Full text of "Printing types, their history, forms, and use; a study in survivals"

^ Library

UNIVERSITY OF
CALIFORNIA
SAN 0IE«O

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PRINTING TYPES

THEIR HISTORY, FORMS, AND USE

PRINTING TYPES

THEIR HISTORY, FORMS, AND USE
A STUDY IJV SURVIVALS

DANIEL BERKELEY UPDIKE

WITH ILLUSTRATIONS

'^JVunca han temdo, ni tienen las artes otros
enemigos que los ignor antes"

VOLUME n

CAMBRIDGE
HARVARD UNIVERSITY PRESS

LONDON: HUMPHREY MILFORD

OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS

1922

First Printing, August, 1922
Second Printing, January, 1923

D. B. UPDIKE, THE MERRYMOUNT PRESS, BOSTON, U. S. A.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

VOLUME II

CHAPTER

XV. TYPES OF THE NETHERLANDS: 1500-1800

Page

I. THE WORK OF THE PLANTIN PRESS 3

II. THE ELZEVIR EDITIONS 15

III. OTHER EXAMPLES OF NETHERLANDS PRINTING 23
§ 1. XVI CENTURY 24
§ 2. XVII CENTURY 28
§ 3. XVIII CENTURY 32

IV. NETHERLANDS FOUNDRIES AND SPECIMENS 35

XVI. SPANISH TYPES : 1500-1800

I. EXAMPLES OF SPANISH PRINTING 45

§ 1. XVI CENTURY 60

§ 2. XVII CENTURY 67

§ 3. XVIII CENTURY 70

II. SPANISH FOUNDRIES AND SPECIMENS 80

XVII. ENGLISH types: 1500-1800

I. FROM PYNSON TO WILLIAM CASLON 88

II. WILLIAM CASLON AND THE CASLON FOUNDRY 101

III. JOHN BASKERVILLE 107

IV. WILSON, FRY, MARTIN, AND OTHER FOUNDERS 116
V. EXAMPLES OF ENGLISH PRINTING 124

§ 1. XVI CENTURY 125

§ 2. XVII CENTURY 130

§ 3. XVIII CENTURY 133

XVIII. TYPES USED IN THE AMERICAN COLONIES, AND SOME

EARLY AMERICAN SPECIMENS 149

vi CONTENTS

XIX. NINETEENTH CENTURY "CLASSICAL" TYPES. BODONl
AND THE DIDOTS

I. THE "classical" MOVEMENT 159

n. GIAMBATTISTA BODONT 163

m. THE DIDOT FAMILY 176

rV. NINETEENTH CENTURY FRENCH FOUNDRIES AND

SPECIMENS 181

XX. ENGLISH types: 1800-1844 188

XXI. REVIVAL OF CASLON AND FELL TYPES 198

XXn. ENGLISH AND AMERICAN REVIVAL OF EARLY TYPE-
FORMS AND ITS EFFECT ON CONTINENTAL TYPES

I. ENGLAND AND THE UNITED STATES 202

II. THE CONTINENT 219

XXIII. THE CHOICE OF TYPES FOR A COMPOSING-ROOM 226

XXIV. INDUSTRIAL CONDFTIONS OF THE PAST AND THEIR
RELATION TO THE PRINTEr's PROBLEM TO-DAY

I. INTRODUCTORY 245

ir. EARLY CONDITIONS IN THE FRENCH PRINTING

INDUSTRY 247

in. SOME SIXTEENTH CENTURY LABOUR TROUBLES 253

IV. PRINTING AT PARIS IN THE SEVENTEENTH AND

EIGHTEENTH CENTURIES 258

V. THE CENSORSHIP 266

VI. RATE OF PRODUCTION, HOURS OF LABOUR, ETC. 270

VII. CONCLUSION 272

CHRONOLOGICAL LIST OF SPECIMENS 279

INDEX 281

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

VOLUME II

The filates, excefiting a few in the text of Volume I, either
face thefiage designated, or are groufied immediately after it

PAGE

193. Music Types employed in De la Hele's Masses: Planting
Antiverp^ 1578 5
From Rooses' Christofihe Plantin, Antwerp, 1896

194. Roman and Italic Types: Plantin Specimen^ Antwerp^

1567 7

From Rooses' Christofihe Plantin

195. Roman and Italic Types: Plantin Specimen^ Antwerp^
1567 8
From Rooses' Christofihe Plantin

196. Roman^ Italic^ and Cursive Types: Plantin Specimen^
Antwerp^ 1567 8
From Rooses' Christofihe Plantin

197. Canon d"^ Espagne from Plantin Office 10

From Sfiecimen des Caractires employes dans V Imfiriinerie
Plantinienne , Antwerfi, 1905

198. Calligraphic Initials from Plantin Office 10
From. Rooses' Christofihe Plantin

199. Page of Roman Type from Biblia Polyglotta: Plantin^
Antwerp, 1572 10
From Drue kschrif ten des XV bis XVIII Jahrhunderts

200. Text-page and Title in Plantings early manner, Afit-
zuerp, 1567 10
From Claude Paradin^s Symbola Heroica

201. Page from Rariorum Stirpium Hispanix Historia:
Plantin, Antwerp, 1576 12
From a copy in Harvard College Library

viii ILLUSTRATIONS

202. Page of Rechten^ ende Costumen van Antwerpen^ Plan-
tin^ 1582 12
From a cofiy in Harvard College Library

203. Page of Italic from Rembert Dodoeri's Stirpium His-

toria: Plantin Office^ Antxverp^ 1616 14

From a copy in Harvard College Library

204. Title-page^ Contents^ and Text-page of one of Elzevir'' s
Republics^ Leyden^ 1627 16

205. Pages of Cicero: Elzevir^ Ley den^ 1642 18
From a copy in Harvard College Library

206. Page of Caesar {octavo): Elzevir^ Amsterdam^ 1661 18
Fro?n a copy in Harvard College Library

207. Sale-Specimen of Elzevir Types: Amsterdam^ 1681 20
From facsimile in Willem''s Les Flzexner

208. Dutch Type used in Temple des Muses ^ A?nsterdam^

1733 34

209. Type used in De Stad Haarlem en haare Geschiedenissen:
Ensched^ and Bosch^ Haarlem^ 1765 34
From a copy in Harvard College Library

210. Script Type: EnschedPs Proef van Letteren^ Haarlem^
1768 38

211. Fleischman'' s Roman Types cut in 1734, 1753, and 1761:
Enschede''s Proef van Letteren^ Haarlem^ 1768 38

212. Fleischman'' s Black-letter : Ensched^^s Proef van Let-
teren^ Haarlem^ 1768 40

213. Seventeenth Century Civilitd: EnschedP s Proef van Let-
teren^ Haarlem^ \7&% 40

214. Rosarfs Caractere de Finance^ from his Epreuve^ Brus-
sels {after 1760) 42

215. Rosart^s Music Types^ from his Epreuve^ Brussels (after
1760) 42

ILLUSTRATIONS ix

216. Rosarfs Ornaments^ from his Epreuve^ Brussels (after
1760) 42

217. Dutch Roman Types: Erhardt Foundry Specimen^ Leip-

sic^ c. 1739 44

From Gessner^s Buchdruckerkunst und Schriftgiessery

218. Dutch Italic Types: Erhardt Foundry Specimen^ Leipsic^

c. 1739 44

From Gessner^s Buchdruckerkunst und Schriftgiessery

219. Round Spanish Black-letter^ from Lucas^ Arte de Escri-

vir, Madrid, 1577 47

From Strange's Alphabets

220. Antique Black-letter: Specimen of La Fabrica del Con-
vento de S. Joseph, Barcelona, 1777 48

221. Title-page of Bordazar''s Plantificacion, Valencia, \7S2 50

222. Texto, Atanasia, and Letura Espaciosafrom Bordazar's
Plantificacion, Valencia, 1732 52

223. Page of Sallust: Ibarra, Madrid, 1772 56

224. Gothic Types in De las Tablas y Escalera Spiritual:
Hagenbach, Toledo, 1504 61
From a cofiy in the Boston Public Library

225. Gothic Type used in Livy: Coci, Saragossa, 1520 62
From a co/iy in the Boston Public Library

226. Gothic Type used in Pulgar''s El Gran Capitan: Crom-
burger, Seville, 1527 62
From a cofiy in the Boston Public Library

227. Roman and Gothic Types used in Complutensian Poly-
glot Bible: Guillen de Brocar, Alcala, 1514-17 64

From a cofiy in the Boston Public Library

228. Greek Type used in Complutensian Polyglot Bible {New
Testament): Guillen de Brocar, Alcala, 1514-17 64
From a cofiy in the Boston Fhiblic Library

X ILLUSTRATIONS

229. Roman Type used in Latin translation of Pulgar's
Chronicle: Sancho de Nebrija^ Granada^ 1545 66
Fro7)i a copy in the Boston Public Library

230. Roman Tijpe used in Gomez de Castro's De Rebus Gestis
a Francisco Ximenio^ Cisnerio : Andres de Angulo^ Al-
cala, 1569 68

From a cofiy in Harvard College Library

231. Types used in jirst edition of Don Quixote: Juan de la
Cuesta, Madrid^ 1605 68

From a facsimile edition in the Boston Fhiblic Library

232. Opening of Solis'' Conquista de Mexico {frst edition):
Villa-Diego, Madrid, 1684 70
From a cofiy in the Boston Public Library

233. Italic used for Spanish text of Sallust : Ibarra, Madrid,

1772 72

234. Title-page of Academy Edition of Don ^tixote: Ibarra,
Madrid, 1780 74
From a copy in the Boston Public Library

235. Types used in Academy Edition of Don ^lixote:

Ibarra, Madrid, 1780 74

From a cofiy in the Boston Public Library

236. Type used in Villegas'' Las Eroticas: A. de Sancha,
Madrid, 1774 76
From a cofiy in the Boston Public Library

237. Opening of Solis'' Conquista de 3Iexico: Sancha, Madrid,

1783 76

From a cofiy in the Boston Public Library

238. Type used in Bayer's De Numis Hebraeo-Samaritanis:
Monfort, Valencia, \7^\ 78
From a copy in the Boston Public Library

239. Page from Triarte^s Obras Sueltas: Mena, Madrid,

1774^ 80

From a cofiy in the Boston Public Library

ILLUSTRATIONS xi

240. Italic in Prefatory Address: Espinosa''s Muestras de los
Caracteres^ etc.^ Madrid^ 1771 82

241. Texto Gordo {romati) : Espinosd's Muestras^ etc.^ Madrid^

1771 82

242. Texto Gordo (italic): Espinosa''s Muestras^ etc.^ Madrid^

1771 82

243. Italic of Letura Chica: Espinosa's Muestras^ etc.^

Madrid, 1771 82

244. Entredos {roman and italic): Espinosd's Muestras, etc.,
Madrid, 1771 82

245. Roman cut by Gil: Specimen Real Biblioteca, Madrid,

1787 84

246. Italic cut by Gil: Specimen Real Biblioteca, Madrid,

1787 84

247. New Italic of Texto (shovjing French influence) : Speci-
men Real Biblioteca, Madrid, 1787 84

248. Peticano, cut by Eudaldo Pradell: Muestras de la Viuda

i Hijo de Pradell, Madrid, 1793 84

249. Ornaments from Muestras, etc., Pedro If em, Madrid,

1795 86

250. Roman tending to ''^Modern Face ^'' from Muestras, etc.,
Imprenta Real, Madrid, 1799 86

251. Italic tending to ''''Modern Face ^"^ from Muestras, etc.,
Imprenta Real, Madrid, 1799 86

252. Ornaments frorn Muestras, etc., Imprenta Real, Madrid,
1799 86

253. Ornaments from Muestras, etc., Imprenta Real, Madrid,
1799 86

254. Court Hand, Secretary, and Scriptorial Types from Sale
Catalogue of the James Foundry, London, 1782 89

xii ILLUSTRATIONS

255. Roman Types used in Horman's Vulgana: Pynson^
London, 1519 90
Fro)n a cofiy in Harvard College Library

256. Roman Type used in JElfredi Regis Res Gestae: Day,
London, 1574- 92
From a co/iy in Harvard College Library

257. Italic used in Mlfredi Regis Res Gestae: Day, London,

1574 92

From a cofiy in Harvard College Library

258. Earliest Eriglish Specitnen-sheet : Nicholas Nicholls,
London, 1665 95
From Reed's History of Old English Letter Foundries

259. Roman and Italic given by Dr. Fell to the University
Press, Oxford 96
From Oxford University Press Specimen, 1695

260. Black-letter given by Dr. Fell to the University Press,
Oxford 96
From the Oxford University Press Specimen, 1695

261. Dutch Types used in England: Watson Specimen, Edin-
burgh, 1713 100

262. first Broadside Specimen issued by William Caslon,

1734 102

From a cofiy in the Library of the American Ty/ie Founders
Coinfiany, Jersey City

263. Roman and Italic: William Caslon Ss? Son's Specimen,

London, 1763 105

From a cofiy in the Library of the American Antiquarian So-
ciety, Worcester

264. Black-letter: William Caslon £if Soti^s Specimen, Lon-
don, 1763 106

From a cofiy in the Library of the American Antiquarian So-
ciety, Worcester

ILLUSTRATIONS xiii

265. Ornaments : William Caslon ^ Son's Specimen^ London^

1763 108

From a copy in the Library of the American Antiquarian So-
ciety, Worcester

266. Ornameyits: William Caslon ^ SorCs Specimen^ London^

1763 108

From a copy in the Library of the American Antiquarian So-
ciety, Worcester

267. Page of Baskerville' s Preface to Milton^ Birmingham^

1758 110

From a copy in the Boston Athenaeum

268. Title-page of Baskerville^ s Virgil^ Birmingham^ \7 57 112

269. Baskerville'' s Type used in Virgil^ Birmingham^ 1757 112

270. Baskerville'' s Broadside Specimen (without border)^ Bir-
mingham, c. 1762 114

271. Types from Baskerville' s bordered Broadside Specimen,
Birmingham, c. 1762 114

From a co/iy in the Library of the American Antiquarian So-
ciety, Worcester

272. Advertisement of Sale of Baskerville'' s Types, Paris

(after 1789) 114

273. Ornaments used by Baskerville 116
From Straus and Dent's John Baskerville

274. Ornaments used by Baskerville 116
From Straus and Denfs John Baskeruille

275. Portion of Wilson^ s Broadside Specimen, Glasgow, 1783 118

276. Broadside Specimen of Isaac Moore and Co., Bristol,

1766 118

277. Roman and Italic: Fry and Steele's Specimen, London,
1795 121

278. Ornaments: Fry and Steele* s Specimen, London, 1795 122

xiv ILLUSTRATIONS

279. Transitional Types: Caslon Specimen^ London^ 1798 122

280. Ornaments : Caslon Specimen^ London., 1798 122

281. Types used in GoYver's Confessio Amantis: Berthelet.,
London, 1532 126
Froin a co/iy in Harvard College Library

282. Lettre Batarde used in Jirst complete edition of Chaucer:
Godfrey, London, 1532 126
From a facsimile edition in the Boston Public Library

283. Lettre de Forme used in second complete edition of
Chaucer: Pynson, London, 1542 126
From a cofiy ifi Harvard College Library

284. Pag-e of Cuniiingham' s Cosmographicall Glasse: Day,
London, 1559 126
From a copy in the John Carter Brawn Library, Providence

285. Page of Ascham's Scholemaster, showing Roman, Italic^

and Black-letter : Day, London, 1571 128

From a cofiy in Harvard College Library

286. Type and Ornaments in Tasso^s Godfrey of Bulloigne:
Hatfield, London, 1 600 131
From a copy in the Boston Public Library

287. Page of Walton's Lives: Nexvcomb, London, 1670 133
From a copy in Harvard College Library

288. Page of English-Saxon Homily: Bowyer, London, 1709 135

289. Roman used in Latin edition of Caesar: Tonson, Lon-
don, 1712 136

290. First use of Caslon' s Roman Type, in Selden's Opera:
Bowyer, London, 1726 138
From a copy in the Boston Athenaeum

291. Engraved Text of Pine'' s Horace, London, 1733-37 138
From a copy in Harvard College Library

ILLUSTRATIONS xv

292. Type of Hanmer''s Shakespeare: University Press^ Ox-
ford, 1743-44 140
From a copy in Harvard College Library

293. Bastard Title-page of Hanmer's Shakespeare: Univer-
sity Press, Oxford, 1743-44 140
From a copy in Harvard College Library

294. Page of Sir Joshua Reynolds^ Royal Academy Discourse:
Cadell, London, 1781 142
From a copy in Hai~vard College Library

295. Type of folio Pope: Foidis, Glasgow, 1785 142
From a copy in Haruard College lAbrary

296. Title-page of Letters of Charlotte, London, 179>& 144
From a copy in Harvard College Library

297. William Martinis Type used in the '■''Boydell Shak-
speare''"' : Bulmer, London, 1792-1802 144

From a cofiy in the Boston Public Library

298. William Martin's Two-line Small Pica Roman and
Italic used in Poems by Goldsmith and Parnell: Bul-
mer, London, 1795 147

299. William Martin's Great Primer Roman (Goldsmith and

Parnell) and Italic {Somervile's Chase) : Bulmer, Lon-
don, 1795-96 148

300. William Martin'' s Pica Roman and Italic used ifi Som-
ervile's Chase: Bulmer, London, 1796 148

301. Bimiy ^ Ronaldson^ s Type used in The Columbiad, Phil-
adelphia, 1807 154
From a copy in the Boston Athenxum

302. Black-letter: Binny £sf* Ronaldson' s Specimen, Philadel-
phia, 1812 156

303. Ornaments: Binny ^ Ronaldson' s Specimen, Philadel-
phia, 1812 156

xvi ILLUSTRATIONS

304. Title-page: Isaiah TTiomas's Specimen^ Worcester^ 1785 158

From a cofiy in Harvard College Library

305. Greek from Iscrizioni Esotici: Bodoni^ Parma ^ 1774 166

306. Roman and Italic from BodonVs Specimen^ Parma ^ 1788 168

307. (a) Title of Lettre a De Cubieres. {b) Text of Lettre a

De Cubieres: Bodoni, Parma^ 1785 168

308. Page of Signora BodonVs Discorso: Manuale Tipogra-

fco, Parma, 1818 170

309. Page of BodonV s Prefazione : Manuale Tipografco,
Parma, 1818 170

310. Specimen of BodonVs Ducalein three -weights: Manuale
Tipografco, Parma, 1818 170

311. Largest, medium, and smallest Roman and Italic Capi-
tals shown in BodonVs Manuale Tipografco, Parma,

1818 170

312. Ornaments: BodonVs Manuale Tipografco, Parma, 1818 170

313. Borders: BodonVs Manuale Tipografco, Parma, 1818 170

314. Roman in Epithalamia Exoticis Linguis Reddita:

Bodoni, Parma, 1775 172

315. Italic in Epithalamia Exoticis Linguis Reddita:

Bodoni, Par?7ia, 1775 172

316. Roman and Italic: AmorettVs Saggio de'' Caratteri,

Parma, 1811 175

317. Ornaments : AmorettVs Saggio de'' Caratteri, Parma,

1811 176

318. Italic in P. Didot Vain^'^s Specimen des Nouveaux
Caracteres, Paris, 1819 178

319. Roman in P. DidoVs Specimen, etc., Paris, 1819 180

320. Borders: Specimen of GilU fls, Paris, 1808 182

ILLUSTRATIONS xvii

321. Broadside Specimen of GUU jils^ Paris ^ c. 1808 182

322. Sheet from folio Specimeji of Mold jeune^ Paris^ 1819 182

323. Broadside Specimen of L. Lcger^ Paris^ after 1806 184

324. Borders: Leger''s Specimen des Divers Caracteres^ Paris 184

325. '"''Classic''^ Types: Epreuves de Caracteres^ Fonderie
Ginirale, Paris, 1843 186

326. French Old Style revived by De Berny, Paris, in 1852 186

327. Comparative Table of Types used by the French National

Printing House from its foundation to 1825 186

From JVoticesur les Tyfies Etrangers du Specimen de V Imfirim-
erie Royale, Paris, 1847

328. Types used in The Sovereign : Bensley, London, 1800 188

329. Types used in Poetry of the Anti- Jacobin : Bulmsr, Lon-
don, 1801 190

330. Types used in Freylinghausen' s Doctrine of the Chris-
tian Religion: Stereotype Office, London, 1804 190

331. Page of Bibliographical Decameron: Bulmer, London,

1817 190

From a cofiy belonging to Mr. C. F. Lauriat, Jr. , Boston

332. Julian Hibberfs Uncial Greek Types used in Book of the
Orphic Hymns, London, 1827 192

333. Modern Face Types: Alexander Wilson ^ Son''s Speci-
men, Glasgow, 1833 194

334. Pofnan and Italic: W. Thorowgood'' s Specimen, London,
1824 196

335. Black-letter: W. Thoroxvgood'' s Specimen, London, 1824 196

336. Ornaments to accompany '"'' Fat- Face''"' Types: Henry
Caslon, London, 1844 196

337. Ornaments to accompany ''''Fat- Face''"' Types: Henry
Caslon, London, 1844 196

xviii ILLUSTRATIONS

338. Tifpes and Ornaments of Period of the Caslon Revival:
Caslon Son and Livermore and Henry Caslon Specimens^
London, 1844 196

339. Caslon Type as revived in Lady Willoughhy' s Diary by
Whittingham, London, 1844 198

340. Caslon Type used in '"''Pickering edition''"' of The Temple,

by George Herbert: Whittingham, London, 1850 200

341. First use of Fell Types by the Daniel Press, Oxford,

1877 200

From A N'e^ Sermon of the JSTewest Fashion

342. Fell Types as used in Songs by Margaret L. Woods:
Daniel Press, Oxford, 1896 200

343. Fell Types as used in Trecentale Bodleianum : Oxford
University Press, 1913 200

344. Modernized Old Style Fonts as used in Wotton^s Ele-
ments of Architecture: Chiswick Press, London, 1903 200

345. Type used in The Hobby Horse: Chiswick Press, Lon-
don, 1890 200

346. Morris's Golden Type: Kelmscott Press 206

From Poems of Williain Shakesfieare, 1893

347. Morris'' s Troy Type: Kelmscott Press 208
From Morris's J^ote on Kelmscott Press, 1 898

348. Morris's Chaucer Type: Kelmscott Press 208
From Morris's Mote on Kelmscott Press, 1898

349. The Vale Fount: Vale Press 210
From Bibliografihy of the Vale Press, 1904

350. The Avon Fount: Vale Press 210
From Bibliografihy of the Vale Press, 1904

351. The King'^s Fount: Vale Press 210
From Bibliografihy of the Vale Press, 1904

ILLUSTRATIONS xix

352. Doves Type: Doves Press 212

From Catalogue Raisonne of Doves Press Books, 1 908

35^. Type used by the Ashendene Press 214

From Horace's Carmina Alcaica, 1903

354. Brook Type: Eragny Press 214

From Brief Account of Eragny Press, 1903

S55. Herbert Home's Montallegro^ Florence^ and Riccardi

Types 216

356. Sehvyn Image's Greek Type 216

From JVenv Testament in Greek, London, 1895

Z5T. Proctor'' s ^^ Otter'' Greek Type 216

From Oresteia of JEjschylus : Chiswick Fh-ess, London, 1904

358. Britce Rogers' Montaigne Type 218
From The Banquet of Plato : Riverside Press, Cambridge, 1908

359. Bnice Rogers' Centaur Type 218
From Maurice de Gueri7i's Centaur, Montague Press, 1915

360. Bertram Grosvenor Goodhue's Merrymount Type 218

361. '"'' Inkunabula" type^ as used in Risorgimento Grajico:
Bertieri and Fanzetti, Milan^ 1921 222

362. Distel Type: ZUverdistel Press^ The Hague^ 1918 222

363. Zilver Type: ZUverdistel Press, The Hague, 1915 222

364. French Lettre Batarde, Paris, 1890 222

From reproduction of Simon Fostre's Heures a /' Usage de
Rome

365. Le Cochin: G. Peignot £s? Fils, Paris, 1914 224

366. Arabic Figures, Non-Ranging and Ranging, with
Arabic Figures employed by Simon de Colines in 1536 230

367. Examples of Transitional Types 243

PRINTING TYPES
THEIR HISTORY, FORMS, AND USE

PRINTING TYPES
CHAPTER kv

TYPES OF THE NETHERLANDS: I5OO-I8OO

THOUGH Netherlands printing never equalled
the exquisite work of the best French printers
between 1500 and 1550, by the middle of the
sixteenth century the primacy in printing had begun to
pass from France to Holland. This was chiefly because the
Roman Church, and especially the theologians of the Sor-
bonne, were discouraging French scholarship, forbidding
Hebrew studies, fearing the study of Greek, and, by thus
impeding scholarship, impeding the career of that fine
figure, the French scholar-printer. The palm for printing
passed to Holland also, largely because of two great names;
and the books one naturally first thinks of in considering
the Netherlands press are the ample sixteenth century vol-
umes by Christophe Plan tin, and the "tight," business-like
little editions printed by various Elzevirs in the seventeenth
century. We first consider the work of these two presses,
and then some sixteenth, seventeenth, and eighteenth cen-
tury books by other Netherlands printers.

PLANTIN was a Frenchman. He was born at Saint
Avertin, near the city of Tours, about the year 1520,
and after various wanderings in his own country he came
to Antwerp, where he engaged in book-binding and work-
ing in leather. Incapacitated through an accident from con-
tinuing his trade, he became a printer — a 77ietierw\th which
he was already familiar. The books which he printed show

4 PRINTING TYPES

his Gallic training and taste. Partly through the political
situation of the Netherlands — still under Spanish rule —
and partly through his eminence as a scholarly typographer,
he came to have extended relations with many notable
men. He began to print at Antwerp in 1555, and estab-
lished a foundry in connection with his press in 1563,
where a certain Sabon — whose name was given to a size of
German type — was employed. At first Plantin apparently
purchased current and local material ; later he began to
import matrices of foreign fonts or to have his types cut
for him. Though he made Antwerp a centre of printing,
this printing was characteristic not so much of the Nether-
lands as of France. This was not solely because Plantin
was a Frenchman, but because he so constantly procured
and used French products. Frangois Guyot of Antwerp,
a type-cutter and founder, who was one of the earliest ^oi/r-
nisseurs to the Plantin press, was a Frenchman of Parisian
origin. With Robert Granjon of Lyons — who for a time
lived at Antwerp — Plantin had continuous dealings. San-
lecque supplied some of Plantings fonts ; at the Garamond
sale he acquired certain important "strikes" and types ; and
Guillaume Le Be I and Hautin supplied part of his equip-
ment. Some delightful roman and italic fonts came, appar-
ently, from the office of Simon de Colines. Granjon supplied
some of Plantin's civiliie^ and also cut the Greek and Syr-
iac type for his Polyglot Bible — the Hebrew being from
Le Be. This famous Polyglot in eight volumes (printed by
Plantin under the patronage of Philip II of Spain, and
edited by Benito Arias Montano, Philip's chaplain) was
his masterpiece and also almost his ruin. "Learning hath
gained most by those books by which the Printers have
lost," says Thomas Fuller in his Holy State. "Christopher
Plantine \^sic\ by printing of his curious interlineary Bible

^'- — ^

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SVPERIVS-

NETHERLANDS TYPES: 1500-1800 5

in Anwerp [^sic] through the unreasonable exactions of the
King's officers, sunk and almost ruined his estate." The
Spanish Crown later granted the Plantin press special privi-
leges for printing service-books for the Spanish Church.
This was a monopoly retained for a long time by Plantin's
descendants, and (as we shall see) proved an obstacle to the
progress of liturgical printing in Spain. Between 1568 and
1570, Plantin bought the Netherlands "rights" of the new
Breviary of Pius V; for the new Missal he purchased a
monopoly for the Netherlands, Hungary, and portions of
Germany. These privileges assured the press of a staple
product which was a veritable gold mine to him and his
descendants.

Plantin, after the death of Guyot and the cessation of
his relations with Granjon, appears to have taken up with
a Ghent type-founder, Henric van der Keere the younger,
or, as he preferred to call himself, Henri du Tour; and
between the years 1570 and 1580 Plantin's own foundry
apparently was closed — Du Tour supplying everything.
He, too, seems to have been of French origin — indeed, Four-
nier speaks of him as living at Paris. The music fonts in
Plantin's office were of remarkable magnificence, and some
of his books of Masses, especially those by Georges de la
Hele, are strikingly handsome (Jig. 193). Of these music
types some of the best were cut by Du Tour. In 1580, the
year of Du Tour's death, he was, according to Rooses,^ the
only type-founder in the country. There were also Nether-
lands founders from whom Plantin purchased types, whose
names have come down to us, but the greater part of his
equipment was by French hands.

The following letter to Moretus, written from Paris, De-

' Max Rooses, Christofihe Plantin, Im/irimeur Jlnversois, 2^"*^ Edition. Ant-
werp, 1896.

6 PRINTING TYPES

cember 12, 1598, tells something of the relations between
Garamond and Plantin, as well as Plantin's dealings with
Guillaume Le Be I, whose son, Guillaume Le Be II, writes
it.

"I have long had a great desire to write you, understand-
ing you to be son-in-law of the late M. Plantin (whom may
God absolve), who during his lifetime was a great friend
of my late father's, which has caused me, through the
kindness with which your nephew, M. de Varennes, has
addressed me, to take up my pen, in order that thereby I
may make overtures toward renewing between us the ac-
quaintance which existed between our fathers — which is
the first reason moving me to write ; the second being, that
as I know you have the matrices and punches which M.
Plantin had and likewise punches of the petit iexte cut by
Garamond, I would pray and beg you to accommodate me
with a set of these matrices (without justifying them, as
long as they are struck on copper of good quality and are
deeply sunk), and as a 'trade.' I have Garamond's other
punches which my late father purchased from Garamond's
widow, of which I will accommodate you with any, in even
exchange, such as \he parangon romam^ the gros romain^ the
canon and the petit romain. It was my late father who sold
M. Plantin the said punches o^ petit texte and those of the
Saint-Aiigiistin which I know you have, for my father
bought all these from Garamond, and then, at the desire
of Monsieur your father, he sold him these two kinds,
although my father retained for himself a set of matrices
of each. But in selling a large assortment to a merchant,
he had to dispose of his petit texte because this customer
wanted so much to have it ; and that is why, not possess-
ing it, I desire to secure it. I have also several fine fonts of
Hebrew letters — for text as well as notes — with which

Quifquis eft, qui moderatione &
conftantiapolleat, quietus animoeft^
fibiqiie ipfeplacatus^vt neque tabefcat
moleftiis, neque frangatur timore, nee
ritienterquidexpe6lans,ardeatdcfide-

IIL TVSCVL.

Sapienti nihil poteft videri magnum in rebus
liumanis, cui ^ternitas omnis, totiusquemundi
nota fit magnitude . Nam quid aut in ftudiis hu-
manis , aut in tarn exigua vitx breuitate magnum
fapienti videri poteft, qui- Temper animo fie excu-
bat, vt ei nihil improuifiim accidere pofsit, nihil

Saptentia nihil cfl melim. i. de natura. Deorum^,
oAd re7?jpuhltcam-plurima veniuTpL> commoda^fimo^
deratrix omnium rerumpmflo eftfapientia: hincadipfbs
qui e am^ adept i funtj y lam y honor ^ di^nitas conjluit*
i.de^Inuenf.

194. Roman and Italic Types: Plantin Specimen^ Antwerp^ 1567

NETHERLANDS TYPES: 1500-1800 7

to print rabbinical commentaries, as is done in the great
Bible printed at Venice ; I think you have several kinds
of Hebrew letters, for my father cut them and sold them
to M. Plantin, your father. If it is agreeable to you to ac-
commodate me with a set of matrices of the aforesaid petit
texte of Garamond's on the above named conditions, I beg
you to send me a reply. I am living at rue Saint Jehan
de Beauvais, au clos Bnineau^ and am a dealer in paper,
and a master type-founder. By doing this you will impel me
with all my heart to render you service wherever it may
please you to command it ; praying God that He may pre-
serve you, and remaining. Sir, your servant and friend,

GuiLLAUME Le Be.
"I send you an impression of the letter I call petit texte^
which I wish to procure."

Some of Plantin's fonts are shown in his Specimen of
1567. This Index, sive Specimen Characterum Christophori
Plantini showed forty-one specimens — seven Hebrew, six
Greek, twelve roman, ten italic, three cursive, and three
gothic types. Rooses shows but six roman, four italic, and
three cursive fonts.^ I hesitate to give these types attribu-
tions, though the larger sizes of roman and italic appear
very French in style (_^^. 194). Those headed De Claris Orat
and Pro Sestio appear to be from the office of De Colines
(/^. 195).

The cursives headed Pro Flacco and / Offic. are the
work of Granjon, whom Plantin frequently employed i^fig'
196). The cursive type headed III De Legib. is attributed
to another type-cutter. Various forms of cursive type are
displayed in Plantin's Polyglot Bible,^ and the Plantin office

Rooses' Plantin, after page 232. His reproduction, from which our plates
are taken, is slightly reduced.
^ Drue kschrif ten, pis. 8 and 30.

8 PRINTING TYPES

at Leyden possessed fine fonts of it.^ A peculiarity of all
these fonts is that lower-case letters to be used in the mid-
dle of a word often differ entirely from those to be employed
as final letters.

But the Dutch vernacular types, which reproduced typo-
graphically writing then current in the Netherlands, — the
only "national" character given by the Low Countries to
typography, — we owe to Ameet Ta vernier and Henric van
der Keere. Tavernier, who, no doubt, had seen Granjon's
types, produced a similar character in Flemish style about
1559, which, because it was native, and not (like Granjon's)
foreign, had a great success, and was used by Plantin.
Van der ^eere (already mentioned as supplying Plantin
with material) also made an essay of a letter Jagon d''ecri-
ture about 1575; his font comprising 110 characters. Spe-
cimens of these types exist in the Enschede collection.^
Though not germane to our investigation, they are of con-
siderable interest.^

Another "document" on Plantin's types is the publica-
tion of the Plantin-Moretus Museum entitled Specimen
des Caracteres employes dans V Imprimerie Plantinienne, is-
sued in 1905. Forty-eight characters used by Plantin are
displayed, although the basis on which the selection was
made is not indicated. The monumental canon d''Espagne —
a large, round gothic letter intended for liturgical books,
and, I believe, cut for a Spanish Antiphonary ordered by
the King of Spain but never printed — is a very good ex-

' Enschede's Fonderies de Caracteres et leur Materiel dans les Paya-Bas,
du XFe au XIXe Steele, pp. 44-47.
' Ibid., pp. 40, 41, 47, 48, 49.

^ For a valuable survey of these types see Les Caracteres de Civilite de Rob-
ert Granjon et les Iin/irimeurs Flamands , Antwerp, 1921, by Maurits Sabbe
(of the Musee Plantin) and Marius Audin. It contains twelve reproductions
of civilite fonts by Granjon, Tavernier, etc.

V. TVSCyL.

O V IT AE Philofophia dux , o virtu-
tls indagatrix , cxpukrixque vitiorum ! qui
ronmodonos,fcciomnino vita hominum
finctccflcpotuifiet?Tu vrbespcperiftijtu
difsipatos homines in focieratcm vitaecon-
uocafti . Tu eos inter fe primo dortiiciliis,
deindcconiugiisj cum litterarum &vocum
communione iunxifti. Tu inuehtrixlegum,
tu magiftra morum & difcipiinaifuifti. Tu
vit^Etranquillitatemlargitanbbiscs, &ter-
ioiem mortisfuftulifti.

Thales Mjleiius,vt obiurgatorcs fuos c6-
wincerer, oftendcretque Phllofophum, fi ci
commodum eflec , pecuniam facerepofle,
omnemoleam antequam florerc ccepiffet,
in agro Mile-fio cocmifle dicitur . Animad-
uerterat fortafle quadam fcientia olcarum
vbcrtatem fore. i . de Dmnat.

Qui ceteris rebus pro nihilo habitis re-
rum naturamftudiofeincuentur,&fapien-
tia: ftudiofi & Philofophi habentur. <:.TKfc.

Philofophi,virtutis magillri. i.Tufml.

T. TVSCVL.

N O N f X fingtilii 'vociliti Philofophi jfie^audi
fmt ,fed ex^erpeutitate 0' cotijlautia : raq^jpeHm
oponet, non wrbti.

ln?hi!ofophia res f^eHantur , nowverha pendm"
iHY. Orac. adBnitum.

A ?hilofopho,ft/idferat eloquemiam^mnajficrmr:

ft non hiibeat,non admoditm deftdcro . i .Tufcul.

Sunt qni in rebus contrariis pamm fibi consent,

vokptatemfeHeiipme contemnaut, in dolore fnit mol-

liwes,glitiam mgltgat,fra)igtintnriHfarnnt. i.Offic

YtfioYammaiicimpYojcfftufeqiiij^iam.
z.TulcuI. InSimil.io.

Qupmfquifque FhilofophorHtn ittnenitin, qmfn lu
moram, itaanimo dcviia conftmits ^/vt ratio pofiu-
lat^qni difciplinam non ojlemationemfdemi^yfed U-
gtm liupuset , qiii^ ohemperet ipfefibi , ac decrctii
fnispareat? Vidcre licet alios taniakmtAtec^iaha-
tioneyiisvifiierii non didicijfe melius: almpeamu fw-
pidosynon nuhsgloru ^mnltoi hhidimm feruoii'vt cum
eorntn vita mirahilncr p»gnet i»wfjo , quod quidem ejl
tHrpifimtm. i. Tufcul.
hiagifxrWmutiif Fhilofophi.- 2. Tufcul.

»E CLARIS ORAT.

Pacts eft comcs,otiiquc fociaj& iam bene
ConftitutE ciuitatisquafi alumna qua:dam clo--
qiientia.

Nemo eft qui ncfciar initio genus humanum
inmontibus ac filuis di/Tipatum, prudcntium
confiliiscompulfumr&dilcrtorunnoraticncdc-
tinitu, fc oppidjs.tna nibufq; fcpfillc. i . de Orat.

Fuit quoddam tcmpus, cum in agris homines
paflim bcftiarum more vagabantur, & vidu fcri-
110 fibi vitam propagabant; ncc ratjone animi
CjUidquani , fed pieracjuc viribus corporis admi-
niftrabant. Nemo Icgitimas vidcrat nuptias, ne-
mo ccrcosinfpcxerat libcros.Quo tempore qui-
dam niagnus videlicet vir &c (apicns , difpcrfos
Lomincsinagris,&in locisfiluefiribusabditos,
latione quadam compulit in vnura Iocu,& con -
gregauit, & eos ex fcris & immanibus mites rcd-
didit,& raanfuetos. jJelnutnt.

Du^r funt artes qoij polTunt locarc homines in
amphdlino gradu dignitatis: vnainipcratorisjal-
tcraoiatorisboni . ab hocenim pacis ornamen-
la rctincntur, abiUobcljiipericularepelluntur.
PtoAUtrtpa,

V RO 6£STI O.

Hoc tempore cum homines nondum ncquenatstrum

U,nequ^ 111/ ! i imb defcnpto,fufi per agros, at que d'JJierfi
yagarcntitr,tAntum^€ hulaent , quantum manu ac yi'
rihmperctdemac yutmra auteripere, aut retintrt po»
tuiffent: cxthtiuni yiri ys'rtute f^conjilioprefianti^q-n
dtffipatos >num in locum chn^e^artintf eosjue exfcrsct-
tatetUa ad iujlitiam aique manfuetudintm tranfiule-
runt , ^ inuento diuino «^ hstmano iure eoi masnibvu
fepferUHt,

Cram efi fii' pUita dignitatUdkendificultM^rju*
plurimas grat'nUtfirmi(lhnAs amicitut, maxima fapt
fiudiapspent. Pro Murana.

Y.loquentia principibtn maxtme ornamento tjl.
4.deFinib.

Eloquentiagrandi- efl rerh'y, fapienifententiit^^e-
nere tote ^rauii : rrMnm extrema non accejjit operibtu
eitts:pT£(Ure iiichcata tnulta, pirfeHA ncopltiite,
De Claris Orat.

Ntliileji eloqucni'ta lattdahiliut yelpT'tftanttm^ ytl
admirAHone audtent-i4W,yelJj!e nsdi'^entiumyyelevrHm
quijej'eiifrjunt-/r<tta. z-OiViC.

yc hominii dccu- efl tn^eniumjfe ingtni) lumen , efi
eloqucntia, Dc Claris Orat.

195. Roman and Italic Types: Plantin Specimen^ Antwerp^ 1567 {reduced)

». OVTiC.

tM rebut RiigntitOiemorii4uedigni<,ron^Ii].piimum,JFiiiiIe4Aa
fOflc.ieucfltus rpcdaniur,<|Uo(1 Jukiics, x^juuni fic,:ininiquufp..

Non ilcbemus <juiJqu>m igcre , ctiiuJ no" foGimus ciudm probi-
bilnTirr<Jdcrc. t.Offr.

Ad temgfrcnttjtnqm.iccedif, Mueit, ne id n.udo<on(rdtrtt, I'tj-n
illjres lionen^ rit.fcdcci'^m vc hnbc.tc cf6c(Ciu1i taniU.i(cin:in ')uoi]'fb
conlidcr.indnmcftilli, nc aiit (cmcredt'cerft propeer igniiium, 3uc
nimisconAdai propter ciipiduaicm. tn omnibus amcninc^otus prills
(jujimj^rirdiire, jdhibeiiJjed pfTpnrfliio dil'fCn?. i.Offt.

Stiuni qiitr(|uf nolcit iiigdiinm, acrcaique fc.^ vitionjm, Sc bono-
ftimruornni iiuliccmpr^bcitxefccnicipliit quini nos vidcanturbabC'
teprudtnii7',ncve Ulirio videJt in rccni,quo<inon videaifj^piens in vt-
'H. l.Offi.:

Nun eft incomtnodum ex Mil's iudicire : vt (iqvid dcde<Mt>n>lii«,
viKniu<& ipri:flt(niin ncTi io quo modo, vtmagii in aliiscemimuSt
fuiniinnot>ilinctip(l<,(i>iuiddelinquinir. i. Of/ic.

Vtfi&otn, Si ij'\ai fi^n^ I'abricaniur. I. Offi.it SmUH. jo.

f. o r f I c.

ATi td tV^nii^, <i»» iliiViuiitmtel dffniMi^iilMitt Um'wit i,Dii Mt'.

Nittnftiii iuA'icdtt tjtitJfMltmliim, atn fddttidiamtfijtd fftt itidn
tfcrirt ia<o <iut4ftiiiJirtirm. l.dcFinib.

Utliui KMi/nr «, >/Kr tfftittnKi.lft,>ii.im fmfat lufntAilaMpti.
Ikf. i.de Inticni.

ytimtdt)ntiiKtTr,<^iiylliti>nfri>timiiillrtitt. I. dclniitnt.

_ f.icriiilu$ ii lui fr^fcflPtrpfAj^riir, (r I'BWn iil'l'riJl:r,smnil>0t fgt-
liinr ttnmtiiiiti rr^iitr, t^uin it ifnipMiit &■ iciilthiit tiictiti 4>ni-
niprstvr. |.de limcnt.

Htrfl,nm<]i.tfjtiniiii,yi tntfBd frniii pi.iJr'rmtt , iymi itttjmij
ffui(fit':c,mi.l,am ilbm [•ttiiiilijji: ttifiiui, Bihitfiiifp Aittmn,
l>rn C.Rjbir.I'ofllium. '

Sidum litmifitm huvtitivm » ftd 9iUm Mmfii^,!* '.•vm -tft^vn itnftU .'jr
ranidr^nc'i ix vltauit d f/inpimt ^tl/ntiplnf. liV.? .^■''1 Attic, E;ift.i««

PRO FLACCO.
<G) (mi{iK{i€£t<f^ con^itiona- ^a^minijivi'iL^ (t viftfii? £t(<- cites ^

ct ^ €£afint<<- (c (mtf^mii- : tf\utUt(i- |ctitvitc tfi ^ait^tKtnfc, iTilJt'-
vadtc lion a^(fKCaBi<iJ , <c ^aKCtm piaii) ^'tm£ucf}i;^, pCattnit ^^v~

<\uciitti- cffofic- atttn^tnt ita- ^t^tttui'ii' ^tncinta-i^} ^offtfrioi)^<Lj

iii.de legid.

^fnV atiCn fifMt* tpCrnicitux aux Qitex,:
'^ict^tantcontv<iirtiiu^\«i(tsttaux'^«ix,
rtcn «ioin^ ^tuif 4t- fiuntrtm, aut fairC tjucf-

'^<ff-^oixfc tknntnt («)> CntrC ft»

^Mt^, 9eU rtu't'f /rtUt «}UC cffu^ <JM» ft* ^ott-
©rott «ttC«9rC Toit •miu|t"tm(nt f «iv , t>t~

I . O F F I C.

G <!•''' ^Nf»j T««rt< «3 f»itHrwi'»f<»»«lioii»^— ,

196. Roman^ Italic^ and Cursive Types: Plantin Specimen^ Antxverp^ 1567

{reduced)

NETHERLANDS TYPES: 1500-1800 9

ample of the black-letter peculiar to Spain at that period
{Jig. 197). Certain fonts similar to it were used in Italy.
The moyen canon romain and its italic appear to me French,
as does the petit canon romain with its italic ; but the moyen
canon Jiamand is a characteristic Netherlands black-letter.
The roman and italic types are, of course, old style, most
of them heavy in cut. The ascendonica cursive is an inter-
esting, lively italic in w^hich two forms of double s should
be noted, as well as the lower-case g's, the ligatured sp, the
ampersand, and the capital Q — characters closely allied to
handwriting. On the other hand, the gros texte italique, the
augustin ita /i g ue (ist), and the cicero italique remind one (in
general grayness of effect when printed) of the light italic
which came into use in France in the late eighteenth cen-
tury. In the smaller types of this specimen there seem to
be two sorts of fonts : (l) traditional old style with its inter-
esting italic, and (2) lighter roman and italic, more even
in cut, more monotonous in colour, and much less attrac-
tive. The beautiful type from the De Colines office, called
Colineus romain and Colineus italique^ I have spoken of. The
type-specimen ends with a page each of Greek and He-
brew — one of the latter from De Colines' office — and then
follow music types and borders, some of which are familiar.
A vast quantity of ornamental alphabets, many of which
are of great magnificence, do not come properly under our
survey. Two classes of these, however, may be noted —
the calligraphic letters {Jig. 198), probably derived from
the ornamental lettering of contemporary writing-masters,
meant to be used with civilite types, or with music ; and
the class of alphabet represented by the famous historiated
letters numbered 6 and 14, from the first of which a letter
(reduced) is shown in the plate from De la Hele's Mass
{Jig. 193).

