Principles of teaching

Principles

"f .

Teaching

Principles of
Teaching

BY ADAM S. BENNION
Superintendent of Church Schools

Designed for Quorum Instructors and Auxiliary Class

Teachers of the Church of Jesus Christ of

Latter-day Saints.

Published by

The General Boards of the Auxiliary Organizations

OF THE Church

1921

1952

Reprint of the original

FUNDAMENTAL PROBLEMS IN TEACHING RELIGION

Copyright, 1921

By Adam S. Bennion

For the General Boards of the

Auxiliary Organizations

of the Church

Printed by

Deseret News Press

Salt Lake City, Utah

1958

Printed in the United States of America

PREFACE
to the 1952 Edition

Two texts have been written for the teacher training
program of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day
Saints since Dr. Adam S. Bennion's Book Principles of
Teaching was published, yet in spite of the fact that this
book has been out of print several years so many requests
for it have poured in that the General Superintendency
has decided to satisfy the demand with this new edition.

This book with its classic qualities in many ways fits
Shakespeare's description of a beautiful woman when he
said, "Age cannot wither her nor custom dim her in-
finite variety." Anyone who knows Dr. Bennion or has
read his writings knows that neither custom nor age has
dimmed his infinite variety. Furthermore, a glance at
the table of contents of this book will reveal the fact that
the problems and principles treated herein are just as
real today as they were when the text was written.

This little volume is republished in the hope that it
again will become one of the basic texts in the teacher
training program and fulfill its mission as an instrument
in the hands of sincere people who have the devout wish
of learning how to teach the principles of the gospel by
the power of the Holy Spirit.

H. A. Dixon, Chairman
Teacher Training Committee

Contents

Chapter Page

Preface vii

I Purposes Behind Teaching 1

II What Is Teaching? 7

III The Joys of Teaching 14

IV PersonaHty 20

V PersonaHty 26

VI Attainment 33

VII Native Tendencies 40

VIII What to Do With Native Tendencies . . 46

IX Individual Differences 53

X Individual Differences and Teaching ... 61

XI Attention 68

XII What Makes for Interest 74

XIII A Laboratory Lesson in Interest .... 80

XIV The More Immediate Problems in Teaching 88
XV Organizing the Lesson 96

XVI Illustrating and Supplementing a Lesson . 103

XVII The Aim Ill

XVIII Application 116

XIX Methods of the Recitation 126

XX Review and Preview 134

XXI The Question as a Factor in Education . . 142

XXII The Problem of Discipline 149

XXIII Creating Class Spirit 157

XXIV Conversion— The Real Test of Teaching . 164
Bibliography 171

^ref

ace^

That ever-old question, "How to Teach," becomes ever
ne:vj v^hen made to read, "How to Teach Better." This
volume aims to raise those problems which every teacher
sooner or later faces, and it attempts to suggest an approach
by way of solution which will insure at least some degree
of growth towards efficiency. These chapters originally
were prepared for the course offered to teacher-trainers in
the Summer School of the Brigham Young University, in
1920. The teachers in that course were an inspiration to
the author and are responsible for many of the thoughts
expressed in the pages of this book.

The successful teacher ever views his calling as an oppor-
tunity— not as an obligation. To associate with young
people is a rare privilege; to teach them is an inspiration;
to lead them into the glorious truths of the Gospel of Jesus
Christ is heavenly joy itself. This little volume hopes to
push open the door of opportunity a little wider, that more
of that joy may be realized.

"Perchance, in heaven, one day to me
Some blessed Saint will come and say,

'All hail, beloved; but for thee
My soul to death had fallen a prey';

And oh I what rapture in the thought.
One soul to glory to have brought."

Adam S. Bennion.

CHAPTER I

PURPOSES BEHIND TEACHING

Outline — Chapter I

The worth of souls. — The Father's joy in the soul that is saved. —
The teacher's responsibility. — Teaching, a sacred calling. — Our
Church a teaching Church.
Our three-fold purpose in Teaching:

a — To guarantee salvation of the individual members of the

Church.
b — To pass on the wonderful heritage handed down by our

pioneer forefathers.
c — To make more easily possible the conversion of the world.

"Remember the worth of souls is great in the sight of God;

"For, behold, the Lord your Redeemer suffered death in the flesh,
wherefore he suffered the pain of all men, that all men might repent
and come unto him.

"And he hath risen again from the dead, that he might bring all
men unto him, on conditions of repentance;

"And how great is his joy in the soul that repenteth.

"Wherefore, you are called to cry repentance unto this people;

"And if it so be that you should labor all your days in crying
repentance unto his people, and bring, save it be one soul unto
me, how great shall be your joy with him in the kingdom of my
Father?

"And now, if your joy will be great with one soul that you have
brought unto me into the kingdom of my Father, how great will
be your joy if you should bring many souls unto me?" (Doc. & Cov.,
Sec. 18:10-16.)

"For behold, this is my work and my glor)^ — to bring to pass the
immortality and eternal life of man." (Moses 1:39.)

If this is the work and glory of the Lord, how great must
be the responsibihty of the teachers of Zion, His copartners
in the business of saving humankind! Next to parenthood,
teaching involves us in the most sacred relationship known
to man. The teacher akin to the parent is the steward of
human souls — his purpose to bless and to elevate.

2 Principles of Teaching

The first great question that should concern the Latter-
day Saint teacher is, "Why do I teach?" To appreciate
fully the real purposes behind teaching is the first great
guarantee of success. For teaching is "no mere job" — it
is a sacred calling — a trust of the Lord Himself under the
divine injunction, "Feed my sheep" (John 21:15). For
the teacher who has caught a glimpse of his real responsi-
bility there is no indifference, no eleventh-hour prepara-
tion, no feeling of unconcern about the welfare of his
pupils between lessons — for him there is constant inspira-
tion in the thought, "To me is given the privilege of being
the cupbearer between the Master and His children who
would drink at His fountain of truth."

The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints has been
variously designated by those not of us: "The Great Indus-
trial Church," "The Church of Pioneers," "The Church of
Wonderful Organization." It might well be called "The
Teaching Church." There is scarcely a man or woman in
it that has not at some time been asked to respond to the
call of teacher. Our people have been a remarkable people
because they have been remarkably taught — taught of the
Lord and His prophets. Our future can be secure only as
it is guaranteed this same good teaching. Every teacher
must come to realize that "Mormonism" is at stake when
he teaches. "Why do I teach?" goes to the very heart of
teaching.

The answer to this question is to be found, in part at
least, in the three -fold objectives of our Church. First, the
salvation and exaltation of the individual soul. As already
pointed out, this is the very "work and glory" of the
Father. Man is born into the world a child of divinity —
born for the purpose of development and perfection. Life
is the great laboratory in which he works out his experi-

Purposes Behind Teaching 3

ment of eternity. In potentiality, a God — in actuality, a
creature of heredity, environment, and teaching. "Why do
I teach?" To help someone else realize his divinity — to
assist him to become all that he might become — to make
of him vi^hat he might not be but for my teaching.

Someone has jocularly said: "The child is born into the
world half angel, half imp. The imp develops naturally,
the angel has to be cultivated." The teacher is the great
cultivator of souls. Whether we say the child is half angel
and half imp, we know that he is capable of doing both
good and evil and that he develops character as he prac-
tices virtue and avoids vice. We know, too, that he men-
tally develops. Born with the capacity to do, he behaves
to his own blessing or condemnation. There is no such
thing as static life. To the teacher is given the privilege
of pointing to the higher life. He is the gardener in the gar-
den of life. His task is to plant and to cultivate the flowers
of noble thoughts and deeds rather than to let the human
soul grow up to weeds. This purpose becomes all the more
significant when we realize that the effects of our teaching
are not only to modify a life here of three-score and ten
— they are impressions attendant throughout eternity. As
the poet Goethe has said, "Life is the childhood of our
immortality," and the teachings of childhood are what
determine the character of maturity. The thought is given
additional emphasis in the beautiful little poem, "Plant-
ing," by W. Lomax Childress:

Who plants a tree may live

To see its leaves unfold,
The greenness of its summer garb,

Its autumn tinge of gold.

Who plants a flower may live

To see its beauty grow,
The lily whiten on its stalk.

The rambler rose to blow.

4 Principles of Teaching

Who sows the seed may find

The field of harvest fair,
The song of reapers ringing clear,

When all the sheaves are there.

But time will fell the tree.

The rose will fade and die,
The harvest time will pass away.

As does the song and sigh.

But whoso plants in love.

The word of hope and trust.
Shall find it still alive with God —

It is not made of dust.

It cannot fade nor change.
Though worlds may scattered be.

For love alone has high repose
In immortality.

If the teacher, as he stands before his class, could pro-
ject his vision into the future — could see his pupils devel-
oped into manhood and womanhood, and could see all that
he might do or fail to do, he would read a meaning well-
nigh beyond comprehension into the question, "Why do
I teach?"

A second answer to this query lies in our obligation to
pass on the wonderful heritage which we here received from
our pioneer forefathers. The story of their sacrifice, devo-
tion, and achievement is unique in the history of the world.
Only recently a pioneer of 1852 thrilled a parents' class
in one of our wards with the simple narrative of his early
experiences. His account of Indian raids, of the experience
with Johnston's army, of privations and suffering, of social
pastimes — all of these things rang with a spirit of romance.
None of his auditors will ever forget the story of his aunt
who gave up her seat in her wagon to a sick friend for
whom no provision had been made, and trudged across the
plains afoot that one more soul might rejoice in Zion.
Every pioneer can tell this sort of thrilling story. Could

Purposes Behind Teaching 5

our young people enjoy the companionship of these pio-
neers there would be little need of alarm concerning their
faith. Unfortunately, each year sees fewer of these pioneers
left to tell their story. It is to the teacher, both of the fire-
side and the classroom, that we must look for the perpetua-
tion of the spirit of '47. The ideals and achievements of
the pioneers are such an inspiration, such a challenge to
the youth of the Church today — that teachers ought to glory
in the opportunity to keep alive the memories of the past.
Our pioneer heritage ought never to be forfeited to indiffer-
ence. It is a heritage that could come only out of pioneer
life. Such courage to face sacrifice, such devotion to God,
such loyalty to government, such consecration to the task
of conquering an unpromising and forbidding desert, such
determination to secure the advantages of education, such
unselfish devotion to the welfare of their fellows — where
could we turn for such inspiration to one who would teach?
Nor is it enough that we strive to perfect the individual
membership of the Church and preserve the social heritage
out of the past — we assume to become the teachers of the
world. It is our blessing to belong to a Church builded
upon revelation — a Church established and taught of the
Lord. But with that blessing cornes the injunction to carry
this gospel of the kingdom to every nation and clime.
"Mormonism" was not revealed for a few Saints alone who
were to establish Zion — it was to be proclaimed to all the
world. Every Latter-day Saint is enjoined to teach the
truth. Whether called as a missionary, or pursuing his
regular calling at home, his privilege and his obligation is
to cry repentance and preach the plan of salvation. The
better we teach, the sooner we shall make possible the real-
ization of God's purposes in the world. The two thousand
young men and women who go out each year to represent

6 Principles of Teaching

us in the ministry should go out well trained, not only that
they may represent our Church as an institution which be-
lieves that "the glory of God is intelligence," but also that
they may win intelligent men and women to the truth.
Only he who is well taught may become a good teacher
— hence the need of intelligent, devoted service. "Why do
I teach?" far from being an idle question, goes to the very
heart of the future of the Church.

Questions and Suggestions — Chapter I

1. How many of the members of your ward are actively engaged
in other than parental teaching?

2. What significance is attached to calling our Church a teach-
ing Church?

3. Discuss the significance of Jesus' being a teacher.

4. Compare the responsibility of teaching with that of parenthood.

5. Enumerate the chief purposes behind teaching.

6. In your opinion, which is the greatest purpose? Why?

7. To what extent does the following statement apply to the
welfare of our Church:

"That nation that does not revere its past, plays little
part in the present, and soon finds that it has no future."

8. Discuss our obligation under the injunction to teach the gospel
to the world.

9. Discuss the need here at home of better teaching.

10. In what sense are we trustees of the heritage left by the
pioneers?

Helpful References

Doctrine & Covenants: James, Talks on Psychology and Life's
Ideals; Brumbaugh, The Making of a Teacher; Weigle, Talks to
Sunday School Teachers; Strayer, A Brief Course in the Teaching
Process; Betts, How to Teach Religion; Strayer and NorsworSiy,
How to Teach; Sharp, Education for Character.

CHAPTER II

WHAT IS TEACHMG?

Outline — Chapter II

Teaching a complex art. — ^What teaching is not. — What teaching is.
—What it involves. — Presentation of facts. — Organization and eval-
uation of knowledge. — Interpretation and elaboration of truth. — In-
spiration to high ideals. — Encouragement and direction given to
expression. — Discovery of pupils' better selves.— Inspiration of ex-
ample as well as precept. — Application of truths taught in lives of
pupils.

The query, "What constitutes teaching?" cannot be
answered off-hand. It is so complex an art, so fine an art,
as Professor Driggs points out, that it has to be pondered
to be understood and appreciated. It is often considered
to be mere lesson-hearing and lesson-giving. The differ-
ence between mere instructions and teaching is as great as
the distinction between eating and digestion.

The following definition of teaching, contributed by a
former state superintendent of schools, is rich in sug-
gestion:

"Teaching is the process of training an individual through the
formation of habits, the acquisition of knowledge, the inculcation of
ideals, and the fixing of permanent interests so that he shall become
a clean, intelligent, self-supporting member of society, who has the
power to govern himself, can participate in noble enjoyments, and
has the desire and the courage to revere God and serve his fellows."

Teaching does not merely consist of an inquisition of
questions with appropriate answers thrown in; it surely is
not mere reading; nor can it be mistaken for preaching or
lecturing. These are all means that may be employed in
the process of teaching. And they are important, too. We
have been cautioned much, of late years, not to lose our-
selves in the process of doling out facts — but that rather
we should occupy ourselves teaching boys and girls. That

8 Principles of Teaching

all sounds well — the writer of these lessons has himself
proclaimed this doctrine — but we have discovered that you
cannot teach boys and girls nothing. They no more can
be happy listening to nothing than they can be content

doing nothing.

And so we now urge the significance of having a rich
supply of subject matter — a substantial content of lesson
material. But the doctrine holds that the teacher ought not
to lose himself in mere facts — they are merely the medium
through which he arrives at, and drives home the truth.

"It is the teacher's task to make changes for the better in the
abilities, habits and attitudes of boys and girls. Her efficiency can
be evaluated fairly only in terms of her success at this task. In
other words, if a teacher is rated at all, she should be rated not
only by the clothes she wears, or the method she chooses, but by
the results she secures." — Journal of Educational Research, May,
1920.

We have said that teaching is a complex art. It consists
of at least these eight fundamentals, each one of which,
or any combination of which, may be featured in any one
particular lesson:

1. Presentation of facts.

2. Organization and evaluation of knowledge.

3. Interpretation and elaboration of truth.

4. Inspiration to high ideals.

5. Encouragement and direction given to expression.

6. Discovery of pupils' better selves.

7. Inspiration of example as well as precept.

8. Application of truths taught in lives of the pupils.

I. Presentation of Facts

Facts constitute the background upon which the mind
operates. There may be many or few — they may be pre-
sented in a lecture of thirty minutes, in the reading of a
dozen pages, or they may be called forth out of the mind

What Is Teaching? 9

by a single stimulating question. But we ought not to con-
fuse the issue. If we are to discuss any matter in the hope
of reaching a conclusion in truth, we must have material
upon which the mind can build that conclusion. We are
not concerned in this chapter with method of procedure in
getting the facts before a class — the important thought here
is that the facts in rich abundance should be supplied. A
certain young lady protested recently against going to
Sunday School. Her explanation of her attitude is best
expressed in her own words: "I get sick and tired of
going to a class where I never hear anything new or worth
while." Exaggerated, of course, but students are crying
for bread, and ought not to be turned away with a stone.

II. Organization and Evaluation of Knowledge

We have hinted that a lesson may not have facts enough
to justify the time it takes — there is, on the other hand,
danger that the whole time of the class may be consumed
in a mere rehearsal of facts as facts. Only recently a
significant complaint was voiced by a young man who
has gone through training in practically all of our or-
ganizations. "I don't seem to know anything at all," he
said, "about the history of Israel, as a whole. I can recall
certain isolated facts about particular persons or places,
but I can't give any intelligent answer at all to such ques-
tions as these:

"Who were the Israelites? What were their big move-
ments relative to the Promised Land? What is the history
of Israel up to the time of the Savior? What is their his-
tory subsequently? Are we of Israel and how?"

The young man was not complaining — he merely re-
gretted his ignorance on points of vital interest. He was in
need of further organization of the knowledge he had. Ho

10 Principles of Teaching

had not been given the big central ideas about which to
build the minor ones. Relative importance had not been
taught him through that organized review that is so valu-
able in review. The teacher ought to come back time and
again to pause on the big essentials — the peaks of gospel
teaching.

III. Interpretation and Elaboration of Truth

It is really surprising how many various notions of an
idea will be carried away by the members of a class from
a single declaration on the part of a teacher. A phase of
a subject may be presented which links up with a particular
experience of one of the pupils. To him there is only one
interpretation. To another pupil the phase of the subject
presented might make no appeal at all, or linked up with
a diflFerent experience might lead to an entirely different
conclusion. Truths need to be elaborated and interpreted
from all possible angles — all possible phases should be
developed. An interesting discussion recently took place
with a young man who had "gone off" on a pet doctrinal
theory. His whole conception built itself up about a single
passage of scripture. Satisfied with a single notion, he had
shut his eyes to all else and "knew that he was right."
Properly to be taught, he needed to be trained to suspend
his judgment until all the evidence was in.

IV. Inspiration to High Ideals

Men and women like to be carried to the heights. They
like to be lifted out of their lower selves into what they
may become. It is the teacher's delight to let his class
stand tip -toe on the facts of subject matter to peep into
the glories of the gospel plan of life and salvation. In

What Is Teaching? 11

1903 Sanford Bell, of the University of Colorado, reported
the results of a survey conducted with 543 men and 488
women to ascertain whether they liked male or female
teachers better and just what it was that made them like
those teachers who had meant most in their lives. The
survey showed that the following influences stood out in
the order named:

Moral uplift.

Inspiration.

Stimulus to intellectual awakening.

Spur to scholarship.

Help in getting a firm grip on the vital issues of life.

Personal kindness.

Encouragement in crises.

What a testimonial to the force of inspiration to higher
ideals 1

V. Encouragement and Direction Given to Pupils'
Expression

Most pupils in class are ordinarily inclined to sit silently
by and let someone else do the talking. And yet, everyone
enjoys participating in a lesson when once "the ice is
broken." It is the teacher's task first of all to create an
atmosphere of easy expression and then later to help make
that expression adequate and effective. The bishop of one
of our wards in southern Utah declared, not long ago, that
he traced the beginning of his testimony back to a Primary
lesson in which a skillful teacher led him to commit him-
self very enthusiastically to the notion that the Lord does
answer prayers. He said he defended the proposition so
vigorously that he set about to make sure from experience
that he was right. The details of securing this expression
will be more fully worked out in the chapter on Methods
of the Recitation.

12 Principles of Teaching

VI. Discovery of Pupils' Better Selves

One of the most fascinating problems in teaching is to
come to know the real nature of our pupils — to get below
surface appearances to the very boy himself. Most of the
work of solving this problem necessarily must be done out
of class. Such intimate knowledge is the result of personal
contact when no barriers of class recitation interfere. It
involves time and effort, of course, but it is really the key
to genuine teaching. It makes possible what we have
named as factor number eight, which may be disposed of
here for present purposes. We read of bygone days largely
because in them we hope to find a solution to the problems
of Jimmie Livingston today. How can we effect the solu-
tion if all that we know of Jimmie is that he is one of our
fifteen scouts? We must see him in action, must associate
with him as he encounters his problems, if we would help
him solve them. Our discovery of our pupils' better selves,
and intelligent application, go together hand in hand.

VII. Inspiration of Example as Well as Precept

When Emerson declared, "What you are thunders so
loudly in my ears that I can't hear what you say," he
sounded a mighty note to teachers. Hundreds of boys and
girls have been stimulated to better lives by the desire "to
be like teacher." "Come, follow me," is the great password
to the calling of teacher. The teacher conducts a class on
Sunday morning — he really teaches all during the week.
When Elbert Hubbard added his new commandment, "Re-
member the week-days, to keep them holy," he must have
had teachers in mind. A student in one of our Church
schools was once heard to say, "My teacher teaches me
more religion by the way he plays basketball than by the

What Is Teaching? 13

way he teaches theology." It was what Jesus did that made
him Savior of the world. He was the greatest teacher be-
cause he was the greatest man.
Surely teaching is a complex art!

Questions and Suggestions — Chapter II

1. What is teaching?

2. Why is it essential that we get a clear conception of just what
teaching is?

3. Discuss the importance of building the recitation upon a good
foundation of facts.

4. Why are facts alone not a guarantee of a successful recitation?

5. What is the teacher's obligation in the matter of organizing
knowledge?

6. Discuss the significance of teaching as an interpretation of
truth.

7. Discuss the teacher's obligation to discover pupils' better selves.

8. What is the relative importance of expression and impression
in teaching?

Helpful References

Betts, How to Teach Religion; Gregory, The Seven Laws of Teach-
ing; Thorndike, Principles of Teaching; Brimibaugh, The Making
of a Teacher; Strayer and Norsworthy, How to Teach.

CHAPTER III
THE JOYS OF TEACHING

Outline — Chapter III

The Joys that attend Teaching: Enrichment of the spirit. — Guar-
antee of the teacher's own growth and development. — Restraining
and uphfting influence on the moral character of the teacher. — Satis-
faction that attends seeing pupils develop. — Inspirational companion-
ship.— Contentment that attaches to duty done. — Outpouring of the
blessings of the Lord.

Chapters one and two emphasized the thought that the
purposes behind teaching impose a sacred obHgation on
the part of those who aspire to teach. But lest the obliga-
tion appear burdensome, let us remind ourselves that com-
pensation is one of the great laws of life. "To him who
gives shall be given" applies to teaching as to few other
things. Verily he who loses his life finds it. The devotion
of the real teacher, though it involves labor, anxiety and
sacrifice, is repaid ten-fold. Only he who has fully given
himself in service to others can appreciate the joy that
attends teaching — particularly that teaching enjoined upon
us by the Master and which is its own recompense.

It is difficult to enumerate all of the blessings that attend
the service of the teacher, but let us consider a few that
stand out pre-eminently.

If there were none other than this first one it would
justify all that is done in the name of teaching; namely,
"the enrichment of spirit." "There is a spirit in man: and
the inspiration of the Almighty giveth them understand-
ing." To feel the thrill of that inspiration is a compensa-
tion beyond price. The Lord, having commanded us to
teach (see Sec. 88:77-81, Doc. & Cov.), has followed the
command with the promise of a blessing, one of the richest
in all scripture.

The Joys of Teaching 15

"For thus saith the Lord, I, the Lord, am merciful and gracious
unto those who fear me, and delight to honor those who serve me
in righteousness and in truth unto the end;

"Great shall be their reward and eternal shall be their glory;

"And to them will I reveal all mysteries, yea, all the hidden mys-
teries of my kingdom from days of old, and for ages to come will
I make known unto them the good pleasure of my will concerning
all things pertaining to my kingdom;

"Yea, even the wonders of eternity shall they know, and things
to come will I show them, even the things of many generations;

"And their wisdom shall be great, and their understanding reach
to heaven: and before them the wisdom of the wise shall perish, and
the understanding of the prudent shall come to naught;

"For by my Spirit will I enlighten them, and by my power will
I make known unto them the secrets of my will; yea, even those
things which eye has not seen, nor ear heard, nor yet entered into
the heart of man." (Doc. & Gov. 76:5-10.)

This constitutes a promissory note signed by our heav-
enly Father Himself. A blessing beyond compare — a divi-
dend unfailing — and our only investment — devoted service!
Companionship with the Spirit of the Lord! That is what
it means, if we serve Him in faith and humility.

"Be thou humble, and the Lord thy God shall lead thee by the
hand, and give thee answer to thy prayers." (Doc. & Gov., Sec.
112:10.)

Like all other gifts and attainments, the Spirit of the
Lord has to be cultivated. Teaching insures a cultivation
as few other things in life can. An enriched spirit, then,
is the first great reward of the teacher.

A second satisfaction is the guarantee of one's own growth
and development. Teachers invariably declare that they
have learned more, especially in the first year of teaching,
than in any year at college. A consciousness of the fact
that it is hard to teach that which is not well known incites
that type of study which makes for growth. A good class
is a great "pace-setter." Intellectually it has the pull of
achievement. The real teacher always is the greatest stu-
dent in the class. The "drive" of having a regular task to

16 Principles of Teaching

perform, especially when that task is checked up as it in
by students, leads many a person to a development un-
known to him who is free to slide. "Blessed is he who has
to do things." Responsibility is the great force that builds
character. Compare the relative development of the per-
son who spends Tuesday evening at home with the evening
paper, or at some other pastime, and of the person who,
having accepted fully the call to teach, leads a class of
truth-seekers through an hour's discussion of some vital
subject. Follow the development through the Tuesday
evenings of a lifetime.

How easy to understand that there are varying degrees
of glory hereafter.

A third value of teaching lies in the fact that the position
of teacher exercises a restraining influence for good on the
moral life of the teacher. He is sustained by a conscious-
ness that his conduct is his only evidence to his pupils
that his practice is consistent with his theory. His class
follows him in emulation or in criticism in all that he does.
"Come, follow me," lifts the real teacher over the pitfalls
of temptation. He cannot do forbidden work on the Sab-
bath, he cannot indulge in the use of tobacco, he cannot
stoop to folly — his class stands between him and all these
things. A teacher recently gave expression to the value of
this restraining force when she said, "I urge my girls so
vigorously not to go to the movies on Sunday that I find
my conscience in rebellion if anyone asks me to go."

Many a man in attempting to convert another to the
righteousness of a particular issue has found himself to be
his own best convert. He comes to appreciate the fact that
the trail he establishes is the path followed by those whom
he influences. He hears the voice of the child as recorded
in the little poem:

The Joys of Teaching 17

I Stepped in Your Steps All the Way

"A father and his tiny son

Crossed a rough street one stormy day,
'See papa!' cried the Httle one,
'I stepped in your steps all the wayl'

"Ah, random, childish hands, that deal

Quick thrusts no coat of proof could stay!
It touched him with the touch of steel —
'I stepped in your steps all the way!'

"If this man shirks his manhood's due
And heeds what lying voices say,
It is not one who falls, but two,
'I stepped in your steps all the way!'

"But they who thrust off greed and fear.

Who love and watch, who toil and pray.
How their hearts carol when they say,
'I stepped in your steps all the way!' "

Still another joy that attends teaching is the satisfaction
of seeing pupils develop. The sculptor finds real happi-
ness in watching his clay take on the form and expression
of his model; the artist glories as his colors grow into life;
the parent finds supreme joy in seeing himself "re-grow"
in his child; so the teacher delights to see his pupils build
their lives on the truths he has taught. The joy is doubly
sweet if it is heightened by an expression of appreciation
on the part of the pupils. Few experiences can bring the
thrill of real happiness that comes to the teacher when a
former student, once perhaps a little inclined to mischief
or carelessness, takes him by the hand with a "God bless
you for helping me find my better self."

An oflFicer of the British army, in recounting those expe-
riences which had come to him in the recent world war,
and which he said he never could forget, referred to one
which more than compensated him for all the effort he had
ever put into his preparation for teaching. Because of his

18 Principles of Teaching

position in the army it became his duty to discipline a
group of boys for what in the army is a serious offense. In
that group was a boy who had formerly been a pupil
under the officer in one of our ward organizations. Chagrin
was stamped on the face of the boy as he came forward
for reprimand. Regret and remorse were in the heart of the
officer. They soon gave way to pride, however, as the boy
assured him that worse than any punishment was the hu-
miliation of being brought before his own teacher, and
he further assured him that never again would he do a thing
that would mar the sacred relations of pupil and teacher.

A further compensation attached to teaching is that of
inspirational companionship. It is a blessed privilege to
enjoy the sunshine of youth. Every pupil contributes an
association with one of God's choice spirits. To live and
work with children and adolescents is one of the finest of
safeguards against old age. The teacher not only partakes
of the joy of his group — they constitute him a link be-
tween his generation and theirs. Their newness of life,
their optimism, their spontaneity, their joy, they gladly
pass on to their teacher.

Moreover, the teacher enjoys the uplifting associations
of his fellow teachers. Among those consecrated to a noble
service, there is a spirit unknown to him who has not en-
joyed such communion. Whether he is conscious of it or
not, the teacher responds to the pull of such a group.
Scores of teachers have testified that the associations they
have enjoyed as members of a local board, stake board, or
general board, are among the happiest of their lives.

And finally there is the contentment of mind that comes
as a result of a duty well done. The human soul is so con-
stituted that any task well performed brings a feeling of
satisfaction, and this is doubly heightened when the duty

The Joys of Teaching 19

performed is of the nature of a free will offering. Still
more so when it is shared in by others to their blessing.
Just as we hope for an eventual crowning under the bless-
ing, "Well done, thou good and faithful servant," so we
treasure those benedictions along the way that attend the
discharge of a sacred obligation.

Questions and Suggestions — Chapter III

1. Quote some of the promises of the Lord to those who do His
will.

2. How is teaching one of the surest guarantees of the blessings
of eternal life?

3. What are the immediate joys attached to teaching?

4. Discuss the application to teaching of the truth — "He who
loses his life shall find it."

5. What types of companionship are assured him who teaches?

6. As you now recall them, what distinct pleasures stand out in
your teaching experience?

7. Discuss Section 76 of the Doctrine & Covenants as one of the
most valuable promissory notes ever given to mankind.

8. Discuss the force of a duty done as a guarantee of joy.

Helpful References

Doctrine and Covenants: Slattery, Living Teachers; Sharp, Edu-
cation for Character; Weigle, Talks to Sunday School Teachers;
Betts, How to Teach Religion.

CHAPTER IV

PERSONALITY

Outline — Chapter IV

The worth of a great teacher. — Good teachers not necessarily horn.
— Some boys' observations on teachers. — A high school survey. —
Clapp's Essential Characteristics. — Betts' Three Classes of Teachers.
— His list of qualities.

