of requiring both articulations to have their
full formation by the removal of the point of the tongue between them, allows the
tongue to remain on the palate, while the middle of the tongue rises towards the
v position. The / before u is thus articulated by the middle instead of the point
of the tongue, and a softened effect of Y is produced as the succeeding vowel
opens from the described position. This half-formed Y is represented in some
pronouncing dictionaries by an apostrophe: — thus, to represent the sound of the
words lure and lute, the notation in Smart's excellent Dictionary, is Voor, I'oot, etc.
When the / and y are not in the same syllable — as in value, volume, etc. — both
elements have their full articulation.
To perfect the mechanism of L, let the student adopt the various means of
practice subjoined, and, whatever the nature of his mal-articulation, it will very
speedily be removed.
Adjust the mouth carefully to the position for L, — the tongue spread out,
elevated to the edge of the palatal arch, and lying closely against it, — the lips
draivn back and perfectly separated at the corners, so as to permit the sound to
pass out uninfluenced by the lips. Let the arrangement of the tongue against the
palate in front — (by no means touching the front teeth) — and latterly against the
inside of the teeth, be perfectly obstructive. Produce as clear a vocal sound as
possible, — its vowel quality will be something like the French u — and continue it
for some time with the articulating organs perfectly steady; then, by a rapid
backward action of the whole tongue, modify the sound to that of the vowel aw.
Repeat this with increasing rapidity, till the syllables produced are shortened to
lollollolloll, etc. In the same way, proceed with the other vowels till the forma-
tion of L with all the vowels is perfected. Then take the combinations, Im, In, Ir,
Ig, Ib, Iv, Iz, Id, ly, and practise them with vowels before and after them, — at first
prolonging the L for some seconds, to be assured of its correct formation and
pure vocality, and gradually giving it the natural duration. The tongue must not
leave its position for L, till the instant of formation of the succeeding element.
Many persons are unable to produce L in combination with M, as in elm, helm,
etc., without interposing a vowel. There is no difficulty in the combination when
the mechanism of the sounds is clearly understood.
L is so short before the Breath Articulations, that its prolongation, as in the
previous exercise, would be unnatural and a useless means of practise. Let the
student form L in the following combinations, by striking the tongue instanta-
neouly to its position, — stopping the sound at the instant of contact, but retaining
the tongue silently for some seconds in its place, before proceeding to the next
articulation, — which must be formed without any intervention of sound or breath-
ing,— thus :
al p al f al th al s al sh al t al k, etc.
L final should be separately practised. After the long vowels, let it be quickly
articulated, — eel, all, arl, url, awl, oal, 661, — and after the short vowels, let it be
a little more prolonged — al, ell, ill, 611, ul. But in every instance it must be defi-
nitely finished by the removal of the tongue from the palate.
114 ARTICULATIONS— L
L, like the nasal liquid N, is a very difficult letter to the Stammerer. The
exercises above prescribed will be found sufficient to perfect this articulation,
when, by a preliminary course of practise, the fundamental processes of speech
have been mastered. When the stammerer can govern the chest and glottis, and
keep the tongue and jaw steady during the continuous flow of the vocality of I, he
may safely proceed to these exercises ; but we must here again remark, that it
will be hopeless to attempt to correct any individual fault, till the organs and
processes employed by the defective element have been first brought under per-
fect control.
L, like N, is most difficult with the close lingual vowels. Such words as little,
lily, literal, etc., are severe stumbling blocks : the narrow scope for action which
the vowel allows, the abruptness of the vowel, and the subsequent articulation
requiring the same organs as the I, so disincline the tongue to exertion, that it
remains glued to the palate ; while the glottis, uselessly outpouring breath and
broken murmurs, vainly endeavours to proceed without the tongue ; till the lungs
are exhausted, and the effort of inspiration probably disengages the fettered organ.
The Stammerer must proceed cautiously in his practise, and act on the preventive
as much as he can ; for it is a work of almost unmanageable difficulty to break the
connexion between the spasmodic actions of impediment when they once get a
beginning.
Repetitions of the same Mode of action by different organs, or of different
Modes of action by the same organs — the latter especially — are difficult of articu-
lation; and form, therefore, excellent exercises. Combinations of L, R, and N,
present difficulties of the latter class, which will be found under the letters R
andN.
L initial receives no articulation in combination with it. The softened effect
of y, heard in lunacy, lute, lewd, etc., has been already noticed ; but this results
rather from a modified formation of the L itself than from a combination of /
and y.
L unites with the initial articulations P, B, F, S, K, G, as in play, blame,
name, slave, class, glass.
WORDS CONTAINING ELEMENTS OF DIFFICULTY.
Blithely, boldly, eel-like, falsely, film, foully, guiltlessly, hollowly, holily, ill-looking,
jollily, ladle, lallation, latterly, lawlessly, lethal, lewdly, lilac, lily, linnet, listlessly, literature,
lithic, little, lithely, lolling, lonely, lowly, loyally, lucklessly, ludicrously, lullaby, luridly, lyric,
palely, palaeology, philology, realm, senselessly, sillily, slowly, soliloquy, soulless, stealthily,
teleology, ululate, wilily, worldly.
T.
Previous remarks (pages 30-35) will have sufficiently explained the nature
of the Obstructive Formations, of which this is one. We may therefore confine
our observations here to the mechanism and individual characteristics of the
articulation T, referring to the above-noted pages for information regarding the
general principle of obstructive articulation. In forming T, the edge of the whole
tongue is laid against the front and sides of the mouth, so as perfectly to obstruct
the breath. While the tongue is in this position, there must be a continued pres-
sure of breath against it; and wherever an aperture is made by the removal of
any part of the obstructing edge, the confined breath will be emitted with a degree
of explosiveness more or less strong, in proportion to the degree of its previous
compression behind the tongue, and also in proportion to the abruptness with
which the aperture is made. Among the numerous defects of speech which come
under the notice of one engaged in the work of correcting mal-articulations, the
ARTICULATIONS— -T 115
breath will be found to escape from the obstructive position T, through apertures
of every possible variety, both of position, shape, and size. Sometimes from the
very back part of the mouth, with a cluttering sound, it will issue through aper-
tures over one or both sides of the tongue ; sometimes through lateral apertures
at all anterior points; and correctly, through one front central aperture, by the
complete disengagement of the tongue from the palate. Another mode of emitting
the compressed breath from the articulative position T, is by the nares or nos-
trils,— a faulty mechanism more common than perhaps most persons are aware of.
The correct articulative action is, we have said, the removal of the whole tongue
from the palate. Let the student practise this action by articulating the following
syllables in rapid reiteration, till he can perfectly disengage the tongue with con-
siderable force and abruptness : —
EXERCISE.
ate, etc, ite, ote, oot : at, et, it, ot, tit.
Such must always be the mechanism of T, initial or final: but when the
liquids / or n follow T in the same word, the lateral explosion before I, and the
nasal emission before n, are not only admissible, but they are the regular and
necessary modes of finishing T in such cases. Thus in fitly, and fitness, etc. ;
battle, nettle, little, etc., and batten, bitten, button, etc. ; the point of the tongue is
kept in contact with the front of the palate, in forming the tl; and the whole
tongue is retained in its obstructive position during the utterance of the tn. The
reason of this will be evident after a moment's reflection on the formative actions
of / and n: it will be found to be impossible to articulate T independently of these
actions, with sufficient fluency for consecutive syllables of one word. The same
combinations, however, in proximate words, must not be articulated thus by one
action, unless in common colloquial phrases. Correct reading requires the final
element of every word to be finished independently of the letter which may begin
the next word. The student should therefore practise the articulations t I and t n
in this separate way — till he can produce them lightly and clearly without coales-
cence.
EXERCISE,
ate nay at nal ate lay at Ian.
T before P, K, B, G, — which otherwise completely obstruct the breath, — is
liable to be reduced to the character of a mere stop without any audibility : and
before m, which also occludes the mouth, it is liable to be nasally finished To
obviate these sources of indistinctness, let the following combinations be practised.
EXERCISE.
ate pa ate ka ate ba ate ga ate ma
at pat at kat at bat at gat at mat
T is a very difficult articulation to the Stammerer. It has all the heaviness
arising from the downward pressure of the chest, the strong conjunctive or up-
ward bearing of the jaw, and the muscular laxity of the mouth — the elements of
impediment in the obstructive articulations generally ; in addition to which it has
another source of difficulty in its own articulative action. Often the percussion
of the T will be distinctly heard, yet there the Stammerer sticks fast, unable to
combine -the next sound with the t. This sort of difficulty may be caused by want
of glottal power ; but it will frequently be found to be merely articulative. Only
the point of the tongue is disengaged — it is turned downwards so as to allow the
breath to escape — but at all other points, the tongue remains in contact. The
1 1 6 ART I CU LA TIONS—D
effect of throwing down the point of the tongue is to elevate the middle of it;
and the very worst position for speech is thus assumed. Let the Stammerer prac-
tise syllables and words ending with T, and observe, by looking in a glass, or
placing his finger in the angle of the neck and chin (as directed at page 104), that
the whole bulk of the tongue recedes in the mouth to finish the articulation.
When this final action is mastered, let him practise T initial ; at first, if necessary,
separating the T from the next element, but restraining any unnecessary waste of
breath (page 30) ; and by degrees he will be able to unite the sounds with natural
spontaneity.
A not uncommon fault of articulation is the substitution of tl for cl, and dl
for gl; as in clean, glean, etc., which are thus mispronounced tlean, dlean, etc.
The difference in the effect of this unwarranted combination is so slight, that it
might readily escape observation, except from ears accustomed to vocal analysis.
In the north and west of England this peculiarity is especially common.
T initial combines in English with w, r, sh, and y, as in twine, true, chain,
tune. S is the only articulation with which t unites, as in stay, stray, etc. Th is a
common English digraph, but it represents a simple sound (see page 104).
The combination Tsh is of very frequent occurrence, though we in no in-
stance write it. It is one of the simplest possible combinations ; for the T merely
gives an obstructive commencement to the Sh. Tsh is the breath form of J =
dzh ; and while the latter is reckoned an Alphabetic element, and represented by a
single letter, the former — which is the very same articulation — is written, incon-
sistently enough, Ch.
The combination Ts, — which does not occur initial in English, but is common
in many languages, — is another equally simple form of double articulation ; from
the position T, the tongue is merely advanced a little, and the breath extruded
hissingly through the aperture of s; as, for tsh, the tongue is slightly retracted, so
as to send the breath through the aperture of sh.
The combination Ty, as in tune, is liable to be mispronounced Tsh, from the
cause explained at page 121 ; but after a few lingual exercises have been mas-
tered, the tongue should have acquired sufficient neatness and precision of action
to contradistinguish these elements without effort or ambiguity.
WORDS CONTAINING ELEMENTS OF DIFFICULTY.
Astute, attacked, attributed, deteriorated, determinate, detriment, etiquette, iterated,
potato, stickle, stopped, strategic, stutter, tactics, tantalize, tatter, taught, tautology, technics,
tessellated, tetragon, tetrical, titillate, tittle-tattle, titular, totality, totter, trigger, trinity,
trinket, triturate, tropical, truculent, chapter, chatter, chicken, chink, chit-chat, chipped,
chitter, twopence, twitched, twitter, Teutonic, tutelary, tutor.
D.
This articulation bears the same relations to the preceding that B does to P,
V to F, Z to S, etc. Its articulative position and action are the same as those of
T; but while the tongue is in contact with the palate, the voice is exerted, and a
muffled sound is heard, as the breath which produces the glottal vibration dilates
the pharynx. Distinctness very much depends on the audibility of this sound.
The student should therefore practise D and the other vocal obstructives, until he
can give their vocality as much duration as it is capable of receiving (see page
96). Our remarks on the formation of T apply equally to this element, which is
liable to the same faults of articulation, defects, etc.
EXERCISE.
ade bay ad bad ade may ad mad
ade gay ad gad ade nay ad nad
ARTICULATIONS— -N 117
The Stammerer must study the general mechanism of the vocal obstructives,
(page 33), and acquire power over the formation of their pharyngal murmur,
before he sets to work to battle with his difficulties on this articulation. He must
be able to retain the articulative position steadily; to perform the articulative
action rapidly, and independently of all other positions and actions; and, lastly,
to pass trippingly from one position to another, without attempts at impracticable
coalescence, and without losing any one of the peculiar effects of each articulation.
His cure, thus founded on power over the organs and operations of speech, will
progressively advance, with rapidity, proportionate to his energy and watchful-
ness. Having gone through this training, the Stammerer will not only feel himself
relieved from the oppressive incubus which tormented his whole "dream of life,"
but he may rejoice in a freer possession, and more conscious enjoyment of the
crowning faculty of man, than the best of merely instinctive speakers who never
felt the sore deprivation, and who know not the value to their social happiness of
that power of speech which they ignorantly exercise.
D initial, like T, unites with W, R, and Y ; and with the vocal form of Sh —
as in dwarf, drew, due, and Jew. It combines with no initial articulation: we
write Bd in bdellium, but the B is silent. Dy (as in duke) is apt to be confounded
with Dzh = J, as Ty is slurred into Tsh, by careless tongues.
The combination Dzh — J is one of the simplest forms of double articula-
tion;— in this respect analogous to the French Bw and Pw, and the German Ts
or Dz. The same articulating agents are used for both elements of the combina-
tions : the continuous elements being merely commenced explosively by the mo-
mentary oral occlusion. This obvious simplicity of the combination dzh is, doubt-
less, the reason why these sounds are denoted by a single character in our alphabet.
WORDS TO BE DISTINGUISHED IN PRONUNCIATION. ,
awed darn dint duck droll need
ought tarn tint tuck troll neat
badge dead dire dusk droop rider
batch debt tire tusk troop writer
bed deal dome Dutch drought sad
bet teal tome touch trout sat
cold dear door drain drunk tied
colt tear tore train trunk tight
dangle dies dowdy drench faded Tudor
tangle ties doughty trench fated tutor
dank dine down drew ladder udder
tank tine town true latter utter
dale dingle duel drip loud
tale tingle tewel trip lout
WORDS CONTAINING ELEMENTS OF DIFFICULTY.
Avidity, additament, deadlight, debited, debt, dedicate, deducted, ditch, ditto, dividend,
docketed, dodecagon, dotted, doth, drastic, dreaded, drip, drudge, Druid, due, dulia, duty,
dwelt, dwindle, edited, educate, eradicated, gibbeted, gladiator, hereditary, jejune, jilted,
jotted, laudatory, meditated, nudity, oddity, quidditative, rhododendron, sedative.
N.
The difference between this articulation and the preceding (D) is precisely
the same as that between B and M, explained at page 97. While the organs are
placed in the orally obstructive position, the soft palate uncovers the end of the
nasal passages, and the current of voice flows continuously through the nose. If
118 ARTICULATIONS— -N
these passages are not immediately opened, or if the breath is altogether intercepted
for an instant, the effect of dn, as in midnight, will be produced. D and N having
the same lingual action, the tongue would require to make two strokes on the
palate in order to articulate these letters separately ; but when d or t comes before
n in the same word, such separate articulation would create a hiatus incompatible
with the closeness of syllabic connexion; — D and T, therefore, before N in the
same word, merely give an obstructive commencement to the N, while the tongue
remains motionless. Many persons habitually form the nasals M and N with this
initial percussion; and the converse fault, namely, that of commencing the Ob-
structive elements nasally, is equally, if not more common. The three nasals are
also very often faultily finished explosively, from a momentary covering of the
nares before the articulating organs are separated. The peculiar liability of NG
to be thus terminated by G has been already noticed. (See page 34.) The voice,
in forming N, must be pure and unmixed with aspiration. The least contraction
of the nostrils, or their partial obstruction from any cause, will create sniffling.
If the nostrils are pinched while forming N, the explosive effect of D with a nasal
resonance will be produced. This is the sort of sound caused by ucold in the
head," — when the vocalized breath -entering the nostrils, but meeting with impedi-
ments to its egress, collects in the pharynx, and the removal of the tongue from
the palate is attended by a degree of the percussiveness of D. If the nostrils are
altogether clogged up, it will be impossible to avoid this ambiguous effect, but a
pure formation of voice, and an effort of expansion in the nasal passages, will, in
a great measure, obviate the sniffling which so commonly results from this trouble-
some cause.
In some cases, the nasal elements have the quality of these cold-impeded
sounds, only from habit, — probably growing out of frequent liability to colds.