10 PRINTING TYPES

How such types look in pages may be seen by consult-
ing Plantin's books — particularly the monumental Polyglot
Bible (1572), the prefatory matter to the first volume being
a magnificent display of his noble fonts {Jig. 199). This
work is generally to be found in any large library. For those
who desire an easy ascent to Parnassus (though they will
not get very far up the mountain), the plates of text-pages in
Rooses' life of Plantin will be found convenient ; or, better
still, the few but telling facsimiles in Druckschriften des XF
bis XFIII Jahrhunderts} But Plantin's books themselves
are the only satisfactory exhibition of his types.

Plantin's earlier printing is more delicate than his later
work. A good example of his first manner is an "emblem
book " published in 1567 — an edition of Claude Paradin's
Symhola Heroica^ translated from French into Latin, and
printed in 32mo form. The text of this delightful little book
is set in a delicate italic which harmonizes agreeably with
the spirited rendering of the designs. Displayed lines, em-
ployed in connection with the italic text, are, however, set
in reman, and the prefatory matter is almost entirely printed
in it {Jig. 200). Very reserved in style, the book reminds
one of editions from the Lyons press. A 12mo herbal, Ra-
riorum Stirpium Hispanix Historia, by Charles de I'Ecluse
(Clusius), printed by Plantin in 1576, — also set almost en-
tirely in italic, — resembles French or Italian work. Sim-
ple in arrangement, and with charming woodcuts of plants,
it is another example of his earlier and more intimate man-

^ Druckschriften, pis. 7, 8, 16, 30, 87. Plate 7 shows a beautiful old style
type, very beautifully set i^ourjig. 199). Plate 8 shows Dutch civilite type,
with its semi-calligraphic initial. Notice the "written" look of the capital
letters in the first seven lines. Plate 16 shows an italic type. Notice the am-
persands in the third, fourth, and seventeenth lines. Plate 30 shows a small
size of civilite. Plate 87 exhibits a massive old style roman font, in which ob-
serve the final n's, e's, and t's.

♦ ♦

UC= 3 ^ tj

Q^?f Sfe

o O

CO o

•s.

t*q

U 3

^ w — «?

P ^ C^

REGNI NEAPOLITANI

P R I V I L E G I V M.

PHILIPPVS DEI GRATIA REX

CASTELLJE, ARAGONVM, V T R I V S QJ/ E

SlCILI^jHlERVSALEM, Vn G ARIi£, D ALM ATIiE, ET CrOATI.£,&C.

[ N T o N I V s Perrenotus, S.R.C.Tit. Sandi Petri ad Vincula Pre(by-
iter, Cardinalis de Granuela,prqfatic Regix & Catholics Maieftatis
a confiliis ftatus, 6c in hoc Regno locum tenens, &Capitaneusge-
'neralis,&c. Mag*° viro Chriftop.horo Plantino, ciui Antuerpien-
iCiy Sc prsfats Catholicae Maieftatis Prototypographo fideli Re-
'gio,dile<5to,gratiamRegiam Scbonam voluntatem. Cum ex prs-
clarorum virorum Uteris certiores fadi fimus, opus Bibliorum quinque linguarum,
cum tribusApparatuumtomis,ceIeberrimum,reique public^ ChriftianxYtilifTimu,
eiufdemferenilTimae Maieftatis iulTu, ope atqueaufpiciis, adpublicam totiusChri-
ftianiorbiscommoditatem & ornamentum, typis Iongceleganti{rimis,&: prsftan-
tifllmi viriBenedidi ArixMtfntaniprscipuacura&C ftudio. quam emendatifllme
a teexcufumeflejeiufdemq-, exemplar fandifTimo Domino noftro PP.Gregorio xiii.
oblatum, itaplacuine,vtprsfatae Maieftatis fandos conatus, ScRegi Gathohcoin
primis conuenientes, fumfnopere laudarit, &: ampliftlma tibi priuilegia ad hoc opns
tuendum Motu proprio conceflerit-, Nos quoque cum'naturali genio impellimur ad
fouendum prasclara qusque ingenia, quae infigni quopiam conatu ad publica com-
moda promouenda atque augenda aspirant- primum quidem longe prjeclariffimum
hoc fuae Maieftatis ftudium, vtvereHeroicum& Ptolomqi, Eumenis,aiiorumque
olimconatibusinBibliothecis inftruendis eb przeftantius , qubdnon vansftimulo
glorisjvt illi/ed redse Religionisdojiferuandae 5c propagandxzelo fufceptum.meri-
tb fufpicientes •, deinde eximiam operam dpdiflimj B. Ariae Montani,ac immortali
laudedignamadmirantes, rebuS^uetuis,quemad.modu tuo nomineexpetitur,pro-
fpicere cupientes, ne meritisfrauderis frudibus tants opers,&:impenfe,quxfumma
folicitudine & induftria in opus adfinem feliciter perducendum a teetiam mfumpta
elfeaccepimus-cumq[uecertb cori(tet,opns hoc nunquam hadenus hoc in Regno ex-
cufumefTe, dignumqueipfoS.fedisApoftoiicsfuftragiofitiudicatumvtdiuulgetut
•ac priuilegiis ornetur. Tuisigitur iuftiffimis votis, vtdeliberato confilio, ita alacri Sc
exporreda frontelubenterannuenteSjtenore praefentium ex gratia fpeciali, prxfxtx
Maieftatis nomine, cumdeliberationp &a(fiftentia Regij collateralis confilij,ftatui-
mus 8c decreuimus, ne quis intra viginti annos proximos,a die dat.praefentium dcin-
ceps numcrandos, in hoc Regno didum Bibliorum opus, cum Apparatuum tomis
coniundis, vcl Apparatus ipfos, aur eoru partem aliquam feorrum,citraipfius Chri-
ftophori,autcaufam & iusabipfo habentis,licentiam impnmere,autabaliis impre^
fa vendere,aur in fuis ofiicinis vel alias tenere poffit. Volentes&.decernetes exprefse,

qubd

199. Page from B'lblia Polyglotta: Planting Antwerp^ 1572
{t'educed)

>-< *

"< »— t

X =

z o -»

a<i

0-^

- TJ .«

5 ';^

5 -2

•?»

■<

" i^

l-l

a::

. .4

!-■

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e

«9

8
J3

c'.s^.a s-s |,^ ^^"^

o-'^vSi, fs a ;^

2 S S S

6
o

NETHERLANDS TYPES: 1500-1800 11

ner^ {Jig. 201). This book deals with heliotrope, thyme, and
other godless vegetation, and on the last page a Canon of
Antwerp Cathedral attests that it contains nothing contrary
to faith or morals. Since then we have learned that the mar-
riage customs of plants would bring to the cheek "the blush
that is now peculiar to the middle-aged."

The later Plantin fonts needed great space around them
when in mass ; and this they have in that splendid Atlas
by Abraham OrteP — Theatnim Orhis Terranim — first pub-
lished in 1570. In a copy of the edition of 1584 in the Li-
brary of Harvard College, the elaborate copper-plate title-
page is made gorgeous by colour, and the portrait of Ortel
is surrounded with a complicated framework which is a
mass of illumination. The maps are gaily coloured, too, and
their decorative cartouches are specially brilliant. The typog-
raphy (in roman and italic fonts) stands up well under the
strain of its coloured decoration. The prefatory type-matter is
magnificent, especially the page of spaced capitals, arranged
in a dedication to Philip II. The alphabetical index of maps,
in spaced capital. letters, the compliments to Ortel in Latin
and Greek, and the tabular arrangement of type (in the
Nomenclator Ptolemaicus generally bound with the Atlas),
are all most distinguished. The final "privilege" in civilite,
and directions to the binder, etc., on the last page, close a
book in which a difficult problem is met with courage and
solved with gusto. As the size of type used in each page is
dictated by a desire to fill it, and the matter varies in amount,
the volume is a sort of specimen-book of Plantin's fonts.

Plantin's folio Ope?'a of Tacitus, annotated by Lipsius,
printed in 1585 (a third issue of this work) is also a beautiful

For other examples of Plantin's earlier way of working, see title-pages re-
produced in Rooses' Plantin, pp. 58, 60, 84.
* Commonly known as Ortelius.

12 PRINTING TYPES

book. It is very simply arranged. The Annals and History
occupy a section by themselves, and Lipsius' commentary
to the former, and notes to the latter, occupy divisions marked
by separate title-pages. This fine, liv^ely piece of printing
employs for its preliminary matter many of Plantin's mel-
lowest and most beautiful types. The opening addresses,
composed in noble fonts of roman,or in an italic full of swing
and movement, show the Gallic touch. In the body of the
work the type used is a smaller size of excellent roman; but
the pages are so large, there are such masses of it, and it is
so closely set, that the effect is a bit overpowering. Lipsius'
commentaries at the end show that sad mixture of roman
and itahc, spaced capitals, and Greek quotations, dear to the
learned at that date. Yet in the main, the Tacitus is a fine
piece of printing.

Plantin also printed books in the Flemish black-letter
current at that day. An example of this is the Rechten, ende
Costumen van Antwerpen^ printed at the expense of that city,
in 1582. It is not by any means a "pure" black-letter book,
for (as in some sixteenth century English books) roman
was used as a display letter to a "norm" of black-letter —
exactly reversing our present-day use of black-letter and
roman. Its tide, preface, and some displayed matter employ
italic. A letter quoted in the black-letter "Confirmation of
Privileges" is set in roman type; and passages in roman
here and there occur. But the text, which runs to nearly
four hundred quarto pages, is composed in a superb Flem-
ish lettre cle forme^ massive and very fine. Some passages in
civilite are interesting, and so are the decorated initials. This
book is supplemented by a sort of "order of procedure" for
meetings of city officers. Would that "municipal printing"
to-day had such dignity ! {Jig. 202).

In addition to the Polyglot and other Bibles, and missals.

14^

CAROLI CLVSII

RARIORVM STIRPIVM

H I S T O R 1 -€,

LIBER SECVNDVS.

R B o R V M, fruticum & faffruticum
abfoluta Hiftoria, reliquarum ftirpium
defcriptiones adgrediemur , inter quas
^_._^._. Coronaris ( quod infigni colorum va-
rietace, omnium oculos ilico in fe conuertant, eofque
mirum in modum lecreent) mcrito primum locum
fibi vendicare videntur. Initium igitur a Bulbofis, vt-
pote nobilioribus , facientes , reliquas ordine deinde
profequcmur.

De Narciilb. cap. i.

Dv o flint apud Diofcoridem Narajfi genera, rKg-
dio luteus , & tnedio furpurem. Ego, prxterpo^
firemUf^fti nonnullis N arbonenfs Callupratisjpon-
te prouenit) qnatuor alia genera perHtJpanias obfir"
uaui, magnitHdine,prHm f)liorHm% firma & colore,
jlorendi deni^ tempore inter Je differentia .

Prior, ergo Narcijfta terna aut quaterna fvlia i .
hakt, virentia, ohlonga, Porrt filtis fmilta fire, cau- JJ^^f^^J^^
lem concauumyftriatum,fmefilti4 , pedem altum^ in- "^s '
terdumaltiorem ^&infimmofiores (ex aut oBo ,plu'
resve , triangulis pedimlis inftdentes , drememhrdna
erttmpentes, mediocriter amplos, CHmgrauimte c^uad'i
odoratos ,Jex foliis albi^ conjkntes , quorum medium^
eahx omnim IhHhs occnpat ,Jbmina breuiafix cum^

Q^$ totidem^

201. Page from Rariorum Stirpium Hispaniae Historia
Planting Antwerp^ 1576

Rechten,

ende Coftumen

van

Antwerpen.

Mmu JmMttit

Nden eerflen , fprekende ^•

penticniet alleenliic^ fgenetiatljmnen

' V^ JJ|i tit poo^tenoft muermiJanDetllatstbe-

T ^IM. ODten/maeroDcfeDatfiiipteiventiebm^

1^ /w^ ^tn ht Witp^tpt Der feJun: ftatit g^ele-

WtltU WWt mtt mht fttttt tot Doine-brngee/enUe 1 1.
2i3trel)em/enbeairoo tjooitsomtieftatjt^an 3ntU)erpen/
bolfllb^itie t^miltgit bphtn iktpftt ^anmiiianus ut^
leent in Bommbn aiu% 1 4 s s^naeuittDijfen tiaaDe cfiaerte
tiietljpgDeuoegljt

Itrniallrtie gjene/tiiebinmntieuooafcljieum limitm ni.
sebo^en too^Dm / 3m ]^ooittts/mht D'jnUJOonDcrs aU
daer/5tin3n5Dcfttment3att:ainttDerpen*

ad ail

202. Pa^e of Rechten^ ende Costwnen van Antwerpen^ Planting 1582

{reduced )

NETHERLANDS TYPES: 1500-1800 13

breviaries, and such-like liturgical books, I recommend the
student of Plantin's work to examine the botanical books
by Lobel, Dodoens, and Charles de I'Ecluse ; the atlases by
Abraham Ortel; Luigi Guicciardini's Description of the
Low Countries in various languages ; the works of Arias
Montano and Justus Lipsius ; the music of G. de la Hele,
Cornet, and others; the emblem books of Junius, Alciati,
Sambucus, etc., and the poetry of Houwaert.

Plantin died in 1589. He was buried in Antwerp Cathe-
dral, and on his tomb was inscribed :

CHRISTOPHORUS SITUS HIC PLANTINUS, REGIS IBERI
TYPOGRAPHUS, SED REX TYPOGRAPHUM IPSE FUIT

Plantin's two daughters were married to printers — the
elder to Raphelengius, associated for many years with
Plantin, and who previously taught Latin and Greek at
Cambridge, and afterwards accepted the chair of Hebrew
at Leyden. To this University he was also printer — as was
Plantin himself for a brief period. The other daughter
married Moretus, who, after Plantin's death in 1589, in
association with his widow, carried on the press — the
Plantin-Moretus Office, as it was usually called. Its work,
at its best, preserved much of the later Plantin style. Two
examples of it must suffice. The first is Rembert Do-
doen's Stirpium Hisioria^ printed by Plantin's grandson,
Johan 'Moretus, in 1616 — a revised Latin edition of the
book earlier issued by Plantin. The preliminary matter is
set in Plantin's superb roman and italic fonts {Jig. 203).
The actual book, most agreeably illustrated with brilliantly
printed woodcuts of plants, is composed in a small size of
roman type of great mellowness and beauty. Simple two-
line initial letters start each chapter, the title of which is
set in a small italic. It is a charming piece of work — ex-

14 PRINTING TYPES

cept that the chapter-heads are too much crowded into the
text — and a fine example of "the Plan tin manner"; per-
haps too much of a survival to be typical of Moretus. An
odd feature is the final table of names of the plants de-
scribed, in different languages. Arabic names, etc., are set
in italic; Italian, Spanish, and French, in roman; but Ger-
man, Bohemian, EngHsh, etc., equivalents are arranged in
black-letter. Dodoens w^as among the great botanists of his
day, and Plantin printed a number of his books.

Another seventeenth century book from the Plantin Of-
fice is the Jesuit Hugo's Obsidio Bredana. This interesting
folio gives an account of the siege of Breda — familiar
still through Velasquez' great picture of its surrender. Its
printing retains much of Plantin's later manner. It is com-
posed entirely in an ample roman type. It w^as issued in
1626 and is a very dignified piece of work.

The Officina Plantiniana — more a palace than a print-
ing-house — in the Marche du Vendredi at Antwerp, has
long been, and still is (as the Musee Plantin), one of the
sights of Europe. It is probably the most beautiful building
— both inside and out — dedicated to the uses of printing,
in the world; nor is there any other establishment which
gives such an accurate idea of an early printing-house. The
presses, type, and materials of Plantin, Moretus, and their
successors have all been preserved, as well as their account-
books and correspondence. Not the least valuable part of
the collection is the original plates and blocks of ornaments,
and designs drawn for the press by Rubens and other
artists. To the student the most interesting of the rooms are
the type-cutters' work-shop, the letter-foundry, the press-
room, and the proofreaders' room, which are kept much
in their primitive condition. The building and its con-
tents were in the possession of successive members of the

Largm opes proprias dtjfundens folm in omnes.
Sic hac Script orum 'veterum monimentu 'volumm
jUuJira^ JplendoreJuO'i noBem^^ recent unu
(tArte noua pulfa penitm caligme nudat.
Jure igitur 'viuax, omnij^ perennius ^rc^
(i^aiejia^e fua fiabit ^nec firmius 'vUuttu
Olim cudit opus ijapidiz fornacihus jEtnA
(^yclopum lajfata manus^ferroq^ coaHiZ
Sudantis rara fub 'vejie Fyracmonis artes
Sentifcent mi cariem priusj & folidajpt^
Frauda4:us St er opes operam plorabit inertenu,
O quafama tuas olim feikibitur 'vmbras?
Venturi quantmpopuli memoraberis orc^
^odon^fie pMer? quanto celebrabere plaufu?
Cum tibife papm debebunt plebsque ^pMres^^^
SeruMiq^fenes^ ignaraq^ 'virgo mariti?
Funera quid metuis? ^viuet poH bujia fuperjies
Tars immenfa tui^nulloj^ taceberis /zuo^
oAtque ipfo afeniofumet tua gloria vires.
^N^m prius ajira polum toto radiant'ta cdo
^ejiituentyjierilesq^ fragofum littus arens>^
Jnq,^ autumnali noua palmite gemma tumebit^
Et pede prejfa jiuet tepido 'vindemia Vere^
Quam tuceant nomen^ tuum;, laudesq^ minoresj
Jrritaq^ inter eant oper^ conamina veJirA*

203. Page of Italic from Plantin Office^ Antiverp^ 1616

NETHERLANDS TYPES: 1500-1800 15

Moretus family until 1875, when it was ceded to the city
of Antwerp by Edouard Moretus, the last proprietor, who
died at Antwerp in 1880. The place is full of charm, and
its sunny, vine-clad courtyard a haunt of ancient peace.

ELZEVIR, the other great name in the history of print-
ing in the Netherlands, belongs properly to the seven-
teenth century. The founder of the family, Louis Elzevir,
a bookseller and bookbinder at Lou vain, removed to Ley-
den for religious reasons — the Elzevirs were Protestants —
in 1580, and began to publish books there three years later.
Five of his sons carried on the Elzevir activities. Utrecht,
Leyden, Amsterdam, all had members of the family at
work there, and for nearly a century and a half they were
the best known printers of the Low Countries. The great
figures in the family were Bonaventure and a nephew
Abraham — partners from the year 1625 — who published
editions of the classics in convenient yormc^. "In the Elze-
virs," as Aldis says, "we have parted company with the
scholar-printers who themselves edited and revised the
texts which they presented to the learned world. We have,
instead, intelligent printer-publishers, excellent men of busi-
ness, anxious to produce books that both textually and typo-
graphically should sustain their credit for good work. To
secure correctness they employed scholars to edit their pub-
Hcations and see them through the press."

The Elzevirs are popularly remembered nowadays by
their little editions in 32mo, with engraved title-pages,
narrow margins, and compact pages of a solid, monoto-
nous type which is Dutch and looks so. These are the
volumes which romantic novelists — who are seldom good

16 PRINTING TYPES

bibliographers — like to call "priceless Elzevirs," though
they were then, and are now, cheap books. These and other
Elzevir editions had the merit of handy form, good edit-
ing, and eminently common-sense qualities. But even this
scarcely accounts for their tremendous popularity. The
Abbe de Fontenai, writing in 1776, says that the Elzevirs
"have made Holland celebrated for printing, through an
elegance of type which the most famous printers of Eu-
rope have never been able to attain, either before or since.
This charm consists in the clearness, delicacy, and perfect
uniformity of the letters, and in their very close fitting to
each other"; and he adds that "the taste of young people
for literature very often shows itself by a great fondness
for these little Dutch editions, which give so much pleasure
to the eye." John Evelyn, w ho was in Leyden a hundred
and twenty -five years earlier, was of the same mind, and
speaks of visiting the printing-house and shop of the fa-
mous Elzevir, "renowned, for the politeness of the characters
and editions of what he has published, through Europe." ^

As publishers, the Elzevirs held somewhat the relative
position to the work of their time that Aldus did in his day.
They were pioneers in the popularization of books through
convenient Jbrmaf and low price. How modern in ideas as
publishers the Elzevirs were, is shown by their series of
travel-books called "The Republics" — little historical and
geographical descriptions of European countries by vari-
ous authors, put together by a judicious use of scissors and
the paste-pot. The Hehetiomm Mespubiica, devoted to Swit-
zerland ; Respublica^ sive Status Regui Scotise et Hibemise
{Jig. 204), a similar volume on Scotland and Ireland — both
issued in 1627; and a like book on France — Gailia, by

* Evelyn also records that at Antwerp at "tlie shop of Plantine I bought some
books for the namesake only of that famous printer,"

fim

&i -

-£3

•-4J •>
" O

'^'^ s

^ o eo

£ = a

^ a

n (J u

^^ 6

V o '^

pjj . ,<i.

^ S* M
ta H W

•* ;i

s 'a 2

!s »s ■-*

^ tS o

•4

^
Q

■^

NETHERLANDS TYPES: 1500-1800 17

J. de Laet — published in 1629, formed parts of this pocket
series.

Of the celebrated Elzevir editions of the classics in small
format (styled m-12^ but what we should call 32mo), the
Caesar of 1635 is considered one of the best. This was pub-
lished at Leyden. Its engraved title-page, a preface set in
italic, and prefatory matter printed sometimes in roman and
sometimes in italic, its neat little maps, its tight little head-
pieces,^ and compact, monotonous type are very like all El-
zevirs. These editions ivere all very much alike. Each divi-
sion of a book generally started with title and chapter heads
set in capitals and small capitals, very much spaced; the
subject of the chapter (if any) being set in a tiny italic. The
running-title was in capitals and small capitals, also spaced,
and page after page in book after book was set in this style.
To have seen one Elzevir volume in prose and another in
poetry, in ih\s format^ is to have seen all — or certainly as
many as one wishes to see ! How any one ever read with
comfort pages so solidly set in such monotonous old style
type passes understanding — or at least mine. Elzevir edi-
tions were generally unannotated, and if notes occurred,
they were usually placed at the end of the book.

The Pliny of 1635 and the Virgil of 1636 stand on a par-
ity with the Caesar in the estimation of bibliophiles. The
Leyden Terence of 1635 is also one of the most esteemed
32mo editions, and is easier to read because in Latin verse.
The Leyden Florus of 1638, though of the s?iTi\t format, is
more attractive. In 1642, the Elzevirs printed the Opera of
Cicero in ten volumes, 32mo, and this, as Elzevirs go, is

^ The printers' marks, head-pieces, and ornaments of the Leyden and Amster-
dam establishments, with a collection of similar material from different sev-
enteenth century Dutch printing-houses, may be seen in Rahir's Catalogue
d'une Collection Unique de Volumes imfirimes fiar les Elzevier et divers
Typografihes Hollandais du XFIfi SiMe, etc. Paris: Morgand, 1896.

18 PRINTING TYPES

an attractive edition. The engraved title-page is handsome,
the portrait of Cicero not bad, the prefatory matter well
arranged, and the rest of the»,work made up of the solid
pages characteristic of the house {Jig. 205). Daniel Elze-
vir's Amsterdam edition of 1675 of St. Augustine's Con-
JessionSj in 32mo, is also considered among the best of the
Elzevir editions; and perhaps it is — though not beautiful.
The Institutes of Justinian, an edition of which was printed
by the same house in the next year, plentifully supplied with
rubrication, is a book which was thought charming in its
time. Still other editions which the student may look at are
the Amsterdam Decameron of 1665 and the Virgil of 1676.
Though considered so remarkable in their day, these edi-
tions now appear merely "well-enough" little books for the
pocket. But they were largely copied by other Dutch pub-
lishers, and by publishers throughout Europe — the same
rugged little types were employed, the same style of com-
position was repeated, and the same effect produced, except
that it was not so good. The Elzevir 32mo editions had a
series of decorations peculiar to themselves, which were as
"air-tight" in effect as the pages which they adorned.

The Elzevirs also printed editions of the classics in oc-
tavo — less typical in one sense, but better, because the type,
being larger, was handsomer, and being more leaded, was
easier to read. The typographic style, however, was much
the same. These editions were annotated, and the very full
notes were set in double column at the foot of each page.
The octavo edition of Caesar of 1661 is a good instance of
this format {Jig. 206).

If a 32mo Elzevir edition were inflated until it became
a folio, you would have a very good likeness to the second
revised edition of Philip Cluverius's Gennania A?itigua^

i.iS De Oratore

M. TVLLII CICERONIS

A D

QV INTVM FRATREM

Dialogi tres dc Oratore.

DiALOGVS, SEv Lib. I.

^^^^^^53 O G I T A N T I mihi fxpenumeio,8c
^^jf^^kli memoiia vecera tepecenci , petbeati.

fuiHe, Quince frater.illi viden folent,
qui in optima Republica, cum &c ho-
noribus , 6c reium gefbrum gloria
florerenc, eum vicicaifum tenerepotuecunc, vc
vel in negocio fine peiiculo.vel in otic cum digni-
taceeflepoflent. Acfuittempus illud , ciim mihi
quoquc inicium tequiefcendi , atque animum ad
vtriufque noftiiim piicclara ftudia lefetendi foie,
juftum, & prope ab omnibus conceflum efle arbi-
tiaier , fi infiniais forenfiura lerum labor , Sc am-
bitionis occupario, decuifuhonotum, etiam ica-
tis flexu conftitiflecQuam fpem cogitationum,84
confiliorum meorum , cum graues coramunium
temporum.tum variinoftn cafus fefelierunt.Nam
qui locus quietis &C tranquillicatis pleniflimus fo-
re videbatuc , in eo maxims moleftiamm, & tur-
bulentiffimx cempeftates excicerunc. Neque vero
nobis cupicncibus , atque exoptantibusfmdlus otii
dams eft adeas arteis , quibus a pueris dedici fui-
mus, celebcandas , inter nofque recolendas. Nam
prima ztace incidimus in ipfara percutbationenx
difciplinac veteris , &c confulatu deuenimus in me-
dium return omnium cerramen atque difcrimen,
& hoc tempus omne poft confulacum objecimus
iis fluftibus, qui per iios a communi pelte depulfi,
in Dormecipros leduudaninc Sed umen in bis vd

affe-

Libert. tg^

afpeiitatibus return , vel anguftiis temporis , obfe-
qnar ftudiis noftris : & , quantum mihi velfraus
inimicorum, vel caufla: amicorum.vel Re(publica
tribuet orii, ad fcribendum potiflimum conferara.
Tibi vero, frater, neque hortanti deero, neque to-
ganti. Nam neque autorirate quifquamapudme
plus te valete poteft, neque voluntate. Ac mihi rc-
petenda eft veteris cujufdam memotia: non fane
fatisexplicata recordacio, fed, vt arbitror , aptaad
id, quod requiris, vt cognofcas qua: viri omnium
eloquenciflimi, clariflimiquefenferintdeomnira»
tione dicendi. Vis enim.vt mihi (xpe dixifti, qua-
niam qux pueris, aut adolefcentulis nobis ex com-
mentariolis nofttis inchoata atque rudia excide-
runt , vix hac state digna , & hoc vfu , quem ex
caufus , quas diximus , tot tantifque confecuti fu-
mus, aliquid iifdem de rebus politius a nobis, pro-
feftiufque proferri : folefque nonnunquamhacde
re a me in difputationibus noltrisdiflencire, quod
ego emditidimorum hominum artibus eloquen-
tiam contineri ftatuam: tu autem illam ab elegan-
tia doiftrins fegregapdamputej, & in quodam in-
genii atque cxcrcitationis geneie ponendam. Ac
mihi quidem , f^penumero in fummos homines,
ac fummis ingeniis prafditos intuenti,qu«rendum
efTe vifum eft, quid eflet,cur plures in omnibus ar-
ribus quam in dicendo admirabiles extitiftent;
nam quocumque te animo,&: cogicatione conuer-
tetis, permultos excellentes in quoque generevi*-
debis , non mediocrium artium , fed prope maxi-
mavum. Q«is enim eft,qui,fi clarorum hominuia
fcientiam rerum geftarum vel vtilitare, vel magni-
tudine metirivelit, nonanteponatoraton'impe-
ratorem ? Quis autem dubitet, quin belli duces ex
hac vna ciuitace praEftantiflimos pene innumerat.
M i bileis

205. Pages of Cicero: Elzevir^ Ley den^ 1642

L I

B E R

II.

Uum cfTct CxQn: in crteriorc Gallia in hibernis,
ita un fupra dcmonftravimus, crcbri ad cum
iumorcs affcrcbantur , litcrifquc item Labie-

ni cernor fi.cbat > omnes Belgas, quam ter-

tiam-efle Gallia; partem dixeramus, contra populum R.
conjurare , obfidefque inter ie dare. Conjurandi has
cflecauflas: primum, quodvererentiir, nc, omni pa-
cata Gallia , ad cos excrcitus noftcr adduccrctur : dein-
de quod ab nonnuilis Gallis foUicirarcntur , partim qui
Germanos diutins in Gallia verfari nollent j ita populi
R. exercitam hiemare atque inveterafcere in Gallia mo-

lefta

Vtirn ejfet Cafar] Anno ab
U.C.Dcxcvii inccpithoc
tertium bellum , ColT. P.
Coinclio P. F. Lentulo
Spinthere , Ck (>;_C.Tcilio
Q_^F. Mctello Nepote. Montan.

In citericrt Gallia ] Indudebatur
alitiquitus Gallia Rheno flumine , O-
ceano , Pyrenil'". jugis dc Alpibus. At
po.tlquam Galloriim pars Itolix folura
occiipavit , Alpes tranfgiefla , termi-
nus ab hoc latere fadlus eft Apenninus
mons 5c Afis amnis , ad Anconam uf^
que > maris Adriatici urbeiii. Totus
autem hie traclus Romanis divifus eft
inCalliam- ulteriorem & citeiiorem:
hxc etiara Italica , Cilalpina , ut & To-
gata jpromilcue difta eft. Vocis etymon
alii A yi>^'*, quod lac Latinis, deri-
vant I quia laiteos , id eft , albi colons
homines producit : Diodorus a Galata
HetcuUs iilld : infulse Bodinus Cchis

hoc nomen contiglfli annititur proba-
re , quod , ciim oibem terrarnm per-
agrarcnt, fe mutub interrogarent , Ou
altons-noiu? quo proficifcimur: ex quo VO-
catDS vu'.t Oualloncs ; & a Latinis, per
G effeientibus , Gallos. Optimc in hac
caligine videt doftiflimus CluTciius:
qui a Celtics voce G/i//i;« (quam nunc
dicimus Wallai , indtcatque iter face-
re ) nomen derivat. Quinn enim exun-
dante domi multitudine , exteras rc-
giones peterc Galli coepiflent : parte il-
lomm in Italiam , parte in lUyricum,
atque indc in Gr.Tciani & Afiam , par-
te in Germaniam delata : a re ipsa in-
vento vocabulo , proximis Germanis
Illyriilque didti fiint thi GallcnXwc Cal-
ler , & alia dialeclo TVallcr ; quod voce
a;quipollenti Vulgo dicimus die •cean-
derer , Lilinc pcregrinaToris. Ex hoc La-
tini , vocabulum livo ori accommodan-
tes , formaiunt GaUi. Montai;.

Jie^'14

206. Pa^e of Caesar (octavo) : Elzevir, Amsterdam^ 1661

NETHERLANDS TYPES: 1500-1800 19

printed at the Elzevirs' Leyden house in 1631, for the for-
mula used in making it is about the same. Except for the
condensed italic of the reprinted introduction to the first
edition — quite a new note in italic type — the fonts used
are larger versions of those in smaller books. Type well
set and displayed by good presswork gives a general effect
that is excellent, and the masses of Greek quotations make it
look very learned. The same author's Sicilia Antiqua (some-
times included as a supplement to the Italia Antiqua of
1624), printed by the Elzevir office in folio in 1619, is less
conventional in style. Both books have engraved titles and
maps, and the Germania a good many copper-plate illus-
trations. The Historia Natwalis Brasilise of Piso and Marc-
gravius, issued in 1648 with the Amsterdam imprint of
Louis Elzevir, is a good example of an Elzevir folio. The
text is printed in a handsome but rather too regular roman,
which is very Elzevirian indeed.

In a letter written from Amsterdam in 1681 by the widow
of Daniel Elzevir to the widow of Moretus, at Antwerp,
we learn that the writer wished to dispose of part of the
type-foundry inherited from her husband, Daniel Elzevir,
which had descended in turn from Louis Elzevir. Some of
its material was the work of Christoffel van Dyck, the great
Dutch designer and type-cutter.

"Not feeling myself competent to manage everything,"
she wTites, "I have decided to sell my type-foundry. It con-
sists of twenty-seven sets of punches and fifty sets of ma-
trices, which are the work of Christoffel van Dijk, the
best master of his time, and of our own. This foundry is,
consequendy, the most famous which has ever existed. I
have desired to inform you of the intended sale, and to send

20 PRINTING TYPES

you specimens and catalogue so that, if agreeable to your
plans, you can seize the occasion and profit by it."

With this letter she sent a broadside specimen- sheet
which is reproduced, and the heading of which reads :

"Proofs of types cut by the late Christoffel van Dyck
such as will be sold at the residence of the widow of the late
Daniel Elsevier, on the Canal, near the Papen-bridge, at the
Elm, Wednesday, March 5, 1681" {Jig. 207).

This broadside shows forty sorts of characters, if we
include two music fonts. There are four kinds of capital
letters, thirteen roman, twelve italic (the "pearl" not having
any italic of its own), eight black-letter, one Greek, and two
music fonts. Most of these types are recognizable as Dutch
by their sturdy qualities of workmanship, and, particularly
in the smaller sizes of roman and italic, by a tiresome even-
ness of design. Their closely fitted, large face on a small body
was preeminently practical, and adapted them for the small
formats of the Elzevir publications. In a table given by
Enschede in his Fondeties de Caracferes, he attributes but
twenty-eight of these characters to Van Dyck.^ The forms
of the types call for little attention ; the Augustijii Romeyn
and the Augustijn Ciirsijf (that in the second column) have
certain swash letters which, in the roman, remind one of
Plantin's fonts. Some of the swash letters in the Kleene
Kanon Cursijf {sixth in the first column) and the capital
Q's in the Paragon Cursijf (next to the last in the first col-
umn) are interesting. It was from Dutch swash letters —
so much admired by Moxon^ — that the variant capitals in

* In the first column of the specimen, the first, fiftli, sixth, seventh, and ninth
types shown are his. In the second column, the first three, and the capitals of
\he Augustijn and Cursijf. In the third column, the first, third, sixth, seventh,
eighth, and nintli, and the last one; and all the types in the fourth column.
*Moxon's Mechanick Exercises, or the Doctrine of Handy- Works afifilied
to the Art of Printing, pi. 15.

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NETHERLANDS TYPES: 1500-1800 21

Caslon's fonts were no doubt partly derived. In these old
fonts, too, there were more unusual and tied letters than are
now common.

The black-letter shown in this specimen is heavy in its
larger sizes, and the capitals are awkward and overcharged
— like Flemish sixteenth century fonts too much elaborated.
In the medium sizes, the types seem better. The Greek
characters would to-day be obscure because of the number
of ligatures. The two fonts of music type are those known
as the "Music of the Huguenots." The specimen ends with
many good type "flowers." The last three still hold their
own, not merely because they are attractive in design,
but because they print so well. This is due to the cross-
hatching of the designs, which gives a pleasant tone and
variety of colour to the ornament, and was intentionally
employed to help the presswork.

Mr. De Vinne, who attributed all these types to Van
Dyck, — in the light of which his words should be read, —
says,^ that "Liberal allowance should be made for the worn
types and the bad printing of the original specimen-sheet,
as well as for some falling-off", even from this low standard,
in a facsimile. . . . Yet the good form and fitting-up of the
Flemish Black Letters are but slightly obscured; . , . any
punch-cutter might be justly proud of them. The smaller
sizes of roman and italic make a creditable appearance, but
all of the larger sizes are not so good : some are really bad.
Letters more uncouth than those of the capitals of the
*" Duhhelde Augustijn Kapltaleii* . . . were probably never
shown by any reputable type-founder. Moxon's tracings of
the Van Dijck roman letter,^ although rudely done, showing
undue sharpening of the lower serifs, give a clearer idea of

' Historic Printing Types, New York, 1886, p. 43.
^ Moxon's Meclianick Exercises, pis. 11 and 12.

22 PRINTING TYPES

its peculiarities of style and of its real merit than can be had
from the study of the Elzevir specimen-sheet. The general
effect of this letter is shown to the best advantage in the
larger t^^pes of some of the octavos of Daniel Elzevir. The
smaller types of the duodecimos are too small to clearly
show the peculiarities of cut. Van Dijck seems to have de-
signed letters, with intent to have them resist the wear of
the press. The body-marks were firm, and the counters of
good width, not easily choked with ink. Hair lines were few
and of positive thickness. The serifs were not noticeably
short, but they were stubby, or so fairly bracketed to the
body-mark that they could not be readily gapped or broken
down. When printed, as much of the Elzevir printing was
done, with strong impression and abundance of ink, the
types were almost as bold and black as the style now known
as Old Style Antique. This firmness of face explains the
popularity of the so-called Elzevir letter. It may not be
comely, but it is legible. The letters may be stubby, but
they have no useless lines ; they were not made to show the
punch-cutter's skill in truthful curves and slender lines, but
to be read easily and to wear well."

Mr. De Vinne appears oblivious of what seems so self-
evident to some French writers — that Van Dyck slavishly
copied the design of Garamond's fonts. Dutch authorities
think differently.

The punches and matrices of the types shown on the
specimen-sheet were offered for sale in 1681, and were
bought by a Spanish Jew named Athias — a Rabbi as well
as a type-founder. Some twenty years earlier he had em-
ployed Van Dyck to cut Hebrew fonts which were used in
a Hebrew Bible, for which Athias was given a medal and
a golden chain by the States of Holland and West Fries-
land. In 1683, the following notice appeared in the Gazette

NETHERLANDS TYPES: 1500-1800 23

de Haarlem: "The attention of the public is called to the
fact that the excellent and celebrated type-foundry of the
late Christoffel van Dyck, sold by the heirs of the late D.
Elzevir, together with other excellent matrices, Greek as
well as Roman, brought together in the lifetime of the said
Elzevir, has been reorganized at Amsterdam. Address Jan
Bus in the house of Sr. Joseph Athias, where he is at work
throughout the day. The price of the types is the same as
in the time of Van Dyck and Elzevir." A broadside speci-
men Svhich must have been brought out about the same
time shows, according to Blades, five fonts of titling, sixteen
of roman and italic, eight of black-letter, and two of music-^
Upon Athias's death the foundry passed to a printer
named Schipper ; then to the Amsterdam founder Jan Ro-
man. One-half of Roman's collection was sold in 1767 to
Enschede of Haarlem; the other half to the brothers Ploos
van Amstel of Amsterdam. Later their portion was bought
by Enschede, so that practically all Van Dyck's work went
to the Haarlem foundry. Unfortunately, the Enschedes' un-
bounded admiration for the tasteless German type-cutter
Fleischman threw Van Dyck's types into the shade, and
their untoward end is described on another page.

Ill

THE work of the Dutch press, outside that of the Elze-
virs and Plantin, was not of great interest. There were
three features, however, to which attention should be called:
(l) The magnificent maps and atlases printed during the
sixteenth and seventeenth centuries by Mercator, Ortel,

' Proeven van Letteren die gesneden zijn door Wylen Christoffel -van Dijck,
nvelke gegoten nverden by Jan Bus, ten huyse -van Sr. Josefih Athias, etc. Bus
had a reputation in his day as a clever workman.
' Blades's Early Tyfie S/iecimen Books , pp. 14, 15.

24 PRINTING TYPES

Waghenaer, Hondius, and the Blaeus, which, quite apart
from their engraved plates, are imposing in their typog-
raphy. (2) The books printed in French and other lan-
guages during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries.
Some of these were w^orks, now famous, issued in Holland
in order to escape the restrictions placed on the press else-
where — restrictions that proved most advantageous to the
Netherlands book-trade.^ (3) The illustrated volumes pub-
lished in the early eighteenth century by Bernard Picart
and others — ambitious pieces of type-setting, which, though
heavy in effect, were magnificent for the period.^

During the first half of the sixteenth century, printers in
the Netherlands employed a great deal of gothic type of a
square, heavy, monotonous cut. A few books were printed
in a lettre batarde^ but the black-letter fonts that were most
used were of the lettre de forme family. A few of these fatter,
"blockier" gothic types furnished an unfortunate historical
precedent for the corpulent "blacks" which disfigured Eng-

* The small format of some editions of proscribed books was probably to
adapt them to convenient transportation to the public they commanded out-
side Holland.

* Title-pages, etc., of books issued in the Netherlands during the sixteenth
and seventeenth centuries (as well as manuscripts and incunabula) are repro-
duced in J. ten Brink's Geschiedenis der JVederlandsche Letter kunde, Am-
sterdam, 1897. See also Stockum's La Librairie, V Imfirimerie et la Presse
en Hollande a travers Quatre Slides. Documents fiour servir d V Histoire
de leurs Relations Internationales. La Haye, 1910. This gives reproductions
of title-pages, etc., of works of foreign authors printed in Holland. For a guide
to some of the best Dutch printing, consult the Catalogue of the Exhibition of
Old and New Book-Making in the Netherlands, held at The Hague and Am-
sterdam in 1920 under the auspices of the Joan Blaeu Society {Catalogue
van de Tentoonstelling van Oude en JVieuive Boekkunst in de JVederlanden:
Vereeniging Joan Blaeu) . The catalogue includes 3 "8 items, and is valuable
for titles of interesting sixteenth, seventeenth, and eighteenth century books,
of well-printed volumes issued in the nineteenth century, and of those reflect-
ing modern tendencies in type-cutting and book-making issued in recent years.

NETHERLANDS TYPES: 1500-1800 25

lish printing in the early nineteenth century. Along with
these gothic types, roman types were used — a Dutch vari-
ant of Italian roman types, with the same squarish quality
in design which marked their black-letter companions. The
italic employed resembled the Aldine character, and with it
small roman capitals were used according to Venetian tra-
dition. The general effect of type at this period was remi-
niscent of the fifteenth century; indeed, the same general
forms persisted in Dutch typography for a long time after
1 600. Early Netherlands books were often decorated with
woodcuts, occasionally effective, though usually coarse in de-
sign and execution ; and title-pages often bore elaborate and
overcharged borders. Such types, square in shape, closely
set, monotonous, and arranged without much sense of style,
made books which can be readily recognized on the shelves
of a library; volumes too thick for their height, in folio,
quarto, and diminutive 32mo, mostly bound in vellum,
which are as unappetizing in their outward appearance as
the typography within.

A general idea of Netherlands printing from 1500 to 1540
may conveniently be had by consulting the reproductions of
titles and text-pages given in Nijhoff's-L'.///t Typographique
dans les Pays-Bas^ and I indicate a series of plates from
it which cover the different classes of types. The square,
heavy lettre de forme is exemplified in some of the work of
the Antwerp printer Willem Vorsterman, whose product
is of a high average — for instance, the title-pages of both

'Wouter NijhofF, IJ Art Tyfiografihique dans les Pays-Bas (1500-1540).
Refiroduction en Facsimile des Caracteres Tk/fiografihiques, des Marques
d" Imfirimeurs , des Gravures sur Bois et autres Ornements employes dans
les Pays-Bas entre les Annees MD et MDXL. Avec JVotices Critiques et Bio-
grafihiques. La Haye, 1902. In the references to this work which follow, the
numbers of the iJvraisons in which the loose facsimiles were originally issued
are given, but if the plates have been collated and bound, these numbers can
be disregarded.

26 PRINTING TYPES

Old and New Testaments in his Dutch Bible, issued re-
spectively in 1528 and 1529. These plates show, too, the
borders used in such books — although these are much
above the ordinary in design.^ The same sort of type, but
larger and finer in execution, was employed by Jan Seversz.
in his title-page oi Die Crony eke van Holland^ etc., of 1517."
Yet another book that shows Dutch printing of the first
order is the Delft edition of a Latin Psalter printed in 1530
by Cornells Henriczoon Lettersnijder — who certainly knew
his business."* His black-letter is very impressive and beau-
tiful, though of a massive kind that betokens Dutch pro-
venance.^ These show Dutch lettre de forme at its best.
Scarcely less good — and more characteristic — are the types
of Jan Lettersnijder of Antwerp as used in Hoveken van
devocien (c. 1500).^ Still more characteristic, and much less
good, are the pages from Nicolas de Grave's 1520 and 1529
editions of J. Boutillier's Somrne Ruyrael^ the Segelijn van
Jeruzalem (1517), and Leven van St. Beimard (1515).^

Roman type of this period is finely displayed in the open-
ing page of a book printed by Thierry Martens of Alost at
Lou vain in 1517 — Summx s. argurnenta Legum Romanorum
of P. Aegidius^ — in which the entire title is set in roman
capitals of classical form. A title-page showing capital and

* Nijhoff : Anvers, Willem Vorsterman, IV, No. 10 {Livraison 3), and V,
No. 11 {Livraison 4).

^ Ibid., Leiden, Jan Seversz., Ill, No. 8 {Livraison 3).
' In connection with this man's work, the cursive character used in his edi-
tion of the New Testament in Dutch, printed at Delft in 1524, is sufficiently
unusual to reward attention. See Nijhoff: Delft, Cornells Henriczoon Letter-
snijder, Nos. 7 and 9 (Livraison ll).

* Nijhoff: Delft, Co rnelis Henriczoon Lettersnijder, V, No. 15 (Livraisonl?) .

* Ibid., Anvers, Jan Lettersnijder, I, Nos. 1-3 (Livraison 8).

' Ibid., Anvers, Nicolas de Grave, III, Nos. 6-9 (Livraison lO).
7i6/c?.,' Lou vain, Thecdoricus Martinus Alostensis, V, No. 19 (Livraison
13).

NETHERLANDS TYPES: 1500-1800 27

lower-case letters appears in the Antwerp edition of Eras-
mus' De Contemptii Miindi, printed by Van Hoochstraten/
Fonts of heavier roman were used in some other books
printed by Thierry Martens — such as the Condenmatio Doc-
triiix Af. Lutheri of 1520, or Fischer's Eversio Munitionis,
printed about 1518," or the somewhat better roman types
used by Paffraet at Deventer in 1521 and 1525.^ Examples
of italic are to be found in a Leyden edition of Erasmus'
De vitando permtloso aspectu of 1538, printed by Pieter Claes-
zoon van Balen,* and in the pages of Antonio de Nebrija's
Lexicon Juris Civilis of 1527, printed at Antwerp by Gra-
pheus.^ These examples give a fair idea of the kind of ro-
man and italic types generally employed in the Netherlands
from 1500 to 1550.