"A great teacher is worth more to a state, though he teach by
the roadside, than a faculty of mediocrities housed in Gothic piles." —
Chicago Tribune, September, 1919.

We may stress the sacred obligation of the teacher; we
may discuss in detail mechanical processes involved in
lesson preparation; we may analyze child nature in all of
its complexity; but after all we come back to the Per-
sonality of the Teacher as the great outstanding factor in
pedagogical success. That something in the man that
grips people!

Very generally this Personal Equation has been looked
upon as a certain indefinable possession enjoyed by the
favored few. In a certain sense this is true. Personality
is largely inherent in the individual and therefore differs
as fully as do individuals. But of recent years educators
have carried on extensive investigations in this field of per-
sonality and have succeeded in reducing to comprehensible
terms those qualities which seem to be most responsible for
achievements of successful teachers. Observation leads us
all to similar deductions and constitutes one of the most
interesting experiments open to those concerned with the
teaching process.

Why, with the same amount of preparation, does one
teacher succeed with a class over which another has no
control at all?

Personauty 21

Why is it that one class is crowded each week, while
another adjourns for lack of membership?

The writer a short time ago, after addressing the mem-
bers of a ward M. I. A., asked a group of scouts to remahi
after the meeting, to whom he put the question, "What is it
that you like or dislike in teachers?" The group was a
thoroughly typical group — real boys, full of life and equally
full of frankness. They contributed the following replies:

1. We like a fellow that's full of pep.

2. We like a fellow that doesn't preach all the time.

3. We like a fellow that makes us be good.

4. We like a fellow that tells us new things.

Boylike, they were "strong" for pep — a little word with
a big significance. Vigor, enthusiasm, sense of humor, at-
tack, forcefulness — all of these qualities are summed up
in these three letters.

And the interesting thing is that while the boys liked to
be told new things, they didn't want to be preached at.
They evidently had the boy's idea of preaching who char-
acterized it as, "talking a lot when you haven't anything
to say."

Still more interesting is the fact that boys like to be
made to be good. In spite of their fun and their seeming
indifference they really are serious in a desire to subscribe
to the laws of order that make progress possible.

A principal of the Granite High School carried on an
investigation through a period of four years to ascertain
just what it is that students like in teachers. During those
years students set down various attributes and qualities,
which are summarized below just as they were given :

22 Principles of Teaching

Desirable Characteristics

Congeniality. Optimism — cheerfulness.

Broadmindedness. Sympathy.

Wide knowledge. Originality.

Personality that makes discipline Progressiveness.

easy. Effective expression.

Willingness to entertain questions. Pleasing appearance — "good
Realization that students need looking."

help. Tact.

Sense of humor — ability to take a Patience.

joke. Sincerity.

Among the characteristics which they did not like in
teachers they named the following:

Undesirable Characteristics

Grouchiness. Hazy explanations.

Wandering in method. Failure to cover assignments.

Indifference to need for help. Distracting facial expressions.

Too close holdmg to the text. ..... ,^ °r »i i- „ L ^„^^«

Distant attitude-aloofness. ^"^^^^^ ^^ ^°^^^^S '' °^^'-

Partiality. Sarcasm.

Excitability. ^^^^ ^^^^^ ^^ dress.

Irritability.' Bluffing — "the tables turned."

Pessimism— "in the dumps." Discipline for discipline's sake.

Indifferent assignments. "Holier than thouness."

Desirable Capabilities

They also reduced to rather memorable phrases a half
dozen desirable capabihties:

1. The ability to make students work and want to work.

2. The ability to make definite assignments.

3. The ability to make clear explanations.

4. The ability to be pleasant without being easy.

5. The ability to emphasize essentials.

6. The ability to capitalize on new ideas.

7. The ability to be human.

A number of years ago Clapp conducted a similar survey
among one hundred leading school men of America, asking
them to list the ten most essential characteristics of a good
teacher. From the hsts sent in Clapp compiled the ten

Personality

23

qualities in the order named most frequently by the one
hundred men:

1. Sympathy.

2. Address.

3. Enthusiasm.

4. Sincerity.

5. Personal Appearance.

6. Optimism.

7. Scholarship.

8. Vitality.

9. Fairness.

10. Reserve or dignity.

George Herbert Betts, in his stimulating book, How to
Teach Religion, says there are three classes of teachers:

"Two types of teachers are remembered: One to be forgiven after
years have softened the antagonisms and resentments; the other to
be thought of with honor and gratitude as long as memory lasts.
Between these two is a third and a larger group: those who are
forgotten, because they failed to stamp a lasting impression on their
pupils. This group represents the mediocrity of the profession, not
bad enough to be actively forgiven, not good enough to claim a place
in gratitude and remembrance."

Mr. Betts then goes on with a very exhaustive list of
positive and negative qualities in teachers — a list so valua-
ble that v^e set it down here for reference.

Positive Qualities

1. Open - minded, inquiring,
broad.

2. Accurate, thorough, dis-
cerning.

3. Judicious, balanced, fair.

4. Original, independent, re-
sourceful.

5. Decisive, possessing convic-
tions.

6. Cheerful, joyous, optimistic.

7. Amiable, friendly, agreeable.

8. Democratic, broadly syrmpa-
thetic

9. Tolerant, sense of humor,
generous.

Negative Qualities

Narrow, dogmatic, not hungry

for truth.
Indefinite, superficial, lazy.

Prejudiced, led by likes and dis-
likes.

Dependent, imitative, subservi-
ent.

Uncertain, wavering, undecided.

Gloomy, morose, pessimistic,
bitter.

Repellent, unsociable, disagree-
able.

Snobbish, self - centered, exclu-
sive.

Opinionated, dogmatic, intol-
erant.

24 Principles of Teaching

10. Kind, courteous, tactful. Cruel, rude, untactful.

11. Tractable, co - operative. Stubborn, not able to work with
teachable. others.

12. Loyal, honorable, depend- Disloyal, uncertain dependa-
able. bility.

13. Executive, forceful, vigorous. Uncertain, weak, not capable.

14. High ideals, worthy, exalted. Low standards, base, contempti-

ble.

15. Modest, self-effacing. Egotistical, vain, autocratic.

16. Courageous, daring, firm. Overcautious, weak, vacillating.

17. Honest, truthful, frank, sin- Low standards of honor and
cere. truth.

18. Patient, calm, equable. Irritable, excitable, moody.

19. Generous, open-hearted, for- Stingy, selfish, resentful,
giving.

20. Responsive, congenial. Cold, repulsive, uninviting.

21. Punctual, on schedule, ca- Tardy, usually behindhand, in-
pable. capable.

22. Methodical, consistent, log- Haphazard, desultory, inconsis-
ical. tent.

23. Altruistic, given to service. Indifferent, not socially minded.

24. Refined, alive to beauty. Coarse, lacking aesthetic quality,
artistic.

25. Self-controlled, decision. Suggestible, easily led, uncertain,
purpose.

26. Good physical carriage, dig- Lack of poise, ill posture, no
nity. grace.

27. Taste in attire, cleanliness, Careless in dress, frumpy, no
pride. pride.

28. Face smiling, voice pleasant. Somber expression, voice un-

pleasant.

29. Physical endurance, vigor, Quickly tired, weak, sluggish,
strength.

30. Spiritual rseponsiveness, Spiritually weak, inconstant, un-
strong. certain.

31. Prayer life warm, satisfying. Prayer cold, formal, little com-

fort.

32. Religious certainty, peace. Conflict, strain, uncertainty,
quiet.

33. Religious experience ex- Spiritual life static or losing
panding. force.

34. God a near, inspiring real- God dir.tant, unreal, hard of ap-
ity. proach.

Personality 25

35. Power to win others to re- Influence little or negative,
ligion.

36. Interest in Bible and reli- Little concern for religion and
gion. Bible.

37. Religion makes life fuller Religion felt as a limitation,
and richer.

38. Deeply believe great funda- Lacking in foundations for faith,
mentals.

39. Increasing triumph over sin. Too frequent falling before

temptation.

40. Religious future hopeful. Religious growth uncertain.

Questions and Suggestions — Chapter IV

1, Think of the teachers who stand out most clearly in your
memory. Why do they so stand out?

2, Name the qualities that made the Savior the Great Teacher.

3, If you had to choose between a fairly capable but humble
teacher, and a very capable but conceited one, which one would be
your choice? Why?

4, What is your argument against the idea, "Teachers are born,
not made"?

5, Discuss the relative significance of the qualities quoted from
Betts.

Helpful References

O'Shea, Every-day Problems in Teaching; Betts, How to Teach
Religion; Brumbaugh, The Making of a Teacher; Palmer, The Ideal
Teacher; Slattery, Living Teachers; Weigle, Talks to Sunday School
Teachers.

CHAPTER V

PERSONALITY

Outline — Chapter V

The six major qualities: — a. Sympathy. — b. Sincerity. — c. Op-
timism.— d. Scholarly attitude. — e. Vitality. — f. Spirituahty.

To set about to cultivate separate qualities would be
rather a discouraging undertaking. As a matter of fact,
many of the characteristics named really overlap, while
others are secondary in importance. For practical purposes
let us enlarge upon five or six qualities which everyone
will agree are fundamental to teaching success.

The class in Teacher Training, at the Brigham Young
University, in the summer of 1920, named these six as the
most fundamental:

1. Sympathy. 4. Scholarly attitude.

2. Sincerity. 5. Vitality.

3. Optimism. 6. Spirituality.

No attempt was made to set them down in the order of
relative importance.

1. Sympathy

This is a very broad and far-reaching term. It rests
upon experience and imagination and involves the ability
to live, at least temporarily, someone else's life. Sympathy
is fundamentally vicarious. Properly to sympathize with
children a man must re-live in memory his own childhood
or he must have the power of imagination to see things
through their eyes. Many a teacher has condemned pupils
for doing what to them was perfectly normal. We too fre-
quently persist in viewing a situation from our own point

Personality 27

of view rather than in going around to the other side to
look at it as our pupils see it. It is no easy matter thus
"to get out of ourselves" and become a boy or girl again,
but it is worth the effort.

Along with this ability at vicarious living, sympathy in-
volves an interest in others. Sympathy is a matter of con-
cern in the affairs of others. The rush and stir of modern
life fairly seem to force us to focus our attention upon
self, but if we would succeed as teachers, we must make
ourselves enter into the lives of our pupils out of an inter-
est to see how they conduct their lives, and the reasons for
such conduct.

Coupled with this interest in others and the imagination
to see through their eyes, sympathy involves a desire to
help them. A man may have an interest in people born out
of mere curiosity or for selfish purposes, but if he has sym-
pathy for them, he must be moved with a desire to help
and to bless them.

And, finally, sympathy involves the actual doing of
something by way of service. President Grant liked to refer
to a situation wherein a particular person was in distress.
Friends of all sorts came along expressing regret and pro-
fessing sympathy. Finally a fellow stepped forward and
said, "I feel to sympathize with this person to the extent of
fifty dollars." "That man," said President Grant, "has
sympathy in his heart as well as in his purse."

2. Sincerity

Surely this is a foundation principle in teaching:

"Thou must to thyself be true,

If thou the truth would teach;
Thy soul must overflow.

If thou another soul would reach."

28 Principles of Teaching

A teacher must really be converted to what he teaches
or there is a hollowness to all that he utters. "Children
and dogs," it is said, are the great judges of sincerity —
they instinctively know a friend. No teacher can continue
to stand on false ground before his pupils. The superin-
tendent of one of our Sunday Schools, having selected one
of the most talented persons in his ward to teach a Second
Intermediate Class was astonished some months later to
receive a request from the class for a change of teachers.
The class could assign no specific reasons for their objec-
tions, except that they didn't get anything out of the class.
A year later the superintendent learned that the teacher
was living in violation of the regulations of the Church,
on a particular principle, and it was perfectly clear why
his message didn't ring home.

The sincere teacher not only believes what he teaches —
he consecrates his best efforts to the task in hand. He
urges no excuse for absence or lack of preparation — "he
is there." He lets his class feel that for the time being
it is his greatest concern. He meets with boys and girls
because he loves to and reaches out to them with an en-
thusiasm that cannot be questioned.

3. Optimism

is the sunshine of the classroom. It is as natural to expect
a plant to develop when covered with a blanket as it is to
expect a class to be full of activity and responsiveness
under an influence of unnatural solemnity. Lincoln is
quoted as having declared, "You can catch more flies with
a drop of honey than with a gallon of vinegar" — a homely
expression, but full of suggestion. A grouch is no magnet.
A little girl when questioned why she liked her Sunday
School teacher said, "Oh, she always smiles at me and says,

Personality 29

hello." There is contagion in the cheeriness of a smile that
cannot be resisted. Children live so naturally in an atmos-
phere of happiness and fun that teachers of religious in-
struction may well guard against making their work too
formally sober. Frequently teachers feel the seriousness
of their undertaking so keenly that they worry or discipline
themselves into a state of pedagogical unnaturalness. There
is very great force behind the comment of the student who
appreciated the teacher who could be human. The expe-
rience is told of a teacher who continued to have difficulty
with one of her pupils. He so persisted in violating regu-
lations that he was kept in after school regularly, and yet
after school hours he was one of the most helpful lads in
the school; in fact, he and the teacher seemed almost
chummy. Struck by the difference in his attitude, the
teacher remarked to him one afternoon, as he went about
cleaning the blackboard, "Jimmie, I have just been won-
dering about you. You're one of my best workers after
school — I can't understand how you can be so different
during school hours and after."

"Gee, that's funny," put in Jimmie, "I was just thinking
the same thing about you."

To be cheerful without being easy is a real art. Liberty
is so often converted into license, and a spirit of fun so
easily transformed into mischief and disorder. And yei
cheerfulness is the great key to the human heart.

An attitude of looking for the good in pupils will lead
to a response of friendliness on their part which is the
basis of all teaching.

4. Scholarly Attitude

If a teacher would cultivate an appetite for learning
among his pupils he must himself hunger for knowledge.

30 Principles of Teaching

Most young people will "take intellectually if sufficiently
exposed." A scholarly attitude implies first of all a
growing mastery of subject matter. To quote an eminent
writer on religious education, "A common bane of Sunday
school teaching has been the haziness of the teacher's own
ideas concerning the truths of religion."

Fancy the hostess who would invite her guests to a din-
ner, and upon their arrival indicate to them that she had
made only vague plans to receive them. No special place
for their wraps, no entertainment for their amusement, and
then fancy her asking them to sit down to a warmed-up
conglomeration of left-overs.

Of course, it is only in fancy that we can imagine such a
service. Yet reports frequently indicate that there are class
recitations, intellectual banquets, for which the prepara-
tion has been about as meagre as that indicated. Surely
he who would feast others upon His word should prepare
unceasingly. Let us keep in mind the comment — "We like
the fellow who tells us something new."

Along with this mastery of subject matter, a scholarly
attitude implies both broadmindedness and openminded-
ness. Seekers after truth should welcome it from all avail-
able sources, and ought not to be handicapped by bias or
prejudice. Tolerance and a willingness to entertain ques-
tions — a constant effort to view a subject from every
possible angle — a poise that attends self-control even
under stress of annoyance — these things are all involved
in a truly scholarly attack upon any given problem.

5. VlTALnT

One of the qualities most favorably and frequently com-
mented on by students is what they call "pep." A certain
vigor of attack that seems to go directly to the point at

Personality 31

stake, putting at rest all other business and making disci-
pline unnecessary, is what twentieth century young people
seem to like. The element of hero worship prompts them
to demand that the leader shall "do things." They like the
"push" that takes a man over the top, the drive that wins
a ball game, the energy that stamps the business man with
success. Vitality is an inherent factor in leadership.

6. Spirituality

The crowning glory of the successful religious teacher is
that spiritual glow which links up heaven and earth.

"And the Spirit shall be given unto you by the power of faith,
and if ye receive not the Spirit, ye shall not teach." (Doc. & Gov.,
Sec. 42:14.)

This divine injunction is given us because we have
undertaken to teach His Gospel. We would lead others to
Him. And this is possible only as we lead by the light of
His Holy Spirit. Above our knowledge of facts and our
understanding of child nature must be placed our com-
munion with that Spirit which touches the hearts of men.

If a teacher would prepare a young man for a place in
a modern business house he must teach him the ways of
business, — buying, selling, collecting, managing, etc., —
matters of fact, governed by the laws of barter and trade.
If that same teacher would teach the same young man the
way of eternal life, he must substitute for the laws of man
the word of the Lord, and for the spirit of exchange, the
Spirit of Heaven. A pupil can be prepared for the king-
dom of God only as he is led to respond to and appreciate
His Spirit, and to do His will. While it is true that the
best way to prepare for heaven is to live the best possible
life here on earth, yet we need the Spirit of the Lord to
interpret what constitutes that best possible life.

32 Principles of Teaching

There is power in the intellect of man; there is glory in
that power when it is heightened by the Spirit of the
Almighty.

Questions and Suggestions — Chapter V

1. What is sympathy?

2. Why is it so essential in teaching?

3. Why is sincerity a foundation principle in all teaching?

4. Discuss the obligation on the part of the teacher to leave his
troubles outside the classroom.

5. Discuss the statement — "Cheerfulness is spiritual sunshine."

6. Illustrate the value of cheerfulness.

7. What is the significance of the term, scholarly attitude?
S. Just what constitutes vitality?

9. Show how it is essential to teaching.

10. Why name spirituality as the crowning characteristic of tli.-
good teacher?

Helpful References
Those listed in Chapter IV.

CHAPTER VT

ATTAINMENT

Outline — Chapter VI

The possibility of growth in teaching. — How to develop spiritual-
ity: a. By cultivating the spirit of prayer; b. By leading a clean
life; c. By obeying the principles of the Gospel; d. By performing
one's duty in the Church; e. By reading and pondering the word
of the Lord. — How to develop other qualities: a. By taking a per-
sonal inventory; b. By coming in contact with the best in life through
reading and companionship; c. By forming the habit of systematic
study; d. By assuming responsibility.

While we may agree as to what constitutes the desirable
characteristics in teachers it is far easier to name them
than to attain them. We have already pointed out that
teaching is a complex art proficiency in which is the result
of a long, painstaking process. But success in teaching as
in all other pursuits is possible of achievement. We have
heard so frequently that teachers must be born, not made,
that many prospective teachers, feeling that they have
been denied this pedagogical birthright, give up in despair.
Of course, it is naturally easy for some individuals to teach
— they do seem born possessed of a teaching personality,
but they are not given a monopoly on the profession.

The Lord has too many children to be taught to leave
their instruction to a few favored ones. The qualities listed
in chapter five may be developed, in varying degrees, of
course, by any normal person anxious to serve his fellows.
The "will to do" is the great key to success.

To him who would develop spiritually, these five sug-
gestions may be helpful:

First, cultivate the spirit of prayer. The president of
one of our stakes made the remark once that he believed
only a few of the men and women of his stake really pray.
"They go through the form, all right," he said; "they re-

34 Principles of Teaching

peal the words — but they do not enter into the spirit of
the prayer. If the Lord doesn't draw nearer to them than
they do to Him I doubt that their prayers are really of
very great force."

The ability to pray is the great test of a spiritual life.
"The faith to pray" is a gift to be cultivated through de-
voted practice. The teacher who would have his pupils
draw nearer to him must himself draw near to the Lord.
The promise, "Ask, and ye shall receive, seek, and ye shall
find," was given only to those who ask in faith. This con-
stant prayer of faith, then is the first great guarantee of
the Spirit.

The second is a clean life. Just as it is impossible for
water to make its way through a dirty, clogged pipe, so
it is for the Spirit to flow through a channel of unrighteous
desires. A visitor was interested a short time ago in
Canada in attempting to get a drink out of a pipe that had
been installed to carry water from a spring in the side of
a mountain to a pool at the side of the road. Due to neg-
lect, moss and filth had been allowed to collect about the
bottom of the pipe, until it was nearly choked up. Getting
a drink was out of the question. And yet there was plenty
of water in the spring above — just as fine water as had ever
flowed from that source. It was simply denied passage
down to those who would drink. And so with the Spirit.
The Lord is still able to bless — all too frequently, we so
live that "the passage is clogged." The Word of Wisdom
is not only a guarantee of health — it is the key to com-
munication with the Spirit. And what is true of the body
applies with even greater force to cleanliness of mind. The
teacher might well adopt this prayer:

"Create in me a clean heart, O God, and renew a right spirit

within me."

Attainment 35

The third great guarantee of the Spirit is an unswerving
obedience to all principles of the Gospel. To teach belief
a man must believe. Firmly grounded in all the cardinal
principles the teacher may well inspire a spirit of the Gos-
pel, but not otherwise. Doubt and uncertainty will keep
the teacher from the position of counsel and leadership.

The fourth assurance in the matter of developing spirit-
uality is the consistent performance of one's religious obli-
gations. The complaint is often made that teachers in a
particular organization will meet their classes regularly,
but that done they seem to consider their religious duties
discharged. Teaching does not excuse a person from at-
tending the other services required of Latter-day Saints.
He is asked to attend Sacrament meetings. Priesthood meet-
ings, Union meetings, special preparation meetings — they
are all essential to the full development of the Spirit of
the Gospel, which is the spirit of teaching. The teacher
may rightly expect to be sustained only as he sustains those
who preside over him.

"For with what judgment ye judge, ye shall be judged: and with
what measure ye mete, it shall be measured to you again." (Matt.
7:2.)

And finally, if we would enjoy the spirit of our work
we must familiarize ourselves with the Word of the Lord.
To read it is to associate in thought with Him. His Spirit
pervades all that He has said, whether in ancient or modern
times. One of our apostles frequently remarked that if he
would feel fully in touch with the spirit of his calling he
must read regularly from the Doctrine & Covenants. "That
book keeps me attuned as no other book can." It is not
given to us to associate here with the Master, but through
His recorded words we can live over all that He once lived.
Thereby we not only come really to know what He would

36 Principles of Teaching

have us do, we partake of a spirit that surpasses under-
standing.

"Search the scriptures, for in them ye think ye liave eternal Ufe."

As for attainment in other matters involved in the teach-
ing process, the teachers who attended the course at the
Brigham Young University were agreed that regular prac-
tice in the following processes will insure marked growth
and development:

1. The taking of a personal inventory at regular inter-
vals. "Am I the kind of teacher I should like to go to?"
starts an investigation full of suggestiveness. The qualities
listed in chapter four constitute a reference chart for
analysis. A teacher can become his own best critic if he
sets up the proper ideals by way of a standard. A teacher
in one of our Church schools in Idaho carried out an inter-
esting investigation during the year 1919-1920. Anxious
that he should not monopolize the time in his recitations,
he asked one of his students to tabulate the time of the
class period as follows:

Number of questions asked by teacher.
Number of questions asked by pupils.
Amoimt of time consumed by teacher.
Amount of time consumed by pupils.

He was astonished to discover that of the forty-five min-
utes given to recitation he was regularly using an average
of thirty-two mintues. Similar investigations can be car-
ried on by any interested teacher.

2. Contact with the best in life. It is a fundamental law
in life that life is an adaptation to environment. The writer
has been interested in observing the force of this law as it
affects animal life. Lizards in Emery county are slate-gray
in color that they may be less conspicuous on a back-

Attainment 37

ground of clay and gray sandstone; the same animals in
St. George take on a reddish color — an adaptation to their
environment of red sandstone.

Nor is the operation of this law merely a physical proc-
ess. On a trip into Canada recently the writer traveled some
distance with a group of bankers in attendance at a conven-
tion at Great Falls. On his way home he took a train on
which there was a troupe of vaudeville players. The con-
trast was too marked to escape notice. One group had re-
sponded to an environment of sober business negotiations
— the other to the gayety of the footlights. And so the
teacher who would grow must put himself into an environ-
ment that makes the kind of growth he desires natural —
inevitable. Through good books he can associate with the
choice spirits of all ages. No one denies his acquaintance-
ship. Great men have given their best thoughts to many
of the problems that confront us. We can capitalize on
their wisdom by reading their books. We re-enforce our-
selves with their strength.

Magazines, too, are full of stimulation. They constitute
a kind of intellectual clearing house for the best thought
of the world today. Business houses value them so highly
in promoting the advancement of their employees that they
subscribe reguarly. One manager remarked: "No one
factor makes for greater growth among my men than read-
ing the achievements of others — leaders in their lines —
through the magazines." There is scarcely a phase of life
which is not being fully written about in the current issues
of the leading magazines.

Then, too, contact with men and women of achievement
is a remarkable stimulus to growth.

There are leaders in every community — men and women
rich in experience — who will gladly discuss the vital issues

38 Principles of Teaching

of life with those who approach them. There still remain,
too, pioneers with their wonderful stories of sacrifice and
devotion. To the teacher who will take the pains there is
an untold wealth of material in the lives of the men and
women about him.

3. Regular habits of systematic study. Thorough inten-
sive effort finds its best reward in the intellectual growth
that it insures. In these days of the hurry of business and
the whirl of commercialized amusements there is little time
left for study except for him who makes himself subscribe
to a system of work. Thirty minutes of concentrated effort
a day works wonders in the matter of growth. President
Grant was a splendid evidence of the force of persistent
effort in his writing, his business success, and his rise to
the leadership of half a million Latter-day Saints.

4. Assuming the obligations of responsibility. In every
organization there are constant calls upon teachers to per-
form laborious tasks. It is so natural to seek to avoid them
— so easy to leave them for somebody else — that we have
to cultivate vigorously a habit of accepting the obligations
that present themselves. The difficulties of responsibility
are often burdensome, but they are an essential guarantee
of achievement. "Welcome the task that makes you go
beyond your ordinary self, if you would grow!"

Questions and Suggestions — Chapter VI

1. Discuss our obligation to grow.

2. Point out the difference between praying and merely saying
prayers.

3. Discuss the various means which guarantee spiritual growth.

4. Comment on the thought that a personal inventory is as es-
sential to teaching as it is to financial success.

Attainment 39

5. What is your daily scheme for systematic study?

6. What plan do you follow in an attempt to know the scrip-
tures?

7. Why is it so important that we assume the responsibilities
placed upon us?

Helpful References

Those listed in Chapter IV.

CHAPTER VII

NATIVE TENDENCIES

Outline — Chapter VII

Importance of Child Study to teachers. — Teaching both a social
and an individual process. — A Child's charactertistics — his birthright.
— ^What the nervous system is. — Types of original responses. — The
significance of instinctive action. — Colvin's list of native tendencies.
— Sisson's list. — A knowledge of native tendencies essential to proper
control of human behavior.

We have now discussed the significance and meaning of
teaching, together with the consideration of the character-
istics that constitute the personal equation of the teacher.
It is now pertinent that we give some attention to the nature
of the child to be taught, that we may the more intelligently
discuss methods of teaching, or how teacher and pupil get
together in an exchange of knowledge.

Teaching is a unique process. It is both social and indi-
vidual. The teacher meets a class — a collection of pupils
in a social unit. In one way he is concerned with them gen-
erally— he directs group action. But in addition to this
social aspect, the problem involves his giving attention to
each individual in the group. He may put a general ques-
tion, but he gets an individual reply. In short, he must
be aware of the fact that his pupils, for purposes of recita-
tion, are all alike; and at the same time he must appreciate
the fact that they are peculiarly different. In a later chapter
we shall consider these differences; let us here consider the
points of similarity.

The fact that a boy is a boy makes him heir to all of
the characteristics that man has developed. These charac-
teristics are his birthright. He responds in a particular way
to stimuli because the race before him has so responded.

Native Tendencies 41

There is no need here of entering into a discussion as to
how great a controlling factor heredity may be in a man's
life, or how potent environment may be in modifying that
life — we are concerned rather with the result — that man is
as he is. It is essential that we know his characteristics,
particularly as they manifest themselves in youth, so that
we may know what to expect in his conduct and so that
we may proceed to modify and control that conduct. Just
as the first task of the physician is to diagnose his case —
to get at the cause of the difficulty before he proceeds to
suggest a remedy — so the first consideration of the teacher
is a query, "Whom do I teach?"

Man may normally be expected to respond in a particular
way to a particular stimulus because men throughout the
history of the race have so responded. Certain connections
have been established in his nervous system and he acts
accordingly — he does what he does because he is man.
We cannot here go into a detailed discussion of the physi-
ological processes involved in thinking and other forms of
behavior, but perhaps we may well set down a statement
or two relative to man's tendencies to act, and their ex-
planations :

"The nervous system is composed of neurones of three types:
Those that receive, the afferent; those that effect action, the efferent;
and those that connect, the associative. The meeting places of these
neurones are the synapses. All nuerones have the three character-
istics of sensitivity, conductivity, and modifiability. In order for con-
duct or feeling or intellect to be present, at least two nuerones must
be active, and in all but a few of the human activities many more
are involved. The possibility of conduct or intelligence depends upon
the connections at the synapses, — upon the possibility of the current
affecting neurones in a certain definite way. The possession of an
'original nature,' then, means the possession, as a matter of inherit-
ance, of certain connections between neurones, the possession of
certain synapses which are in functional contact and across whidi
a current may pass merely as a matter of structure. Just why cer-
tain synapses should be thus connected is the whole question of
heredity. Two factors seem to affect the functional contact of a

42 Principles of Teaching

synapses, — first, proximity of the neurone ends, and second, some sort
of permeability which makes a current travel on one rather than
another of two neurones equally near together in space. This prox-
imity and permeability are both provided for by the structure and
constitution of the nervous system. It should be noted that the
connection of neurones is not a one-to-one affair, but the multiplicity
of fibrils provided by original nature makes it possible for one affer-
ent to discharge into many neurones, and for one efferent neurone
to receive the current from many neurones. Thus the individual when
bom is equipped with potentialities of character, intellect and con-
duct, because of the pre-formed connections or tendencies to con-
nections present in his ner\^ous system.