This peculiarity impresses the utterance very strongly; it is altogether incom-
patible with effective speaking. Except where the fault arises from structural
affections, polypus, etc., it may be entirely removed by careful exercise of the
imperfect elements.
N is almost invariably a source of great difficulty to the Stammerer. He will
generally have perfected the explosives, and nearly all the other articulations,
before he can master this letter, and perhaps L. The impediment on N may be
of a fourfold nature ; combining the difficulties which arise from mismanagement
of the chest and organs of respiration, — of the glottis and sonorous agents, — of
the tongue and articulative organs, — and of the lower jaw. Without further in-
dicating the nature of the difficulties this element may present, we may at once
prescribe a means of practice for the acquirement of the true formation, inde-
pendently of all previously existing faults. Let the Stammerer exercise himself
with persevering energy in the way recorfimended ; above all, endeavouring to
understand the principles on which he is working, and he will not be long in attain-
ing command over all the processes at fault in his impeded utterance of N.
Let him, with a mirror before him, open his mouth as widely as he can, and
retain it at its greatest opening, while he places the tongue on the palate, as for D.
Here let it rest steadily for some time : — it is in the position for either T, D, or N.
Let him now produce a continuous sound, without the slightest motion in any
visible part of the mouth. This sound — if the tongue has been obstructively
placed on the palate — must necessarily pass through the nose. While the organs
remain in the position assumed, this sound is a nasal vowel; it is as clearly a vowel
as e, o, or any of the recognized oral qualities of vowel sound. The Stammerer
will by this exercise at once effectively counteract the disturbing tendencies of the
tongue and the jaw; and by strengthening and purifying the voice, he will gain
glottal power ; while, by giving the well formed sound as long continuance as pos-
ART I CU LA TIONS—N 119
sible, with the chest elevated, he will check the heavy pressure on the lungs, and
acquire ease, steadiness, and power of expiration.
Still keeping the tongue on the palate, the voice may be exercised in the pro-
duction of short and quickly uttered jets of N-sound — as well as of the continuous
stream — but, throughout with the tongue, lips, and teeth perfectly motionless.
These exercises will perfect the articulative position of N. Let the Stam-
merer, when these have been sufficiently practised, add to them the action which
completes the articulation, — by rapidly removing the tongue from all points of
upward contact. If the current of voice be continued, the removal of the tongue
will admit the breath into the mouth, and some vowel will be produced. Those
vowels which are formed with the tongue drawn backwards, present less difficulty
with N and the other lingua-palatal articulations, than the vowels which require
the approximation of the tongue to the roof of the mouth, — on account of the
greater scope which they afford to the articulative action. Thus no, (g)naw, etc.,
are much more easily uttered than (k)nee, (k)nit, nay, etc. Let the Stammerer,
therefore, in adding the vowels to N, begin with the least difficult, — reiterating each
syllable frequently without any break in the continuous flow of glottal sound.
At this stage he must carefully watch that no unnecessary action — especially
of the jaw — accompany that of the tongue. The teeth should remain as steady
as if the jaw were' hingeless, till the tongue can perform its office independently,
and with satisfactory rapidity and energy. This exercise should be followed up
by reading words with N initial ; and then by practising combinations in which N
occurs, or any exercises containing a difficulty.
N, like the other liquids, (see page 98) presents several marked varieties of
quantity. It is extremely short when followed by a breath articulation, as in
paint — longer when before a vocal articulation, as in pained — and longest when
final or before another liquid, as in pain and painless.
N initial combines only with Y, as in new. N unites with no initial articula-
lion but S, as in snow. It occurs, however, before nearly all articulations in sepa-
rate syllables ; as in rainbow, en/oy, endure, un/old, ingratitude, en/tance, inquire,
enc/ose, unkennel, in/et, inmost, unknown, un/>ardoned, inroad, insult, intact,
invalid, unwise, inwre, frenzy, enshrine, panther, meanwhile. N is found also in
the following final combinations : — with d as in bend, dzh as in hinge, s as in
hence, t as in bent, z as in lens, tsh as in bench, th as in plinth.
The nasal articulations are very liable to be exchanged in some combinations,
so as organically to correspond to the articulations with which they stand con-
nected. Thus n before a labial articulation in the same syllable, will be changed
to m; and before k or g, into ng — as in Banff, pronounced Bamff; ink, bank, etc.,
pronounced ingk, bangk, etc. A similar tendency is manifested in the vulgar pro-
nunciation of such words as length and strength, where the ng before the lingua-
dental articulation th is changed into n. This, however, is to be avoided — because
not sanctioned by the best usage. The pronunciations lenth and strenth are very
generally heard in Scotland.
Combinations of N and L present an articulative difficulty; in overcoming
which, considerable lingual power cannot fail to be acquired. The following
arrangements should be practised with rapid iteration.
EXERCISE.
na la la na na la na la na la na la la na la na na la
' nin HI nin lil nin nillin-rinnil
HI nin lil nin lil rinnil-nirril
lin rin lin rin lin rillin-linnil
nil ril nil ril nil lirrin-rillin
120 ARTICULATIONS— SH
WORDS TO BE DISTINGUISHED IN PRONUNCIATION.
chine gleaned lane nap nutation son
chime gleamed lame map mutation some
cunning gnaw money narrow prison tense
coming maw mummy marrow prism temse
feigned guns nail newt run tent
famed gums mail mute rum tempt
fern kneel name nunnery scene tine
firm meal maim mummery seen time
WORDS CONTAINING ELEMENTS OF DIFFICULTY.
Anemone, anent, annual, anonymous, anthelminthic, cognomen, conundrum, enemy, en-
mity, inanimate, inanity, knitting, linen, Memnon, Memnonian, monad, mnemonics, ninny,
nomad, nonage, nonentity, numerate, unanimous, unenamoured, unentertaining, unenumerated,
uninitiated, uninured.
This element is heard when the point of the tongue, from its forward posi-
tion at S, is drawn inwards, so as slightly to enlarge the aperture through which
the breath hisses. The shape, too, of the passage, is altered by the middle of the
tongue rising within the arch of the palate. The general appearance of the tongue
is more thick and bulky than for S. This cannot be observed during the articula-
tion of the elements, for the teeth are not sufficiently apart, but if the mouth be
opened after 5* and Sh, without moving the tongue from the articulative positions,
the difference in the elevation and apparent bulk of the tongue will be evident.
The observation in this way of the position of the tongue is of much use in facili-
tating the correction of faults in articulation. We have said that the point of the
tongue is drawn inwards from its position at S — but the kind of sound heard in
Sh may be produced with the point of the tongue merely depressed, or even ad-
vanced to the lower teeth. The breath is then modified by the approximation of
the middle of the tongue to the rim of the palatal arch ; but this formation is a
faulty one, because it does not easily combine with other lingual articulations.
The tongue cannot pass with facility from one to another of its positions, unless
it is kept free from contact with the bed of the jaw. Let the student place the
tongue in the position for S, and then, while the current of breath flows uninter-
ruptedly, let him gradually draw back the tongue — keeping the point at a uniform
elevation — and he will modify the hiss into Sh. Let him practise this action till
he can pass from S to Sh, thence to S, back again to Sh, and so on alternately,
repeatedly during one expiration.
The formation of Sh is very generally faulty from an accompanying projec-
tion of the lips. The action of the tongue is not sufficiently firm and decided to
give a distinctive character to the hiss, and the clumsy expedient of funnelling the
lips is resorted to. The exercise on S and Sh above prescribed will manifest both
the existence and the dispensability of this labial action.
The sound of this element is generally represented by sh, when it is initial or
final, but the sound is often heard in other positions, where it has no appropriate
orthography, as in Asia, social, conscious, tension, mention, etc. Wherever the
articulations ^ and y come together, as in words beginning with s, followed by
alphabetic u, there is a natural tendency in the organs to strike sh instead of sy.
S is produced with the tongue comparatively flat and pointed; Y is formed with
the middle of the tongue raised in close approximation to the roof of the palatal
arch: and the position of sh being exactly intermediate, — the tongue somewhat
retracted, and its bulk somewhat elevated, — we see in the mechanism of the ele-
ARTICULA TIONS—SH 121
ments the reason why sh will very naturally take the place of sy in rapid utter-
ance. This tendency is yielded to in some instances, but opposed by correct usage
in others. In sure, assure, insure, fissure, tissue, etc., universal custom has au-
thorized the exchange of sy for sh; but in suit, sue, superior, etc., the best usage
imperatively forbids it, as a corruption. In all words containing this combination,
we see the natural tendency strongly illustrated in the pronunciation of the unedu-
cated.
A tailor was threat'ning a debtor to shoe (sue),
Says he, needy witling, "Kind sir, at your pleasure; —
But I'll thank you as much, and 'twere easier for you
Just to shoot (suit) me, — and now I can stand for my measure."
The pronunciation of the word sewer (a drain) illustrates the working of
the same principle and also of one noticed at page 87, with reference to the
vowel oo before r(S). The necessities of fluent speaking have demanded the cur-
tailment of this word as one not worthy of the more emphatic and deliberate pro-
nunciation of the double articulations ; and the identity of its sound, so shortened,
with another word (sure), has rendered a vowel-change necessary to contradis-
tinguish the words. This has been done by the substitution of 0(11) for oo; and
the current pronunciation of the word (shore) is thus very naturally obtained.
The tendency of anterior lingual articulations to take sh rather than the more
difficult 3; into combination with them, is further manifested in words containing
y after t, as in tune, tutor, etc., where vulgar pronunciation converts the y into sh.
In unaccented syllables, this change is made by more than the vulgar, as in nature,
feature, etc., which are too often colloquially pronounced na-tshoor, fea-tshoor,
etc. ; but careful speakers should articulate ty in all such cases.
In the common terminations sion, tion, cial, tial, cious, etc., pronounced shun,
shal, shus, etc., English usage has fixed the sound of the si, ci, ti, to sh. In
French these terminations are dissyllabic — pronounced se-on, etc.
In some words, in which se or sy have become slurred into sh, the ear does
not seem satisfied to lose all trace of the elided sound, and a soft effect of y is
heard, as in specie, tertian, etc. But shy is a very unfluent combination, and
never occurs in one syllable.
The student will find the repetition of the hissing articulations, th, s, and sh,
a very useful exercise. Thus : begin with th, and change that by a rapid motion
of the tip of the tongue to s; then, by a farther retraction equally rapid, produce
sh; then back to s and th, and thence again to s and sh, without any intervening
vowel sound; thus, —
th-s-sh-s-th-s-sh-s-th-s-sh-s-th, etc.
Syllables with these elements alternately initial, form an excellent lingual
exercise. They present comparatively little difficulty when arranged in the order
of their formation; th, s, sh; or sh, s, th; but when the anterior and posterior
formations come together, as in the following arrangements, they present a stumb-
Hng-block, which probably the best articulator will not get over without practice.
Verbal accentuation should be given to the syllables.
EXERCISE.
tha sha sa sha tha sa sa sha tha sa tha sha
tha sha sa sha tha sa sa sha tha sa tha sha
To the Stammerer who has sufficiently mastered the fundamental principles
on which his cure must be based, these perplexing combinations will be of much
service, in developing power and precision of lingual action.
122 ARTICULATIONS— ZH
Sh initial combines only with R in English, as in shrew, shrine, etc. The
combination is harsh, and somewhat difficult; and it tends to make speakers em-
ploy the lips to assist in effecting it more easily. Labial interference is, however,
ungraceful, and should be dispensed with.
WORDS TO BE DISTINGUISHED IN PRONUNCIATION.
ashes
asses
batch
bats
beech
beats
each
eats
hatch
hats
itch
its
lash
lass
mesh
mess
porch
ports
push
puss
Scotch
Scots
witch
wits
shame
same
shake
sake
shed
said
sheet
seat
sheen
scene
sheer
sear
shelf
self
shell
sell
ship
sip
shin
sin
shine
sign
shingle
single
shoal
soul
shock
sock
shod
sod
shop
sop
leash
lease
shave
save
shift
sift
short
sort
WORDS CONTAINING ELEMENTS OF DIFFICULTY.
Asia, Grecian, Persia, Russian, ascii, antiscii, association, chaises, facetious, justiciary,
precocious, possessions, sashes, satiate, special, specie, species, specious, suspicious, shrewd,
shrift, shrink.
ZH.
This articulation, which is not uncommon in English,- — arising out of the
necessities of fluent utterance, instead of zy — has no appropriate symbol in our
orthography. It is the regular sound of the letter J in French. Before alphabetic
u(=yoo), we have this sound represented by s, as in measure, and by z, as in
seizure, etc. It legitimately occurs also in lesion, vision, etc. ; and in transition,
where the regular sound of ti, viz., sh, is vocalized, to avoid the less euphonious
combination of two hissing elements. Careless speakers pronounce zh instead of
y in educate, credulous, etc., and often even in accented syllables, as duke, duel,
etc. This will be carefully avoided by all who desire to speak well.
In its formation, this element is precisely the same as the preceding (sh)
with the addition of glottal sound. In this simple state, Zh occurs initial in no
English word ; but is invariably commenced from the obstructive position D. The
combination thus produced, namely, Dzh, is represented by J or G, as in James,
George, etc.
Zh final, also, is never unaccompanied by d, except in naturalized French
words, — such as rouge. Its English use is exemplified in judge, cage, etc. In
the former word, the letter d is redundant, since g alone, as in cage, represents
the combination dzh. The writing of this redundant d is one of our orthograph-
ical expedients to denote that the preceding vowel is to have its "stopped" or
"short" sound, — and the writing of a final e is another expedient to show that the
g is to have its "soft," or double sound, and not its "hard," or single sound. How
much more easy and natural would it be, — how much perplexity would it save
foreigners, — and how many weary tasks and useless punishments would it ward
from unhappy learners, if we could only be brought to submit our orthography
to rational correction ? Here, for instance, is a division of this work on a sound
which our acknowledged literal symbols furnish us with no mark to designate ; —
which is only recognized among the elements of our language as one constituent
of a double alphabetic sound, — apparently deemed indivisible, because represented
by a single letter ; and yet we are compelled to use a digraph to represent the half
of this alphabetic monograph, or we could not show its relation to the breath-
articulation of the same formation, — Sh.
ARTICULATIONS— Y 123
WORDS CONTAINING THE SOUND OF zh BETWEEN VOWELS.
Abrasion, invasion, occasion, adhesion, lesion, derision, incision, transition, vision, cor-
rosion, contusion, delusion, diffusion, illusion, intrusion ; azure, leisure, seizure, measure,
pleasure, treasure ; casual, visual, usual, usurer.
WORDS TO BE DISTINGUISHED IN PRONUNCIATION.
(dzh) age barge budge hedge ledge liege siege
(dz) aids bards buds heads leads Leeds seeds
badge besiege edge large liege ridge serge
(tsh) batch beseech etch larch leech rich search
gin jaunt jean jeer jest Jew Jews joke
chin chant chain cheer chest chew choose choke
YH.
In forming this element, the back of the tongue is rounded upwards to a close
position against the palate at a point intermediate to the formations sh and ch
(German). If the effort be made to compound these elements by sounding both
together, the effect of a whispered Y will be produced.
This element — the breath form of Y — occurs in English only in connection
with the vocal Y — the first element of alphabetic w(=yoo). It is represented by
H, as in hew, hue, human, etc.
The German and Scotch ch have the effect of this whispered 3; when they
occur in connexion with close lingual vowels, as in ich (the pronoun /in German)
and fich! (a Scotch interjection of disgust).
WORDS TO BE DISTINGUISHED IN PRONUNCIATION.
Hew = hue = Hugh
Ewe = yew = you
Y.
This element bears the same relation to the preceding that V does to F, Z to
S, etc. : the organic position modifies vocalized instead of whispered breath. The
tongue in forming Y is almost in the position for the vowel ee; just as in forming
W the lips modify the voice almost to the quality of the vowel oo. The formative
apertures are simply more close, so that Y and W are articulated forms of the
close vowel-sounds ee and oo.
A very common fault among careless speakers is to aspirate y in connexion
with breath articulations, and often to convert it into the proximate form sh.
Thus, tune is pronounced tshoon; — beauteous, beautshus; righteous, rightshus,
etc. This should be avoided, — it is mere slovenliness.
The ist Vowel (ee) unaccented, before a vowel, is in many words warrantably
shortened into y as in filial, saviour, glazier, etc. After the sound of Sh or Zh>
the y is often entirely sunk, as in social, vision, etc.