Two books in folio by Hubert Goltz (Goltzius) of about
this date are interesting. The first is his Vivae Omnium fere
Imperatorum Imagines^ printed at Antwerp in 1557, and in
its illustrations showing, says an authority, "the first use of
the copper plate in connection with blocks engraved for
chiaroscuro printing and also the first appearance in any
form of the chiaroscuro as book illustration." ^ Typograph-
ically it is noteworthy for its display of italic types ; espe-
cially imposing in the largest size,^ which resembles some
used by John Day. The prefatory and final matter is ar-
ranged with great distinction — in capital letters mingled

' Nijhoff : Anvers, Michiel Hillen van Hoochstraten, XIV, No. 51 {Livrai-

son 15) .

" Ibid. , Louvain, Theodoricus Martinus Alostensis, II, Nos. 6, 7, 8 (Liv7'ai-

son 2) .

^ 3id., Deventer, Albert Paffraet, IV, Nos. 16, 18, 19 (Livraison 2).

* Ibid., Leiden, Pieter Claeszoon van Balen, I, Nos. 3, 4 (Livraison 15).

' 3id., Anvers, J. Grapheus, II, Nos. 4, 5 (Livraison 5).

^ Rudolph Ruzicka.

' Facing pis. xli, xlu, etc.

28 PRINTING TYPES

with an italic recalling Fell's types. The second book is
C. Julius Cxsar sive Historise Imperatorum Csesarumgue Ro-
manorum ex A?itiquis Numismatibus Restitutx. It was printed
at Bruges in 1563, and is a fine example of the sober use
of some monumental roman types of a style much earlier
than the date of the book. It is illustrated with copper-
plates, and its engraved tide-page and colophon are most
distinguished.

Luigi Guicciardini's Descrittione di Tutti i Paesi Bassi
was issued in folio at Antwerp, in 1567, by G. Silvius, royal
printer. The roman type in which it is chiefly printed and
the italic used in its prefatory verse are not unlike Plantin's
fonts, and the book is interesting because it suggests that
Plantin's style was not so peculiar to him as we are apt to
think. Except for a copper-plate map and a view of the
Hotel de Ville at Antwerp, the book is illustrated with large
wood-engravings. The title-page and its two following
leaves of dedication, engraved on wood, are fine, and so are
the double-page plates : those of Ypres, Malines, and Lou-
vain in particular being worth looking at. These blocks
were ultimately bought of Silvius by Plantin, and are now
in the Musee Plantin at Antwerp. On Silvius' death at Ley-
den (where he was printer to the States of Holland and the
University), his widow sold his material to Plantin.

§2
J. Hondius, the well-known Amsterdam publisher, brought
out in 1611 a Latin history of that city by Pontanus —
Rerum et Urbis Amstelodamensium Historia. It is printed
entirely in roman and italic types — the latter the better of
the two — which have the worthy but uninspired appear-
ance of Elzevir fonts. There are engraved illustrations and
woodcut initials — the latter rough but attractive. The same

NETHERLANDS TYPES: 1500-1800 29

publisher about this date printed a Dutch edition of this
book, set in double column, in a spirited cut of lettre de
forme with the usual italic and roman interspersed. The
copper-plate illustrations — unintentionally diverting — of
the Latin edition are used in the Dutch version. The two
editions are interesting to compare.

Samuel Ampzing's Beschryvmge ende lof der Stad Haer-
lem i?i Holland (Description and Praise of the City of Haar-
lem), and Pieter Schrijver's (Scriverius) Laure-Crans voor
Laurens Coster van Haeriem^ Eerste Finder vande Boeck-
Druckery^wtve printed together in a stout quarto at Haarlem
by Adriaen Rooman in 1628, in a mixture of roman, italic,
black-letter, and cursive letter, in various sizes. I do not
attempt to describe it except as an unbelievable jumble of
types not in themselves bad. Of the two unusual cursives,
the smaller is well displayed on pp. 246-256 in the first book
named, and the larger in the Foor Reden to the second.
This last work, — "Laurel Wreath for Laurenz Coster," —
although issued separately, was added, in enlarged form, to
Ampzing's book to support his championship of Coster as
the inventor of printing. Plates of Coster's ill-favoured coun-
tenance and of his printing-office enliven the treatise.

The three- volume folio Atlas JVovus sive Descriptio geo-
graphica Totius Orbis Terrarum^ by Mercator and Hondius,
published at Amsterdam by J. Jansson and H. Hondius in
1638, and apparently printed by Hondius, is handsome
typographically, apart from its maps. The text is printed
in double column from old style roman and italic fonts; and
woodcut ornaments and initials are often employed. But
it lacks the sense of style of Plantin's edition of the Atlas
by Ortel. Although the text is printed on the back of the
engraved maps, the paper is so thick and good that it does
not matter.

30 PRINTING TYPES

Willem and Joan Blaeu's jVovus Atlas^ in six enormous
"atlas folios," is another able performance. In an edition in
German, printed at Amsterdam in 1676, the text is set in
fraktur, with — alas! — proper names in roman, and quota-
tions in italic letter. But it is a very wonderful achievement,
all the same. Evelyn, when on a tour in 1641 which seems to
have been more or less bibliographical, visited (besides the
establishment of "that indefatigable person" Hondius, men-
tioned above) Joan Janszoon Blaeu's shop in Amsterdam to
buy maps and atlases. This was Blaeu the younger, son of
the better-known Willem Janszoon Blaeu (1571-1638), in-
ventor in 1620 of an improved style of printing-press which
had considerable success in the Netherlands and in England.
The elder Blaeu had earlier been associated with Tycho
Brahe, the Danish astronomer, from whom he got the idea
of making globes and maps. Blaeu's new press was intended
to surmount difficulties in perfecting this work, for which
the shop became famous.

A contemporary account, describing the establishment
much as Evelyn must have seen it, tells us that "on the
Blumengracht, near the third bridge, and the third alley,
may be found the greatly renowned printing-house of John
Blaeu, Counsellor and Magistrate, of this city. It is fur-
nished with nine type-presses, named after the nine Muses,
six presses for copper-plate printing, and a type-foundry.
The entire establishment on the canal, with the adjoining
house, in which the proprietor lives, is 75 feet in breadth,
and stretches along the east side of a cross street 135 feet,
or with the attached house 150 feet. Fronting on the canal
is a room with cases in which the copper-plates are kept,
from which the Atlases, the Book of the Cities of the Neth-
erlands and of foreign countries, also the Mariners' Atlases
and other choice books are printed, and which must have

NETHERLANDS TYPES: 1500-1800 31

cost a ton of gold. Next to this first room is a press-room
used for plate printing, and opening upon the cross street
referred to above is a place where the tyjDCs, from which
impressions have been made, are washed; then follows in
order the room for book-printing, which resembles a long
hall with numerous windows on either side. In the extreme
rear is a room in which the type and certain other mate-
rials used in printing are stored. Opposite this store-room
is a stairway leading to a small room above which is set
apart for the use of the proofreaders, where first and sec-
ond impressions are carefully looked over, and the errors
corrected which have been made by the typesetters. In front
of this last designated room is a long table or bench on
which the final prints are placed as soon as they are brought
from the press, and where they are left for a considerable
time. In the story above is a table for the same purpose just
indicated, at the extreme end of which, and over the room
occupied by the proofreaders, is the type-foundry wherein
the letters used in the printing of the various languages are
moulded.

" The foundation of this splendid building was laid in
the year 1636, by John Blaeu's oldest son Willem Blaeu,
and on the 13th of the.Fall month of the following year the
printing establishment was here set in order. The original
founder of the printing-house, who died in the following
year, was John Blaeu's art-loving father Willem, who, for
a considerable time, had been a pupil of the great astrono-
mer Tycho Brahe, whom he zealously followed, construct-
ing many instruments for the advancement of astronomi-
cal studies, for the promotion of the art of navigation, and
of other sciences of like character, an interest in all of
which he revived and furthered while at the same time he
made new discoveries, as has become widely known from

32 PRINTING TYPES

the publications which have issued from this printing-
house."'

P. and J. Blaeu printed at Amsterdam in 1698 a French
edition of Gerard Brandt's Life of Admiral de Ruy ter —
La Vie de Michel de Ruiter — a more or less commonplace
performance of seven hundred folio pages. The book is com-
posed in a light variety of old style roman, with the numer-
ous quoted documents arranged in italic. It is illustrated
with large copper-plates — which, unlike the text, leave
nothing to be desired as to incident and movement.

The name of Wetstein, the eminent Amsterdam printer-
publisher, appears (with others ) on the title-page of Hooft's
Nedeiiandsche Histonen,, printed in 1703. Its types are char-
acteristic Dutch fonts of the eighteenth century, but more
lively than those in most contemporary work. The italic
used has some delightful characters. Except for copper-
plates, the volume has no decorations save some nine-line
Dutch "bloomers," used at the beginning of each of the
thirteen books into which the History is divided. They
" bloom " energetically !

Peter the Great, on his last stay in Holland, from 1716
to 1717, was fired with the idea of improving printing in
Russia, and he made various endeavours to this end. The
history of the only effort that succeeded — and that but par-
tially — is a curious incident in the annals of Dutch printing.
There had been at the beginning of the seventeenth cen-
tury a Dutch Bible printed at the command of the States-
General of the United Provinces, and taking this for a basis,

* Filips von Zesen's Beschreibung der Stadt Amsterdam, 1664, pp. 215, 216 ;
quoted in E. L. Stevenson's Willem Janszoon Blaeu, Hispanic Society, New
York, 1914. For a list of the principal geographical works of the elder Blaeu,
see Bibliography in tlie latter book.

NETHERLANDS TYPES: 1500-1800 33

the Czar ordered a Bible arranged in double column; the
Dutch text (entirely in capital letters) on the right, the other
column being left blank for a Slav translation of the Dutch
text — to be printed later in Russia from Slavic types, cut
and cast for this purpose by Clerk and Voskens, the Am-
sterdam type-founders. The New Testament, in two folio
volumes, was printed at The Hague in 1717, and the Old
Testament, in four volumes, at Amsterdam. It appears that
the greater part of the edition sent to Russia was lost, and
that only a few copies of the New Testament ever were com-
pleted by the addition of the Slav text. Only four copies are
now known.^

The quarto edition of Brieven . . . den Johan de Witt^
issued by H. Scheurleer at The Hague in 1723, has a con-
gested red and black title-page, and apart from this is a
perfectly straightforward quarto, set from heavy, awkward
old style types, moderately well printed, on moderately good
paper, perfectly respectable, and as uninteresting as all this
sounds. Wetstein and Luchtmans — both good names in
Dutch printing and publishing — brought out at Amster-
dam and Leyden in 1738 a quarto Livy in seven volumes —
a monumental work, and, like most monuments, depress-
ing. The type of the text is a very square cut of old style,
the notes a colourless variety of Elzevir types. The crowded
title, the allegorical frontispiece, the author's portrait, the
preface in enormous italic, and page after page of crowded
text, make these two volumes of something over one thou-
sand pages each, a very sleepy affair.

Bernard Picart, a French engraver and seller of prints
who resided at Amsterdam after 1710, contributed a deco-
rative note to early eighteenth century Dutch printing. An

' Stockum's La Librairie, V Imfirimerie et la Presse en Hollande a trovers
Quatre Siicles, facs. 153, 154.

34 PRINTING TYPES

example of his work is the (Euvres Diverses de M. de
Fontenelle, published in 1728 at The Hague by Gosse and
Neaulme. The book is full of Picart's exquisite engraved
decorations, and is (except for the tiresome type border on
e\'ery page) printed from old style types more French than
Dutch in effect. Another more imposing and more fa-
miliar "Picart" book is the folio Temple des Muses, pub-
lished at Amsterdam by Zacharie Chatelain in 1733, the
year of Picart's death. Apart from the engravings and the
series of fine frameworks around them — so good that they
have been often utilized by later printers and decorators —
the typography is extremely handsome. The fonts used —
of a bold, massive sort — are impressive in effect; and the
composition, too, is adequate, and very much in the key of
the pretentious plates {jig. 208). Such books were, I sup-
pose, bought for their pictures, and were intended as luxu-
rious pieces of book-making. Still another illustrated Picart
work is the Ceremonies et Coutumes Religieuses des Nations
de tons les Peiiples dii Monde in eleven volumes, begun in
1723, of which an English edition was published.

Johannes Enschede and Jan Bosch of Haarlem very ap-
propriately printed G. W. van Oosten de Bruyn's De Stad
Haarlem en haare Geschiedenissen in 1765. It is not much
of a performance. The dull, light, roman and italic types
have lost all colour and spirit {Jig. 209). Some black-letter
(possibly Fleischman's) is here and there used for verse.
Then, too, the composition of displayed and prefatory matter
is tasteless and pretentious. As a whole, the book, — a folio,
— weak as it is in its types, is yet interesting, because
showing new tendencies in printing.

The eighteenth century Dutch press brought out a great
many famous books which v,ere prohibited or in danger
of suppression in France. These are often good examples of

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NETHERLANDS TYPES: 1500-1800 35

current Dutch typography, though the student may easily
be misled by Dutch imprints on work produced elsewhere,
as in the first edition of Voltaire's Hemiade. Books actu-
ally printed in Holland were the first editions of Voltaire's
Elemens de la Philosophie de Neuton^ Amsterdam, 1 738,^ and
La Bible enfin Expliquee (dated London, 1776);^ I'Abbe
Prevost's Manon Lescaut^ 1731 and 1753;* Montesquieu's
Causes de la Grandeur des Romains et de leur Decadence^
1734;^ Rousseau's L,a Nouvelle Heldise, 1761, and the
Emile and Contrat Social of 1762." All of these are respec-
table pieces of printing from old style types ; neither better
nor worse than the average typography of the time.

FOURNIER le jeune, in speaking of contemporary
Dutch foundries, says that "Holland, having made
printing one of the principal features of its commerce,
erected with care and expense several celebrated foundries.
At Amsterdam, Dirk Voskens, the celebrated engraver and
founder of that city, set up a type-foundry at the end of the
last century. His types are round in form, in the manner
of our great masters, and very well engraved. This foundry
has passed to his widow and to the Sieur Zonen.^ Another
celebrated foundry at Amsterdam was established by Chris-
tophe van Dyck, also an engraver, and has now fallen into
the hands of M. Jean Bus. A third foundry established in
the same town, not less excellent than the two preceding, is
that of Isaac van der Putte. All three are well stocked \\'ith
characters of different kinds, particularly with the Flemish

' Stockum, fac. 161. " Ibid., fac. 163. ' Ibid., fac. 164.

* Ibid., facs. 171, 172. ' Ibid., fac. 174. ^ Md., facs. 195-198.

i.e., and her sons. Foumier mistook the Dutch word "zonen" for a proper
name.

36 PRINTING TYPES

character, which has been very much used in the Nether-
lands but which is now being abandoned. At Haarlem, M.
Rudolph Wetstein, printer at Amsterdam and learned in
types, having inherited some punches of Greek characters
which G. Wetstein, his father, had cut for him at Geneva,
added types to his foundry engraved by Sr. J. M. Fleisch-
man, a very clever type-cutter. After the death of M. Wet-
stein, which occurred in 1742, Messieurs Isaac and Jean
Enschede, brothers, bought this foundry in 1 743 and took
it to Haarlem to form a complete typographical establish-
ment in conjunction with the printing-house they had there.
This foundry has received very considerable accessions
through the work and talent of Sr. Fleischman, mentioned
above, who is in their employ. At The Hague, Sieurs R. C.
Alberts and H. Vytwerf established, about 1730, a foundry
for which a part of the types were cut by J. M. Schmidt,
a talented type-cutter. At Antwerp there is an old foundry
which has been celebrated for a long time. It was set up by
Christophe Plantin, the accompHshed printer, about 1561.
He went to France, to buy types at the administrator's sale
of the Garamond foundry. Guillaume Le Be also sold types
to him, and he had other types cut by Henri du Tour,^ of
Ghent, then living in Paris. Moretus, Plantin's son-in-law,
having inherited it, it came through his descendants to M.
Moretus, the type-founder and printer, who owns it to-day.
This foundry has greatly lost prestige through lack of em-
ployment, or by the ignorance of some of those through
whose hands it has passed. Another Antwerp foundry be-
longed to M. Balthazar von Wolffchaten. In Holland there
still exists the Athias foundry, called the Jewish foundry ;
and at Leyden that of Blokmar, and one at [belonging to ?]
Blaeu."

* Van der Keere the younger.

NETHERLANDS TYPES: 1500-1800 37

Plantin's types and Van Dyck's characters, both men-
tioned by Fournier, have been discussed. The first still re-
main at the Plantin Museum. The second were finally ac-
quired by the Enschedes. The Enschede foundry at Haar-
lem is one of the most interesting establishments in Europe,
and is a "descendant" of the oldest foundries in Holland and
of ancient foundries in Basle and Geneva. Begun in 1703,
and flourishing to-day, it possesses probably the best col-
lection of ancient types, in private hands, in the world. Be-
sides portions of the Athias and Wetstein foundries, it
includes material from those of Dirk Voskens, Blaeu, Van
der Putte, Ploos van Amstel, Elzevir, and others — almost
every establishment mentioned by Fournier. Some of its
types date from the fifteenth century. Had not many of Van
Dyck's matrices been destroyed, it could have reproduced in
type any Dutch book from the fifteenth century to our own.
Its proprietors have been, from the first, learned men, and
adepts in their work.

Fleischman, a German, was employed by the Enschedes
in the eighteenth century to cut types for their foundry, and
his signature is found beneath many fonts shown in their
specimen-books. In his hands their output was somewhat
changed, though not much bettered. His types are singu-
larly devoid of style, and usually show a drift toward the
thinner, weaker typography which was coming in Holland
as everywhere else. But Fleischman's work was much the
fashion in the eighteenth century, and it made such excellent
fonts as Van Dyck's appear hopelessly obsolete. In 1810,
when Didot type was the mode. Van Dyck's matrices and
types were, without much thought, thrown into the melting-
pot — a "gesture" no doubt regretted by later members
of the Enschede family.

Various books and broadside specimens of types and

38 PRINTING TYPES

ornaments were published by the Enschedes. One of the
earliest books was Xht Epreuve des Caracteres^ qui se fondent
da?is la Nouvelle FonderiedeLettres d^ Isaac et Jean Enschede
a Haarlem. Augmentee ^ perfectionee jusqiHa VAn 1744. The
preface alkides to the abiUties of Rudolph Wetstein as a
printer and type-founder, and mentions that the Enschedes
bought his foundry in 1743 ; Wetstein having died the year
before. The Greek types are mentioned with special pride;
and the deep cutting of counters, and the sohd way in which
the types are constructed to escape wear, are emphasized.
The roman and italic types shown are all old style. In 1768,
the Enschedes published an elaborate specimen called Proef
van Letteren, IVelke gegooten worden in de Nieuwe Haei'-
lemsche Lettergietery van J. Enschede^ prefaced by a portrait
of Enschede and other engravings. An introduction, dated
Haarlem, 1768, and signed by J. Enschede, is printed in a
very ugly cursive script letter {fig. 210) — a fearful decline
from the splendid cursive fonts in use a hundred and fifty
years earlier. This is followed by a portrait of J. M. Fleisch-
man, their type-cutter. Then begins a series of types — capi-
tal letters in roman and italic of a very Dutch and ugly cut,
a series of shaded capital letters, and a great variety of faces
of roman and italic types, in some of which the size of the
body of lower-case letters is unduly large in proportion to
the capitals. Many of the types that we come upon which
look more "modern" (some of them being as we should now
say "condensed") were cut by Fleischman — whose name
appears beneath them. He uniformly extracted all interest
from his fonts, partly through lightening the cut, which
gave monotony of colour, and partly by his large, round
lower-case letters, made more rolling in effect by shorten-
ing the descenders in a very modern way {^fig. 21 1). The
smaller types are extremely dull in colour, though here and

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Cf.cJ^clir&e/y&n QJ cnri^t j aoor wuC&n^ o-

SMecr J^OASV MJGm;^&£

cn JLcynj^aUen J^cit&r-QJ t&7?vp'eZJ^nuo-cr j dl&
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moaeCij.fi it,ome7t z^aC j in 1768 y-oCeinoiat ^ {^^(i
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U^etteo^aict&ru ^ en oe tcvat4ke ooor ii&m ae=
Itijteerae CJYvatrzpzen. /^mt UYaam en dhon-ft
■tat J oaor z^une uitmu7tte7ioe <^L^etie7^e7t . oie
ten aetale y-tzn ralm zey-entla, anaerj^-cneldene
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X Fr. Philofophie RomaiK. y ^

\^ Engl. Smal Pica Roman.

X Hoogd. Deffendian Antigua.

5 II y a des gens qui les elliment beaucoup;quelques

A Proteftans memes les louent. Mr. Arnoldus indique

X plufieurs PalTages des Ecrivains Cathoiiques qui ont

\ admird Rusbroch. Mais il ne devoit pas mettre de

^ ce nombre Francois Svvertius. Apparemment ce qui

X I'a brouill(^ efb de s'etre fouvenu qu'il y a un Livre

\ intitule Athense Batav^ , &c. ffl ffl ffi ffi A B C D E
FGHIJKLMNOPQRSTVUWX YZ:?iE

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J. M. Fleifchman fculpfit. 1734.

Defcendiaan Romein, Tweede Schrift.

At etiam literas, quas me fibi mifilTe diceret, re-
citavit homo & humanitatis expers, & vitae com-
munis ignarus. Quis enim unquam,qui paulum mo-
do bonomm confuetudinem noifet, literas ad fe ab
amico milTas , ofFenfione aliqua interpofita , in me-
dium protuHt, palamque recitavit? Quid ell aliud,
toUerere h vita vitse focietatem , quam tollere amit

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orationibus longiore traftu vis qu^dam & pondus ac- O^'

cedit. Utque corpori ferrum. Sic oratio animo non ic- x j

tu magis quam mora imprimitur. Videmus , ut ftatuas x V^

figna , piduras , hominum denique multorumque ani- \ ^

malium formas , arborum etiam , fi modo fmt decor^e, X ^

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J. M. Fleifchman fculpfit. 1761. a ^JJt

211. FldschmarCs Roman Types cut in 1734, 1753, and 1761
EnschedPs Proefvan Letteren., Haarlem., 1768

NETHERLANDS TYPES: 1500-1800 39

there we find fonts with a good deal of movement, cut by
Van Dyck. Fleischman's black-letter {Jig. 212) is tortured
and fanciful, and does not stand comparison with Van
Dyck's simpler and finer black-letter, still less with early
Flemish gothic fonts. Fleischman's music, both in round
notes and square, is also shown. The caractere de finance., an
unattractive script, was cut by Rosart. Beyond these faded-
looking characters comes a page of fine old civilite {fig.2l3).
There is an interesting collection of Greek fonts, and the
assortment of ligatured characters which supplement them
should be examined. There are Arabic, Hebrew, Armenian,
and other exotic types by various hands, and the specimen
closes with ornaments which are mostly flat renderings of
current English and French designs. Every page in the
book is surrounded by type borders, many of them ingen-
iously contrived. A supplement shows newer fonts added to
the foundry between 1768 and 1773, which are not im-
portant. Two pages of splendid old Dutch black-letter fonts
{figs. 45 a?id 4<6) and a folding view of the Enschede foun-
dry at Haarlem close a representative eighteenth century
Dutch specimen.

Charles Enschede's Fonderies de Caracteres et lew Mate-
riel dans les Pays-Bas du XV^ an XIX^ Siecle contains every-
thing in the early Enschede specimen-books, and reproduces
interesting types from the Rosart, Decellier, and many other
foundries. No other book on Dutch types is so valuable, and
so complete. In illustrating it, the author had the enormous
advantage of his own collection of types, and many of the
examples are printed from them. He shows not only pages
of type in mass, but also alphabets of capitals and lower-case
letters, and th.e unusual "sorts," of which there were many
in Dutch fonts. For instance, in the civilite cut by Van der
Keere, which was purchased by the Enschedes from PIoos

40 PRINTING TYPES

van Amstel in 1799, the type is first displayed as it appears
in Van Hout's specimen. In an analysis of this font, its capi-
tal letters, lower-case letters for the middle of words, and
letters to be used at the ends of words, or phrases, are ex-
hibited; together with double letters, punctuation, numerals,
ligatured initials and medials, and final ligatures, with six
ligatured forms of en, et, and in. This gives some idea of how
thoroughly the work is done. Ornamental initials, deco-
rations, and typographical borders are treated with equal
fullness and completeness, and illustrated by a marvellous
Series of reproductions. No one who does not know this book
can know much about Dutch printing from 1500 to 1800.

A final specimen-book to be discussed is that of a certain
Jacques Frangois Rosart (1714-1777), a native of Namur.
He seems to have been self-taught, and to have established
himself at Haarlem as type-founder in a small way, when
about twenty years old. The establishment of the Enschede
foundry there was a blow to him, although he cut many
fonts for Enschede and so gained valuable experience. He
thought, rightly or wrongly, that the Enschedes treated
him shabbily and unduly favoured his rival, Fleischman.

The dedication of Rosart's specimen is printed in one of
his disagreeable script fonts, somewhat like that used for the
introduction to the Enschede specimen. In an address "to
amateurs of the art of prinUng," Rosart observes in a some-
what acid manner that he does not praise the hardness of
his type-metal, nor the depth of his counters, as some claim-
ants do, who wish to make a great deal out of nothing.
For printers whom he, Rosart, has had the honour to serve,
know^ very well the quality of his types ! And he adds that
he cannot conceal his surprise that the Enschedes in prais-
ing Fleischman have forgotten to name the Artist who has
brought honour to their foundry by supplying it with a

M "^ Paragon Duits. W}

^ Hoogd. Text Fraiiur. ^

aer na fnmmige bmm 1

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J. M. Fleifchman fculpfit. 1744.

Text Duyts.

Hoogd. Paragon FraSlur,

tHet 1^ (J^obt trie in on^ taerftt get taf {^
ten/ €n get balfijengen na fgn goe&t S
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?^ J. M. Fleifchman fculpfit. 1744. Jfe^

212. Fleischman'' s Black-letter: Enschedfs Proef van Letteren
Haarlem^ 1768

h ^ Text Oud Gefchreeven. ^ ';j

i*.^ Auguftijn Oud Gefchreeven. MA

?^S5 Dit laatftc Gefchreeven Schrift is gefneclen voor den vermaarden Boekdruk- ?^ M

U, w ker Chriftoflel Plantyn te Antwcrpen, door Aineet Tavernier, Letterfnyder. ^jJ>

213. Seventeenth Century Chziit^: EnschedPs Proef van Letteren
Haarlem^ 1768

NETHERLANDS TYPES: 1500-1800 41

number of types — calling Fleischman the foremost type-
cutter of the century, to the prejudice of persons whose
talents are not yet much known, but who (it is to be hoped)
will shortly make them so.

There is something pathetic about Rosart's book. It is not
very well executed. The capital letters with which it starts
out are a little extreme in the delicacy of their serifs and in
the thickness and thinness of contrasting lines. Three alpha-
bets of flowered letters (detestably displayed) were cut by
Fournier le jeune of Paris! Of the upper and lower-case
types, not much is to be said. They are of the Dutch taste
of the day; but the italics are more elegant than most of
those of the period. As the types become smaller, the bodies
seem out of proportion to the height of the capital letters,
and in these smaller sizes there are certainly many bad
fonts. His music characters and plain-song notation are both
shown. The caractere de jinance {fig. 214), Rosart tells us,
he engraved in 1753 to be printed with the music types
which he offered to the public in 1750,^ "as," he adds, "the
whole city of Haarlem can certify" {Jig. 215). Some black-
letter, some Greek, and a beautiful cut of civilite engraved
by "the late Grandjant [Granjon] at Paris" complete the
specimen of types, and then come pages of ornaments {Jig.
216), among which the unpleasant marrow-bones, scythes,
skulls, and crossed spades — which appear, too, in other con-
temporary "specimens" — leave no doubt about the kind of
notification they were to decorate ! Some of the simpler or-
naments are pretty, but I think were inspired by Fournier.

^ These music types were the earhest typographic rendering of the round
music notes which, up to that time, had appeared only in engraved music.
Fournier, Breitkopf, and Enschede produced music types of Hke design, with
mechanical improvements of varying degree, respectively in 1754, 1756,
and 1764. For a discussion of the rival claims to priority of production, see
Ch. Enschede's Fonderies de Caracteres et leur Materiel, etc., pp. 241-245.

42 PRINTING TYPES

In I759,Rosart left for Brussels, where, under the patron-
age of the Duke of Lorraine, he established a foundry. He
died May 26, 1777, at the age of sixty-two, leaving sev-
eral children. A son, who was also a reputable type-cutter,
did not succeed to his father's foundry. In 1779, Rosart's
music characters, matrices, and punches were sold with
the rest of his collection, and were acquired by a widow
named Decellier, of Brussels.^ Rosart's priority in adapt-
ing the design of engraved music notes to typography will
always give him a modest immortality.

To round out properly the subject of eighteenth century
Dutch types, consult the specimen issued by the brothers
Ploos van Amstel of Amsterdam, of 1784, and its supple-
ment issued about 1790 ; the specimen of J. de Groot, pub-
lished at The Hague in 1791, which contains some of the
Rosart material, and that issued by Harmsen & Co. at Am-
sterdam at about the same period — "necessary where they
may be had." The most interesting of these types and or-
naments, however, are beautifully reproduced in Enschede's
monumental Fondenes des Caracteres. Those who are curious
about the declension of excellence in late eighteenth century
Dutch types may refer to that remarkable book.

M. Enschede, speaking of this period, says that "the
taste of the public changed, and in a manner which one
could not approve of. The art of the type-founder retro-
graded from all points of view. . . . The French Revolu-
tion, which overturned so entirely the old order of things,
brought nothing better in place of it to our art, and the as-
sortment of types by Fleischman . . . became, as if by en-

^The Rosart specimen described was probably put out by J. F. Rosart at
Brussels about 1761. Madame Decellier in 1 779 issued a specimen entitled
Ejireuve des Caracteres de la Fonderie de la Veuve Decellier, successeur de
Jacques- Franqois Rosart. Troisieme edition augmentee. A Bruxelles, Rue
ditte Finckt, /ir'is du Marche aux Grains.

DOUBLE DESENDIAAN
OU PHILOSOPHIE

CARACTERE DE FINANCE

Ttom unir , a/^-oo ^ S-e/n&dlctlo'ii da C^d^

mas a^ons ^'donncm'^& "^om commtml-

a 2)lnianc/i& fyt'O-cnam.

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^z&z, ilm p^mko paz.t a. '^iott& ^atij-
ia-cUon , &i 'riom cwltc , a/^&o ^ />^^
pdzJaltS' comid&z^at'lofi'

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^e/vvlUur e^t CD&^y-afvtd. x/Y ^ Ji -

Ce Caraaere Coule a ete invent^ & Grav6 la
premiere fois i'An 1753. fur le double Mediaan
OU Cicero , pour fervir a la Mufique , que J. F
RosART a invente &donne au Public le 3 de Jan-
vier 17^0 dontleSr. Sancto Lapis & Antonio
MAHOuT&toutelaVille d'Harlempeut certifier,

214. Rosarfs Caractere de Finance, from his Epreuve, Brussels
{after 1760)

CAR.ACTERE DS MUSIQUE.

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215. Rosarfs Music Types ^ from his Epreuve^ Bnisscis
{after 1760)

216. Rosarfs Ornaments^ from his Epreuve, Brussels
{after 1760)

NETHERLANDS TYPES: 1500-1800 43

chantment, old-fashioned, after the foundation of the Bata-
vian Republic, and had to give place to characters of a
more modern cut. . . . The name of Fournier, formerly so
well-known among us, had already been eclipsed at this
period by that of Didot. What Fleischman had formerly
been [to Dutch type-founding] Didot was at that epoch." ^
There was not a single foundry which did not try to adver-
tise itself by Didot types or copies of them, and this was
the case not only in Holland, but in Germany, and indeed
throughout Europe. Those who recall the end of the chap-
ter on German types will remember how true this was of the
output of Unger. So, too, the eighteenth century in Dutch
typography closes under the influence of the faults and mer-
its of the orreat French founder.

fc>'

England was largely supplied with Dutch printing types
in the seventeenth century, as we know from the James
correspondence quoted in Rowe Mores' A Dissertation upon
English Typographical Founders and Founderies, and from
letters about Bishop Fell's gift of types to the University
Press, Oxford. The Fell types were procured in Holland
about 1693, through the intervention of Rev. Thomas Mar-
shall, preacher to the English merchants in Holland and
afterwards Dean of Gloucester; and negotiations consumed
some four years, largely because Marshall did not know a
punch from a matrix ! Moxon, the first English writer on
type-founding, says that the "common consent of Book-men
assign the Garland to the Dutch-Letters," and he himself
greatly admired them. In the second paper of his Exercises
he gives a very oft-quoted description of them, which I
spare the reader.^ Moxon particularly praised Van Dyck's

^Enschede's Fonderies de Caractires, etc., pp. 382-386.

Moxon's Mechanick Exercises, or the Doctrine of Handy- Works afifilied to
the Art of Printing, Numb. II, «[r2. Of Letter; also pis. 11-17.

44 PRINTING TYPES

types, and the engraved plates of them, enlarged, shown
in his Mechanick Exercises^ have already been alluded to.
Dutch types were also in vogue in Germany at the end
of the seventeenth century, and were imported in large
quantities. Some roman and italic Dutch types of this
date were shown in connection with Breitkopf's specimen
in Gessner's Buchdnickerkunst unci Schiftgiesserey, Leipsic,
1740. These came from a Leipsic foundry which Fournier
considered second only to Breitkopf's — that of Hr. Erhardt.
A head-line (omitted in our reproduction) reads : " Real
Dutch types, and a great number of other characters, which
are to be found in the Erhardt foundry here." These fonts
resemble those given by Fell to the Oxford Press, and in cut
belong to the seventeenth century. Their provenance I do
not know. Although heavy, they retain considerable vivacity
of line, and have great capabilities when used with taste.
Our illustrations {Jigs. 217 aiid 218) show the larger sizes
of both roman and italic — the latter being the better of the
two.

The types which the Dutch supplied to England at the
commencement of the eighteenth century are shown in the
specimen printed at the beginning of Watson's History of
the Art of Printing,"- of 1713 {fig. 26 1). They had begun to
assume a general uncouthness which helped the English
to abandon their purchase for those more comfortable and
"cheerful" roman letters designed by William Caslon about
1720.

S/iecimen of Tyfies in the Printing-House of James Watson, Edinburgh,
1713, pp. i-xLvui.

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CHAPTER XVI

SPANISH types: 1500-1800

THE great traditions of printing held their own in
Spain during the first part of the sixteenth cen-
tury somewhat persistently — perhaps more so
than in other countries/ This was no doubt due to Span-
ish conservatism, and to the geographical position of the
country, which isolated it from foreign fashions. Indeed,
the Mozarabic Breviary of 1502, printed by Peter Hagen-
bach, a German, at Toledo, the Mozarabic Missal of the
same date, and some later volumes are — like very many
Spanish fifteenth century books — simply copies of manu-
scripts, rendered in type. The Hurus printing-house at
Saragossa produced fine work of this kind. The most re-
nowned of its illustrated books, says Haebler, "is the edition
of the Offida quotidiana of 1500, which contains some fifty
woodcuts and more than one thousand magnificent initial
letters. The copy printed on vellum and illuminated, which
was in the hands of Don Jose Sancho Rayon when Hidalgo
wrote his enthusiastic description of it, is one of the finest
specimens executed at any time and at any place in the
world, and reminds us of the beautiful illuminations of medi-
aeval manuscripts." The splendid Missale Romanum on vel-
lum, printed in 1510 at Saragossa by "George Coci Theu-

* ELnglish authorities for the history of Spanish typography from 1500 to
1800 are few. There appears to be no readily accessible survey of Spanish
printing for the sixteenth, seventeenth, and eighteenth centuries, even in
Spanish ; although there are essays on presses (during the whole or part of
this period) in Palencia, Seville, Alcala, Valencia, Toledo, Medina del Campo,
Madrid, Cordova, Tarragona, Lerida, Leon, the kingdom of Aragon, etc.,
many of which are admirable. In English there is little in the way of a contin-
uous narrative, though Mr. H. Thomas's paper on The Outfiut of Sfianish
Books in the Sixteenth Century (Transactions of the Bibliographical Soci-
ety, Sept., 1920) may be consulted with advantage for this period.

46 PRINTING TYPES

tonic," ^ a successor of Hurus (and owner of this office after
1506), is executed in a very Italian letter, in red and black,
with music, and with a representation of the Crucifixion op-
posite the Canon, which is surrounded by elaborate borders.
It is a book typical in style of the fifteenth century.

In the early years of the sixteenth century — between
1514 and 1518 — one of the masterpieces of Spanish ty-
pography appeared ; namely, the Pol3'^glot Bible printed by
Arnald Guillen de Brocar at Alcala; usually known as the
Complutensian Poly got, from the Latin name of Alcala —
Complutum.This was published at the expense of Cardinal
Ximenez (or, as he is commonly called in Spain, Cisneros),
Primate of Spain, Archbishop of Toledo, and founder of
the University of Alcala, whose patronage of learning and
printing is now better remembered than his hand in the
destruction of thousands of Arabic manuscripts — an or-
thodox feat in which he was the principal actor ! This Bible
— a very splendid performance for any period, and the first
of the great Polyglots — was printed in Hebrew, Chaldee,
Greek, and Latin, between 1514 and 1518, as has been
said; but it was not published until after the Cardinal's
death in 1522. The Greek types used in the New Testa-
ment are particularly famous, for they preserve the char-
acter of older Greek manuscripts, being based on an early
book-hand and not (like the Aldine Greek fonts) on the
fifteenth century cursive handwriting of Greek scholars.
This font was possibly modelled on the Greek characters
of a manuscript from the Vatican Library which the Pope
lent Ximenez to aid in constituting his text. But the Com-
plutensian Polyglot was printed under special and ad-
vantageous conditions, and cannot be considered typical of
Spanish work of its period. Its printer, Brocar, was ap-

* A copy is ill tlie Hispanic Society's Library, New York.

t*^

^
^

SPANISH TYPES: 1500-1800 47

pointed typographer to Charles V, for whom he executed
in 1517, at Logrono, the Crbnica de Don Juan 11^ by Perez
de Guzman, which Haebler calls a masterpiece of typogra-
phy. This and the Polyglot Bible, I shall describe later. Of
the ninety-two books printed by Brocar but sixteen appeared
before 1500. For some time after his death (which occurred
probably before 1523), his office continued to be one of the
most famous in Spain.

How strongly the old traditions of Spanish typography
persisted, is proved by books printed even after 15 50, which
are almost indistinguishable from incunabula. There was
the same love of a massive black-letter for the text; the same
enormous heraldic emblems were popular ; the same xylo-
graphic inscriptions in large, round Spanish black-letter
appeared on title-pages. This round Gothic letter in all its
splendour was used in Spain for lettering titles on vellum-
bound books — printed in roman type — all through the
seventeenth and well into the eighteenth century; and the
illustration of part of a Gothic alphabet in this hand {jig.
219) may be compared with Plan tin's canon d'Espagne
{Jig. 197), and some examples of old gothic fonts (Jig. 220),
which were its type equivalents. By 1560, as in other parts
of Europe, there was a more general introduction of roman
type, and a realization of the flexibility of printing when
applied to preliminary matter; and this led to a change
of style. The roman fonts used in these later books were of
rather a coarse, rough kind, not particularly interesting, nor
very distinguishable from the poorer roman types used in
France and Italy at that date.^ In some folios, a tall, thin
lower-case roman letter, something like the types of Gara-

* For italic and roman alphabets of this period see Arte de Escrivir of Fran-
cisco Lucas, Madrid, 1577. These are reproduced in Strange's Alfihabets
(third edition), plates S7 and 70. They are called type-letters by Strange,
but are really calligraphic.

48 PRINTING TYPES

mond or certain Italian roman characters, was used with
great effect for head-lines and running-titles ; and it was
sometimes employed in liturgical books in connection with
plain-song notation.

The influence of the Netherlands on printing in Spain
was considerable. Plantin of Antwerp produced the Polyglot
Bible commonly called after him, under the patronage of
Philip II — whose patronage was about all he gave to it!
Plantin printed, besides liturgical books for Spain (for which
he later obtained a special "privilege" enjoyed for a long
time in the Plantin-Moretus family), a large number of
books in Spanish. These were mostly composed in his deli-
cate early manner, which was more interesting and distin-
guished than his later somewhat overblown style. Spain,
in the sixteenth century, had more books printed abroad
than any other country, on account of its preponderating
political importance — the Netherlands ranking first in this
output, followed by Italy. These foreign productions influ-
enced the native Spanish press in both format and typog-
raphy, and there are many volumes of this period printed
in Spain which, in their small roman type, restraint in ar-
rangement, and delicacy of decoration, are plainly inspired
by foreign influence.

Plantin was invited to establish a printing-house in the
Peninsula. Being asked by Philip II in 1572 to suggest
which of his sons-in-law could take charge of it, Plantin,
probably not wishing to deprive himself of the help of either
Moretus or Raphelengius, replied Avith diplomacy that they
might direct it together, but that neither was capable of
doing it alone. That particular plan, therefore, came to noth-
ing. He did recommend to the King, however, in 1576, a
printer of Flemish origin, Matthew Gast, who had been for
some years previously in Spain. This Matthew Gast, who

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SPANISH TYPES: 1500-1800 49

had an establishment in Salamanca, had himself found dif-
ficulties in procuring types, for in 1574 we find him writ-
ing to Plantin, asking him to send him a type-cutter. Plan-
tin replied that since the death of the type-cutters Guyot
and Tavernier, he himself had found only one man who
was good for anything, and he had continually to be told
what to do in any work demanding initiative or judg-
ment.

For Spanish printing, the seventeenth century was a dis-
couraging period. The types in use were chiefly roman; the
first edition of Don Quixote being printed from uncouth,
old style roman fonts. The copper-plate title-pages in gen-
eral European use had also some vogue there. As was the
case wherever they appeared, printing fell off. Sometimes
it only seemed to do so, because the contrast between the
rough types of the time and the precision of a copper-plate
was to the disadvantage of the typography; sometimes be-
cause if the fashionable copper-plates were supplied, print-
ers seemed to feel that they could print as badly as they
chose — a point of view then current in England and else-
where. Then, too, the close political relations with Italy
played a part in Spanish printing, and Italian fashions in
seventeenth and early eighteenth century printing were usu-
ally bad. Spanish books of this period are much like the
wretched productions of the Italian press — with congested
title-pages, composed in letters too large for the page, ill-
printed, and decorated (or at least supposed to be) with badly
executed typographical ornaments. The type was generally
a crude old style roman letter.

The first quarter of the eighteenth century, however, saw
some eflbrts toward more interest in national typography.
The first Spanish king of the Bourbon family, Philip V,
granted in 1716 certain privileges and exemptions for

50 PRINTING TYPES

music-printing (not before attempted in Madrid), which
had been begun on the initiative and at the expense of
Don Joseph Torres, chief organist of the Chapel Royal. And
in 1717 it was ordered that a press for liturgical books
should be set up, so that both for Spain and in particular
for the Indies, no foreign books of that class need be im-
ported; but it was not done. In 1729, Antonio Bordazar, a
native of Valencia (where he was born in 1671), proposed
the establishment of a printing-house in Spain to produce
liturgical works for the use of the Spanish Church. In old
days, a monopoly of such volumes seems to have been main-
tained by the monastery of the Escorial, which procured
missals, breviaries, etc., from the Plantin-Moretus Office at
Antwerp; and they were still, apparently, imported under
this privilege. In 1731, a royal decree again approved the
native printing of Spanish hturgical books, and called for
a discussion of ways and means to this end. Bordazar had
already submitted to Philip V a carefully drawn-up me-
morial in which he represented that types, paper, and ink
could be as easily procured, and books as successfully pro-
duced, in Spain as in the Netherlands, and he now received
the royal authority to print this document.

This he did in the year 1732, at Valencia, under the title
of Plaiitificacion de la Imprenta de el Rezo Sagrado, que su
Magestad {Dios le guarde) se ha servido mandar que se estab-
lezca en Espana, in a handsomely printed tractate of some
twenty folio pages {Jig. 22 1). It is divided under the heads
of paper, type, engravings, materials for calendars and mu-
sic, inks, estimates of costs, choice of liturgical books to be
printed, presses, administration, and time necessary for in-
stallation. The most interesting thing about it for our pur-
pose is the specimen of types — Caracteres de Espana —
which it was proposed to use. These are shown in twelve

PLANTIFICACION

LA IMPRENTA

DE EL REZO

Q.UE SU MAGESTA

(DIOSIE GUARDE)

SE HA SERVIDO MANDAR

Que fe eftablezca en Efpana.

EN VALENCIA.

For Antonio Bordazar de Artazu, Impreflbr del Santo Oficio,
i dc laliufcre Ciudad , aiio de 1732.

22L Tztle-page of Bordazar'' s Plantifcacion^ Falencia^ 1732
(reduced )

SPANISH TYPES: 1500-1800 51

sizes — grancanon to glosilla; portions of Latin service-
books, printed in red and black, being employed to display
the types. These pages constitute the earliest Spanish speci-
men of types that I have seen, though these types were not
Spanish but were cast from matrices imported from Flan-
ders. In the paragraph concerning them Bordazar says:
"Given the paper, about vuhich there is no doubt, corre-
spondingly one can have no doubt about type, for Carlos II,
of glorious memory, had matrices brought from Flanders,
and these are the ones now in the keeping of Juan Gomez
Morales, a skilful and intelligent^ type-founder of Madrid,^
whose variety of types, although they seem but few, are in-
creased in different ways as may be required,^ by means of
spaces either separating letter from letter* or line from line,
making in each book such combinations as elegant arrange-
ment demands; without any need of using for 76 books a
like number of kinds of type, or even two or three kinds for
each book, as is said by those ignorant of the subject. For
this would call for more than 200 varieties, a number that
does not exist and has never existed in all the presses of
Europe. Thus all the books which are no\A , or which ever
have been, in the Royal Monastery of the Escorial are com-
binations and arrangements that can be obtained from the
types of Juan Gomez Morales, which are the following"
(here appears the specimen). Bordazar adds: "Regarding
the durability and lasting sharpness which the contours of
certain foreign types possess, because of which some per-
sons have thought the moulds to have been made of silver,

* curioso, i.e., virtuoso — a person curious about or interested in a subject —
of an inquiring turn of mind.

' en la Corte, i.e., Madrid.

' Literally, "changing with the art that symmetry requires."

* Qy-> word from word?

52 PRINTING TYPES

types of the same quality may be cast in future, since the
alloy has already been made in Valencia, and has been ap-
proved by the founder, Juan Gomez Morales himself, who
rated it as of the quality of Dutch type-metal and thought
it was of foreign make."