"Types of Original Responses. — These unlearned tendencies which
make up the original nature of the human race are usually classified
into automatic or physiological actions, reflexes, instincts, and capaci-
ties. Automatic actions are such as those controlling the heart-beats,
digestive and intestinal movements; the contraction of the pupil
of the eye from light, sneezing, swallowing, etc., are reflexes; imi-
tation, fighting, and fear, are instincts, which capacities refer to those
more subtle traits by means of which an individual becomes a good
linguist, or is tactful, or gains skill in handling tools. However,
there is no sharp line of division between these various unlearned
tendencies; what one psychologist calls a reflex or a series of re-
flexes, another will call an instinct. It seems better to consider them
as of the same general character but differing from each other in
simplicity, definiteness, uniformity of response, variableness among
individuals, and modifiability. They range from movements such as
the action of the blood vessels to those concerned in hunting and
collecting; from the simple, definite, uniform knee-jerk, which is
very similar in all people and open to very little modification, to
the capacity for scholarship, which is extremely complex, vague as
to definition, variable both as to manifestation in one individual and
amounts amongst people in general, and is open to almost endless
modification. This fund of unlearned tendencies is the capital with
which each child starts, the capital which makes education and prog-
ress possible, as well as the capital which limits the extent to which
progress and development in any line may proceed." The Psychology
of Childhood, pp. 21, 22, 23.

Weigle, in his Talks to Sunday School Teachers, begins
his second chapter in a rather unique and helpful manner
relative to this same question:

"The little human animal, like every other, is born going. He is
already wound up. His lungs expand and contract; his heart is
pumping away; his stomach is ready to handle food. These organic,
vital acitivities he does not initiate. They begin themselves. The
organism possesses them by nature. They are the very conditions
of life.

Native TENDENcms 43

"There are many other activities, not so obviously vital as these,
for which nature vi^inds him up quite as thoroughly — yes, and sets
him to go off at the proper time for each. He will suck when
brought to the breast as unfailingly as his lungs will begin to work
upon contact with the air. He will cry from hunger or discomfort,
clasp anything that touches his fingers or toes, carry to his mouth
whatever he can grasp, in time smile when smiled at, later grow
afraid when left alone or in the dark, manifest anger and affection,
walk, run, play, question, imitate, collect things, pull things apart,
put them together again, take pleasure in being with friends, act
shy before strangers, find a chum, belong to a 'gang' or 'bunch,'
quarrel, fight, become reconciled, and some day fall in love with
one of the opposite sex. These, and many more, are just his nat-
ural human ways. He does not of purpose initiate them any more
than he initiates breathing or heart-beat. He does these things be-
cause he is so born and built. They are his instincts."

As Norsworthy and Whitley point out, we are not espe-
cially concerned with the boundary lines between auto-
matic actions, reflexes, and instincts — we are rather con-
cerned with the fact that human beings possess native
tendencies to act in particular ways. Some psychologists
stress them as instincts; others as capacities, but they have
all pretty generally agreed that under certain stimuli there
are natural tendencies to react.

These tendencies begin to manifest themselves at birth —
they are all potentialities with the birth of the child — and
continue to develop in turn, certain ones being more pro-
nounced in the various stages of the child's life. Colvin
in his The Learning Process, runs through the complete
list of possibilities. According to him man, in a lifetime,
is characterized by the following tendencies: Fear, anger,
sympathy, affection, play, imitation, curiosity, acquisitive-
ness, constructiveness, self-assertion (leadership), self-
abasement, rivalry, envy, jealousy, pugnacity, clannishness,
the hunting and predatory instincts, the migratory instinct,
love of adventure and the unknown, superstition, the sex
instincts, which express themselves in sex-love, vanity, co-
quetry, modesty; and, closely allied with these, the love of

44 Principles of Teaching

nature and of solitude, and the aesthetic, the religious, and
the moral emotions.

Sisson, in a little book that every teacher ought to know,
The Essentials of Character, emphasizes the importance for
teaching of ten tendencies: bodily activity, sense-hunger
and curiosity, suggestibility, tastes and aesthetic apprecia-
tion, self-assertion, love, joy, fear, the grov^ing-up impulse,
the love of approbation.

As already indicated, the teacher should give attention
to these tendencies that he may the better know how to
proceed. If he knows that the one great outstanding im-
pulse of a boy of seven is to do something, he perhaps will
be less likely to plan an hour's recitation on the theory
that for that hour the boy is to do nothing. If he knows
that one of the greatest tendencies of boys from ten to
fourteen is to organize "gangs" for social and "political"
purposes, he will very likely capitalize on this idea in
building up a good strong class spirit.

Knowing that children naturally respond to certain
stimuli in very definite ways, the teacher can better set
about to furnish the right stimuli — he can be in a better
position to direct and control behavior.

Questions and Suggestions — Chapter VII

1. What significance attaches to the statement, "Children are
born 'going' "?

2. Why is it of vital importance that teachers give attention to
the native tendencies in children?

3. What constitutes instinctive action? Illustrate.

4. Name the instincts that are essentially individualistic. Those
that are essentially social.

5. What native tendencies are of most concern to teachers?

Native Tendencies 45

6. Discuss the relative significance of heredity, environment, and
training in the development of children.

7. To what extent is a child limited in its development by its
nervous system?

Helpful References

Norswortliy and Whitley, The Psychology of Childhood; Weigle,
Talks to Sunday School Teachers; Colvin, The Learning Process,;
Sisson, The Essentials of Character; Stiles, The Nervous System and
its Conservation; Thorndike, Principles of Teaching; Harrison, A
Study of Child Nature: Kirkpatrick, Fundamentals of Child Study.

CHAPTER VITT

"WHAT TO DO WITfi NATIVE TENDENCIES"

OuTriNE — Chapter VIII

Characteristic tendencies of the various stages of child Hfe. — The
teacher's attitude toward them. — Follow the grain.

Four methods of procedure: 1. The method of disuse; 2. The
method of rewards and punishment: 3. The method of substitution;
4. The method of stimulation and sublimation.

Having listed the native tendencies generally, v^^e might
well nov^ consider them as they manifest themselves at the
various stages of an individual's development. As already
indicated, they constitute his birthright as a human being,
though most of them are present in the early years of his
life only in potentiality. Psychologists of recent years have
made extensive observations as to what instincts are most
prominent at given periods. Teachers are referred particu-
larly to the volumes of Kirkpatrick, Harrison, and Nors-
worthy and Whitley. In this latter book, pages 286, 287,
and 298-302, will be found an interesting tabluation of
characteristics at the age of five and at eleven. For the
years of adolescence Professor Beeley, in his course at the
Brigham Young Summer School, in the Psychology of
Adolescence, worked out very fully the characteristics
unique in this period, though many of them, of course, are
present at other stages:

Characteristics Unique in the Adolescent Period

1. Maturing of the sex in- 5. Change in physical propor-
stincts. tions; features take on defi-

2. Rapid limb growth. nite characteristics.

3. Over-awkwardness. 6. Brain structure has matured.

4. Visceral organs develop rap- 7. Self-awareness.

idly (heart, liver, lungs, 8. Personal pride and desire
genital organs.) for social approval.

What to Do With Native Tendencies 47

9. Egotism. IS. Period of "palling" and

10. U n s t a b 1 e, "hair-trigger," mating; clique and "gang"
conflicting emotions. ,^ spirit.

11. Altruism, sincere interesM-,, l^- Posmveness. - aff.rmat.on,
the well-being of others. ^0. Inordinate desire for exces-

12. Religious and moral awak- sjyg amusement.

^rnT^E- 21. Evidence of hereditary in-

13. New attitude. fluences.

14. Aesthetic awakening. 22. j^Hero^wo r s h i p, " castle

15. Puzzle to everybody. 23. "Wanderlust."

16. Desire to abandon conven- 24. Hyper-suggestibility,
tionalities, struggle for self- 25.' Ideals; ambitions,
assertion. 27. Yearning for adult responsi-

17. Career motive. bility.

Having listed these tendencies we still face the question,
"What shall we do with them? What is their significance
in teaching?"

It is perfectly clear, in the first place, that we ought not
to ignore them. None of them is wholly useless, and few
of them can safely be devoloped just as they first manifest
themselves. They call for training and direction.

"Some instincts are to be cherished almost as they are; some
rooted out by withholding stimuli, or by making their exercise result
in pain or discomfort, or by substituting desirable habits in their
place; most of the instincts should be modified and redirected." —
(Thorndike.)

Our concern as teachers ought to be that in our work
with boys and girls, men and women, we are aware of these
natural tendencies that we may work with them rather
than contrary to them — that we may "follow the grain"
of human nature.

Since these tendencies are the result of responses to
stimuli they may be modified by attention either to the
stimuli or to the reaction that attends the stimulation.
Four methods call for our consideration:

48 Principles of Teaching

1. The method of disuse.

2. The method of rewards and punishments.

3. The method of substitution.

4. The method of stimulation and subHmation.

No one of these methods can be said always to be best.
The nature of the person in question, his previous experi-
ence and training, together with the circumstances attend-
ing a given situation, all are factors which determine how
we should proceed. The vital point is, that both as par-
ents and teachers we should guard against falling into the
rut of applying the same treatment to all cases regardless
of their nature.

1. The Method of Disuse

This method is largely negative. It aims to safeguard
an individual against ills by withholding stimuli. The
mother aims to keep scissors out of reach and sight of the
baby that it may not be lured into danger. Some parents,
upon discerning that the pugnacious instinct is manifesting
itself vigorously in their boy, isolate him from other boys
— keep him by himself through a period of a year or more
that the tendency may not be accentuated. Other parents,
observing their daughter's inclination to be frivolous, or
seeing the instinct of sex begin to manifest itself in her
interest in young men, send her away to a girl's school —
a sort of intellectual nunnery.

Frequently teachers follow this method in the conduct
of their classes. The tendency to self-assertion and verbal
combat, natural to youth, is smothered by an unwilling-
ness on the part of the teacher to indulge questions and
debate or by a marked inclination to do all the talking.

It is clear that this method of disuse has its place in the
training of children, though grave dangers attend its too
frequent indulgence. Children and others of immature

What to Do With Native Tendencies 49

judgment need the protection of withheld stimuli. But
clearly this is not a method to be recommended for gen-
eral application. The boy who is never allowed to quarrel
or fight may very possibly grow up to be a man afraid to
meet the battles of life; the girl, if her natural emotions
are checked, may lose those very qualities that make for
the highest type of womanhood and motherhood. Fortu-
nately, in these days, it is pretty nearly impossible to bring
boys and girls up in "glass houses." Doubly fortunate, for
they are made happy in their bringing up and are fitted
for a world not particularly devoted to the fondling of
humankind.

2. The Method of Rewards and Punishments

This method is clearly illustrated in the training of
"trick" animals. These creatures through innumerable
repetitions are made to do phenomenal "stunts." In the
training for every successful "try" they are rewarded with
a cube of sugar, a piece of candy, or some other pleasure-
producing article; for every miss they are punished — made
to suffer pain or discomfort. This same sort of procedure
carries over into human affairs. Witness the hickory stick
and the ruler, or count the nickels and caresses. Ridicule
before the class, and praise for commendable behavior or
performance, are typical of this same method. If it is
followed, and it clearly has a place in the training of chil-
dren, care should be exercised to see that in the child's
mind in any case there is clear connection between what
he has done and the treatment that he receives. With some
parents it fairly seems as if their one remedy for all of-
fences is a tingling in the epidermis — it is equally clear
that with some teachers their one weapon is sarcasm. All
too frequently these measures grow out of unsettled nerves

50 Principles of Teaching

or stirred up passions, on the part of the parent or teacher,
and have really but little connection — remote at best—
with the offense in question. There may be an abuse in
the matter of rewards, too, of course, but as a rule few
classes suffer from too much appreciation. The real art
of discipline lies in making the reward or the punishment
naturally grow out of the conduct indulged in.

3. The Method of Substitution

Because of the fact that some stimuli inevitably lead to
discomfort and disaster — that some conduct is bad — there
is need of a method of substitution. The child's mind needs
to be led from the contemplation of an undesirable course
of action to something quite different. Frequently a child
cannot be satisfied with a mere denial, and circumstances
may not be favorable to punishment — yet the correction
must be made. Substitution is the avenue of escape. A
striking illustration in point occurred recently in a cafe in
Montana. A trio of foreigners, father, mother, and two-
year-old son, came in and sat down at one of the tables.
Soon after the parents began to eat, the child caught sight
of a little silver pitcher for which he began to beg. Whin-
ing and crying, mixed in with the begging, created a good
bit of disturbance. The only attempted solution on the
part of the parents was a series of: "Don't do that!" "No!
no!" "Keep quiet, Marti!" a continued focusing of the
child's attention on what he ought not to do, and an added
note to the disturbance. Then an American across the
aisle having surveyed the situation took out of his pocket a
folder full of brightly colored views. The charm worked
beautifully — the meal went on free from disturbance —
and the child was happy.

What to Do With Native Tendencies 51

This method involves a good bit of resourcefulness, call-
ing at times for what seems an impossible amount of in-
genuity. As someone has said, "It is beating the other
fellow to it." It merits the consideration of those who
have to handle boys and girls who are regularly up to
"stunts."

4. The Method of Stimulation and Sublimation

This method is rather closely akin to that of substitution,
with the exception that it capitalizes on tendencies already
in operation and raises them to a higher level. Stimula-
tion, of course, merely means the bringing of children into
contact with desirable stimuli on every possible occasion;
in fact, it involves the making of favorable occasions.

Sublimation involves building upon native tendencies to
an elevated realization. Educationally this method is most
full of promise. It is seen in kindergarten methods when
a child is led from mere meaningless playing with toys to
constructive manipulation of blocks, tools, etc. It is seen
admirably in football where the pugnacious tendency ol
boys is capitalized on to build manliness in struggle and
to develop a spirit of fair play. It is seen in the fostering
of a girl's fondness for dolls, so that it may crystallize into
the devotion of motherhood. It is seen when a boys' man
leads a "gang" of boys into an association for social better-
ment. It is seen when a teacher works upon the instinct
to collect and hoard, elevating it into a desire for the acqui-
sition of knowledge and the finer things of life.

Whatever our method, let us give due consideration to
the natural inclinations and aptitudes oF boys and girls —
let us help them to achieve fully their own potentialities

52 Principles of Teaching

Questions and Suggestions — Chapter VIII

1. Point out the essential differences between boys and girls at
the age of six and seven and those of sixteen and seventeen.

2. Discuss the significance of the following phrase: "The grain
in human nature."

3. How can the hunting instinct be appealed to in religious
stimulation?

4. Of what significance is the "gang spirit" to teachers ol
adolescents?

5. How can rivalry be made an asset in teaching?

6. How can the fighting instinct in children best be directed?

7. Why is biography so valuable in material for teaching?

8. Why is it so essential that we put responsibility upon boys
and girls? How should this fact affect teaching?

9. What are the dangers that attend an attempt to keep children
(]uiet for any length of time?

Helpful References
Those listed in Chapter VII.

CHAPTER IX

INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES

Outline — Chapter DC

Fundamental significance of individual differences. — Typical illus-
tration.— The truth illustrated physically; in range of voice, in speed,
in mental capabilities. — The same truth applied spiritually. — Some
cases in point.

Everybody is like everybody else in this — that everybod)
is different from everybody else. Having discussed how
all men enjoy a common heritage by vi^ay of native endow-
ments, let us now turn to a consideration of how men differ.

Two of the terms most frequently met in recent educa-
tional publications are statistical methods and individual
differences. There is nothing particularly new in this latter
term — it merely represents a new emphasis being given to
the old idea that no two of us are alike. Every parent is
aware of the very marked differences in his children. Even
twins differ in disposition and mental capabilities. In fact,
one of the difficulties that attaches to parenthood is just
this problem of making provision in one household for
such various personalities.

A member of the stake presidency in one of the stakes
in southern Utah, in discussing this matter a short time ago,
remarked that in his family of four boys one very defi-
nitely had decided to become a farmer and was already
busy at getting acquainted with the details of the work;
a second boy was devoted to music and voiced a very vig-
orous protest against farming; the third son was so bash-
ful and reticent that he hadn't given expression to any no-
tion of preference; the fourth, a happy-go-lucky sort of
chap, free and noisy in his cutting up about the place.

54 Principles of Teaching

wasn't worying about what he was to do in life — he just
didn't want anything to do with strenuous effort.

"How can I drive a four-horse team such as that?" was
the interesting query of this father.

Practically every family presents this variety of attitude
and practically every parent is trying to work out a solu-
tion to the problem, so there is nothing startling about the
term individual differences. Educators have just given the
matter more careful and scholarly attention of recent years.

If the matter of differences in children constitutes a prob-
lem of concern in a family of from two to ten children,
how much greater must that problem be in a class from
thirty to fifty with approximately as many families repre-
sented. The problem has led to some very interesting in-
vestigations— investigations so simple that they can be car-
ried on by anyone interested. For instance, if we could line
up all the men in Salt Lake City according to size we should
find at one end of the line a few exceptionally tall men,
likely from six feet to six feet six inches in height. At the
other end of the line would be a few exceptionally small
men — undersized men from three feet eight or ten inches
to four feet six inches. In between these two types would
come in graduated order all sorts of men with a decidedly
large number standing about five feet six or eight inches.
This latter height we call the average.

Practically we see the significance of these differences.
No manufacturer thinks of making one size of overall in
the hope that it will fit each of these men. He adapts his
garment to their size, and he knows approximately how
many of each size will be called for in the course of ordi-
nary business.

If these same men could be taken one by one into a music
studio and have their voices tested for range, the same

Individual Differences 55

interesting variations would be found. There would be a
few very high tenors, a few exceptionally low bassos, and
a crowd with medium range with fillers- in all along the line.

If we were interested in carrying the experiment still fur-
ther we might apply the speed test. In a 100-yard dash a
few men would be found to be particularly fast, a few others
would trail away behind at a snail's pace, while the big
crowd of men would make the distance in "average time,"

Of course, it would be foolish to attempt to make tenors
of all these men — equally foolish to try to make speeders
of them all. In these practical matters we appreciate the
wisdom of letting each man fit into that niche for which
he is qualified.

Nor are these differences confined to the field of physical
characteristics and achievements. Tests by the hundred
have demonstrated beyond all question that they hold
equally well of mental capabilities. In the past children
have gone to school at the age of six. They have remained
there because they were six. At seven they were in grade
two, and so on up through the grades of our public schools.
Tests and measurements now, however, are showing that
such a procedure works both a hardship and an injustice
on the pupils. Some boys at six are found as capable of
doing work in grade two as other boys at eight. Some boys
and girls at six are found wholly incapable of doing what
is required in grade one. One of the most promising pros-
pects ahead educationally is that we shall be able to find
out just the capacity of a child regardless of his age, and
fit him into what he can do well, making provisions for
his passing on as he shows capability for higher work. Not
only has this matter of individual differences been found
to apply generally in the various grades of our schools —

56 Principles of Teaching

it has been found to have significant bearing upon achieve-
ments in particular subjects. For all too long a time we
have held a boy in grade four until he mastered what we
have called his grade four arithmetic, spelling, geography,
grammar, history, etc. As a matter of fact, many a boy
who is a fourth-grader in grammar may be only a second-
grader in arithmetic — a girl, for whom fourth grade arith-
metic is an impossibility, because of her special liking for
reading, may be seventh grade in her capacity in that sub-
ject. In the specific subjects, individual differences have
been found to be most marked. Surely it is unfair to ask
a boy "born short" in history to keep up to the pace of a
comrade "born long" in that subject; so, too, it is unfair
to ask a girl "born long" in geography to hold back to the
pace of one "born short" in that subject. The results of
these observations are leading to developments that are full
of promise for the educational interests of the future.

In order that we may more fully appreciate the reality
of these observations let us set down the concrete results
of a few experiments.

The first three tests are quoted from Thorndike:
In a test in addition, all pupils being allowed the same
time,

1 pupil did 3 examples correctly

2 pupils did 4 examples correctly

1 pupil did 5 examples correctly

5 pupils did 6 examples correctly

2 pupils did 7 examples correctly

4 pupils did 8 examples correctly

6 pupils did 9 examples correctly
14 pupils did 10 examples correctly

8 pupils did 11 examples correctly

7 pupils did 12 examples correctly

8 pupils did 13 examples correctly

5 pupils did 14 examples correctly

5 pupils did 15 examples correctly

6 pupils did 16 examples correctly

Individual Differences

57

1 pupil did 17 examples correctly

5 pupils did 18 examples correctly

1 pupil did 19 examples correctly

2 pupils did 20 examples correctly

The rapidity of movement of ten-year-old girls, as meas-
ured by the number of crosses made in a fixed time:

6 or 7 by 1 girl

8 or 9 by 0 girl

10 or 11 by 4 girls

12 or 13 by 3 girls

14 or 15 by 21 girls

16 or 17 by 29 girls

18 or 19 by 33 girls

20 or 21 by 13 girls

22 or 23 by 15 girls

24 or 25 by 11 girls

26 or 27 by 5 girls

28 or 29 by 2 girls

30 or 31 by 5 girls

32 or 33 by 3 girls

34 or 35 by 5 girls

36 or 37 by 0 girl

38 or 49 by 4 girls

40 or 41 by 1 girl

Two papers, A and B, written by members of the same
grade and class in a test in spelling:

A.

B.

greatful

gratful

elegant

eleagent

present

present

patience

paisionce

succeed

suckseed

severe

survere

accident

axadent

sometimes

sometimes

sensible

sensible

business

biusness

answer

anser

sweeping

sweping

properly

prooling

improvement

improvment

fatiguing

fegting

anxious

anxchus

appreciate

apresheating

assure

ashure

imagine

amagen

praise

prasy

In a test in spelling wherein fifty common words were
dictated to a class of twenty- eight pupils, the following
results were obtained:

58 Principles of Teaching

2 spelled correctly all 50

3 spelled correctly between 45 and 48

5 spelled correctly between 40 and 45
11 spelled correctly between 30 and 40

6 spelled correctly between 20 and 30
1 spelled correctly between 15 and 20

And now the question — what has all this to do with the
teaching of religion? Just this: the differences among
men as found in fields already referred to, are found also
in matters of religion. For one man it is easy to believe
in visions and all other heavenly manifestations; for an-
other it is next to impossible. To one man the resurrec-
tion is the one great reality; to another it is merely a matter
of conjecture. One man feels certain that his prayers are
heard and answered; another feels equally certain that they
cannot be. One man is emotionally spiritual; another is
coldly hard-headed and matter-of-fact. The point is not
a question which man is right — it is rather that we ought
not to attempt to reach each man in exactly the same way,
nor should we expect each one to measure up to the stand-
ards of the others.

An interesting illustration of this difference in religious
attitude was shown recently in connection with the funeral
of a promising young man who had been taken in death
just as he had fairly launched upon his life's work. In a
discussion that followed the service, one good brother found
consolation in the thought that the Lord needed just such
a young man to help carry on a more important work
among the spirits already called home. His companion in
the discussion found an explanation to his satisfaction in
the thought that it was providential that the young man
could be taken when he was, that he thereby might be
spared the probable catastrophies that might have visited
him had he lived. Each man found complete solace in his

Individual Differences 59

own philosophy, though neither could accept the reasoning
of the other.

An interesting case of difference of view came to the
attention of the teacher- training class at Provo when some-
one asked how the lesson on Jonah could be presented so
that it would appeal to adolescent boys and girls. The
query was joined in by several others for whom Jonah had
been a stumbling block, when Brother Sainsbury, of Vernal,
startled the class by saying Jonah was his favorite story.
"I would rather teach that story than any other one in the
Bible," he declared, and illustrated his method so clearly
that the account of Jonah took on an entirely new aspect.

Many men and women in the world are shocked at the
thought that God is a personality. To them the idea that
God is simply a "man made perfect," a being similar to us,
but exalted to deity, is akin to blasphemy. And then to
add the idea of a heavenly mother is beyond comprehen-
sion. To Latter-day Saints, on the other hand, these
thoughts are the very glory of God. To them a man made
perfect is the noblest conception possible. It makes of Him
a reality. And the thought of Mother — Heaven without a
Mother would be like home without one.

And so with all the principles and conceptions of re-
ligion, men's reactions to them are as varied as they are
to all the other facts of life. Everywhere the opinions, the
capacities, the attainments of men vary. The law of indi-
vidual differences is one of the most universal in our ex-
perience.

Questions and Suggestions — Chapter IX

1. Just what is the meaning of the term Individual Differences?

2. Illustrate such differences in families with which you are
familiar.

3. Apply the test to your ward choir.

60 Principles of Teaching

4. Name and characterize twenty men whom you know. How
do they differ?

5. Have a report brought in from your public school on the re-
sults of given tests in arithmetic, spelling, etc.

6. Have the members of your class write their opinions relative
to some point of doctrine concerning which there may be some un-
certainty?

7. Observe the attitude and response of each of the members of
a typical Sunday School, Kindergarten, of an advanced M. I. A. class.

8. Illustrate individual differences as expressed in the religious
attitudes of men you know.

9. To what extent are boys different from girls in mental capa-
bility and attitude?

Helpful References
Those listed in Chapter VII.

CHAPTER X

INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES AND TEACHING

Outline — Chapter X

The causes of individual differences, — Norsworthy and Whitley
on the significance of parentage. — The teacher's obligation to know
parents. — The influence of sex. — Environment as a factor. — Thorndike
quoted. — B. H. Jacobsen on individual differences.

So far we simply have made the point that individuals
differ. We are concerned in this chapter in knowing how
these differences affect the teaching process. Fully to appre-
ciate their significance we must know not only that they ex-
ist, and the degree of their variation, but also the forces that
produce them. On the side of heredity, race, family, and
sex, are the great modifying factors. Practically, of course,
we are concerned very little as Church teachers with prob-
lems of race. We are all so nearly one in that regard that
a discussion of racial differences would contribute but little
to the solution of our teaching problem.

The matter of family heritage is a problem of very much
more immediate concern. Someone has happily said:
"Really to know a boy one must know fully his father and
his mother." "Yes," says a commentator, "and he ought
to know a deal about the grandfather and grandmother."
The significance of parentage is made to stand out with
clearness in the following paragraph from Norsworthy and
Whitley, The Psychology of Childhood:

"Just as good eyesight and longevity are family characteristics,
so also color blindness, left-handedness, some slight peculiarity of
structure such as an extra finger or toe, or the Hapsburg lip, sense
defects such as deafness or blindness, tendencies to certain diseases,
especially those of the nervous system, — all these run in families.
Certain mental traits likewise are obviously handed down from parents
to child, such as strong will, memory for faces, musical imagination,
abilities in mathematics or the languages, artistic talent. In these

62 Principles of Teaching

ways and many others children resemble their parents. The same
general law holds of likes and dislikes, of temperamental qualities
such as quick temper, vivacity, lovableness, moodiness. In all traits,
characteristics, features, powers both physical and mental and to
some extent moral also, children's original nature, their stock in trade,
is determined by their immediate ancestry. 'We inherit our parents'
tempers, our parents' conscientiousness, shyness and ability, as we
inherit their stature, forearm and span,' says Pearson."

The teacher who would really appreciate the feelings
and responses of a boy in his class must be aware, there-
fore, that the boy is not merely one of a dozen type indi-
viduals— he is a product of a particular parentage, acting
as he does largely because "he was born that way."

We shall point out in connection with environmental in-
fluences the importance of a teacher's knowing the home
condition of his pupils; but it is important here, in pass-
ing, to emphasize the point that even though a child were
never to live with its parents it could be understood by
the teacher acquainted with the peculiar traits of those par-
ents. "Born with a bent" is a proverb of such force that
it cannot be ignored. To know the parental heritage of a
boy is to anticipate his reaction to stimuli — is to know
what approach to make to win him.

Because of the fact that in many of our organizations we
are concerned with the problem of teaching boys and girls
together, the question of the influence of sex is one which
we must face. There are those who hold that boys and
girls are so fundamentally different by nature that they
ought not to be taught coeducationally. Others maintain
that they are essentially alike in feeling and intellectuality,
and that because of the fact that eventually they are to be
mated in the great partnership of life they should be
held together as much as possible during the younger years
of their lives. Most authorities are agreed that boys and
girls differ not so much because they are possessed of

Individual Differences and Teaching 63

difTerent native tendencies, but because they live differently
— they follow different lines of activity, and therefore de-
velop different interests. To quote again from Norsworthy
and Whitley:

"That men and women are different, that their natures are not
the same, has long been an accepted fact. Out of this fact of differ-
ence have grown many hot discussions as to the superiority of one
or the other nature as a whole. The present point of view of scien-
tists seems well expressed by Ellis when he says, 'We may regard all
such discussions as absolutely futile and foolish. If it is a question
of determining the existence and significance of some particular phys-
ical sexual difference, a conclusion may not be impossible. To make
any broad statement of the phenomena is to recognize that no general
conclusion is possible. Now and again we come across facts which
group themselves with a cerain uniformity, but as we continue, we
find other equally important facts which group themselves with equal
uniformity in another sense. The result produces compensation.'
The question of interest then is, what in nature is peculiar to the
male sex and what to the female? What traits will be true of a boy,
merely because he is a boy, and vice versa? This has been an
extremely difficult question to answer, because of the difficulty en-
countered in trying to eliminate the influence of environment and
training. Boys are what they are because of their original nature
plus their surroundings. Some would claim that if we could give boys
and girls the same surroundings, the same social requirements, the
same treatment from babyhood, there would be no difference in the
resulting natures. Training undoubtedly accentuates inborn sex dif-
ferences, and it is true that a reversal of training does lessen this
difference; however, the weight of opinion at present is that differ-
ences in intellect and character do exist because of differences
of sex, but that these have been unduly magnified. H, B.
Thompson, in her investigation entitled The Mental Traits of Sex,
finds that 'Motor ability in most of its forms is better developed in
men than in women. In strength, rapidity of movement, and rate
of fatigue, they have a very decided advantage, and in precision of
movement a slight advantage. . . . The thresholds are on the whole
lower in women, discriminative sensibility is on the whole better
in men. ... All these differences, however, are slight. As for the
intellectual faculties, women are decidedly superior to men in memory,
and possibly more rapid in associative thinking. Men are probably
superior in ingenuity. . . . The data on the life of feeling indicate
that their is little, if any, sexual difference in the degree of domina-
tion by emotion, and that social consciousness is more prominent in
men, and religious consciousness in women.'