Y before the ist vowel presents an artictilative difficulty. Many persons,
especially in Scotland, entirely omit the Y in that situation : thus we hear of "an
old man bending under the weight of ears" instead of "years." A little practice
will enable any one to master this combination without such asinine alterations.
The letter Y when final, is always a vowel; it has the sound of the 2nd vowel
in such- words as many, very, etc., and of the diphthong 7-1 in by, try, etc. The
Articulation Y is never heard final in English ; it occurs, however, in French, as
in fille, etc., pronounced fee-y(e), etc.
124 ARTICULATIONS— K
Y initial combines with no articulation. The initial elements P, B, M, F, V,
T, D, N, Th, (Breath) S, Z, K, G, take Y into combination, but only before the
close labial vowel oo; as in pure, beauty, mew, feu, view, tune, due, new, thurible,
sue, zeugma, cupola, gewgaw. L, we have noticed, takes Y imperfectly into com-
bination, as in lure, lute, etc. (See page 113.)
WORDS TO BE DISTINGUISHED IN PRONUNCIATION.
ye'll yean year yeast ye've use beauty Bute
eel e'en ear east eve ooze booty boot
'cute dure due feud mewed mute pew pule
coot doer do food mood moot pooh ! pool
pure
poor
K.
This articulation is formed by the silent contact and audible separation of the
back of the tongue and the posterior part of the palate. The precise points of
contact vary before the different vowels. Before the close lingual vowel ee, the
position of the tongue is much farther forward than before ah or aw. The tongue
could articulate K from one uniform position, before all the vowels, but there is
a natural tendency to accommodate facility of utterance by these little changes,
which would require an effort to avoid. The vowel ee (No. i) requires the
middle of the tongue to be pressed very close to the palate, and the syllables ke or
eke are articulated with the least possible action of the organ, by merely closing
the ee aperture before or after the vowel. The effect of the "broad" and "close"
formations of k (as we have seen them discriminated in a Gaelic grammar, but
never in an English one) differs only in the vowel quality of the breathing emitted
on the separation of the organs. But an English peculiarity of elegant speech
depends entirely on this trivial circumstance. The posterior "broad" formation
which would naturally come before the open vowel ah(j), is exchanged for the
anterior "close" formation in such words as card, kind, etc. There is an ex-
tremely graceful effect in this euphonism, which is but clumsily imitated by those
who interpose an e or a y between the k and the open vowel.
In Smart's Pronouncing Dictionary, the student is carefully guarded against
the affectation of sounding y in these cases, but, from the notation adopted, he
will still be apt to overdo the euphonic effect; for it is ranked as a separate ele-
ment, represented by an apostrophe — thus, c'ard, k'ind, etc. We have described
the organic cause of the peculiarity. It occurs only before the open vowels 7 and
7. 1 1 and not in all words containing the combinations.
An American singularity consists in giving the anterior formation to K before
7.13 also, as in cow, etc.
In any case of indistinct or impeded utterance, the position of the point of
the tongue in the articulation of K must be observed. The tongue is often thrust
down into the bed of the lower jaw, or against the lower teeth, but this is fatal
to fluency and clearness, and it is also offensive to the eye. The fore-part of the
tongue should always be kept as nearly horizontal as possible. It may even be
folded backwards for the posterior K, but it can never be suffered to descend
without a sacrifice of neatness, which a speaker of taste would not willingly make.
To the Stammerer this observation of the position of the tongue is particularly
necessary. He generally forms K by forcing up the middle of the tongue against
the top of the palatal arch, while the point of the tongue aids the effort to hold it
there by pressing down against the lower teeth or gums. The jaw, too, bears
upwards with force upon the tongue, which, in the paroxysm of impediment, the
ARTICULATIONS— G 125
Stammerer is utterly unable to move. Sometimes the fixture of the tongue is less
complete, and in its efforts to leave the palate, the antagonist forces throw the
whole mouth and features into convulsive distortion. The Stammerer must prac-
tise this articulation with his mouth widely opened and motionless, so that the
tongue may be free to strike and leave the palate unaffected by motions of the jaw.
Let the tongue be well exercised in the simple action of k, in combination, at first,
with the open vowels ah and aw, until it can give off the syllables with rapidity,
and entirely by its own action. Thus :
kah kah kah; caw caw caw; akakak; ockockock, etc.
The syllables may be arranged in word-clusters — dissyllabic, trissyllabic, etc.,
with varying accents. Thus :
ickik, eckek, akakak, okokok, ukukuk, etc.
After this exercise, the Stammerer should be able to master words with k
initial Let him remember — if he find them difficult, that the k is merely a position
from which to commence the succeeding vowel ; that the initial letter may prac-
tically be considered as done, whenever the organs meet ; for that then he has only
to separate the organs in order to emit the vowel. If he attempt to make anything
more of the consonant by pressure, he must inevitably fail.
The following arrangement of the three breath obstructive formations, P, T,
K, should be practised.
EXERCISE.
katapa kapata pakata pataka tapaka takapa;
pit tit pip kik tit kik
pit kit tip kip pik tik
pit tit pip tit pip tit pip kik pip
pit kit pik tip kip tik kit pit kip
Not only the Stammerer, but all speakers, especially those whose enunciations
are indistinct, should cultivate this sort of oral gymnastics, as one of the most
powerful means of improving the articulation.
A common ungainliness of speech, and a frequent aggravation of a Stam-
merer's difficulty, arises, in words beginning with qu (— kw) from anticipating
the w, by projecting the lips while the tongue remains in the attitude of K. The
mouth can do only one thing at a time.
K initial combines with w, r, I, and y, as in quick, crime, climb, cure. K
unites with initial S, as in scheme, scream, etc., and with no other articulation.
WORDS CONTAINING ELEMENTS OF DIFFICULTY.
Act, cachectic, cachexy, cackle, cacophony, calculate, calx, cantankerous, capital, carcanet,
carking, cassock, catachresis, catapult, catechism, catechetics, categorical, characteristic,
clanking, click-clack, climacteric, climax, cockatoo, cockatrice, cockpit, cocoa, colloquial, con-
catenate, conch, concuss, conqueror, contact, contradict, contrary, cracked, crepitate, cricket,
critic, crocodile, cucumber, cuticle, kick, kipper, kitten, nictitate, picnic, quack, quickset,
quincunx, scatter, sceptic, sect, shocked, strict, vectitation.
G.
This element is the sound of the letter G before a, o, and u. It is commonly
called the "hard" G, to distinguish it from the "soft" G (— j, — dzh) sometimes
heard before the vowels e and i, as in gentle, ginger, etc.
126
ARTICULATIONS— G
The formation of the "hard" G is precisely the same as that of the preceding
letter (K) but with the addition of an effort of voice during the contact of the
articulating organs. It thus differs from'K as B does from P, D from T, etc.
Our remarks on the position of the tongue, etc., in forming K, will therefore
equally apply to this letter.
G, before the open vowels 7 and 8, and the diphthong 7.1, takes, in some
words, the same anterior formation as K in such combinations, producing a soft
transitional effect resembling the articulation Y, as in girl, guard, guide, etc.
A very common fault in the formation of G initial, consists in a degree of
nasality, which, for want of sufficient energy of articulation, precedes and weakens
the percussiveness of the letter, — good being pronounced ng-good, etc. The fault
is precisely analogous to the less common one of sounding m before b, or n before
d, as m-but for but ; n-dorit for dorit.
The vocal sound of G is very often feeble, or altogether wanting. It is not
capable of much prolongation, but the student should have the power of clearly
producing this shut vocality as a means of expressiveness. He should practise
combinations of the three vocal obstructives, B, D, G, giving to the articulations
all the vocal sound he can, but carefully guarding against a nasal tone. In B, D,
or G, the voice can only be continued while the breath passes into the pharynx;
when this cavity is fully distended, the sound must cease, and on separating the
organs, an explosive emission of the compressed breath will take place. If the
sound is easily continued beyond a couple of seconds, the voice may be suspected
to be passing into the nostrils.
EXERCISE.
ga ba da
ga da ba
ba da
ba ga
da ba ga
da ga ba
G, like K, is subject to the error of lateral explosiveness before L; — glove,
globe, etc., being pronounced dlove, dlobe, etc. There is no organic necessity to
plead for this defect. The cure consists in rousing up the tongue to activity.
G initial combines with /, r, w, and y, as in glad, great, Guelph, gules, etc. ;
but very rarely with the last two in English. G enters into combination with no
initial articulation.
WORDS TO BE DISTINGUISHED IN PRONUNCIATION.
gable
cable
glean
clean
great
crate
grumble
crumble
peg
peck
gaiter
cater
glue
clue
grew
crew
bag
back
PJg
pick
game
came
graft
craft
grime
crime
dug
duck
plug
pluck
gape
cape
garter
carter
grape
grain
crape
crane
ground
crowned
group
croup
frog
frock
lag
lack
rag
rack
stag
stack
gauge
cage
grave
crave
grow
crow
lug
luck
tag
tack
glass
class
grease
crease
gruel
cruel
nag
knack
tug
tuck
WORDS CONTAINING ELEMENTS OF DIFFICULTY.
Aggregate, agog, cog, cognisant, gagged, galaxy, gargarize, gargle, gastric, gherkin,
gibber, gig, giggle, gittern, globule, glutton, goggle, gregal, grogram, gullet, gurgle, gutter,
guaranty, logogram, logography, recognize, segregate.
ARTICULATIONS— NG 127
NG.
This is the nasal form of the preceding element ; the organic formation by the
tongue and palate is precisely that of G ; but the velum, or soft palate, is removed
from the nares, and the pharynx being thus rendered incapable of retaining the
breath, the voice passes freely out of the nostrils.
Ng is never used as an initial articulation in English; but it does occur as
such in some languages. Among individual cacophonic peculiarities, ng is some-
times heard instead of L. This is generally accompanied by burring. The tongue,
either from bad habit, or from inability to leave the lower jaw, lies in the bed of
the mouth, and forms the linguo-palatal articulations by the middle of the tongue
striking against the roof of the mouth. This makes the position for / nearly, or
altogether obstructive, and the effort to give continuous voice to the letter, of
course sends the vocal stream through the nose.
"Soft;/<7y and sweet, in H^iquid ngays,
The heavenly ha.ngenguja.hs raise!"
In most cases, this, like nine-tenths of all varieties of defective articulation,
is perfectly curable : and even where structural malformation exists, Art can do
much to lessen or cover the peculiarity.
It is a general principle of articulation, that the organs employed in forming
any element must be separated in order to complete it. We have explained at
page 34, the reason that in thus finishing ng, there is a tendency, greater than in
the case of the other nasal sounds, to give a degree of compression and consequent
explosiveness to the breath — producing the double articulation ng-g, or ng-k.
Many persons find it difficult to finish ng by separation of the organs without pro-
ducing some effect of G or K, and they consequently form the articulation im-
perfectly by simply stopping the sound in the glottis. When, however, the ng
final is followed by a word beginning with a vowel, the organs must come apart ;
and with the vowel — out comes the G.
The best way to get rid of this habit is to practise ng as an initial before
vowels. This will have the effect of at once manifesting the existence and the
nature of the defect ; and the power to give the soft terminal action will very soon
be acquired.
EXERCISE.
nga, nge, ngi, ngo, ngoo.
Exception has been taken by some critics to the English mode of writing this
element by ng, because the sound contains neither an n nor a g. That the Alpha-
bet does not supply a character to represent this simple elementary sound, is
undoubtedly a fault ; but until we have a distinctive character, we could not wish
a better digraph than ng — which, very appropriately symbolizes a nasal G.
N before g or k, unless in unaccented prefixes (as in enquire, engross, include,
ungodly, unkind, etc.) generally takes the sound of ng, as in single, uncle, vanquish,
etc., pronounced sing-gle, ung-cle, etc. A similar exchange of n for m before
labial articulations has been noticed at page 119. The digraph ng has its simple
elementary sound in sing-er, hang-er, etc. ; but it has the sound of ng-g in such
words as En-gland, iin-ger, lon-ger, youn-ger, etc. The omission of the g in these
words is a Scotticism.
128 ARTICULATIONS— SH
WORDS TO BE DISTINGUISHED IN PRONUNCIATION.
clang fang pang rang dinging
clan fan pan ran dinning
king singing thing gong bung
kin sinning thin gone bun
stung tongue rung long-er (n.) long-est (v.)
stun tun run lon-ger (adj.) lon-gest (adj.)
WORDS CONTAINING ELEMENTS OF DIFFICULTY.
Banging, bringing, clanging, clinging, flinging, hanging, longing, singing, winging, wrong-
ing; anxious, compunction, concord, crank, function, unctuous; length, lengthen, strength,
strengthen.
[END OF PART SECOND.]
NOTE. — A catalogue of the works of A. Melville Bell on Line Writing, World-
English, and Visible Speech (see page 53) can be obtained at the Volta Bureau,
1601 35th street N. W., Washington, D. C.
PART THIRD
VOCAL PHYSIOLOGY
CURE OF STAMMERING AND OTHER IMPEDIMENTS OF SPEECH
ARTICULATIVE EXERCISES, ETC.
Under the head of Impediments are usually included all defects of Articu-
lation, Lisping, Burring, and other Alphabetic Mispronunciations, as well as
Stuttering, Hesitation, and Spasmodic Stammering. But the last three alone
come within the meaning of an Impediment; and to them, we shall confine our
remarks on Impeded Utterance. Sufficient directions for the removal of all minor
blemishes of articulation will be found under the different letters in the preceding
part of this work.
One general direction, however, we may here give with reference to all forms
of inarticulation or of malarticulation. In practising for their correction, pro-
nounce one sound at a time: — facility of combination will come with practice.
First study the mechanism of the element which is defective, and practise it singly
until its formation becomes easy and distinct. Then separately prefix and sub-
join other sounds, and gradually increase rapidity of sequence until the effect of
ordinary combination is produced. Fluency and perfect accuracy will, in this
way, in a short time be attained.
Those defects are properly impediments, which prevent the organs from
passing smoothly from one to any other vocal position. Thus when the organs
articulate so loosely that they no sooner touch than they rebound ; and when
syllables are iterated again and again, before the text sound can be formed, there
is an impediment — of a comparatively simple kind, which is distinguished by the
name of Stuttering. When there is a silent choking effort, accompanied perhaps
by an ineffectual opening and shutting of the mouth ; or when only short, frag-
mentary particles of sound escape, during the open-mouthed effort to speak, there
is clearly an impediment, — of a more serious nature, — Spasmodic Hesitation.
And when, at the recurrence of any habitually difficult word or letter, or under
the apprehension of any difficulty, a series of muscular actions is evoked, such as
have no connection with the natural effort of speech, — there is the most aggravated
form of impediment, — Convulsive Stammering.
Stuttering and Hesitation are stages through which the Stammerer generally
passes before he reaches the climax of difficulty; and if he were brought under
treatment, before the spasmodic habit became established, his cure would be much
more easy than after the malady has become rooted in his muscular and nervous
system. But often the transition from simple to more complicated forms of
difficulty is so rapid, that it cannot be traced or anticipated. Perhaps some slight
ailment may imperceptibly introduce the higher impediment, or some evil example
may draw the ill-mastered utterance at once into the vortex of difficulty. Indeed,
in by far the majority of cases of Stammering, the impediment can apparently be
traced back to imitation, from which it either had taken rise, or under the influence
of which it had become formidable, from a state perhaps of mere indistinctness
or careless Stuttering, which had predisposed to the affection.
The characteristics of these three kinds of impediment are broadly drawn:
(129)
130 CURE OF STAMMERING
few cases present just these and no other features ; in all there is something
idiocratic, so that hardly any two cases are precisely alike.
A case of simple Stuttering would need little more for its removal than the
cultivation of a firm articulation and clearly sonorous voice. A case of simple
Hesitation would require little more than a course of exercises for the manage-
ment of respiration, to increase the receptive and retentive powers of the lungs ;
and a knowledge of the various oral actions which modify the sounds of speech,
in order to exchange difficulty for smoothness and fluency. Spasmodic Stammer-
ing generally combines with its own peculiar contortive efforts, the incontinent
hurry of stuttering, and the gasping breath-catches, and silent straining of hesi-
tation.
But in many cases of Stuttering — that is, where stuttering or loose, hurried
repetitions are the leading features of the impediment, — there is a complication
of difficulties: — some degree of hesitation, and occasional spasmodic twitchings,
will indicate the progression of the impediment to its painful climax; and exer-
cises of a more complex nature must be adopted to eradicate the germs of Stam-
mering.