The texto {Jig. 222) was used in Yriarte's Obras Sueltas,
printed at Madrid by Francisco Manuel de Mena in 1774,
and apparently, with the change of a few letters, in Bayer's
De Numis Hebrseo-Samaritanis^ printed at Valencia by Be-
nito Monfort in 1781. Perez de Soto appears to have used
it in the Bibliotheca Arabico-Hhpana Escurialensis of 1760.
Mendez says that these types came from the "incomparable
printing-house of Plantin," and that they were ultimately
utilized in Carlos Ill's time,^ which carries out the attribu-
tion I have given the texto. This is still further confirmed
by finding the same type, with a variant italic, in the Opera
of Hubert Goltzius, published at Antwerp in 1708; whether
an edition of Goltzius issued some sixty years earlier em-
ployed the type, I have not been able to learn. It is one of
the most beautiful roman fonts I have ever seen; and the
best of the three forms of italic used with it — that in Obras
Siieltas — is almost equally charming.

Bordazar's farseeing and enlightened proposals created
some stir, but he did not live to witness their realization.
After his death in 1 744, Jose de Orga," also of Valencia,
who had been brought up in Bordazar's printing-house,
where he seems to have been manager or foreman, took up
the plan and petitioned (in 1748) Ferdinand VI to be al-

' Mendez' Tyfiografihia Es/ianola, Madrid, 1796, p. 406.

' An able printer, who was the ancestor of a very distinguished Valencian

"printing family." Jose and Tomas de Orga, his sons, printed in 1790 an

important edition of the Bible ti-anslated into Spanish, executed in types from

the fonds of the Real Biblioteca de Madrid, and from the foundry of Eudaldo

Pradell.

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SPANISH TYPES: 1500-1800 53

lowed to establish a "liturgical" printing-press in Madrid
for the use and honour of the Spanish nation — setting forth
numerous difficulties and inconveniences caused by the ne-
cessity of having such books printed abroad; and again al-
leging that the work done earlier by Plantin and Moretus,
and by other printers in Venice and Holland, could be per-
formed just as well in Spain, both as to material and exe-
cution, at less cost, and without taking money out of the
country/ Orga removed to Madrid, where he died Febru-
ary 19, 1756, and, as far as the native production of type
was concerned, his efforts seem to have come to nothing
at all. Fournier wrote, in 1766, "Spain is lacking in type-
cutters: it has but two foundries, which are in Madrid;
one belonging to the Jesuits, who let it for five or six hun-
dred livres; the other was bought in Paris, from M. Cottin,
who sold it for thirty thousand livresP But the project to
print liturgical books in Spain was finally taken up, in
Carlos Ill's reign, by a Compania de Impresores y Libreros^ in
conjunction with the authorities of the Escorial. This body
obtained royal sanction, and the establishment of a com-
pletely equipped printing-house for it was approved in 1 787.
A building was bought and the scheme was in operation
when Mendez wrote of it in 1796,^ and in 1811 its director
was Juan Josef Sigiienza y Vera — a pupil of the famous
Ibarra.

This fruition of a long-considered and interminably de-
ferred plan came to pass at the end of the eighteenth cen-
tury, a moment when some excellent Spanish printing was

' The various negotiations of Bordazar and Jose de Orga in relation to this

subject are treated fully in Jose Serrano y Morales' Resefia Historica en

forma de Diccionario de las Imfirentas que han existido en Valencia desde la

Introduccion del Arte Tifiograjico en JLsfiana hasta f/ cno 1 868, etc. Valencia,

1898-99.

^ Mendez' Tyjiografihia Esfianola, p. 410.

54 PRINTING TYPES

done^ — the result of a general movement in industry and
art at a prosperous national era. Carlos III, whose reign
lasted for almost thirty years, and who died in 1788, was
a Bourbon, half-brother to Ferdinand VI, and much influ-
enced in his tastes by France. A most enlightened man, his
efforts toward the rehabilitation or establishment of all kinds
of Spanish industries, and his patronage of the fine arts,
were very ably seconded by his ministers. It was under
Carlos that the Buen Retiro porcelain was made, and the
palace of San Ildefonso at La Granja was filled with charm-
ing products from a glass factory there which he encour-
aged. Trade in watches and optical instruments was fos-
tered at Madrid; fine leathers were made at Cordova and
Seville, and velvets at Avila. A royal decree of 1733 had
already pronounced that hidalgos could engage in handi-
crafts without loss of caste ! Then, too, the Crown granted
various exemptions and privileges to the printing-trade. In
1763, a decree had exempted printers from military service,
and this applied to type-cutters and type-founders. Metals
used in the work of the latter were reduced in price by one-
third, and divers privileges and rights were conceded to
printers — partly to help the industry and partly to im-
prove book-making.

About the middle of the century, Gabriel Ramirez was
doing good work, and Perez de Soto, royal printer, pro-
duced creditable books ; but Joachin Ibarra, who was born

* There was, too, an interest in printing in Portugal at this period. The
Impressao Regia was established at Lisbon in 1769 through the influence of
the Marquis de Pombal, the reforming minister of Joseph I (1750-1777).
The scheme was a splendid one — a national press, which was to be at once
a school of all branches of typography, and a means of producing books for
the educational needs of Portugal. It was begun under direction of Miguel
da Costa ; and still exists as the National Printing House of Portugal. Four-
nier said (1766) that a type-foundry had been in existence at Lisbon for some
thirty-five years, a Parisian named ViUeneuve being its owner.

SPANISH TYPES: 1500-1800 55

in Saragossa in 1725, was the Spanish printer who had the
greatest reputation — not merely in Spain, but throughout
Europe. Ibarra was evidently much influenced by Bodoni,
and somewhat, perhaps, by Didot and Baskerville. To look
to Bodoni was natural. Parma, like the Kingdom of the
Two SiciHes, was then in Bourbon hands, and the relation
between the Spanish Court and that of Parma was close.
Carlos III (whose mother, Elizabeth Farnese, was a Prin-
cess of Parma) was himself made Duke of Parma in 1731.
On his accession to the Kingdom of Naples, where he
encouraged fine printing, — notably Baiardi's great work,
De//e Antichita di Ercolano^ alluded to by Mendez, — his
brother Philip became Duke of Parma. Philip, in turn, was
succeeded by a son, Ferdinand, who was Bodoni's patron.^
Ibarra, therefore, as Spanish Court printer, must have been
perfectly familiar with the books printed for Carlos Ill's
nephew by Bodoni, who held the same post in Parma that
Ibarra held at Madrid. In fact, Bodoni had the honorary title
of Printer to the Spanish King ; and this accounts for the
beautifully printed memorial discourses issued at Parma by
Bodoni in 1789, on the death of Carlos III — Botteri's Ora-
zione Funebre in lodi de Don Carlo III; and the Oratio in
Funere Caroli III oi Ridolfi delivered in the Papal chapel
at Rome on the same occasion.

Ibarra's magnificent Spanish and Latin edition of Sallust,
printed in 1 772, is generally considered his masterpiece {Jig.
223). Other great books printed by Ibarra were the Royal
Academy edition of Don Quixote of 1780, an edition of the
Bible, the Breviarium Gothicum . . . ad usum Sacelli Mozara-

* On the death of Ferdinand in 1802, the Duchy of Parma was governed by
France, until, in 1815, the Congress of Vienna gave it to Marie Louise, wife
of Napoleon I. Tliis explains the dedication of the later books of Bodoni —
who preferred rising to setting suns!

56 PRINTING TYPES

bicum or Mozarabic Breviary (1775), Mariana's Historia de
Espana, and Antonio's Bibliotheca Hispcma^ Fetus et Nova
(1783-88) — all of which are worth study. The Sail List, Don
Quixote^ and Antonio's work are later discussed.

Ibarra's printing was greatly admired by book-lovers of
that day all over Europe. The Chevalier de Bourgoing^
writing in 1 782 of the Academy edition of Don Quixote, calls
it "equally admirable for the quality of the ink, the beauty
of the paper, the clearness of the character, and to be com-
pared with the finest productions of the kind in any other
nation. This is not the first proof the Spaniards have given
of their ability in the art of printing. Every connoisseur is
acquainted Vvith, and prefers to the editions of Baskerville
and Barbou, the Sallust, which the Infant Don Gabriel has
translated into his own language, and some other works
from the presses of Ibarra at Madrid, and from those of
Benedict Montfort at Valencia, which are masterpieces of
the typographical art, and will one day be sought after by
posterity, as we now search for those of the Elzevirs."^
Franklin, whose busy mind was always interested in the
development of typography, was conversant with Ibarra's
editions. Wridng from Passy, December 4, 1 78 1, to William
Strahan, he says: "A strong Emulation exists at Present
between Paris and Madrid, with regard to beautiful Print-
ing. Here a M. Didot lejeune has a Passion for the Art. . . .
He has executed several charming Editions. But the 'Sal-
ust' [«■<?] and the 'Don Quixote' of Madrid are thought
to excel them." This rivalry between Didot and Ibarra per-
haps explains a rather sour allusion to the latter in the
Epitre sur les Progres de V Imprimene written by Didot jils

' Travels in Sfiain, London, 1789, Vol. I, p. 244. De Bourgoing, who was
secretary to the French embassy at Madrid, wrote a book about his travels,
translated into English under the above title.

■4

LA CONJURACION

i)£ CATILINA

P O R

c^ra sJLusTio'cRispo.

VST A cosa es que los homhres ^ que de-
•^sean aventcyarse a los demas vlvien-
tes y procuren con el mayor empeno
710 pasar la vida en silencio como las
hestias ^ a quienes naturaleza crib m-
cUnadas a la tlerra y siervas de su vientre, NtieS"
tro vigor ij facultades consisten todas en el animo y
el cuerpo ^ : de este iisamos mas para el servicio ^ de
aquel iws valemos para el mando : en lo tmo somos
iguales a los Dioses ^ en lo otro a los hrutos* For

C. SALLUSTII CRISPI veluti pecora ; qu^ natura prona,

C ATI LTNy4 ^^^^^ ventri obedientia finxit. Sed

L. yi 1 1 I /i. nostra omnis vh in animo et cor-

I MNis homines, qui sese sin- pore sita est. Animi imperio , cor-

dent praestare ceteris ani- poris servitio magis utimur. alte-

I malibus , summa ope niti rum nobis cum Dis, alterum cum

decet , ne vitam silentio transeant, belJuis commune est. Quo raihi rec-

223. Page of Salliist: Ibarra^ Madrid^ 1772 (reduced)

SPANISH TYPES: 1500-1800 57

aine^ in 1784, who uses the names of both Ibarra and Bas-
kerville as pegs on which to hang laurels in honour of his
excellent papa! Bodoni — more generous — writes in 1774
of "the stupendous Sallust not long since printed with
so much Jifiitezza at Madrid," and Bayne in his Journal
reports a conversation with Franklin in which the latter
said that, excepting the Sallust, he thought the Doji Quixote
equalled anything he ever saw. "Ibarra carried the perfec-
tion of his art to a point until that time unknown in Spain,"
says Nee de la Rochelle,^ "and the emulation he inspired
in his confreres caused greater advances in Typographic
Art in twenty years than it had made in the two preced-
ing centuries. He is distinguished for his magnificent edi-
tions, in which sumptuous engravings are combined with
sumptuous types, great accuracy, and superior presswork."
Ibarra, it may be said here, introduced in Spain on his own
initiative improvements akin to those made by Baskerville
in England — first, an ink of particularly brilliant quality
which he made for his own use ; and second, hot-pressed
paper. Indeed, he invented a machine to produce the latter.
Carlos III appointed Ibarra court printer, and he was also
printer to the Primate and the Academia de la Lengua, for
whom he executed their Dictionary. He died at Madrid,
November 23, 1785 ; and the Imprenta Real pubHshed be-
fore the new year a Soneto a la muerte de Joaquin Ibarra^
Impresor de Camara de S. M.^

* Recherches . . . sur rEtablissernent de PArt Tyfiographique en Esfiagne,
etc., Paris, 1830, p. 65.

^ Probably that quoted in Juan Josef Sigiienza y Vera's Mecanismo del arte
de la Imfirenta, etc. Madrid, 1811. In this beautifully printed little book,
dedicated to Ibarra's niece, the author describes himself as "disciple of
Ibarra and director of the Imprenta de la Compaiiia de impresores v libreros
del reyno." It contains a "specimen" of Roman and Arabic types — all but
one from the "Catalan" foundry of Eudaldo Pradell — and Greek, Hebrew,
and Arabic alphabets.

58 PRINTING TYPES

In this revival of printing, Valencia stands out through
the work of Monfort, whose particular claim to remem-
brance is Fr. Perez Bayer's work on Hebrew-Samaritan
coins, printed in 1781, Bayer was a great figure in all the
scholarly undertakings of the period — the reformer of
studies in the University of Salamanca, where he held the
chair of Hebrew; a learned classical scholar, and preceptor
to the Infantes of Spain. He it was who contributed the open-
ing dissertation to the Infante Don Gabriel's translation of
Sallust. A native of Valencia,^ and archdeacon of its cathe-
dral, he was familiar with Monfort's work, and naturally
employed him.

Benito Monfort, in contemporary opinion ranking next to
Ibarra, was born at Valencia about 1716, and died (a few
months before Ibarra) in 1785. He learned his trade in the
office of Antonio Bordazar, where (as I have said) Jose de
Orga, another eminent printer, was manager. Monfort set
up his own office in 1757, and later became printer by ap-
pointment to the city of Valencia, to its University, etc. His
editions were praised by his contemporaries, w ho compared
him, for no very intelligible reason, to Baskerville. In the
first volume of his edition of Mariana's Historia de Espana,
a letter from the king, Carlos III, is quoted, "who has seen
with special satisfaction the beauty of this edition." Among
other books praised in a contemporary notice^ are Perez de
Guzman's Crbnica del Rey Don Juan //(l779), Pulgar's
Crbnica de los Reyes Catolicos (l780), and Perez Bayer's De
JSi'umis HebrsBo-Samantams (l78l), "which for its beauty
and accuracy has merited the highest eulogies from other

^ Bayer was bora in 1711 and died in 1794.

' Memorial Literario . . . de Madrid, Nov., 1785, p. 363. A short notice of
Monfort and titles of his more important books are given by Ponz in an ac-
count of Valencia in his Fiage de Esfiana, Tliird Edition, Vol. IV, pp. 259,
260 and 288, 289.

SPANISH TYPES: 1500-1800 59

nations." The Mariana and these three books seem to have
been his best achievements.

Gabriel de Sancha, a Madrid printer, did some admir-
able work at this period, and his best books are worth look-
ing at. His Don Quixote, edited by Pellicer, in five volumes
illustrated with copper-plates, was fairly well printed. His
nine- volume edition in duodecimo is desirable on account of
its charming and well-engraved designs. Some of Sancha's
other printing I shall describe in detail — notably his edi-
tion of Solis' Conqmsta de Mexico.

There were also well-made books printed at Madrid by
Ramirez, Marin, the Imprenta Real, and other houses, as
well as by the widow and sons of Ibarra, who carried on
his establishment in the Calle de la Gorguera, after his
death. Among the works executed under their direction was
a very uninspired one-volume edition of the Diccionario de
la lengua Castellana, with the widow's imprint as Impresora
de la Real Academ'ia Espahola. A more creditable example
of their A^^ork is the anonymous Relacion del Ultimo Fiage
al Estrecho de Magallanes (in 1 785—86), a handsome quarto
printed in 1788. The classic work by Mendez, Typographia
Espanola, of which the first volume only was printed, also
appeared wdth the imprint Viuda de Ibarra — a barely re-
spectable piece of typography. There was great activity
among Spanish printers about this time. Robert Southev,
writing from Madrid in 1796, says rather tartly, "Lit-
erature is reviving in Spain. The translation of Sallust by
the King's brother made it fashionable." Coincident with
this revival of printing, a number of Spanish "specimens"
were issued, some of which are of considerable interest.

Printing had been introduced into the New World in 1539.
Jacob Cromburger, who settled in Seville early in the six-

60 PRINTING TYPES

teenth century, was the foremost printer of his period. He
had a son (or brother) Johann, who succeeded in obtaining
an exclusive privilege for printing in Mexico, but to take
effective advantage of it gave him considerable trouble. He
finally sent out from Spain a certain Juan Pablos, who, in
the city of Mexico, in 1539, printed the first American book,
the Doctrina Christiana en la lengiia Mexicana e Castellana.
Antonio Ricardo of Turin, who had settled in Mexico, emi-
grated to Peru, where at Lima he printed in 1584 a leaflet
on the correction of the calendar and a catechism, the latter
being the first book printed in South America proper. Early
Mexican and South American typography was, in the main,
a colonial copy of printing of that period in the Mother
Country. The books bore to the best Spanish printing about
the same relation that American colonial work did to the
English printing of its time. Title-pages in facsimile from
many of these books may be seen by those who are suf-
ficiently curious by looking through Vindel's Bibliograjia
Grafica} The serious student — and he must be very seri-
ous — should look at the books themselves. They had, how-
ever, so little influence on typographical usage in general,
that they are beyond the boundaries of the subject of this
book.

For our first example of a sixteenth century Spanish book
we may take Z)(? las Tahlas y Escalera Spiritual^ a Spanish
translation of the Latin work of St. Juan Climaco, printed

' P. Vindel's two volumes of facsimiles, entitled Bibliografia Grafica, Ma-
drid, 1910, show 1224 reproductions of titles, colophons, portraits, etc., taken
from rare Spanish books, or books in Spanish published elsewhere. The work
contains practically no text and is haphazard in ari-angement, but is valuable
for the light it casts on Spanish printing, especially from 1500 to our own
day. Portugal, South America, and the Philippines are represented, as well as
Spain.

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SPANISH TYPES: 1500-1800 61

in quarto at Toledo by Peter Hagenbach by order of Car-
dinal Ximenez in 1504^ — Hagenbach being printer by ap-
pointment to the Cardinal. It was therefore published under
distinguished auspices. Its title-page bears a coat of arms,
surmounted by a cardinal's hat, and below, in a rich, round,
Spanish gothic letter, is the title in four lines. The rest of
the book is printed in a spirited Spanish black-letter set in
double column — the principal divisions beginning with
handsome block initials with black grounds, and the con-
tents of each division being set in effective lines of large
black-letter {Jig. 224). Running-titles are also composed in
this large type, with folios on right-hand pages only. At
the beginning and end of the book, these large characters
run across the page, giving a very noble effect. The beau-
tiful "texture" of the pages of type makes a very handsome
book — but one which is practically a "fifteener" in gen-
eral style.

A similar black-letter volume — an edition of De la Na-
tura Angelica by Franc. Ximenez (Burgos, 1516) — is inter-
esting because it is an example of the work of Fadrique
de Basilea, a famous printer, and one of the few in Spain
who, in the fifteenth century, used roman type for entire
books. Not so fine as the preceding, it is much the same
in type and arrangement, except that the folios, similarly
placed, are set in enormous capitals which much disfigure
the page.

"George Coci, Aleman," who acquired the Hurus office
about 1506, and whom Haebler calls one of the most cele-
brated printers of the century, issued some good editions
of the classics at Saragossa in the early sixteenth century.

' Of the volumes chosen as examples of sixteenth, seventeenth, and eighteenth
century Spanish printing, some may be found in the Ticknor Collection of
books on Spanish literature in the Boston Public Library, and others in the
Library of Harvard College.

62 PRINTING TYPES

His Livy of 1520 — Las quatorze decadas de Tito Livio —
is magnificent. It contains the first example of "colour
printing," as we now understand it, that I have found in a
Spanish book. The title-page — a huge armorial device
surrounded with the collar of the Golden Fleece — has be-
neath it a scroll on which is the title and "privilege" in five
lines of gothic letter, printed in red. The arms above are
in four colours, black, red, yellow, and green, printed from
wood-blocks. The text appears in a beautiful, rather con-
densed gothic type, closely set {fig. 225). The titles of the
chapters are composed in a larger size of much the same
font. Fine woodcuts extending the full width of the page
are very freely introduced, and accord splendidly with the
type of the book. Haebler calls it one of Coci's most splen-
did productions, and certainly it is a sumptuous perform-
ance — of its kind. All the books printed by Coci that I have
seen are interesting and distinguished.

In another fine book — Pulgar'sii"/ GranCapitan — printed
by Jacob Cromburger at Seville in 1527, much the same
gothic type is used — a little rounder, perhaps — not so well
printed or so finely imposed. The title is very characteris-
tic — a large coat of arms, above three lines of tide and two
lines of "privilege," all set in black-letter — the whole sur-
rounded with rough woodcut borders. On the text pages
{fig. 226), the notes or glosses are set in a smaller size of
gothic type. Many of the Spanish romances of the class of
Amadis de Gaul (for instance, an illustrated small folio edi-
tion of 1535) were printed by Cromburger, and had, typo-
graphically, a finish and richness of appearance in contrast
to like editions by other printers. They deserve careful at-
tention.

These books are good examples of the earlier form of
Spanish volume, and their style survived in certain classes

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SPANISH TYPES: 1500-1800 63

of literature almost through the sixteenth century. All of
them were set in gothic types ; but the earliest type used
in Spain was roman, and the most famous book of the
sixteenth century — the Complutensian Polyglot — largely
employed it.

This, the first Polyglot Bible, the world owes to Cardi-
nal Ximenez, who, to use his own phrase, produced it "to
revive the hitherto dormant study of Holy Scripture." It is
in six folio volumes. In the first volume, the title appears in
medium sizes of Spanish gothic type arranged in an in-
verted pyramid placed at the bottom of the page ; and above
it, printed in red, are the arms of Cisneros surmounted by
a cardinal's hat. At the top of the title-page, which is sur-
rounded with a border of decorative strips of ornament, a
four-line verse appears, in a smaller size of the gothic type
used below. The prologue and introductory matter are set
in a very handsome and Italian roman type, with head-lines
of the fine gothic letter used in the title {Jig. 227). Then
follows the polyglot Pentateuch in five divisions — first,
Hebrew, in the outside column ; second, the Latin Vulgate,
in a narrow column placed in the middle, set in roman; and
on the inside, in irregularly spaced black-letter, a new Latin
translation of the Greek Septuagint, which is printed be-
neath it in a crabbed Greek type. The three versions are
printed parallel to one another, line for line. Short lines in
the Vulgate version are filled out with ornaments made up
of circles, and a similar trick is resorted to in the Hebrew
text. In a block on the inside of right-hand pages is a
Chaldee version in Hebrew characters, and beside it a block
of black-letter Latin translation, left-hand pages reversing
this arrangement. Hebrew and Chaldee roots are given in
the margin. Granted the great difficulty of the problem from
the type-setting point of view, and the necessary variations

64 PRINTING TYPES

of colour of Hebrew, roman, black-letter, and black-letter
with Greek types interlined — not to mention side-notes —
the general solidity of effect is remarkable. Still more re-
markable is the evenness of colour in the presswork. This
first volume completes the Pentateuch.

In the second volume of the Old Testament the page is
made up of three columns of equal length, though of un-
equal width — Hebrew, Latin, and Greek and Latin inter-
lined. The third volume runs on in much the same manner,
except that there is no Hebrew text for certain books ; and
the fourth, similarly arranged, completes the Old Testament
and the Apocrypha — the latter given in two versions only.
Minute letters refer from every word in the Vulgate to
every Hebrew word throughout the Old Testament.^

In the New Testament, which occupies the fifth volume
(though in point of date the first volume printed), no rubri-
cation appears on the title-page, and the text-pages are di-
vided into columns of Greek and Latin — the Latin being
set in roman. In this — the first printed Greek Testament
(though not published until after Froben's 1516 edition,
edited by Erasmus) — ^the wonderful Greek type is what all
Greek type should be in style — a reversion to the fine early
Greek manuscript-hands. It is very open and clear in de-
sign and of a beautifully even strength of line throughout.
Reference is made by small gothic letters above the text
repeated in alphabetical order, from every word in the Greek
text to each word in the Vulgate. While this somewhat dis-
figures the page, it is so cleverly managed that it does not
obtrude itself. To see how the famous Greek types look,
normally printed, one must study such pages as that from
which our illustration is taken {Jig. 228). The sixth volume

' For a detailed account of the Complutensian Polyglot, see J. P. R. Lyell's
Cardinal Ximenes, Illastrated, London, 1917, pp. 24-52.

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a^ o i«<5 c^?? ==^*3 ^ji?^ o ^^'» * CL,^ K a

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CI)

SPANISH TYPES: 1500-1800 65

ends the work with a Hebrew and Chaldee vocabulary,
indexes, etc.

The whole undertaking, which occupied about fifteen
years, was started in 1502, and the printing, begun at Alcala
in 1514, was finished in July, 1517, "by that honourable
man Arnald Guillen de Brocar, master of the art of print-
ing" — as indeed he was. Ximenez died in 1517. Leo X
sanctioned the issue of 600 copies of the work in 1520, but
apparently it was not published until 1522. It cost Ximenez
50,000 gold ducats, to-day equivalent to considerably over
a million dollars. The magnitude of the task, the efficiency
of the plan, the even quality of its execution, make the be-
holder pause. It was a splendid conception, and it was
splendidly carried out.

A book of four hundred or more double-column pages, ru-
bricated on almost every page, is the volume which Haebler
praises so highly, printed by Brocar at Logrofio (where
he also had a press) in 1517. It is a folio edition in black-
letter of Perez de Guzman's Crbnica del Rey Don Juan II,
and is very fine of its kind, though not so fine, in spite of its
lavish use of red ink, as Coci's Livy of 1520 or the books
of the Granada printer Sancho de Nebrija (or Nebrissen-
sis). It was executed by order of Carlos V, to \vhom Brocar
was appointed printer on his first visit to Spain in that
year.

Haebler tells us that a series of books was printed at
Granada by Sancho de Nebrija, "executed with the utmost
accuracy and splendour," between 1533 and 1552. This
printer's books are interesting because of their early and
good use of roman fonts — type clear enough to be perfectly
readable, but without much distinction or beauty. Several
books by the then celebrated grammarian, Antonio de Ne-
brija (otherwise known as Antonio Martinez de Jaravia),

SPANISH TYPES: 1500-1800 67

by Antonio de Nebrija — a small folio printed at Alcala by-
Miguel de EgLiia, successor to Brocar, in 1525, with text in
roman, surrounded with notes set in a nervous and beauti-
fully cut Spanish gothic type — is also of interest, both for
its arrangement — very romantic for a grammar — and its
fine fonts. The same author's edition of Persius, printed at Se-
ville in 1504 by Cromburger, is another instance of text set
in roman, surrounded by notes in an intricate weave of deli-
cate gothic characters. Its title-page (an inscription in roman
capitals in a panel of ornament) is wonderfully handsome.
In the smaller books later printed by Sancho de Nebrija at
Granada, he seems to have relied on roman both for text
and notes ; as in his father's Hymnorum Recognition printed
in 1549. Its title-page — though but a feeble copy of similar
Basle books — and index will repay examination.

One of the few beautiful Spanish books of the late six-
teenth century, printed in a pure and elegant roman type,
was Alvar Gomez de Castro's De Rebus Gestis a Francisco
Ximenio^ Cisnerio — a contemporary life of Cardinal Xime-
nez, still held as a very high authority. This book might
have come from an Italian press, so spirited and delicate is
the roman font used for it, compared with most contempo-
rary Spanish roman fonts, and so simple and elegant is it in
composition and imposition. To be sure, the tide-page bears
a pretentious wood-block, out of keeping with the severity
of the text-pages, and the prefatory matter is obtrusive.
But its simple text-pages are almost Jensonian in their re-
liance upon pure typography for beauty. The book was
printed by Andres de Angulo at Alcala in 1569 {Jig. 230).

§2
The great Spanish book of the seventeenth century, and
of every century since, is Don Qiiixote. The first edition of

68 PRINTING TYPES

the First Part was published by Juan de laCuesta at Madrid
in 1605. It is a square octavo. As to its type-setting, after
some preHminary matter in a dull, heavy roman type, and
in an irregular italic, and the familiar introductory poetry
addressed to Don Quixote and Sancho Panza, arranged al-
ternately in roman and italic, comes the text. This is very
solidly set in the same heavy roman, but is managed most
simply, and I think for that day it was probably considered
a very modern sort of book. The argument of each chapter
is set in italic ; the text, as I have said, in a rough old stjde
roman {Jig. 23 1). When poetry occurs in the text, it is some-
times composed in a pretty and gay sort of swinging italic
letter, sometimes in italic of a more commonplace cut. Each
Book starts with a head-Hne of type ornament, and its text
begins with a large block initial. At the end of the book the
"epitaphs," etc., are set in italic with roman head-lines, and
a table of chapters, chiefly in italic, closes this First Part.

The Second Part, issued at Madrid by the same pub-
lisher in 1615, resembles the First, except that chapter head-
ings are smaller, and poetry is sometimes in single column
in a roman letter like the text, or in double column in a size
of italic slightly smaller. It is a respectable production, —
nothing more, — but more readable than most seventeenth
century editions of novels, which were usually very poorly
printed.^

* The Hispanic Society of America has reprinted in facsimile a number of
rare and interesting Spanish books, the entries in their catalogue of publica-
tions i-unning to some sixty-five titles. Facsimiles are supplied of Juan de la
Cuesta's first Madrid edition of Don Quixote, both first and second parts,
which appeared in 1605 and 1615, respectively. Title-pages of 611 editions
of Don Quixote, extending from 1605 to 1905, are reproduced in facsimile in
Iconografia de las Ediciones del Quijote de Miguel de Cervantes Saavedra
(Barcelona, 1905) . Spanish and Catalan titles alone run to 233 numbers. Al-
most a history of Spanish printing after 1600 can be had by comparing the
different editions from its first publication to the present day.

Cr'"-' rt -^ Oh a '^ w O -^ O O nj d J^ bf)

rt ;> G -^ ^ VH G « O/dS S 0:^ 5 m ^ o

G J-i p-G-Tj'^-^n-J *-»rG^ H O^^ C-!

^ Si y^ !^ S G -q g-;^^ 2 g.R

H ri "^ ^--^ j^ o J-" O G u «3 "^

•^ s ^^ 2 ^ - s ^-^^ .s -i -3 g S g. J ,

;^ S^ ?5 > .S^ o g o o ,.^ t^ ctj ^^ o o 2

Quixote de la Adancha. ij%

prouecho,di en olu jdalla.y fi algo fe me acucrdajC j
aquello del fobajad3,digo del fobcrana fcnora , v lo
Tkimo , vucdro hadala muerte^ cl caualiero de la
trlfte Figura. Y enmedio deflas dos cofas , le oufe
snas de trczientas a!n)as,y vida$,y ojos mios.

Cd^,XXXL De losfklrofos razpnamkntoSi^He pdjfa *
ton entre don Quixote ^y Smcho ^an^afn efcudt-^
sroicon otrosfucejjos,

O D O elTo no me defcontenra , prod*
gue adelanccjdixo don Quixote. LlegaC
te, yquchaziaaquelia rcynadelahef
morura?a buen fegur o,quc la halladc en»
farcandoperlas , obordandoalgunaemprcfa , con
oro de canutil!o,para eQe fu cautiuo caualiero. No
la halle^rcfpondio Sancho^fino ahechando dos anc-
gas de tr jgo,en vn corral de fucafa. Pucs haz cuen-
ea,dixodonQuijcotc,quclo8granosdeaqueitr3go,

erangranosdeperlaSjtocadosdefusmanos. Yfi mi-
rafte amigo,cl trigo era candeal,o crecheHNo era {i
iiorubion,rerpondioSanclio. Pocs yotcaffcguro,
dJxo don Quixote , que ahcchado por fus mano$
hizopancandealjfindudaalguna'.pefopalTaadcIati-
«c, QuandolediOe mi carta bcfola^ Pufofela fobre
la cabe^a^hizo alguna ccremonia,dign3 de is\ carc^f
o que hizo? Quando y o fc la yua a dar^rcfpodio San
,cho, ellaeriauaeniafugadelmeneo , de vnabuena
parte de trigo,quc tenia en la critsa. Y dixome, po*
ncd amigo elTa carta fobre aquel coflal, ^ no la pue •
dblcer hafla que acabe de acriua? todo lo que aqui

Y 4 slial

231. Types used in first edition of Don ^lixote
Juan de la Cuesta^ Madrid^ 1605

SPANISH TYPES: 1500-1800 69

A roughly executed but fine seventeenth century book
is the folio edition of Pedro Salazar de Mendoza's Cronica
de el gran Cardenal de Espaha, Don Pedro Gonzalez de Men-
doga^ printed by Donna Maria Ortiz de Saravia at Toledo in
1625. Arranged in double columns, surrounded and sepa-
rated by rules, it is greatly superior to most books of the
time in its finished effect and unity of conception.

Another more characteristic seventeenth century book —
G. Gonzalez de Avila's Teatro de las Grandezas de la Villa
de Madrid oi 1623 — has an engraved and much overloaded
title-page, followed by an equally elaborate engraved dedi-
cation, in which heraldic arms and a figure of the Blessed
Virgin and Child play a large part; and after the preHm-
inary "approbation" set in roman type, and some italic
which looks very Italian in cut, a dedication follows, Al Rey
Nuestro Senor^ in handsome old style letter. The preface is
set in old style roman type, and then the grandezas of the
city are described in five hundred or more folio pages, gen-
erally in double columns of roman type with italic cap-
tions. Awkward and over-large ornaments appear here and
there. Decorations made up of florets appear occasionally.
The only thing consistent throughout is lack of unity and
taste! — like poor seventeenth century printing everywhere.
The book was issued at Madrid by Tomas Junta, royal
typographer.

Francisco de los Santos' interminable Descripcion breve
del Monasterio de S. Lorenzo el Real del Escorial^ called by
him ''''unica maravilla del mundo'''' (and by others the eighth),
written after the completion of the Pantheon in 1654, was
printed at the Imprenta Real (which I take to be merely a
term) in 1657. This is a like book to the Grandezas^ though
a better one. It is set in a handsome old style roman type
with patches of italic here and there. The presswork, how-

70 PRINTING TYPES

ever, is miserable — most uneven in colour. The translation
of royal bones to their gilt and marble charnel-house —
corona de esta maravilla — and the discourses delivered on
the occasion, close with a touch of horror a respectable and
not very inspiriting piece of printing. A copy of the 1667
edition formed part of the library of Samuel Pepys.

The first edition of Antonio de Solis' Historia de la Con-
quista de Mexico, printed at Madrid by Bernardo de Villa-
Diego, printer to his Majesty, in 1684, is a good example of
a late seventeenth century folio. The title-page, set almost
wholly in various sizes of roman capitals, is surrounded with
a badly printed type-border. Then follow approbations, civil
and religious, among which appear dedications to the King
and the Count of Oropesa, by whose hands (the title-page
tells us) this volume was laid at the Royal Feet. The work
itself is set in double column in a rather fine roman letter,
interspersed with masses of a vivacious condensed italic,
not without charm (Jig. 232). The book, which is a late ex-
ample of many similar volumes, is interesting to compare,
both as to type and arrangement, with Sancha's edition
of Solis, printed at the height of the "revival of printing"
in the reign of Carlos III.

§3

For eighteenth century Spanish printing, our first exam-
ple is a book printed at Madrid in 1726 by Francesco del
Hurio, printer to the Spanish Academy — a folio Diccion-
ario de la lengua Castellana in six volumes.^ Its title-page is

In a set of this Dictionary, given to the Libi-ary of Harvard College in 1767
by Tliomas Hollis, a manuscript note from the donor reads : "This Dictionary
is much esteemed. There are good books in Spanish and I was willing to send
it; that, as the N. Americans, many of them, are likely, more than ever, to
partake of Spanish Wealth, some of them may also partake in Spanish Wis-
dom and Literature."

Dlfictilta'
its de la
Hiftortagi-

HISTORIA

DE LA CONQVISTA,

POBLACION,Y PROGRESSOS
D E L A

AMERICA SEPTENTRIONAL,

CONOCIDA POR EL NOMBR.E
DE NUEVA ESPANA,

LIBRO PRIMERO.

CAPITVLO PRIMERO.

MOTIFOS, QVE OBLIGAN A TENER POR

mceJfariOique fe dhida en diferentes partes laHifioria

de las Indiasypara que^ueda comprehenderfe,

feverando en efle animofo dic-
tamen,Io que tardo en defcu-
brirfela dilicultad , hemos lei-
do5Con diligente obfervacion,
lo que antes , y defpues de fus
DecadaS) efcrivleron de aque-
llos Defcubrimientosjy Con-
quiftas,diferentesPlunaas natu-
XalesjVeftrangerasjpero como
A ias

??/a^^51§Vro algunos dias
en nueftra incli-
nacion, el inten-
to de continuar
laHHloriaGene-
raldelas Indias Occidentales,
que dexo el Chronifta Antonio
de Herrera,en el aiio 1 5 j 4. de
la Reparacion Humana.Y per-

232. Opening of Soils' Conqidsta de Mexico {frst edition)
Villa- Diego, Madrid, 1684 {reduced)

SPANISH TYPES: 1500-1800 71

set in twenty-two lines of type, of which no less than ten
are rubricated, and the name of Philip V (to whom it is
dedicated) is as large as Diccionario — the first word of the
title.^ This page is bordered with type ornaments, in red
and black — a fashion much copied in colonial Spanish
printing. All its prefatory matter is composed in various
sizes of good, but rough, old style roman and italic, and the
Dictionary itself is set in a smaller font which is pleasant in
feehng. In the main, it is a sober, solid piece of work; but the
woodcut head-pieces and common, ornamented initials em-
ployed are ugly, and the presswork is of varying degrees of
badness.

Perez de Soto of Madrid produced between 1760 and
1770 a work that was then, and still is, thought a great
achievement in scholarly printing — Casing BibliofhecaAra-
bico-Hispana Escurialensis. Miguel Casiri was librarian of
the Escorial, and this is a catalogue of the Arabic works in
that Hbrary. It was printed in Latin and Arabic, in two
volumes folio, at the expense of the Crown by Soto, who
was printer by royal appointment. The roman and italic
types used for the preface and text of this book — though
much tried by too rough a paper — are remarkably beau-
tiful, and appear to be the texto shown by Bordazar in his
Plantijicacion of 1732. The Arabic characters accord de-
lightfully in colour with the roman types. In spite of sprawl-
ing head-pieces and ill-managed preliminary matter, the
work is a wonderfully able piece of printing.

Of Joachin Ibarra's work, I describe first his Sallust —
Cayo Salustio Ciispoen Espanol — translated from the Latin
by the Infante Don Gabriel Antonio de Borbon, second son

' Placing the dedication on the title-page was a characteristic of many eigh-
teenth century Spanish books. To honour the patron, his name was usually
printed in very large letters, which sometimes overpowered the title of the
volume.

72 PRINTING TYPES

of Carlos III. It was printed in 1772 and vividly recalls
Bodoni's early manner. The title-page is entirely engraved;
and besides a few full-page plates there are some hand-
some engraved head and tail-pieces and initials designed
by the court painter Maella and others, which are agreeably
combined with type. The Prologue is set in a very calli-
graphic italic, the Life in a beautiful font of roman — both
fonts produced by Antonio Espinosa. The Spanish text of
the book is set in the same beautiful clear italic, in a larger
size, which has still more the look of writing. Beneath each
page of translation the Latin text appears, set in a small
roman letter in double column. It is very even in composi-
tion, if we allow for the spaces necessary for the figures for
notes ; though an odd feature is the equal space before and
after commas, semicolons, and colons — a trick common,
however, in contemporary work {Jig. 233). At the end of
two hundred and eighty-eight pages of text come notes,
a treatise on the language of the Phoenicians by Perez
Bayer,^ and an index — these being set in double column,
in a small, clear, old style roman type. Now this all sounds
very simple — and it is; but as we turn page after page of
this distinguished, lively, easily read italic and massive ro-
man, we see how magnificent pure typography was made
at an unexpected moment and place. It is really the beauty
of these two fonts of type that, above all, makes such a won-
derfully beautiful book. Like all great printing, it looks as
if it could not have been planned in any other way; and like
all great art, it appears so simple that only after seeing it
repeatedly do we realize how fine it is. One hundred and
twenty large-paper copies were printed on a rich, creamy,
hand-made paper. Almost all of these were given away by

My own copy is one which was given by Bayer to a certain William Conyng-
ham.

^ ^ ^

I:: ^ "^

^
^

ru ^

^
<ii
'U

^
^

^ S^ ^ ^

^ o
5 "^ ^

§ § .^

t/i •• J

i^ '^ '^ ^

(;^ ^ t:s «S

^ ^ o

S; **^ r^ ^

1 ^^ r^

2 r:i So

v3 '"^ 5v

5:* >-i to \) w^3 -^

fi^^

^.2

l55

SPANISH TYPES: 1500-1800 73

the translator, Don Gabriele, to the Royal Family, friends at
court, persons of distinction, or learned institutions. He sent
one to Franklin, then envoy to France, who (very character-
istically) sent him in return the Proceedings of the Amer-
ican Congress! The Sallust is one of the finest volumes
produced in any country during the eighteenth century —
though it could have been printed in this particular style
only in Spain.

Of Ibarra's excellent editions of Don Quixote, there were
three, all illustrated with copper-plates — that of 1771, in
four volumes octavo ; of 1780, in four volumes quarto ; and
of 1782, in four volumes octavo. Of these the 1780 "Acad-
emy Edition" was the most important — indeed, according
to an authority^ on editions o^ Don Quixote, "the finest edi-
tion which Spain has produced and perhaps altogether the
most estimable one we have." Ford, in his delightful dis-
quisition on the book— ^ too little known — speaks of this edi-
tion, saying, "the finest, that V/(? lujo^ was published for the
Academy of Madrid by Ibarra, and no grand library should
be without it."^ Ponz mentions as in process, in his account
of the Academia Espanola, "a magnificent edition which
is to be a definitive one, executed by the Academy under
Royal patronage."^ "There is now in hand," wrote Henry
Swinburne, who visited Spain in 1776, "an edition o{ Don
Quixote, with prints taken from the original drawings of the
dresses and landscapes of the country, which has employed
all the best engravers for some time past. . . . This work
. . . does great honour to the editors and printers. . . . The
works of Calderon have been lately reprinted ; and a new

' C. R. Ashbee.

* Ford's Guide-Book to Travellers in Sfiain, London, 1845, Vol. I, pp. 314
et seq.

' Ponz's Viage de Esfiana, Madrid, Ibarra, 1776, Tomo Quinto, p. 176.

74 PRINTING TYPES

edition of Lopez de la Vega, on excellent paper, and with
very fine types, is in great forwardness : Printing seems of
late to be the branch they most excel in." ^

Of the "Academy Edition" in quarto, the first volume
opens with a simple title-page set entirely in roman capi-
tals, without engraved decoration {Jig. 234). The compli-
cated preliminary matter — that introductory to the actual
book, and the preface, poetry, etc., which form part of Don
Quixote — is managed with delicacy and restraint, and with
an entire absence of fussiness. As to type, the opening parts
and text are set in a kind of modernized old style roman
and italic {Jig. 235). Where poetry occurs in the text, it is
set in italic, as are the "arguments" to chapters. All the type
used in the book hangs together wonderfully, and the fonts
are so full of colour, and so original and lively in cut, that
they seem like the work of a man unhampered by profes-
sional and mechanical traditions. They were of Spanish de-
sign, being made by Geronimo Gil for the printing-house
of the Biblioteca Real, and loaned to the Academy for this
edition. The roman appears to be the atanasia gorda en texto
of the Real Biblioteca specimen of 1787.

Engraved head-bands, head-pieces, and tail-pieces orna-
ment the Prologo de la Academia and the text, but otherwise
the book is severely plain, except for a portrait and many
full-page plates designed and engraved — like the more
agreeable decorations — by Spanish artists. Though well
executed, these large plates are somewhat stiff and academic
in design. The paper used for this edition is a creamy linen
(made for it at the paper mills of Joseph Florens in Cata-
lufia); the ink a vivid black; the presswork clear and re-
markably even, and the imposition of the pages easy and

Swinburne's Tra-vels through S/iain, in the Years 1775 and 1776 (second
edition), London, 1787, Vol. II, p. 203.

EL INGENIOSO HIDALGO

DON QUIXOTE

DE LA MANCHA

COMPUESTO
POR MIGUEL DE CERVANTES SAAVEDRA.

NUEVA EDICION

CORREGIDA

POR LA REAL ACADEMIA ESPASTOLA.

PARTE PRIMERA.
TOMO I

CON SUPERIOR PERMISO:

EN MADRID

POR DON JOAQUIN IBARRA IMPRESOR DE CAMARA DE S, M.

Y DE LA REAL ACADEMIA.

MDCCLXXX.

234. Title-page of Academy Edition of Don Quixote
{reduced^

DON Q.UIXOTE PE LA MANCHA

tan llnda carta como aquella. ^Y tienesia todavia en la me-
moria , Sancho? dixo Don Qiilxote. No senor , respon-
dio Sancho , porque despues que la di , como vi que no
habia de ser de mas provecho , di en olvidalla : y si al-
go se me acuerda , es aquello del sobajada , digo del 6b-
berana Senora ^ y lo ultimo : Viiestro hasta la muertCy
El Cahallero de la Triste Figura : y en medio destas
dos cosas le puse mas de trecientas almas , y vidas ^ y
ojos mios.

CAPITULO XXXI.

T)e los sabrosos razonamientos que pasdron entre

Don Qidxote y Sancho Panza sic esciideroy

con otros sucesos.

odo eso no me descontenta, prosigue adelante , dixo
Don Qiiixote. Llegaste ^y que hacia aquella Reyna de
la hermosura? A buen seguro que la hallaste ensartan-
do perlas , 6 bordando alguna empresa con ore de canu-
tillo para este su cautivo caballero. No la halle ^ respon-
dio Sancho , sino ahechando dos hanegas de trigo en un
corral de su casa. Pues haz cuenta , dixo Don Qiiixote^
que los granos de aquel trigo eran granos de perlas to-
cados de sus manos : y si miraste , amigo ^ el trigo era
candealj 6 trechel? No era sino rubion, respondio San-
cho. Pues yo te aseguro , dixo Don Qiiixote , que ahe-
chado por sus manos hizo pan candeal sin duda alguna;
pero pasa adelante : quando le diste mi carta ^besola? ^pii-
sosela sobre la cabeza? ^hizo alguna ceremonia digna de
tal carta? {6 que hizo? Quando yo se la iba a dar, res-
pondio Sancho , ella estaba en la fuga del meneo de una
buena parte de trigo que tenia en la criba , y dixome;

235. Types used in Academy Edition of Don ^lixote: Ibarra, Madrid, 1780

{.reduced)

SPANISH TYPES: 1500-1800 75

distinguished. As a whole, excepting, perhaps, the full-page
plates, everything prophesied of this edition, or said about
it on its completion, is true. And this, the finest edition of
Do77 Quixote that has ever been printed, was wholly the
product of Spanish skill.

Two years later (1782), Ibarra published his pretty
"reading edition" in four octavo volumes, printed from a
somewhat modelled old style type, very straightforwardly
arranged, and ornamented by many pleasant copper-plates.
It is an example of what might be called Ibarra's quieter
work.