"Pearson, in his measurement of traits, not by objective tests but
by opinions of people who know the individual, finds that boys are
more athletic, noisy, self-assertive, self-conscious; less popular, duller

64 Principles of Teaching

in conscience, quicker-tempered, less sullen, a little duller intel-
lectually and less efficient in penmanship. Heymans and Wiersma,
following the same general method as Pearson, state as their general
conclusions that the female is more active, more emotional, and more
unselfish than the male. 'They consider women to be more impulsive,
less efficient intellectually, and more fickle than men as a result of
the first two differences mentioned above; to be gifted in music,
acting, conversation and the invention of stories, as a result in part
of the second difference; and to think well of people and to be easily
reconciled to them as a result of the third.' Thorndike finds the
chief differences to be that the female varies less from the average
standard, is more observant of small visual details, less often color-
blind, less interested in things and their mechanisms, more interested
in people and their feelings, less given to pursuing, capturing and
maltreating living things, and more given to nursing, comforting and
relieving them than is the male. H. Ellis considers the chief differ-
ences to be the less tendency to variability, the greater affectability,
and the greater primitiveness of the female mind, and the less ability
shown by women in dealing with the more remote and abstract inter-
ests in life. All the authors emphasize the smallness of the differ-
ences; and after all the striking thing is not the differences between
the sexes, but the great difference within the same sex in respect to
every mental trait tested. The difference of man from man, and woman
from woman, in any trait is almost as great as the differences be-
tween the sexes in that trait. Sex can be the cause, then, of only a
fraction of the difference between the original nature of individuals."

It is reasonably certain, then, that a teacher may safely
appeal to both boys and girls on the ground of the funda-
mental instincts, feeling confident that common stimuli will
produce largely the same results.

Important as it is that we know what our pupils are from
their parentage, it is even more important in the matter of
religious instruction that we shall appreciate the force of
the varieties of environment that have been operative.
Though boys and girls may be essentially alike at the out-
set of their lives they may be thrown into such associations
as to make their ideals and conduct entirely different.
Fancy the contrast between the case of a girl brought up
for fifteen years in a household of refinement and in a com-
panionship of gentility, and the case of a boy who during
the same years has been the pal of bullies on street corners.

Individual Differences and Teaching 65

Surely stimuli that are to promote proper reaction in these
two cases will have to be suited to the person in question.

Then, too, the teacher must realize that one child may
come from a home of faith, confidence, and contentment;
whereas, another may come from a home of agitation, doubt,
and suspicion. One may have been taught to pray — an-
other may have been led to disbelieve. One may have been
stimulated to read over sacred books — another may have
been left to peruse cheap, sensational detective stories. To
succeed in reaching the hearts of a group of such boys and
girls, a teacher surely ought to be aware of individual
differences and ought to be fortified with a wealth of ma-
terial so that the appeal may be as varied as possible. To
quote from Thomdike's Principles of Education:

"A teacher has to choose what is for the greatest good of the
greatest number. He cannot expect to drive forty children abreast
along the highroad of education." "Yet the differences in children
should not blind us to their likenesses." "We need general prin-
ciples and their sagacious application to individual problems."

"The worst error of teachers with respect to individual differences
is to neglect them, to form one set of fixed habits for dealing with
all children, to teach 'the child instead of countless different hving
individuals.' To realize the varieties of human nature, the nature
and amount of mental differences, is to be protected against many
fallacies of teaching."

Our treatment of individual differences was well summed
up in the following paper by B. H. Jacobsen, a member of
the B. Y. U. Teacher-Training class:

The Significance of Individual Differences in Teaching

"Individual instruction in our religious organizations as in the
public schools is under present condition impracticable. We are
compelled to teach in groups or classes of somewhat varying size.
Consequently, it is of prime importance for the teacher, in trying
to apply that fundamental principle of pedagogy — an understanding
of the being to be taught — to know first what characteristics and
tendencies, whether native or acquired, are known to a large ma-
jority of the children in the class. Leaving out of consideration the

66 Principles of Teaching

possible presence of subnormal children, the language used must be
clear and simple enough to be comprehended by all; the great ma-
jority of the questions must be intended for all to find answers to;
the stories, illustrations, incidents, pictures, and various devices
employed must be reasonably within the range of experience and
comprehension of all members.

"At the same time, it is important to recognize the fact that, after
all, the class as a whole does not in any very fundamental, peda-
gogical sense constitute the objective unit of instruction. Though it
seems natural for most teachers to look upon the class as a more
or less uniform mass, and the exigencies of the situation make this
to some extent unavoidable, still the individual child remains always
the real unit, and furthermore the units are all different — in appear-
ance, training and temperament.

"In general the methods and material will be uniform for all, but
there will still be abundant opportunity for exercising little indi-
vidual touches and tricks in relation to individual pupils, especially
those who vary somewhat widely from the average. Even such a
superficial matter as size, especially superior size, might profitably
receive a little special consideration by the teacher and thus at times
save some pupil a little physical embarrassment. The boy unusually
active might be given some physical task to perform, even if it has
to be provided for the occasion, though it must not be too artifi-
cially created, as this is sure of detection.

"Questions requiring more than ordinary mental ability to answer
may be directed to those of superior alertness and intelligence, who
may also be given more difficult subjects to look up for presenta-
tion to the class. Special interests in animals, flowers, books, aero-
planes, industries, vocations, should be discovered and utilized by
the watchful teacher. Even though the connection may be a little
remote, any contribution of real interest and value is legitimate in
order to relieve the monotony of a dull class.

"Pupils differ very widely in temperament and disposition as well
as in capacity. The timid boy or girl should be given special en-
couragement and commendation, while the over-bold will take no
injury from a mild "squelch" occasionally. The child of gloomy
disposition should if anything have more smiles and sunny words
sent his way than the cheeful one, who is in no danger of losing
his share. The talkative child will need cautioning and careful di-
recting, while the one who seldom speaks needs the frequent stim-
ulus of a kind and encouraging look or word. The child who is
naturally doc'le and obedient will develop smoothly and without great
need of special attention and direction, while the stubborn, the re-
bellious, the untractable child, the cause of continual worry and
solicitude, is the one on whom special thought must be bestowed;
for his soul is no less precious in the sight of God, and the wise
teacher may be the means of making him a useful citizen, as well
as directing him in the way of working out his eternal salvation."

Individual Differences and Teaching 67

Questions and Suggestions — Chapter X

1. Discuss the relative significance of race, sex, family, and en-
vironment as factors producing individual differences.

2. Why is it essential that teachers know the parents of pupils?

3. What are the advantages of having boys and girls together in
class? What are the arguments for separating them?

4. How can a teacher be governed by the force of individual
differences when he has to teach a group of forty pupils?

5. Discuss the statement that teaching is both a social and an
individual process.

6. Choose a subject of general interest and illustrate how it might
be presented to satisfy different types of pupils.

Helpful References
Those listed in Chapter VII.

CHAPTER XI

ATTENTION

Outline — Chapter XI

Attention the mother of learning. — Gregory quoted. — The fact of
attention in the Army. — What attention is. — Illustrations. — ^Attention
and interest. — The three types of attention: Involuntary, nonvolun-
tary, voluntary. — Hovi to secure attention. — Interest the great key to
attention.

In that stimulating little book, The Seven Laws of Teach-
ing, by Gregory, et al, the second law is stated in these
words:

"A learner is one who attends with interest to the lesson."
Expressed as a rule of teaching, the law is made to read:

"Gain and keep the attention and interest of the pupils
upon the lesson. Do not try to teach without attention."

As a matter of fact, it is impossible to teach without
attention. A person may hold class — go through the for-
mality of a class exercise — but he can really teach only
him who attends. The first big, outstanding thought with
reference to attention is that we should secure it, not so
much in the interest of order, important as it is in that
connection, but because it is the sine qua non of learning.

A boy may sit in a class in algebra for weeks, with his
mind far afield on some pet scheme, or building palatial
edifices in the air, but not until he attends does he begin
to grasp the problems presented. It is literally as well as
scripturally possible "to have ears and hear not." Attention
is the mother of learning.

Think of the force of that word attention in the Amer-
ican Army. It is a delight to see the ranks straighten to
that command — would that our messages of truth could

Attention 69

challenge the same response from that vast army of seekers
after truth — the boys and girls of the Church. The sol-
dier at attention not only stands erect, nor does he merely
keep silence — he is eagerly receptive — anxious to receive
a message v^hich he is to translate into action. His atti-
tude, perhaps, is our best answer to the question, "What is
attention?" Betts says, "The concentration of the mind's
energy on one object of thought is attention."

As Magnusson expresses it, "Attention is the centering of
consciousness on a portion of its contents." And Angell
adds, "Attention is simply a name for the central and most
active portion of the field of consciousness."

The mind, of course, during waking hours, is never
merely passive. With its flood of ideas it is always recall-
ing, observing, comparing, analyzing, building toward con-
clusions. These processes go on inevitably — go on with
little concern about attention. But when we narrow the
field — when we bring our mental energy to a focus on
something specific and particular we then attend.

Betts, in his The Mind and Its Education, very happily
illustrates the meaning of attention:

"Attention Measures Mental Efficiency. — In a state of attention
the mind may be likened to the rays of the sun which have been
passed through a burning glass. You may let all the rays which
can pass through your window pane fall hour after hour upon the
paper lying on your desk, and no marked effects follow. But let
the same amount of sunlight be passed through a lens and con-
verged to a point the size of your pencil, and the paper will at once
burst into flame."

To follow another analogy, attention is to the energies
of the mind what the pipe line leading into the power plant
is to the water in the canyon above. It directs and con-
centrates for the generation of power. Just as the water
might run on and on to little or no purpose, so the ener-
gies of a boy or girl may be permitted to drift aimlessly

70 Principles of Teaching

toward no conviction unless the teacher wins him to an
attention that rivets truth to his Hfe.

In a discussion of attention the question of the relation
of interest to attention is bound to arise. Do we attend to
things because they are interesting? Or are we interested
in things because we give them our attention? The two
terms are so interwoven in meaning that they are frequent-
ly treated under one chapter heading. Our purpose here
is not to attempt to divorce them, but rather to give them
emphasis because of their significance in the teaching
process.

Attention denotes a focusing of mental energy on a par-
ticular idea or object; interest, subjectively considered, is
an attitude of mind. Perhaps we can get a clearer idea
of the two terms if we consider the various types of atten-
tion. First of all there is what is called Involuntary atten-
tion. This is the type over which the mind has little or
no control. A person sits reading — his attention fixed on
the page in front of him — when suddenly a rock crashes
through the window immediately behind him. He jumps
to see what is wrong. His attention to his book is shifted
to the window, not because he wills it so, but because of
the suddenness and force of the stimulus. The excitation
of the auditory nerve centers compels attention. The attend-
ant feeling may be one of pleasure or of pain — there may
be an interest developed or there may not. Involuntary
attention clearly does not rest upon interest.

Then there is what is called Nonvoluntary attention. I
go to a theatre and some particular musical number is fea-
tured. It grips my interest and I follow it with rapt atten-
tion, wholly without conscious effort. Unlike the case of
a sudden noise, in this experience my attention is not physi-
ologically automatic — I could control it if I chose — but I

Attention 71

choose now to give it. Interest clearly is the motor power
behind such attention. Then, finally, there is Voluntary
attention. I sit at a table working out a problem in arith-
metic. Outside there is being played a most exciting ball
game. My interests are almost wholly centered in the out-
come of the game, but duty bids me work out my problem.
I make myself attend to it in spite of the pull of my nat-
ural interests.

And so attention is seen to be purely the result of
physiological stimulus; it is seen to accompany — fairly
to be bom out of it — interest. It is seen to be the re-
sult of an operation of the will against the natural force
of interest. This three-fold classification is of particular
significance to the teacher. He may be sure that if he
resorts to the use of unusual stimuli he can arrest attention,
though by so doing he has no guarantee of holding it; he
may feel certain of attention if he can bring before pupils
objects and ideas which to them are interesting; he may
so win them to the purposes of his recitation that they will
give attention even though they are not interested in what
may be going on for the time being. It is evident, how-
ever, that resorting to violent stimuli is dangerous, that
forced attention is ultimately disagreeable and certainly not
a modern commonplace in experience, that attention which
attends genuine interest is the attention most generally to
be sought.

One question still remains: "How shall we proceed to
secure and to hold attention?"

In the first place we should remind ourselves that it is
a difficult matter to give sustained attention to a single
object or idea, unless the object or idea changes. The diffi-
culty is greater with children than with adults. In the

72 Principles of Teaching

second place we should be mindful that it is poor policy
either to demand attention or to beg for it.

Where attention has to be secured out of disorder we
are justified in making use of stimuli that shock pupils
into attention. One of the best illustrations of this sort of
procedure was the method used in the David Belasco theatre
in New York to get audiences quiet for the opening of the
performances. Mr. Belasco was convinced that the orches-
tra had become a mere accompaniment to the clatter and
noise of the audience and so he did not trust to that means
to secure order. In fact, he discarded the orchestra idea.
At the appointed hour for the curtain to rise, his theatre
became suddenly dark. So dark that the blackness was
startling. Immediately upon the silence that attended the
shock the soft chiming of bells became audible which led
the audience to strain in an attempt to catch fully the effect
of the chime. At that point the curtains were drawn and
the first lines of the play fell upon the ears of a perfectly
quiet audience.

It is safer and better, of course, to anticipate disorder by
getting the lesson under way in an interesting manner.
These artificial devices are serviceable as emergency mea-
sures as well as helpful as restful variations in a class
hour. Change in posture, group exercises, periods of re-
laxation, all help to make attention the more easily pos-
sible.

The key to sustained attention, when all is said and done,
is interest. There is no substitute for the fascination of
interest. As Magnusson says: "Monotony is the great
enemy of attention. Interest is the attention- compelling
element of instincts and desires." The teacher can feel
assured of success only when he is so fully prepared that
his material wins attention because of its rjphness and ecp-

Attention 73

propriateness. Special thought should be given in the prep-
aration of a lesson to the attack to be made during the first
two minutes of a recitation. A pointed, vital question, a
challenging statement, a striking incident, a fascinating,
appropriate story, a significant quotation — these are a few
of the legitimate challenges to attention.

Questions and Suggestions — Chapter XI

1. Discuss the statement: "There is no such thing as inattention;
when pupils appear inattentive, they are singly attentive to some-
thing more interesting than the lesson."

2. Explain the force of attention in the learning process.

3. What is attention?

4. Discuss and illustrate the different types of attention.

5. Give some practical suggestions on the securing of attention.

6. Point out the distinction between attention and interest.

7. Discuss the effect of monotony on attention.

8. How do children and adults differ in their powers of attention?

Helpful References

Pillsburg, Attention; Norsworthy and Whitley, Psychology oj
Childhood; Strayer and Norsworthy, How to Teach; Betts, How to
Teach Religion; Weigle, Talks to Sunday School Teachers; Fitch,
The Art of Securing Attention; Thorndike, Principles of Teaching;
Dewey, Interest and Effort in Education; Brumbaugh, The Making
of a Teacher.

CHAPTER XII

WHAT MAKES FOR INTEREST

Outline — Chapter XII

Individual differences and interest. — What makes for interest.—
Interest begets interest. — Preparation is a great guarantee. — Knowl-
edge of the lives of boys and girls a great help. — The factors of inter-
estingness: The Vital, The Unusual, The Uncertain, The Concrete,
The Similar, The Antagonistic, The Animate.

After discussing the relation of interest to attention we
still face the question: What is it that makes an interesting
object, or an idea interesting? Why do we find some things
naturally interesting while others are dull and common-
place? Of course, everything is not equally interesting to
all people. Individual differences make clear the fact that
a certain stimulus will call for a response in one particular
person, quite unlike the response manifested in a person
of different temperament and training. But psychologists
are agreed that in spite of these differences there are cer-
tain elements of interests that are generally and fundamen-
tally appealing to human nature. To know what it is that
makes for interest is one of the prerequisites of good
teaching.

But before naming these "factors of interestingness,"
may we not also name and discuss briefly some other essen-
tials in the matter of creating and maintaining interest?

In the first place it is good to remember that a teacher
who would have his pupils interested must himself be inter-
ested. If he would see their faces light up with the glow
of enthusiasm, he must be the charged battery to generate
the current. Interest begets interest. It is as contagious as
whooping cough — if a class is exposed it is sure to catch

What Makes for Interest 75

it. The teacher who constantly complains of a dull class,
very likely is simply facing a reaction to his own dullness
or disagreeableness. "Blue Monday" isn't properly so
named merely because of the drowsy pupil. The teacher
inevitably sets the pace and determines the tone of his class.
Many a teacher when tired, or out of patience, has con-
cluded a recitation feeling that his pupils were about the
most stupid group he has ever faced; the same teacher
keyed up to enthusiasm has felt at the close of another
recitation that these same pupils could not be surpassed.
A student with whom the writer talked a short time ago
remarked that she could always tell whether the day's class
was going to be interesting under a particular teacher as
soon as she caught the mood in which she entered the class-
room. Half-heartedness, indifference, and unpleasantness
are all negative — they neither attract nor stimulate. In-
terest and enthusiasm are the sunshine of the classroom
— they are to the human soul what the sun's rays are to
the plant.

The second great guarantee of interest is preparation.
The teacher needs to have his subject matter so thoroughly
in mind that, free from textbook and notes, he can reach
out to a real contact with his boys and girls. If his eyes
are glued to his book, he cannot hope to arouse keen inter-
est. The eye is a great force in gripping the attention of
a class or audience. They want nothing to stand between
them and the speaker. Not long ago one of the most force-
ful and eloquent public speakers in Utah failed miserably,
in addressing a thoroughly fine audience, because he was
lost in the machinery of his notes. His material was ex-
cellent— his power as an orator unquestioned — yet he was
bound down by a lack of preparation that cost him the
mastery of his audience.

76 Principles of Teaching

Not only does adequate preparation enable a teacher to
reach out and take hold of his pupils; it makes it possible
for him to capitalize on the situations that are bound to
arise in class discussion. A concrete illustration to clear
up a troublesome question, an appropriate incident to hit
off some general truth, a happy phrase to crystallize a
thought — all these things are bom only of adequate prep-
aration.

Not long ago a candidate for the presidency of the
United States delighted an audience of ten thousand or
more in the Salt Lake Tabernacle by his remarkable
handling of questions and comments thrown at him from
that vast audience. There was no hesitancy or uncertainty.
He spoke "as one who knew." He was prepared. He had
so lived with the questions of the day that they fairly
seemed to be part of him. The interesting teacher never
teaches all he knows. His reserve material inspires both
interest and confidence. A class begins to lose interest in
a teacher the moment they suspect that his stock in trade
is running low. The mystery, "how one small head could
carry all he knew," is still fascinating. Thorough prep-
aration, moreover, minimizes the likelihood of routine, the
monotony of which is always deadening. A class likes a
teacher — is interested in him — when it can't anticipate just
what he is going to do next and how he is going to do it.

A further aid in holding interest is to know intimately
the life of the boys and girls taught. To appreciate fully
their attitude — to know what sort of things in life generally
appeal to them — is a very great asset to any teacher. If a
teacher knows that a boy's reaction to the story of the Israel-
ites' crossing the Red Sea is that that story is "some bunk,"
he is fortified in knowing how to present other subjects
which are similar tests to a boy's faith and understanding.

What Makes for Interest 77

To know pupils' attitudes and mode of life is to know what
sort of illustrations to use, what emphasis to put upon emo-
tional material, what stress to lay on practical application.
In short, it is to know just how to "connect up." It stimu-
lates to a testing of values so that a teacher selects and
adapts his material to the needs of the boys and girls whom
he teaches.

And, finally, as a key to interest, a teacher needs to know
what the "factors of interestingness" are. According to
the findings of the Public Speaking Department of the
University of Chicago, they are summed up in these seven
terms:

The Vital The Similar

The Unusual The Antagonistic

The Uncertain The Animate
The Concrete

This list becomes more and more helpful as it is pon-
dered. It is surprising to find how experience can be
explained on the score of interest by reference to these
terms. Those things are vital which pertain to life — which
affect existence. Dangers are always interesting. Catastro-
phies are fascinating. Just today all America is scanning
the newspapers throughout the country to find an explan-
ation of the Wall Street explosion. We shall not soon forget
the feverish interest that gripped the people of the world
during our recent world wars.

When life is at stake, interest runs high. So it does
when property, liberty, and other sacred rights, so vital
to life, are affected. Anything vital enough to justify the
publication of an "extra" may be depended upon to grip
the interest of men and women.

78 Principles of Teaching

It is equally clear that a fascination attaches to things
that are unusual. New styles attract because of this fact.
Let a man oddly dressed walk along a thoroughfare — the
passersby are interested immediately. A "loud" hat or
necktie, or other item of apparel, attracts attention because
it is out of the ordinary. Much of the interest and delight
in traveling lies in this element of the new and unusual
which the traveler encounters. The experiences of child-
hood which stand out most prominently are usually those
which at the time riveted themselves to the mind through
the interest of their extraordinariness.

Every reader knows the fascination of uncertainty. "How
will the book turn out?" prompts many a person to turn
through hundreds of pages of a novel. An accident is
interesting not only because of its vital significance, but
because there is always a question as to how seriously those
involved may be hurt. One of the clearest illustrations of
the force of the uncertain is found attending baseball
games. Let the score stand at 10 to 2 in the eighth inning
and the grandstands and bleachers begin to empty. Few
spectators care to remain. The game is too clearly settled.
As the boys say, it is "sewed up" and there is nothing
uncertain to grip interest. But let the score stand 3 to 2 or
2 to 2 in the eighth and even the man scheduled home for
dinner stays to the end. He wants to know how the game
is "coming out."

It is easier also to be interested in concrete than in ab-
stract things. General truths are not gripping — concrete
illustrations of those truths are. If I declare that it is im-
portant to have faith, I create but little interest in an audi-
ence. But if I tell that same audience how some individual
has been miraculously healed through faith, I have their
interest completely. Concrete illustrations fit into and link

What Makes for Interest 79

up with our own experiences so easily and forcefully that
they are particularly interesting.

So, too, with things that are similar. The mind naturally
links like with like. We are fond of making comparisons.
The interest in the similar is due to that fundamental law
of learning that we proceed from what is known to that
which is unknown and we proceed along points of simi-
larity.

And how natural it seems to be interested in things an-
tagonistic! Our love of contests of all sorts is evidence
of the fact. Who can resist the interest that attaches to a
quarrel — a fight — a clash of any kind. The best of classes
will leave the best of teachers, mentally at least, to witness
a dog fight. Our champion prize fighters make fortunes
out of man's interest in the antagonistic.

And then, finally, we are interested in the animate.
We like action. Things in motion have a peculiar fasci-
nation. Who does not watch with interest a moving loco-
motive? Advertising experts appreciate the appeal of the
animate, as is evidenced by the great variety of moving
objects that challenge our interest as we pass up and down
the streets of a city and we respond to the challenge. In
fact, it is natural to respond to the appeal of all of these
seven terms — hence their significance in teaching.

Questions and Suggestions — Chapter XII

1. Discuss the force of individual differences in choosing material
that will be interesting.

2. Why is it so essential that the teacher be interested in what
he hopes to interest his pupils in?

3. Show how preparation makes for interest.

4. Why is an intimate acquaintance with the lives of pupils so
essential a factor with the interesting teacher?

5. Illustrate concretely the force of each of the factors of interest-
ingness.

Helpful References

Those listed in Chapter XL

CHAPTER XIII

A LABORATORY LESSON IN INTEREST

Outline — Chapter XIII

Interest should be inherent in the lesson taught. — An illustration
of "dragged in" interest. — Interest and the "easy" idea. — A proper
interpretation of interest. — How to make the subject of Fasting inter-
esting.— The various possibilities. — How to secure interest in the
Atonement. — How to secure interest in the Resurrection. — How to
secure interest in the story of Jonah.

"Oh, that's all right," says one. "It is easy enough to
talk about interest, and it's easy to be interesting if you
can choose anything you Hke to amuse a class. But if you
have to teach them theology, and especially some of the
dry lessons that are outlined for us, I don't see how we
can be expected to make our work interesting."

Of course, there is some point to such an objection.
Having been asked to teach the truths of the gospel of Jesus
Christ, we cannot defend the practice of bringing in all
kinds of material just because it is funny. And, of course,
it is true, too, that some lesson outlines upon first thought
do appear rather forbidding. But it is equally true that
there is a path of interest through the most unpromising
material, though that path does not always run alongside
the teacher's highroad of ease and unconcern. A false no-
tion of interest is that it denotes mere amusement — that
it is something aside from serious and sober thought.

The writer recalls visiting a class taught by a person
holding such a notion. Having given his lesson but little
thought he apologized for its lack of interest by saying,
"Now, boys and girls, if you will just be quiet while we
go over the lesson, even though it isn't very interesting,
I'll read you our next chapter of Huckleberry Finn" And
yet the lesson, hurried over, with a little intensive study

A Laboratory Lesson in Interest 81

could have been made as fascinating as the reading of
Huckleberry Finn and notably more profitable.

Another misconception relative to interest is the idea that
to make a subject interesting you must so popularize it
that you cheapen it. This idea is typified in the "snap"
courses in school — courses made interesting at the expense
of painstaking application. As a matter of fact, to cheapen
a thing is ultimately to kill interest in it. Genuine interest
of real worth is born of effort and devotion to a worthy
objective. Far from dissipating the mind's energies, it
heightens and concentrates them to the mastery of the big-
ger and finer things of life.

A subject to be made interesting must present some ele-
ment of newness, yet must be so linked up with the ex-
perience of the learner as to be made comprehensible. It
must, moreover, be made to appeal as essential and helpful
in the life of the learner. The two outstanding queries of
the uninterested pupil are:

What is it all about?
What's the use?

Let us, then, turn to two or three subjects which at first
thought may appear more or less dull to see whether there
is an approach to them that can be made interesting.

Members of the teacher-training class at Provo were
asked to name four or five subjects which they regarded
hard to stimulate interest in. They named the following:

Fasting.

The Fall.

The Atonement.

The Resurrection.

The Story of Jonah.

82 Principles of Teaching

Let us suppose that I have met my Second Intermediate
class of eighteen boys and girls to discuss the subject of
fasting. I might begin by relating an actual experience
in which through fasting and prayer on the part of the
members of a particular family a little boy has just been
most miraculously restored to health, after an operation for
appendicitis. It was an infection case, and three doctors
agreed there was no possible chance of recovery. A fourth
doctor held out the possibility of one chance in a hundred.
And yet a two days' fast, coupled with a faith I have seldom
seen equalled, has been rewarded by the complete recovery
of the boy, who is now thoroughly well and strong.

Such a concrete illustration is one possibility for arous-
ing interest.

Or, I might proceed with a few definite, pointed ques-
tions :

"How many of you eighteen boys and girls fasted this
month?"

The answers show that seven have fasted; eleven have not.

I proceed then to inquire why the eleven have failed
to fast. Various explanations are offered:

"Oh, I forgot."

"We don't fast in our home."

"Father has to work all day Sunday; and so, because
mother has to get breakfast for him, we all eat."

"I have a headache if I fast, so I think it is better
not to."

"I don't see any use in fasting. Going around with a
long, hungry face can't help anyone."

"It's easy to fast when they won't give you anything to
eat."

"I like to fast just to show myself that I don't live to be
eating all the time."

A Laboratory Lesson in Interest 83

"I believe it's a good thing to give the body a Httle rest
once in a while."

"I feel different v^hen I fast — more spiritual or some-
thing."

"It must be right to fast. The Church wouldn't ask us
to if it wasn't a good thing."

The definiteness of these replies, coupled with the sus-
pense of wondering what the next answer will be, keeps
up a lively interest.

A third possibility would be to call for the experiences
of the pupils, or experiences which have occurred in their
families, or concerning which they have read. A very rich
compilation of interesting material can be collected under
such a scheme.

Or, finally, I may choose to proceed immediately with
a vigorous analysis and discussion of the whole problem.
I arouse interest by quoting a friend who has put the query
to me, "What is the use of fasting?" and then enlist the
cooperation of the class in formulating a reply. Together
we work out the possible justification of fasting.

The following outline may represent the line of our
thought:

1. Jesus taught us to fast.

a. His forty days in the wilderness.

b. His injunction to his apostles.

2. Our leaders have instituted fasting in these latter
days.

3. By fasting we develop a mastery over our appetites.
The body is made to serve the will.

4. Physiologically, it is a good thing to fast. Many
scientists are now recommending regular rests for the di-
gestive organs.

84 Principles of Teaching

5. Fasting makes possible an elevation of spirit.

6. Our system of fasting makes it possible to see that
no one in the Church wants for food.

7. Fasting enables us to appreciate the feelings of those
who are less fortunate in the world than we are, who are
denied the blessings we enjoy.

Of course, each idea needs to be introduced and devel-
oped in a concrete, vigorous manner. So treated, fasting
can be made a very fascinating subject.

The following suggestions on introducing the lesson on
the Resurrection to little children have been drawn up by
one of the most successful kindergarten teachers in the
Church:

"There are several things to be considered before present-
ing the lesson on the Resurrection to little children.

"First, the teacher must feel that she can present it. In
other words, she must love the story and feel the importance
of it. She must also be able to see the beautiful side and
remember that she is teaching, *There is no death; but life
eternal.'

"The next question to consider is: How are we going to
present it? We must lead the child from the known to
the unknown, through the child's own experience. There-
fore we go to nature, because all nature appeals to the
child. But in order to create the right atmosphere, the
teacher in selecting the subject must feel that what he has
selected is the very thing he wants in order to explain to
the child, 'There is no death.'

"There are several ways in which the subject may be ap-
proached through nature. We may take the Autumn and
let the children tell what happens to the trees, flowers, and
difiFerent plants. Lead them to see the condition after the

A Laboratory Lesson in Interest 85

leaves are off. Then what will happen next Spring. Or
we may take one specific tree or brush and talk of the twig
where the leaves were in the summer, but have now fallen
to the ground. The twig looks dead. But on opening the
bud and removing the brown covering we find the tiny
leaf inside waiting and preparing to come forth in the
Spring.

"The bulb may be used in a similar way, leading the
child to see the bulb as it is before planting, then to see
what happens when we plant it.

"The caterpillar may also be used. Here we have the
live worm getting ready to go into his cocoon and is absent
for some time; then he returns, only in another form. A
higher stage.

"Lead the child to see that every thing in nature has a
period of changing, of apparently going away for a short
time, but is not dead — it returns to life.

"Be sure to have the objects you are talking about before
the class, while you are discussing the subject. If not ob«
tainable, use a picture, or draw them."

The problem of the story of Jonah is usually submitted
with a twinkle in the eye of him who raises the question.
The world has so generally relegated it to the heap of the
impossible that even some of our own people look rather
amazed when a champion for Jonah steps forward. And
yet this story properly approached is one of the teacher's
greatest opportunities. If it is to be presented to small
children it can be told very beautifully, either as a lesson
on disobedience or, from the point of view of the people
of Nineveh, as a lesson on fasting and prayer. Little chil-
dren will not be troubled with doubt and disbelief unless
the teacher fosters such attitudes.