Hesitation is seldom found without more active manifestations of difficulty :
effort misdirected gives rise to distortions of the mouth, lateral motion of the
jaw, protrusion of the tongue, straining of the eyes, winking, rolling of the head,
etc. Very often, indeed, an impediment characterized mainly by hesitation and
silent effort, is accompanied by a species of action more difficult to be subdued
than the most demonstrative and violent, that agitates the whole body in con-
vulsive stammering. The less impetuous actions are not so easily made subjects
of observation and correction; and the pupil is often of a comparatively heavy
and sluggish temperament, — too inert to bestow watchfulness, to discover and
check beginnings of difficulty: so that a case of apparently slight impediment is
frequently more tedious and difficult to cure than one of the most boisterous and
convulsive aspect.
Nervousness is, in a greater or less degree, an aggravant of difficulty in all
cases of Impediment. It is a common professional dogma, and a still more
common popular delusion, that nervousness is the cause of Stammering; but it
would be more correct to say, that Stammering is the cause of nervousness.
Constitutionally nervous persons are undoubtedly more liable than others to be
affected by difficulties of utterance ; but there is an incomparably greater number
of "nervous" persons than of Stammerers, and were stammering the result of
nervousness, the larger proportion would certainly be found among those affected
by Impediment. Any peculiarity — either of conformation or of habitual man-
ner— is a cause of nervousness, when the idiocrasy is made a subject of observa-
tion. An amateur called upon to play or sing for the first time before critics, is
incapacitated for the attempt by nervousness : and just in the same way the
Stammerer is nervous, and his nervousness renders him incapable of natural effort.
His peculiarity is manifested, or is in danger of being so, every time he opens his
mouth, and so the shortest monosyllable may, from fear of impediment, create the
most ungovernable struggle. Thus the first words of sentences, though made up
of easy elements, and such as would present no difficulty in another position,
become severe stumbling-blocks, and often impassable obstacles.
Numerous Treatises on Impediments of Speech have at different times been
given to the public; but in most instances these works have been intended more
as advertisements of their authors as practitioners of the Curative Art, than as
expositions of the modus operandi of cure. Mystical theories of the causes and
means of cure have, of course, been prevalent — where outspoken simplicity would
have been unprofitable. The ordinary policy with pupils, was to bind them to
CURE OF STAMMERING 131
secrecy as to the processes employed. Pupils paid dearly for their knowledge:
and the public could not expect to have the lucrative secret revealed in the pages
of a thin octavo. No ! the authors were wiser. The simple exercises which
wrought success — or such measure of it as was attained — were precautiously
committed on oath or on "honour" to the keeping of the pupil, but were carefully
concealed from the public. The books were filled with learned-looking disquisi-
tions on volitions, associations, nervous discordancies, and such popularly unin-
telligible subjects, to invest the Stammerer's malady in the darkest and most
profitable mystery.
Some authors have, however, treated practically of the subject; but in their
theories of the cause, as well as prescriptions for the cure, there are strange
diversities ; — some writers ascribing the impediment to nervous and physical
causes — for which they recommend medical treatment ; others, to organic or
structural causes — for which they recommend surgical operation ; — some to habit-
ual collapse of the lungs, removable by deep inspirations ; some to irregular action
of the diaphragm — correctible by strength and continuity of expiration; some to
spasmodic disturbances of the glottis — for which they recommend a singing and
drawling tone ; some to mere hurry — for which they recommend deliberation and
regularity of rhythm; some find the chief source of difficulty in vowels, and direct
attention mainly to the production of these elements; others declare consonants
to be the worst, and recommend a vowel prefix to render them easy ; — while others
advise slurring the consonants, or altogether omitting them.
The Stammerer is gravely told in one work, that "a knowledge of the cause
and nature of the different varieties of the impediment, is the only guide to the
proper line of practice for its removal ; as this -must invariably consist in the
adoption of opposite and counteracting modes of speech!" — as if the reverse of
every wrong must needs be right, and as if truth varied its features with the ever
changeful varieties of error ! — When "doctors differ" so much about the "cause"
and "nature" of the impediment, the Stammerer could have but little hope of a
cure in this way, even were the theory of such knowledge being all-important,
correct, and philosophical. But the rational, as it is experimentally the successful
mode of procedure, is first to study the standard of correct articulation ; not the
varieties of imperfect utterance, and then not to go from one extreme to another,
but, at every step to compare the defective with the. perfect mode of speech, and
so infallibly ascertain the amount, the kind, and the source of error.
The perfect success of this plan in practice, as well as its obvious reasonable-
ness, recommend it hopefully to the Stammerer's own exertions. There, perhaps,
has seldom been a self-cured Stammerer ; yet, we cannot think success impossible
or improbable, if the directions given for his guidance are simple and explicit,
and if the means recommended are natural, and directly calculated to be efficacious.
Let the Stammerer divest his mind of any perplexing theories he may have
received as to the cause and nature of his impediment, and set to work diligently
to find out what natural speech is; — to gather a clear idea of its processes, — we
do not mean a minute anatomical acquaintance with the structure of the organs
of speech, but a practical knowledge of the positions and actions of the mouth,
etc., in modifying breath into articulate sounds. By this elementary work, he
will be trained to close observation and analysis, without which he can do nothing.
He will probably find that he knew little or nothing of the subject intuitively; and
he will be the less surprised that he had so often gone wrong, and that, being
wrong, he had so sadly failed to rectify himself. Never was the axiom more
emphatically true, that "knowledge is power ;" for the Stammerer gains such con-
fidence from this knowledge that he is almost immediately able to check his diffi-
culties, and lessen the frequency of their recurrence. Daily increase of facility
132 CURB OF STAMMERING
and preventive command over habitual errors, rewards continuous exercise ; until
in the large majority of cases, perfect ease and unbroken fluency are attained.
Whether nervousness, imperfect or discordant volitions, or associations, or
whatever else can, be the cause of impediment, the effect is mechanical derange-
ment, and obvious mismanagement of the vocal actions. Ignorance of the natural
principles of speech must manifestly increase the difficulty, for when a want of
fluency is felt, the Stammerer, not knowing what are the actions necessary to the
desired utterance, yields to the embarrassing influence of difficulty and ignorance,
and splutters on at random, with tongue, eyes, head, trunk, hands, feet, and the
whole frame in effort.
The first object, then, with the Stammerer, must be, to acquire a thorough
knowledge of the elements of speech, — vowel and articulate, vocal and voiceless.
He must practise the elements separately, as well as in difficult arrangements,
until he feels confident that he can utter them, in any order or combination ; and
that, besides, he does so, by conscious regulation of every act of speech. A tyro
flutist finds it one task to learn to blow his instrument, and another to finger it.
So the Stammerer's task is twofold. His first step is to gain power over the
respiration, and the next to bring under control the various organs of articulation.
The relation which breath bears to speech, and the relation which the sounding
part of the vocal instrument (the throat) bears to the modifying part (the
mouth), must be clearly comprehended; and then, with ordinary application, the
power of playing on the instrument of speech should be acquired as readily as
facility in blowing, tonguing, and fingering the flute.
By bodily exercise — riding, walking, running uphill, the use of dumb-bells or
other gymnastics, bawling against the wind, or Demosthenically drowning the
noise of the waves by the sea shore, or in any other available way, power of
lungs, and a full development of the chest should be gained ; while constant watch-
fulness to check any bad habits must be vigilantly maintained.
Let the Stammerer work on hopefully, even though, for some time, he should
seem to be "hoping against hope." Command of the breathing in speech is one
of the most difficult, as it is one of the most important powers to be perfectly
obtained. While respiration is at fault, articulation is as powerless as the finger-
ing of a flute would be to evoke music without the stream of air. Difficulty,
therefore, must not be suffered to deter from persevering efforts, until the end
is gained. That "consummation so devoutly to be wished" will assuredly, sooner
or later, be the reward of hopeful industry.
PRACTICAL DIRECTIONS, EXERCISES, ETC.
A useful exercise for the regulation of the breath may be obtained in count-
ing. Thus, to acquire facility of silent respiration, count slowly and distinctly,
with a free inhalation by mouth and nostrils before each number; carefully sub-
duing the least tendency to audibility or suction in the act of inspiration, and
heaving the chest naturally, without any upward action of the shoulders, or other
bodily movement.
To gain power in retaining the breath and prolonging the expiration, count
five, six, ten, twenty, fifty, or any greater practicable series of numbers, with each
breath; and continue the exercise for several minutes, without allowing the chest
to fall, or pausing longer than is necessary to inhale before each group of
numbers.
The opposite nature of these two exercises will show that neither mode of
respiration is intended to be exclusively adopted in speaking: they will develop
power, and give command over the organs and actions of respiration ; and while
CURB OF STAMMERING 133
the one exercise will so far neutralize the effect of the other, as to prevent the
formation of a habit in either way, they will exert such an influence on practice
as will enable the Stammerer ultimately to regulate his respiration in any way,
with natural ease, and more than ordinary effect.
When the formation of Voice has been perfected, and vowel sounds can be
uttered without any unnecessary action, ungainliness, or peculiarity of tone, the
Articulations, and especially those which are defective, should be separately and
carefully studied. The breath obstructives, P, T, K, should be practised first ;—
then their vocal correspondents B, D, G ; and next their nasals M, N, NG. The
differences and correspondences of the letters must be clearly understood, and
all the difficulties of their combinations overcome by determined practice. (See
preceding Dictionary of Sounds, Section Second.)
Attention should next be directed to the letters in organic classes: those
formed by the lips should be taken first, as being in general the most difficult,
and as being the most easily observed with necessary minuteness. The labial
class of elements includes P, B, M, W, Wh, F, V.
The letters formed by the elevated point of the tongue should next be prac-
tised. These are T, D, N, L, R. For these the teeth may be considerably opened.
They should be kept apart, in practice, at first, by a pencil, paper-cutter, or other
convenient article, held between the teeth. The lips must be perfectly quiescent,
and kept back against the teeth in the formation of all lingual elements.
The sibilant letters, S, Th, Sh, in which the tongue acts more horizontally,
may be taken next. Some combinations of these elements will be found organ-
ically difficult, and will require energetic and patient practice. The teeth, for
these letters, require to be almost closed: the lips must be carefully retained
steadily in an open position, drawn back, and well separated at the corners.
The letters formed by the back or root of the tongue should now present but
little difficulty. These are K, G, NG, Y. Let the teeth be well separated, and
maintained motionless in their position — with the tongue drawn back, and its
point as much raised as possible.
The principles of organic action being of such great importance in the cure
of Stammering, we shall here add a summary of directions, with some further
observations, respecting the proper action of each part of the instrument of
speech. We shall notice separately the Lips; the Teeth; the Tongue; the Larynx,
and the Head; the Thorax, and the Abdomen.
THE UPS.
The lips are in all cases the seat of much difficulty. An attentive study of
the elementary formations will show that there is very little labial action really
necessary in speech, and that projection, pursing, circular contraction, loose
spreading, or any other outward motion of the lips, is a fault to be avoided by all
who would speak with grace, and especially to be vigilantly guarded against by
the Stammerer. He must literally "set a watch upon his lips" if he would conquer
his impediment.
The external shape of the mouth, or rather the arrangement of the lips, is,
in all persons, very much a matter of habit. Habitual ill-nature everybody looks
for and recognizes on the lips ; and there, sweet temper and cheerfulness have
their calm abode. The soft and pliant texture of the lips is easily impressed by
any habit ; and even every passing emotion can mould their plastic substance to
express it. Thus, we often— indeed generally— find fixed on these portals of the
mouth a legible summary of the man. The lips of the vulgar and ignorant are
"arrant tell-tales," which there is no belying; and mental superiority cannot con-
134 CURB OF STAMMERING
ceal itself from their disclosure. Falsehood cannot utter itself by these "miracu-
lous organs" of truth ; but conscious rectitude., integrity, and virtue, shine through
the lips, and give irrefragable evidence there, when other testimony is absent or
doubtful.
Habits of speech are most especially operative in giving character to the lips.
An acute observer can generally tell by their aspect, even in repose, whether a
person's articulation is good or bad ; and there are few Stammerers who do not
show to the practised eye, an indication of their infirmity in the lips.
In many cases, pupils whose mouths were deformed by broad, thick, un-
wieldy, pouted, or down-hanging lips — the result of bad habits of speech, — have,
by exercise, so managed to govern and adjust these organs, that the expression of
the features has been completely altered. Let the Stammerer, whether his mouth
is thus labially deformed or not, take prompt and active measures to acquire per-
fect control over the lips; for the slightest twitch and least perceptible motion,
may be so associated with some of his difficulties, that he cannot perfectly over-
come the latter until this trivial-looking action is prevented.
The lips should move only vertically in articulation ; any lateral or horizontal
motion is a blemish as well as an interference with the expressive power of the
lips. Every modification of vowel sound may be perfectly made within the
mouth, aided by the mere diminution or enlargement of the labial aperture. But
this does not require any looseness or projection, — far less circular pursing — of
the lips : the aperture may be lessened in any degree by approximation merely, and
without altering the relative position of the lips and teeth. This mode of vocal
action has the advantage, also, of grace and superior distinctness ; while to the
orator it possesses the further recommendation of leaving the lips entirely at his
disposal for the various emotional expressiveness of which they are pre-eminently
capable. Let the Stammerer particularly attend to the disposition of his lips.
To prevent their officious meddling with sounds over which they possess no legiti-
mate influence, he must keep a constant restraint upon them, by drawing them
backwards as far as he can, and as closely against the teeth as possible. Let both
ranges of the teeth be visible — not the whole length of the teeth — that would be
to grin ; nor their extreme edges only — that would be to simper ; — but, by drawing
back and separating the corners of the lips, let all the teeth be fairly, though not
fully seen. By this sort of exercise, the thickest looking lip will soon be pared
down to due proportion, and the very dangerous labial actions of Stammering
will be perfectly subdued.
In connexion, however, with the above labial position, the following principle
of labial action must be carefully observed. The upper lip should remain almost
as motionless in articulation as the upper teeth ; — the whole of the necessary labial
action being confined to the lower lip. Thus in forming P, B, M, W, or Wh, the
upper lip does not act downwards to the lower, but the lower lip rises to meet the
upper. If the latter descend to the former, it will pull down the nostrils with it,
and set the whole of the upper part of the face in motion. Till the Stammerer
can articulate the labial letter without the least tendency to this facial action, he
will not succeed in eradicating his defect: he will find that some of its strong
roots lodge here. The articulations F and V, and the vowels o and oo, are the
only other labial formations ; but the former use only the lower lip, and the latter
are less close approximations of both lips than W, — so that neither can in the
least require the descending action which we condemn.
If it should be found difficult to keep the lips back and quiescent, a pair of
silver hooks may be used to assist the muscles, which, at first, are often really
powerless ; but this aid should be dispensed with as soon as possible. The hooks
grasping the corners of the lips, should keep them in the right position by means
CURE OF STAMMERING 135
of an elastic tie fastened behind the head. Or a thin pencil or ivory knitting pin
may be placed within the teeth, in such a way as to hold back the lips ; but as this
interferes with the action of the tongue, the hooks are to be preferred.
THE TEETH.
The upward pressure of the jaw is immense in many cases of Stammering.
In natural speech, the action of the jaw is downward. To prevent pressure in the
wrong direction, — the Stammerer must not substitute pressure in the right direc-
tion, but keep the jaw still — as motionless as if it had no hinge. When he can
articulate in this way it will be easy to add a little smooth, downward action, to
give the vowels fulness and purity.
The teeth must be very close, though not in contact, for Th, S, Z, and Sh;
the thickness of a paper-cutter may be inserted between them to retain them at
this distance in practising these elements. For R, L, T, D, N, Y, K, G, NG, the
mouth may be more open, and the breadth of an ordinary paper-cutter may be
held between the teeth in practice, that the tongue may have room for independent
action. If, however, the tongue is too much- tied to the lower jaw to admit of
such an elevation, or if the arch of the palate is disproportionately high, the
opening of the teeth must be regulated by the ability of the tongue to strike on
the palate. The teeth must never be kept so open as to prevent the tip of the
tongue from articulating T and D with sharpness, or a bad habit of lingual action
will be acquired.
The operation of separating the f raenum which binds the point of the tongue
downwards is a very simple one, and is to be recommended when there is a
manifest inability to elevate the tongue.