The four noble volumes of Nicolas Antonio's Bibliotheca
Hispana, Vetus et JVova, dealing with the works of Spanish
authors from the time of Augustus to 1684, were begun
by Ibarra at Madrid about 1783 and finished by his widow
in 1788. They are in folio and printed throughout in a series
of workmanhke old style fonts. These dignified pages, so
practical in arrangement, are well imposed and printed on
a fine rough linen paper. They are undecorated save for the
heraldic trophies on the title-pages, and in the second series
(JVova) an occasional engraved head-piece and initial, which
do not add to the effect. The first two volumes are among
the soberest and most satisfactory of Ibarra's editions —
though the preliminary matter (as usual with this printer)
is not as well handled as the text itself. The second part of
the work was edited by Perez Bayer, who had a hand in so
many of the great typographical and literary undertakings
of that day.

Sancha's imprints show a general tendency to copy
contemporary French work, and such books as Malo de
Lugue's Establecimientos U Itramamios de las Naciones Eu-
ropeas of 1784, in five volumes, might easily be mistaken for
a French edition of a little earlier date. Its text is very simply

76 PRINTING TYPES

arranged in leaded old style types, with plain old style let-
ters for initials, printed on good paper, with ample margins
— a very satisfactory " library edition." Las Eroticas^ y Tra-
duccion de Boecio, by Villegas, brought out in 1774, are
pretty volumes — for Spain — and the engraved title-pages,
with doves, clouds, garlands, torch, and lyre, remind us of
attractive Parisian volumes of poetry by fashionable ver-
sifiers. The simple pages of poetry, without decorations,
strike a comparatively modern note {Jig. 236). Sancha pub-
lished many such agreeable books.

To see the progress that printing made in this Spanish
revival, compare Villa-Diego's edition of Solis' Historia de
la Conquista de Mexico^ issued at Madrid in 1684 {jig. 232),
with Sancha's beautiful quarto edition of the same book,
printed under distinguished patronage, also at Madrid,
in 1783 {jig. 237). This is still considered the great edi-
tion of Solis' work. The types used are frankly old style,
and of these the larger sizes are the best. Introductory mat-
ter fills fifty pages, and this prefatory material is divided into
eleven sections. To arrange it successfully, as Sancha has
done, would tax the ingenuity of any printer. On arriving
at last at the History, how fine it is ! The first page is faced
by a portrait of Cortes after Titian; the opening page is
really ornamented by its engraved head-piece and initial;
the type of the text is a large, beautiful old style, printed on
laid paper in a sharp, brilliant impression. A series of twenty-
four delightful and rather ingenuous full-page engravings
designed by Josef Ximeno are scattered through the work,
each Book of which begins with an engraved head-piece
and ends with a tail-piece. The engraved lettering beneath
the full-page plates shows how magnificent was the style
of calligraphy which still survived in Spain. This vol-
ume, which Sir William Stirling Maxwell called "the tri-

(2 38)

MONOSTROPHE XXXV.

A JOVE.

YO apostar6 que es Jove
aquel toro, muchacha ,
que i la SIdonia Ninfa
se lleva en las espaldas.
El denodadamcnte
los hondos mares nada,
y presuroso hiende
. las ondas con sus patas :
y ^ no ser el , no hubiera
toro que de las vacas
asi dejara el pucsto ,
ni el Ponto asi nadara,

MONOSTROPHE XXXVL

DEL VIVIR REGALADO.

DE retores maestros
peritos y elegantes
^que nne ensenan las reglas^

1 que las necesidades ?

2 De que tantas arengas
que persuadan facil ,

$i ninsuna me vuelve

^ dul-

236. Type used by A. de Sancha^ Madrid^ 1774

HISTORIA

DE LA CONdUISTA, POBLACION

Y PROGRESOS DE LA AMERICA

SEPTENTRIONAL,

CONOCIDA FOR EL NOMBRI DE NUEVA ESPANA.

L I B R O I.
CAPITULO PRIMERO.

MOTJVOS QUE OBLIGAN A TENER

for necesario que se divida en diferentes partes
la Historia de las Indias , far a que fueda com-
frehenderse,

\\ Uro akunos dias en nuestra incllnacion Dificuitades

X, O . 1 TT' • 1 delaHlscO'

el intento de contmuar la Historia general ria general
de las Indias occidentales, que dexo el cro
nista Antonio de Herrera en el ano mil

quinientos cincuenta y quatro de la Reparacion hu-

TOM. I. A

237. Opening of Soils' Conquista de Mexico
Sancha, Madrid, 1783 {reduced)

SPANISH TYPES: 1500-1800 77

umph of the press of Sancha," much increases one's respect
for him.

Benito Monfort's edition of Juan de Mariana's Historia
General de Espaha, printed at Valencia in two quarto vol-
umes in 1783, is a really fine book, though far less elegant
and studied than Sancha's Mexico. The title-page, with its
brilliant copper-plate heraldic vignette, is effective, though
its mixture of sizes and kinds of types is not worthy of the
text-pages. A prospectus of the work (which was published
by subscription) alludes to the encouragement that Carlos
III gave to printing, as one of the means of its publica-
tion. For it appears that the King — "to encourage an art
and business which so greatly contributes to general cul-
ture, to the promotion of science, and to useful knowledge"
— permitted Monfort to reprint it in spite of some legal ob-
stacles; His Majesty having also in mind the reestablish-
ment of printing-houses that had formerly existed in al-
most all Spanish cities, in many of w hich the industry
had died out. Twelve pages of subscribers' names, which
attest the results of this prospectus, are followed by a pro-
logue, an account of Mariana and his works, notes thereto,
etc. This preliminary matter is not successfully managed,
but the text itself, in a good, modelled, late eighteenth cen-
tury old style font, is well arranged and very handsome.
The paper and ink are excellent, the imposition most ele-
gant, and as a whole it is a successful piece of printing.

Monfort's 1779 edition of Perez de Guzman's Crbnica de
Don Juan II is a readable folio. The title-page, to be sure,
is a wretched mixture of shaded, decorated, and plain
roman capitals, with italic added thereto; but the simple
pages of text, set in double column, with chapter heads in
roman capitals, and the argument of each chapter in italic,
are dignified in effect; the presswork is fair, the paper de-

78 PRINTING TYPES

lightful. The same printer's edition of Pulgar's Civnica de
los Reyes CatbUcos of 1780 shows progress, and has a much
better and simpler title-page. It is ornamented here and
there with copper-plates, evidently of Spanish origin. The
text is arranged much as the Jiian II. The type in both
books is a very Spanish-looking early "old style," though
the hand-made paper on which it is printed makes it look
rougher than it is. Where they go to pieces is in the intro-
ductory and "displayed" typography.

The book most quoted as an example of Monfort's print-
ing is Perez Bayer's learned Latin work on Hebrew-Sa-
maritan coins — De JVumis Hehrmo-Samantams — a quarto
printed in 1781. The type is about fourteen-point in size,
well leaded, with some Hebre^v introduced. The notes are
set in smaller type, in double column, at the bottom of the
page. Here and there, small engraved plates of coins are in-
serted in the text with great taste. There are also a few full-
page plates. The book ends w ith notes, set in a handsome
roman type, and an index {^fig. 238).

It is easy to understand why this piece of printing had
great reputation at that day. In the first place, the types
(the texto of the specimen shown in Bordazar's Plantijica-
cion\ beautifully displayed by Latin, are of severe classical
form and lighter in effect than most types used in Spain at
that time. They have, especially lines set in capitals, a noble
"inscriptional" quality, and all that Monfort had to do to
make a masterpiece was to stick to them! But he lacked
the courage and taste to do this in the preliminary matter.
Then, too, the engraved initial, head-piece, etc. — attractive
enough in themselves — have nothing to do with these dig-
nified types. On the other hand, it is in conception im-
mensely ahead of its time in its typographical harmony
with the serious scholarship of Bayer's work. With the ex-

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SPANISH TYPES: 1500-1800 79

ception of the first twelve or fourteen pages, it is as classi-
cal in feeling as any Spanish volume I have come upon —
except Alvar Gomez' life of Cardinal Ximenez, printed more
than two hundred years earlier {Jig. 230).

This roman was employed seven years before in Yriarte's
Oljras Sueitas, published at the expense of his friends, and
honoured by subscriptions from the Infantes Gabriel, An-
tonio, and Luis. It is a most beautiful piece of printing, and
one of the very best examples of the Spanish revival. The
delicate but virile roman, with an italic superior in style to
that used in the De Afiimis, its exquisite paper, ample, well-
disposed margins, and the great reserve of arrangement
make a distinguished book, and one of classical effect. This
came from the press of Francisco Manuel de Mena, of
Madrid, in 1774, and suggests how much good work was
being done in Spain, at that moment, by printers whose
names are forgotten (Jig. 239).

Good examples of eighteenth century luxurious printing
of a more ephemeral kind are the pamphlets for the Span-
ish Academy on gala occasions — orations on marriages of
the royal family printed by the "Imprenta"of that body ; An-
tonio Marin's distinguished brochure recording the open-
ing of the Academy of San Fernando (1752); "relations"
of the distribution of prizes for the same Academy, printed
by Gabriel Ramirez in 1754, 1755, and 1756, including
some admirably arranged verse ; the Address of the Acad-
emy on the accession of Carlos III, by Perez de Soto ; and
similar examples of work by Ibarra. Almost all of these are
carefully executed from old style types, some fine of their
kind, and embellished (to use the word of that day) with
handsome copper-plate decorations, intended to resemble
the similar engravings in current French books.

It is because this eighteenth century revival is so little

80 PRINTING TYPES

known, and its work is so individual and so good, that I have
described at some length a number of its best books. I am
tempted to say that, as a class, Spanish books show the most
characteristically national typography of Europe. Yet, al-
though this seems so, I think it is chiefly because we are
so unfamiHar with them that their peculiarities strike us
freshly; whereas our eyes are accustomed to the equally
strong national traits latent in French or Italian books of
corresponding periods. However this may be, Spanish typog-
raphy has its stately charm; though its primitive and un-
compromising character may not be fully realized until —
amid a collection of old Spanish books — one comes across
some elegant French version of a Spanish classic.^ This
brings us back to European printing with a start, and makes
the old saying that "Europe ends at the Pyrenees" seem for
a moment true. But — cosas de Espana! — there are those
who love things Spanish, and I am among the number. For
those who do not, in the phrase of Cervantes, "Patience, and
shuffle the cards ! "

THE eighteenth century Spanish "specimens" to be
considered in closing this chapter are those of Espi-
nosa, 1771; a Barcelona specimen of the Convento de S.
Joseph of 1777; the first Real Biblioteca specimen of 1787;
the Pradell specimen of 1793; Ifern's book of 1795; and
that of the Imprenta Real of 1799 — all (except the second)
issued at Madrid.

The first book is entitled Muestras de los Caracteres que
sejiinden por direccion de D. Antonio Espinosa de los Mon-
teros y Abadia^ Acadejnico de la Real de San Fernando^ uno

* For instance, D'Herberay's Amadis de Gaul, in four volumes, folio, printed
by Groulleau at Paris, for V. Sertenas, in 1548.

Sordidulus salccirij non sordldus. Ire per urbem,
Huic summo pede subsulcim per compita eundunia
Librandusque levis justo moderamine salens.
Olii posterior maneat pes pensilis , anceps
Incertusquc vix, donee responsa prioris
Accipiat. Non si Statics coram advocet artem
Sic alcerna pedum vestigia temperet, ut cot
Impuras lustrare queat pede virgine sordes.
Dexcera si baculum gescat de more ministrum,
Infido veluti m oderans in flumine cymbam,
Navita prudenci vada ten tat inhospita cento
Soliicitus , fundoque latentia saxa maligno,
Parvuia ne sc epulis pereat faiiacibus Argo:
Non aliter baculo caucus rimare sagaci
Stagnantis vada c^ca viae , luteasque paludes
Sedulus explora , sitne alto in gurgite fundus,
Ne temere instabili credas vestigia limo,
Ne cedente solo;, tacitaque repente ruina
Tibia, sura, genu tumulentur mersa barathro.
Nimirum quodcunque premunc vestigia, complent
Stercora , sordidiusque ipso vel stercore cosnum.
Pestiferis scratam cumulis inveneris urbem:
lUuvie latet omne solum , nee scrupulus extat
Sorde carens. Hinc congestis via squallida surgit,
Faecibus, hinc foe dis putret intersecta lacunis.

239. Page from Triarte's Ohras Sueltas: Mena^ Madrid^ 1774

SPANISH TYPES: 1500-1800 81

de sus primeros Pensionados, en Matrices hechas enteramente
por el mismo^ con Punzones^ que igualmente prosigne traba-
jando hasta concluir un surtido completo. It shows a series of
slightly condensed old style types which are remarkable
in one respect — that roman characters in some cases, and
italic in all, have an extraordinary quality of pen-work.
The italic — i.e.^ that used in the prefatory address /^recd-f/-
ing the title-page ^jig. 240) — the texto gordo and its cnr-
siva {Jigs. 241 and 242), texto en Atanasia cursiva^ cursiva
de letura chica {Jig. 243), and the curious entredos {Jig. 244),
are not altogether pleasant in effect, but they are among the
most thoroughly calligraphic characters to be found in any
existing specimen-book; and, too, they are very Spanish
letters. The italic of the parangona Salustiana is that used in
Ibarra's Sallust, though so badly printed as to be almost
unrecognizable. Spain is writ large on every page of this vol-
ume, in types, ornaments, and their arrangement — though
the borders on some of the pages are copies of Baskerville's
and Fournier's type "flowers."

The second specimen is entitled Muestra de los Carac-
tei'es que se hallan en la Fabrica del Convenio de S. Joseph^
Barcelona. Por el Ho. F. Pablo de la Madre de Dios^ Religioso
Carm. Des.^ 1777 — a title-page the arrangement of which
is a copy of the title-page in Bodoni's Parma specimen
of 1771 — in turn modelled on a title in Fournier's earlier
Manuel. This rare little 32mo specimen is interesting for its
showing of ancient black-letter types which were employed
in early Spanish printing — Muestra de los Caracteres que se
iisaron en las Impresiones Antiguas de Espana — of which
two sizes are reproduced on an earlier page {Jig. 220).
The larger is somewhat pointed, though not as much so as
many other Spanish gothic types: the smaller is a rounder
letter and perhaps resembles the Spanish equivalent of the

82 PRINTING TYPES

lettre de somme — in Spain called letra de Tortis} The roman
and italic types in the book are old style of the usual kind,
though here and there fonts appear which are somewhat
calligraphic in appearance. The eleven pages of borders or
vinetas are, most of them, Spanish renderings of French
designs. The book (dedicated to Carlos III) was evidently
printed by some one famihar with Fournier's style of type-
setting.

In the volume of Ponz's Fiage de Espana devoted to
Madrid, the author, in his account of the Real Biblioteca,
says that it is much to be hoped that the works of national
writers will be published under the direction of the Royal
Library when the Imprenta Real is actually established, as
it shortly will be by the King's instruction; the principal
difficulty — that of obtaining suitable matrices — having
been overcome. Ponz adds that these have been engraved
with the utmost perfection by Don GeronimoGil, and that
specimens of them have been submitted to the King by Don
Juan de Santander, chief librarian. The volume in which
this passage occurs, Ibarra published in 1776.^ Allowing
for the leisurely deliberation \\ ith 'which the development
of type-cutting ambled along in Spain, perhaps eleven
years was not a long period to wait for a specimen of the
types themselves. Ibarra had already used some of them
(loaned by the Real Biblioteca) in his quarto Academy edi-
tion of Don Quixote issued in 1780. It was not until 1787

^ Letra de Tortis — probably derived from the name of a Venetian printer,
Battista de Tortis, who largely employed it. Other forms of Spanish black-
letter were called — according to Mendez — Bula, Antigua, Gothica, For-
mata, Veneciana, Lernosina, and de Calderilla. For explanation of these
names see the notice of Del Lnfiresor Bautista de Tortis in Mendez' Tyfio-
grafihia Es/ianola, Madrid, 1796, pp. 385 et seq.

Fiage de Esfiana, Madrid, Ibari-a, 1776, Tomo Quinto, p. 174. This was
the work which the French are said to have used as a guide in looting objects
of art durinsr the Peninsular War.

t^ypttiy Setter futo j remtio lasctd"
Jtuiias niaesiras ae los iamarios
de> lei rev atte /lasicv e/ presenie.
ienao cerrteuies en int [Ptuiaicion^
G/ arado mcts peaae/io ^ a tie co-
mtuinieriie clania/i Z/r o/npa re^ /i^
tfe esia^ acava/iao ac jiaidcr pcira
el tiitevo re'zaao y pero camo poco
tistcal en nttesiras Xmpretiias y se
aexct SIC jutcesirapara ctLctnao sal-
^a/i lasae lypttsal ^ Vctraria&fia y
o£tctnasia ^ y JSrebtaLrco ^ atce^
aisctirro y sietiao cZ)tosservtao ^sal
arati per el rifi ae esie ci/io ^
ac&tnpctriaacts y a si aestis respcc-

240. Italic in Prefatory Address: Espinosa''s Muestras de los
Caracteres^ etc.^ Madrid^ 1771

TEXTO GORDO.

N este manuscrko tenemos un exem-
plo SLimamente persuasivo de quan
necesaria es la critica para hacer juicio de
los libros ; y de que para leer con utilidad
algunos , es menester haver leido muchos.
Qualquiera que tuviese no mas que una
^ superficial noticia de este manuscrko , 6 el |(j|^
que le leyese , sin mas noticias de su asun-
to , que las que hallase en el , tendria , a
su parecer , un argumento demonstrativo
de que las Artes Magicas se ensenaron pu-
blicamente en lasEscuelas de Toledo*, y v|
Cordoba : porque , ya se ve , que pmeba
mas clara , que un manuscrko de notoria
^^ antiguedad , en que el mismo Autor con-
^p fiesa , que sabe la Nigromancia : que la es-
tudio en Toledo : que en el mismo libro
^ propone ensenar al Mundo cosas arcanas,
que le ensenaron los Espiritus ; y en fin,
que nombra los Maestros , que en su tiem-
po ensenaban en Toledo , y Cordoba
las Artes Magicas ?

:?^'2s

241. Texto Gordo (roman): Espinosa's Muestras^ etc.^ Madrid^ 1771

CURSIFA DE TEXTO GORDO.

TTJiV qiianto al Alitor d'lgo , que no pudo
JUjI scrh el que suena ; esto es , sugeto con-
tempordneo dc algimos de los Maestros , que M
no/nbra, no liuvo tal FirgUio Corduhense en k^
el Mundo , 6 si le hiivo , no fiie Alitor del nia-
nuscrlto en question -^ 6 silo fiie , el tal FirgUio pi,
^ Corduhense era tin homlre ignorantisinio , y men- ^^
tirosisinio. Dicese conteniporaneo de Avicena , y {
de Abenrroiz^ que nosotros llamamos Aver roes ; y ^
^ asimisino supone contempordneos a estos dos Ali-
tor es , lo que estd muy lexos de ser verdad , piies \.
, Avicena florecio a los principios del sigh un- pli
^ decimo , y Averroes a los fines del duodecimo',
I de modo , que precedio casi dos siglos el prime-
'^. ro al segundo, Mas : Refiere que Avicena en- ^^
||J send en Cordoba, Esto es cierto que otros mil- Wp
^ I chos lo dicen , y aiin qiiefue Espanol por naci- ij
^i miento ; pero tambien es cierto , que no solo .no ]^.
^ file Espanol , /;/ ensem en Cordoba , mas ni en- In-'
tro jamas en ESPANA^ ni aim se acerco I
^1 a siis vccindades : de que hace evidcncia
^'i B, Nicolas Antonio,

242. Texto Gordo {italic): Espinosa's Muestras, etc., Madrid, 1771

CVRSIFA DE LETURA CHICA.

Bt eUvavlt manum fuam fupcr eos : nt projlermret cos in dc-
ferto : Et ut dei'icem semn eorum in Nationibus , <i^ difperge-
ret eos in regionibus. Et imdatifunt Bedphegor , & comederunt
facrificia mortuorum. Et irritavcrunt eum in adumntionibiis suis,
& multiplicata ejl in eis ruina. Et Jletit Phinees , ^ placavit,
cycejjavit quajfatio. Et rcpuldtum cjl ei in jufitiam, in gene-
rationm & generationem ufque in fempiternitm. Et irritavcrunt
eum ad Aquas contradiciionis : & vexatus ejl Moyses propter
eos : quia exacerba-verunt fpiritum ejw. Et dijlinjcit inlabiis suis:
non difperdidcrunt gentes , quas dixit Dominus ilils. Et commlf-
ti funt inter gentes , & didicerunt opera corutn : i^ servierunt
fculptilibus eorum : & faclum ejl illis in fcandalum, Et im-
tnolaverunt flios fuos , & filias fuas dcctnomh. Et efuderunt
fangulnem innoccntem : sanguinem filicrum fuorum ib' JUiarum
Juarum , quas facrificaverunt fculptilibus Chanaan, Et infecla
ejl terra in Jangtiinibus , & contaminata ejl in opcribus eorum:
cjy Jormcati funt in adinventionibus fuis. Et iratus cjl furore Do-
minus in populumjuum : et abominatus ejl herediiatem Juam. Et
tradidit eos in manus gentium : dr dominatijunt eorum qui ode-
runt eos. Et tribulaverunt eos inimici eorum , & humiliati Junt
fub manibus eorum : Jccpe liber avit eos. Ipji am em exacerbave-
runt eum in conJiUoJuo , & humiliati sunt in iniqmtatibus suis.
Et vidit cum trlbularcntur , & audivit orationem eorum. Et me-
mor fuit tcjlamenti sui , & poenituit eum secundum multitudi-
nem misericordia: sued. Et dedit eos in miscricordlas in conspeclu
omnium qui ceperant eos. Salvos nos Jac Vominc Deus noster.
et congrega nos de Nationibus : Ut conftcatnur nomini sanclo tuo:
et gloriemur in laude tua. Benedicius Dominus Deus Israel a
sc^culo et usque in sceculum : et dicct omnis populus : Fiat ^fiat.

ABCDEFGHI^Z

243. Italic of Letura Ch'ica: Espinosa' s Muestras., etc., Madrid^ 1771

OTRO ENTREBOS.

Primera prueha.
.K^adix omnium bonorum eft charitas , & radix omnium
maloi-um eft cupiditas^ & simul ambs esse non possunt , quia
nisi una radicitus ewilsa non fuerit ^ alia plantari non potest.
Sine causa aliquis conatur ramos incidere ^ si radicem non con-
tendit evellere. Habere omnia facramenta ^ & malus qssq
^i' potest ; habere autem charitatem ., & malus &ssq non poteft.
!Non numerositas opemm ^ non diuturnitas temporum , sed
major charitas meliorque voluntas auget meritum. Nam quod
patet ., & quod latet in divinis codicibus ., tenet ^ qui charita-
tem servat in moribus. Sola charitas eft, quae vincit omnia &
sine qua nihil valent omnia , 8c quK vbicumque fuerit , trahit
ad se omnia. Scientia si sola sit , inflat , quia vero charitas
sedificat , scientiam non permittit inflari. Charitas eft ad^io
redtitudinis , oculos semper habens ad Deum , glutinum ani-
marum, societas fidelium, otio non frigida , adlione non frac-
ta , non fugax , non audax , non prasceps.

Las mas exquisitas producciones de la Prensa se
hcrmosean 'ij enriquecen con las del Euril ^ anjudan-
do d la memoi'ia ^ 'if a la comprension ^ delineados con
espiritoso ademan los Hei'oes ^ n/ personaliiadas las pas-
mosas ocurrencias- de sus mas singulares acetones. Los
Gabmetes de los Erud'itos no jncndigan otros adornos^
que los que ahundantemente tributa el Grabado en
Mapas Geograjicos ., '^ ^4stronomicos ^ 6 en Tablas Cro-
nologicas ., para registrar n/ medir la anchurosa capact-
dad del Mundo ^ la admirable immensidad de las Esfe-
ras ^ y las puntuales Epocas del tiempo •> sin apartarss
de la quiet ud de su do^o retire ,

244. Entredos {roman cmd italic): Espinosas Muestras^etc.
Madrid, 177 \

SPANISH TYPES: 1500-1800 83

that a specimen-book appeared, entitled Muestras de los
Niievos Punzones y Matrices para la Letra de Imprenta exe-
cutados por Orden de S. M. y de su Caudal destinado a la Do-
tacion de su Real Biblioteca. These were probably all cut b}'
Geronimo Gil, though no supporting statement is made ex-
cept on the first page, where we are told that a minute type, .
proudly called Plus Ultra and described as the smallest
letter in Europe, was cut by Gil, although he left it unfin-
ished. These types are very Spanish in eftect — notice par-
ticularly the parangona in roman and italic {^jigs. 245 and
246), the roman otra parangona on page 30, and the cursiva
nueva — a version of the condensed French italic then popu-
lar {Jig. 247). Specimens of Greek, Hebrew, and Arabic
characters are included in the collection. The titling-letters
resemble some Holland fonts, and many of the ornaments
are derived from Fournier, from Caslon, and from Basker-
ville — with a difference. It is a fine assemblage, and is one
of the first I know of, where the number of matrices and
punches is appended to the display of each font. Many
of these types and ornaments ultimately found a place in
the Imprenta Real of Madrid and appear in its specimen
of 1799.

The next book in the group is Muestras de los Grados de
Letras y V'lnetas que se hallan en el Obrador de Fundicion de
la Viuda e Hijo de Pradell^ Madrid. En la OJicina de Don
Benito Cano^ Ano de 1793. Eudaldo Pradell, the founder of
this establishment (sometimes called the Catalan foundry),
was a country boy of good family. He was first apprenticed
to an armourer — as was Caslon to a gunmaker. He went to
Barcelona when twenty years old, and there met the head of
the Imprenta Real, Pablo Barra. This man urged Pradell to
become a type-cutter, as Spain needed such a workman.
After a good many difficulties, Pradell produced four fonts

84 PRINTING TYPES

which were brought to the attention of Carlos III, who gave
him a pension in 1764. Pradell, in a biographical note to
this specimen, is called el primer inventor en Espana de esta
Arte. He set up a foundry in Madrid, where he pursued
his trade successfully, and he departed this life in 1788. In
the next year his son Eudaldo, who continued his father's
business, was also pensioned by the King.

The peticano {Jig. 248), lectura., texto^ and entredos were
the first types that the elder Pradell finished. The body of
the letter is, in some cases, large compared with its ascend-
ers. The descenders are generally short, which partly ac-
counts for the rolling look of the fonts in large sizes. Pradell's
italic fonts have the pen-work appearance which was such
a feature of Spanish eighteenth century types. The orna-
ments in his book show the Bodoni and Fournier influence,
modified by Spanish rendering. There is an assortment of
mathematical signs and some large arable numerals — the
latter reminiscent of Bodoni. Music-types, a supply of awk-
ward, heavy tiding-letters, flowered letters, and nine pages
of "flowers" complete a very interesting volume.

The next specimen is Muestras de los Caracteres que tiene
en su Ohrador Pedro If em., Fimdidor en esta Corte. En la Im-
prenta de Fermin Thadeo Villalpando (1795). The prefa-
tory ruote to this 16mo volume reads : "These printing char-
acters are cast from the punches and matrices which were
entirely the work of Don Eudaldo Pradell, first inventor of
them in Spain, for which he was pensioned by His Majesty
in the year 1 764, which matrices are now the property of
Pedro Ifern, being part of the dowry of his wife. Dona Mar-
garita Pradell, and which are dealt in by virtue of the royal
order following" — which is appended, dated August 16,
1790. Ifern's specimen is a pretty little book, got up with
considerable taste and showing naturally much the same

N? XXVIII. 28

I>ARANGONA.

e esta manera viven los
malos como olvidados de
Dios ^ y asi estan en este
mundo como hacienda sin
dueno ^ como escuela sin
maestro^ como navio sin go-
H' vernalle , y finalmente co-
mo ganado descarriado sin
pastor. Y asi les dice Dios:
no quiero ya tener mas car-
go de apacentaros.

TJcne este grado en el redondo 34 matrices de ca-
ja baja , de la altaG^, de versalesag , de versalillas
29 , 50 de estas con acenros , y 33 de titulares.

PUN20NES de caja baja 35 , de alta 40 , de versales
28 , de versalillas 25 , con acentos solos para versales
y versalillas 9 , y 33 de titulares.

W , ^

245. Roman cut by Gil: Specimen Real Biblioteca
Madrid^ 1787

XXIX. 29

PARANGONA.

ues dime ahora ^que ma-
yor peligroy que mayor mi-
seria que 'vivirfuera de esta
tutelay cuidado paternal de
Dios ^ y quedar expuesto d
todos los encuentros del mtm-
S do? P or que si le falta esta
sombray favor de Dios ^que
hard el solo y desarmado en-
tre tan poderosos enemigos?

Haj/ en esta cvpstva 32 7,jatt^ic-es de caja baja , de
alta 55 , de versales y versaiiilas 58 , de esras dos_ con
acentos 52 , de vinetas 3 , de espacios de imprimir 2 ,
]'• 33 detitulares.

puNzoi^Es de caia baja 33 , de alta 3T , de versales
28 , de versalilJa? 28, con acenros 21, 7 33 de titiilares.
TOTAi. de este grado: 441 matrices : y 344 pun-
zones.

246. Italic cut by Gil: Specimen Real Biblioteca
Madrid, 1787

CURSIVA NUEVA BE TEXTO.

JK^egla es tamhien de pruden-
cia no mirar a la antimedad u
novedad de las cosas para apro-
barlas 6 condenarlas ; porque mu-
chas cosas hay muy acostum-
hradas y muy malas , y otras
hay muy nuevas y muy huenas,
ij nl la vejez es parte para jus-
tificar lo malo , ni la novedad
debe ser para condenar lo hue-
no J sino en todo y por todo hin-
ca los ojos en los merltos de las
cosas, y no en los anos.

247. New Italic of Texto (showing" French influence^
Specimen Real Biblioteca^ Madrid^ 1787

& , I ^

N.° I.

PETICANO.

JrLste Rey Agesi-
lao , como en su exer-
cito tuviese poca gen-
te de caballo, fliesea
la Ciudad y tierra de

su CURS IV A.

Efeso^ donde hahia
gente muy rica , y po-
CO codiciosa de guerra.
El gran mandato^ b*c.

A i

Sr't'fc^^' H'n ' ^J^BL. 'w^nrH^'f^

248. Peticano^cut hy Eudaldo Pradell
Muestras de la Viuda / Hijo de Pradell^ Madrid^ 1793

SPANISH TYPES: 1500-1800 85

collection as his mother-in-law's more ambitious volume;
but the paper is lighter and more attractive than the Pradell
specimen, and shows off both types and ornaments better.
The ornaments are not quite the same. Many of them are
derived from French sources and some from English, but
they are all treated in a very Spanish way {Jig- 249).

A final volume to be described is the 1799 specimen-book
of the Imprenta Real of Madrid, which was at last started
and which seems to have absorbed the material cut by Gil
for the Biblioteca Real. Richard Ford in his classic Hand-
Book for Travellers in Spain — "the best guide ever written
for any country"^ — speaks of the Imprenta Real as being,
in his day, in the Calle de Carreteras — the same street in
which, about a hundred years earlier, Baretti,^ then trav-
elling in Spain, visited a printing-office. Housed in a cum-
brous building, the work of an architect named Turillo, it
contained. Ford tells us, "the royal printing and engraving
establishment. From this press have issued many splendid
specimens of typography," though he, unhappily, neglects
to say what they were. This establishment was later situ-
ated in the Calle del Cid, but to-day no longer exists.

The title of this specimen is Muestras de los Punzones y
Matrices de la Letra que se Jiinde en el Obrador de la Im-
prenta Realj Madrid, Afio de 1799. The book is in two parts.

* The famous edition is that of 1845. Consult the amusing account of Spanish
booksellers, Vol. I, pp. 138 et seq.

' Tlie Italian, Joseph Baretti (remembered chiefly for his Italian-English and
Spanish-English lexicons, and as one of Dr. Johnson's circle), who was in
Madrid in 1760, mentions visiting "a large printing-office in the Calle de las
Carretas [_sic] , a street so called, and chiefly inhabited by printers and book-
sellers." Speaking of the fifty workmen employed in this printing-office and
the rate of production, he says, "I asked two fellows at one press, how many
sheets they could work off" in a day, and was answered five and twenty hun-
dred, which I thought a pretty good number, especially as they were none of
the most muscular men." Baretti's Journey from London to Genoa, etc.,
London, 1770, Vol. Ill, pp. 8, 9.

86 PRINTING TYPES

The first comprises an ambitious collection of excellent ro-
man and italic types, followed by some Greek types (fine in
the largest and smallest sizes), a few pages of Arabic, and
a little Hebrew. Apart from Gil's fonts, and others of that
style, there are a number of lighter fonts, both in roman and
italic, that, while distinctly "old style," show the taste for
lighter letter-forms which was then making headway in
Spain. A second collection of type of decidedly more mod-
ern cut begins on page 75. The tendency toward less "nour-
ished," lighter letters is clearly seen in these over-finished,
monotonous characters {Jigs. 250 mid 25 1) — types by no
means so interesting as those in Part I. Following these is
a large display of capital letters in roman and italic, shaded
initials, Greek capital letters, and a repertoire of "flowers,"
some of which we reproduce {Jigs. 252 and 253). A few
are original, but a great many of these "flowers" were de-
rived from Holland,^ France,^ and England,^ and others from
various perfectly recognizable sources ; but they are ren-
dered in such a way as to be transmuted into very Spanish
design.*

Late eighteenth century Spanish specimen-books, when
compared with English or French "specimens," show (l)
that the prevailing European taste was active in Spain,
though retarded; (2) yet that type and ornaments both pos-
sessed a marked national character; and (3) that Spanish
types — especially in italic fonts — had a surprisingly calH-
graphic quality.

This third point is perhaps capable of elucidation. These
calligraphic types were (it seems to me) modelled directly

' Page 138, No. 155 ; page 139, No. 172. ' Page 131, No. 63.

"Page 136, No. 132; page 137, No. 142.

* The ' * modem face ' ' type which was in use by 1 800 in otlier parts of Europe
does not appear to be commonly employed in Spain until some years later.

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N? LXXXVII. 87

XECTURA.
CARNICERO. CARNIVORO.

-C/stas voces convienen pof que son califi-
caciones genericas de los animales que co-
men carne. Difieren en que carnivoro sig-
nifica simplemente el que come carne ; y
carnicero el que hace su comida de ella. La
primera designa el hecho , y la segunda el
apetito natural, el habito constante. El
animal carnicero no come otra cosa que
carne; su naturaleza le obliga a vivir de
ella sola ; el carnivoro es el que entre otras
cosas come carne ; pero puede vivir sin co-
merla, como que no es su unico y propio
alimento. El tigre , el Icon , el lobo se man-
tienen solo de carne , y por consiguiente son
carniceros. El hombre, el perro , el gato
comen y gustan de carne ; pero no la nece-
sitan para vivir, pues pueden pasar con
otros alimentos , y de consiguiente son car-
nivoros. En las especies carnivoras se 11a-
man carniceros los individuos que gustan
mas de carne , y la comen mas a menudo
que los otros ; pero ya en este caso se usa
impropiamente de la voz carnicero.

250. Roman tending- to '"'' Modern Face ^^"^ from Muestras^ etc.
Imprenta Real., Madrid^ 1799

N? LXXXVm. 88

LECTURA.

CAR1S7CER0 CARNIVORO

JlLs

fstas voces convienen porque son califi"
caciones genericas de los animates que co
men came. D'lfieren en que carnivoro sig^
nifica simplemente el que come carne; y car-
nicero el que hace su comida de ella. La
primera designa el hecho ;> y la segunda el
apetito natural :> el hdhito constants El ani-
mal carnicero no come otra cosa que carne;
su naturaleza le obliga a vivir de ella sola,
el carnivoj'o es el que entre otras cosas come
carne ; pero puede vivir sin comerla , co-
mo que no es su unico y propio alimento. El
tigre, el leon, el loho se mantienen solo de
carne 3 y por consiguiente son carniceros.
El hombre , el perro , el gato comen y gus-
tan de carne; pero no la necesitan para vi-
vir, pues pueden pasar con otros alimentos;
y de consiguiente son carnivoros. En las es-
pecies carnivoras se Human carniceros los
individuos que gustan mas de carne, y la
comen mas d menudo que los otros ; pero
ya en este caso se usa impropiamente de la
voz carnicero.

251. Italic tending- to '"''Modern Face!!'' from Muestras^ etc.
Imprenta Real., Madrid., 1799

204

205

207

DOS PUNTOS DE TEXTO.

n/Of- i^t .^ir- .-I /••>,- r,/\\^ ,./TS^ «,/T\^

■ %^ '^- '^ '^ -^^

•trTrTrvvtrTrtrtrtrtrTrvTrtrirTrtrtr

252. Ornaments from Muestras^ etc.^ Imprenta Real
Madrid^ 1799

sop

VIN£TAS.

144

>\> Vik^Si lj!»y C!A»N

210

211

^ /^F^ /^^rfflV ^^mTSV rwSV 4m^w
AvSl v/'v*^ v/A'ot v/'v^ u'S'^ //' V.' yy ^'A;^\^

f.^ f,C^ /;i

253. Ornaments from Muestras^ etc., Imprenta Real
Madrid, 1799

SPANISH TYPES: 1500-1800 87

on the Spanish handwriting then considered ideal for docu-
ments or letters meant to be handsomely rendered. For in-
stance, italic letters, in some fonts in these specimen-books,
end in little "dabs," as if written with a pen overfull. This
was much like some of the writing of the great seventeenth
century Spanish calligrapher Diaz Morante, an edition of
whose Arte Niieva de Escribir W2is republished by Sancha in
1776. Morante and his son profoundly influenced Spanish
writing for two centuries.^

Though craftsmen in other countries of Europe had
learned the futility of copying too closely a written letter,
an eflfort appears to have been made in Spain to translate
the formal calligraphy of the eighteenth century into type-
forms. This was a beginner's blunder, but all earlier be-
ginners had "begun" so long before, that for a moment the
student of types is puzzled at the recurrence of the error,
and takes it for something new. If Spanish specimen-
books were filled with very calligraphic types, perhaps it
was because the Spanish type-cutter — with no native tradi-
tion or experience to guide him — was working out an old
problem in his own way.

' See plates in Reflexiones y Arte de Escribir del Jbate D^ Domingo Maria
Servidori, Romano. Imprenta Real, Madrid, 1788.

CHAPTER XVII

ENGLISH types: I5OO-I8OO

IF the earliest types cast in England were somewhat
unattractive in design and rough in execution, it was
not because the types were early types, for at that same
time in other countries types were better; nor because of
any lack of good models, for English black-letter manu-
scripts were often very beautiful. But in England few early
native types had what we should call "feeling." Type-cut-
ting and type-designing did not, apparently, at first come
easily or instinctively to the English. Their best early types
were imported.

Most of Caxton's types were poor in design compared
with those chiefly employed on the Continent at the same
epoch. In Caxton's day, gothic letter was in vogue for all
English printing. Later, this gothic crystallized into an
English pointed black-letter character, similar to some of
the black-letter of the Netherlands, from which, tempered
perhaps by French influences, it was derived. It was the
characteristic type of England, and we find it in the Eng-
lish workrooms of De Worde, who greatly perfected it, at
the beginning of the sixteenth century, as well as in use by
Pynson and Berthelet. This character was commonly em-
ployed throughout the sixteenth century, and until the end
of the seventeenth century, and even in the eighteenth cen-
tury it was still used for law-books, proclamations, licenses,
etc. The poet Gray, in a letter to his friend West, who was
discouraged about his legal studies, alluded to this when he
said, "Had the Gothic character and bulkiness of those vol-
umes ... no ill effect upon your eye? Are you sure, if Coke
had been printed by Elzevir, and bound in twenty neat
pocket volumes, instead of one folio, you should never have

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ENGLISH TYPES: 1500-1800 89

taken him up for an hour, as you would a Tully, or drank
your tea over him? "^ While there were some forms of givs-
batarde types (like Mansion's) used in England in the first
thirty-five years of the sixteenth century, this pointed
gothic letter drove them out. Types modelled on the old Nor-
man law-hand called "set court," "bas secretary" (or en-
grossing), and "running secretary," — the latter the cursive
of the law courts of Queen Elizabeth's time, — also existed
{Jig. 254) ; but (like the civilite in France) they were never
much used, and made little impression on English typog-
raphy.

In England, the first roman types were sometimes called
Italian letter or " white-letter," in distinction to the common
English black-letter. Pynson's Sermo fratris Hieronymi de
Ferraria appears to have contained the earliest roman letter
used in England, but the first English books printed en-
tirely in roman were his two 1518 editions of the Oratio of
Richard Pace. In the next year Pynson printed, in two sizes
of roman type, a work by Horman, entitled Vulgaiia {Jig.
255). Since he was of Norman birth and had intimate re-
lations with printers at Rouen and with Froben at Basle,
he may have bought these fonts abroad; although he cut
some types of his own.^ Pynson succeeded Machlinia as a

* Mason's Life of Gray (second edition), London, 1775, pp. 100, 101.
^ "The frequent indications to be met with of the transmission of founts from
one printer to another, as well as the passing on of worn types from the
presses of tlie metropolis to those of the provinces, are suggestive of tlie exist-
ence (very limited, indeed) of some sort of home trade in type e\'en at that
early date. For a considerable time, moreover, after the perfection of the art
in England, the trade in foreign types, which dated back as early as the estab-
lishment of printing in Westminster and Oxford, continued to flourish. With
Normandy, especially, at the beginning of the sixteenth century, a brisk
commerce was maintained. Not only were many of the English liturgical and
law books printed abroad by Norman artists, but Norman type found its
way in considerable quantities into English presses. M. Claudin . . . states
that Rouen, at the beginning of the sixteenth century, was the great typo-

90 PRINTING TYPES

printer of English law-books — for which his knowledge of
Norman French proved a recommendation. De Worde's first
roman type was introduced about 1520. This he used for
printing entire books and also for emphasizing special words
or quotations in books printed in black-letter. Apparently
it was De Worde who first introduced an italic type into
England, employing it for marginal notes in Wakefield's
Oratio, published in 1524 — the first book printed in Eng-
land showing Arabic and Hebrew types. De Worde's skill
in producing the best English black-letter forms has already
been alluded to. He seems to have been his own type-
cutter.

Thomas Berthelet, royal printer and famous for his beau-
tiful bindings, maintained good traditions in printing. So did
Richard Grafton, Berthelet's successor as King's Printer;
remembered for his Bibles and service-books, and espe-
cially for the edition of Cranmer's Bible which he printed in
association with Whitchurch in 1539. Thomas Vautrollier
was responsible for the printing of what is called one of the
handsomest Elizabethan books — though a very tasteless
performance in reality — North's Plutarch, issued in 1579.
In types and presswork he excelled most of his craft. But
the London printer John Day left the most distinct mark
on early sixteenth century English typography. He was

graphical market which furnished type not to England only , but to other cities
in France and to Switzerland. ' It evidently had special typographical foun-
dries,' he observes. ' Richard Pynson, a London printer, was a Norman ; Will
Faques learned typography from J. le Bourgeois, a printer at Rouen. These
two printers had types cast expressly for themselves in Normandy. Wynkyn
de Worde must have bought types in Normandy also, and very likely from
Peter Olivier and Jean de Lorraine, printers in partnership at Rouen.' And
with regard to the first printer of Scotland, M. Claudin has no doubt that
MyUar learned his art in Normandy, and that the types with which his ear-
liest work was printed were those of the Rouen printer, Hostingue." Reed's
History of Old English Letter Foundries, London, 1887, p. 103.

DIEPJETATE i

^De pietate m dcum vbi dc vera idigionc
ctredo cultu cum fuis cerimoni) set vltione
circa ncglcdum vel cotemptiim corudem*
Cap^

H E R E is no thyngc in the
worldc fo coucniet to a man
as to te holy and to loue god
and wotfliy ppc hym«

Nihil m hiimanfs religio
nc fa(flius / nihil hommi
tarn proptium § pieta^

lis cultus*

Man IS natutallyc dyfpofyd to haue a mynde and
reuerence towarde god*
Homini ingenita eftreligfonis cura*
There be many dC diuerfc maners of worfliyppyng
and doyngeoffactyfyce*
Multiplex eft varia cf colcdf dcu ratio/muk

tiplex facrorum ritus*

The relig>'on that Adam tawght fytft his chyls
drene and all that cam of them / was to be takyn
for the mcft ryght and fure way that ledythe man
to thepryuytc of godtyllMofeslawcam*
Rcligio quam prothoplaftus a prihcipio I/c

bcris et omni pofteritati^pofuit/ omnium
rediflima fui't logecj tutiffima cenfcda/qu^
ad veri numinis duci t ara Mofaica ten^ lege
Mofcs tabttls wte c^tyd with the AtRc*

255. Roinan Types used by Pynson^ London^ 1519

ENGLISH TYPES: 1500-1800 91

born in 1522, and began work on his own account in 1546.
Taking refuge abroad during the Marian persecutions of
Protestants, he returned and began printing again in 1557,
and on the accession of Elizabeth (who merely persecuted
Catholics), worked on a larger scale. Cunningham's Cosmo-
graphicall G/asse, which Day printed in 1559, was, from a
decorative and pictorial point of view, an ambitious book.
It is described on a later page.

Matthew Parker, Archbishop of Canterbury, was Day's
chief patron. Day cut a font of Saxon which was used in a
book edited by the archbishop, issued about 1566, and in
some later volumes, notably Parker's edition of j^lfredi
Regis Res Gestae, printed in 1574. This book shows the re-
sult of the best efforts in type-founding up to that time, and
the archbishop's preface alludes to Day's skilful punch-
cutting: "And inasmuch as Day, the printer, is the first
(and, indeed, as far as I know, the only one) who has cut
these letters in metal ; what things have been written in
Saxon characters will be easily published in the same type."
The roman and italic used in the volume are of extreme
importance in the history of early English type-founding.
The roman, or, as it was then called, "Italian letter," resem-
bles some fine fonts used on the Continent {Jig. 256); and
the italic (that used in the Cosmogi'aphicall Glasse) is no less
distinguished {Jig- 257). Reed says: "The typography of
the Milfredi is superior to that of almost any other work of
the period. Dibdin considered it one of the rarest and most
important volumes which issued from Day's press. The
archbishop's preface is printed in a bold, flowing Double
Pica Italic, and the Latin preface of St. Gregory at the end
in a Roman of the same body, worthy of Plantin himself."^
A new italic was first used in 1572 in Parker's De Anti-

' Reed, p. 96.