86 Principles of Teaching

To older minds, of course, the story already is a good
bit of a stumbling block, and therefore needs to be given
thoughtful preparation.

At the outset, with older students, we ought to lead
them into the beauties of the story — beauties which all
too frequently are wholly unknown to the ordinary boy
or girl. Read the story:

The call that comes to Jonah. His punishment.
His hesitancy. His attitude toward the

His dodging of duty. people of Nineveh.

His selfish judgments. The lesson taught.

"Yes," says the young skeptic, "but how about the whale
idea? Do you expect us to believe that stuff? It's con-
trary to all natural law."

Let's meet the issue squarely. The Bible says that Jonah
was swallowed by a big fish. Science is agreed that that
part of the account is easily possible — nothing contrary to
natural law so far.

"But what about the three days? That surely is."
Here is a challenge. Is it possible that life can be sus-
pended, "and restored"? Let the sciptures testify. It was
so in the case of the daughter of Jairus. (Mark 5:22-43.)
So was it in the case of Lazarus. (John 11:23-44.)
Consider the case of of the Son of God Himself 1 Buried
in the tomb, Jesus rose the third day. If you can believe
in the resurrection, you can believe in the restoration of
Jonah. It is interesting to note that Jesus Himself accepted
the story of Jonah. See Matthew 12:40:

"For as Jonah was three days and three nights in the whale's
belly; so shall the Son of man be three days and three nights in
the heart of the earth."

A Laboratory Lesson in Interest 87

To doubt Jonah is to question the Master. Not only so,
but if a person throws out the story of Jonah, he faces a
chain of miraculous events from one end of the Bible to
the other from which he will have difficulty to escape. You
ask me to explain Jonah, I shall reply by asking you to
explain :

The creation of man. Elisha and the ax.

The flood. The birth of the Savior.

The confusion of Babel. His resurrection.

The parting of the Red Sea. One- third of the account giv-
The three Hebrews and the en by Matthew,

furnace. Your own birth.

May one not accept with confidence the word of God
as contained in the Doctrine & Covenants, Sec. 35:8?

"For I am God, and mine arm is not shortened; and I
will show miracles, signs and wonders unto all those who
believe on my name."

Questions and Suggestions — Chapter XIII

1. Discuss the proper use of stories in securing and maintaining
interest.

2. Point out the danger of bringing in foreign "funny" material.

3. Show how difficult subjects may be made of even greater inter-
est than easy ones.

4. Use the greater part of this class hour for illustrating how to
create interest in subjects ordinarily found hard to teach.

Helpful References
Those listed in Chapter XI.

CHAPTER XIV

THE MORE IMMEDIATE PROBLEMS IN TEACHING

Outline — Chapter XIV

The steps involved in the preparation of a lesson: The aim; or-
ganization; illustration; application; questions. — Problems involved
in the presentation of a lesson: The point of contact; illustration;
the lesson statement. — Various possibilities. — The review: question-
ing; application. — The matter summarized.

So many textbooks have been written about teaching —
so many points of view have been advanced — such a variety
of terminology has been employed, even in the expression
of a single educational notion — that beginning teachers are
frequently at a loss to know just how to set about the task
of teaching. Leaving for further consideration the more
purely theoretical aspects of our problem, let us face the
questions of most immediate concern:

How TO Prepare a Lesson.
How TO Present a Lesson.

Is there not a common -sense procedure which we can
agree to as promising best results in these two funda-
mental steps? At the outset let us agree that preparation
and presentation are inseparable aspects of but one process.
Preparation consists of the work done behind the scenes —
presentation involves the getting over of the results of that
work to the audience — the class. Frequently teachers are
confused because they mistake directions governing prepa-
ration as applying to presentation. For instance, one teacher
proceeded to drill a class of small children on the memoriz-
ing of the aim — an abstract general truth — unmindful of
the fact that the aim was set down for the teacher's guid-
ance— a focus for his preparation done behind the scenes.

The More Immediate Problems in Teaching 89

Though in the preparation of a lesson we keep the aim
clearly in mind, and though, when we stand before our
class, we let it function in the background of our conscious-
ness as an objective in our procedure, we ought not to hurl
it at our class. As a generalized truth it can make but
little appeal to young minds, and it ought to be self-evident,
at the end of a successful recitation, to mature minds.

And so with the matter of organization. We skeletonize
our thoughts behind the scenes, but the skeleton is rather
an unsightly specimen to exhibit before a class. The out-
line should be inherent in the lesson as presented, but it
ought not to protrude so that the means will be mistaken
for an end. Subsequent chapters will illustrate both the
selection of an aim and its elaboration through suitable
organization.

The successful preparation of a lesson involves at least
five major steps. They are named here that the problem
of preparation may be grasped as a whole. Later chapters
will develop at length each step in its turn.

1. The Aim. A generalized statement, a kernel of
truth about which all of the facts of the lesson are made
to center. A lesson may be built up on a passage of scrip-
ture, on the experience of a person or a people, or on a
vital question, etc. But in any case, though we are inter-
ested in the facts involved, we are interested not in the facts
as an end in themselves, but rather because of the truth
involved in the facts. In other words, we seek to sift out
of the material offered in a lesson an essential truth which
helps us in a solution of the problems of life. Attention
to the aim is a guarantee against mere running over of
matter of fact.

2. Organization. A teacher should outline his lesson so

90 Principles of Teaching

ilia I pupils may easily follow him through the subject mat-
ter presented to the ultimate truth that lies beyond.

3. Illustration. Illustrations are what make truth vivid.
Successful teachers owe much of their success to their
ability through story or incident to drive home to the ex-
perience of pupils those fundamental truths which in their
general terms make but little appeal. One of the most help-
ful practices for teachers who would become effective is the
habit of clipping and filing available illustrative material.
There is a wealth of rich, concrete matter appearing regu-
larly in our magazines and other publications. What is
good today likely will be equally good a year or two years
hence when we shall face the problem of teaching again
today's lesson. An alphabetic letter file may be had for a
few cents in which can be filed away all sorts of helpful
material. It pays to collect and save!

4. Application. Having selected his aim, the teacher
knows the result he should like to have follow his lesson,
in the lives of his pupils. He knows, too, their tendencies
and their needs. In giving attention to application he is
merely making a survey of the possible channel into which
he can direct his pupils' activities. In considering appli-
cation he asks, "Of what use will this material be in the
experience of my pupils?" The test- application is the real
test — both of the subject matter presented and of the ef-
fectiveness of the presentation.

5. Questions. Finally, lesson preparation is not com-
plete unless the teacher has formulated a few thought-pro-
voking questions which go to the very heart of the lesson.
The question is the great challenge to the seeker after truth.
It is easy to ask questions, but to propound queries that stir
pupils to an intellectual awakening is a real art. Surely
no preparation can be fully complete unless it involves:

The More Immediate Problems in Teaching 91

The selection of an aim.
The orderly organization of material.
The collecting of rich illustrations.
The pondering of facts to their application.
The formulating of at least a few thoroughly
stimulating questions.

Can we not agree to these steps as fundamental in the
proper preparation of our lessons in all of our Church
organizations?

With the subject matter well in mind — the work behind
the scenes completed, the teacher is then prepared for the
problem of presentation — is ready to appear on the stage
of class activity. The first outstanding problem in lesson
presentation is that of the Point of Contact. This is a
phrase variously interpreted and often misunderstood. Per-
haps it is not the happiest expression we could wish, but
it is so generally used and is so signficant when understood
that we ought to standardize it and interpret it as it affects
our Church work.

When a class assembles for recitation purposes its mem-
bers present themselves with all kinds of mental attitudes
and mind content. The various groups of a Mutual class
may have been engaged in all sorts of activities just before
entering their classroom. One group may have been dis-
cussing politics; another may have been engaged in a game
of ball; a third may have been practicing as a quartette;
and still a fourth may have been busy at office work. Facing
such a collection of groups stands a teacher who for an
hour or more has dismissed all temporal matters, and has
been pondering the spiritual significance of prayer. Evi-
dently there is a great mental chasm between them. Their
coming together and thinking on common ground involves

92 Principles of Teaching

the Point of Contact. There must be contact if an influ-
ence for good is to be exerted. Either the teacher must
succeed in bringing the boys to where he is "in thought,"
or he must go to "where they are."

Teachers in Bible lessons all too frequently hurry off
into the Holy Land, going back some two thouand years,
and leaving their pupils in Utah and in the here and
the present. No wonder that pupils say of such a teacher,
"We don't 'get' him." To proceed without preparing the
minds of pupils for the message and discussion of the lesson
is like planting seed without having first plowed and pre-
pared the ground.

In the Bible lesson, it would be easy to bridge over from
the interests of today to those of Bible days. Suppose our
lesson is on Joseph who was sold into Egypt. Instead of
proceeding at once with a statement as to the parentage of
Joseph, etc., we might well center the interests of these
various-minded boys on a current observation of today — a
wonderfully fine harvest field of grain. They have all seen
that. Make a striking observation relative to the grain,
or put a question that will lead them to do that for you.
Having raised an issue, you continue by inquiring whether
or not the same conditions have prevailed elsewhere and at
other times. Did they prevail in the days of Israel? The
step then to the story of Joseph's dream, etc., is an easy one.

This illustration, though simple and more or less crude,
indicates that to establish a point of contact, we must reach
out to where the pupil now is, and lead easily and naturally
to where you would have him go. Surely we cannot pre-
sume that he has already traveled the same intellectual road
that we have gone over.

Suppose we face a group of adolescent boys to teach them
a lesson on the importance of their attending church. If

The More Immediate Problems in Teaching 93

we proceed with a preachment on their duties and obliga-
tions, we are quite certain to lose their interest. Boys do
not like to be preached at.

We know, however, that they are interested in automo-
biles. By starting out with some vital observation or ques-
tion out of the automobile world, we may count on their
attention. Following the discussion thus raised, we might
then inquire the purpose of the garages that we find along
all public highways. We could dwell upon the significance
of repairs in maintaining the efficiency of cars. Now we
are prepared for the query, Is it not essential that we have
spiritual garages for the souls of men, garages where sup-
plies and repairs may be had?

The "gas" of faith.

The "oil" of consolation.

The "adjustment" of repentance.

The "charging" of our spiritual batteries, etc.

Once led into the subject, boys can be made to see that
spiritual problems are even more vital than material ones.

The point of contact established, we next face the matter
of Lesson Statement. The subject matter must either be in
mind already because of home preparation, or the teacher
must supply it. In the smaller classes the teacher generally
will have to tell in good part what he wishes to convey; in
the larger classes, there are the possibilities of home prep-
aration, topical reports, the lecture, and the socialized reci-
tation built up by questions and discussions. It is not in-
tended here to discuss the various methods of lesson presen-
tation— the thought being simply that in some way the les-
son statement must be presented.

Then there is the problem of connecting up the present
lesson with those that have already been presented. The

94 Principles of Teaching

review is a vital factor in fixing in the mind the relative
value of material covered.

Then, too, there is the matter of questioning to test
knowledge and stimulate discussion, together with the
weaving in of illustrative material that has already been
thought out or which may suggest itself as the lesson pro-
gresses. If, as all this material has been presented, the
application has been made sufficiently clear to the pupils,
the presentation is complete; otherwise avenues of action
should be pointed out, care being taken to stimulate rather
than to moralize.

In conclusion, then, we have the matter of preparation
as follows:

Preparation

A^

; it involves suhj*

ect

As it involves pres

matter:

entation:

1.

The Aim

Point of Contact

2.

Organization

Lesson Statement

3.

Illustration

Review

4.

Application

Illustration

5.

Questions

Application

Questions and Suggestions — Chapter XIV

1. Discuss the helpfulness of having a definite procedure in the
matter of lesson preparation.

2. Point out the differences between lesson preparation and lesson
presentation.

3. Name and discuss the essential steps in preparing a lesson.

4. To what extent would you favor adopting these steps as the
fundamental processes?

5. Discuss the meaning and significants of "The Point of Con-
tact."

The More Immediate Problems in Teaching 95

6. Why is some kind of lesson statement a prerequisite to a good
recitation?

7. Show how this statement may be made.

8. What do you consider your most valuable device in the prep-
aration of a lesson?

9. Discuss the importance of filing away the material looked up
in the preparation of the regular work of teaching.

10. Indicate some of the best methods of filing.

Helpful References

Betts, How to Teach Religion; Weigle, Talks to Sunday School
Teachers; Thomdike, Principles of Teaching; Strayer and Nors-
worthy, How to Teach; Earhart, Types of Teaching; Bctts, Classroom
Method in Management; Bagley, Classroom Management.

CHAPTER XV

ORGANIZING A LESSON

Outline — Chapter XV

A review of the steps in lesson preparation. — The values of out-
lining.— Objections answered. — Outlining a means, not an end. — ^The
essentials in outlining. — An illustrative outline on prayer.

Preparing a lesson is no easy matter, particularly for
those teachers who are new to the calling. There are those,
of course, for whom reading an assigned chapter through
constitutes a preparation, but to the successful teacher this
preliminary reading is only the initial step in the process.
Adequate preparation involves the following questions:

What aim shall I select out of the material available as
the focus for my day's work?

How shall I build about that aim a body of facts that
will establish it as a fundamental truth in life?

How shall I illustrate the truths presented so that they
will strike home in the experiences of my boys and girls?

How shall I make sure that members of the class will
go out from the recitation to put into practice the teach-
ings of the day?

What questions ought I to ask to emphasize the outstand-
ing points of my lesson?

What method of presentation can I most safely follow
to make my lesson effective?

How may I discipline my class so that no disturbances
will interfere with our discussions?

Reduced to simple terms, the matter of preparation to-
gether with presentation. Involves the problems of

Organization Application

Aim Methods of presentation

Illustration Questioning

Organizing a Lesson 97

It is difficult to single out any one factor and treat it as
if it were independent of the others — teaching is a complex
art with all of these factors inseparably contributing to the
results desired — but, for purposes of clearness, may we not
proceed to give attention to each in its turn that in the end
the teaching process may the more definitely stand out in
all its aspects?

For convenience, then, let us in this chapter consider
the problem of organization. How to outline a lesson is
one of the most fundamental considerations involved in
the teaching process. In fact, it is doubtful whether there
is any one more helpful attainment than the ability clearly
to outline subject matter. It not only enables the teacher
to proceed systematically, thereby insuring clearness and
adequate treatment of a lesson, but it makes it so easy and
profitable for a class to follow the discussion. Outlining
to teaching is what organization is to business. Just as the
aim points out the goal we seek, so the outline indicates the
route we shall follow to attain the goal. Outlining is
simply surveying the road before the concrete is laid.

Occasionally a teacher objects to outlining on the ground
that it is too mechanical — that it destroys spontaneity and
the flow of the Spirit of the Lord. It has always seemed
to the writer that the Spirit of the Lord is quite as pleased
to follow a straight path as it is to follow a crooked one.
Outlining is not in any sense a substitute for inspiration —
it is merely a guarantee, by way of preparation, that the
teacher has done his part and can in good conscience ask
for that spiritual aid and guidance which he then is entitled
to. The fact that order is a law of heaven rather indicates
that there is no divine injunction against outlining.

Of course, outlining is not an end in itself — it is a means
merely to more systematic procedure. Two difficulties fre-

98 Principles of Teaching

quently attach to outlining: one is that the outhne is made
so complex that it hinders rather than helps in the matter
of clearness; the other is that a teacher may become "out-
line bound," in which case his teaching becomes mechanical
and labored. Such a teacher illustrates clearly the force
of the passage, "The letter killeth, but the spirit giveth
life."

But if the outline is made simple — if it is considered as
merely a skeleton upon which is to be built the lesson — it
is one of the greatest assets a teacher can have. Perhaps
we can make the matter clearest by going through the proc-
ess of outlining a lesson, indicating the essential steps in-
volved.

Suppose we are asked to prepare a lesson on prayer.
Keep in mind that in such a preparation we face the prob-
lems listed at the beginning of this chapter: the aim, the
illustration, the application, etc., and keep in mind also
that each of these subjects will be taken up in its turn and
that for the present we are concerned primarily with the
query, "How can I organize a lesson on prayer?" Let us
assume, too, that we are preparing this lesson for young
men and women about twenty years of age.

First of all, I must decide why I am to teach the sub-
ject of prayer. In view of the fact that the matter of the
aim is to be considered fully in the succeeding chapter,
suppose we agree that our purpose in this lesson shall be
to establish prayer as a habit of life.

Step number one, then, is the selection of an aim — a
focus for the thought of the lesson.

Step number two is the collection of random thoughts.
As I begin to ponder the subject of prayer and its influ-

Organizing a Lesson 99

ence on life, all sorts of ideas crowd into my mind. Per-
haps I read some one's discussion of prayer — perhaps I
talk to a friend relative to it — perhaps I just ran the subject
over in my mind. The thoughts that come to me may be
vague and wholly disconnected. My immediate concern is
content — order will come later. And so I jot down, either
in my mind or on paper, such ideas as these:

"Prayer is the soul's sincere desire."
The Song "Sweet hour of prayer."
What is the use of prayer?
Are prayers answered?
How often should I pray?

Does the Lord hear and answer our prayers, or do we answer them
ourselves?
What kinds of prayers are there?
How may I know how to pray?
Should prayers always be answered affirmatively?
What are the characteristics of a good prayer?
What prayers have impressed me most?

And so I go on. My task in step two is to scout about
intellectually in search of available, suitable material.
Many of my jottings may duplicate others already set
down; others may not be appropriate for my need; still
others may be wholly irrelevant. But I am seeking a wealth
of material that I may make my recitation as rich as
possible.

Now, step three becomes a process of correlation and
elimination — a process of hitting upon my main headings
— setting up the milestones to mark my course of develop-
ment. And I so sift the material in my mind and sort it
out under appropriate captions. After a good bit of intel-
lectual rummaging about, I find that my random thoughts
on prayer fall rather naturally into four main divisions,
each capable of expression in a question:

100 Principles of Teaching

I. What is prayer?

II. Why should I pray?

III. How should I pray?

IV. When should I pray?

But now that I have these major headings, I still face
the problems of enriching them and elaborating them so
that they will have body enough to stand. In other words,
I build up my sub-headings. Under the first question, for
instance, I group these thoughts:

I. What Is Prayer?

1. It is communion with God.

2. It is the key to God's storehouse.

3. It is the key to God's heart.

4. It is "The soul's sincere desire."

5. It is the great anchor of faith.

Under question two, I group:

II. Why Should I Pray?

1. Because I am commanded of the Lord to pray.

2. Because through prayer I keep in tune with the Spirit
of the Lord.

3. Because it is through prayer that I acknowledge the
goodness of God.

4. Because through prayer I petition for needed blessings.

5. Because through prayer I establish and preserve an atti-
tude of humility.

Under question three:

III. How Should I Pray?

1. Simply.

2. Sincerely.

3. In spirit.

4. After the pattern of His prayer.

5. In secret as well as in public.

Under question four:

IV. When Should I Pray?

1. Regularly.

2. Morning and evening.

3. To meet special needs.

4. My attitude should always be one of prayerfulness.

Organizing a Lesson

101

This matter of organization may be diagrammatically
illustrated as follows:

Random Thoughts
The hymn

Organized Thoughts

Jine i>orig

I. What is Prayer?

What is the use
of prayer?

Focus

or

Aim

To establish

prayer as a

life habit.

II. Why Should I Pray?

Are prayers an-
swered?

How often should
I pray?

III. How Should I Pray?

IV. When Should I Pray?

What are the

a good prayer,
etc.?

In short, organizing involves the search for thought
and the bringing of order out of chaos. Having selected
the aim, the main headings, and the sub-headings, we now
face step four — the enriching of these sub-headings in illus-
tration, incident, etc., so that we may link up these thoughts
with the experience of our pupils. We may think of so
much stimulating material that during the ordinary class
hour we can cover well only one of these questions. Our
purpose and the needs of the class must determine the ex-
tent of our detail. The actual material that could be used
to enrich this lesson on prayer will be given in the chapter
on illustration.

Step five involves the problem of application, or "carry-
over into life" — a subject to which another chapter will
be devoted. Of course, we ought to say here, in passing,
that application is not something added to or "tacked on"

102 Principles of Teaching

a lesson. It may be emphasized at the close of a lesson,
but in reality it pervades and is inherent in the whole
lesson.

Questions and Suggestions — Chapter XV

1. What is meant by calling teaching a composite process?

2. Point out the essential advantages in outlining lessons.

3. Show how outlining is not in conflict with inspiration.

4. Name the essential steps in lesson organization.

5. Choose a subject from one of the manuals now in use in one
of our organizations and build up a typical lesson.

Heijpful References
Those listed in Chapter XIV.

CHAPTER XVI

ILLUSTRATING AND SUPPLEMENTING A LESSON

Outline — Chapter XVI

The force of illustrations. — Three kinds of illustration material:
1. maps; 2. pictures; 3. incidents. — The force of maps and map
drawing. — The appeal of good pictures.

Illustrations
Illustrative material for a lesson on prayer.

Having discussed the organization of a lesson together
with the formulation of the aim, let us now turn to the
problem of illustrating and supplementing a lesson. In
organizing a subject for teaching we drive the nails of
major thoughts — through illustration we clinch those nails
so that they will be less likely to pull out of the memory.

The three chief classes of illustrative and supplementary
material are:

Maps, pictures, incidents — actual, imaginary.

It is clear that in the lesson outlined on prayer, in chapter
fourteen, we should have little occasion for the use of a
map. We can, however, in connection with that lesson,
point out the force of pictures and incidents.

Maps naturally are of greatest service in lessons with
historical and geographical background. The journeyings
of Israel mean so much more to us when we can follow
them from place to place on a good map. So the Book of
Mormon account clears up if we are similarly guided.
Had we authentic maps of the lands named in the Book
of Mormon, how much clearer and more interesting the his-
tory would become! We would know the exact spot on our

104 Principles of Teaching

present-day maps where Lehi and his family landed from
their heaven-directed barges; we would know where to find
the land Bountiful; where may now be found the ancient
site of the City of Zarahemla; where flows the River Sidon;
what country is indicated by the "land northward"; the
journeys of the Nephites as they were being driven; what
states saw there continued struggles against their inveterate
enemies, the Lamanites, and how they reached their final
battle-ground near the Hill Cumorah. To visit with Jesus
in Palestine adds a charm to the New Testament that is
really hard to evaluate, and surely the travels of our own
pioneers call for the aid of a good map. Thoroughly to
appreciate all that they did requires that we travel over
the wonderful trail they followed — that being impossible,
the next nearest approach is to see actually drawn out the
magnitude of their achievement. The appeal to the eye
couples so forcefully with the appeal to the ear that no
classroom ought to be without its maps. Perhaps it is not
beyond possibilities to conceive that at a not distant date
we shall have made available films for class use to intensify
the great lessons we draw from history.

Pictures make a wonderful appeal, particularly so to
children. It is impossible to measure the inspirational ap-
peal that a single masterpiece exerts on a class of boys and
girls. A theological class in one of the Sunday Schools of
Salt Lake County was once blessed with a most magnetic
and powerful teacher. Upon his death, the class had his
picture framed and hung on the front wall of the room in
which he had taught. From that day to this the silent in-
spiration of that picture has stimulated scores of young
men and women to the high ideals for which he stood.

Illustrating and Supplementing a Lesson 105

More generally applicable and more easily available, of
course, is the Incident. The ability to tell a story is one
of the finest attainments of the teacher — particularly if he
will take the pains to find vigorously wholesome and appro-
priate ones. May we repeat the warning that stories ought
not to be told merely to fill out the hour, nor to tickle the
ears of the class, but to intensify and heighten the truths
contained in our lessons.

Included under the heading Incident may be listed short
poems and all kinds of literary bits that fit in appropriately
as spice to a lesson. On the subject Prayer, the following
are some possibilities:

Under question I, "What is prayer?" the hymn, "Prayer
Is the Soul's Sincere Desire."

Prayer is the soul's sincere desire,

Uttered or unexpressed;
The motion of a hidden fire

That trembles in the breast.

Prayer is the burden of a sigh.

The falling of a tear,
The upward glancing of an eye,

When none but God is near.

Prayer is the simplest form of speech

Tliat infant lips can try;
Prayer, the subhmest strains that reach

The Majesty on high.

Prayer is the Christian's vital breath.

The Christian's native air;
His watchword at the gates of death;

He enters heav'n with prayer.

Prayer is the contrite sinner's vr)ice

Returning from his ways.
While angels in their songs rejoice,

And cry, "Behold, he prays I"

The Saints in prayer appear as one

In word and deed and mind.
While with the Father and the Son

Their fellowship they find.

106 PwNciPLES OF Teaching

Nor prayer is made on earth alone, —

The Holy Spirit pleads.
And Jesus, on the Father's throne.

For sinners intercedes.

O thou by whom we come to God,

The Life, the Truth, the Way!
The path of prayer Thyself has trod;

Lord, teach us how to pray!

The two songs: "Sweet Hour of Prayer," "Did You Think
to Pray?"

"For my soul delighteth in the song of the heart, yea, the song of
the righteous is a prayer unto me, and it shall be answered with a
blessing upon their heads." (Doc. & Gov., Sec. 25:12.)

The following selection:

"Prayer — sweet breath from out a joyous heart wafting gratitude
to Heaven.

"Prayer — a sacred confidence between a fearful soul and God.

"Prayer — a holy balm which soothes and heals the scars in a
wounded breast.

"Prayer — an angel's kiss on the longing lips of loneliness.

"Prayer — a rod that bars the way between the human soul and sin.

"Prayer — a choking sob of anguish from pain-drawn lips in plea
for help."

Under question 11. "Why should I pray?"

"And that thou mayest more fully keep thyself unspotted from the
world, thou shalt go to the house of prayer and offer up thy sacra-
ments upon my holy day." (Doc. & (IIov., Sec. 59:9.)

"Pray always that you enter not into temptation, that you may
abide the day of his coming, whether in life or in death. Even .so.
Amen." (Doc. & Gov., Sec. 61:39.)

"Remember that that which cometh from above is sacred, and
must be spoken with care, and by constraint of the Spirit, and in
this there is no condemnation, and ye receive the Spirit through
prayer; wherefore, without this there remaineth condemnation."
(Doc. & Gov., Sec. 63:64.)

"The keys of the kingdom of God are committed unto man on
the earth, and from thence shall the gospel roll forth unto the ends
of the earth, as the stone which is cut out of the mountain without
hands shall roll forth, until it has filled the whole earth;

Illustrating and Supplementing a Lesson 107

"Yea, a voice crying — Prepare ye the way of the Lord, prepare ye
the supper of the Lamb, make ready for the Bridegroom;

"Pray unto the Lord, call upon his holy name, make known his
wonderful works among the people;

"Call upon the Lord, that his kingdom may go forth upon the
earth, that the inhabitants thereof may receive it, and be prepared
for the days to come, in the which the Son of man shall come down
in heaven, clothed in the brightness of his glory, to meet the king-
dom of God which is set up on the earth;

"Wherefore may the kingdom of God go forth, that the kingdom
of heaven may come, that thou, O God, mayest be glorified in heaven
so on earth, that thy enemies may be subdued; for thine is the
honor, power and glory, for ever and ever. Amen." (Doc. & Gov.,
Sec. 65:2-6.)

"Watch and pray, that ye enter not into temptation: the Spirit
indeed is willing, but the flesh is weak." (Matt. 26:42.)

The following incidents were related by a member of
the B. Y. U. Course and are typical of scores of others
available for this lesson:

Brother Hunter's Account of the Manifestation of the Successor
to the Prophet Joseph

"There was a great deal of discussion among the brethren and sis-
ters as to who should lead the Church; some thought it should be the
Prophet's son; some, one of his counselors, and some the President
of the Quorum of the Twelve. I was at a loss to come to any con-
clusion. It worried me considerably and I prayed earnestly that God
would make known to me who it should be, but without avail.

"I went to the meeting that had been called and listened thought-
fully to what was said and done. The longer I listened the more
mystified I became. I bowed my head in my hands and prayed for
God to give me understanding. While I was in this attitude, Brother
Brigham arose to speak, I suppose. I heard a voice — the Prophet's
voice as natural and true as I ever heard it. I raised up quickly,
fully expecting to see the Prophet, and I did. There he stood and
there he spoke. I listened breathlessly. The form of the Prophc.
gradually changed to that of Brother Brigham, but the voice was
not Brother Brigham's. It was still the Prophet's. Then beside
Brother Brigham I saw the Prophet, who turned toward the speaker
and smiled. My heart beat rapidly with joy and I knew beyond
the shadow of a doubt that Brother Brigham was called of God to
lead the Church."

Brother Huntsman's Baby Healed

"A fine, plump baby girl had come to the Huntsman home. As
weeks and months passed and the child failed to use its lower limbs.

108 Principles of Teaching

a doctor was called and pronounced the trouble infantile paralysis.
He said that it would never walk, for experience had showed that
whenever this affliction affected the lower part of the body the med-
ical profession could not cure it.

"The Huntsman people were faithful Latter-day Saints and did not
give up hope, but called in the Elders. After a time conference was
held at Shelley and Elder David O. McKay and one other of the
general Church authorities were in attendance — I don't remember
who. After the afternoon session the child was administered to.
While sealing the anointing, Brother McKay promised the child the
use of its limbs and every organ of the body.

"That night it began to move them, and the next morning stood
alone by the aid of chairs. In a few days it walked, although being
fairly Heshy, Soon after I moved away from Shelley, but a year or so
afterwards I had occasion to go to Idaho Falls and there I met
Brother and Sister Huntsman. The child was with them and ran
and played as other children."

A Psychology Student Receives Aid

"A friend of mine who was a student in an eastern university told
the following incident of how the Lord came to his aid.

"The psychology class while studying the relationship of the brain
to life and intelligence entered into a discussion as to the nature of
intelligence, and in some way the teachings of the Prophet Joseph
Smith were brought into the discussion and jeered at, by all mem-
bers except my friend, who was a "Mormon." His defense brought
forth ridicule and intensified the discussion.

"As the class period had expired without completing the argument,
a week from that day was the time set to complete it. Of course,
my friend felt that he should do all possible to defend the attitude
of the Church, so he studied, fasted and prayed, to secure the aid
of inspiration, for he well knew that nothing but scientific proof
would be accepted.