A lateral motion of the jaw, and sometimes a horizontal one, with a general
indecision of action, give much trouble in many cases of impediment. The fore-
going modes of practice will tend to check these habits. When any object is held
between the teeth, it should be retained horizontally. If it fall from the horizontal
line, it will show that the jaw is retreating; — if it rise, that will indicate an advance
of the teeth, — certainly a less serious fault than the other ; but the correct position
is for both ranges of the teeth to be exactly in line.
The teeth should never come in contact in speech. Even in forming the shut
labial articulations, they should not be allowed to close. Some small object may
at first be held between the side teeth in practising the labials ; or, excepting for
F and V, it may be held by the front teeth.
The rationale of all these modes of exercise, it will be seen, is to reduce the
action of speech to the least possible amount. Were we to stop here, there might
be a stiffness and tmgracefulness of articulation remaining; but the student is
fully informed, in other sections of this work, how to perfect the vocal action
when obstructive and impedimental faults have been removed.
THE TONGUE.
The tongue must be understood to be an "unruly member," only figuratively,
and as representing the faculty of speech. The tongue itself is one of the most
alert and obedient organs in the body. Within the little compass of the mouth,
it throws itself, at the bidding of the will, into a score of different attitudes, with
a dexterity, precision, and untraceable rapidity that would excite our highest ad-
miration and astonishment, could we but witness them. The fingers of a Thalberg
or a Liszt, which dazzle the eye with their fleetness over the keys of a pianoforte,
are not half so nimble as this agile little member, which the least scientific, un-
136
CURB QF STAMMERING
lettered, unmusical — scold, can put through all its movements with lightning
rapidity.
Besides its minuter changes of shape in forming vowels, this Protean member
produces by its independent action and various configurations, no fewer than
eight of the eleven actions of articulation; forming sixteen distinct elements of
speech, namely, Th(in), Th(en), S, Z, Sh, Zh, R, L, T, D, N, H(ue), Y, K,
G, Ng.
Many of the lingual letters present severe difficulties to the Stammerer, but
very little impediment is caused by mal-action of the tongue itself. Numerous
faults of articulation arise from its careless and untrained evolutions, but. Stam-
mering, and that cleaving to the roof of the mouth which produces such painful
impediment, arises more from the pressure of the jaw than of the tongue. The
upward actions of the tongue are made heavy only by the upward bearing of the
jaw; and the continued pressure of this ponderous frame prevents the tongue
from disengaging itself and falling into the bed of the mouth, as it otherwise
naturally would.
To lighten the actions of the tongue, the Stammerer must keep his jaw rigid;
and while doing so, he must develop the latent muscular energies of the tongue,
by vigorous exercise. The various elements that are produced by the actions of
the tongue should be rapidly run over — in natural sequence, from one to another ;
reiterated separately, and combined in any way that may be found difficult — until
this member is fairly disciplined to good habits, and broken off from bad ones.
The tongue should never, in speech, be protruded between the teeth ; it should
never touch the lower teeth ; it should never be pointed downwards to the bed of
the jaw ; it should never be thrust up within the palatal arch, as in the act of
sucking ; nor should the point of the tongue in any action deviate from the centre
of the mouth.
In finishing its different articulations, the tongue should completely disengage
itself, and fall back within the mouth, depressed and out of sight. The depression
of the root of the tongue will be outwardly visible at the angle of the neck and
chin.
Almost every Stammerer has tried to assist his tongue by putting pebbles in
his mouth. In some cases, this has been done by "advice of the family doctor."
And on what principle was such an expedient recommended ? On no principle !
but only because, forsooth, Demosthenes the renowned Inarticulate, who* cured
himself of certain faults of speech, is said to have practised with pebbles in his
mouth. And on what better than this no-principle ground was the art of surgery
disgraced some few years ago, by operations on the uvula and tonsils to remove
impediments of speech! Why did reckless operators turn up their professional
cuffs to such barbarous mutilations? Oh, on no principle! but because, in
operating on a boy for deafness, some one said that the boy had got accidentally
cured of some defect of speech which he was then affirmed to have had before
the operation.
Hundreds of unfortunate Stammerers were agonizingly mutilated while this
delusion lasted. But "experientia stultos docet:" though the absurdity of the
operations did not prevent their infliction on multitudes of too confiding dupes,
the inefficacy of the knife to excise a habit was too manifest after the suffering
had been endured ; and the practice was at last almost entirely abandoned.
The Stammerer has high authority and ample precedent for trying the effect
of pebbles in his mouth; but he may, perhaps, be satisfied to spare himself the
chance of a fit of indigestion should he swallow one of them, when we tell him
that he would find pebbles in his mouth as useless as pebbles in his pocket. Any-
thing placed below the tongue pulls the point down, by pressing on the f raenum —
CURB OF STAMMERING 137
a bad position ; and anything placed above the tongue would prevent articulation,
and be in rather a dangerous position for an inward slip. Demosthenes did not
cure himself by pebbles — but by indomitable energy and perseverance. If the
pebbles at all assisted him, they did so only by keeping his teeth open. But
Demosthenes was not a Stammerer. His defect was the common one of inability
to sound the letter R. Perhaps he had the Stammerer's habit of snapping his
teeth close at every articulation, and the pebble between the jaws would be very
useful in correcting this. At all events, let not the Stammerer trust to anything
out of himself, to any mechanical assistance, or unnatural expedient, for his cure ;
but let him fairly follow the example of the great Grecian, and devote his energies
to the task of cultivating his natural powers, and, like Demosthenes, he will suc-
ceed in making himself a far better speaker probably than he ever would have
been without the stimulus of impediment.
THE: HKAD.
The upper jaw is a fixture, and consequently has no motion in speech; but
the Stammerer, apparently ignorant of this fact, strives to disengage his locked
teeth by upward effort, and, of course, throws back his head for this purpose.
The mobile lower jaw goes up too, however, and so he tosses, and shakes, and
jerks his head in vain, till nature comes to his assistance, and the necessities of
respiration force his mouth open. These deforming spasms are, of course, in-
voluntary— but ignorance originated them. Had the Stammerer, at his first mis-
guided effort, been told how to effect the pressing purpose, the faulty habit would
not have been established : it was not without many repetitions and painful asso-
ciations that the random effort acquired its muscular attachments and spasmodic
force.
Many speakers besides Stammerers would be the better of the Stammerer's
practice to control habits of loose swinging, tossing, or nodding of the head. A
deaf person might often think a speaker was angrily reproving or vehemently
dogmatising by the "laying-down-the-law"-like motion of his head. Other orators
seem to imitate the action of a pugnacious ram, to batter their opinions into their
auditors' skulls: and others incessantly shake their craniums, as if to create a
froth and fermentation within. The head is an important oratorical weapon, and
speakers would do well to keep it from such extravagancies. The "seat of intel-
lect," tossing and swinging as we often see it, is at best but a light-headed exhibi-
tion. Weighty thoughts, one would think, would tend to keep it steady!
To check the difficulties associated with the peculiar head actions of Stam-
mering, the head must be held firmly upon the neck — the chin horizontal and
drawn inwards. This position must at first be strictly maintained ; for the slight-
est difficulty with any element, would probably induce the whole of the old spas-
modic series of stammering actions, if the muscles of the neck were allowed to
relax. When the habit of moving the head in connexion with articulation is
broken, no farther care about the position of the head will be necessary: — but
until there is nothing to fear from its freedom, the more it is reined in prevent-
ively, the better.
Another important advantage gained by this position of the head, is the
depression of the larynx — the instrument of voice — and the consequent deepening
of the voice. The glottal membranes are put in the easiest position for vocal
vibration — the root of the tongue is depressed — the cavity of the mouth enlarged —
the arch' of the fauces spread — and the whole organism placed in the most favour-
able position for easy articulation. By this practice, too, the voice may be per-
manently deepened and mellowed, and greatly improved in clearness and strength.
138
CURB OF STAMMERING
THE THORAX.
The chief inveteracy of Stammering is generally connected with the respira-
tion, and a faulty action of the thorax. In many cases there is a considerable
degree of pain attending the compressive action of the chest; and in some, the
paroxysms of impediment produce such violent writhings of the body, that the
aspect of the chest is that of decided deformity.
Contraction of the chest depresses the diaphragm, and depression of the dia-
phragm expands the abdomen ; so that a clear outward index of error is furnished,
both in the thoracic and abdominal actions, to assist in the correction of faults.
This is the most difficult kind of mal-action to correct in Stammering. The
Stammerer is in constant dread of difficulties, and — as the natural consequence
of fear — his chest falls, and the whole series of habitual spasms is induced in
anticipation of a failure. It will be some time before the Stammerer who labours
under much of this species of impediment will acquire sufficient confidence to
make rational preparations for encountering a dreaded combination ; and often
he will fall prostrate before a terror-inspiring word. The lack of confidence dis-
ables his chest, and the want of breath renders useless any effort at articulation.
If the respiration be not perfectly free, there can be no ease of speech. The
common rule given to Stammerers, is to draw the abdomen inwards during ex-
piration; but there is danger of this being overdone. In some cases a forcible
inward action of the abdomen constitutes a leading feature of the impediment.
We would, for the management of respiration, recommend the same policy that
we have prescribed for articulation, namely, to reduce the action to a minimum,
and to admit no motion that is not indispensably necessary.
Let the chest be well expanded, and while the breath is expelled, either in
slow continuous currents, in broken and abrupt jets, or in any other way — even
with all practicable force of voice — let the chest be kept expanded, and use as
little and as gentle abdominal action as possible. The action which really effects
the purpose of expiration, is internal — namely, that of the diaphragm, and a slight
flattening of the abdomen is all that naturally results from its action on the lungs.
The organ of force in speech is not the chest — not the diaphragm — not the
mouth, but the pharynx, at the back of the mouth, above the windpipe. The sides
of the pharynx must be so elastic as to expand with the slightest pressure of air,
and the lips and tongue, in articulation, must be so passive as to yield to the
slightest impulse of pharyngal pressure. Force thrown either into the act of
expiration, or the actions of articulation, must result in a straining of the vocal
organ, or a restraint on the free issue of breath through the mouth; and all
varieties of Stammering are characterized in various degrees by these two modes
of mechanical error.
With reference to respiration, it must further be observed, that many per-
sons— Stammerers especially — never, except, perhaps in yawning, experience a
true inflation of the kings ! Hence arises much of the common tendency to pul-
monary disease. The lungs require room for their healthy expansion ; and if the
walls of the chest are not sufficiently raised, the air does not ramify to the ex-
tremities of the lungs. These consequently become by pressure attached to the
inner lining of the chest ; or the smaller air passages, from the want of mechanical
inflation, close up, and become the seat of tubercular disease.
In connexion with impediments of speech, the power of voluntary inhalation
is often altogether wanting, and the processes of respiration require to be made
manifest by suction and ejection of water through a tube, in order to give the
pupil a perception of the nature of inspiration and expiration. As the blind-born
have no idea of the nature of vision, so those destitute, as we may say, of the
CURB OF STAMMERING 139
faculty of breathing, cannot at first comprehend the nature or the necessity of
vocal respiration. This difficulty must be overcome before any progress can be
made in the eradication of Stammering.
We would now, in conclusion, recapitulate some fundamental facts, and im-
press on the Stammerer the principle which forms the basis of all exercises for
the practical application of our directions on the organic positions and actions.
All voice is produced in and by the glottis; and all whispered emissions of
breath also emanate from the glottis. All articulations are produced in and by
the mouth; all vowel variations are also caused by the configuration of the mouth.
The production of the material of speech is one thing, and the moulding of that
material into articulate elements and syllables, is quite another process. Two
entirely different sets of organs are, brought into operation in the two acts : as
different as the furnace, boiler, and other steam apparatus of a locomotive, are,
from the piston, rods, and wheels, to which the steam communicates motion. The
human speaking machine is, however, much more perfect than this most perfect
and wonderful work of art; for the former has independent motion in all its
parts, and is capable of indefinite combinations, while the latter is fixed to one
unvaried round of movements.
"In human works, though laboured on with pain,
A thousand movements scarce one purpose gain ;
In God's, one single, can its end produce, —
Yet serves to second, too, some other use."
The speaking machine is capable of performing all its functions separately ; —
no two actions are necessarily connected: — -and since each independent action must
result from a separate volition, it follows that speech, in its most rapid utterances
is but an arbitrary arrangement, a conventional sequence, of separate, and con-
sequently distinctly separable acts of the will, and of the obedient organs of
respiration, voice, and articulation.
The Stammerer must study to apply this principle. As soon as he has
strengthened his voice, and brought his chest into natural action, let him take the
articulations one by one, and utter their exact sounds — separately, and with vowels
prefixed and subjoined. Then let him, in reading words containing the different
elements in their various positions and combinations, dwell a little on the letter
to which his practice is directed, that he may the better observe whether its
formation is in all points, correct. After a very brief practice of this analytic
process, the Stammerer who yesterday seemed in danger of strangulation in his
efforts to articulate pity, paper, package, pepper, pocket, puddle, and such words,
will to-day enounce them without difficulty, and almost with ordinary fluency.
There is nothing unnatural in this analytic pronunciation ; it is merely cautious
creeping before walking, wary walking before running ; and all that is wanted to
give ordinary compactness to the utterance is facility of action, to enable the
vocal and articulate organs to perform their offices almost simultaneously. For
let it be carefully noted, that however inseparable the elements of a syllable may
seem to the ear, they are in reality, and cannot be otherwise, separate and wholly
independent formations.
This is the most important principle the Stammerer can acquire. It breaks
at once the associations from which the worst features of his impediment resulted,
and thus almost immediately sets him free from the galling fetters of spasmodic
tyranny. So far as this principle goes, it is perfect, — it gives nothing to un-
learn :— -and all that it leaves to be accomplished are fluency and natural rapidity.
These are certain acquisitions to the industrious, and they are speedy acquisitions
to those who unite aptitude, intelligence, and a spirit of ardour to the equally
necessary spirit of patient industry.
140 ARTICULATIVH EXERCISES
After the basis of a cure is laid in a knowledge of natural principles, its
perfection, and especially the time occupied in its perfection, will depend entirely
on the aptitude, industry, and self-control of the pupil. How long the Stammerer
may take in effecting his own cure, we cannot determine. But whatever sacrifice
of time and labour it may cost him, though he should spend the leisure of twelve
months in the work, the object is worth it all! The cure is not to be considered
doubtful in any case unconnected with structural mal-formation, — nor always
even then, — it is merely a question of time, when proper means are employed.
Let the Stammerer, then, to whom oral instruction is beyond convenience, either
of purse or position, take courage, and hopefully commence the task himself. He
must "work with a will" for it is no task for the faint-hearted. — "Courage is half
the battle!"
Again we repeat, but in other words, the nature of the Stammerer's under-
taking. He has to take his speech to pieces, as a watchmaker does a watch, and
examine all the cogs, and pins, and pivots, of its mechanism ; then, having dis-
covered and corrected the defects of the separate parts of the machine, he must
proceed carefully to replace them, one by one, in natural order, adjusting each
to easy action before he passes to the next! Such, precisely, is the curative
process: it is not a tedious one, for the elements of speech are few and definite
in number, but though it were irksome, perseverance would sooner or later bring
it to an end ! And the Stammerer will then, not only have his speaking machine
in order, and free from obstructions and irregularities, but under superior con-
trol, from his intimate acquaintance with its structure and modes of action.
ARTICULATIVE EXERCISES.*
The following arrangements of letters are organically difficult. Their prac-
tice forms an excellent means of improving articulation and bringing all parts of
the mouth under control. To Stammerers, especially, they will be found of the
highest utility, in perfecting fluency after the power of free analytic enunciation
is acquired.
A vowel sound should be prefixed or subjoined to each of the letters in
practice, and the combination repeated frequently with one flow of breath.
UTERAI, EXERCISES.
BREATH ARTICULATIONS,
pt tp ptp tpt pttp tppt
pk kp pkp kpk pkkp kppk
tk kt tkt ktk tkkt kttk
ptk pkt tpk tkp kpt ktp
pf fp pfp fpf pffp fppf
f wh wh f f wh f wh f wh f wh wh f wh f f wh
p f wh p wh f f p wh f wh p wh p f wh f p
fth thf fthf thfth fththf th f f th
f th wh f wh th th f wh th wh f wh f th wh th f
ths sth thsth sths th s s th s th th s
thsh shth thshth sh th sh th sh sh th sh th th sh
s sh sh s s sh s sh s sh s sh sh s sh s s sh
th s sh th sh s s th sh s sh th sh s th sh th s
* For other exercises of the same nature, arranged for elocutionary practice, see the
Author's "Principles of Elocution." (For sale at the Volta Bureau, $1.50.)