92 PRINTING TYPES

quitate BritannicsB EcclesisB — the first privately printed book
brought out in England. Day, by the way, was printer of
the English edition in black-letter of that very famous Pro-
testant r\\2iViyvo\og\\xm,Y oxt^s Book of Martyrs^m 1563 ; and
in 1569 he produced A Book of Christian Prayers^ — com-
monly called "Queen Elizabeth's Prayer Book," — a rough,
tasteless black-letter volume, clumsily modelled on French
Horse^ but which had great popularity. He also cut a fine
Greek letter and some attractive musical characters, and
mathematical signs, etc., not before cast in type. The use
of his roman and italic fonts was probably restricted to the
See of Canterbury. Some of them were used a hundred
years later by Roycroft in Bishop Walton's Polyglot Bible.
Day was one of the first English printers to cut roman and
italic letters on uniform bodies. Before that time, roman and
italic types had been considered characters without me-
chanical interrelation; as examination of books in which
they are both employed too plainly shows.

Until the middle of the sixteenth century, the roman
types used in England were respectable — in a few cases,
handsome. By the middle of the century, however, there
was a decline, attributable to a variety of reasons. English
typography shared the general falling off which began as
soon as the restraining traditions of the manuscript volumes
had passed away. Then, too, as in other countries, new and
more complex problems of book-making were coming into
being — changes caused by a demand for cheaper books,
by the realization of the possibilities of type, and by prob-
lems arising from the difference between the arrangement of
a modern book, as we understand it, and the old traditional
manuscript volume. Nor was the English printer very skilful
or tasteful in the arrangement of types — good or bad; and
thus English books did not equal those printed by good

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ENGLISH TYPES: 1500-1800 93

presses on the Continent — either in workmanship, beauty,
or correctness.

The decline of typography from 1550 to 1650, as McKer-
row points out, was also due (l) to the fact that printing fell
into the hands of a class of masters and men less able, enter-
prising, and socially important, who looked at it solely from
the commercial side; (2) that English presses printed books
chiefly in the vernacular, and that more scholarly volumes,
like the classics, were largely brought from abroad; (3) and
chiefly, to the beginning of a burdensome censorship of the
press, which became increasingly restrictive. Separately
and collectively, all these contributed to the decline in Eng-
land of printing as an art.^

"Some explanation," says Reed, "of the marked supe-
riority of our national typography at the close of the fif-
teenth century over that of half a century later, is to be
found in the fact that, whereas many of the first printers
used types wholly cut and cast for them by expert foreign
artists, their successors began first to cast for themselves
from hired or purchased matrices, and finally to cut their
own punches and justify their own matrices. Printing en-
tered on a gloomy stage of its career in England after Day's
time, and as State restrictions gradually hemmed it in,
crushing by its monopolies healthy competition, and by its
jealousy foreign succour, every printer became his own letter-
founder, not because he would, but because he must, and the
art suflfered in consequence." The first man recorded as a

' For the state of the sixteenth century English press (its relations to the gov-
ernment, etc.)> see the chapter by R. B. McKerrow on the "Booksellers',
Printers', and Stationers' Trade," in S/iakesfieare's England, Oxford,
1916, Vol. II, chapter xxiii. For an account of earlier English legislation in
reference to printing, publishing, and bookselling, see the Introductions to
Mr. E. Gordon DuflPs Century of the English Book Trade, 1457-1557; to
McKerrow's Dictionary of Printers, 1557-1640; and to Vlomer^ ?, Dictionary
of Booksellers and Printers, 1641-1667.

94 PRINTING TYPES

type-founder was Hubert Dauvillier, who came to England
in 1553 and whose shop was in existence in 1594; the first
Englishman in the trade being Benjamin Simpson, who
worked as a type-founder in 1597.

By the middle of the sixteenth century, the State had so
seriously interfered with the liberty of printing, that by
1557 no press could be erected outside London except one
each at the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge. In the
seventeenth century, the Star Chamber decree of 1637^
placed the number of letter-founders at four, vacancies being
filled by a commission. From 1640 to 1662 was a period of
liberty; but this restriction was revived in 1662 and lasted
until the end of the century — or to be exact, 1693, "During
this period," Pollard tells us, "of nearly a century and a half,
no printing was permitted, and, with the most insignificant
exceptions, no printing was done, except at London, Oxford,
and Cambridge. If a school-book or a prayer-book, or a
Bible, or a book of any kind were wanted at Falmouth or
at Berwick-upon-Tweed, it was from London or Oxford or
Cambridge that it had to be procured, and procured more-
over from a closed ring, more or less able to charge what
price it pleased. If a poll-tax of a few pence apiece had been
imposed on the people of England the whole country would
have been in revolt. But because this piece of oppression,
which had no parallel in any other civilized country, had to
do with books, this land of liberty bore it, apparently with-
out a murmur."^

The earliest English specimen-sheet was that of Nicho-
las Nicholls, submitted to Charles II in 1665, with a peti-
tion for the post of royal letter-founder — which two years

It was this decree which caused Milton to write his Areofiagitica.
' A. W. Pollard in Transactions of the Bibliographical Society, Vol. XIII,
p. 26.

S.«-a±^SL&K5i:SS g4»«5R4»i«-AS

Au^jillimmo Monarchy & Sfrfniifimo

Principt & Doraino

C A B O I O lit"

■Drilanniarum, & Franci? Rrgi

Gloriofiffiaio fidci Dd>nfofi,&c

Hrt »ol« fetjuftiiu

Vivas O ReC In prrFcruiit),

« ■■»■ jl \\'y [SnI^

ut coniu dfoummi antfiituj
Aiiifquf <ai fpffiDcn,

ucraiiflimy Veftn Maicftiti
HufDillimr oSeri, 8i dediCit

MaxiHi Regit SuMitoruia immciTus,
Nicholas Nicholls

»«£Sgi^¥93S¥2S«ia;£:2^^7SS^9

258. Earliest English Specimen-sheet

Nicholas JVicholls, London, 1665

ENGLISH TYPES: 1500-1800 95

later he obtained. The types were probably cut expressly
for the specimen, and besides roman include Greek, He-
brew, Syriac, Samaritan, Ethiopic, and Arabic {Jig. 258).
Moxon, author of Mechanick Exercises^ published a speci-
men in 1669. A specimen of the Fell and Junius types was
issued by the University Press, Oxford, in 1693.

The Oxford Press began its work in 1585, and has
been in continuous activity to our own day. In 1629, Sir
Henry Savile^ gave the press some fine Greek types (bought
at Frankfort possibly from Wechel's successors), called the
"Silver Letter," in which the Eton Chrysostom had been
printed.^ Later, Archbishop Laud obtained Letters Patent
for it (allowing three printers, each to have two presses and
two apprentices), and a Charter extending its rights, and
he also presented it with some Oriental types. Between
1667 and 1672, the press received some fine types imported
from Holland by Dr. John Fell, Dean of Christ Church
and later Bishop of Oxford (Jigs. 259 aiid 260). A col-

' It was Moxon who cut the symbols used in John Wilkins' Essay towards a
Real Character, printed for the Royal Society (of which Moxon was a fellow)
in 1668. He also produced the small pica Irish type used in Daniels' Irish New
Testament in 1 681, both type and printing being paid for by Robert Boyle —
until 1800, the only Irish font in England.

' Savile (1549-1622) , Provost of Eton and one of the most learned English-
men of his time, was for years interested in producing an edition of St.
Chrysostom, for which he endea\'oured to secure a font of the French
" Royal Greek " types. Failing in this, he purchased abroad a special Greek
font for the work, the preparation of which cost him the enormous sum (for
those days) of ^8000. The edition, in eight volumes, was finished in 1613.
Savile was a friend of Sir Tliomas Bodle}^ and founded at Oxford the chairs
of Geometry and Astronomy, which are still known by his name. An intei-
esting account of his Greek type is given in Robert Proctor's paper. The
Frejich Royal Greek Types, and the Eton Chrysostom (Ti'ansactions of the
Bibliographical Society, Vol. VII). This "Silver Letter" was subsequently
bequeathed by Sa\'ile to the Uni\'ersity of Oxford, then loaned to the Uni-
versity of Cambridge, and has since been lost.

*Reed, facing p. 140.

96 PRINTING TYPES

lection of Gothic, Runic, Icelandic, and Saxon characters
was given also by a German, Francis Junius the younger,
librarian to the Earl of Arundel/ Rowe Mores says : "About
the time of Mr. Junius's gift to the Univ. the excellent Bp.
Fell, most strenuous in the cause of learning, had regulated
and advanced the learned press in the manner which had
been intended by archb. Laud, and which would by him
have been effected had not the iniquity of those anarchical
and villainous times prevented. He gave to the Univ. a
noble collection of letter, consisting (besides the common
founts Rom. and Ital.) of Hebr. Samaritan, Syriac, Arabic
(Persic, Turkish and Malayan bought of Dr. Hyde), Ar-
menian, Coptic, iEthiopic, Greek, Runic, Saxon, English,
and Sclavonian : Music, Astronomical and Mathematical
signs and marks, flowers, &c. together with the punches
and matrices from which they were cast, and all other uten-
sils and apparatus necessary for a printing-house belong-
ing to the University."^ Fell employed Marshall, afterwards
Dean of Gloucester, to buy some of these types in Holland,
and Marshall's negotiations for their purchase (between
1670 and 1672) were chiefly with Abraham van Dyck, son
of Christoffel, the celebrated type-cutter, and Dirk Vos-
kens. A phrase in one of Marshall's letters is prophetic. "I
se," he writes, "in this Printing-designe, we English must
learn to use o"" own hands at last to cut Letters as well as

' For the Fell types, see the rare Sfiecimen of the Several Sorts of Letter given
to the University by Dr. John Fell, later Lord Bishofi of Oxford. To which is
added the Letter Given by Mr. F. Junius, Oxford. Printed at the Theatre,
A.D. 1693. Other editions foUowed in 1695, 1706, 1768, 1787, 1794, etc.
Some of these specimens are reproduced in Hart's JVotes on a Century of
Tyfiografihy at the University Press, Oxford, 1693-1794. Oxford, 1900.

'a like benefaction for the University Press, Cambridge, had been attempted
in 1626 by Archbishop Ussher, who tried to get matrices of Syriac, Arabic,
Ethiopic, and Samaritan letters from Ley den, but was forestalled in this by the
Elzevirs. Before the advent of Caslon, most of the material of the press was
carefully chosen from Dutch foundries. See S. C. Roberts' excellent History of
the Cambridge University Press, 1521-1921. Cambridge, 1921.

Double Pica Roman.
ABCDEFGHIKLMNOPQR

STVUWXYZ ABCDKFGHIK-

PAter nofter qui es in coelis, fan-
6tificetur nomen tuum. Veniat
regnum tuum : fiat voluntas tua^ficut
in coelo, ita etiam in terra. Panem no-
ftrum quotidianum da nobis hodie*
Et remitte nobis debita noftra, ficut
&remittimus debitoribus noftris. Et
ne nos inducas in tentationem, fed
liberanosabillomalo. Amen.

Double Pica Itdlich

<^^BCDEFGHIJKLCMM

NO'P^^STVUWXrZ^.^M

^J^Ater nojier qui es in coelts^ fanclifi^
•^ cetur nomen tuum. Veniat regnum
tuum : fiat wJuntas tua, ficut in coelo^ ita
etiam in terra, Panem noftrum quotidian
num da nobis hodie. Et remitte nobis de-
bita noftray ficut 8^ remittimm debit or i--
bus noftris. Et ne nos inducas in tentatio-
nemy fed libera nos ab illo malo. Amen.

259. Roman and Italic given by Dr. Fell to the University Press., Oxford

Englifh Englifh.

Omt f ati^er, tol^tc^ art in fteaben ; ^alloto-^
eD be t]^^ iSame. E]^^ fitngnom come, s:]^^
Mil tt\^ont in tmt\^> a^ it i^ in ^eaben* <Bite
ttgJ tl^is ua^ out Milv breath* ^nD tbrgite ngj
our trefpaf e0, ^js w iotq,iu t^cm tl^at trefpaC^
aisainft u0* and leaD w^ not into temptation^
JBut Deliter m from etJil* Amen.

New Englifh Englijfh.

O^r Jfat|jer, tojic^ art in ]^eat?eit ; i^attotueb fee
t$p Jl^ame. CS^ togtJom come, ID!)^ tuift fee
Ijone in tart|^, :^0 it i^ in Jealsen, <0itje m t^i$ ^ap
our iJail^ httutf. £nS5 fargitie n^ our trefpaffe^, &c.

Pica Englifh.

OcEc if ati^ejf , to^tcj^ art in l^eatjen 5 l^allotoeD be t^p j^ame*
C^p feingDom come« C^p toill be Done in eart^, 0s it is
in beaten. (Site us t^ts tjap our Dailp breao. Snts forgltae us
our trefpalTes, ^$ toe forgitje t!)em t^at trefpafs agatnlt us.
^n^ leaD us not into temptation ; 115ut ueliter us from etsil :
i?or t^ine is t^e ^^ingoom, ano t^e poloer, ano tlje glorp, jfcr
etjer ano etjer, Amea.

Long Primer Englifh.

05Ur :^at!)cr, tDl)ic!) art in l^caben; ilaUoiucD be t^p ij^ame. <Elj?
bingtiom com^. Cljp tnill be Done in eartlj, ^3 it 10 in beaten,
(]5it)e u0 ti)i0 Dap out bailp breati. 3^nD focgitoe u0 our trcfpa(re0> ad
toe forgibe t^em tbat tcefpaf0 againU u0. l^nh leaD u0 not into tem-
ptation ; J15ut beliber u0 from ebil. :^or t\)m is tlji Hins5om> t^e potoec,
ttn5 t^e glot?, for cDec anD euer. Amen.

260. Black-letter given by Dr. Fell to the University Press, Oxford

ENGLISH TYPES: 1500-1800 97

print w*^ them. For y® Founders here being reasonably fur-
nished w*^ Matrices from Franckfort, y® old van Dijke, &c.
have no regard to cutting & justifying, unles perhaps to
supply a Defect, or two. So that some famous Cutters, they
say, are gone, to other Countries for want of imployment.
And now not one here to be found." ^ Dr. Fell also imported
a Dutch letter-cutter, Peter Walpergen, to direct the Oxford
foundry. Walpergen was succeeded by his son, and the son
in turn by Sylvester Andrews. Dr. Fell also had a hand in
the establishment of the Wolvercote paper-mill, now the
property of the Oxford University Press. The matrices of
the Fell types were the basis of the Oxford Foundry, es-
tablished in 1667, and at the present day in effective opera-
tion.

The University Press was transferred to the Sheldonian
Theatre in 1669 (built by Archbishop Sheldon, it is said
at Fell's suggestion), and during the life of Fell, its con-
stant and efficient friend, it produced some notable books.
Its charter was granted in 1682 ; a little later it obtained a
privilege for printing Bibles. In 1688, it was removed from
the Theatre — the Learned Press to one locality, the Bible
Press to another. The receipts from the copyright of Claren-
don's Rebellion chiefly provided the money for the erection in
1713 of the Clarendon Building, designed for the press by
Vanbrugh. In 1830, it was removed to its present building,
where the Bible Press and Learned Press are united."

* Marshall's letters are reprinted in Hart's J\/'otes on a Century of Thffiog-
rafiy at the University Press, Oxford, pp. 161-172.

' For a brief account of the Press with Usts of its most important books, see
the admirable brochure, The Oxford University Press. A Brief Account by
Falconer Madan. Oxford, 1908. See, also, the same author's Chart of Ox-
ford Printing, 1904. For an elaborate account of the Fell types, with fac-
similes, etc., consult Horace Hart's JVotes on a Century of Tyfiogra/ihy,
already alluded to. The latter book is printed from the Fell types, as is also
Some Account of the Oxford University Press, 1468-1921. Oxford, 1922.

98 PRINTING TYPES

The restrictions which the Government placed on print-
ing have hitherto been alluded to. The separation of print-
ing from letter-founding was a gradual process, but in the
reign of Charles I — in 1637 — the Star Chamber decree
shows that the establishment of type-founding as a distinct
business was accomplished. The object of this decree was
to restrict the number of persons engaged in letter-found-
ing; and four authorized founders were appointed, namely,
Grismand, Wright, Nicholls, and Fifield, who probably had
been making types for some time previous. It was the son
of Nicholls who produced the first known "specimen" of
English type.

These men have generally been known as the Polyglot
Founders, because they were later associated in the produc-
tion of that famous work, Walton's Polyglot Bible — the
fourth Polyglot produced. The first was the Complutensian
Polyglot of Cardinal Ximenez, printed at Alcala in 1517;
followed by the Plantin Polyglot of 1572, published at Ant-
werp, and the Paris Polyglot of 1645, edited by Le Jay. Each
succeeding work surpassed its predecessor in the number
of languages employed, the London Polyglot containing
all that were in the Paris Polyglot and adding Persian and
Ethiopic;^ though as a piece of printing it is inferior in
beauty to the earlier Polyglots. It was issued between 1654
and 1657 in six folio volumes by the distinguished printer-
publisher Thomas Roycroft, who also brought out Castell's
learned Heptaglot Lexicon., which supplemented it. Some
roman and italic types employed in the Bible were (as I
have said) the types that Day cut for Archbishop Parker.
The characters for the nine languages used were all of
English make, and some of these became models for later
Oriental fonts in the eighteenth century. Roycroft (remem-

*See Reed, pp. 169, 170, for comparison of the four Polyglot Bibles.

ENGLISH TYPES: 1500-1800 99

bered for his fine editions of the classics printed for Ogilby)
was, on the accession of Charles II, made King's Printer of
Oriental languages, and Walton received a mitre !

The three best London foundries — none too good, be it
said — of the second half of the seventeenth century were
that of Joseph Moxon (author of Mechanick Exercises);
that of his successors, Robert and Silvester Andrews, which
was very well furnished in roman, italic, and learned fonts,
as well as Anglo-Saxon and Irish characters ; and that of
James and Thomas Grover, who possessed types which
came from Day, Wynkyn de Worde, and others, and a re-
markable Greek uncial font later owned by the James foun-
dry. But the types of most seventeenth century English books
were probably Dutch. For this there were several reasons.
One was the success of the Elzevirs, then the prominent
publishers and printers of Europe, whose types were Dutch.
Then there was the influence of fashion, for "the caprices of
the court have always been to some extent responsible for
the evolution of taste"; and court taste was to some degree
Dutch. Moreover, with the Revolution, English restrictions
on the importation of types were removed, and the use of
Dutch fonts came about partly because, on account of pre-
vious hampering governmental regulations, there were not
enough trained letter-cutters left in England to produce good
types. That was the most potent reason of all for the general
English use of the Dutch letter.

At the beginning of the eighteenth century, the great
James foundry,^ which contained material produced by De
Worde, Day, the London Polyglot founders, Moxon, and
many more, was procuring its types from Holland, and an

* It was Thomas James who cruelly thwarted William Ged, inventor of
stereotyping. In a house which was part of the priory of St. Bartholomew
the Great, Smithfield (at one time occupied by James) , Benjamin Franklin
was employed by Samuel Palmer.

100 PRINTING TYPES

account of Thomas James's negotiations there in 1710, when
he went to obtain material for his foundry, is given in a series
of unconsciously humorous letters in Rowe Mores' Disser-
tation} His purchases from Dutch letter-founders were from
Athias, Voskens, Cupi, and Rolu. Reed calls attention to
" the intimate relations which existed at that period between
English printers and Dutch founders." He adds, "There
was probably more Dutch type in England between 1700
and 1720 than there was English. The Dutch artists ap-
peared for the time to have the secret of the true shape of
the Roman letter; their punches were more carefully fin-
ished, their matrices better justified, and their types of better
metal, and better dressed, than any of which our country
could boast." ^

The rise of William Caslon, the greatest of English
letter-founders, stopped the importation of Dutch types;
and so changed the history of English type-cutting, that
after his appearance the types used in England were most
of them cut by Caslon himself, or else fonts modelled on the
style which he made popular. An examination of types
displayed in the specimen in Watson's History of the Art
of Printings issued in Edinburgh in 1713, shows what the
Dutch types were {fig. 261); and Caslon's various speci-
mens will show the English style. These, with Baskerville's
specimens, are the chief sources for the study of eighteenth
century English type-forms.

* Rowe Mores' Dissertation, pp. 51-57.
'Reed, p. 114.

Great-PrimmeRj Roman,

T^HE Flatterer will quit thee in thy
-■- Adverfity : But the Fool will ne-
ver forfake thee. If thou hide thy
Treafure upon the Earth, how canft
thou exped to find it in Heaven? Canft
thou hope to be a Sharer, where thou
haft repofed no Stock ? Give not thy
Tongue too great a Liberty, left it take
thee Prifoner. Wouldft thou rraffick
with the beft Advantage, and crown
thy Virtues with the beft Return ?

Great-Primmer, ItalicL xxxv

TJOTV cam'fl thou by thy Honour ? By
-*^ ^ Money, How cam'ft thou hy thy
Money ^ By Extortion, Compare thy
Tenny-lVorth with the Trice ; and tell me
truly ^ how truly Honourable thou art ? It
is an ill Turchafe, that^:i encumired rvith
a Curfe : j^nd that Honour will he ruinom^
that is built on Ruins, Detain not the Wages
from the poor Man that hath earned it, left
GOI) with'holdthy Wages from thee. — -
Thou /halt not proffer for bis Sake, The poor

261, Dutch Types used in England: Watson Specimen
Edinburgh^ 1713

ENGLISH TYPES: 1500-1800 101

CASLON'S work marks a turning-point in English
type-founding, so I shall outline briefly what he stood
for in the history of English types.

William Caslon was born in 1692 at Cradley, Worces-
tershire, near Halesowen in Shropshire, and in the parish
register of Halesowen his baptism is entered as "child of
George Casselon by Mary his wife." Tradition has it that
the surname was originally Caslona, after an Andalusian
town, whence in 1688 William Caslon's father came to
England. Caslon as a lad was apprenticed to an engraver of
ornamental gun-locks and barrels in London. In 1716, he
set up a shop of his own there, where he did silver-chasing
and also cut tools for bookbinders. John Watts (a partner
of the second Tonson) was accustomed to employ him to
cut lettering for bindings — and sometimes punches for
type. About 1720, William Bowyer the elder ^ is said to have
taken Caslon to the James workshop, to initiate him into
letter-founding; and Bowyer, his son-in-law Bettenham,
and Watts eventually advanced money to enable Caslon to

* William Bowyer the elder (1663-1737) was printer for Thomas Hollis,
benefactor of Harvard College. His son, William Bowyer, "the learned
printer," received from the President, Edward Holyoke, and the Fellows, in
December, 1767, a vote of thanks for seveml valuable books sent them, and
" particularly his late curious edition of the Greek Testament witla learned
Notes." To one of the books which Bowyer presented ( The Letters of Eras-
mus) he prefixed a Latin inscription, as he did in the Greek Testament just
alluded to. For President Holyoke says in his letter : "We are greatly obhged
to you for the favourable sentiments you have been pleased so elegantly to ex-
press of our Seminary, in the blank leaf of tlie New Testament ; and we hope
it will prove a powerful stimulus to our youth, more and more to deserve so
good a character. This Society is as yet but in its infant-state; but we trust,
that, by the generosity of the benefactors whom the Divine Providence is rais-
ing up to us, and by the smiles of Heaven upon our endeavours to form the
youth here to knowledge and virtue, it will every day m.ore eifectuaUy answer
the important ends of its foundation."

102 PRINTING TYPES

set up a foundry of his own. The only good foundries then
were those of the Oxford Press, of Grover, and of James. In
the same year the Society for Promoting Christian Know-
ledge engaged Caslon to cut a font of Arabic of English
size, for a Psalter and New Testament for Oriental use —
ultimately printed respectively in 1725 and 1727. This he
did, and the story runs that he cut the letters of his own
name in pica roman, and printed it at the bottom of a proof
of his Arabic. This roman letter was so much admired,
that Caslon was persuaded to cut a font of pica roman and
italic; and in 1722, with Bowyer's encouragement, he cut
the English fonts of roman, italic, and Hebrew used in
Bowyer's folio 1726 edition of Selden's works. These and
some Coptic types for Wilkins' edition of the Pentateuch,
published in 1731, were, Hke the Hebrew, cut under Bow-
yer's direction. Caslon's beautiful pica "black" was cut about

1733. Several other of his "exotic" types appeared before

1734. In accomplishing all this, Caslon had been from the
first effectively backed; and he ended with a complete
foundry, which by his own labour and some discriminating
later purchases became the best in England. His types were
bought by printers abroad. He arrived, says Mores,^ " to that

' Edward Rowe Mores, in the latter part of his Hfe (in 1772) , purchased all
the older portions of the enormous collection of types, punches, and matrices
of the James foundry — an accumulation which dated from the sixteenth cen-
tury. From his examination of its material he prepared an essay intended to
preserve the memory of this foundry, the most ancient in the kingdom, and
as an introduction to a specimen-sheet which was to show what his collection
possessed. The specimen was not published until after his death. The essay
finally appeared four years later to accompany the catalogue of the auction
sale of the collection. The title-page reads: A Dissertation ufion English
Ty/iogra/ihical Founders and Founderies. By Edward Ro-tve Mores, A.M.
isf A.S.S., MOCCLxxvni. This title and the final notes were added by John
Nichols, the printer, who bought the whole edition (only eighty copies) at the
sale of Mores' books, in 1778. The Dissertation contains an immense amount
of curious information about early types and type-founders in England.

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'e £ E

_ n = 2 Be;s<

e i,-

,fc-S-

" -^ c": S'8 I

E ^-Q

^ o ° 8 1 "~ "^5 ^*

I?l3llll

I I

•^
t

I
^

1) ^

^§ ^ § s

I si 8

^ ^ ^

|t<

<^a

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^

^
^

ENGLISH TYPES: 1500-1800 103

perfection so that we may, without fear of contradiction,
make the assertion that a fairer specimen cannot be found
in Europe; that is, Not in the World." When Caslon's first
specimen appeared, his reputation was made. His subse-
quent history is largely the record of the different fonts which
he cut.

Though Caslon began his foundry about 1720, it was
not until 1734 that he issued this specimen-sheet, which
exhibited the results of fourteen years of labour {Jig. 262).
It sho^\'s various fonts of type, all cut by Caslon except the
Canon roman, which came from Andrews (a "descend-
ant" of the Moxon foundry) ; the English Syriac, cast from
matrices used for the Paris Polyglot Bible of Le Jay, and
a pica Samaritan cut by Dummers, a Dutchman. A reprint
of this specimen, with a change of imprint, appeared in an
edition of Chambers' Cydopsedia in 1738, and a note accom-
panying it says : " The above were all cast in the foundery of
Mr. W. Caslon, a person who, though not bred to the art of
letter-founding, has, by dint of genius, arrived at an excel-
lency in it unknown hitherto in England, and which even
surpasses anything of the kind done in Holland or else-
where." Caslon was joined in his business by his son, Wil-
liam II, in 1742, and they constantly enlarged their stock
of types, both roman and "learned." It was apropos of this
expansion that a rather startling phrase occurs in Ames'
account of their foundry. "The art," he says, "seems to be
carried to its greatest perfection by Mr. William Caslon, and
his son, who, besides the type of all manner of living lan-
guages now by him, has offered to perform the same for the
dead, that can be recovered, to the satisfaction of any gentle-
man desirous of the same."

Fournier, writing (not too accurately) in 1766, says :
"England has few foundries, but they are well equipped

104 PRINTING TYPES

with all kinds of types. The principal ones are those of
Thomas Cottrell at Oxford, James Watson at Edinburgh,
William Caslon & Son at London, and John Baskerville at
Birmingham. The last two deserve special attention. The
types in Caslon's foundry have been cut for the most part
by his son with much cleverness and neatness. The speci-
mens which were published of them in 1749 contain many
different kinds of types." ^

A contemporary print of Caslon's foundry shows four cast-
ers at work, a rubber (Joseph Jackson), a dresser (Thomas
Cottrell), and some boys breaking off the type-metal jets.
Jackson and Cottrell subsequently became eminent type-
founders themselves. Caslon seems to have been a "tender
master," and he was a kindly, cultivated man. In his Chis-
well Street house he had a concert room, and within it an
organ ; and there he entertained his friends at monthly con-
certs of chamber music. I have seen the attractive old rooms
where these musical parties were held, in the building in
Chiswell Street — since pulled down, to be replaced by a
more convenient structure.

William Caslon the elder (who was thrice married) died
in London in 1766, at the age of seventy-four. The stock of
his foundry about the time of his death may be seen from
his Specimen of 1763. This was the first specimen-<^oA-
issued in England,^ and from it some pages are reproduced

^Manuel Tyfiografihique, Vol. II, p. xxxviii.

*Also see Luckombe's History of Printing, in which a reprint of that
part of Caslon's Specimen of 1763 which contains the types, is shov/n. Tlie
flowers are not the same. In Caslon's specimens, variants of the same size
of type are given, called ' ' No. 1 ' ' and ' ' No. 2 " — the former a httle larger
face than the latter, though cast on the same body — as in Luckombe's re-
print. In the Caslon Specimen of 1796, three faces of the same size of type are
shown. Thus the name Caslon, says Mr. De Vinne, " as applied to a distinct
face of type, is consequently not exactly descriptive ; it may be somewhat mis-
leading."

Two Lines Great Primer.

Ououlque tandem
abutere Catilinaj p
Sluoujque tandem a-
butere^ Catilina^pa-

Two Lines Englifh.

Quoufque tandem abu-
tere, Catilina, patientia
noftra? quamdiu nos e»
^oufque tandem abutere
Catilina^ patientia noj

Two Lines Pica,

Quoulque tandem abutere,
Catilina, patientia noftra ? qu
^oufque tandem abutere^ Ca-^
tilina^ patientia noftral quam-

263. Roman and Italic: William Caslon £s? Son's Specimen
Loiidon^ 1763

ENGLISH TYPES: 1500-1800 105

(/^5. 263 a72(/264).Hisson, William CaslonII( 1720-1778),
succeeded him at his death, and maintained the place the
house had won for itself. On the death of William Cas-
lon II, the property was divided between his widow — Eliza-
beth (Cartlitch) Caslon — and his two sons, William Cas-
lon and Henry Caslon I. William Caslon III (1754-1833),^
who had a son William (1781-1869), disposed of his in-
terest in 1792 to his mother, and to Elizabeth (Rowe) Cas-
lon, the widow of his brother Henry. The latter lady, whose
partner was Nathaniel Catherwood, had a son, Henry Cas-
lon (1786-1850). He, in partnership with John James
Catherwood, with Martin Livermore, and alone, continued
the house, which finally descended to the last of the family,
Henry William Caslon (1814-1874). On his death, the
business was taken over, under the style of H. W. Caslon &
Co., by his manager, T. W. Smith, whose sons ultimately
assumed the name of Caslon, and the foundry remains in
their hands to-day." The developments of the Caslons' out-
put during their long and honourable history are described
on later pages.

Why are William Caslon's types so excellent and so
famous? To explain this and make it really clear, is diffi-
cult. While he modelled his letters on Dutch types, they
were much better ; for he introduced into his fonts a quality
of interest, a variety of design, and a delicacy of modelling,
which few Dutch types possessed. Dutch fonts were mo-
notonous, but Caslon's fonts were not so. His letters when

* This William Caslon III, though selling his interest in the family business,
bought Joseph Jackson's foundry (in operation from 1763 to 1792), which
he managed under his own name until 1803 — the succeeding styles of the
house being Caslon & Son and William Caslon (1807-19).
' The account of the foundry which has been issued by the present owners
under the title of Two Centuries of Tijfiefounding should be consulted. It is
very fully illusti-ated by portraits, reproductions of types, ornaments, etc.

106 PRINTING TYPES

analyzed, especially in the smaller sizes, are not perfect in-
dividually; but in mass their eiFect is agreeable. That is, I
think, their secret — a perfection of the whole, derived from
harmonious but not necessarily perfect individual letter-
forms. To say precisely hoiv Caslon arrived at his efl'ects
is not simple ; but he did so because he was an artist. He
knew how to make types, if ever a man did, that were (to
quote once more Bernard's phrase) "friendly to the eye,"
or "comfortable" — to use Dibdin's happy term. Further-
more, his types are thoroughly English. There are other
letters more elegant ; for the Caslon characters do not com-
pare in that respect with the letters of Garamond or Grand-
jean. But in their defects and quahties they are the result
of a taste typically Anglo-Saxon, and represent to us the
flowering of a sturdy English tradition in typography. Lack-
ing a "national" form of letter, \n^ in America (who are
mainly governed by English printing traditions) have noth-
ing better. Caslon types are, too, so beautiful in mass, and
above all so legible and "common-sense," that they can
never be disregarded, and I doubt if they will ever be dis-
placed.

Caslon's ornaments or flowers deserve in their way as
much praise as his types. "To a designer's eyes they have,"
says Mr. W. A. Dwiggins, "taken as individual patterns, an
inevitable quality, a finality of right construction that baf-
fles any attempt to change or improve. . . . Excellent as
single spots, the Caslon flowers multiply their beauties when
composed in bands or borders as ornamentation for letter-
press. They then become a true flowering of the letter forms
— as though particular groups of words had been told off"
for special ornamental duty and had blossomed at com-
mand into intricate, but always typographical patterns.

Two Lines Great Primer Black.

aniibeitfurttietJje
reftp enacteli, Cliat

Double Pica Black.

^ttti ht it furtfjer Ijerefi^ ena*
tteti» tSDJjat tJje J^a^o^s, iSai*
liff0, 0^ ot|)er 5^ atj iSfficers;*

Great Primer Black.

Tinn U it futtijer ijereftp trntttH,
3!3)at ti)e fl^apo?fif, »aiUffs, o? o--
tljer l)eaD Df6ter0 of etoetp Xoton
anU place co?po?ate, anU Citg toit*

Englilh Black.

ann te it futt^er fjerebp enaftetr, C6at rte a^a^
pois, OBaiUflf^, olotber&eatiflDfficergofetjerp
Cotott ann place co^poiate, ann Citp toitfjin
t6i0 IRealm, ijeing 3lufiice oi 3lufiice0 of Peace,
ftall |)atje tjje fame autfjo^itg bp uettue of tW
^ft, toit&in t6e Umitg anD piecinfts of tfjeir 3I«-'

Englilh Black. No 2.

antJ lie it fiittjer ^erelip enacteti, Cfjat tfie
^apoas5, IBailiffsS, o? otfjer BeaD mittt^ of
tuei;p Coton and place coapojate, anti Citp
tottSin tjjtjj Eealm, being 3luaice o? 31utticejs
of Ptace, ffiall ftaije tfte fame autljojitp, bp
uertue of tftisj aict, toitjin t6e limits anD pje-

264. Black-letter: William Caslon £s? 'S'o/z'* Specimen
London^ 1763

ENGLISH TYPES: 1500-1800 107

This faculty possessed by the Caslon ornaments of keeping
an unmistakable type quality through all their graceful
evolutions sets them apart from the innumerable offerings
of the type founders' craft as a unique group. . . . From the
point of view of the pressman, as practical w^orking types
for impressing ink into paper, they may be claimed to be
better, so far as English and American designs are con-
cerned, than any type-flowers made since their period. The
proportion of printing surface to open paper ... is excel-
lently adapted for the purposes of clean, sharp impression.
Certain ones have elements broken by tint-lines into a clear-
printing gray, and it will be observed that this tint is not the
gray of copper-plate, but has the weight and solidity of a
printing surface backed by metal" {Jigs. 265 and 266).

Ill

BASKERVILLE is the other great name in eighteenth
century English type-founding. Here we have a very
different influence emanating from a very different kind of
man. His types were not so good as Caslon's, though to an
untrained eye their fonts seem much alike ; but the slight
touch of over-delicacy which the Baskerville letter pos-
sessed was finally to develop a rival which would drive
Caslon's type, for a time, from the field. Baskerville's char-
acters had this advantage — that they were in line with the
tendency toward lighter type-forms which was coming over
European printing ; and although his fonts never had much
vogue in England, they did have an enormous influence
on the later development of English type-forms, and on the
type-forms of Europe.

John Baskerville was born in 1 706. He was first a writ-

108 PRINTING TYPES

ing-master at Birmingham, and then turned to the trade of
japanning — of trays, sniifF-boxes, etc. — in which he made
a good deal of money. In 1750, he began to interest himself
in typography. "M. Baskerville," says Fournier, "a private
individual of means, has established at Birmingham, the
town where he lives — renowned for its metal manufactures
— a paper-mill, printing-office, and type-foundry. He has
spared neither pains nor expense to bring these to the high-
est perfection. His types are cut with much spirit, his italic
being the best in any foundry in England, though the ro-
man characters are a little too broad. He has already pub-
lished some editions printed from these new types, which,
for brilliancy, are real masterpieces. Some are upon hot-
pressed paper, and although they are a little fatiguing to the
eye, one cannot deny that they are the most beautiful things
to be seen in this sort of work." ^ What Caslon did for types,
Baskerville, aided by the novel form of his letters, his black
ink, and hot-pressed rag paper, did for eighteenth century
presswork. His way of printing was so closely connected
with the effects of his fonts that they cannot be considered
apart from it.

In printing a book, Baskerville had ready a succession
of hot copper plates, and between such plates each wet
sheet was inserted as it left the press — something no eigh-
teenth century printer had up to that time attempted. The
high finish of these hot-pressed sheets — the "gloss" of his
paper — compared with that on modern papers, does not
seem to us very noticeable. His contemporaries, however,
thought otherwise, and the Abbe de Fontenai, in a notice
of Baskerville, describes it as "so glossy and of such a per-
fect polish that one would suppose the paper made of silk
rather than of linen." It is easier to understand his surprise

^Manuel Tyfiografihique , Vol. II, p. xxxix.

FLOWERS.

Double Pica Flowers,

Great Primer Flowers.

^^^P^^^^^'^J^

265. Ornaments: William Caslon ^ Son's Specimen
London^ 1763

^ii^M""'

^fi? 3S6'' iSS M-5i?^ ^JS
'•^i§^ ^^ J^^^ rai^ ^£^5

l^k

Pica Flowers.

»iQ«0»0«0<>0«0<>0«0>0«0<><©<>0'><©«<Q<><S><><S><><Q>*><S><^ l§

266. Ornaments: William Caslon ^ Son's Specimen
London^ 1763

ENGLISH TYPES: 1500-1800 109

at Baskerville's restraint in the use of decoration, for at that
date most books did not depend for their effect on typog-
raphy, but chiefly on engravings, or else woodcut ornaments
or typographic flowers. This absence of plates in Basker-
ville's books struck men of that day very forcibly. "Con-
tent with the simplicity of typographic art," says De Fon-
tenai, "the English printer has had no need to borrow aid
from engraving ; nor do we find in the editions that he has
so far published — which are admirable — plates, vignettes,
tail-pieces, ornamental letters, or, in short, any of those ac-
cessories which serve as passports, so to speak, for a worth-
less lot of French verse which, without this useful precau-
tion, would meet its just desert — oblivion."^

Baskerville spent seven or eight years in experimenting
with designs for type before a page of a book was printed,
and he made not merely his own types (cut for him by a
certain John Handy), but also his ink, and if he did not
make his own paper, he superintended its manufacture. His
first book, the Latin Virgil, which came out in 1757, estab-
lished his reputation. And in 1758, Baskerville followed up
this success with a Milton in two volumes royal octavo — a
somewhat indifferent performance — which is chiefly inter-
esting for the preface {Jig. 267) that he wrote for it.

"Amongst the several mechanic Arts that have engaged
my attention," he says, "there is no one which I have
pursued with so much steadiness and pleasure, as that of
Letter-Founding. Having been an early admirer of the
beauty of Letters, I became insensibly desirous of contrib-
uting to the perfection of them. I formed to my self Ideas
of greater accuracy than had yet appeared, and have en-
deavoured to produce a Sett of Types according to what I
conceived to be their true proportion.

*De Fontenai's Dictionnaire des Artistes, Paris, 1776, Vol. I, p. 156.

no PRINTING TYPES

"Mr. Caslon is an Artist, to whom the Republic of Learn-
ing has great obligations; his ingenuity has left a fairer
copy for my emulation, than any other master. In his great
variety of Characters I intend not to follow him ; the Ro-
man and Italic are all I have hitherto attempted ; if in these
he has left room for improvement, it is probably more owing
to that variety which divided his attention, than to any
other cause. I honor his merit, and only wish to derive some
small share of Reputation, from an Art which proves ac-
cidentally to have been the object of our mutual pursuit.

"After having spent many years, and not a little of my
fortune in my endeavours to advance this art ; I must own
it gives me great Satisfaction, to find that my Edition of
Virgil has been so favourably received. The improvement
in the Manufacture of the Paper, the Colour, and Firmness
of the Ink were not overlooked ; nor did the accuracy of
the workmanship in general, pass unregarded. If the judi-
cious found some imperfections in the first attempt, I hope
the present work will shew that a proper use has been made
of their Criticisms : I am conscious of this at least, that I
received them as I ever shall, with that degree of deference
which every private man owes to the Opinion of the public.

"It is not my desire to print many books; but such only,
as are books of Consequence, of intrinsic merit, or estab-
lished Reputation, and which the public may be pleased
to see in an elegant dress, and to purchase at such a price,
as will repay the extraordinary care and expence that must
necessarily be bestowed upon them. Hence I was desirous
of making an experiment upon some one of our best Eng-
lish Authors, among those Milton appeared the most eli-
gible."

Besides the fine and famous series of classical and Eng-
lish authors that Baskerville continued to print on his own

PREFACE.

AMONGST the feveral mechanic Arts
that have engaged my attention, there is
no one which I have purfued with fo much
fteadinefs and pleafure, as that of Letter-Found-
ing. Having been an early admirer of the beauty
of Letters, I became infenfibly defirous of con-
tributing to the perfection of them. I formed
to my felf Ideas of greater accuracy than had
yet appeared, and have endeavoured to pro-
duce a Sett of T^ypes according to what I con-
ceived to be their true proportion.

Mr, Caflon is an Artift, to whom the Repub-
lic of Learning has great obhgations; his inge-
nuity has left a fairer copy for my emulation,
than any other mafter. In his great variety of
Charadters I intend not to follow him; the Ro-
man and Italic are all I have hitherto attempt-
ed; if in thefe he has left room for improve-
ment, it is probably more owing to that variety
which divided his attention, than to any other
caufe. I honor his merit, and only wifh to
derive fome fmall fhare of Reputation, from
an Art which proves accidentally to have been
the objed; of our mutual purfuit.

After having fpent many years, and not a

A 3 little

267. Page of Baskerville's Preface to Milton, Birmingham, 1758

ENGLISH TYPES: 1500-1800 111

account, he had other irons in the fire. He cut Greek types
— and very bad they were — for Oxford. He was appointed
printer to the University of Cambridge, and produced edi-
tions of the Bible and Prayer Book — some of them most
imposing — though his types did not seem "sohd" enough
for this kind of Avork. I have chosen one or two typical
volumes for description of his types and type-setting. The
first one is the Virgil, which (in Macaulay's phrase) "went
forth to astonish all the librarians of Europe."

This book was issued in square quarto. The title-page
is set in lines of widely spaced capitals — a very charac-
teristic feature of Baskerville's work. His rather condensed
italic capitals are employed for two lines only {Jig. 268).
These italic capitals are used for running-titles, and else-
where — the F, K, J, N, Q, Y, Z being peculiarly "Bas-
kerville" in design. The book is set in great primer type,
leaded. The folios and numbers to lines of the text employ
a very calligraphic and rather disagreeable form of arabic
figure. The book is printed on hot-pressed smooth paper,
in my copy partly wove and partly laid. Very easy to read,
the volume nevertheless does not seem to me a particularly
agreeable or beautiful book, partly on account of its type,
but chiefly because the type-page is too large for its paper,
and the headings and running-titles, in restless italic capi-
tals, become too much of a feature {Jig. 269). The volume
sold at a guinea, and among the subscribers was Benjamin
Franklin, who took six copies. Perhaps among them was the
copy given by him to the Library of Harvard College, of
which he MTote (in April, 1758) that "It is thought to be
the most curiously printed of any book hitherto done in the
world." However that may be, it is a very typical example
of Baskerville's merits and defects.

In The JForks of the Late Right Honorable Joseph Addi-

112 PRINTING TYPES

soTi., Esq.^ in four quarto volumes, printed by Baskerville
for J. and R. Tonson in 1761, we have a different kind of
performance. The third volume I have chosen to discuss be-
cause it is de\^oted to The Spectator, a book so often reprinted
that its editions form a sort of conspectus of English typog-
raphy for a hundred and fifty years. To my mind, Bas-
kerville's treatment of The Spectator was most unsuccess-
ful. Running head-lines are set in italic capitals, much
spaced, so that "The" which precedes the word "Specta-
tor" has to be huddled to one side in upper and lower-
case italic. The number of the issue and its date are set
between two lines of very light type-ornament, which is
trivial and teasing. The text of the work is set in English
roman of a monotonous roundness ; for the height of the
body of the letter calls for more leading and longer ascend-
ers and descenders. On pages 432 and 433, observe the
masses of italic — gray in colour, feeble and wiry in line,
and annojnngly condensed in shape. The occasional lines
of Greek are crabbed and disagreeable — to other Greek
fonts what the italic is to "suaver" italics. The volumes may
be vastly superior in brilliancy and clearness of effect to
other books of the time, but for the text a Caslon, or even
"Fell" letter, would have been better if the same attention
had been given to press work.

A much finer book — a really very fine book — is the Latin
Juvenal and Persius, printed the same year ( 1761) in quarto.
This is very simply arranged. The argument to each Satire
is set in a large size of Baskerville's italic, and the text in
roman is more leaded than in the Virgil and accordingly
much improved. Running-titles are set in spaced italic capi-
tals. The imposition is elegant, the margins ample, the type
clear. And some of Baskerville's editions of the classics in
16mo are charming little books.

PUBLII VIRGILII

AR O N I S

BUCOLI CA,
GEORGICA,

E T

AE N E I S.

BIRMIKGHAMIAE:

Typis JOHANNIS BASKERVILLE.
MDGGLVII.

268. Title-page of Baskerozlle'' s Firgil {reduced)

83 ME. Hac te nos fragili donabimus ante cicuta.
Haec nos, Formofum Corydon ardebat Alexin:
Haec eadem docuit, Cujum pecus? an Meliboei?

MO, At tu fume pedum, quod, me quum faepe rogaret,
Non tulit Antigenes, (et erat tum dignus amari]

go Formofum paribus nodis atque aere, Menalca.

E C L G A S E X r A.

S I L E N U S.