"The day came and he realized that he was illy prepared, but still
hoped for divine assistance. During the giving of evidence to dis-
pose of the existence of intelligence separate from the workings of
the brain, and ridiculing the existence of a spirit, he prayed silently
and earnestly.

"His turn came and he arose to speak. After the opening sentences
he glanced down on the paper for his evidence and found a strangf;
handwriting there. He says a peculiar power took possession of him.
He spoke rapidly and fluently, he declared, without comprehending
or at least remembering what he said. As he finished, his own
writing was on the paper and he knew not what had been spoken,
but there was no evidence offered to offset it.

"The professor asked him to give the names of the books from
which he obtained his points, and on being told that God gave them
to him, he replied, 'It's strange, but I can't believe such nonsense.' "

Illustrating and Supplementing a Lesson 109

Under question III. "How should I pray?"

The Lord's Prayer as a pattern.
The prayer in Gethsemane.

The Bee-Keeper's prayer — 1920, June number of Young
Woman's Journal.

"And again, I command thee that thou shalt pray vocally as well
as well as in private." (Doc. & Gov., Sec. 19:28.)

"Therefore I say unto you. What things soever ye desire, when ye
pray, believe that ye receive them, and ye shall have them." (Mark
11:24.)

"At that day ye shall ask in my name: and I say unto you, that
I will pray the Father for you." (John 16:26.)

Under question IV. "When should I pray?"

"He shall pray unto God, and he will be favourable unto him:
and he shall see his face with joy: for he will render unto man his
righteousness." (Job 33:26.)

"And now concerning the residue, let them journey and declare
the world among the congregations of the wicked, inasmuch as it
is given." (Doc. & Gov., Sec. 61:33.)

"Draw near unto me and I will draw near unto you: seek me dili-
gently and ye shall find me; ask and ye shall receive; knock and it
shall be opened unto you;

"Whatsoever ye ask the Father in my name it shall be given unto
you, that is expedient for you." (Doc. & Gov., Sec. 88:63-64.)

"Pray always that you enter not into temptation, that you may
abide the day of his coming, whether in life or in death." (Doc. &
Gov., Sec. 61:39.)

"Therefore let the Ghurch take heed and pray always, lest they
fall into temptation." (Doc. & Gov., Sec. 20:33.)

"Behold, I manifest unto you, Joseph Knight, by these words, that
you must take up your cross, in the which you must pray vocally
before the world as well as in secret, and in your family, and among
your friends, and in all places." (Doc. & Gov., Sec. 23:6.)

"Yea, cry unto him for mercy; for he is mighty to save.

"Yea, humble yourselves, and continue in prayer unto him;

"Gry unto him when ye are in your fields; yea, over all your flocks;

"Gry unto him in your houses; yea, over all your household, both
morning, mid-day and evening;

"Yea, cry unto him against the power of your enemies;

"Yea, cry unto him against the devil, who is an enemy to all
righteousness

110 Principles of Teaching

"Cry unto him over the crops of your fields, that ye may prosper
in them:

"Cry over the flocks in your fields, that they may increase.

"But this is not all; ye must pour out your sf>uis in your closets,
and your secret places, and in your wilderness;

"Yea, and when you do not cry unto the Lord, let your hearts be
full, drawn out in prayer unto him continually for your welfare,
and also for the welfare of those who are around you.

"And now behold, my beloved brethren, I say unto you, do not
suppose that this is all; for after ye have done all these things, if
ye turn away the needy, and the naked, and visit not the sick and
afflicted, and impart of your substance, if ye have, to those who stand
in need; I say unto you, if ye do not any of these things, behold,
your prayer is vain, and availeth you nothing, and ye are as hypo-
crites who do deny the faith;

"Therefore, if ye do not remember to be charitable, ye are as
dross, which the refiners do cast out, (it being of no worth), and is
trodden underfoot of men." (Alma 34:18-29.)

Questions and Suggestions — Chapter XVI

1. Why need we illustrate general truths?

2. Discuss the value of having pupils draw up their own maps.

3. Give out of your own experience illustrations of the force of
pictures.

4. Point out the value in teaching of appealing to more than one
of the senses.

5. Discuss the importance of good stories in teaching.

6. What are the characteristics of a good illustrative story?

7. Take an ordinarily commonplace subject and show how to
illustrate it.

, Helpful References

Those listed in Chapter XIV.

Also Pictures in Religious Education, by Frederica Beard.

CHAPTER XVII

THE AIM

Outline — Chapter XVII

Two illustrations of the value of an aim. — Significance of the aim
in religious training. — Inadequacy of eleventh-hour preparation. — The
teacher's obligation to see through facts to truths that lie beyond.

What an aim is. — Illustration. — How to determine the aim. — How
to express it.

The late Jacob Riis, noted author and lecturer, used to
tell a very inspirational story on the force of having some-
thing to focus attention upon. According to his story, cer-
tain men who lived just outside of Chicago, in its early
history, had great difficulty walking to and from work dur-
ing stormy weather, because of the almost impassably
muddy conditions of the sidewalks. After trudging through
mud and slush for a long time, they conceived the idea of
laying a plank walk through the worst sections. And so
they laid two six- inch planks side by side. The scheme
helped wonderfully, except on short winter days when the
men had to go to work in the darkness of early morning
and return in the darkness of evening. It often was so dark
that they would step off the planks, and once off they were
about as muddy as if there had been no walk at all. Finally
someone suggested the idea that if a lantern were hung up
at each end of the walk it would then be easy to fix the
eye upon the lantern and keep on the walk. The suggestion
was acted upon, and thereafter the light of the lantern did
hold them to the plank. Jacob Riis argued that the lantern
of an ideal held aloft would similarly hold young men in
life's path of righteousness.

A similar story is told of a farmer who experienced great
difficulty in keeping a particular hen inside the run which

112 Principles of Teaching

he had built outside the hen house. He had put up a wire
fence high enough, as he thought, to keep in the most ambi-
tious chicken. In fact, he argued that no hen could fly
over it. One hen persisted in getting out regularly, though
the farmer could never discover how she did it. Finally
he decided to lay for her (she laid for him regularly). To
his great surprise, he watched her walk around the run
carefully surveying it as she proceeded. At length she
caught sight of a beam running along the top of the wire
just above the gate. With her eye fixed upon it she made
one mighty effort and was over.

The moral of the two stories is self-evident. Both hens
and men can "go over" if they have something to aim at.
It is so in life generally, and what is true of life generally
is particularly true in the matter of teaching. The aim
is one of the most significant features in the teaching
process.

The teacher who knows where he is going can always
get followers.

Important as is the aim in all educational endeavor, it is
doubly so in religious training. We teach religiously not
merely to build up facts or make for mental power; we
teach to mold character. We should see through facts,
therefore, to the fundamental truth lying behind and be-
yond them. Such a truth constitutes an aim in religious
instruction.

One of the most regrettable facts connected with some
of our teaching is that teachers leave the preparation of
their lessons until the few minutes just preceding their reci-
tation hour. They then hurry through a mass of facts,
rush into class and mull over these dry husks, unable in
the rush even to see the kernel of truth lying within. Little
wonder pupils tire of such rations. It is the teacher's obli-

The Aim 113

gation to "see through" and discover the gems that really
make lessons worth while.

Forty-five minutes once a week is so meagre an allotment
of time for the teaching of the greatest principles of life!
Surely every one of those minutes should be sacredly
guarded for the consideration of vital truths. The aim,
coupled with careful organization, is one of the best safe-
guards possible.

The aim is the great focus for a lesson's thought. It is
the center about which all else revolves. It specifies what
shall be included and what excluded out of the great mass
of available material. A single chapter of scripture may
contain truths enough for a dozen lessons, only one of
which can be treated in any one recitation. The aim singles
out what can be appropriately grouped under one unified
discussion.

If we turn, for instance, to the ninth chapter of Matthew,
we find at least eight different major incidents, each one
deserving a lesson in itself. There is the case of:

The palsy.

The charge of blasphemy.

The glorifying of God by the multitude.

The calling of Matthew.

The statement that only the sick need the physician.

The case of new cloth and the old garment.

The raising of the daughter of Jairus.

The healing of the two blind men.

It is perfectly clear that all of these incidents could not
be adequately considered in any one lesson. Assuming
that the teacher is free to handle this ninth chapter as he
pleases, we are forced to the conclusion that knowing his
class, as he does, he must choose that incident or that com-

114 Principles of Teaching

bination of incidents which will mean most in the lives of
his pupils. In other words, he centers his attention upon
one major central truth — his aim. By so doing he guards
against wandering and inadequacy of treatment and makes
for the unified presentation of one forceful thought.

It ought to be pointed out here that every teacher must
be the judge as to what constitutes for him the best aim.
It is quite clear that any one teacher could find in this ninth
chapter of Matthew at least four or five worthy aims. Three
different teachers could possibly find as many more, each
equally worthy of development. All other things being
equal, that aim is best which most completely and force-
fully covers the chapter or passage in question. To illus-
trate: Suppose we are asked to teach a lesson on the
Prodigal Son. One aim that could be chosen clearly is
that of jealousy on the part of the prodigal's brother. A
second one might be repentance, as typified in the action
of the prodigal. Still a third might be the compassion and
forgiveness of the father, as typical of those same qualities
in our heavenly Father. Which, to you, is the most force-
ful and significant? That one to you is your best aim.

The wording of the aim is a matter that gives rise to a
good bit of disagreement. There are those who maintain
that if the aim announces the subject as a sort of heading
that is sufficient. Others contend that the aim should crys-
tallize into axiomatic form the thought of the lesson. Of
course, the real force of the aim lies in its serving as the
focus of thought. The wording of it is of secondary im-
portance. And yet it is very excellent practice to reduce
to formal statement the truth to be presented. It is helpful
to adopt the ruling that the aim should express both a cause
and a result. Perhaps an illustration would indicate the
difference between the aim stated as a mere heading, and

The Aim 115

stated fully and formally. Take the case of the daughter
of Jairus already referred to,

Mere Headings:

Daughter of Jairus restored, or
The power of faith.

Formal Aim:

Implicit faith in God wins His choicest
blessings.

Surely the latter is a more significant expression and
offers better training to the teacher than the setting down
of mere headings.

The ability thus to crystallize out of a great variety of
facts a single focusing statement, coupled with the ability
then to build about that statement a clearly organized am-
plification, is the sign of a real teacher. Instead of gen-
eralizing further, let us turn to the questions on this lesson
where some laboratory exercises are set down calling for
actual practice in the selection and justification of a num-
ber of aims.

Questions and Suggestions — Chapter XVII

1. What is an aim?

2. Why is it particularly essential to good religious teaching?

3. What are the objections to "eleventh-hour" preparation?

4. To what extent is a teacher handicapped in deciding upon
an aim for another teacher to follow?

5. Turn to the following references and determine what possible
aims might be developed under each. Is any aim adequate for the
whole reference? In each case which do you consider your best
aim? Why? How much of the reference would you include in a
single lesson?

John, Chapter I; Isaiah, Chapter II; III Nephi, Chapter X; Doc-
trine & Covenants, Section 87.

Helpful References

Colgrove, The Teacher and the School; Betts, How to Teach
Religion; Driggs, The Art of Teaching; Strayer and Norsworihy,
How to Teach

CHAPTER XVIII

APPLICATION

Outline — Chapter XVIII

The question of application. — The matter a complex one. — Various
conceptions of the term as it affects the intellect, the emotions, or
the will. — Application may be immediate or delayed. — How to make
the application. — Illustrations. — Making the application and moraliz-
ing.— Utah moral codes as objectives behind our teaching.

Application is one of the most important subjects in the
whole range of religious education. It is also one concern-
ing which there are greater varieties of opinions than con-
cerning almost any other subject.

What is application?

How is it made?

Is it inherent in the lesson, or is it added as a sort of
supplement to the lesson?

When is it best made?

Does it always involve action?

These questions are only typical of the uncertainty that
exists relative to this term.

Application really goes to the very heart of all teaching.
Colloquially expressed, it raises the question in teaching,
"What's the use?" Why should certain subject matter be
presented to a class? How are class members better for
having considered particular facts? In short, application
involves the question, "What is the carry-over value of the
lesson?"

It is impossible to dispose adequately of the matter of
application in a single statement. It fairly epitomizes the
whole process of teaching and therefore is so comprehen-
sive that it calls for analysis. The ultimate purpose behind

Application 117

teaching, of course, as behind all life, is salvation. But
salvation is not had in a day. It is not the result of a
single act, nor does it grow out of particular thoughts and
aspirations. Salvation is achieved as a sum total of all that
we think, say, do, and are. Any lesson, therefore, that
makes pupils better in thought, word, deed, or being, has
had to that extent its application.

Application of a lesson involves, then, the making sure,
on the part of the teacher, that the truths taught carry over
into the life of the pupil and modify it for good. Someone
has said that the application has been made when a pupil

"Knows more.
Feels better.
Acts more nobly,"

as a result of the teaching done. There is a prevalent con-
ception that application has been made in a recitation only
when pupils go out from a recitation and translate the prin-
ciple studied into immediate action. There are lessons
where such applications can be made and, of course, they
are to be commended. Particularly are they valuable in
the case of young children. But surely there are other
justifiable interpretations to the term application.

We need to remind ourselves that there are three distinct
types of subject matter that constitute the body of our teach-
ing material. These are, first of all, those lessons which
are almost wholly intellectual. Debates are conducted by
the hundreds on subjects that lead not to action but to
clearer judgment. Classes study subjects by the month for
the purpose of satisfying intellectual hunger. Such ques-
tions, for instance, as "Succession in the Presidency," or
the "Nature of the Godhead" — questions gone into by thor-

118 Principles of Teaching

oughly converted Latter-day Saints, not to bring themselves
into the Church, nor to lead themselves into any other kind
of action except the satisfying of their own souls as to the
truth. In other words, it appears clear that there may be
application on a purely intellectual level. Application
upon application is made until a person builds up a struc-
ture of faith that stands upon the rock in the face of all
difficulties.

A second type of lessons appeals to the emotions. They
aim to make pupils feel better. They may or may not lead
to immediate action. Ideally, of course, every worthy emo-
tion aroused should find, if possible, suitable channels for
expression. Pent up emotions may become positively
harmful. The younger the pupils the more especially is
this true. Practically every educator recognizes this fact
and gives expression to it in language similar to the follow-
ing quotation from Professor S. H. Clark:

"Never awaken an emotion unless, at the same time, you strive
to open a channel through vi^hich the emotion may pass into the
realm of elevated action. If we are studying the ideals of literature,
religion, etc., with our class, we have failed in the highest duty of
teaching if we have not given them the ideal, if we have not given
them, by means of some suggestion, the opportunity for realizing
the ideal. If there is an emotion excited in our pupils through a
talk on ethics or sociology, it matters not, we fail in our duty, if
we do not take an occasion at once to guide that emotion so that
it may express itself in elevated action."

And yet there is a question whether this insistence upon
action may not be exaggerated. Abraham Lincoln wit-
nessed an auction sale of slaves in his younger days. He
did not go out immediately and issue an emancipation
proclamation, and yet there are few who can doubt that
that auction sale registered an application in an ideal that
persisted in the mind of Lincoln through all those years
preceding our great civil war.

Application 119

Many a man has been saved in the hour of temptation,
in his later life, by the vividness of the recollection of
sacred truths taught at his mother's knee. There may be
just a little danger of cheapening the process of application
if it is insisted that for every ideal impressed upon the
minds of pupils there must be a corresponding immediate
response in daily actions of the pupils taught. May not a
wonderful impression become the more v^^onderful as it is
hallowed by the pondering of the mind through the matur-
ing years of childhood and young manhood?

Finally there is the lesson which, though it involves both
the intellect and the emotions, appeals primarily to the will
and calls for action. There can be no question but that
this is the type of lesson of greatest significance in religious
education. We meet our pupils so infrequently, at best,
that at most we can do but a fraction of what we should
like to do to modify their lives. Our concern is to change
for the better their attitude and conduct, and therefore we
must address ourselves to the problems they face in the
every- day life which they are to live between recitations.
As Betts in his How to Teach Religion so well says:

"In the last analysis the child does not come to us that he may
learn this or that set of facts, nor that he may develop such and
such a group of feelings, but that through these he may live better.
The final test of our teaching, therefore, is just like this: Because
of our instruction, does the child live differently here and now,
as a child, in all his multiform relations in the home, the school,
the church, the community, and in his own personal life? Are the
lessons we teach translated continuously into better conduct, finer
acts, and stronger character, as shown in the daily run of the learner's
experience?

"It is true that the full fruits of our teaching and of the child's
learning must wait for tim.e and experience to bring the individual
to fuller development. But it is also true that it is impossible for
the child to lay up a store of unused knowledge and have it remain
against a later time of need in a distant future. The only knowledge
that forms a vital part of our equipment is knowledge that is in
active service, guiding our thoughts and decisions from day to day.

120 Principles of Teaching

Unused knowledge quickly vanishes away, leaving little more perma-
nent impression on the life than that left on the wave when we plunge
our hand into the water and take it out again. In similar way the
interests, ideals, and emotions which are aroused, without at the same
time affording a natural outlet for expression in deeds and conduct,
soon fade away without having fulfilled the purpose for which they
exist. The great thing in religious education is to find immediate
and natural outlet in expression, a way for the child to use what
he learns; to get the child to do those things pointed out by the
lessons we teach him."

As the teacher faces this "carry-over" problem he is
impressed that he must touch the lives of his pupils not
only as individuals but as members of a social group. It
becomes his obligation not only to direct them in matters
pertaining to their ov^n v^elfare, physically, intellectually,
and morally, but he has a responsibility in helping to estab-
lish the standards of society to v^hich individuals naturally
subscribe more or less unconsciously.

The strong teacher's influence can be made to affect the
ideals of the athletic field, of the amusement hall, of the
church, of the business center, and of the home. These
agencies offer such a variety of possibilities that every lesson
offers easily some avenue of application. By v^ay of illus-
tration let us turn to a few subjects and point out some
possibilities in the matter of application. May it be said
here, in passing, that the secret of making application lies
in not getting lost in the past so that we may walk along
with our heads turned back over the shoulder of time pon-
dering merely the things of the past. All too often the
teacher hurries over into the Holy Land of some four thou-
sand years ago, leaving a class of twentieth century boys
and girls here at home to wonder what all that ancient
material has to do with the problems that confront them
here and now. Not that we should ignore the past. Suc-
cessful application lies in reaching back into the past for
a solution of today's difficulties. But the solution is our

Application 121

great concern. "We look back that we may the better go
forward."

To illustrate:

A lesson on Cain and Abel may find its application in a
solution of the problems of the jealousy and selfishness
that exist today. This story ought not to be merely a re-
counting of murder. There is a little Cain — a little Abel —
in all of us. Consider the case of the boy who smashed
up his brother's new sled as well as his own, because he
couldn't keep up in coasting. The nature of the class will
determine the particular application. Or consider the story
of Samson and Delilah: at first thought, a story with but
little to contribute to a solution of today's problems. Yet
out of that story application can be made beautifully,
through either of these two truths:

He who plays with sin will eventually be conquered by
it; or,

Marrying outside one's church is attended by grave
dangers.

A lesson on helpfulness was once beautifully and rather
dramatically given through the story of a rescue of a train.
A lad was out at play on a railroad track when he discov-
ered that a recent storm had washed out part of the road
bed. He remembered that the through passenger train was
due in a few minutes, and so rushed along the track and
by frantically waving his hat succeeded in stopping the
train just in time to prevent a terrible catastrophe. A few
well-directed questions called for the pupils' own idea of
application. They, too, would flag a train if such an occa-
sion should arise. They could help people generally to
guard against danger. They even carried the idea over into

122 Principles of Teaching

rendering any kind of service, about the home, at school,
and elsewhere, as long as it was helpful.

And so illustrations could be multiplied. The important
thing is that, having decided upon a central truth for a
lesson, the teacher then conceives avenues whereby the
truth may be carried over through action into the lives of
pupils. And, of course, he must see that they are directed
in setting about the action.

The question often arises, "Isn't there danger of moral-
izing in making an application?" or "What is the differ-
ence between an application and moralizing?" Genuine and
natural application ought to be inherent in the material
presented. A good story ought to drive home its message
without further comment. Moralizing consists of "tacking
on" some generalized exhortation relative to conduct.
Moralizing is either an unnecessary and unwelcome injunc-
tion to be or to do good, or it is an apology for a lesson that
in and of itself drives home no message. The school boy's
definition of moralizing is helpful and suggestive:

"Moralizing is rubbing goodness in unnecessarily."

In making application of truths presented, teachers nat-
urally face the question as to what constitutes the funda-
mentals in character development that are to be achieved.
As a sort of guide, the two Utah codes of morals, one for
children and one for youths, are rich in suggestion, both for
pupil and teacher. They are submitted herewith as help-
ful in setting up the objectives toward which we are
working:

Children's Code

I want to grow up to be wise and strong, happy and able to make

others happy, to love and to be loved, and to do my part in the
world's work.

Application 123

During my infancy loving hands cared for me, gave me food,
clothing and shelter, and protected me from harm. I am grateful
for this care, and I want to be worthy of the love and confidence
of my mother and father and to do all I can to make them happy,

I will be obedient to my parents and teachers; they are wiser than
I and thoughtful of my welfare.

I have already learned that good health is necessary to strength
and happiness, and that in order to be well and to grow strong, I
must have good, wholesome food, ample exercise and sleep, and
abundant pure water and fresh air — nature's free gifts to all.

My whole body I will keep clean and each part of it as sound as
good care can make it.

I will have respect for all useful work, both mental and physical.
I must learn to be helpful that I may know the joy of service and
the dignity of work well done.

I will begin now to earn some of the things I use. I must learn
how to spend, and how to be generous.

Waste is the mother of want, and even though the want may not
be mine, if I am extravagant I am likely to bring suffering to others.
Waste of time is as wrong as waste of things; I will not be an idler.

I will not put unnecessary burdens upon my associates by untidy,
careless habits; orderly ways save my own time and things as well
as those of others.

I will take thought for the comfort and welfare of our animal
friends and will always avoid cruelty.

I will strive for courage to speak the truth and for strength to be
fair in all my work and play, to be true to my word and faithful to
my trust. I hate lying and cheating; they are signs of cowardice
and greed. I will not seek pleasure or profit at the cost of my self-
respect. I will be considerate of the rights and feeling of others
as I would have them respect mine.

I will try to control my temper and to be cheerful, kind, and
courteous in all my dealings.

I will strive to be pure in thought, speech and action.

My country has provided laws and civil officers to protect me,
schools for my instruction, and many other aids to a happy, useful
life. I am grateful for these benefits and will show my patriotism
by obeying the laws and defending my country against evils, both
within and without.

I will keep my eyes and ears open to enjoy the world about me,
and my mind alert to understand and appreciate the good things
mankind has provided for me — science and art, poetry and music,
history and story.

May God, the kind and loving Father, help me all my life to see
the right way and to follow it.

Moral Code for Youths

I am happy to be a member of that great human society which
has accumulated all the treasures of civilization. I have benefited

24 Principles of Teaching

by the united labors of all mankind; for this I owe a debt of grati-
tude to humanity, a debt I can pay only by serving that humanity
to the fullest extent of my ability. Through small services freely
given toward the comfort and happiness of my associates, I may grow
in power of usefulness and in my turn contribute to the welfare of
the generations that are to come.

My body is the instrument of my mind and the foundation of
my character. Every organ must be conserved to perform its proper
function in the development and perfection of my life. I will, there-
fore, eat only wholesome food, breathe pure air, take ample exercise
and sleep, and keep my body clean and sound. To this end, I will
refrain from the use of intoxicating drinks, narcotics and stimulants;
these lend only a seeming strength, but in reality they undermine
my powers of service and of lasting happiness. By abstaining from
these indulgences I can, moreover, help others to abstain, and thereby
increase their strength and happiness. By temperate living and
plenty of exercise in the open I can preserve my health and the more
easily refrain from evil thoughts and evil deeds.

I will not pollute my body or that of another by any form of self-
indulgence or perverse yielding to passion. Such indulgence is a
desecration of the fountains of life and an insult to the dignity of
manhood and womanhood.

Through the formation of sane, health-promoting habits I can avoid
having my usefulness diminished and my happiness impaired by the
consequences of my own folly.

I will be modest in dress and maimer, that I may in no wise
encourage sensuality.

I will be thoughtful of the effects of my actions and so restrain
myself that no act of mine may mar the life or detract from the
happiness of my associates or of my successors.

I will deal honestly, fairly and kindly with my fellows — always
mindful that their lives and their happiness are as sacred to them
as mine are to me.

I will avoid impatience and ill temper and will endeavor to be
courteous always.

I will try to save individuals rather than to condemn them, even
though their evil deeds must be condemned and offenders punished.

I will have respect for the time of my fellows as I respect their
property.

I will not engage in games of chance, since I do not desire reward
at the expense of others.

In all my dealings I will strive for courage to speak the truth; I
despise cowardice and lying. I will do what I know to be right,
though others may ridicule or scorn me.

I will be personally responsible for all that I do, and, recognizing
my limited wisdom, I will ever seek Divine Guidance to lead me in
the right way.

Application 125

I will strive for independence of judgment, but with due regard
for the superior wisdom of my elders. I must grant to my fellows
the same right of independent judgment that I claim for myself.

Whatever I undertake I will do with my might, and, win or lose,
accept the result with good cheer. I would rather be worthy of suc-
cess than to secure it unworthily.

I will be prompt and orderly in all my affairs, otherwise I become
a hindrance to social efficiency. I will avoid waste and extravagance
lest I bring needless privation and suffering to others as well as to
myself.

It is my privilege to have a part in the world's work — a part I
must choose and perform with all diligence. "What can I do best
that society needs most?" When I have answered this question I
will pursue my vocation intelligently and energetically; first, as a
means of service to my fellow-men; and second, as a means of self-
support and aid to those that may be dependent upon me.

May the love and appreciation I have for my country never
be dishonored by any act of lawlessness or want of loyalty, but may
I ever honor, uphold and obey the law and defend my countrv^ against
unrighteousness, injustice and violence. When it becomes my privi-
lege to vote I will use the right of suffrage as a patriotic means of
co-operating with my fellow citizens for the promotion of social
justice, peace and progress. Should I be called to public office,
I will strive for moral courage to exercise authority in accord with
justice and humanity; and, whether in or out of office, I will respond
freely to every opportunity for public service.

I am grateful for the beauties of nature and for the great works
of art, music, literature and science, it is my privilege to enjoy.
These I will seek to understand and appreciate, that I may cultivate
broader siTnpathies and fellowship with mankind, the world, and the
Creator of all.

Questions and Suggestions — Chapter XVIII

1. How does application go to the ver^' heart of teaching?

2. Discuss the various conceptions of the term.

3. Distinguish between immediate and delayed application.

4. Discuss the possibility of intellectual application.

5. How can applications best be made?

6. When can applications best be made?

7. Distinguish between making an application and moralizing.

Helpful References

Weigle, Talks to Sunday School Teachers; Betts, How to Teach
Religion; Brumbaugh, The Making of a Teacher; Betts, The Reci-
tation; Strayer and Norsworthy, How to Teach; Thomdike, Principles
of Teaching; Colgrove, The Teacher and the School.

CHAPTER XIX

METHODS OF THE RECITATION

Outline — Chapter XIX

The question of method raised. — Danger of an entire disregard of
method. — ^The case of the "born" teacher. — Sound pedagogy largely
a matter of common sense. — Danger of being committed to a single
method. — The five possible methods: The Story Method; Reading
'Round; The Special Topic; The Lecture; The Discussion.

Two of the most practical questions that a teacher ever
has to solve are:

How shall I go about to prepare a lesson?

Having prepared a lesson, how shall I set about to teach
it to my class?

The first of these questions has already been discussed
in preceding chapters; the second now calls for our con-
sideration.

Is there a one best method? If so, what is it? What
steps does it involve? Instead of answering these questions
directly, perhaps it will be better to point out the various
methods of the recitation, set down their characteristics and
relative values, and then formulate a conclusion.

At the outset it may be advisable to sound two notes of
warning. One is against an entire disregard of methods.
There are those persons who believe that teachers are born,
not made, and that therefore a discussion of methods is
useless. The born teacher, say these persons, just teaches
naturally according to his own personality. To change his
method would be to destroy his effectiveness. If he isn't
a teacher then the study of methods will not make him one.
In either case work done on methods is lost.

Of course, experience refutes both contentions. It is ad-
mittedly true that great teachers are born to their work —

Methods of the Recitation 127

that some individuals just naturally impress others and
stimulate them to high ideals. And yet there is no one so
gifted that he cannot improve through a study of the game
he is to play. Most great athletes are by nature athletic.
And yet every one of them trains to perfect himself. The
best athletes America sent to the Olympic games were won-
derfully capable men, but they were wonderfully trained
men, as well. They had studied the methods of their par-
ticular sports. Great singers are born with great vocal
potentialities, but the greatest singers become so as the re-
sult of thorough training. Methods elevate them to fame.
What is true of the other arts ought also to be true of
teaching.

As to the class of teachers not bom to the calling, it seems
perfectly clear that here is the great opportunity for a
study of the fundamentals underlying good teaching.
Sound pedagogy is just a matter of good, common sense.
Any normal person by studying how to do anything ought
in the end to come to do that thing better than if he ignored
it. I may not know how to operate an automobile. But
if I study how to operate one, if I observe those who do
know how, and if I practice operating one — surely I shall
come to be more efficient as a chauffeur.

But while many will admit that this law of development
applies in the mechanical world, they hold that there is
something mystic about teaching for which only a peda-
gogical birthright is a solution. The fallacy of such a
contention seems too evident to call for argument. At least
the only sensibly hopeful view to take in such a Church as
ours, in which so many members must perforce be called
to be teachers, is that power in teaching can be developed
as it can in any other field of endeavor.

128 Principles of Teaching

The other bit of warning applies to the kind of teacher
who is unalterably committed to a single method, not only
as the best method, but the only one worth following.
Method depends so essentially on the personality of the
teacher, on the nature of the pupils taught, and on the
subject matter to be presented, that it is a very dangerous
thing to say that, in spite of circumstances, one method is
invariably the best method.