VERBAL EXERCISES 141
VOICE ARTICULATIONS.
bd db bdb dbd bddb dbbd
bg gb bgb gbg bggb gbbg
dg gd dgd gdg dggd gddg
bdg bgd dbg dgb gbd gdb
bv vb bvb vbv bvvb vbbv
bw wb bwb wbw bwwb wbbw
bvw bwv vbw vwb wbv wvb
vw wv vwv wvw vwwv wvvw
vm mv vmv mvm vmmv mvvm
wm mw wmw mwm wmmw mwwm
vwm vmw w v m w m v mvw m w v
v th th v v th v th v th v th th v th v v th
thz zth thzth zthz th z z th z th th z
v th z v z th th z v th v z z v th z th v
thl 1th thlth Ithl thllth 1 th th 1
vthl vlth thvl thlv Ivth 1 th v
thzh zhth thzhth zh th zh th zh zh th zh th th zh
z zh zh z z zh z zh z zh z zh zh z zh z z zh
z th zh z zh th th z zh th zh z zh z th zh th z
zr rz zrz rzr zrrz rzzr
rl Ir rlr Irl rllr Irrl
rn nr rnr nrn rnnr nrrn
nl In nln Inl nlln Innl
rln rnl Irn Inr nrl nlr
nm mn nmn mnm n m m n mnnm
n ng ng n n ng n ng n ng n ng ng n ng n n ng
m ng ng m m ng m ng m ng m ng ng m ng m m ng
n m ng n ng m m n ng m ng n ng n m ng m n
y zh zh y y zh y zh y zh y zh zh y zh y y zh
yw wy ywy wyw ywwy w y y w
EXERCISES.
The passages that follow contain instances — ist, of Double Articulations;
2nd, of Difficult Combinations; 3rd, of Alliterations and Difficult Sequences; and,
4th, of Miscellaneous Difficulties.
The eye is directed by italics to the leading points for practice.
DOUBLE ARTICULATIONS.
Hear both elements distinctly, with as little hiatus as possible.
A figure regal /ike, with solemn ;narch,
Goes slow and stately by; whilst they, distill'd
Almost to jelly with the act of /ear,
Stand dumb, and speak not to him.
O! studied deceit! (not study.)
A sad dangler, (not angler.)'
A languid dame, (not aim.)
His crime moved me, (not cry.)
To obtain neither, (not either.)
He could pain nobody, (not pay.)
Goodness centres in the heart, (not enters.)
Luxurious soil, (not oil.)
He will prate to anybody, (not pray.)
Make clean our hearts within us, (not lean.)
In bulk as huge as whom the fables name of monstrous size, (not eyes.)
Can the Ethiopian change hi^ skin, (not kin,) or the leopard 1m jpots? (not pots.)
Whose beard descending swept his aged frreast, (not beer.)
A constant smirk on the face, and a whiffling activity of the body, are strong indications
of /utility, (not utility.)
142 VERBAL EXERCISES
Fear is a good watchman but a bad defender.
Hypocrites first cheat the world, and at last, too, themselves.
One vice is more expensiz^ than five virtues.
Spend time in good duties, and /reasure in good deeds.
Time is so swift of foot that none can overtake it.
Trusf wot too far, and mistrust «ot too fast.
Use soit words, but hard arguments.
A \ittle leaven \eaveneth the whole /ump.
Vaun£-couriers of oafc-cleaving thunderbolts.
His palsied hand^ Deemed to wa^r strong,
In horrid climes where Chiloe's tempests sweep.
Our sou/ loatheth this light bread.
Was it a wailing bird of the gloom,
"Which shrieks on the house of woe all night?
And on the bridge of his well-arched nose
Sit laughter plumed, and white-winged Jollity.
Learn to live as you'd desire to die.
Doing nought is next to doing naughtily.
DIFFICULT COMBINATIONS.
Give each of the elements its full separate audibility, without hiatus.
Yet the lark's shrill fife may come.
And the floors shall be full of wheat, and the faty shall overflow with wine and oil.
Behold, I will do a thing in Israel, at which both the ears of every one that heareth it
shall tingle.
What though each spark of earth-born rapture fly !
In septennial parliaments, your representatives have si,r years for offence, and but one
for atonement.
Can the husbandman look forward with assured confidence to the expected increase of
his fields?
Now on the leaflet yew it plays.
Long has it hung from the cold yew's spray.
Oft by that yew on the blasted field.
Examples prevail when precepts fail.
Frequent good company.
Put the cut pumpkin in a pipkin.
Then pealed the notes omnipotent to charm,
And the loud tocsin tolled their last alarm.
My little ones kissed me a thousand times o'er.
In praising sparing be, and blame most Daringly.
Malice seldom wants a marfc to aim at.
We must not blame fortune for our faults.
We must look to time past to improve what is to come.
ALLITERATIONS AND DIFFICULT SEQUENCES.
These sentences should be repeated again and again as rapidly as may be
done with distinctness.
Poor men want much, but wealthy men want more.
Rags and liberty rather than links and riches.
Let reason rule your life. •
A versifier wants a very wonderful variety of words.
Hope, open thou his eye to look on high, and his ear to hear.
Teach thy heart the holy art of humbly hearing truth.
Robert loudly rebuked Richard, who ran lustily roaring round the lobby.
Twice 2, and twice 2, with two times twice 2, 2 and twice 2, are twenty-two.
Thrice three, and three times 3. with three-fold threes, and 3, and 3, are thirty-three.
Four times 4, and 4, with 4, and 4, and four times 4, are forty-four.
Five fives, and four fives, with five and five, are fifty-five.
Six times 6, and six times 6, minus 6, are sixty-six.
VERBAL EXERCISES 143
Seven times 7, and thrice 7, with 7 more, are seventy-seven.
Eight times 8, and one 8, with 8 and 8, are eighty-eight.
Nine times g, with 9, and 9, and no more nines, are ninety-nine.
Geese cackle, cattle low, cocks crow, crows caw.
I snuff shop snuff, — do you snuff shop snuff?
Fill the sieve with thistles, then sift the thistles in the sieve.
I like white vinegar with veal very well.
Men's manners, more than merit, make or mar their fortunes.
Much water makes the meal-mill wheel work well.
Learn what you like to learn, delight in learning what you learn, and learn to like
things laudable.
He humbly honours the hoary head.
Hope is the highway to happiness.
Pull the poor fool out of the full pool.
A swan swam over the swell — swim, swan, swim! The swan swam back through the
swell — well swam, swan !
Swimmers in sin soon sink in sorrow.
Money makes many men mad.
Value virtue more than fame or fortune.
Virtue finds favour with all, though few fully follow it.
Yield not, you young, to useless yearnings, nor yet ye in years.
Eye her highness, how high she holds her old haughty head.
The witwal wings her weary flight, where winter winds wither the waving woods.
A merchant's mismanagement makes much mischief to the mercantile machine.
Vice oft wears variegated velvet, while virtue walks in vulgar velveteen.
False friends are far more formidable than fiercest foes.
Several sailors saw the sottish soldier stagger senselessly to his solitary cell.
Captain Cunningham cut and come again.
The soup must be heated before he eat it.
Peter Piper's peacock picked a peck of pickling pepper from a paper packet. Did Peter
Piper's peacock pick a peck of pickling pepper from a paper packet? If Peter Piper's peacock
picked a peck of pickling pepper from a paper packet, where's the paper packet whence the
pretty speckled peacock picked the peck of pepper?
•
MISCELLANEOUS.
•
Such passages as the following require very minute distinctiveness of ut-
. terance.
Chaste stars, (not tars.)
Cold ground, (not coal.)
Irish yews, (not shoes.)
Yet half I see the panting spirit sigh, (not spirit's eye.)
Oh! the torment of an ever-meddling memory, (not a never-meddling.)
Art thou afeard to be the same in thine own act and valour, as thott art in desire?
(not thy known.)
A warm tear gushed, — the wintry air
Congealed it as it flowed away;
All night it lay an ice-drop there, (not a nice drop)
At morn it glittered in the ray.
"Give the cat stale bread." "The cat's /ail, mamma?" "Silence, child!"
[END OF PART THIRD.]
PART FOURTH.
VISIBLE SPEECH.
|1NCE the first publication of the " Principles of
Speech and Dictionary of Sounds," the author
has developed a more minute analysis of
speech-sounds, complete for all languages and pho-
netic effects, and coupled with a scheme of symbols
expressive to the eye, of the organic formation of the
sounds they represent. The graphic result is hence
called VISIBLE SPEECH.
The following are the fundamental principles of the
symbdlization : —
VOICE— VOWELS.
The symbol of Voice is a straight line, because that
is proximately the shape of the glottis in sounding
voice. Every vowel is an utterance of voice ; hence
every vowel is represented by a straight line.
The vowel lines are subject to the following varie-
ties, to express the modification of the sounds by the
various attitudes of the tongue, etc. : —
PRIMARY VOWELS. WIDE VOWELS.
Ill J T f
31C 3 I C
T T I J I I
(145)
146
VISIBLE SPEECH
ROUND VOWELS.
* I f
J I i
WIDE ROUND VOWELS.
1 I f
3- * C
J I I
TONGUE— CONSONANTS.
The symbol of the tongue is a curve, having proxi-
mately the same outline as the tongue presents in the
formation of the consonants. Hence every lingual con-
sonant is represented by a curve.
The consonant curves are subject to the following
varieties, to express the modification of the sounds by
the shape and mode of action of the tongue, etc.
CONSONANT CURVES.
Can COG OD33DO
VOCAL CONSONANTS.
A straight line within a curve shows that the con-
sonant action is accompanied by voice, thus: —
<»> ® 00
GO
CD
The learner will perceive that there are thirty-six
vowels and forty-eight consonants included in the
above scheme; but that there are only nine varieties of
vowel lines, and six varieties of consonant lines ; the
nine vowel forms being repeated with inversion, four
VISIBLE SPEECH 147
times, and the six consonant forms being repeated
with inversion, eight times, with the uniform differ-
ences which are now to be explained.
HIGH VOWELS.
The roof of the mouth is an arch. When the con-
vex tongue is raised towards the front of the arch-
behind the upper teeth — the voice has the quality of I
as in (eel) ; when the tongue is raised as closely to the
back of the arch — the soft palate — the voice has the
vowel quality of 1; and when the middle of the
tongue is raised as closely to the top of the arch — the
hard palate — (involving a high position of both back
and front of the tongue), the voice has the vowel
quality of I.
The discriminating mark on the straight line is on
the right side for Front sounds ; on the left for Back
sounds ; and on both sides for Top or Mixed sounds.
EXERCISE.
Repeat the three High vowels a number of times,
until you feel that you can distinguish them by lingual
position, as well as by sound.
£11 III 1 I f
III I 1 f III
You may not at first be accurate with 1 and T, but
the familiar I (ee), will give you an unmistakable start-
ing point; and if you consider 1 and I simply as ee
formed respectively at the Back and at the Top of the
148
VISIBLE SPEECH
tongue, you will soon be able to oscillate the tongue
with certainty, from one to the other of its three
high positions.
MID-VOWELS.
Keeping the tongue in the Front of the mouth, as
for I, but slightly depressed and drawn Backward, so
as to enlarge the Front cavity, the voice has the vowel
quality of C (a as in ale).
Keeping the tongue at the same elevation, but draw-
ing it farther back, the vowel quality is I. This has
been called the natural vowel, because it is unmodi-
fied by either Back or Front quality. It is the indefin-
ite sound (1) heard (I) from (I) drawling speakers.
As a linguistic sound it is the unaccented e of French
and German.
Still keeping the tongue at the same Mid elevation,
but drawing it to the Back of the mouth, --so as to give
the voice a slightly guttural quality, the vowel sound
is 3 (as in up).
EXERCISE.
Repeat the three mid vowels a number of times,
until facility is obtained in discriminating them by
position as well as by sound.
31C 3 t I C I ]
C ) I I 1 [ It)
LOW VOWELS.
By opening the mouth widely, so as to enlarge its
respective cavities to the utmost, a series of three Low
vowels will be obtained.
VISIBLE SPEECH 149
The Low Back vowel (J), has the deep guttural
effect of the interjection of disgust, ugh \
The Low Front vowel (I), has the effect of the
exclamation of wonder, eh !
The Low Mixed vowel (I), has a sound intermedi-
ate to J and I, as if in the attempt to pronounce these
elements together.
The mere separation of the jaws will not suffice to
produce the Low vowels. The effective action is that
of the tongue, which should be depressed independ-
ently of the opening of the mouth.
In the exercise which follows, a pencil may at first
be held by the teeth, that the separate action of the
tongue may be felt.
EXERCISE.
Repeat the three Low vowel sounds until facility is
attained in discriminating them by position as well as
by sound.
J I I J I I I I J
I J I I J I I I J
The sounds of the nine primary vowels should be
well practised, in order that the necessary foundation
may be laid for the derivative classes of Wide and
Round vowels.
WIDE VOWELS,
The Primary vowels have all more or less of a semi-
consonant effect, arising from a slight degree of frica-
tiveness in their narrow channels. They are, in con-
150 VISIBLE SPEECH
sequence, strongly organic. The wide vowels are
comparatively indefinite in organic quality — as if
loosely and carelessly formed; — but they are purely
sonorous, and free from friction. Every Primary
vowel has its Wide variety. Compare the vowels in
eel and /'/// — for that purpose giving the sounds the
same length ; and endeavor to feel the organic cause
of their difference. This will be found to be — the one
source of Wide quality in all cases, — namely, ^wide-
ning of the posterior cavity of Ihe mouth — the phar-
ynx—so as to neutralize the anterior effects of the
Primary vowels.
SOUNDS OF THE WIDE VOWELS.
High Back Wide. .1 Unaccented // in the terminations,
tion, tions, etc.
Mid Back Wide. . . 3 a in ask, path, etc.
Low Back Wide. . . J a in alms, father, etc.
High Front Wide. .1 /' in ///.
Mid Front Wide. . C a in air, unaccented e in ment,
ness, etc.
Low Front Wide.. .1 a in at.
High Mixed Wide ^ unaccented e, i.
Mid Mixed Wide. .1 article a; unaccented a in chap-
man, tfMack; unaccented er.
Low Mixed Wide..\ er in her.
ROUND VOWELS.
The eighteen vowels thus far introduced are all
formed without any action of the lips; a second series
VISIBLE SPEECH 151
of precisely the same formation, is differentiated from
the first by the addition of " Round," or labial quality.
In practising the first set of vowels the lips should be
spread, so that the edges of the teeth are visible. For
the Round vowels the lips must more or less cover the
mouth. There is no need for projecting the lips ; the
opening between them has simply to be varied from
narrow to broad. A narrow opening is associated
with High vowels ; a broad opening with Low vow-
els; and an intermediate opening with Mid vowels..
Round quality has the uniform symbol of a bar
across the straight line (+).
Any of the lingual vowels may be Rounded ; and
any of the Round vowels may be delabialized by
spreading the lips. This may be best done, experi-
mentally, by means of the fingers. The result will
then be independent of the will of the speaker.
The High Back Round vowel (1), has the sound of
oo, — which requires narrow labial aperture. Delab-
ialize this sound, by mechanically spreading the lips,
and the true sound of the High Back Primary vowel
will be heard.
In this way unknown sounds can be readily and
certainly produced. The Low Back Round vowel
(J), for example, — which has a broad labial aperture
— has the sound of aw. Delabialize this sound, and
you will hear the true quality of the Low Back Pri
mary vowel.
152 VISIBLE SPEECH
SOUNDS OF THE ROUND VOWELS.
High Back Round. . .1 oo as in loo, rue.
Mid Back Round . . .} o as in go.
Low Back Round . . . J aw as in awe, all.
High Front Round, .f u (German).
Mid Front Round. . .-£ u (French).
Low Front Round.. .1 o (German), eu (French).
High Mixed Round.. 1 u (Swedish).
Mid Mixed Round.. \ (Irish), as in come.
Low Mixed Round . . I Provincial English.
The precise sounds of the symbols f, •£, I, will be
obvious by delabializing the sounds. Thus : f delab-
ialized is ee; •£ delabialized is a; and \ delabialized is
L eh, ell.
SOUNDS OF THE WIDE ROUND VOWELS.
High Back Wide Round. .1 oo as in good, book.
Mid Bach Wide Round. . .} o as in ore.