PR IMA Syracofio dignata eft ludere verfu,
Noftra nee erubuit lilvas habitare Thalia.
Quum canerem reges et praelia, Cynthius aurem
Vellit, et admonuit: paftorem, Tityre, pingues

269. Raskerville's Type used in Virgil^ Birmingham^ 1757

ENGLISH TYPES: 1500-1800 113

Baskerville's specimen-sheet of about 1762,^ entitled A
Specimen by John Baskerville of Birmingham^ Letter- Founder
and Printer^ shows eight varieties of roman — from double
pica to brevier — and six sizes of italic. On this specimen
the roman types appear better than in the Addison. But as
Latin is employed for the paragraph vi^hich displays them,
this may be due to the many m's, n's, and u's which
Latin affords. The italic is better, though it is a very thin,
starved sort of character. The italic capital K's, and capi-
tal Q's and Z's, both in roman and italic, are interesting
{Jig. 270). As our illustration of the broadside specimen is
reduced, the reader is referred to the reproduction of Bas-
kerville's double pica roman and italic (a portion of another
broadside specimen issued about the same time), which
gives a somewhat more accurate idea of his type-design
{fig- 271).

Baskerville no doubt was eccentric, vain, and unattrac-
tive as a man; but publishers and printers were jealous of
him as a printer. They abused his type, they poked fun at
his smooth paper, and in spite of his artistic success, finan-
cially he found it by no means easy sailing. Franklin, who
loved a practical joke, in a letter written to Baskerville in
1760, tells him that hearing a friend say that Baskerville's
types would be "the means of blinding all the Readers in
the Nation owing to the thin and narrow strokes of the let-
ters," he produced a specimen of Caslon's types with Cas-
lon's name torn from it, saying it was Baskerville's, and ask-
ing for specific criticism. He was at once favoured with a
long discourse on faults so plainly apparent in the type that

* This sheet is a rare one. My copy formerly belonged to A. A. Renouard, the
French publisher and bibliophile. There is also an example in the Birming-
ham Free Libraries. Baskerville issued specimens in 1757, c. 1762 (2, one of
which is bordered), and in 1775 (2).

114 PRINTING TYPES

before the critic had finished, he complained that his eyes
were even then suffering from "Baskerville" pains !^

But Baskerville was tenacious, and persisted in printing
and publishing, though his books did not pay. Several times
during his latter years he tried to sell his types, — to the
Imprimerie Royale (through Franklin in 1767), to the Aca-
demic des Sciences at Paris, to the Court of Russia, to
Denmark, to the English Government, — without success ;
indeed, it is doubtful if he wished to succeed. For a time
he placed his establishment in the hands of his foreman,
Robert Martin, but later resumed its charge, and continued
to print and to publish until his death in 1775. After Bas-
kerville's decease, his types were hawked about; some of
them were sold in England, and the remainder bought by
Beaumarchais for his great edition of Voltaire. The chief
part of his equipment, therefore, went to France. In the up-
heaval consequent to the Revolution the history of his types
becomes obscure. An ad vertisementof their sale in Paris, cer-
tainly after 1789, is reproduced from the only copy known
{Jig. 272). Later, Baskerville's fonts were used to print
the Gazette Nationale^ on Le Moniteur Universel, the official
journal of the French Republic during "the terrible years."
Whittingham, early in the nineteenth century, used some
of them." And of late his fonts have turned up in certain
French foundries and printing-houses."^ Baskerville's types
and matrices, which should have been preserved to English
typography, through indiiference were lost to it.

^ Franklin's amusing letter, which has been so often quoted, may be found in
Straus and Dent's John Baskerville, Cambridge, 1907, p. 19.
° In 1827, Pickering published T/ie Treatyse of Fysshynge wyth an Angle
(attributed to Dame Juliana Bemers) , printed with the types of John Bas-
kerville.

^ See notice of BaskervUle type in Marius Audin's Le Livre, sa Technique,
son Architecture, Lyon, 1921, pp. 42 et seq.

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Great Primer Roman,

TANDEM aliquando, Quirites ! L.
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entem, vobis atque huic urbi ferrum flam-
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r AN DEM aliquando, Quirites I L.
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anhelantem, pejlem patriae nefarie moli-
ABCDEFGHIJKLMX.

Great Primer Italic.

rAXDEM aliquando, Qiiiritesl L, Ca-
tilinam furentem audacia, fcelus anhe-
lantem, peflem patrice nefarie molientem, vobis
atque huic urbi ferrum flammamque minitan-
AB CDEFGHIJKLMJSrOPtlR.

271. Types from Baskei'Ville's bordered Broadside Specimen
Birmingham^ c. 1762

d£p6t

DES CARACTfeRES

BASKERVILLE,

PORTE SAINT-ANTOINE, entre la rue Amelot
et le Boulevard, N° i , vis-a-vis les ruines de la Baflille.

iiK?

i_iE Depot de la Fonderie de Baskerville, qui presentc aux Imprimeurs une ressource
nouvelle en ce ^enre, contient les Caracteres ci-apres denommes:

Triple Canon.
Double Canon.
Gros Canon.
Petit Canon.
Paleftine.

S A V I R,

Gros Parangon.
Gros Roniain.
Saint-Augustin.
Cicero gros ceil.
Cicero petit ceil.

Petit Romain gros ceil.
Petit Romain petit oeil.
Petit Texte.
Mignone.
Nompareille.

Ces Caracteres, fondus sur la meme hauteur, ne laissent rien a desirer pour la perfection
de rexecution, et Ton n'a de memc rien cpargne pour la bonte de la matiere, objetdans
lequel les Connaisseurs trouveront un avantage qui ne leur echappera pas.

Ce Depot ofFre aux Citoyens- Imprimeurs et Amateurs en typographic, la facilite de
se pourvoir sur le champ de tout ce dont ils peuvent avoir besom, tant en Fontes quen
Assortimens de toute espece.

Le Directeur du Depot pent livrer sur le champ de quoi monter une Imprimerie
de 3o Presses, en Fontes les plus amples, fussent-elles chacune de 25 a 3o feuilles, depuis
le Gros Romain jusqu'a la Mignone inclusivement.

Cette Affiche, exccutee avec les Caracteres de Baskerville, indique aux uns et aux
autres ce qu'ils peuvent se procurer pour tons les ouvrages de ce genre.

Les Amateurs peuvent se procurer de ces Caracteres assortis en aussi petite quantite qu'ils le
voudront, ainsi que tous les Assortimens, Ornemens, et en general tous Ustensiles d'Imprimerie.

On distribiiera un Essai d'Epreuves desdits Caracteres, avec Icurs piix. en attendant le Sjiccwiai ou Lime dfycuves
de lout ce que contient la Fonderie de Basuerville, a la confection duqucl on travaille.

S'adresser au Citoyen COLAS, Dcposilaire desdits CaiacUrcs, aii Dcjiul ci-dessns ; ou a sa demcure,
Tue Sainl-Anloine , pres la Place de la Liberie , Porte cochcre N° 161.

272. Advertisement of Sale of Baskerville'' s Types ^ Paris ^ after 1789 {reduced)

ENGLISH TYPES: 1500-1800 115

The only ornaments Baskerville possessed were, appar-
ently, fourteen forms of "flowers," which, rather thin in de-
sign, accorded very well with his types {Jigs. 273 «;7c/274).
But he seldom used them, and his best books have no orna-
ments at all.

As we look at Baskerville's specimen-sheets, the fonts ap-
pear very perfect, and yet somehow they have none of the
homely charm of Caslon's letter. It is true that the types try
the eye. Baskerville's contemporaries, who also thought so,
attributed this to his glossy paper and dense black ink.
Was this the real fault? The difficulty was, I fancy, that in
his type-designs the hand of the writing-master betrayed
itself, in making them too even, too perfect, too "genteel,"
and so they charmed too apparently and artfully — with
a kind of finical, sterile refinement. The excellent Johann
Gottlob Immanuel Breitkopf remarked that these types re-
sembled copper-plate engraving; and the Leipsic gentle-
man was partly right.

Nor was Baskerville's type-setting as original as is nowa-
days supposed. Tonson had printed title-pages without ru-
brication or surrounding rules many years before, and he
and William Bowyer,^ too, had used spaced roman and italic
capitals in what we consider Baskerville's peculiar manner.
Hanmer's edition of Shakespeare, which antedated Basker-
ville's first book, shows a method of employing "flowers" to
which Baskerville was singularly addicted ; and he was no
doubt greatly influenced by the Foulis editions in the open-
ness of his title-pages.

The more we think of Baskerville, the more he appears to
be an eclectic, whose types were the result of fashions in
calligraphy and whose presswork was an attempt to emu-
late on paper the finish of japanning. He put his books to-

* As in Bowyer's edition of Pope's Works, printed for Lintot in 1717.

116 PRINTING TYPES

gether ingeniously; but they were in the nature of a pas-
tiche^ and not a simple, healthy growth — or so it seems to
me. Thus his editions, however ambitious, are not quite the
"real thing." If in most English printing of Baskerville's
day, the presswork had not been strong and masculine,
and much of the paper so rough in texture, perhaps the
note of delicacy in his work would not have given it the
reputation it enjoyed. Nevertheless, Baskerville was a great
printer, because he had something individual to say — even
though he perhaps "quoted" his more ornamental phrases
— and he had the courage to say it, and say it persistently,
and so he made himself heard. He was not among the world's
greatest printers, because what he had to say was not in
itself great. When we look at his books we think of Bas-
kerville ; while to look at the work of Jenson is to think but
of its beauty, and almost to forget that it was made with
hands !

THERE is no denying that Baskerville had great in-
fluence on English type-forms. To know hoxv much he
had, look at the specimen-sheets of Wilson of Glasgow,
of Moore and the Frys of Bristol and London, and indeed
of the later Caslons, and see how his types were imitated.
Types somewhat like these Baskerville types still exist, a
letter transitional between the early Caslon fonts and those
of the later period of Wilson ; and some of them are better
than Baskerville's and more useful for modern work than
the more irregular types of Caslon.

Wilson and Fry are important names in English type-
founding. Alexander Wilson, a Scotchman, born in 1714,
was educated as a physician. A chance visit to a type-
foundry interested him so much that, with a friend named

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ENGLISH TYPES: 1500-1800 117

Baine, he attempted an improved system of type-casting.
This coming to nothing, they set up on a small scale a type-
foundry at St. Andrews in 1742. Baine later left Wilson to
go into business for himself; and Wilson (who had mean-
while removed his foundry to Camlachie) fell in with the
famous brothers Foulis — Robert and Andrew — printers
to the University of Glasgow. For them he cut some cele-
brated Greek types which they used in their Homer. The
foundry was removed to Glasgow, and Wilson accepting a
post as professor of astronomy in the University, its man-
agement fell to his sons. Their earliest specimen was dated
1772. A specimen in broadside form came out in 1783 and
illustrated an article on printing in Chambers' Cyclopaedia.
It shows a selection only of Wilson's types, but exhibits
fonts of roman and italic from six-line pica to pearl, and five
sizes of black-letter. Of Greek types there are five sizes (the
double pica being that of the Homer), and there are six sizes
of Hebrew. All these fonts (with the exception of the tAvo
larger "blacks") have been made more regular and me-
chanical than Caslon's types, and, especially in mass, lack
their colour {Jig. 275). If we compare Wilson's specimen
of 1783 with Caslon's specimen of 1763, it is surprising
to see how "rude" the Caslon letters appear. On the other
hand, Wilson's types are not Baskerville's characters, for
these were shorter and broader, and the italic much more
like pen-work. Wilson's fonts clearly show the Baskerville
influence, and yet somehow quite miss Baskerville's bril-
liancy. The monotonous grayness of the letter in pages, not
disagreeably noticeable in large types, becomes marked as
sizes decrease. It is particularly apparent in the fonts below
pica, in the Specimen of Printing Types issued by Wilson
at Glasgow in 1786 — which shows Wilson's merits and
defects better than the broadside just mentioned.

118 PRINTING TYPES

Wilson's types, as I have said, were almost entirely used
by the brothers Foulis. Their smsiWev Jbr?nats were cheaper,
more popular, and better known than their folios, and in
them they popularized invertebrate sorts of fonts which
were lifeless and dull in effect ; and the reputation which
they had made through the types of the folios cloaked the
sins of the 12mos! Printers who did not use these types
printed books that had the same faults — volumes like Dr.
Charles Burney's History of Music, in four quarto volumes
(London, 1776-79), or the first edition of White's Natural
History of Selhome, printed by Bensley in 1789 in quarto;
and other similarly "drab" performances. For some reason
or other such books were often printed on a bluish-white
paper, in an ink brown, rather than black. I fear we must
count Foulis and Wilson as poor influences on contempo-
rary English printing.

The owners of the Fry type-foundry at Bristol were in-
telligent, painstaking men, and its output stood very high
in its day. Joseph Fry and William Pine, a Bristol printer,
started the establishment in 1764, under the style of Fry &
Pine. Fry — a typographic Vicar of Bray — was much in-
fluenced by other people's work; and at first, under the direc-
tion of Isaac Moore, a type-founder who was made part-
ner, this foundry produced letters modelled on Baskerville's.
The very rare specimen-sheet of Isaac Moore & Co., Bris-
tol, shows their output in 1766 {^fig. 276). But there was a
prejudice against Baskerville's types, and, Moore having
retired about 1776, the firm — J. Fry & Co. — put aside their
imitations of Baskerville and spent some years in imitating
Caslon. They were able but bare-faced copyists, and openly
announced in the advertisement to their specimen of 1785
that they had cut types "which will mix with and be totally
unknown from the most approved Founts made by the late

Two Lines Great Primer.

Quoufque tand-
em abutere, Cati-
lina, patientia no-

ABCDEFGI

Italick,

§luoufque tandem a-
butere, Catilina, pa-
tientia nojlra ? quam-

Two Lines English.

Quoufque tandem a-
butere, Catilina, pati-
entia noftra? quam-

ABCDEFGHI

Italick.

^oiifque tandem abutere^
Catilina^ patientia nojlra?

275. Portion of Wilson's Broadside Specimen^ Glasgoxv., 1783

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° .2 5 -S o s § t E ■:= °=i

C^ (i O.J1 u c c o.-= <

ENGLISH TYPES: 1500-1800 119

ingenious artist, William Caslon" — which vexed the Cas-
lons exceedingly. How much it vexed them may be seen in
the Address to the Public prefixed to the Caslon specimen
of 1785:

"The acknowledged Excellence of this Foundry," says
the Address, "with its rapid Success, as well as its unexam-
pled Productions, having gained universal Encomiums, on
its ingenious Improver and Perfecter, (whose uncommon
Genius transferred the Letter-Foundry Business from Hol-
land to England, which, for above Sixty Years, has received,
for its Beauty and Symmetry, the unbounded Praises of the
Literati, and the liberal Encouragement of all the Master-
printers and Booksellers, not only of this Country, but of all
Europe and America,) has excited the Jealousy of the En-
vious, and the Desires of the Enterprising, to become Par-
takers of the Reward due to the Descendants of the Im-
prover of this most useful and important Art. They endea-
vour by every Method to withdraw, from this Foundry, that
which they silently acknowledge is its indisputable Right :
Which is conspicuous by their very Address to the Public,
wherein they promise (in Order to induce Attention and En-
couragement) that they will use their utmost Endeavours
to IMITATE the Productions of this Foundry: Which Asser-
tion, on Inspection, will be found to be impracticable, as the
Imperfections cannot correspond in Size. The Proprietor of
this Foundry, ever desirous of retaining the decisive Su-
periority in his Favour, and full of the sincerest Gratitude
for the distinguished Honour, by every Work of Reputa-
tion being printed from the elegant Types of the Chiswell-
street Manufactory, hopes, by every Improvement, to retain
and merit a Continuance of their established Approbation,
which, in all Quarters of the Globe, has given it so acknow-
ledged an Ascendency over that of his Opponents."

120 PRINTING TYPES

A Specimen of Printing Types^ by Kdmund Fry and Co.,
Letter-Founders to the Prince of Wales, appeared in 1787,
and was reprinted in Stower's abridged edition of Smith's
Printers Grammar, which was issued in that year. This
shows the Frys' imitations of Caslon's types, and Stower's
note introductory to the specimen says : " The plan on which
they first sat out, \a as an improvement of the Types of the
late Mr. Baskerville of Birmingham, eminent for his in-
genuity in this line, as also for his curious Printing, many
proofs of which are extant, and much admired: But the
shape of Mr. Caslon's Type has since been copied by them
with such accuracy as not to be distinguished from those
of that celebrated Founder." (!) Some of the Frys' type cer-
tainly closely resembled Caslon's; but, in the main, their
types were more open and finished than even Wilson's — or
at least became so. As might be expected from so "learned"
a foundry — for the proprietors were learned — they had a
large selection of Hebrew types and some interesting forms
of Persian, Arabic, Ethiopic,etc., the result of judicious pur-
chases at the sale of the James foundry in 1782 — in which
year Edmund and Henry Fry were admitted to the busi-
ness. The "flowers" in this book are of a rather lighter char-
acter than those in Caslon's specimens — lightened to har-
monize with the type.

In 1787, Joseph Fry retired. He left the business in the
hands of his sons. Edmund Fry, a scholarly man, was the
author of Pantographia, a book on which he spent some six-
teen years of research. It shows more than two hundred al-
phabets — thirty-nine of Greek alone. In 1794, Dr. Fry took
Isaac Steele into partnership. Their specimen of 1 795 ^ shows
that, in view of the prevailing fashions, types of the Bas-

* A Sfiecimen of Printing Ti/fies by Fry and Steele, Letter Founders to the
F^ince of Wales, Tyfie Street, London. Printed by T. Rickaby, 1795.

Two Lines English.

Quoufque tandem abu-
tere Catilina, patientia
noftra? quamdiu nos e-

ABCDEFGHIJKL

Quoufque tandem abutere^
Catilina^ patientia nojlra?
quamdiu nos etiam furor

ABCDEFGHIJKLMN

Two Lines Pica.

Quoufque tandem abutere,
Catilma, patientia noftra ?
quamdiu nos etiam furor

ABCDEFGHIJKLMN

Quoufque tandem abutere^ Ca-
tilina^ patientia nojira? quam
diu nos etiam furor ijie tuus e

ABCDEFGHIJKLMN

277. Roman and Italic: Fry and Steele's Specimen., London., 1795

ENGLISH TYPES: 1500-1800 121

kerville style were again resuscitated {Jigs. 277 and 278).
A comparison between the broadside specimen of 1785, the
specimen-book of 1787, and that of 1795, shows these puz-
zling see-saws of taste, with the last of which, undoubtedly,
Didot and Bodoni abroad, and Bulmer and Martin at home,
had something to do. Fry's Type Street Letter Foundry, as
it was called, was ultimately acquired by the proprietors of
the Fann Street Foundry, represented in our own day by
Stephenson, Blake & Company.

Finally, the Caslons themselves became involved in the
new movement, and in a specimen published in 1798^ many
of their types and ornaments are distinctly of the school
of Wilson and Fry [fgs. 279 and 280). Thus the taste for
lighter book-printing was carrying all before it by 1800.

Joseph Jackson (1733-1792), who has been mentioned
as apprentice to the first Caslon, and who was, later, a rival
of William Caslon II, is chiefly remembered for his clever
cutting of "pecuhar" fonts — such as the "Domesday" char-
acter, and his Greek types copying the letter of the Alexan-
drian Codex. This last character, reproducing an earlier,
like font, was magnificently employed by John Nichols in
his great folio edition of Woide's Novum Testamentum Gras-
<7«/?2, based on the Codex A/exandrinus, printed in 1786 at the
expense of the Trustees of the British Museum. Jackson's
roman letter, which more concerns us, was of a style that
also took a middle course between the old-fashioned Caslon
and the more modern Baskerville letter — somewhat like the
earlier Wilson fonts. Macklin's Bible, printed by Bensley
in seven ponderous folio volumes, is the best example of
a book printed from these new double English roman types.
When the Bible was printed as far as Numbers, Jackson

A Sfiecimen of Printing Typ.es by Wm. Caslon, Letter- Founder to the King.
London : Printed by C. Whittingham, 1798.

122 PRINTING TYPES

died, and his foundry was bought by William Caslon III,
with whom Bensley refused to have dealings. So Vincent
Figgins I cut a similar font in which the Bible was com-
pleted. He was disappointed in succeeding to Jackson's
foundry by Caslon's purchase of it, and he set up a foun-
dry of his own, which for the period w as one of the best.
Figgins' Bible type was used for Bensley's fine edition of
Thomson's Seasons, of 1797 — a fact recorded on the title-
page thereto. He was also responsible for some other fonts,
which had a good deal of popularity, and may be described
as a sort of modified old style, although not the "modified
old style" now in use. His first specimen-book — issued in
1792 — was printed for him by Bensley. Figgins' Greek
types cut for the University Press, Oxford, a Persian type
for Ouseley the Orientalist, an English Telegu font for the
East India Company, and various fonts of Domesday char-
acters attest his talents and reputation. Vincent Figgins I
died in 1844.

A founder eminent in the late eighteenth century was
Thomas Cottrell, another of Caslon's old apprentices, whose
foundry attained unfortunate prominence in the hands of
Robert Thorne, who bought it in 1794; but whose "bold-
faced" changes (in more senses than one) in its product
were reserved for the early years of the nineteenth century.

To understand the causes of the revival of English print-
ing which marked the last years of the century, we must
remember that by 1775 Baskerville was dead; that An-
drew Foulis died in the same year, and Robert in 1776.
There seems to have been a temporary lull in English fine
printing and the kind of type-founding that contributed to
it. The wood-engraving of Thomas Bewick, produced about
1780, called, nevertheless, for more brilliant and delicate

Englifh.

27 ^4^4^tI^'^'^lI^'^I!^'^4^
28

:3U

32 ♦♦♦♦♦♦♦♦xxxxxxxx^

33
34

######<##

Pica.

s'^^<! >^< i'^-'^.' >*?§« t^5'< v^^i x^t if.^i i^t i^t y^i ><??''' ^i if^i y^ y^ y^ y^.-^v
V^ "sll* "si" "i^ 3 ^ "s e" 'Sf^ 'B?' "sf ^ 3^ 'i;i/^ y.f' '^^^ 'Sv? '\^#'' '^*? "&

5
6

C*^AO fr*-^': C-v^-j CXyO C^K^O C<*^ C%*<1 C:^/*^; t7:»Xi CVO Oj^J {?VJ CV^i CX/O OoO f** -'■-j C%>-3 (

278. Ornaments: Fry and Steele s Specimen^ London^ 1795

Great Primer Roman, No. 2.

Quousque tandem abutere, Catilina, pa-
tientia nostra ? quamdiu nos etiam furor
iste tuus eludet? quern ad finem sese ef-
frenata jactabit audacia? nihilne te noc-
turnum prsesidium palatii, nihil urbis
vigilias, nihil timor populi, nihil consen-
sus bonorum omnium, nihil hie muni-
tissimus habendi senatus locus, nihil ho-
rum ora vultusque moverunt ? patera
tua consilia non sentis ? constrictam jam
omnium horum conscientia teneri con-
jurationem tuam non vides ? quid prox-
ima, quid superiore, nocte egeris, ubi

ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRS

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Great Primer Italic, No. 2.

Quoiisqiie tandem abutere^ Catilina^ p.a-
tientia nostra f quamdiu nos etiam furor
iste tuns eludet f quern ad finem sese ef-
frenata jactabit audacia ? niliilne te ?ioc-
turnum jirasidium Jialatii, nihil urbis vi-
gilia, 7tihil timor liojiuli^ nihil consensus
bonorum omnium^ nihil hie munitissimus
habendi senatus locus, nihil horum ora
vultusque moverunt f fiatere tua consilia

ABCDEFGHIKLMNOPdRSTU

1234567890

279. Transitional Types: Caslon Specimen^ London^ 1798

Great Primer FJowers.

7
8
9

13
15
17

m.'^^'i

«^to <;:>«?> f^p> f^Uf^ f^^U^ <^iK^ f^/^ 'W^ '^^S^ '^>L'^ ^'k'^ /fi^

/ C?)^ Oj^* Oj'' C?)J C?3-' Vj^J <^ J Vj/*!-' «^

))iL'T));

^^-#^"^^"^

35.

English Flowers.

4 ^^^^^^^^^-^^^^

5 ^<^^<^^<^.^<^s^<^>A<^^^

280. Ornaments: Caslon Specimen^ London^ 1798

ENGLISH TYPES: 1500-1800 123

letter-press than either Caslon's or Wilson's types could
supply. If Baskerville's fonts had been available, no doubt
they would have served; but some were scattered among
English printers and the greater part were in France. So
the next experiments in typography w^ere made by a little
coterie composed of the Boydells, the Nicols, the Bewicks
(Thomas and John), and Bulmer. While the Foulis and
Wilson influence had helped a taste for lighter effects in
type, this new group sought brilliant effects for their print-
ing. It was natural, therefore, to turn to a type-cutter who
worked in the "tradition" of Baskerville.

Such a one was William Martin, who learned his trade,
apparently, at Baskerville's foundry. He was brother to Rob-
ert Martin, who was for a long time in Baskerville's employ.
About 1786, he came to London as punch-cutter to George
Nicol (bookseller to George III), the originator of the plan
for the "Boyd ell Shakspeare." He was employed by Nicol
"to cut sets of types after approved models in imitation of
the sharp and fine letter used by the French and Italian
printers" — by whom Didot and Bodoni were, I suppose,
meant. Now this is just what Martin did — more Anglice.
And when the Shakspeare Press was set up with Bulmer
in command, Martin was master of a sort of "private foun-
dry" in connection therewith. His types were used in the
"Boydell Shakspeare," the first part of which appeared in
1791, in the Milton of 1794-97, and in Poems by Goldsmith
and Pamell oi 1795. These books will be discussed later.
Martin's types, both roman and italic, were cut to imitate
Baskerville's, but with certain fortunate individualities. A
more "modern" quality had crept into these fonts, but they
were very splendid of their kind.

It has been the fashion to disparage the types of this
post-Baskerville movement ; but when an authority says

124 PRINTING TYPES

that "the revival or re-invention of wood engraving by Be-
wick about 1780 had no good effect on printing, the new
illustrations being too delicate to print well with type," is
this entirely fair? It is not true of books like the Goldsmith
and Parnell, illustrated by the Bewicks and printed from
Martin's types. These new illustrations did print well with
type, though with type some persons dislike. Whether or
not we wholly approve of such types or books, the press-
work is often splendid, the types are fine of their kind, the
books reflect the taste of their day, and the performance as
a whole "hangs together."

William Martin cut some Greek and Oriental fonts, but
he will be best remembered by his wonderful roman and
italic — fonts skilfully employed by McCreery in his poem
The Press (1803) — and the splendid form of modern face
letter used by Bulmer in Dibdin's bibliographical works.
Martin died in the summer of 1815. 1 am glad to place this
sprig of rosemary to the memory of a master of his art,
whose work closes a chapter in English letter-founding.^

ENGLISH books between 1500 and 1800 are impor-
tant to us as the sources from which most of our pres-
ent-day styles in printing are derived. The sixteenth century
is an archaic period typographically in England, and its

* Martin never issued, I think, a specimen of his foundry, but a selection of
his types, as employed by John McCreery of Liverpool, is shown — to no
very great advantage — in ji Sfiecimen of Improved Tyfies of G. F. Har-
ris, Printer, successor to Air. John McCreery, Houghton Street, Liverfiool
(1807) . This was the only provincial printing-house owning any of Martin's
fonts. They were cast for its collection by arrangement with Bulmer and
Nicol. The "Shakspeare" types are said to be numbered 16, 17, 18, 19,
20, 21, 22, 23, 26, and 27. Martin's foundry, for a short period after his
death, was continued by Bulmer. A portion of its material appears to have
been sold to the Caslons in 1817.

ENGLISH TYPES: 1500-1800 125

interest is mainly historical. While in the seventeenth cen-
tury English books are less archaic, its traditions have but
little effect on our printing to-day. But eighteenth century
work, especially after the advent of Caslon, has a close con-
nection with nineteenth and twentieth century printing; and
the influence of its somewhat dubious taste is shown, in
recent years, in American books and especially in ephem-
eral typography. The books used to illustrate the progres-
sion of English type-forms during these three centuries are
chosen from the rank and file of volumes of their respective
periods — although among them there are some remarkable
specimens of book-making.

§1

"William Herman's Fulgaria — a book of common Eng-
lish phrases with their Latin equivalents — was printed by
Pynson at London in 1519. The border on its title-page is
an adaptation of a familiar Italian design. The title within
it is set wholly in roman type. The prefatory matter em-
ploys the same roman fonts, and the body of the book is
set in two sizes of roman. Divisions of subject begin with
woodcut initials, or spaces for painted initials. The book is
an early example of a volume printed throughout in roman
fonts ; and in appearance is rather more like Continental
work than current English printing {Jig. 255).

A second sixteenth century book is Gower's Confessio
Amantis, printed by Berthelet in 1532. The text is set
chiefly in two sizes of black-letter midway between batarde
and lettre de forme ^ but the preface employs a purely Eng-
lish lettre de forme. Latin quotations are set in roman —
a beautiful font — and running-titles in roman capitals.
This mixture of roman and black-letter types is a sign of
decadence, and prefigured a period when the role of the

126 PRINTING TYPES

two types \^ouId be reversed, and black-letter would be
used only for "displayed" lines and such-like. Berthelet was
a Frenchman, and this book has a certain workmanlike
quality, and indeed elegance, which is somewhat French,
and its title-page is ornamented after a design by Tory.
The Gower, and books by Sir Thomas Elyot, are consid-
ered among Berthelet's best productions {Jig. 28 1).

The year 1532 is also the date of the first collected edi-
tion of Chaucer's TForks^ printed by Thomas Godfrey of
London. The text is composed in a French lettre batarde^
but an English lettre de forme is used as an ornamental
letter, for display on the very handsome bordered title-page,
and elsewhere. The Preface is also set in it — and a line of
roman letter is used at least once {Jig. 282). Ten years later
(1542), a second edition appeared, printed by Pynson, also
set in black-letter, but entirely of the English variety — a
rather solid lettre de forme — a consistently Gothic book and
purely English in type-forms and in taste. The poems in
both these editions are set in double column {fig. 283).

The Cosmographicall Glasse, by William Cunningham,
a Norwich physician, was printed by John Day in 1559,
and has been called "a real landmark in English book-pro-
duction. In addition to its fine types, this book is noted for its
woodcut diagrams and pictorial capitals, ornamental title-
page, large map of Norwich and ... a strong and vigorous
portrait of the author."^ As a piece of printing, nothing bet-
ter had hitherto appeared in England. It shows the influ-
ence of foreign typography {fig. 284). Day's device, which
appears at the end of the volume, should be noticed.

In 1570, John Day printed in folio the Elements of Ge-

* The copy in the British Museum has been skilfully reproduced in facsimile
by the Oxford University Press (1905).
'Pollard's Fine Books, p. 260.

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ivTHE SECO^T>E 'BOOKIE OF

the Cofmograbhtcall Glajfe:in'fi?hkb is plainly expnjfed tJ?e

Order, and NHmbeyyOf^>ies,Paral/eles,and Climates. Alfofiiti-

dry waits for th' exaHc fndyng out of the Meridians Line:

The Lon^tude,& La^tHde,ofplaces:ufith many other

precepteSjhelongyng to the makjng of a

Carte^or Mappe,

5^ S^oud^uSc

O'R^HSVSTHE

Godofdreames, mth his
Jlepie rodde,lo much this
lafi night frequented my
compame^that(mj> bodje
taking reB)mj mind was
much more buftlie traue-

^ \ling infuch conclujions as

_ "^ ^Ihad learnid ofThiloni"

CHS, the it vpaj in the time of his teaching, Forfome time
Alorphemjhen^edme the Sonne ^in the tropicke ofCa^
fricornefarre in the South, among the cloudy eff^ies, as ^^^itrrZ
he comenly is the,i7^,day of December: And next he ap- pi^HCapri-
peredin tySquinoBiallpointes^as it is the tenth daye ofi'^ ^°t^ ^i"'-
March, and theA/\.. ofSepteb.willing me with great di L.
liges to note that par allele circle. Shortly after the f one
appeared in the tropic/^ of Cancer, in Mphiche place he is j„ theTropic^.
the, 12 . daye ofIune,c.au/ing in our region the logeU day °f
in theyere.(^ imediatly the time femed as itwere mid^
night,^^^ Charles JVayne,mth Bootes, (s^ diners other
Ikrres, turned about the ^ole^utashe woldhaue ca^
riedme about the heaues, to haueJhemdmethe3\(orth

F.iij. CroMpne

284. Page of Cunningham s Cosmographicall Glasse
Day^ London^ 1559 (reduced)

■Canar.

ENGLISH TYPES: 1500-1800 127

ometrie of the Most Auncient Philosopher Euclide ofMegara^
composed in ronian and italic fonts. The title is set in small
panels within a woodcut border, and is followed by the
translator's address, set in Day's imposing italic. Then
comes a mathematical "Praeface," set in two sizes of a
fairly handsome and evenly cut roman type of early design,
and the folding-table or "ground-plat" accompanying it
may be studied as a specimen of the various fonts in Day's
office. In the body of the book the "propositions" are ar-
ranged in a large italic letter, and "demonstrations" in a
smaller size of it. Both are good, free, lively, old style italic
fonts. The old style roman letter used with them is like
that of the Preface. Diagrams are placed within the area
of the text pages, but arranged without much sense of style.
Beginning \vith the seventh Book, the type employed is re-
duced in size, and from this point the work is less interest-
ing. Though some of Day's types are exceedingly fine, and
the general effect of the volume is imposing, the presswork
is wretchedly uneven, the paper too thin, and when closely
examined it is not a really successful piece of work. It lacks
the taste and lucidity shown in French books of like nature.
Another book of Day's, showing his use of black-letter,
is the 1571 edition of Roger Ascham's Scholemaster. Here
the title-page is set chiefly in italic type, the Dedicatory
Epistle in italic, and the Preface in roman — both rather
roughly executed fonts and by no means well printed.
Though the text of the book is black-letter, all tabulated
matter is set in italic, English poetry in roman, Latin verse
in italic, roman is used for proper names, and here and
there a very good Greek font is introduced {fig. 285). In
short, black-letter is being invaded on every hand. The book
shows care in execution, and is attractive in spite of its
hodge-podge of types.

128 PRINTING TYPES

Thomas Walsingham's Historia Brevis (covering reigns
from Edward I to Henry V) was printed at London by
Henry Bynneman. The woodcut border on the carefully
arranged title-page is extraordinarily well engraved and
beautifully printed. The text is set throughout in roman and
italic type. The Preface, which begins with a very elegant
woodcut initial, is composed in Day's noble italic letter.
The Chronicle is printed in a small but excellent roman
character, very even in cut, and reminiscent of early Conti-
nental fonts. Each "reign" begins with a large initial, cut
on wood, and lines at the ends of sections are tapered, or
arranged in an ornamental fashion recalling Italian print-
ing — indeed, the composition is more like Continental than
current English work. It is far ahead of most English books
of its time in simplicity of arrangement and excellence of
workmanship. Bynneman printed the Historia at Arch-
bishop Parker's expense in 1574, and it was bound up and
published with Walsingham's Ypodigma Neustriae and the
^Ifredi Regis Res Gestae^ both printed by Day in the same
year.

North's translation of Plutarch's Lives, printed by Vau-
trollier in 1579, enjoys the reputation of being one of the
finest books issued in Elizabeth's reign, and for that reason
I advise its examination by the student, though it is by no
means a beautiful book, judged by present standards.

Our last sixteenth century example is Adam Islip's folio
Chaucer, printed at London in 1598. Its prefatory matter
is set in roman and italic, with some black-letter inter-
mingled — and in the large sizes the first two types are re-
spectable fonts. The text, however, is set in black-letter in
double column — roman and italic being employed only for
lines to be displayed. In other words, the printer had come
to use roman and italic types just as we should now use

J^Thc fecond Booke. 51

as H fain befo^e,Cl^al come m

nes in tranJlating, tijen to a
ripe 9 tkilMl cljoire tn mar^
^ing outl3t0t)t;pointe$>a0»

^f. Prcprium.
2.TrafjJIatum,

^, Contrmmn,
J. Diuerfum.
\ S. Phrafcs,

%\itnUU to daDerl»it&ftimsi^ea?)Da5lsl3ntote, ^.^^^^
fomc babe of TuMie,astbetIjiri3b®keof C^piftlctf tWm *
ootb^Sturmius,</f ^w/f:irM,^«?Sfw^?«^^, ojtijat epceilent
C^ptmeconeetninsalmoft tbetobolefirftbofee adQ^fr^:
fomc ComeOie of Terence o; Plaiitvsibut in Plautus, ffti^ Tfrentim^
fuUcfjpifemuabeetjfeeb^tbsCpaiaer, totraine bi^^cbo^ />/^«,«,,
fereo a iuogcmenMn cutting out perfectly oaerolcf i tn*
proper tuojDc0: Caef. Commftarica are to bee reab toitb all /.v/,ay;,r,
curtoatte,tobcrin efpectalli? loitbout al cpceptio to be mabc,
eitber b? frcno o j foe, 10 feene , tbc bnfpottes pjop^ietic of
tbe 3latin tong, cuen tubcn \i teas, as tbe CDrecians fat?, \xi
dxfx-;,, tbat is, at J bigbeft pitcb of all perfbctnejf, oj fome ^i
rationsofT.Liuius,fucba0beebotblongeftaniiplainea. ^^'•««-

2nbefeba)!tc0,3i UioulQbaue bim rcaunoto, agmboeale
at euerr lecture : fo j bee Ojall not not» W ml'2 tranOation,
hut onelr conttrue againe, ano parfc , fobcre ^c fufpctt, is
mv naeoc: ^et,lct him not omitte in tbefe bafecgjbis fo;mer
epercife, in marking Diligently, anb touting o;iOerlB out
bis Uvz point f s. jano fo? tran0ating,bfc ^ou ^our felfc,cne^
r^ fccono o^ tbirs Dap , to cbofe o«t,fome Cpiftle ad<iAttt»
f«w, fome nofable common place out of bi« i^Djations, o>
fome ot^er part ofTulUe,b2 tour Difcrction, iubi£l)l!0«r

l^.iij, fcljoler

285. Page of Ascharn's Scholemaster^ showing Roman^ Italic
and Black-letter: Day^ London^ 1571

ENGLISH TYPES: 1500-1800 129

black-letter — as an "occasional" type for display or orna-
ment. The unity of effect seen in the editions of Chaucer
of 1532 and 1542 has disappeared; and black-letter type
(which survived for poetry and romances into the next cen-
tury, for Bibles and prayer books until the end of the seven-
teenth century/ and which was still used for legal books
in the eighteenth century) is giving way to roman letters.
This edition is interesting only for that reason.

The end of the sixteenth and the beginning of the sev-
enteenth century was signalized by the appearance of
Shakespeare's Plays, both separately in quarto, and collec-
tively in folio. The first quarto was Venus and Adonis,
printed in 1593. The first folio appeared in 1623. The
quartos, now the most valuable, but then sold for about six-
pence, were printed from rough roman types, with rather
heavy title-pages, in which capitals and lower-case letters
were used for titles quite indiscriminately. The folios were
printed in double column, with the text in roman and the
names of the characters in italic; and although the prefa-
tory matter was set in handsome type, the body of the work
had from a printer's standpoint no particular typographi-
cal interest. The quartos had no more beauty than one
would expect in a cheap edition of a popular play. They
are mentioned here solely because of their place in litera-

' The first Prayer Book of Edward VI, printed by Whitchurch, appeared in
1549; and the Book of Common Praier, musically "noted" by Merbecke,
was printed by Grafton, in 1550. These were black-letter books. Prayer
books and liturgies were printed in black-letter until the beginning of the
eighteenth centuiy. The first English Bible (printed abroad, probably at
Zurich), in 1535, was executed in black-letter. Cranmer's English Bible of
1539 (Whitchurch) was a black-letter book. The first edition of the King
James "Authorized Version" of 1611 was set in English black-letter, with
contents of chapters set in roman. Bibles and prayer books are so much in a
class by themselves, that I have not usually employed them as examples of
printing.

130 PRINTING TYPES

ture ; and they have a literature of their own. The first edi-
tion of Shakespeare in which much typographical excel-
lence was attempted, was printed at the University Press,
Oxford, in the eighteenth century.^

§2

Seventeenth century English books, save legal works, some
Bibles and prayer books, and survivals of "vernacular"
black-letter in romances and poetry, were almost entirely
printed from roman and italic fonts ; yet they have an ar-
chaic appearance, due in part to crude types, but even more
to antique spelling. Title-pages were sometimes decorated
with engravings on metal, sometimes with impressions from
wood-blocks, and more often merely surrounded with double
rules or panels of type ornament.

Our first seventeenth century example is Philemon Hol-
land's translation of Pliny's Natural History, printed in two
folio volumes, by Adam Islip, in 1601. It is set throughout
in roman and italic types of even (and early) cut. The first
two or three lines of its title-page are, I think, printed from
wood-blocks. The subject of each chapter is displayed in
handsome italic, and the chapter itself usually begins with
a three-line initial, except when a chapter contains but two
lines ! Head-lines to pages are set in large old style lower-
case roman letters; proems — or Arguments — in italic;
marginal notes in tiny roman and italic types. Woodcut

' An interesting comparison may be made between the Shakespeare Folios of
1623 and 1632 (issued in facsimile by Methuen 6c Co., London, in 1910 and
1909), Hanmer's edition published in 1744, Bulmer's quarto edition of 1791,
the Vale Press Shakespeare of 1900, the Doves Press Hamlet of 1909, and
the Stratford-Town edition of 1904, printed by Mr. A. H. Bullen at the
Shakespeare Head Press — the latter the first complete edition printed in the
poet's native place. For the orthography of Shakespeare, especially in relation
to printing, see Shakesfieare' s England, Vol. II, Chapter xxx, Shakespeare's
English, by Heniy Bradley (Section Orthography), pp. 546 etseq.

tl^ T^he thirteenth boof^ of

Thisfaidjthe people with a ioyfull Inoute
Applaud his fpecches and his words approue.
And calm'd their griefc in hope the boafter ftoute
Would kill the Prince,, who late had flaine his loue,
O promifc vaine ! it otherwife fell out :
Men purpofe^jbut high Gods difpole aboue.

For vnderneath his fvvord this boafter dide.
Whom thus he fcorn'd and threat'iiedin his pride.

The thirteenth'\Boo^o/GodfrcY
of^ulloigne.

The argument.

liincno fets tog^rde theforreli ohU
The wicked Jf rites, 'who fe ouglyjhapes affray
i^nd put to flight the menyvhofe Uhour tx>oulA
To their darkejhades let in hentins golden ray i
Thither goes Tancred hardiefntthfidlibould,
Butfoolijhpitie lets him not a[fay

Hliflrength and courage : heat the ChrtUknpmn
Annoies^^hom to re fief h Gods fends ajhowre,
I
Vt fcant diflblued into afhes cold
>Thc fmoking towre fell on the fcorched graflc.
When new deuife found out th'enchanter old,
By which the towne befieg'd^fecured was.
Of timber fit his foes depriue he wold :
Such terrour bred that late confumed maflfc.

So that the ftrength of Sions walles to fhake.
They {hould no turrets^rammes^nor cngins make.

286. Type a?id Ornaments in Tas.so\s Godfrey of Bulloipie
Hatfield, London, 1600

ENGLISH TYPES: 1500-1800 131

head-bands and lines of type "flowers" are employed for
ornament. It is a handsome book of its time, though pon-
derous; and readable to-day — if to-day one wants to read
Pliny — or folios!

For a contemporaneous book of poetry (I6OO), look at
Fairfax's translation of Tasso's Godfrey of Bulloigne orthe
Recoverie of Jerusalem^ printed in folio by Arnold Hatfield
for J. Jaggard and M. Lownes. A simple and well-managed
title-page in a generous panel of type-ornament opens the
book. Some good italic is employed in the preliminary Ad-
dress. The poem itself is set in an agreeable old style roman
font, very even in design, with Arguments in a lively italic.
Each Book begins with a head-band of type-ornament. It is
a very readable edition, and good to look at for its clarity
of effect and its more modern air {fg. 286).

Recreations with the Muses^ by William Alexander, Earl
of Stirling, brought out at London in 1637 by Thomas
Harper, a printer of reputation, is a small folio composed
chiefly in a rough roman character. The head-lines are set
in a coarse italic, between light rules, which also carry the
folio. A handsome border to the title-page, some ungainly
initials, and head-bands usually made up of "flowers" are
its principal decoration. The type is rough, the presswork
is rough, the paper harsh, and the whole book gives the
effect of belonging to an ancient period. But no black-letter
is used in it.

The first edition of Thomas Fuller's Holy and Profane
State^ in folio, was very well printed at Cambridge by Roger
Daniel in 1642. An engraved title is followed by a title-page,
set in type, very well composed, surrounded by a border of
"flowers" within rules. An Address to the Reader follows in
a large roman type of considerable distinction and delicacy
of cut. The Index to Chapters employs a brilliant italic —

132 PRINTING TYPES

very creditable for an English book of the time. The arable
figures used are remarkably good in design. The book
proper begins with a woodcut head-piece, with the title be-
neath it in a thin lower-case letter of rather French appear-
ance. The body of the work is arranged in a handsome
roman letter, with sentences which begin each new para-
graph like a text, in italic. Each page is surrounded by rules,
the side-notes being in marginal panels. The type and press-
work are vastly clearer than in most English books then
current.

Walton's great London Polyglot in six folio volumes, pub-
lished between 1653 and 1657, does not come within the
scope of our discussion. It is not the most beautiful of the
Polyglots nor a normal example of book-making, for its
remarkable feature is its employment of "learned" types;
though some of Day's fonts are utilized for the prefatory
matter in the copies with the "Royal" dedication. Yet it is
none the less to be examined as the greatest typographical
achievement of the century, printed from types entirely cut
by English hands. Its printer was Thomas Roycroft, whose
fine editions of the classics, — Virgil, Homer, iEsop, etc., —
translated by John Ogilby, may be consulted for examples
of his work. He was appointed Printer in Oriental Lan-
guages by Charles II. Roycroft died in 1677, and is buried
at St. Bartholomew's the Great, Smithfield. The name of
this great scholar-printer has in our day become familiar
in connection with a commercial venture of dubious typo-
graphical value.

A famous seventeenth century volume — Izaak Walton's
Lives — was printed by Newcomb in 1670. In this, head-
lines are set in a lettre de forme, the text in a rough old
style roman type — perhaps Dutch. Where correspondence
is introduced, it is printed in italic. Each Life has its own

C?)

The Life.

GBoYge Herbert was born the Third
day of Afril^ in the Year o[ our
Redemption 1 5^5. The place of
his Birth was near to the Town
of Montgomer J ^zndi in that Caflle
thit did then bear the name of that Town and
County 5 that Crf/^/f was then a place of ftate
and ftrength, and had been fuccellively happy
in the Family of the Herberts, ivho had long
pofTeft it : and, with it, a plentiful Eftate, and
hearts as liberal to their poor Neighbours, A
Family, that hath been bleft with men of re-
markable wifdora , and with a willingnefs to
ferve their Countrey, and indeed, to do good to
all Mankinds for which, they were eminent:
But alas 1 this Family did in the late Rebellion
fuffer extremely in their Eftates 5 and the Heirs
of that Cafile^ faw it laid level with that earth
that was too good to bury thofe Wretches thac
ivere the caufe of it.