Let us, then, turn to the different methods and consider
their relative values. Five possibilities immediately suggest
themselves :

1. The story method.

2. The "reading 'round" method.

3. The special topic method.

4. The lecture method.

5. The discussion method, built up through
questions and answers.

1. The Story Method. The story is the method for
childhood. "All the world loves a story." Children cer-
tainly are a part of that world. How they thrill in response
to the appeal of a good story. Their little souls fairly
seem to open to receive it. What an opportunity — what a
sacred trust — is the teacher's as he undertakes to satisfy
that soul hunger! The subject, the story, has been so fully
gone into by Brother Driggs in his book. The Art of Teach-
ing, that we need not attempt to discuss it fully here. Then,
too, so many other excellent books have been written on the
art of the story that the teacher need only be referred to
them. Suffice it here to make two observations in passing.
The best stories for purposes of religious instruction should
possess four essential characteristics:

Methods of the Recitation 129

Point — Brevity — Message — Adaptation to the experience
of pupils.

And, of course, this message should be a truth appro-
priate to the occasion — a message heightened by the spirit
of the Gospel of Jesus Christ.

The second observation has to do with the telling of the
story. Naturally it should be well told. But the story hour
should not be one of mere telling. The child, in addition
to listening to the story, should be given opportunity to
express its reaction to the story told — should be directed
in discovering the avenue through which it will carry into
action the emotion aroused by the story.

2. The ''Reading 'Round'' Method. The old idea of a
class coming together and sitting through a process of read-
ing in turn from the one book in the class as it was passed
about is largely a thing of the past. Let us hope that the
day when neither teacher nor pupil prepared his lesson is
gone forever. Surely "reading 'round" is a poor substi-
tute for preparation. And it clearly is a dull, routine
method of procedure. But there was one merit attached
to it that is worthy our consideration. It did bring the
scriptures into the hands of our pupils. Whatever method
we may follow, this contact with the actual word of the
Lord is a valuable asset. We cannot advocate resorting to
the old notion of "reading 'round" as an apology for a
recitation, but we can well point out the merit of seeing
to it that pupils see and read the scriptures. If the lesson
can be so conducted that reading is indulged in as a supple-
mentary laboratory exercise — a turning through of gems
that entice the reader to make further study of the book —
then reading can be made a very valuable factor in the
teaching process. Then, too, it is educational just to have
members of a class turn through the scriptures to know

130 Principles of Teaching

what they are — what books are involved and where they
may be found. Ignorance with respect to the scriptures
is alarmingly prevalent. The following report taken from
the New York Tribune relative to a simple test in Bible
literature, given by an Eastern university to 139 students,
is significant:

"Out of 139 only 12 reached 75%; 90 received less than
50%; 10 could not name a single book of the Old Testa-
ment. Some who did spelled them Salms, Joob, etc. Some
named Paul, Babylonians, and Gentiles as Old Testament
books."

Surely much might be said in favor of the use of books
in our classes.

3. The Special Topic Method. Much can be said both
for and against the topic method. At least three objections
to its use can be raised:

A. It makes for piece-meal preparation. The lesson is
partitioned off into segments, one of which may be prepared
by a particular pupil who does not concern himself at
all with the rest of the lesson. This method, therefore,
encourages fragmentary and incomplete preparation.

B. It makes for a disconnected presentation which makes
it quite impossible for pupils to get a unified conception
of the whole lesson. This is doubly bad, because of the
fact that frequently those who are assigned parts absent
themselves from class.

C. It often results in dull, commonplace recitations. All
too frequently, especially if topic assignments are the usual
method of procedure, those pupils given the various topics
to work up content themselves with very meagre prepara-
tion. They come to class, therefore, and merely run over
so many facts wholly without inspiration and often by con-
stant reference to notes or the text,

Methods of the Recitation 131

Of course, these difficulties can be overcome largely by
the judicious use of the topic method. It ought not gen-
erally to be followed as the regular order of business, but
rather as a supplementary means of enriching the lesson.
It ought not to be used so as to excuse all class members
from regular preparation of the lesson as a whole. If the
teacher will assign the lesson proper to all of the class and
then select certain aspects — certain suggested problems —
for more intensive research, the reports on special topics
can be made to contribute wonderfully to the richness of
the class hour. The topic method, then, is primarily a
supplemental method, and if wisely used has these advan-
tages:

A. It makes for an enriched lesson. It makes possible
expert opinion, and the results of special, careful investiga-
tion which the class as a whole would be unable to make.

B. It lends variety to class procedure and guarantees
that the teacher will not do all the talking.

C. It fosters individual expression. It trains pupils to
formulate an attack, to organize findings, and to stand and
deliver a connected and well thought out message.

D. It promotes a habit of investigation — it leads pupils
to work out for themselves the problems of the Gospel
which they encounter.

4. The Lecture Method. The comment of a student of
the Brigham Young University on the lecture method was
unique: "The lecture method wouldn't be so bad if a
teacher really lectured — he usually just talks. And talking
a lot when you haven't much to say is pretty discouraging
to a class."

Aimless talking which indulges in the main in vague gen-
eralities can never be justified. Preaching presumes a

132 Principles of Teaching

pulpit and has little place in classwork. The teacher who
persists in talking most of the time overvalues his own
thoughts and minimizes the ideas of others. Much talking
stifles initiative and independent thinking. Then, too, it
gives no opportunity for developing pupils' power of self-
expression and provides no means for the teacher to check
the reaction going on in the pupils' minds — assuming that
one goes on! It is astonishing what erroneous notions mem-
bers of a class can get from merely hearing a lesson pre-
sented. Given a chance to express their conclusions, they
will themselves correct many of their false impressions.

There are occasions, however, when a lecture is extremely
valuable. Frequently after several weeks of discussion a
class is hungry to hear "the truth about the matter." There
is then afforded a splendid opportunity for the teacher to
drive home a real message. Then, too, specialists, because
of their advanced study on a particular subject, can often
present in an hour the results of years of investigation.

Furthermore, in a lecture, the teacher can make an emo-
tional appeal which is practically out of the question in
other methods. His enthusiasm and conviction can be made
to "carry" his pupils to the contemplation of new truths.
Used with discretion, the real lecture is a valuable asset in
teaching; indulged in regularly as mere talking or preach-
ing, the method ought certainly to be discouraged.

5. The Discussion Method. This method, built upon
questions and their answers, is commendable for its democ-
racy and because of the fact that it stimulates both thought
and discussion on the part of most if not all of the pupils.
Questions are so vital to good teaching that Chapter XXI
will be devoted to their consideration. Suffice it to say
here that for all practical purposes it is the basis of the
best teaching. Discussions make it possible to reach pupils

Methods of the Recitation 133

"Where they are" — make it possible for everyone to con-
tribute of his experience to everyone else.

The one outstanding difficulty with the discussion method
lies in the fact that it calls for such skilful direction. It
so easily runs off on tangents that the teacher is kept on
his mettle holding to the subject in hand.

After all, each method has its advantages and its disad-
vantages. There are times when any one of them can be
profitably used; it is clear that any one of them can be
abused — can be made more or less monotonous. Perhaps
we can wisely conclude that, ''The best method is a variety
of methods.'*

Questions and Suggestegns — Chapter XIX

1. Why is it essential that teachers study methods of the reci-
tation?

2. What method do you regularly follow? Why?

3. To what extent is it that a bom teacher teaches without
method?

4. What is pedagogy?

5. Discuss the relative value of each of the five methods listed
in this chapter.

6. Discuss the statement, "The best method is a variety of
methods.

Helpful References

Betts, How to Teach Religion; Betts, The Recitation; Earhart,
Types of Teaching; Bagley, Classroom Management; Strayer and
Norsworthy, How to Teach.

CHAPTER XX

REVIEW AND PREVIEW

Outline — Chapter XX

The need of review in our Church teaching. — Review a real help
to learning in that it makes for: repetition, proper connection, proper
evaluation of truth.

An intelligent review is the result only of thorough preparation on
the part of the teacher. — Assignment and preparation. — Ability to
make assignments a test of good teaching.

Characteristics of a good assigrmient: It is definite. — It raises a
problem. — It connects with the experience of pupils. — It stimulates
to action.

General and specific assignments. — When to make assignments.

Each organization within the Church follows regularly
its own course of study. At the beginning of the year it
sets out upon a prescribed subject subdivided according to
the number of meetings scheduled for the year's work. As
a result, no one lesson stands out independent of all others,
but rather fits in naturally in a sequence of chapters each
of which develops some aspects of one big subject. Be-
cause of such a plan the matters of review and preview take
on vital significance. Each lesson should be made to link
up naturally with what has already been presented and
should point out by way of anticipation what is to follow.
Many educators maintain that the ability to conduct a good
review and to make an effective assignment are two of the
surest tests of a good teacher.

The problem of review is really one of the most funda-
mental processes in education. It is the great key to learn-
ing. Anyone who has enjoyed the fun of teaching young
children how to read has been impressed with the fact that
the child has to be led to see and repeat the simplest words
over and over again before they are really mastered. It is
really astonishing how many times as simple a word as

Review and Preview 135

"ran" has to be repeated before the beginner in reading
gets it fully into his consciousness. This very difficulty of
teaching mere words or letters has led to the abandonment
of the old "A-B-C" drill as the first step in reading, and
the substitution for it of an indirect method wherein,
through the laws of association, groups of words and sen-
tences are mastered as the symbols which express concrete
and objectified ideas. But by way of experiment, one of
the most impressive experiences open to teachers is to take
a child of four or five that has not been taught to read and
attempt to drill into its consciousness a group of half a
dozen words as simple as these: cat, fan, hat, get, man, jam.
To the teacher who has attempted such an experiment no
argument is necessary to prove the significance of review
and repetition.

Review, then, first of all, is vitally essential because it
makes possible impression through repetition which insures
the fixing of ideas. Literally, review means to view again.
Psychologically it is to repeat the processes of mind which
were called into operation the first time the stimulus in
question started a mental reaction. The nervous system of
man is so constituted that in the acquirement of knowl-
edge, each time the nerve centers react to the same stimulus,
the tendency so to react becomes stronger, under the mere
presence of the stimulus, starts up an automatic sort of
reaction, and we say that the child knows the meaning of
the object constituting the stimulus.

Not only is review thus essential in the beginning of the
learning process with children, but it remains a vital factor
as long as men and women undertake to learn. Review
guarantees recall, and recall re-establishes "nerve connec-
tions" to the permanent fixing of impressions. Very little
of our knowledge remains ours to a purpose unless it is

136 Principles of Teaching

gone over and over until it is thoroughly established. A
truth that is taught in a Mutual lesson on a particular Tues-
day night, but which is never referred to again, and there-
fore never recalled, very likely vi^ill soon be gone out of
consciousness and usefulness. Those truths and facts
v^hich are of greatest functioning value to us are those
vi^hich we continue to run over in our minds and ponder.
The reinforcement of review is what establishes our perma-
nent working stock of truth.

Not only is review valuable as a matter of recall, but it
makes for an enrichment of mental content which is alto-
gether desirable. The real art of review lies in calling up
an old truth in a new setting. Upon second perusal it is
seen in skilful review from a slightly different angle so
that each recall adds a reinforcement that makes for a
clinching of thought which makes it permanent. It very
often happens that the first time an idea is called to our
attention it means but little, because our mental reaction
is limited in the particular field of the presentation; the
same idea in a new setting more in keeping with our expe-
rience may take on an entirely different significance. That
teaching is best, therefore, which presents truth from the
greatest number of angles possible, thereby guaranteeing
the richest kind of associations in the minds of pupils.

Another value that attaches to the review lies in the fact
that it makes possible proper connection between new ma-
terial and old. It is axiomatic in teaching that pupils learn
new truths and take on new experiences, in terms of the old.
Teaching that unfolds — that develops new ideas that are
built upon those already understood — is the kind of teach-
ing attended by best results. In our organizations, meeting
as we do only once a week, we must appreciate the fact
that in the intervening time, between meetings, hundreds of

Review and Preview 137

ideas have crowded into the mind and have displaced those
that may have been there as a result of our teaching. By
calling to mind those ideas of a week ago, we not only rein-
force them, but we start a chain of thought to which it will
be very much easier to add the link of today's work than
to proceed as if forging an entirely new chain.

No farmer goes out and plants grain on the unplowed
field. He plows and harrows that the soil may be prepared
not only to receive the seed, but to make generation possible.

A review simply turns over the stubble field of the pre-
ceding week's work, making ready for the planting of new
seeds that they may generate and develop.

Still a further value in the matter of review lies in the
fact that the review makes more easily possible the proper
evaluation of the facts taught. In every lesson there are
major facts and truths presented and also those minor or
subordinate ones that serve to amplify and illustrate. All
too frequently a class becomes so involved in the minor de-
tails that it may fail to grasp fully the big, underlying
truth. By careful review, the teacher can make the essen-
tials stand out in relief. These are the things that need to
be pondered. If they are properly grasped, thanlcs to the
laws of association, most of the minor facts will naturally
attach themselves, so that truths can be retained in all of
their richness of detail.

It is surprising to find how frequently pupils who have
spent a year on the Book of Mormon have very little notion
of the big, outstanding features of the book. They appar-
ently have run over each week's lesson as so many inde-
pendent facts, never coming back to single out the essen-
tial things in that early American civilization. Surely no
class ought to complete the course without clearly compre-
hending such major items as:

138 Principles of Teaching

The contribution each of the three colonies made to Book
of Mormon civilization.

The general geographical location of each colony.

The outstanding characters in the book.

The coming forth of the book.

Why it is essential.

How our faith depends largely upon it.

The ministry of the Savior on this continent.

Gospel teachings of the Book of Mormon.

What is true of the study of the Book of Mormon is
equally true of all other subjects. It is so easy to get lost
in a maze of facts, in a course in the principles of the
Gospel, and yet if a teacher will hold to such basic con-
siderations as the articles of faith, coming back to them
regularly and linking facts presented under the appropriate
article, it is equally easy to complete the course with a
clearly defined, skeletonized basis for all future study. Two
conclusions seem obvious : as teachers we ought to conduct
reviews regularly and frequently; we ought to prepare for
them as one of the most vital factors in teaching.

Important as is the review, the preview or assignment is
equally vital. To quote from Colgrove's The Teacher and
the School:

"Importance and Value of Good Lesson Assignment. From the
foregoing consideration it is clear that no other part of the teacher's
work exceeds in value and importance the proper planning and assign-
ment of the daily lessons. It is supplying the class and the school
with a definite plan of work. It is preparing the mind of each indi-
vidual pupil for the reception of new truths and whetting his intel-
lectual appetite for a feast of good things. It inspires confidence by
pointing out to the pupil just how he can use his past lessons and
acquisitions to make new conquests. It prevents pupils from mis-
understanding the lesson or approaching it with indifference or
positive aversion. It enables the pupil to approach the new lesson
in a perceiving mood, and helps pupils to form the habit of being
successful in their work and of making a daily application of their

Review and Preview 139

old knowledge. It prevents the teacher from degenerating into a
mere talker, and, where textbooks are used, should be the most vital
part of the recitation."

The assignment is the great guarantee of a good recita-
tion. It sets up objectives — it points the way — it starts the
thought process that is to produce a discussion worth while
at the subsequent meeting of the class.

Much has been said recently against the practice on the
part of the teacher of saying, "Take chapter three for next
time." There are superintendents of schools who refuse to
keep such teachers in their service. To make such an
assignment, particularly in classes that meet only once a
week, and especially if the assignment is made, as is too
usually the case, after the signal for class dismissal has
been given, is to promise the pupils a week in advance that
their next lesson will be very much of a failure.

A good assignment is characterized by several very defi-
nite features. In the first place it is perfectly clear. Given
at a time when pupils are following it, it gives specific
direction as to the work to be done ahead in preparation.
It indicates the direction of intellectual travel, points out
sources of material, and indicates what is to be looked for.
Reference or textbooks are so pointedly referred to that
pupils not only remember their names, they v/ant to turn
to them to enjoy their contributions.

In the second place, a good assignment raises a problem
which is a challenge to the mental powers of pupils. It
should carry a force of anticipation that capitalizes on that
great mover to action — curiosity. For instance, if the les-
son to be assigned is one on baptism, instead of simply
naming certain pages in a text to be read, the skilful teacher
may well challenge his class by bringing in a clipping from
a periodical or from some other source attempting to prove

140 Principles of Teaching

that sprinkling is the correct method of baptism, or that
baptism is not essential to a man's obtaining salvation?
How can members of the class meet such an argument?
One of their first thoughts will likely be a query as to
where available material may be turned to. How easy,
then, to give references, etc. Some such problem can be
raised relative to every lesson taught, and it is a wonderful
force as an intellectual appetizer. It should both prompt
to action and point to the path to be followed.

The question is often raised as to whether the assignment
should be general or specific. Perhaps the best answer
involves both kinds. There ought ordinarily to be a gen-
eral assignment that affects all of the members of a class.
The class is made up of all the individuals in the group —
its discussing ought therefore to be so made up. But in
addition to this general assignment, specific topics given to
particular members add an enrichment to the recitation of
very great value. The services of the specialist are always
of inestimable value. That class is best wherein each mem-
ber in turn becomes a specialist in looking up and bringing
in vital observations on life.

As to the best time for making assignments, it is rather
hard to give a ruling that best fits all cases. Preferably
the assignment should grow out of the discussion of the
lesson in hand, and therefore logically comes at the end of
the recitation rather than at the beginning. There are
teachers, however, who, fearing interruption at the end of
the hour, map our their work so carefully that they can
make the assignment at the outset, merely calling attention
to it at the close of the hour. All other things being equal,
if the teacher will make himself hold sacred the time
necessary at the end of the hour for this all important mat-
ter of assignment, it is likely that best results will follow

Review and Preview 141

having the assignment of the next lesson grow naturally out
of the work of today. The important thing, however, is that
at some point in the recitation, the teacher shall take plenty
of time to make a carefully planned and challenging an-
nouncement of the work ahead.

Questions and Suggestions — Chapter XX

1. Why is it essential to good teaching that regular reviews be
conducted?

2. Why are reviews more necessary in our religious work than
in regular school work?

3. What are the chief purposes of a review?

4. By taking a current lesson of one of the auxiliary organiza-
tions, illustrate the work done in a good review.

5. Why it is of vital importance that a teacher give special prep-
aration to a review?

6. Show how good class preparation is conditional upon the
proper kind of assignment.

7. What are the characteristics of a good assignment?

8. What is the best time for making the assigrmient?

9. Show how to make a good assignment of a current lesson from
one of the organizations.

Helpful References

Betts, The Recitation; Betts, How to Teach Religion; Colvin, The
Learning Process; Colgrove, The Teacher and the School; Strayer
and Norsworthy, How to Teach.

CHAPTER XXI

THE QUESTION AS A FACTOR IN EDUCATION

Outline — Chapter XXI

Taking Stock. — Miss Stevens' study on questioning. — Miss Stevens
quoted. — Various types of questions: a. The review question: b. The
fact question; c. The leading question; d. The thought or challeng-
ing question. — Some questions on questioning.

How many questions do you ask regularly during a reci-
tation?

What proportion of those questions are answered in full
and complete statements?

How many of the answers to your questions are a matter
m^erely of memory? How many reveal original, creative
thinking?

Such questions as these not only impress us with the
force of the question as a means of teaching, but they lead
us to examine into our own method of asking them. The
whole teaching process so easily and unconsciously develops
into a matter of routine that it is good practice occasion-
ally to take stock of ourselves. It is surprising to find how
many teachers develop a particular type of question which
becomes their sole stock in trade.

Miss Ronniett Stevens, in her thesis. The Question as a
Measure of Efficiency in Instruction, has made one of the
most enlightening studies yet made on the matter of ques-
tioning. Her results are quoted by Weigle, in his Talks to
Sunday School Teachers, in a passage of interest, not only
because of Miss Stevens' findings, but also because of Mr.
Weigle's own conclusions:

"One of the outstanding differences, in present practice, between
the public and the Sunday school, is that most public school teachers
ask too many questions and most Sunday school teachers do not asi

The Question as a Factor in Education 143

questions enough. For the first half of this statement there is ample
evidence in the careful study by Miss Ronniett Stevens on The Ques-
tion as a Measure of Efficiency in Instruction. Miss Stevens secured
complete stenographic reports of twenty high school lessons in Eng-
lish, history, science, Latin, modem languages, and mathematics;
she observed one hundred more such lessons chosen at random, with
a view to counting and noting the number and nature of the questions
asked in each; and she followed each ten classes through an entire.
day's work for the purpose of studying the aggregate question-
stimulus to which each was subjected in the course of the day.

"The results of her study are surprising. In only eight of the
twenty lessons completely reported the teacher asked less than ninety
questions in the period of forty-five minutes, the average being sixty-
eight. In each of the remaining twelve lessons more than ninety
questions were asked in the same period of time, the average being
128. A freshman class in high school, in a day's work of five periods
of forty minutes each, not counting gjnunasium, was subjected to 516
questions and expected to return 516 answers, which is at the rate
of 2:58 questions and 2:58 answers per minute. The lowest number
of questions recorded in a day's work for a class was 321, and the
average number 395.

"Such rapid-fire questioning. Miss Stevens rightly holds, defeats
its own ends. It maintains a nervous tension in the classroom that
must in the long run be injurious. More than that, it is a symptom
of the fact that the real work of the hour is being done by the
teacher,and the pupil's share is reduced simply to brief, punctuation-
like answers to the teacher's questions. Such questions appeal to
mere memory or to superficial judgment rather than to real thought;
they cultivate in the pupil neither independent judgment nor the
power of expression; they ignore individual needs and discourage
initiative; they make out of the classroom a place to display knowl-
edge, rather than a laboratory in which to acquire it.

"The second half of the proposition, that most Sunday school
teachers do not ask questions enough, has not been established by
any such investigation as that of Miss Stevens. A similar study, on
the basis of complete stenographic reports, of typical Sunday school
lessons, would be a most valuable addition to our resources in the
field of religious pedagogy. Till such a study is made, one must
simply record his conviction that Sunday school teachers, as a gen-
eral rule, ask too few, rather than too many questions. This con-
viction is based upon general observation and upon the frequency
of such remarks as, 'I just can't get my class to study,' 'There are
only two or three who ever answer my questions,' 'My pupils don't
know anything about the Bible,' 'As long as I do all the talking,
things go all right," etc." Weigle, Talks to Sunday School Teachers.

The whole matter of questioning can be made to stand
out most clearly, perhaps, by listing the various types of

144 Principles of Teaching

question, the purposes which each type serves, and the
characteristics of a good question.

First of all there is the Review question. The great pur-
pose of this type of question is to systematize knowledge.
Of course, it is valuable as an aid to recollection — it is a
challenge to memory — but it is particularly helpful in that
it makes the big essential points in a course stand out in
relief with minor points properly correlated and subordi-
nated. The review question is a guide to the pupil whereby
he may see the relative significance of the work he has
covered. One of our great difficulties lies in the fact that
our teaching is so largely piece- meal. Today's lesson is
hurried through, isolated as it is from all that has gone
before and all that may follow. The successful teacher
through the review makes each lesson a link in the chain
of thought that underlies the whole development of the
subject in hand.

The review question is essentially a carefully thought
out, searching inquiry. It calls for a turning over, in the
mind, of the material of the whole course and therefore
should allow ample time for pondering. If it does not
stimulate a "weighing process," it likely is merely a fact
question — a test of memory. Of course, there is a place at
times for this hurried type of question, but it serves the
purpose only of "connecting up" and should not be mis-
taken for the evaluating question of review.

The following questions on the expulsion of the Saints
from Missouri are illustrative review questions:

1. To what extent, if any, were the Latter-day Saints
themselves responsible for their expulsion from Missouri?

2. To what extent were the persecutions of Missouri
political? Religious?

The Question as a Factor in Education 145

3. How do you account for the fact that the Lord's
people have always been a chastened people?

4. Show how the Missouri persecutions have been ulti-
mately a blessing to the Latter-day Saints.

The second type of question is the fact question. It
serves to check up on mental alertness and recall. It is
often helpful in arresting attention and therefore has a cer-
tain disciplinary function. The teacher, of course, must
make sure that his pupils are grasping the subject-matter
presented, and the fact question serves admirably as a test
of knowledge. It is usually a short question calling for a
short answer, and therefore may be used in a rapid-fire
way that stimulates thought. It is this type of question that
is hurled so frequently at classes with the consequences
pointed out in the quotation from Miss Stevens.

The same author lists as objections to the continued use
of these rapid-fire questions the following bad features.
They result in:

1. Nervous tension.

2. The teacher's doing most of the work.

3. Emphasis upon memory and superficial judgment.

4. Little time for the art of expression.

5. Little attention to the needs of particular individuals
in a class.

6. The class being made a place for displaying knowl-
edge.

7. Little self-reliant, independent thinking.

As illustrative of the fact question may we set down the
following:

146 Principles of Teaching

Who was Joseph Smith?

What was his father's name?

What was his mother's name?

Where was he born?

How old was he when he received his first vision?

When did he receive the plates?

The challenging question and the leading question are
closely enough allied that we may well discuss them to-
gether. They are both intended to provoke creative think-
ing. The leading question aims to capitalize on what is
already in the pupil's mind in getting him to go one step
further to a conclusion we already have in mind. Instead
of telling a class of young children that Joseph Smith
pra\'ed to the Lord for help in choosing the church to
which he might best belong, we might proceed by saying
that the Prophet had asked his father and mother — he had
asked his best friends — he had talked with all the ministers
he could find — he had read in all of the available books —
now who can tell what else he could do? The chief merit
of the leading question lies in the fact that it paves the
way for the answer. It is particularly helpful in encourag-
ing young and backward pupils. But is easily subject to
abuse. So much so that its use is very largely restricted
in law courts. It results too frequently in the teacher's
thinking for the pupil, and therefore ought to be used
with care.

The challenging question is the question that fosters orig-
inality of thought, independence of judgment. It simply
raises a problem and leaves pupils free to arrive at their
own conclusions. It makes for an intelligent faith so much
desired in a democratic Church such as ours. It is the one
question above all others that guarantees a vital class dis-
tinction.

The Question as a Factor in Education 147

Of course, there is a place for all four of these types of
questions. As was said relative to the methods of the reci-
tation, the best method is a variety of methods. So with
questions. It is perfectly clear, however, that for general
purposes that question which prompts greatest reflection
and independent thinking is the best one to indulge most
frequently. The following questions out of a lesson on
Joseph Smith*s First Vision are set down as typical of
thought-provoking questions :

1. In view of the fact that when men choose a man for
president of a bank they look for a man of maturity and
experience, how do you explain that Joseph Smith, a mere
boy, with little training or experience, was entrusted with
the great responsibility of founding what we claim is the
greatest institution of these latter days?

2. How can you convince the world that a just God
would declare that none of their churches is right?

3. What vital truths are announced to the world
through his first vision?

Let us conclude this chapter with one more quotation
from Miss Stevens. When asked to name the three out-
standing characteristics of a good question, she set them
down as follows:

1. A good question should stimulate reflection.

2. It should be adapted to the experience of the pupil.

3. It should draw forth a well-rounded answer.

Questions on Qxjestioninc

Do I call on my pupils to recite in a fixed order, according to
alphabet or seating, so that they are warned not to attend till Aeir
turn comes?

Do I name the pupil who is to answer before I put the question?

148 Principles of Teaching

Do I ask direct questions or alternative questions which can be
answered without knowledge or thought?

Do I ask chiefly fact questions?

Do I ask leading or suggestive questions?

Do I repeat my questions? Attention.

Do I answer my own questions?

Do I ask confusing, changed questions?

Do I ask foolish questions that no one can answer?

Do my questions make pupils think?

Do my questions follow up the answer and lead to new organization
of knowledge?

Do I repeat the pupil's answer?

Do my questions reach all the members of the class?

Do I make the recitation an inquisition, or do I pursue a slow
pupil and listen while pupils express themselves freely and nat-
urally?

Questions and Suggestions — Chapter XXI

1. Why is it essential that we prepare questions as we do other
material?

2. What are the dangers that attend the asking of a great number
of fact questions?

3. Discuss the relative value of the *'WV' — what, who, when,

where, and why.

4. Discuss each of the questions on questioning in this chapter.

5. Bring in three thought-provoking questions on one of the cur-
rent lessons in the month's work of one of the auxiliary organizations.

Heupful References

Fitch, The Art of Questioning; Stevens, The Question as a Measure
of Efficiency in Instruction; Weigle, Talks to Sunday School Teach-
ers; Home, Story Telling, Questioning, and Studying; Brumbaugh,
The Making of a Teacher; Driggs, The Art of Teaching.

CHAPTER XXII
THE PROBLEM OF DISCIPLINE

Outline — Chapter XXII

A popular misconception of discipline. — Discipline inherent in
teaching. — Importance of discipline in our religious teaching. —
Changed attitude within the past three centuries toward discipline. —
What discipline is.

Methods of securing discipline: The method of rewards; The
method of "pleasing the teacher"; The method of punishment; The
method of social appeal; The method of interest.

The importance of a proper attitude on the part of one who disci-
plines.— What constitutes such an attitude?

Back in 19 16 the writer of these chapters was invited to
address a group of teachers on the subject of discipHne.
This particular lecture came toward the end of a series of
lectures given on the various pedagogical truths underlying
teaching. One particular teacher, who had listened to all
of the lectures, expressed appreciation of the fact that disci-
pline was to be discussed — it apparently was his one con-
cern, as indicated in his remark:

"We have listened to some excellent theories in these
lectures. But I have to teach a class of real live boys and
girls. How can I keep the little rascals quiet long enough
to work the theories out?"

The remark expresses admirably the attitude of very
many teachers relative to discipline. They regard teaching
as one thing — discipline as quite another. With them
discipline involves some sort of magic process or the appli-
cation of some iron rule authority, which secures order
that teaching may then be indulged in. As a matter of
fact, discipline is inherent in good teaching. It is not a
matter of correction so much as a matter of prevention.
The good disciplinarian anticipates disorder — directs the

150 Principles of Teaching

energies of his pupils so that the disorder is made impos-
sible by attention to legitimate interests.

Discipline is one of the most pressing problems in the
quorums and organizations of the Church today. On every
hand the complaint is registered that proper respect is not
shown, either for those in important positions or for our
places of worship.

The spirit that accompanies the political rally or basket-
ball game, held in our amusement halls, too frequently is
carried into our sacred meetings. The spirit of unconcern
is carried into our classrooms until all too often to call the
condition one of disorder is a very inadequate description
of the procedure.