Low Back Wide Round. . . J o as in on.
High Front Wide Round, .f u in gmd, (Scotch).
Mid Front Wide Round . .{ variety of u, (French).
Low Front Wide Round . .1 ow in now, (London).
High Mixed Wide Round. I. u, (Swedish).
Mid Mixed Wide Round. \ homme, (French).
Low Mixed Wide Round. .$ Sir, (Irish).
The preceding classifications of vowels were, before
publication, tested experimentally, in the writing of
foreign sounds of almost all varieties, and of arbitrary
VISIBLE SPEECH 153
peculiarities and individualisms. No linguistic sound,
or combination of sounds, was found that could not
be expressed with perfect legibility by the Visible
Speech elements. But their chief practical application,
hitherto, has been in teaching and recording the vari-
ous unseen or unheard positions of the vocal organs ;
so helping the deaf to pronounce speech, and teachers
of the deaf to give defmiteness to their instructions.
To hearing students, the Visible Speech symbols will
be even more directive, whether in application to their
own tongue, or to any foreign language.
GLIDES.
Glides are transitional, non-syllabic sounds, formed
while the organs change their position. With a more
open and fixed configuration, glides would be vowels;
and with a closer formation, the organic glides would
be consonants. Being thus a sort of intermediate
sounds, the symbols of glides unite a straight line and
a curve. Thus : —
Back glide.. ..la non-syllabic guttural sound.
Top glide . . . .* " " sound of e as in pte,
boy,
Point glide . . . * a non-syllabic sound of rt as in ear,
air, err.
Lip glide 2 a non-syllabic sound of oo, as in
now, out.
Voice glide ... I a non-syllabic sound of I, as in
weary, fiery.
Round glide. .* a non-syllabic sound of slightly labi-
alized quality.
154 VISIBLE SPEECH
CONSONANTS.
Consonants are close positions of the organs of
speech, producing a sound of friction, or of stoppage,
within the mouth.
All consonants are either vocal or non-vocal; /. e.t
voiced or whispered.
The sound of the Back consonant is caused by
squeezing the breath (C) or the voice (€) between the
Back of the tongue and the soft palate, as in nach,
tage, (German). The sound of the Top Consonant is
caused by a similar squeezing between the Top of the
tongue and the hard palate, as in hue, you (O ft).
The sound of the Point Consonant is caused by a sim-
ilar squeezing between the raised Point of the tongue
and the upper gum, as in etre* (O Ci)) ray. The sound
of the Lip Consonant is caused by squeezing the breath
(O) or the voice ( 3) between the Lips, as in blowing
to cool; wie, (German), b, (Spanish).
MIXED CONSONANTS.
The Primary curve modified by the effect of its op-
posite curve gives a series of four Mixed Consonants: —
Bach Mixed. . C The sound of the Back curve mod-
ified by a close position of the Lips,
as in sough (Scotch).
* A non-vocal Point consonant is heard in English where r pre-
cedes a non-vocal consonant in the same syllable, as in arch, harsh,
heart, harp, hark ; but the glide (y), is more frequently employed in
such cases.
VISIBLE SPEECH
155
Top Mixed. . .Q The sound of the Top curve modi-
fied by raising the Point of the
tongue, as in sh, z^
Point Mixed. .£5 The sound of the Point curve mod-
ified by raising the Top of the
tongue, as in s,z-
Lip Mixed £> The sound of the Lip curve modi-
fied by the Back of the tongue, as
in wh, w.
DIVIDED CONSONANTS.
The sounds of the preceding consonants are all
emitted through a central oral channel, but when the
organs are so placed as to obstruct the central chan-
nel, and open a passage on one or both sides of the
obstruction we have a series of sixteen Divided con-
sonants:—
Back Divided C S as in laodh, (Gaelic).
Top Divided CO CO as in gli, (Italian).
Point Divided CO CO as in /.*
Lip Divided 33 as in /, v.
Back Mixed Divided . & & as in C labialized.
Top Mixed Divided . .£2 P2 as in //, (Welsh), Ih,
(Zulu).
Point Mixed Divided. 13 2x5 as in th, dh.
Lip Mixed Divided. . .3 3 as in 3 3 gutturalized.
* The non-vocal Point Divided consonant is heard when L pre-
cedes a non-vocal consonant in the same syllable ; as in else, felt,
quilt, health, self, silk.
156 VISIBLE SPEECH
SHUT CONSONANTS.
When the oral passage is closed, so as to prevent
emission of breath, we have a series of eight shut
consonants— four non-vocal and four vocalized. The
non-vocal shut consonants have no sound but the
slight puff which accompanies the relinquishment of
the shut positions, thus : —
Back Shut.. . .Q Stoppage by means of the Back of
the tongue, as in key.
Top Shut . . . .Q Stoppage by means of the Top of
the tongue, as in chew.\
Point Shut . . . O Stoppage by means of the Point of
the tongue, as in tea,
Lip Shut D Stoppage by means of the Lips, as
in pea.
While the organs are in these Shut positions, a mur-
mur of voice may be produced. The sound can be
only momentary, because there is no issue of breath.
Back Shut Voice. . . €1 g as in go.
Top Shut Voice. . . .Q d* as in jew, (-d^hoo).
Point Shut Voice . . CD d as in do.
Lip Shut Voice .... 3 b as in boy.
NASAL CONSONANTS.
While the organs are in the various Shut positions
the passage through the nose may be opened. The
f The sound of ch in chew, commences with a shut position of the
tongue, followed by the sound of sh (Q) j and the shut position is
assimilated to that of Q and becomes Q instead of o.
* Top form to assimilate with
VISIBLE SPEECH
non-vocal Nasals have no sound but of the breath
nasally emitted, and that is so feeble as to be scarcely
audible. The non-vocal Nasals, therefore, have gen-
erally been denied inclusion as speech-elements. They
are, however, common in English. Thus, when m,
n, or ng precedes a non-vocal consonant in the same
syllable, these nasals are voiceless, as in imp, hint,
inch, since, prince, glimpse, ink, (=ingk), length. The
effect is rather one of hiatus than of any audible
quality; but it is peculiarly English. A foreigner may
always be told by his vocalizing the nasals in such
words : —
Back Shut Nasal G non-vocal ng.
Top Shut Nasal Q non- vocal n.
Point Shut Nasal & non-vocal n.
Lip Shut Nasal £> non-vocal m.
Back Shut Nasal Voice . . B ng.
Top Shut Nasal Voice . . . & n.
Point Shut Nasal Voice.. *& n.
Lip Shut Nasal Voice ... 9 m.
SYMBOLS OF VOCAL PHYSIOLOGY.
Before the publication of the system of Visible
Speech, public demonstrations were given (in Edin-
burgh and London), of the unique power of the sym-
bols to represent "any sound that the mouth can
make." Professors of nearly all the European lan-
guages, and of Sanscrit, Persian, Chinese, etc., as well
as speakers of North American, African, and other
tongues, dictated the most uncouth varieties of strange
158 VISIBLE SPEECH
phonetics, which were written in Visible Speech upon
the black-board, and afterwards read, by a student of
the system, with an effect which seemed "like an
echo " of the original dictation. The reader, of course,
was not present while the tests were dictated. These
results have been repeated in this country, and may be
repeated in any country.
To qualify the student for this application of Visible
Speech, he must be familiar with the vowel and con-
sonant symbols exhibited in the preceding pages, as
well as with the following supplementary symbols
of Vocal Physiology.
SUPPLEMENTARY SYMBOLS.
O Throat and Glottis wide. H.
0 Throat contracted. Whisper
1 Glottis straight and narrow. Voice.
\ Round Voice. (Labialized}.
I Nasal.
\ Trill of the organ represented in preceding sym-
bol, thus: 0* Throat Trill (of the epiglottis) ;
Ci Back Trill (of the uvula) : Oi Lip Trill.
X Catch — of the Glottis, as in coughing,
< Suction — drawing in air.
> Breath — emitting breath.
ft Stop — of the breath while the organs retain their
position for preceding element.
< Suction stopped. An effort of suction without
drawing in air ; as in T <, an interjection of vex-
ation.
VISIBLE SPEECH 159
> Breath stopped. An effort of percussion without
emission from the throat; as in P>, a smoker's
puff.
* Holder. Prolongation of preceding sound or or-
ganic position.
i'l Side.
I-I Sides. The opening of one or both side apertures
after a shut position.
' Abrupt.
, Hiatus — between the elements of a syllable; as
in p'aper. (Irish).
A Close. A compressive formation of preceding
element.
v Open. A loose formation of preceding element.
c Inversion of the tongue.
o Protrusion of the tongue.
« Link — joining two elements simultaneously
formed.
o Whistle.
c- Vocalized whistle.
o< Lingual or inner whistle.
— Level tone.
/ Simple rise.
\ Simple Fall,
v Compound rise.
A Compound fall.
N Rising wave.
[ Higher than preceding pitch.
[ Lower than preceding pitch.
' Accent (stress), written high, as in a9 way.
, Emphasis, written low, as in "The ,one thing
needful."
160 VISIBLE SPEECH
EXEMPLIFICATION OF ENGLISH VISIBLE
SPEECH.
In the following pages, English Visible Speech is
exemplified, by interlinear transliteration, to furnish a
convenient form of exercise.
USES OF VISIBLE SPEECH.
Visible Speech is the ready vehicle for a universal
lei? &T
language. Whenever that necessity of mankind is
MID tfToi^fof js
provided, Visible Speech will be the equally
3ICO ©I wT
necessary means for its diffusion. No language is
foreign to Visible Speech. It will teach German,
Dl 3M000I UDlQQ. lo sliO
French, English, or Zulu with equal ease, and
, leecofo, j«
that either to foreign or to native learners. It
« Ol
teaches the ^ to discriminate sounds, enabling
JOT 3X Ol
those who have no "ears to hear" to use artic-
W}?l5 Ol OI3 05} "lirfoJ Ol Olit! " D! fl>lSi5
ulate language in their intercourse with the hearing;
slw wT
and qualifying those who lisp, or burr, stammer
W}u5 Ol O
VISIBLE SPEECH 161
or stutter, to pronounce their words with correct-
t* UO]OW Ol DdJtQJjiOU Wfo? 3]WKiJ 3J3&5 OJWICIO-
ness and fluency. It will do away with dialectic
peculiarities so that these may no longer " bewray "
} wto ttfo £>C CD} cojeel* "©foe"
the speaker's provincialism. It will enable children
to learn their mother tongue with rapidity, and
Ol
through that to learn any other tongue with a
UWl WJO Dl COIiSiJ TCOl ]WT>! O]Q 3lw I
facility now unknown. Visible Speech is the re-
alization of a long-cherished dream of philosophers.
XWftfCQltf J3 t OOJ6-QOlCi)IOO EUfo J3 OluOJOl3lifa5.
While it was only a dream, and considered hope-
33*00 ID sjtf KKof 1 QKi)Jte, 1^3® oj^yldny® o}o-
less of attainment, a universal alphabet was felt
COCO J3 IOC03&CC3D, I (t)103i3l^OlCO t003l©CO 3J05 3ICJO
to be a grand linguistic desideratum. Now that
ol ©I I eciH03® colessluola GrtbI<znMo]a 0332 tflo
it is an accomplished fact, are all as ready to ac-
fo ftf ice iqjscxiofno 3too, 3^ jco i& ci)i®T ol IQ-
cept it ? But Visible Speech is more than a uni-
? ©]0
versal alphabet. It is also a self-interpreting alpha-
sx^co tW3l0Co. lolcisjou} l uiwa-IcjoivowTofe ico3l-
bet of universal sounds.
©CO J
162 VISIBLE SPEECH
A. J. ELLIS'S ESTIMATE OF VISIBLE SPEECH.
Alexander John Ellis, the chief phonetician of the
icocaoosjoa* ffittjs looJb, wT oofs ojajCoIniaj J3 wT
nineteenth century, has left on record his estimate
CflKOSOfoW OlOOOlCi)!, Oltf OOI3O Jtf CDlOJWt! Oftf lUOl&To
of Visible Speech. After witnessing a demonstration,
J3 3M©G0i OOlQQ. 33OI* SiDCCCole I ®C9JCKXXi>[nte,
by means of tests of his own devising, Mr. Ellis
©I* Qfotf J3 OIUOO J3 Oftf Jtf DT33XCiJle? B(D. Xwfo
wrote : — *
(j#o: —
" The mode of procedure was as follows: Mr. Bell
"WT. &}® J3 Ddaufoffih! 3JCiJ ICiJ 3JCOIJ5: BCD. ©ICO
sent his two sons, who were to read the writing, out
OIDO Olvi5 Dl 0]03ij3, Ol 31V Dl Ci?I(D CCT Ci;3?iOl€i. 32O
of the room, — it is interesting to know that the elder,
js wT o)ls, — ID Iu3 IccoicDiuole ol cu} wio wT icooru!,
who read all the words in this case, had only had five
Ol 0)1® JCO WT 3]VOXi3 ICC Wlb O(O, OI® }Ci3QOl 01® 33S3
weeks' instruction in the use of the alphabet — and I
Ci3 WT <i)iL5 J3 WT
dictated slowly and distinctly the sounds which I
cfaoCoC® ocojcol IQP® ojlooleooof wT o32^®c«5 D!QO 3?;
wished to be written. These consisted of a few
SlfJO Ol ©I d)to. £dij5 OJS3<L5lOOT(i> J3 I 3C3l
words in Latin, pronounced first as at Eton, then as
* Letter to The Reader, September 3, 1864.
VISIBLE SPEECH 163
in Italy, and then according to some theoretical notions
Ice loicof, ICD® Kitf lajwafe ol u]s
of how the Latins might have uttered them. Then
J3 O3I 6Sf WIOfOKtf B3*O OI3
came some English provincialisms and affected pro-
0[3 UJ9
nunciations; the words "how odd "being given in
tf]tfolcotetf; wT 33«®j3 "032 j®" ©He elso* la?
several distinct ways. Suddenly German provincial-
isms were introduced. Then discrimination of sounds
itfSj5 3lV Id3O(i)l®(T)iOO. WIQ5 ®IOQ(i)feIc»;ColCi5 J3 y32Q5®j3
often confused, from Polish, German, Dutch, Swiss,
J3C0* ajCCSttitf®, 3WJ8 DjCOlO, ffi^iyQlCi;. ®]QQ, Oslo,
French and English. Some Arabic, some Cockney
3Ci>"[CQQ ice® leecoln. LS]Q M0Ia, L5]8 aja^I
English, with an introduced Arabic guttural; some
leecofo, sJjw la? foocutorcloo -[cuiela ejoicDloo; a]9
mispronounced Spanish, and a variety of shades of
£lOQ(i)^32S300 UDttffQ, 1^® I SlO^Co! J3 O[QXi5 J3
vowels and diphthongs. The result was perfectly
satisfactory; that is, Mr. Bell wrote down my queer
MID Iw, &y. ©TOO
and purposely exaggerated pronunciations, and mis-
TOJCD o]aoloool ce^iffi^lc^CoC® Dcj^jj]ajolcnlajj5, x®® sly-
pronunciations, and delicate distinctions, in such a
164 VISIBLE SPEECH
manner that his sons, not having heard them, so ut-
<f\x wio oto U3s5u5, ojjo oisle 01*® wcs, uj- 30-
tered them as to surprise me by the extremely correct
It® wC& itf ol otai>3fci> &T 03?; &5T
echo of my own voice. Accent, tone, drawl, brevity,
laj js £3* }s? sjxa ta^Coo, oKs, ®CDJGO, Bristol,
indistinctness, were all . reproduced with surprising
accuracy. Being on the watch, I could, as it were,
jo? wT 3joo, 3s al®, ti5 lo 3l«,
trace the alphabet in the lips of the readers. 1 think,
cMo wT t^3l®Co to wl colcxj js wT wlsytaa. 3?; ufoa,
then, that Mr. Bell is justified in the somewhat
to 6JT
bold title which he has assumed for his mode of
03-00® O3*ocot D!QQ ol oltf lc5d)l&® sj* oto 93-® J3
writing — * Visible Speech.' I only hope that, for the
— ' stofeoot UD!QQ. ' ox 3<t?ool 030 coco, 3j« wl
advantage of linguists, such an alphabet may be soon
13 GOfe<Q3.1bOL5, O[QQ 1Q5 ICJ310CO &[ ©1
made accessible, and that, for the intercourse of na-
&C® iduiuteow, TCP® &sto, sj* wT IcsolrajK; J3 Ac-
tions, it may be adopted generally, at least for
nlo&s, fo &C . 01 l®jooC® ffiflictfMcoI, xo ooloo 3j«
extra-European nations, as for the Chinese dialects,
and the several extremely diverse Indian languages,
tec® wT oi3lci)i,co Cauoc»)l9'ajl
VISIBLE SPEECH 165
where such an alphabet would rapidly become a great
social and political engine."
105® DtCOloIdlCO
It was a confidence only due to Mr. Ellis's disinter-
10 3JU I QjCOfoCOO }S3COf Stol Ol 9*. iC
estedness and promptitude in recognizing the merits
wi^oCatfCo IE® Dwjooforcl® I® (i>iajea53*ttle wT siufou
of Visible Speech which led the author to invite that
13 3M0GW ooloo X)!QQ ooi® wT jcojii! eft IsJ33?;o wio
gentleman, at a later period, to inspect the theoretical
ffift"[C?OCO*8l£5, tO I GOCOb! Dlwljffi, D! lOLJOlQO wT wf^IofcriCO
details of the invention, before publication. In a sec-
ond letter to The Reader, Mr. Ellis describes what he
J03® COIDl* Ol "Wl wMi?," 9i!. IGOlo CCTyQ(i)3?i0d3 OJD Ol
now knew theoretically as well as practically, f
CE532 ^^1 W&Ci)IOlCflwI l& 3100 lCi3 DWtQDlcaOOl.
"In your number for September }, 1864, you gave
"Jb fl)te Ci5390l!«? 3J!il OCDOIQBlli! 3, 1864, «1 Q[3
insertion to a letter which I addressed to you concern-
Isolate oi l coioi« :oJbo ]« lowiud ol »3t QJCOI^-
ing Mr. Melville Bell's new system of expressing
13 3V. QIOOSloO ©"[GO'Ci5 Q301 olODCQ J3 CCO3(i)IulQ
speech-sounds by written symbols. I had then been
favored with a private demonstration of its capabilities,
afcs I DO)3X3Co ®i9jcooci)[Qlc; js loo
I Letter to The Reader, August 5, 1865.
166 VISIBLE SPEECH
which I had tested to the best of my power; and
slao f 3* ol® oiooc® al tit 01^0 js &f 032*; is®
I was able to give a most satisfactory report to that
ol els I sjuo utofo3i;aofci>f ci)To}yo ol wa
extent. But I did not know the forms of the letters,
CQ'JOItfO. 0]O 3* ®I® 05JO 05} Wl GJ^aJ £3 Cuff GOlOltfiJ,
or what each individual letter represented, or how
j¥ ojo loo JbdjMojfllloo wioly coCcxuT^iooC®, Jif 032
they were to be combined, or what was the theory
wC 31* ol 0T aj903to(iJ, jvf ojo 3ji5 wT &jfj«r
on which the extraordinary results I witnessed were
based; and I was, therefore, obliged to qualify my
opinion. Mr. Melville Bell and his sons have now
Jottfrcloj. &y. sioosloo 0ico XCTJ® ofcc u]s?;i5 ots 0532
been kind enough to devote several hours to explain-
Ol
ing to me thoroughly the whole phonetic theory and
Ie ol si wMcof wT 03-00 sjojiola uljwl to?®
plan of symbolization, and to read and exhibit on
J3 UteBJOOftftQlO;, XdD® Ol Ci)I® t^5®
paper before me examples of its use, sufficiently nu-
&T C©j53OOi>45 js IOLS «lu,
merous to enable me to form a complete judgment of
Ol (frC»OOt &T Ol 3Ji£ I QJOCKOlO ffi^]ffi?59CC5O J3
its powers and merits. 1 take the liberty, therefore,
lou D32&5 to?® &ici>rou. 3S oCa wT
VISIBLE SPEECH 167
in the interest of science, to complete the information
fo wT JboMoo js uOKCcxJ, ol ojDOjofo &ff
I gave you, so far as I am at liberty to do. I may add
3* Q[3 0$, 2J3- 3J!i! ttf ft \B \O COfel^oI Ol ®1. 3* S[ 1®
that I have no sort of connection, pecuniary or per-
jrflo ft ois c# ujvo js amidols?, DfattMluI jv QXtf-
sonal, with Mr. Melville Bell's scheme; that 1 have
not been of the slightest assistance to him in its con-
ol ola I<o3 lo
struction; and that persons might even rather suspect
uociOaote; ICD(D wio Dj^loxis 93?;o Is^ cujwl!.; olyoioo
me of wishing not to forward a scheme which will,
9l f3 Slole 05JO Dl 3J!£9£fliJ 1 UOfe OlQQ Sid),
I believe and hope, thoroughly supersede one on
which I have labored for many years, and expended
oJbo ft o\3 ooCBte sjy aial wl^, 105® Caooi^QDC®
much money. My impressions in favor of Mr. Bell's
Qft foOCDlQl^JJ Id? 3[3ly J3 S*
scheme are so strong, that it is necessary for me to
io lo Ij3 tfiuc^luf 3y si ol
guard against any suspicion of being biased in giving
eft® IQICSOO to?! uloolote js 0Ke 03^1^0 fo
them expression.
As I write I have a full and distinct recollection of
•pis 3?; ufto 3* ois 1 sloo tec® ccloolaao djCajooiaolaj J3
168 VISIBLE SPEECH
the labours of Amman, (1692-1700); *Du Kempelen,
wl coc©!^ js I&1®, (1692-1700); ®{ aiDDcoCtf,
(1791); Johannes Muller, ( 1834-1851); K. M. Rapp,
(1791); fflaHtfto sfooi*, (1834-1851): a 3. aio,
(1836-1841); C. R. Lepsius, (1863); E. Brucke, (1856);
(1836-1841); ul. w. wioully, (1863); 1 Bcitfca (1856);
S. 5. Haldeman, (1860) ; Atoc A/0//*r, (1855-1864).
a- a otwaTsitf, (1860); siao sfwu, (1855-1864).
To these I may add my own works, (1845-1848-
ol wfo 3* SC I® 93s 3-® 3]vao, (1845-1848-
1856), together with a host of other works of more or
1856), OlQltfl!i! 3lw I O}OO J3 M¥ 3]yOL5 J3 S^ J^
less pretention and value, which it would be too long
WIU DCitfOlSQltf IC£5® 3luOcr>l, olQQ lo 3l® 0T Dl OOJ6
to enumerate. The above treatises contain, perhaps,
ol TcerclQMo. wT 10]3 DO)IoMo5 oj^oCcc, DI^XD^,
a complete account of the present state of phonetical
I qjDocclo ictfJoo js 63T cwi^C^o ^o[o js
knowledge, so far as has been published.
Now it is with this full and distinct recollection of
S532 lo Ici5 3l&5 wJb 3loo t^® ®IoolGoo wCajooianl® js
works which I have not only read, but studied, many
3]«Oy »IOQ 3?i O],3 <£JO 3-C0a)I Ci)"[®, 0]O OD]55l®, SlOjf
of them with great care and attention, that I feel called
js wCQ 3lw eci)[o aCi ICD® lotc?Qla5, wio 3s 3lco ajco®
upon to declare that, until Mr. Melville Bell unfolded
ol asTajoC* &5to, Isoi'co ,9^
VISIBLE SPEECH 169
to me his careful, elaborate, yet simple and complete
Ol 9l Oftf DCKBTCO, JiOl©J<uCO, (f)\0 olDDjO 105® QJOOOOlO
system, 1 had no knowledge of alphabetics as a sci-
ofOOCQ, C* 01® S5} tfJCOTffifl J3 IC03l0IOIdO Itf I 03*-
ence. . . . Alphabetics as a science, so far as I
COO. . . . IU3l©IOfaO ICiJ 1 03KCCSO, O} 3JK 1&5 3*
have been able to ascertain, and I have looked for it
013 ©TO> [0004 Ol IOWOCC3, IS5® 3* 013 COlQO 3J* Io
far and wide — did not exist. . * . . I should be
sjy 1^3® 33*® — ®I® 05JO CeMloo. . . . 3* ol® B!
loth to say that Mr. Melville Bell's scientific system
OOjW Ol L5[ WlO J». QtOOSlOG 0IOO'u5 Oj^COOMo oIODCQ
of alphabetics admits of no improvement. It would
J3 I^GlBIOIdO I®91OO J3 Z% lDOCi)l39C^O. ID 3l®
be strange if it did not. But it has all the present
©I L50tt[S5fflft 13 10 ®I® S3JO. ©]0 Io O\V JCO wT DCiJl^CCO
appearance, on the one hand, of satisfying the wants
IDMSO, J05 &T 3]u5 OICD®, J3 Uiofosftfa wT 3}COO
of science, and, on the other, of fulfilling the demands
J3 U3XCOO, IS5®, J53 uOT ]uCl!if, J3 SlCOSloOle WT ®TBI^®W
of practice. The power of showing by the very form
of the symbol how to produce the sound is really as-
J3 ^T OIQBJCC 032 Ol DdJ}®^10 WT 03225® ftf
tonishing, so perfect is the arrangement that a simple
O} DJIiQCQO fCi5 COT lCDC<a5ffi^9CCO WlO I
name is given to each vowel heard, depending en-
ol IDQ 332Cco
170 VISIBLE SPEECH
tirely on the shape and modification of the wind pas-
O3WJ0I J03 WT Q[0 Xtf® &J®l3laCnlvJ J3 &5T 3lCi5® DIO-
sage, by which its power is conveyed with ease to
Tffifl, ©3* X>Jbn loy D32* Itf QJS33C® 3ltf ICi5 Ol
those who have been properly instructed in the mean-
w}d5 ol ols ©To? DujcMccf Jb^oci>]aoC® fo wT slop-
ing of the words employed. The numerous examples
le J3 WT 3]!«!®j5 CODWJWJ. WT tftti<tly CStfOOOWKiJ
which Mr. Melville Bell and his sons gave me of the
DlQQ ®i. 9IG03lj0 0100 12£5® Ofjj O]05J3 Q[3 »T J3 WT
facility with which delicate distinctions in English pro-
cnuMof 3lw D!QQ (DicoIaCo clyolaaolcw I® fee^Io owj-
nunciation, and difficult Scotch and Irish dialectic
sltf^lColtiJ, 103® cMolcjo UOJQQ Is;® 3Xci)In ®3XlcoiaoIa
vowels, could be symbolized and understood, were
3]2Cc«Xi5, eft® ©I dk©jco3to<2 I®® jcaoa&Joto, 3l«
most interesting and satisfactory. No approach to
steo Ioolci)C^oIe XCDOJ uiolusioojci)!. a?} loutan ol
such a perfection of analysis and symbolization of the
vowels has yet fallen under my notice. Lastly came
J. 003^000! a[9
the consonants ; and here, too, although they have been
wT ojsyjtflsou; la?® ols«!, ol, JQOW} wC ols ©To?
generally much better understood than the vowels, the
treatment is very original, and apparently exhaustive.
VISIBLE SPEECH 171
I need only allude to the method of marking the
3* tfl® 3-oJooI icdol® ol wT &iwl® js &j!«afej wT
position and shape of the tongue with respect to the
DftStol® 10555 O[O J3 GOT O]S 3fw dtfUDIdO Ol &ft
palate, and the general modifications whereby the
QlooTo, ts>® wT ffifli^Mco sjaMaColaxiS sc^O* wT
great variety of consonants thus formed is reduced to
€KD[o 3lci>3*Cof js ajcsuMcJoy wte sjs^® JSw cDTawiuo ol
a rational and intelligent order. Nor must I omit to
I uiQltflco xaj® JboiwffflftCso jw^iy. 03j« 9]oo 3X }&Io ol
mention the mode of indicating glide sounds, during
which the organs change their positions, and which,
therefore, assume a kind of middle place between con-
01031®
sonants and vowels.
®® 332CWoi,
As it would be impossible to give illustrations, the
IP lo 3l® 01 Jbofoteoof ol els Moo<i>cnlaxi5, wT
above general remarks must suffice as an outline of
10]3 ffl^lOTl^a) <DT9J!A30 QlOO Ol33?^5 lCi5 I® 320003*05 J3
the theory. To those who endeavor to pick up con-
WT WU«I. Ol Wjtf Ol C2£5®I3l!i! Ol Ola lo OJC?-
ceptions of speech-sounds from the confused accounts
of ordinary writers, such a theory may seem terribly
172 VISIBLE SPEECH
difficult. But treated practically by one who thor-
r=»]o ou>Io3® Dwiaolalcof 03* 3]s ol
oughly understands it, it will be found extremely easy.
JWl JtfGWOlQfliW 10, 10 3fdO 01 332tf® CCXXXrttowI M.
There is nothing vague, nothing figurative. Each
afltf fo cjcole 3[e, sOwfe 3le<i>ld>Col3. lor*
symbol, and each part of a symbol, has a meaning,
and contains a direction for utterance. They are
Itf® qpOCCSiJ I 03l(DlQOlCi5 3£t ]Ol(DlCX5. &tf ^
words of command, which any raw recruit can obey
3]yOXi5 J3 QJ93CI;®,
after proper drilling.
The shapes of the letters have direct reference to
6(51 OOOO J3 WT COtOlKiJ Ot3 ®I(i)IQO WtGldJC^O Ol
the positions of the organs of speech, and thus can be
read at sight into the words of command which the
<|>I® ID ^3^O fool u3T 3]!«!5W J3 aj9325® X)loO ttT
organs have been drilled to obey. By a happy con-
l&ftZM Ol3 0TQ5 0d)lQO® Ol 3"0C. 03?- I OlOl OJ03-
trivance, the vowels have such a remarkably different
appearance from the consonants, that they strike the
eye at once, and hence determine the number of syl-
3* IO
VISIBLE SPEECH 173
lables of which the words consist. Mr. Bell considers
iBGOKiS J3 DloO Wl 3]¥5>:i5 QJtfdboa S5i, 0100 qjpulofljfti
that the forms of the letters would be easy for the
WlO WT 3Jtf3tf J3 Wl COIOlytf OlCU 01 M 3J* Wl
blind to recognize by touch ; but of this I am no
0003*05® Ol d>tdJQCt53?a5 03* OjQQ J 0]O J3 tfJb 3* 19 Oft
judge. Their great peculiarity is that each letter
e«5C¥ QjjCo oTQ^looficjjlal Ici5 ofljo IQQ
has its genus immediately marked upon it, by its
M®rrooof sjirao IOJCD la 03R lay
general contour, and its species by the detail of the
contour; its varieties by diacritics of peculiar
ojtfofr; foy siciMCoftf 03« ®3?;iacDloIay js oTaoloorw
kinds . . . And thus the whole system is bound
CtiJCiJCDtf . . . 105® to)U WT Oj-W OlOOCQ ICi5 032^5,
together by a philosophical and scientific chain.
03* I 3loo^pfaioo ICSXD
It is a simple statement of fact to say that no
10 ftf I ofDOOOt OOC09CC50 J3 31QO Ol O[ OOlO 05}-
system of marking our pronunciation which has hither-
yloocs js isjidale 32^ Dd)j®]?)5ylcnlci? x)Jbo 01$ ohflx-
to been adopted has succeeded in marking the
ol 0To3 ICDJOOC® ot^ i5lcof®C® fe sjiiafe wT
extent of national peculiarities of English speech, to
Gaooico js CiJinlcclco DTa^ioolici)IoIa» is leeoolo OO£QQ, ol
the accuracy possible in Mr. Bell's system.
^ laolci/Ibf ojofejot Ice m.
174 VISIBLE SPEECH
\ am afraid my language may seem exaggerated,
3* 13 l3d>C® 93* ooteesTffitt $[ ufe
and yet 1 have endeavored to moderate my tone, and
105® (i)IO 3* 013 CQJCDtSly® Ol SJQJMO Sf Oft5 ICC®
have purposely abstained from giving full expression
0X3 D]H5lUWl I000C05® 3(i$D ©Isle 3lOO CDOCKDlOltf
to the high satisfaction and pleasure which I have
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derived from my insight into the theory and practice
of Mr. Melville Bell's 'Visible Speech/ as it is
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rightly named. ' '
No name is gilded with a brighter halo of unselfish-
ness than that of ALEXANDER JOHN ELLIS, in "believing
and hoping " that his own costly labour of years might
be thoroughly superceded by the invention of Visible
Speech ! Honor to the great Phonetic Scientist, to
whom jealousy was unknown !
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