It is interesting to note the changing attitude generally
in the matter of discipline. The harshness of other days
is largely replaced by a leniency that borders on "easiness."
Our whole attitude toward criminals has been revolution-
ized, and our human impulses have carried over into the
realm of teaching, until now, at least in the opinion of very
many critics, we have drifted largely into "soft pedagogy"
— a process of trying to please regardless of the conse-
quences.

Earlier treatises on education devoted a good bit of
space to the amount and kind of punishment that should
be administered in a well-ordered school. Punishment is
decidedly out of taste these days. The biography of an old
German master discloses the fact that during his teaching
career he had administered 911,527 raps with his cane,
20,989 with a ruler, 136,715 with his hand, and that he was
responsible for 1,115,800 slaps on the head. The same
attitude is reflected in the fact that in England, as late as
the year 1800, two hundred twenty-three offenses were
punishable by death. The offenses included shooting rab-

The Problem of Discipline 151

bits, stealing, defacing Westminster Bridge, etc. In our day
we hesitate to apply the extreme penalty even to the
murderer.

The attitude toward the content of teaching has under-
gone a change quite in keeping with that attached to
method. There was a time when pedagogical philosophy
rather hinted, "It doesn't make any difference what you
teach a boy, as long as he doesn't like it." The hint these
days might more nearly read: "It doesn't make any dif-
ference how valuable certain material is for a boy, don't
attempt to teach it to him unless it fascinates him." Our
effort to interest our pupils has practically resulted in tak-
ing the scriptures, particularly the Old Testament, out of
our organizations. Of course, the doctrine of interest is a
very vital one, but there are bounds beyond which we
ought not to push it.

It is, therefore, perfectly obvious that there is urgent need
of discipline. Any effort at social control demands it. The
army succeeds as it does because of its discipline. Wherever
a group of individuals undertake action in common, every
member must be willing to sink interests of self in welfare
of others. As was pointed out in the chapter on Individual
Differences, a class is made up of all kinds of individuals.
They vary in capacity, in ideals, in training, in attitude, in
disposition, and in purpose. Manifestly group progress
will be made possible in any such case by a mutual will-
ingness to co-operate — a willingness to attend a discussion
even though not particularly interested in it, but because
it may be of concern to someone else whose interests I
have undertaken to promote. My very presence in the
class imposes such a responsibility upon me.

It is essential in a discussion of discipline that we agree
as to just what discipline is. It is not mere silence. Silent

152 Principles of Teaching

"quietness" may be agreeable, but it certainly does not
make for achievement. Such silence would be of little
worth if it could be achieved, and it cannot be achieved
with twentieth century human beings. The question of the
lad who had been taken to task for his disturbance is al-
ways refreshing. The teacher, after a somewhat prolonged
scolding, had concluded:

"Now, Tommie, do be quiet."

"What fur?"

The English may not be the choicest, but the sense is
wonderfully significant to the teacher who would really
understand the problem of discipline.

Discipline is not repression. The D of discipline and
the D of don't have been confused all too often. Just as
the too frequent use of the brakes on an automobile ruins
the lining, so the too frequent "don't" of repression ruins
the "goodwill lining" of the boy, and when that lining is
gone the "brake squeaks," and in emergencies doesn't hold
at all.

Discipline rather consists in that direction of wholesome
activity which creates an atmosphere of intellectual en-
deavor in which every individual of a group can profitably
follow his own interests while allowing every other indi-
vidual to do the same thing free from interference. Disci-
pline makes it possible for all to do the thing to be done
to advantage. It may at times require silence, it may in-
volve vigorous action — it always presumes intelligent direc-
tion that holds those concerned to the orderly pursuit of
an established goal.

Various means have been devised for the securing of
discipline. The doctrine of rewards has been and still is
being followed extensively. To give an individual some-
thing for being good has never appealed to educators as

The Problem of Discipline 153

lundamentally sound. It puts a false evaluation upon
virtue. It may be that such a policy must be resorted to
in emergencies, but followed regularly it is likely to be
attended with disastrous results. The boy who has regu-
larly to be bought into doing what he should will likely
raise his price until the method of rewards becomes ruinous
both to the father and the boy. To "heroize" a boy in
class every time he does a meritorious act will very likely
spoil him. Encouragement, of course, is helpful, but it
ought not to be overindulged. A stick of candy may induce
a child to go to bed agreeably each night, but the candy
may spoil other things than the bedspread. Moral fibre
is built up by developing the habit of doing a thing because
it is right — because it ought to be done. There are teachers
and preachers who hold the interest of those taught by
tickling their ears with material, either funny or nonsensi-
cal. There is a question whether it is not a dangerous
practice in an effort to win them to what should be an
attitude of religious devotion.

Then there is the doctrine that children should be good
to please their parents and teachers. This doctrine is akin
to that of rewards. It sets up something of a false ideal,
though of course it is a splendid thing to teach apprecia-
tion of those who help us. Much can be defended which
seeks to inculcate in the minds of children reverence for
their elders. The chief difficulty lies in the fact that this
doctrine may not continue to appeal as fundamentally
sound.

A third method for securing discipline is to compel it.
This is to resort to the law of things. A certain amount
of law should characterize both the home and the class-
room. Obedience and order are the first laws of heaven
and are essential to good social environment. But the law

154 Principles of Teaching

should be so administered that the obedience exacted rests
upon an intelligent understanding of the purpose behind
the law. Otherwise there comes a time when mere authority
fails to control. It is a good thing to train children to abide
by regulations out of a sense of duty. If duty and love
can be coupled, the combination makes for permanent law-
abiding. Arbitrary authority and blind obedience have
produced Germany. Strong leadership coupled with demo-
cratic co-operation and loyalty have produced America.

Still another doctrine of discipline rests upon a social
appeal. Members of a group agree that in the interest of
everyone's welfare each individual will subscribe to certain
conditions regardless of their application to him. This
principle, fundamental in all democracies, can safely be
trusted to secure desired results in groups mature enough
to assure sound judgment. The sense of justice in the
human soul is a safe guarantee of both liberty and good
order. Many of our classes no doubt could be improved
noticeably if vv^e could enlist the co-operation of the mem-
bers to the extent that they would assume to govern them-
selves.

Finally there is the doctrine of interest as a means of
maintaining discipline. This doctrine implies that a teacher
should get his class so interested in doing what he wants it
to do that it hasn't any inclination to do what it ought not
to do. This doctrine is not the pernicious doctrine hinted
at earlier in this chapter of cheapening everything into
"easiness." Genuine interest may lead not only to effort,
but to sacrifice. The boy who plays football does not play
because of the ease of the game — he is fascinated by his
interest in the struggle. Ample preparation and a complete
understanding of pupils will make possible an interest that
disciplines without any evidence of discipline. Surely this

The Problem of Discipline 155

is the modern doctrine of discipline, though with it should
be coupled that wholesome respect for authority that
prompts citizens to abide by the law.

No discussion of discipline would be complete which did
not mention at least the significance of attitude on the part
of one who disciplines. In so many cases when a boy is
corrected he complains of the teacher,

"Oh, well, he's got it in for me."

It is always interesting to know whether a parent or
teacher disciplines a child because the child needs it, or
because the parent or teacher is unnerved and has to give
expression to his feelings. The disciplinarian who can
correct, when correction is necessary, both in firmness yet
in fairness, so that the person who is corrected is made
to feel that the correction grows out of a desire to help
rather than merely to punish — that disciplinarian will exert
an influence for good that is hard to estimate. He is both
a friend and a benefactor.

Let us conclude this chapter with that wonderful passage
from the Doctrine & Covenants which gives us the word of
the Lord on this matter of controlling others:

"Behold, there are many called, but few are chosen. And why are
they not chosen?

"Because their hearts are set so much upon the things of this world,
and aspire to the honors of men, that they do not learn this one
lesson —

"That the rights of the Priesthood are inseparably connected with
the powers of heaven, and that the powers of heaven cannot be con-
trolled nor handled only upon the principles of righteousness.

"That they may be conferred upon us, it is true; but when we
undertake to cover our sins, or to gratify our pride, our vain ambi-
tions, or to exercise control, or dominion, or compulsion, upon the
souls of the children of men, in any degree of unrighteousness,
behold, the heavens withdraw themselves; the Spirit of the Lord is
grieved; and when it is withdrawn, Amen to the Priesthood, or the
authority of that man.

"Behold! ere he is aware, he is left unto himself, to kick against
the pricks; to persecute the Saints, and to fight against God.

156 Principles of Teaching

"We have learned, by sad experience, that it is the nature and
disposition of almost all men, as soon as they get a little authority.
as they suppose, they will immediately begin to exercise unrighteous
dominion.

"Hence many are called, but few are chosen.

"No power or influence can or ought to be maintained by virtue
of the Priesthood, only by persuasion, by long suffering, by gentle-
ness, and meekness, and by love unfeigned;

"By kindness, and pure knowledge, which shall greatly enlarge
the soul without hypocrisy, and without guile;

"Reproving betimes with sharpness, when moved upon by the Holy
Ghost, and then showing forth afterwards an increase of love toward
him whom thou hast reproved, lest he esteem thee to be his enemy;

"That he may know that thy faithfulness is stronger than the cords
of death;

"Let thy bowels also be full of charity towards all men, and to
the household of faith, and let virtue garnish thy thoughts unceas-
ingly, then shall thy confidence wax strong in the presence of God,
and the doctrine of the Priesthood shall distil upon thy soul as the
dews from heaven.

"The Holy Ghost shall be thy constant companion, and thy sceptre
an unchanging sceptre of righteousness and truth, and thy dominion
shall be an everlasting dominion, and without compulsory means it
shall flow unto thee forever and ever." (Doc. & Gov., Sec. 121:34-46.)

Questions and Suggestions— Chapter XXIT

1. What constitutes good discipline?

2. What factors contribute to make discipline a real problem in
our Church?

3. Discuss our attitude toward discipline today as compared with
the attitude toward it a generation ago.

4. Name the various methods of securing discipline.

5. Discuss their relative values.

6. Why is the teacher's attitude so important a factor in disci-
pline?

7. What qualities are involved in the proper attitude?

8. Discuss preparation in its bearing upon discipline.

Helpful References

Doctrine & Covenants; Bagley, School Discipline; O'Shea, Every-
day Problems in Teaching; Brumbaugh, The Making of a Teacher
Dewey, Interest and Effort in Education.

CHAPTER XXIII

CREATING CLASS SPIRIT

Outline — Chapter XXIII

The "pull" of a good class. — ^The appeal of an attractive class-
room.— Making it "our room." — The teacher and class spirit. — Capi-
talizing on the leadership of the class. — Stimulating free participa-
tion.— Out of class activities. — Some possibilities.

There is a "pull" to certain classes — a pull that has all
the force of a magnet. Pupils not only go to such a class
willingly, but anticipate with pleasure the approach of the
recitation hour. When duty is coupled with pleasure, there
is a force for righteousness that is beyond measure. Of
the various factors that contribute to the creation of a class
spirit, the following are offered as being among the most
helpful.

1. An Attractive Classroom. While it is true that most
of the organizations in the Church do not have surplus
funds for beautifying their buildings, and while it is equally
true that many a good lesson has been conducted on the
dirt floors of long cabins, it is equally true that rooms can
be beautified, and that pleasant surroundings can be made
a potent force in holding to our organizations the men and
women and boys and girls of the Church. Of course, elab-
orate, expensive decorations ought to be discouraged. Sim-
plicity always is more consistent with the spirit of worship
than is extravagance. But contrast the difference in effect
on children of a bare, untidy, makeshift room as against a
cozy room decorated with a few beautiful pictures or dra-
peries and made homelike with comfortable seats and tidy
arrangement.

Nor is any great expense involved. The writer recalls
visiting a kindergarten class in one of the schools in Salt

158 Principles of Teaching

Lake County. The ward authorities had not been asked
for a dollar to fit up the room, and yet it had one of the
"homiest" atmospheres imaginable. The teacher of the
class, in addition to having an interest in the class, had an
artistic temperament. She had collected through a number
of years the most beautiful pictures that had appeared in
the magazines. These in their home-made frames trans-
formed the walls of her room into a veritable art gallery
— ^wherever the eye of the visitor rested, it was greeted by
a picture that, through its beauty, drove home an apprecia-
tion of the finer things of life. The children, too, had been
stimulated to a pride in their room. They had brought in
the available old rags from their homes and, as the result
of a Sunday School entertainment which they had put on
with the co-operation of the other departments of the
school, they had had the rags woven into one of those
cheerful, old-fashioned home-made carpets. It was per-
fectly clear that the children took delight in going to this
"their room" each Sunday morning. Their pride prompted
them to take care of what they regarded as their room, and
made for a spirit of quiet and good order hard to surpass.

During the course in teacher-training at Provo, last sum-
mer, one of the members of the class courteously took the
pains to see that a bouquet of flowers adorned the teacher's
desk each day that the class met. It is impossible to esti-
mate the effect of those flowers. Their beauty, coupled with
the thoughtfulness that brought them in, made for a "fra-
grance of spirit" that exerted a remarkable influence.

Once the idea becomes established, pupils will take de-
light in making their classroom a place in which they will
love to meet.

2. The Teacher. We have already discussed at length
the personality of the teacher and its force in teaching. We

Creating Class Spirit 159

need only emphasize the fact here that the magnetism of
the teacher, either through what he is or what he gives, is
the one great factor that makes for class spirit. The class
inevitably reflects the attitude of the man who directs it.
He must radiate enthusiasm before it can be caught by his
pupils. His inspiration in making them feel that their class
is "the one class" of an organization is only too gladly re-
sponded to by those whom he teaches. If he impresses the
class with the fact that he joins with them because he loves
so to do rather than because he has a duty to perform — if
he makes suggestions in the interest of a better class — if he
starts out by doing something himself by way of a contri-
bution to the class and its spirit — he can be reasonably
sure that his class will come more than half-way to join in
his plans.

Not only his attitude is a vital factor — ^his preparation
must be of the same enthusiastic type. A pupil of a very
successful teacher in Salt Lake City recently made the re-
mark, "I wouldn't think of missing Brother 's class.

He gives me food for a week." Pressed as to the explana-
tion of this enthusiasm, he added, "Brother is

unique. He always attacks a subject in such a new and
thorough way. He goes below the surface and really
teaches us the Gospel." It is not strange, of course, that
such advertising on the part of class members has built
up an enrollment of some seventy-five pupils. Let us, then,
remind ourselves that boys like a teacher

"Who has pep,"

"Who tells us something new,"

"Who doesn't preach at us."

3. Capitalizing on the Leadership of the Class. Just as
in every band of horses there is a leader, so there is in

160 Principles of Teaching

every group of boys and girls. And as with the leaders, so
with the followers. "Get the leaders," says a veteran
horseman, "and you have all the rest." It is frequently the
case that a teacher does not know intimately all of his
pupils. Perhaps in many cases that teacher can know well
a few of the outstanding leaders. He can well accompany
them on hikes, can take them to a theatre, a ball game, or
for a ride. If he wins them they become his lieutenants
— they make his class. A word from him and these "under
officers" lead the whole class to the desired reaction. "Take
your leading pupils into your confidence and they will
establish you in the confidence of all the rest." The expe-
rience is related of a teacher sent into southern Utah to
take charge of a class of boys who had "dismissed" three
teachers already, within the first half year of school. When
the newcomer arrived, the air was full of rumblings as to
what was to become of number four. He was variously
cautioned to make an early departure, to go into school
"armed" to "expect anything." But this particular teacher
appreciated the fact that he was best armed when backed
by the confidence and good will of his class. It was an
easy matter to have pointed out for him "the meanest boy
of the lot." This boy he sought out and found playing a
game of horseshoe. Invited to take a place in the game, he
entered the circle of the "outlaws" by winning decisively
from their champion — "the meanest boy." To this boy, the
new teacher was a "real fellow." Whatever he said, wentl
The word was circulated overnight among the boys of the
town. The teacher already was master of the situation.
"The meanest boy," instead of being the chief outlaw, now
took pride in being chief lieutenant. Winning the leader
won the group, and teacher number four not only stayed the
year out, but was petitioned to come back a second year.

Creating Class Spirit 161

As a matter of fact, he says, he taught school in that town
for seven years.

4. Putting a Premium on Participation. One of the
most interesting classes the writer has ever visited was a
theological class in the Granite Stake. The teacher was
committed to the policy of taking as little as possible of
the class period himself, but he was also committed to the
policy of getting his pupils to do the most possible. For
the particular day in question he had assigned a discussion
of baptism. One member of the class had been asked to
discuss sprinkling as the correct method, another had
been assigned immersion. The two young men brought in
their findings as if they had been trained for a debate.
Within the forty minutes devoted to the recitation baptism
had been gone into as thoroughly as the writer has ever
seen it gone into during the course of a single lesson, and
the members of the class had been delightfully entertained
and enlightened. When the bell rang announcing the close
of the recitation, the class petitioned to have the discussion
continued the following Sunday. It was perfectly clear
how the teacher had built up his enrollment.

It is fundamental in human nature to love social combat.
The clash of mind versus mind makes a wonderful appeal.
Witness a political convention or an open forum debate!
Let it be known that a vital subject is to be discussed by
men who are really prepared and other men bestir them-
selves to be in attendance. Surely no subjects are full of
more vital significance than questions of life and life eter-
nal. If a teacher will take the pains to select attention-
compelling headings and then stimulate representative
members of his class really to work out something of a
contribution, he need have no ieaoc of the success of his

162 Principles of Teaching

class. Such procedure not only guarantees a good class
— it promotes faith on the part of those participating as
few other things can. Too frequently we content ourselves
with the routine of commonplace "talk." There is no en-
thusiasm in mere routine as there is none in listless listen-
ing to generalities. Our effort should be to make our classes
intellectual social centers with everybody participating.

5. Promoting Class Activities Out of Hours. The Sev-
enties who harvested the grain for the widow of one of their
members did a splendid bit of service, not only for her but
for their own quorum. A common objective in service
made for a common bond in fellowship.

The Primary class that was stimulated to take a basket
of flowers to one of its sick members was helped not only
in the making of someone happy, but in building up a class
spirit that guaranteed success.

There are so many possibilities open to the teacher who
really cares. Just the other evening the teacher of a class
of Bee Hive girls called them together for a little social
entertainment that they might talk over plans for the ap-
proaching season. What a capital attitude? Not to wait
till the season opened, but to take the pains to look up the
available, prospective class members and make ready for an
enthusiastic campaign. Of course, such a teacher will
succeed.

Class socials of all sorts, baseball teams, authors' clubs,
bits of ward service, visits to institutions of interest — ^scores
of worthy opportunities present themselves always to the
teacher who is anxious to build up a genuine class spirit.
And that spirit is the one great guarantee of real joy in
teaching — it makes a class one which its members will
always hold in memory.

Creating Class Spirit 163

Questions and Suggestions — Chapter XXIII

1. Why is it essential that a teacher build up a class spirit?

2. Give three practical suggestions on the subject of beautifying
classrooms.

3. Discuss the importance of the attitude of a teacher in promot-
ing class spirit

4. Point out possible methods for enlisting the co-operation of
class leaders.

5. What do you consider your best method of stimulating mem-
bers to participate in class discussions.

6. What kind of class activities contribute most to the life of
your class?

7. Discuss the advisability of promoting class athletic teams.

Heupful References

Colgrove, The Teacher and the School; Weigle, Talks to Sunday
School Teachers; Dewey, Interest and Effort in Education; O'Shea,
Everyday Problems in Teaching; Norsworthy and Whitley, Psy-
chology of Childhood.

CHAPTER XXIV

CONVERSION— THE REAL TEST OF TEACHEMG

Outline — Chapter XXIV

Character, a great power in conversion. — Our concern the converted
teacher and also the converted pupil. — The converted teacher believes
what he teaches. — The converted teacher practices what he teaches. —
The force of "Come, follow me." — What makes for conversion. — The
teacher's obligation to kindle the spiritual fire. — His obligation to
feature testimony-bearing. — His obligation to take his pupils where
they will feel the spirit of testimony.

A number of years ago a young graduate of one of our
eastern universities was employed to teach science in a
school in Japan. He was employed with the understanding
that though he was free to advance whatever scientific theo-
ries he chose he should say nothing about his Christian
religion. He accepted the conditions gladly, and during the
first year of his service was careful not even to mention
Christianity. He not only taught his classes in science, but
he joined with the boys in their athletics and in their social
life generally. Being both an athlete and a leader, he was
soon looked to as the life of the school. His clean life was
an inspiration. He inevitably set a Christian standard.
Before the end of the second year, though he had preached
never a word, forty young men made application for mem-
bership in his church. His life and ideals had converted
them as no preaching could have done.

What was true in this case is inevitably true in the case
of all real teachers. What a man is breathes a power of
conversion that no force or argument can equal. Hence this
concluding chapter — Conversion, the Real Test of
Teaching.

First of all, we are concerned with the conversion of the
teacher; secondly, with the conversion of the pupil. They

Conversion — The Real Test of Teaching 165

are inseparably interwoven. Only the converted teacher can
make converts of his pupils. And surely there is very great
need of this very thing — the making of real converts of our
boys and girls that they may come fully to appreciate the
significance of the Gospel of Jesus Christ. Upon them rests
the carrying forward of that great work which only the
conversion of our pioneer forefathers could have achieved.

In the first place, the converted teacher believes what he
teaches. There is no half-hearted attitude toward the sub-
ject in hand. To him it is both true and vital. He teaches
with a positiveness and an assurance which grip pupils.
What a diflference between the speech in which a speaker
merely makes certain observations — sets forth certain speci-
fied facts — and the speech in which those same facts are
heightened by that glow of conviction which stamps them
as indispensably essential to proper living. The prayer of
a man who does not believe in prayer is an example of the
emptiness of unbelief. There is one minister in Chicago
who openly announces that God does not and can not
answer the prayers of mankind. And yet he prays. And
what mockery is his praying. Mere words. No man is
ever touched by such an empty form. Such prayers have
none of that Heaven Force which establishes communion
with the Lord. Surely "They draw near me with their lips,
but their hearts are far from me."

To everyone comes the experience of listening to the
heavy phrases of him who would argue and harrangue his
auditors into salvation. How his words seem not only to
close their minds, but to shut their hearts as well. He fairly
talks so loudly that they can't hear him. And then some
humble follower of Him who shunned the orator's elo-
quence moves to tears the same audience by his simple
utterance of what he knows and feels to be true. He adds

166 Principles of Teaching

the conviction of conversion to mere "hard-headedness."
When a man knows that which he teaches is true there is
a spirit that gives power to what he says. "The letter kill -
eth, but the spirit giveth Hfe."

The experience of a Montana raihoad executive gives
force to this thought. He told one of our leaders how he
had always been impressed with the achievements of our
Church. In fact, he became such an admirer of the wonder-
ful organization of the "Mormon" Church that he decided
to adopt the same kind of organization in his railroad. To
quote: "I thought if I could apply the same system up here
that you have in the *Mormon' Church it would work just
the same for me as it did for you. I have copied its plan
with the First Presidency, the Council of the Twelve, the
Presiding Bishop, and all the other officers. I have tried it
— but it wouldn't work for me." Only a Latter-day Saint
can fully understand why.

And so the teacher who would become a converter must
feel the truth of what he teaches so that a spirit of convic-
tion extends from him to his class and so takes hold of the
members that they, too, feel the truth of what he says. In
short, the real teacher must have a testimony of the truth-
fulness of the Gospel of Jesus Christ. He must be caught
up by that same spirit that opened the heavens to the
Prophet Joseph Smith — only then can he really teach. The
Lord has so revealed:

"And they shall observe the covenants and church articles to do
them, and these shall be their teaching, as they shall be directed
by the Spirit;

"And the Spirit shall be given unto you by the prayer of faith,
and it ye receive not the Spirit, ye shall not teach." (Doc. & Gov.,
Sec. 42:13, 14.)

"Verily I say unto you, he that is ordained of me and sent forth
to preach the word of truth by the Comforter, in the Spirit of Truth,
doth he preach it by the Spirit of Truth or some other way?

Conversion — The Real Test of Teaching 167

"And if it be by some other way, it is not of God.

"And again, he that receiveth the word of truth, doth he receive
it by the Spirit of Truth or some other way?

"If it be some other way it be not of God:

"Therefore, why is it that ye cannot understand and know that
he that receiveth the word by the Spirit of Truth, receiveth it as
it is preached by the Spirit of Truth?

"Wherefore, he that preacheth and he that receiveth, understandeth
one another, and both are edified and rejoice together;

"And that which doth not edify is not of God and is darkness;

"That which is of God is light; and he that receiveth light and con-
tinuetli in God, receiveth more light, and that light groweth brighter
and brighter imtil the perfect day." (Doc. & Gov., Sec. 50:17-24.)

In the second place, the teacher's belief must be trans-
lated into daily life. "Come, follow me," is the admoni-
tion that makes for conversion. A young man recently, in
characterizing the biggest failure among teachers that he
had ever known, remarked, "He simply couldn't teach us
anything. He started in by giving us a vigorous lecture
against tobacco, but before a week had passed we all knew
that he himself smoked. He might just as well have given
up teaching right there. We couldn't see any truth in him
after that, for the 'smoke' of his own deception."

Of course, he was not converted. A similar experience
is related of the principal of a school who, with his faculty
of teachers, made it a school rule that there should be no
playing of cards on the part of the students. The rule
recorded, however, the principal proceeded to participate
in downtown card parties until he established a reputation,
in the language of the boys, as a "card shark." Not only
did that principal find it impossible thereafter to combat
the evil of students cutting classes to play cards, he lost
that confidence on the part of the student body without
which school discipline cannot be achieved. Lack of con-
version— such conversion as leads a man to practice what
he preaches — cost him his position.

168 Principles of Teaching

To the teacher who would develop the power of conver -
sion, may we make reference by way of review to those sug-
gestions in an earlier chapter that make for spiritual
growth:

1. Live a clean life.

2. Read the word of the Lord.

3. Do the duties assigned by those in authority.

4. Subscribe to all the principles of the Gospel.

5. Cultivate a real spirit of prayer.

If the teacher is really converted, of course the conver-
sion of his pupils follows very largely as a corollary. But
by way of practical suggestion, it may be helpful to list
some things that may be done to promote a spirit of testi-
mony on the part of the pupils. At the outset a teacher
ought to appreciate just what a testimony is and how it
varies with the age and experience of children. It is clearly
a mistake as a general rule to expect young children to give
expression to a testimony such as might be borne by an
adult. True, some children enjoy at an early age the spirit
of testimony to such an extent that they do seem to know
that the Gospel is true. But it is wiser not to expect too
much. Then, too, testimonies vary with individuals. Teach-
ers ought to look out for expressions which are character-
istic of the pupil in question rather than to expect all pupils
to measure up to a set standard.

With a proper conception of a testimony, the teacher
then owes certain rather definite obligations to his class.

He ought to feature testimony bearing rather than to
apologize for it. In the teaching of the Gospel of Jesus
Christ there can be no more sacred opportunity than that
which allows pupils to open their hearts to their Creator.

Then, too, the teacher owes it to his class to kindle the
spiritual fire which alone can make for testimony bearing.

Conversion — The Real Test of Teaching 169

Brother Maeser had a very effective way of illustrating the
significance of this obligation. As he expressed the thought,
no one would feel that he had completed his task of warm-
ing a house if he merely put into the grate the necessary
paper, wood and coal. He might have all these, but until
he struck the match which would kindle the fire, no warmth
would be felt. And so, spiritually, the fire of a testimony-
meeting needs to be kindled. All too often, a teacher opens
the class hour with some such statement as this, "Now, boys
and girls, today is Fast Day. I hope you won't let the time
go to waste." What inspiration in such an openingl That
teacher has not only not kindled the fire, he has brought
in a lump or two of coal — hard at that — with no kindling
even as a promise of a fire. On the other hand, the success-
ful teacher comes before his class with a vital truth that
thrills him and gives it a concrete expression which prompts
pupils to add similar experiences out of their own lives.

Then, too, the teacher may well bring into his class by
way of inspiration someone well established in the faith
whose experiences are full of the spirit of conversion.
There are in every ward in the Church those men and
women who know of a surety that the gospel is true. Why
not bring them in occasionally to stimulate testimony bear-
ing? Might it not be well, also, to take the class as a class
to our Fast Day Sacrament service, there to let them enjoy
the wonderful spirit of testimony that is so characteristic
of these meetings? There is a feeling of conversion that
attends these meetings that all boys and girls must feel —
must feel so keenly that they in turn will want to give ex-
pression to their own convictions.

And finally, as teachers, let us remind ourselves that in
this matter of promoting the bearing of testimonies we
should exercise a patience that is full of tolerance and for-

170 Principles of Teaching

bearance. Some few individuals are converted suddenly;
others respond to the truth gradually; and there are those
who do well if they really respond to the feeling of con-
version at the end of a lifetime. As one of our leaders has
so beautifully pointed out, the Master, Himself, did not
convert the world in a day, nor a year — He has not con-
verted it in all these centuries. His plan seems to be to
teach the truth and wait patiently until the divinity in man
asserts itself — until man walks by his own light into
eternal truth. Under the inspiration of such example may
teachers well labor on in earnestness, happy in the thought
that He will hasten in His own due time what to them
may seem a long, slow process.

"Perchance, in heaven, one day to me
Some blessed Saint will come and say,

'All hail, beloved; but for thee

My soul to death had fallen a prey';

And oh! what rapture in the thought,
One soul to glory to have brought."

Questions and Suggestions — Chapter XXIV

1. Why is conversion the real test of religious teaching?

2. What are the outstanding characteristics of a person newly
converted to the Church?

3. Discuss the significance of each of the factors that make for
conversion.

4. Illustrate how to kindle the spiritual fire.

5. State why or why not you favor making assigrmients for testi-
mony day.

6. What is a testimony?

7. How may children best cultivate a testimony?

8. What principle or practice means most to you by way of affirm-
ing your own testimony?

Helpful References

The Doctrine & Covenants, The Bible, The Book of Mormon, The
Voice of Warning, Rays of Living Light.

bibliography

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The Art of Teaching Driggs

The Art of Questioning Fitch

Story Telling, Questioning
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Bobbs, Merrill Co., Indianapolis,
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BRIGHAM YOUNG UNiyERSITY

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