The Father of our George^ was Richard Her--
hm the Son of Edward Herbert Knight , the
Son of if;^^4r^//^r^^?'? Knight, the Son of the
hmQVi%Sii Richard Herbert oiColebr 00k in the

County

287. Pag-e of Walton's Lives: Newcomh^ London^ 1670

ENGLISH TYPES: 1500-1800 133

title-page, in which the use of very large spaced capitals
for unimportant words is a characteristic touch. In spite of
its antiquated appearance, it is a readable volume with a
certain agreeable flavour {Jig. 287).

Other seventeenth century books of interest are Chis-
well's 1686 edition of Sir Thomas Browne's JVorksdmd the
folio edition of Shelton's translation of Do7i Quixote^ printed
in 1675.

Tonson's folio edition of Dryden's translation of the works
of Virgil was printed in 1697, and we may close the cen-
tury with this noble book. The title-page in red and black
is set chiefly in enormous capital letters, used without much
sense of value — "Works," for instance, being much larger
than "Virgil." This title-page is surrounded with double
rules, and the field of this page is again set ofl" into com-
partments by single rules — a favourite arrangement in the
seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries. An odd feature
is a list of subscribers to the illustrations — engravings on
copper described on the title-page as "Sculptures," which
cost the donor five guineas each. The actual book begins
with the Eclogues. The poetry is set in roman type heavily
leaded, and names of speakers in spaced italic capitals.
Arguments are set in the inevitable italic, with proper names
in roman. The narrow measure of the type-pages and the
enormous margins give an air of great luxury. We begin
to see a modern book here.

§3

The folio edition of Clarendon's History of the Rebellion,
printed in 1702-4, at the Theatre,^ Oxford, in three volumes,
is one of the fine eighteenth century books from the Oxford
Press. The prefaces to each volume employ a large "Fell"

* The Sheldonian Theatre, in which the Oxford Press was then housed.

134 PRINTING TYPES

italic, very splendid in effect; the History itself being com-
posed in a large roman letter solidly set, perhaps of Dutch
cut, or one of the Fell types. Each division of the History has
a displayed half-title; and every new Book is ornamented
with an engraved head-piece and initial, and ends with a
tail-piece — imposing pieces of decoration. Though the
presswork is uneven, the edition is both sumptuous and
simple — a combination difficult to effect.

"I know it will be said, what has a woman to do with learn-
ing," wrote Elizabeth Elstob, mistress of eight languages,
in the preface to her translation ofyi?i English-Saxon Hom-
ily on the Birth-day of Saint Gregory. This particular lady
had a good deal to do with it, and she is interesting typo-
graphically because her book, printed by the elder William
Bowyer in 1709, employed some Anglo-Saxon types — in
their day remarkable. The Homily is a good example of a
well-made edition, issued by a careful publisher for a dis-
tinguished company of subscribers. A crowded and rather
seventeenth century title-page is followed by an Address to
the Queen composed in a large old style roman letter. The
principle in this and other dedications, typographically,
was that the larger the type, the greater the patron; and the
smaller the name of the writer, the more grovelling was his
abasement. The Homily — the two initial letters to which
show Saint Gregory and the learned Elizabeth — is set in
double column, the original text on the left hand in Saxon
types, and on the right hand the English translation in
roman types. Notes run the full measure of the page, set in
small roman letter with proper names in italic; for in almost
all books of this period, proper names were picked out in
italic if the text was roman, in roman if the text was italic.
A Latin version, an appendix, notes, etc., close a good-look-
ing volume. Its feature — from a printer's standpoint —

12 An Hom

gejpeaxo&e:- Dpe^opiuj-
J>a beheol5 J)spa cnapena
plite •] beppan op hpil-
cepe^cobe hi ^ebpohce
j'^pon. )>aj-a5ehim man
"f hi op enjla lanibe ps-
pon •] ■;^ |)apa ^eobe men-
iiifc j-fa phcig j>2£j\e'--
Gpt; ])a Gpe^opiup be-
ppan hps^ep J)£]- lanbep
pole Cpiften ^:£T[\e ])e hx-
'Sene •, him man psbe ;^
hi hea^ene p^pon. Dpe-
gopiu)- ])a op inejjeap-
&pe heopcan lanjpume
Xiccetun^eteah -] cps^.
' f^e la pa. ;^ ppa fx-
^pep hipep men ""pynbon
jjam ppeapcan People
unbep 'Seob&e > Gpt;
fa Ifpe^opiup beppan
hu ]>2pe J>eo&e nama
psepe j?e hi opcumon.
him p^ep ^eanbpypb
JcEt hi T^^ngle ^enemn-
6e pepon :• Da c^x%
he pihclice hi pynbon

ILY ON THE

Heads of Hair. And Gre-
gory ^ when he faw the
Beauty of the Young Men,
enquired from what Coun-
try they were brought, and
the Men faid from England-^
and that all the Men in
that Nation were as beau-
tiful. Then Gregory asked
them whether the Men of
that Land were Chriftians,
or Heathens ^ and the Men
faid unto him they were
Heathens. Gregory then
fetching a long Sigh from
the very bottom of his
Heart , faid , Alas ! alas !
that Men of fo fair a Com-
plexion fhould be fubjefl to
the Prince of Darknefs. Af-
ter that Gregory enquired
hov/ they call'd the Nation
from whence they came.
To which he was anfwer'd,
that they were called J>jgk
[that is, Englifi:'] Then
faid he, rightly they arc

'Caicll a toa^ is in common ufe to this day in the North, to
exprefs their Grief, or Surprize.

*" Speapran beople. Word for word the BlacI^ Devil \ the
^axon Phrafe for the Prince of Darknefs.

288. Page of Homily: Boxvyer^ London^ 1709

ENGLISH TYPES: 1500-1800 135

is that the columns "of Saxon and roman vary in width,
so that each version ends a page approximately at the same
word {Jig- 288). This required, for every page, exact cal-
culation in order to know what measure for each version
would accomplish it. It is done so well, that it often appears
not to have been done at all ! ^

One of the fine folios of the early eighteenth century, pub-
hshed at London by Jacob Tonson in 1712, is a Latin edi-
tion of the works of Caesar — C Julii Caesaris quae extant —
annotated by Samuel Clarke. The title-page with its spaced
capitals, especially the Hnes of spaced italic capitals,^ and
the absence of rubrication and surrounding rules, somewhat
prefigures Baskerville's title-pages. After the preliminary
matter, the Commentaries begin, set in fine great primer old
style types very generously leaded, notes being set mostly
in small italic in the ample margins (Jig. 289). It is illus-
trated with full-page copper-plates, and the magnificent
head-pieces, tail-pieces, and initial letters are also engraved.
Among other luxuriously printed editions with the Ton-
son imprint were Ovid's Metamorphoses, 1717, the splendid
Prior's Poems in folio of 1718, Addison's JVorks, 1721, a fine
quarto Don Quixote in Spanish, 1738, and a folio Pope.

Full-bodied editions such as the Theological PTorks of the
Rev, Mr. Charles Leslie, published by subscription in two

* A few years after this book was printed, its Anglo-Saxon types were de-
stroyed by fire. New Anglo-Saxon fonts, much more picturesque than those
of the Homily, were cut for Miss Elstob's Anglo-Saxon Grammar, which
appeared in 1715. These were subsequently given by Bowyer the younger
to the University Press, Oxford, where they still are. The 1743 edition of
Junius's Etymologicum Anglicanum, printed at the Theatre, Oxford — a fine
edition — may be looked at for its use of the Junius Anglo-Saxon and other
northern types.

' The theory in using these spaced capitals was that capitals spaced dignified
the important word of a title, and that such a word should fill the measure
of the page. Hence the printer spaced such lines until tlie letters appeared
(as De Vinne says) "dislocated by explosion."

136 PRINTING TYPES

volumes folio, by William Bowyer the elder in 1721, show
a more modern point of view in book-making — old-fash-
ioned, but not archaic. It is printed from old style types,
no doubt Dutch, and the displayed half-titles and headings
are interesting pieces of eighteenth century composition. Its
head and tail-pieces are splendid examples of printer's orna-
ments of that epoch; and the head-bands of type "flowers"
are handsome and cleverly managed. Leslie was a non-
juror, and for some years Anglican chaplain to the Pre-
tender at Rome, and his works were naturally printed by
Bowyer, who was a non -juror himself. Pope's translation
of Homer's //?W (London, 1715), printed by Bowyer — for
Lintot — in three imposing folio volumes, is a good exam-
ple of another luxurious contemporary edition. The Works
of Alexander Pope^ also printed by Bowyer (London, 1717),
is another instructive piece of type-setting. It is composed
throughout in old style roman and italic, of a Dutch cut. Its
enormously spaced half-titles, the running-titles in spaced
italic capitals, and its open composition are all characteris-
tic of early eighteenth century work.

But Bowyer's greatest achievement was the three volume
folio edition of Selden's Opera ^ collected by Dr. David Wil-
kins, which was begun in 1722 and brought out in 1726.
This was undertaken for a number of London publishers
and issued by subscription. Bowyer printed the first vol-
ume in two parts, the succeeding volumes (each in two
parts also) being printed by S. Palmer and T. Wood. Wil-
liam Caslon's English types were first used for the body of
this book. To the student who has been looking at earlier
English books printed with Dutch fonts, the pages of the
Selden are a relief to the eye — they are so easy to read, so
clear and beautiful. In Volume I the dedication displays a
large size of roman type ; the Address to the Reader is com-

S
«

ENGLISH TYPES: 1500-1800 137

posed in flowing italic; the Life of Selden in great primer
roman. The various "works," save for their prefaces, are
arranged in double column, each column having a folio of
its own. Here Caslon's English roman is used, and he also
cut the Hebrew types for this edition. Arabic, Greek, and
black-letter also occur in the text {Jig. 290). Here and there
rubrication is skilfully introduced, and there is much clever
type-setting throughout the entire work. The third volume
contains Selden's English tracts, and here it is interesting
to compare the type set in English with its appearance
in the Latin volumes. Numerous half-titles, etc., make the
whole work a wonderful "style-book" for displayed mat-
ter set in old style types — though I do not think that the
larger types are Caslon's. Finally, some of the beautiful tail-
pieces used in the Leslie are introduced, with others still
more elaborate. It is a stupendous piece of work, and shows
Bowyer's sure taste in planning the style of the volumes,
and in utilizing Caslon's skill for their type. Bowyer's better-
known son, William, "the learned printer" (whose mother
was the daughter of a printer employed on Walton's Poly-
glot Bible), assisted him in correcting and arranging the
work. The second and third volumes were probably placed
with Palmer and Wood so that all the volumes might ap-
pear in 1726.

In discussing eighteenth century English types, it must
be borne in mind that law-books were still usually set in the
traditional English black-letter — a survival of the lettrede
forme of the Norman law-book. Titles, prefaces, running-
titles, and marginal notes in such works were, however,
commonly set in roman.

In 1733-37, a book appeared in London which, though
not printed from type, had some influence on tj^pography
— namely, John Pine's memorable Latin edition of Horace.

138 PRINTING TYPES

Pine, who was an engraver, could not satisfy himself with
current letter-press printing. So the text was first set up in
type and an impression transferred to copper and then en-
graved, space being left for the decorations. Thus the whole
book — a very exquisite performance — was printed from
copper plates. The brilliancy of this engraved roman text
struck a new note, and thus Pine's Horace may have had
a good deal to do with the taste for more "finished" types
which waxed as the century waned. In that connection it
is mentioned here {fig- 291).

Some volumes of poems brought out by eminent pub-
lishers, and in their day considered handsome books, are
good examples of later work. For instance, Poems on Several
Occasions, by Mrs. Mary Barber — who, it is pleasant to
know, "was one of the most extraordinary Women that
either this Age, or perhaps any other, ever produc'd," and
who succumbed to her reputation by dying at the age of
twenty-seven ! This luxuriously got up quarto has an in-
troduction by Dean Swift, — who, it is said, lost Queen
Anne's favour through the peremptory tone of a letter de-
manding her patronage for the book, — and was subscribed
for by no less than thirty-three dukes and duchesses, and
a multitude of less titled persons. The poems are set in an
ample old style roman font, widely leaded, and the proper
names, or most important words, are usually displayed in
capitals and small capitals, instead of italic — though impor-
tant words in titles to the poems, which are set in large
Dutch italic, are "picked out" in roman. The book, over-
loaded with rather ill-printed head and tail-pieces, is an
ambitious performance and a characteristic eighteenth cen-
tury "Table-book." It was printed for the London pub-
lisher, Rivington, in 1734.

John Armstrong's The Art of Preserving Health, printed

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Carminvm Liber I

ODE XXIX.

Ad Iccivm.

CCI, beatis nunc Arabum invides
Gazis J et acrem militiam paras
Non ante devidis Sabaeae
Regibus ; horribilique Medo

Nedtis catenas, quae tibi virginum,
Sponfo necato, barbara ferviet ?
Puer quisexaulacapillis

Ad cyathiim ftatuetur wn^is,
Dodus fagittas tendere Serica.s
Arcii paterno : quis neget ardiiis
Pronos relabi pofTe rivos

Montibus, et Tiberim revertij
Cum til coemtos undique nobiles
Libros Panaeti, Socraticam et domum
Mutare loricis Ibais,

Pollicitus meliora, tendis?

291. Engraved Text of Pine's Horace, London, 1733-37

ENGLISH TYPES: 1500-1800 139

for A. Millar in 1744, was a book meant to be smart and
luxurious. In spite of a very eighteenth century title-page,
with capitals so spaced as to make one feel cross-eyed,
its ornamentation is restricted almost entirely to a few tail-
pieces. The volume shows a certain progression, too, be-
cause proper names are set in the scune letter as the text.
The large type used (Caslon, apparently) is much leaded,
and the margins are generous. The general effect, though
still very old-fashioned, is handsome — a sort of Baskerville
book set in Caslon, with "current" press work. The orna-
ments used make me think it was printed by Bowyer.
Franklin reprinted this volume in Philadelphia in the year
of its publication.

Sir Thomas Hanmer's edition of Shakespeare was the
first in which much pains were taken to make a handsome
piece of printing. Hanmer, Speaker of the House of Com-
mons, a friend of Bishop Berkeley, and a man of consid-
erable literary achievement, brought out the Works in a six
volume edition in 1744, though his name did not appear
in it. It was printed "at the Theatre at Oxford," and was
"adorned with sculptures designed and executed by the
best hands." This first edition was bought up on publica-
tion, and the price of copies greatly advanced. It produced,
therefore, an effect in its day. Italic and roman "Fell" tj^^pes
are used for the two prefaces, but that used for the plays
is a lighter old style font, composed in a somewhat modern
manner ^fig. 292). What strikes us about the edition now
is a certain similarity in composition to some of Basker-
ville's work; though it was printed thirteen years before
Baskerville's first book (the Virgil) was published. This is
to be seen in the arrangement of the title-page, half-titles,
etc., with their spaced capitals, the manner of using orna-
mental bands of "flowers," etc. ^fig. 293).

140 PRINTING TYPES

In 1753, a famous illustrated book appeared — Designs by
Mr. R. Bentley for Six Poems by Mr. T. Gray, printed for
R. Dodsley, London. It was superintended with great care,
and Bentley's charming decorations are much discussed in
Horace Walpole's letters. To pad out the book, the text is
printed only on one side of a leaf : a trick considered mod-
ern, but really old. The typography is commonplace — a
large Caslon character, much leaded, and not well printed.
A book was still appraised, as it had been a hundred years
earlier, by the number of its copper-plate illustrations.

Walpole's press at Strawberry Hill employed old style
types for its work — probably Caslon's — and among its
rather indifferent printing, the Strawberry Hill Lucan is
worthy of moderate praise.

Samuel Johnson's Dictionary of the English Language is
mostly remembered nowadays, by the general reader, as
the book Becky Sharp flung back at Miss Jemima Pinker-
ton — not, fortunately, in its original two volume folio form
— or because of Johnson's famous letter to Lord Chester-
field, It was printed by William Strahan in 1755, in a mo-
notonous old style type, in size rather small for the folio
double-column pages. The title-page, in its leaded lines of
small spaced capitals, shows a modern tendency toward
light effects. In the preface, blank lines between paragraphs
also exhibit a new detail of composition, much in favour as
the century went on. In the Dictionary proper, words are
set in capitals, and derivations from these words in capitals
and small capitals — e.g., DIVULGE, Divulger. These
pages of mild colour and easy air seem old-fashioned to us
now, but not antique.

I have already said that editions of the same book printed
at different dates, but in the same country, are a lesson in
the history of national printing-styles ; while books like the

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THE

WORKS

O F

MR WILLIAM SHAKESPEAR.

VOLUME the FIRST.

CONSISTING OF

CO M E D I

OXFORD:
PRINTED AT THE THEATRE.

MDCCXLHI.

293. Bastard Title-page of Hanmer's Shakespeare {reduced)

ENGLISH TYPES: 1500-1800 141

Latin classics, common to all countries, show how different
nationalities treated the same problem. The same class of
book can also be compared in this way: books on astron-
omy, geometry, botany, architecture — and dictionaries. For
instance, the earliest English vocabularies or dictionaries
were printed in black-letter, both word and definition. Many
seventeenth, and even some eighteenth century English dic-
tionaries printed the words defined in black-letter, with defi-
nitions in italic. In Florio's New World of Words oi 1611,
italic was used for the definitions, but the words were set
in roman. In the mid-eighteenth century, as in Johnson's
Dictionary^ words were set in capitals or in capitals and
small capitals, with definitions in roman lower-case. Later
on, the words defined were almost always set in capitals,
and this is continued, in such dictionaries as Webster's
or Worcester's, to our own day. In the Century Dictionary,
and in that wonderful piece of work, the New English
Dictionary, printed at the University Press, Oxford, a bold-
face upper and lower-case roman letter has been employed
to pick out the "word" from the text. This is, in a way, a
return to the black-letter of the earliest period. Diction-
aries being popular books, and for that reason employing
types familiar and easy for the eye to seize quickly, thus
show, if examined chronologically, (l) what types were the
most familiar at a particular epoch, and (2) the date when
they became obsolete.

I have not mentioned Baskerville's work here, because
the types he designed fall into a class by themselves, and
because two or three of his editions have been already
described. But the Baskerville manner was in full swing
at the time that Caslon's old style types had their vogue.
"Fashionable" English printing had become very open and
light in effect by the last of the century — partly, I dare say,

142 PRINTING TYPES

through Baskerville's influence. Sir Joshua Reynolds' Dis-
course at the Opening of the Royal Academy in January,
1769, though printed from old style type, by its arrange-
ment has an effect entirely different from the printing of
fifty years earlier. A collection of these addresses delivered by
Reynolds between 1769 and 1783, some of them the work
of Cadell, printer to the Academy, is (like similar Spanish
occasional addresses that have been mentioned) illuminat-
ing because they were printed for a distinguished body of
men, and represent the best taste of the day ^fig- 294). The
excessively spaced letters of the title-page, the large folios
in spaced brackets, the open leading, the blank spaces be-
tween paragraphs, and the wide margins, show a style of
work which — handsome in quartos like these — became
very thin and faded in smaller books which copied them.

Then again, a new influence in typography was that of
the Foulis brothers (of whom I have spoken), printers to the
University of Glasgow since 1743, who were employing
Wilson's lighter transitional types, and producing books
which showed a new feeling in English printing. Their
smaller yor/72a^5, in which the classics were issued, are more
characteristic of their work, or the faults of their work, than
the folios.

A "Foulis edition" of the best sort is Andrew Foulis's
Poetical Works of Alexander Pope (1785), in three folio vol-
umes. The effect of the pages of the poems is very noble
and most readable, owing to the large size of fine type in
which the text is set. The smaller types used for the con-
tents, advertisements, quoted poetry, etc., become, as they
descend in size, gray and monotonous, without the colour of
Caslon's or the clearness of Baskerville's small types. But
the eflrect,as a whole, is exceedingly distinguished ^fig. 295).
Among the most celebrated Foulis editions in large format

I s c o

S E«

GENTLEMEN,

THE honor which the Arts
acquire by being permitted
to take poffeflion of this
noble habitation, is one of the mofl confiderable of the
many inftances we have received of his Majesty's
protedtion ; and the ftrongefi: proof of his defire to make
the Academy refpedable.

Nothing has been left undone that might contribute
to excite our purfuit, or to reward our attainments. We

B have

294. Page of Sir Joshua Reynolds' Royal Academy Discourse
Cadell^ London^ 1781 {j-educed)

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ENGLISH TYPES: 1500-1800 143

are a Callimachus of 1755, the Horace of 1756, the monu-
mental Greek Iliad and Odyssey^ in four volumes, printed
between 1756 and 1758, and a Paradise Lost issued in 1770.
For Gray's Poems (1768) in quarto, Wilson cut a special
font of double pica roman. Of the Foulis classics in small
format^ the 16mo edition of Aeschylus (l746) or Aristoph-
anes (1755) in Greek and Latin, and the Juvenal of 1750
in 16mo, may be cited. The 12mo Latin Horace of 1760
(a fourth edition) is better. It is a very well-bred little book
— but, like many other well-bred things, rather colourless.
Types such as it is set in had to be cleverly handled to look
well — and this is a good example of Foulis's clever han-
dling. The Letters of CJiarlotte^ printed for Cadell in 1786
{Jig.'296)^ or the 16mo edition of Thomson's *S'm507z^, printed
by Strahan in 1788 for Rivington and others, was the sort
of book Fouhs made popular — pretty, but "faded." Such
feeble types led to the adoption of the heavy fonts of Thorne
early in the next century. Something had to be done, and
" fat blacks" w^ere administered to fainting ladies like Char-
lotte, as a sort of rough-and-ready first aid to the injured.
The books illustrated by Bewick caused the introduction
of more modelled and brilliant type-forms. Bewick's cuts
from the first demanded such types. The demand was not
met by those used in his Quadrupeds of 1790 or his British
Birds of 1797. These books, printed at Newcastle, are set
in a very poor form of letter — either Wilson's or an old
style type much whittled down from its first estate. It was
Bulmer who realized the kind of typography that Bewick's
cuts called for; and when he produced his new types, it
must have been a revelation to the public of that day; in
fact, it was ! But before describing the Bewick books printed
at the Shakspeare Press by Bulmer, there are two of its
earlier books which must be mentioned.

144 PRINTING TYPES

The "Boydell Shakspeare," which the Shakspeare Press
was established to print, is its most famous performance.
Its Advertisement, written by Nicol, tells us that " while
foreign nations were publishing splendid editions of their
favourite authors, we in this country contented ourselves
with such editions of ours as were merely useful." This
work was meant to be a magnificent national edition, in
which splendour of production was to go hand in hand with
correctness of text." With regard to the Typographical part
of the work," Nicol says, "the state of printing in England,
when it was first undertaken [l786], was such that it was
found necessary to establish a printing-house on purpose
to print the work ; a foundry to cast the types ; and even a
manufactory to make the ink.^ How much the art of print-
ing has improved since that period the Public can best
judge." This folio edition in nine volumes, with its accom-
panying plates, was "printed by W. Buhner and Company
for John and Josiah Boydell, George and W. Nicol, from
the types of W. Martin," and was finally pubHshed in 1802,
though the first volume appeared in 1792" {Jig. 297). The
folio edition of Milton's Poetical Works., illustrated by West-

* The pure black ink was prepared from material supplied to Bulmer by
Baskerville's old foreman, Robert Martin, and was probably made from a
recipe similar to that employed by Baskerville.

' Dibdin tells us how Nicol contrived "to silence some connoisseurs of Print-
ing, who, upon seeing the productions of the Shakspeai-e Press, were con-
stantly saying ' This is very well, but what is this to the Printing of Bodoni ? '
... A specimen sheet of a pretended edition of Cicero was set up with tlie
Shakspeare types, of the size of Bodoni's publications. When this specimen
was shewn to the same connoisseurs, they exclaimed, 'To what degree of
perfection does tliis man mean to carry the art of Printing ! Why this sur-
passes all his former excellence ! ' And tlaey were all veiy anxious for Mr. N.
to procure them copies of the work. To this Mr. N. replied, 'that Mr. Bo-
doni had an agent in town ; and if they would turn to the bottom of the last
page of the specimen they would find his address ' — which they found as
follows — ' f F. Bulmer and Co. Shakspeare Press \'"

THE

LETTERS

o ?

C H A R L TT E,

DURING HER CONNEXION "WITH.

W E R T E R.

GraxAa fola difu ne vaglia, Irtanti
Che piu '/ df/Io d'amore al cor s'invecchi

VOL. I.

LOUDON:

PRINTED FOR T. CADELL, IN THE STRAND.

MjDCC,LXXXVIi

296. Title-page of Letters of Charlotte^ London^ 1786

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ENGLISH TYPES: 1500-1800 145

all, also printed by Bulmer for the Boj^dells in 1794-97, is
another wonderful production — in simplicity of arrange-
ment, in typography, and in presswork. For pure typogra-
phy is almost wholly relied on for effect, in both these books,
and the reliance is justified. Martin's roman types are very
handsome, very clear — and very modern. His italic is a
little too calligraphic ; the italic capitals in particular show
Baskerville's influence and distract the eye. But the edi-
tions evidently turned out what they were meant to be ; and
only a printer knows all that this implies! No description,
however, gives any idea of the change of taste in English
printing which these books exemplified.

The magnificent letter-press of Chamberlaine's Imita-
tions of Original Drawings by Hans Holbein^ being Portraits
of Illustrious Persons in the Court of Henry VI 11^ printed
by Bulmer in 1792, may be consulted by those tempted to
behttle the work of this school. A more intimate and agree-
able book is the charming edition of Poems by Goldsmith and
Parnell, printed by Bulmer in 1795. This was the first really
finely printed book illustrated by the Bewicks. In the inter-
esting Advertisement Bulmer says: "To raise the Art of
Printing in this country from the neglected state in which it
had long been suffered to continue, and to remove the oppro-
brium which had but too justly been attached to the late
productions of the English press, much has been done
within the last few years ; and the warm emulation which
has discovered itself amongst the Printers of the present
day, as well in the remote parts of the kingdom as in the
metropolis, has been highly patronized by the public in gen-
eral. The present volume, in addition to the Shakspeare,
the Milton, and many other valuable works of elegance,
which have already been given to the world, through the
medium of the Shakspeare Press, are particularly meant to

146 PRINTING TYPES

combine the various beauties of Printing, Type-founding,
Engraving, and Paper-making ; as well with a view to ascer-
tain the near approach to perfection which those arts have
attained in this country, as to invite a fair competition with
the best Typographical Productions of other nations. How
far the different Artists, who have contributed their exer-
tions to this great object, have succeeded in the attempt,
the Public will now be fully able to judge. Much pains have
been bestowed on the present publication, to render it a
complete Specimen of the Arts of Type and Block-print-
ing. The whole of the Types, with which this work has
been printed, are executed by Mr. William Martin, in the
house of my friend Mr. George Nicol, whose unceasing
endeavours to improve the Art of Printing, and its relative
branches, are too well known to require any thing to be said
on the present occasion ; he has particularly patronized Mr.
Martin, a very ingenious young Artist, who has resided with
him seven years, and who is at this time forming a Foun-
dry, by which he will shortly be enabled to offer to the world
a Specimen of Types, that will in a very eminent degree
unite utility, elegance, and beauty. The ornaments are all
engraved on blocks of wood, by two of my earliest acquaint-
ances, Messrs. Bewicks, of Newcastle upon Tyne and Lon-
don,^ after designs made from the most interesting pas-
sages of the Poems they embellish. They have been exe-
cuted with great care, and I may venture to say, without
being supposed to be influenced by ancient friendship, that
they form the most extraordinary effort of the art of engrav-
ing upon wood that ever was produced in any age, or any
country. Indeed it seems almost impossible that such deli-

' Bulmer, a native of Newcastle, was from youth a friend of Thomas Bewick,
to whom he is believed to have suggested lowering the surface of his wood-
blocks, to give a lighter impression for effects of distance.

The whole of the Types, with which this
work has been printed, are executed by Mr.
Wilham Martin, in the house of my friend
Mr. George Nicol, whose unceasing endeavours
to improve the Art of Printing, and its relative

The Shakspeare Printing Office owes its
origin to the publication of that great Xational
Edition of the Works of Shakspeare^ which you
are now, so much to the honour of our country ,
happily conducting toward its completion; I

298. William Martinis Tzuo-line Small Pica Roman and Italic

ENGLISH TYPES: 1500-1800 147

cate effects could be obtained from blocks of wood.^ Of the
Paper it is only necessary to say, that it comes from the
manufactory of Mr. Whatman."

Bulmer's edition of William Somervile's Chase (1796),
a companion volume, "presented to the Patrons of Fine
Printing" (for a guinea), is another delightful book in much
the same manner. Martin's types, used in both volumes, are
charming transitional roman- fonts, both delicate and spir-
ited — and so thoroughly English that Bewick's engravings
seem in complete harmony with them {,jigs. 298, 299, and
300). A magnificent work that employs Martin's types is the
two- volume History of the River Thames, issued in folio by
William Bulmer & Company for John and Josiah Boydell
in 1796. The title-page bears the words, "from the types
of W. Martin." Its pages of large roman type, beautifully
set, make it one of the finest books Bulmer ever printed.

The printer Bensley also issued books somewhat in this
style, which are examples of "the latest fashion" in print-
ing. His edition of Thomson's Seasons, with plates by Bar-
tolozzi, issued in 1797, and some luxurious books published
by Stockdale, are good specimens of his earHer work. His
composition is less successful than Bulmer's, and his better
work, which I shall mention later, appears to have been done
after 1800.

Whatever may be the opinion of the light, open types and
widely spaced and leaded pages of volumes by the best
printers in these last years of the eighteenth century, they
seem to me to be very sincere and workmanlike solutions
of problems which the printer worked out in the manner
of that time. Such books were part of the life about them.

' George III could not be convinced that they were so engraved, and insisted
on seeing tlie wood-blocks before he would believe it.

148 PRINTING TYPES

They accorded admirably with the cool, sedate interiors in
which they were housed. It was printing faithful to the best
standards of its day, and because of this I think it will
live.'

' See list of nearly fifty books printed by Bulmer and some of those printed
by Bensley before 1817 in Dibdin's Bibliografihkal Decameron (1817), Vol.
II, pp. 384 et seq. Aids to the student will be found in the Catalogue of an
Exhibition of Books, Broadsides, Proclamations, Portraits, Autografihs, etc.,
Illustratix'e of the History and Progress of Pointing and Bookselling in
England, 1477-1800. Held at Stationers' Hall, June, 1912, by the Interna-
tional Association of Antiquarian Booksellers. London, 1912 ; and also in the
valuable Catalogue of tlie Caxton Celebration of 1877, though the latter is
more general in scope.

Sweet smiling village, loveliest of the lawn,
Thy sports are fled, and all thy charms withdrawn ;
Amidst thy bowers the tyrant's hand is seen,
And desolation saddens all thy green :
One only master grasps the whole domain,
And half a tillage stints thy smiling plain.

The subject proposed. Address to his Royal Highness the
Prince. The origin oj hunting. The rude and unpolished
manner of the Jirst hunters. Beasts at Jirst hunted Jor
food and sacrifice. The grant made by God to man of the
beasts, ire. The regular manner oJ hunting Jirst brought
into this island by the Mormans. The best hounds and

299. William Martin! s Great Primer Roman and Italic

1 HE old and infirm liave at least this privilege, that they can recall to
their minds those scenes of joy in which they once delighted, and rumi-
nate over their past pleasures, with a satisfaction almost equal to the first
enjoyment; for those ideas, to which any agreeable sensation is annexed,
are easily excited, as leaving behind them the most strong and permanent
impressions. The amusements of our youth are the boast and comfort of
our declining years. The ancients carried this notion even yet further,
and supposed their heroes, in the Elysian fields, were fond of the very same

Whejv the exertions of an Individual to improve his profession are crowned
with success, it is certainly the highest gratification his feelings can experience. 'The
very distinguished approbation that attended the publication of the ornamented edition
of Goldsmith s Traveller, Deserted Village , and ParneWs Hermit, which luas
last year offered to the Public as a Specimen of the improved State of Typography
in this Country, demands my warmest acknowledgments; and is no less satisfactory
to the different Artists who contributed their efforts towards the completion of the
work,

300. William Martinis Pica Roman and Italic

CHAPTER XVIII

TYPES USED IN THE AMERICAN COLONIES, AND SOME
EARLY AMERICAN SPECIMENS

IN connection with English printing of the seventeenth
and eighteenth centuries, something must be said about
typography in the EngHsh Colonies of North America,
and about one or two of the earliest specimens put forth by
American type-founders and printers.

The first press set up in the Colonies was established at
Cambridge, Massachusetts. Its activities extended from
1638 to 1692. Its equipment consisted of a printing-press
and type, and with these three pressmen and a printer ar-
rived in the summer of 1638. This proto- typographer of
British North America was Stephen Daye, traditionally con-
nected with the famous London printer, John Day. The
foundation of this press was the work of Joseph Glover,
Rector of Sutton in Surrey. Glover dying on the voyage out,
his wife set up the press at Cambridge, in the latter months
of 1638. It was always closely associated with Har\'ard Col-
lege; and among its most celebrated books were FAioi'slTidian
Bible and the Bai/ Psalm Book} The ordinary type for its use
was all procured abroad, probably from England and Hol-
land. Its work came to an end in 1692, Samuel Green being
its last manager.

In the seventeenth century, typography in Europe was
upon the wane, and for EngHsh printing the Stuart period,
owing to restrictions on the press, was a miserable epoch.
To make life beautiful was not the motive which led to the
settlement of New England: and the promoters of the Cam-
bridge Press merely desired that spiritual truth should be

For facsimiles of its work and that of other Massachusetts printers, see
Littlefield's Early Massachusetts Press, 1638-1711. Boston, 1907. 2 vols.

150 PRINTING TYPES

made more clear through its publications. The typography
of its books was as unattractive and crabbed as the mat-
ter which it (perhaps fittingly) enshrined. I mention this
press, therefore, only because it has a certain historical im-
portance.

Harvard College apparently owned no types after Green's
death until about 1718, when Thomas Hollis made it a pres-
ent of fonts of long primer Hebrew and Greek characters.
The latter type lay idle until 1761, when it was employed
for some Greek verse occurring in a congratulatory address
to George III on his accession — Pietas et Gratulatio Collegii
Cantabrigiensis apud Novanglos. This was its first, last, and
only appearance ; for it was destroyed in a fire which con-
sumed the first College Library in 1764.^ But the Hebrew
types, being at the time in use in Boston, escaped; whether
they still survive, I know not.

In the eighteenth century, typographical material in
American printing-houses — at any rate before the Revolu-
tion — was almost all foreign. Franklin records in his Auto-
biography that his brother James secured both his press
and type from England, and there are repeated allusions to
the necessity of procuring such materials abroad for vari-
ous Colonial printing-offices. When manager of Keimer's
press in Philadelphia, Franklin writes: "Our printing-house
often wanted sorts, and there was no letter-founder in Amer-
ica ; I had seen types cast at James's in London, but with-
out much attention to the manner; however, I now con-

* Thomas's History of Printing, Worcester, 1810, Vol. I, pp. 251 et seq. In
the broadside Account of the Fire at Harvard College, dated January 25 , 1 794,
among the losses chronicled, this paragraph occurs : " A font of Greek types
(which, as we had not yet a printing-office, was reposited in the library)
presented by our great benefactor the late worthy Thomas Hollis, Esq; of
London ; whose picture, as large as tlie life, and institutions for two Professor-
ships and ten Scholarships perished in the flames."

THE AMERICAN COLONIES 151

trived a mould, made use of the letters we had as punch-
eons, struck the matrices in lead, and thus supply'd in a
pretty tolerable way all deficiencies." The earliest types in
such offices as that of Bradford, the first New York printer,
were probably Dutch and English; later types were Eng-
lish, and chiefly those of Caslon — although after 1775
(roughly speaking), type was made in North America. Prim-
ers and books, newspapers and broadsides, were mostly
printed in Caslon old style types in the mid-eighteenth cen-
tury and up to the Revolution. Indeed, the Declaration of
Independence itself was printed in the Caslon letter. It was
the face commonly in use until about 1800.

How well Colonial printers used it was another matter.
For Franklin, writing from Passy (where he had set up a
private press) in October, 1779, to his niece, Mrs. Partridge,
says : "I thank you for the Boston Newspapers, tho' I see
nothing so clearly in them as that your printers do indeed
want new Letters. They perfectly blind me in endeavouring
to read them. If you should ever have any Secrets that you
want to be well kept, get them printed in those Papers."
Franklin admired and recommended Caslon's types, and his
own office was equipped with them. The style of compo-
sition of most Colonial work was like a provincial copy of
London printing — and was, as a rule, a good many years
behind current London fashions.

The first regular American type-foundry was that of
Christopher Sauer or Sower II (son of a German printer of
the same name), which was started at Germantown, Penn-
sylvania, in 1772. Its appliances were imported from Ger-
many, with moulds for three sizes of German type and some
English script. Some of its type was cut and cast by Sauer's
assistant, Justus Fox, who bought the foundry in 1784. The
next foundry was that of Jacob Bey, assistant to Sauer and

152 PRINTING TYPES

Fox, also at Germantown. He cut and cast roman as well
as German types. Another foundry was that of John Baine
& Grandson in Co., of Philadelphia, which was probably
established about 1788. The elder Baine (who had been
in partnership with Alexander Wilson of Glasgow) must
have come to Philadelphia, whither his grandson had pre-^
ceded him, between 1787 and 1790, the year of his death.
On the title-page of A Specimen of Printing Types^ By
John Baine £s? Grandson in Co., hetter-founders, Edinburgh
(1787), now in the library of the American Antiquarian
Society, Worcester, Isaiah Thomas wrote, "This Foundry
was brought to America, by the grandson, about 1771, and
established at Philadelphia. John Baine came over not long
after his grandson." But there is a discrepancy between this
statement and the generally accepted facts. The specimen
contains some Caslon fonts of early form, a few heavy-faced
types, and a number of late eighteenth century types. The
repertoire of ornaments and their ingenious and tasteful
combinations are worth looking at.

In 1791, Adam Mappa, a Dutchman, brought a type-
foundry to New York from Holland, chiefly to make Dutch
and German types. "His foundry was very extensive," says
a contemporary, "and his specimens extravagantly showy."
Benjamin Franklin Bache, grandson of Franklin, possessed
a small outfit for type-founding, purchased by Franklin
when in France, but it was little employed. "Dr. Franklin,"
says William McCulloch in his Additions to Thomas's His-
tory of Printing in America^ "was desirous of establishing
his grandson at that business; and with that view Bache
wrought some time in the foundry of P. S. Fournier,^ of

^Proceedings of the American Antiquarian Society, Yol. 31, Pt. 1 (l92l).
' Probably Simon Pierre Foumier, son of P. S. (Pierre Simon) Fournier le
jeune. The latter died in 1768, and Bache was bom in 1769.

EARLY AMERICAN SPECIMENS 153

Paris, in order to acquire some insight preparatory to his
commencing in America. Franklin purchased a foundry
from this Fournier, which he brought to America, at his
(Bache's) arrival ; and Bache began type casting in Frank-
lin Court in Market Street but soon relinquished that busi-
ness for printing. I have seen, in Binny and Ronaldson's
possession, an history of type founding (in French) of which
this Fournier is the author.^ Ronaldson, who was some
years since in France in pursuit of antimony, tells me he
was in this foundry, now in the possession of Fournier's
grandson,^ and that there is a bust or head of Franklin^ in
that laboratory, at which the men looked and pointed with
the liveliest enthusiasm, exclaiming : 'I'excellent Franklin.'"
The four-page specimen-sheet issued by Bache* is chiefly
madeup ofCaslon characters, although thefew types marked
by an asterisk were cast in Philadelphia from French ma-
trices. Interesting historically, this sheet contributes nothing
to our knowledge of American type-forms — all the mate-
rial being foreign. Though undated, it probably was not
printed before 1790.

Many of these small equipments finally fell into the hands
of two Scotchmen, Archibald Binny and James Ronaldson,
whose Philadelphia foundry was begun in 1796. In 1797,
they offered for sale the first dollar-marks ever made in type.
These men, in 1806, purchased the appliances for type-
founding brought over by Franklin.

The first specimen-book of an American Type Foundry
is said to be that of Binny & Ronaldson, which belongs to

* Evidently the ATanuel Tyfiografihique of his father, Fournier le jeune.

' M. Beaulieu-Foui-nier (?).

^ Possibly the likeness of Franklin alluded to in note on p. 257, Vol. I.

''A Specimen of Printing Typ.es belonging to Benjamin Franklin Bache'' s

Printing Office, Philadelphia.

154 PRINTING TYPES

the nineteenth century — A Specimen of Metal Ornaments
cast at the Letter Foundery of Binny ££p Ronaldson. Phila-
delphia. Printed by Fry and Kammerer, 1809. It was not
a printer's specimen of types, but a founder's specimen of
ornaments. About one hundred ornamental cuts are shown.
In appearance the designs seem largely inspired from
French sources. A few of them are like those shown in
Pierres' collection of 1785. The general type of decoration in
others is similar to cuts in the Gille specimen of 1808. A
feature of the book is its versions of the arms of the United
States. Ill-executed mechanically for the most part, from a
decorative point of view the collection is respectable and
has considerable style. The prices of these cuts run from
twenty -five cents to five dollars, and, for the larger cuts in
particular, seem high for what was supplied.

In 1812, a Specimen of Printing Types from the Foundery
of Binny £2? Ronaldson^ Philadelphia^ appeared, also printed
by Fry and Kammerer. It begins with an address "To the
Printers of the United States." The proprietors speak of
having, through patronage of printers, been able "to extend
and improve their establishment on the grand scale, of
which this specimen exhibits a proof." From our point of
view, there seems to have been little grand about the
foundry except its pretensions.

The great primer roman was used for the text of the
imposing quarto edition of Joel Barlow's Columbiad^ printed
at Philadelphia in 1807 {fg- 30 1), and very finely printed,
too, by Fry and Kammerer, whose imprint appears on the
specimen we are considering. Notes to The Columbiad are
set in the small pica No. 1. This volume is an early instance
of an American edition de luxe^ and reflects the style of Bul-
mer's London editions. The engravings, after paintings by
Smirke,were procured through the interest of Robert Fulton.

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• 1— I

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'TIS

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bJO

l-H
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EARLY AMERICAN SPECIMENS 155

Of the larger sizes of type shown in this specimen, the
French Canon roman and its italic is a really handsome
letter. The rest of the larger sizes are of the heavy face
then fashionable. The transitional forms of smaller roman
and italic shown are delightful. I do not know whether these
were cut in America or cast from imported matrices, but
a passage in the preface to James Ronaldson's specimen of
1816 makes me believe that they were cut by Archibald
Binny. They retain — especially in the italic of certain sizes
— a late eighteenth century touch, reminiscent of the work
of Martin. The pica was supplied by Binny &: Ronaldson
for the text of Isaiah Thomas's History of Printing in Amer-
ica^ issued in 1810. Six sizes of black-letter with a disagree-
able German twist to it — notice the f's {^jig. 302); four
German text types — the double pica being reminiscent of
very early German fonts ; three sizes of Hebrew, and four
of rather crabbed Greek, complete the book — except for
three or four pages of ornaments. The "New Flowers" which
open the collection are attractive designs in white on black.
The American arms (No. l),the urn (No. 4), the eagle (No. 5),
etc., are quite dehghtful, and really charming when com-
bined, as in the sixth of these borders. The skulls and cross-
bones below are less inviting, and the Resignation "new
flowers" perhaps indicates the immortelle! {fig. 303). The
other ornaments are mostly variants of ancient patterns, and
are in some cases excellent.

Binny & Ronaldson were succeeded by James Ronald-
son, who brought out a specimen in 1816 which, as it is
beautifully printed, shows the transitional types mentioned
above to much better advantage than Binny & Ronaldson's
specimen of 1812. The selection offered of both types and
ornaments is considerably increased and bettered. The in-
teresting Preface alludes to the 1812 specimen as repre-

156 PRINTING TYPES

senting the labour of twenty-five years, and adds that the
adoption of ranging figures and the round s are among the
improvements which have been made simultaneously with
European foundries. Apologies are offered for the fat-faced
types put forth "to imitate the Europeans," contrary to the
founders' judgment, and proved by experience to be suited
only for " works of fancy." An enlarged edition of this speci-
men appeared in 1822. James Ronaldson was succeeded by
Richard Ronaldson, who apparently issued no specimen.
In 1833, the owners of the foundry were Lawrence John-
son and George F. Smith. Later, on Smith's retirement,
Johnson took as partners Thomas MacKellar and John F.
and Richard Smith. Upon Johnson's death in 1850, his
three partners added Peter C. Jordan to their company and
became the firm of MacKellar, Smiths and Jordan, remem-
bered by older printers. This house was absorbed in 1892
by the American Type Founders Company.

The material that a well-known eighteenth century printer
possessed is shown in the specimen of Isaiah Thomas
(1749-1831) of Worcester, Massachusetts. FrankHn called
Thomas the "American Baskerville," but his printing
was not remarkable except in view of the period in which
he worked, and the difficulties which lack of good paper,
good ink, and good workmen placed in his way. Thomas's
chief work was his folio Bible, published in 1791 — the
first folio Bible printed in America — for which Franklin,
to whom Thomas presented a copy, expressed great admi-
ration. Dr. Charles L. Nichols, the biographer and bibli-
ographer of Thomas, considers Sew all's Carmina Sacra
(1789) the best printed of his books, though Thomas pre-
ferred Charlotte Smith's Elegiac Sonnets (1795), a volume
printed on the first wove paper made in this country, by

TWO LINES GREAT PRIMER BLACK.

Init fie (t futtl^et

DOUBLE PICA BLACK.

%nh U it fmtf^tt ftm'bp en^
mtt, nut tht Maputo,
^ailiff^, or otliec fteati <i^f^

GREAT PRIMER BLACK.

'Mnti 6e it futtljer ifttthp tmtu

tff^, or ot&er j&eab <©fficet^ of
tijcrp (l^oton antr place corjpo^

302. Black-letter : Binny £s? Ronaldson's Specimen
Philadelphia^ 1812

NEW FLOWERS.

^0 ^^m^^Mmmm^m^m

iX£>< iA&l^t «Kfi>i m&<«i -i^VS^'^ ^V£>V4XS>«> «V£>»^^V£^i Jit,

I o ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^(pS!^^^^^^^^/Si^^j^^^^^lJ^^^^^*^sij:^-^'=^^=y=^^?^VS(j!^

14
15

fBt^^Mi^'^'^'WM^^^'VfmM'M^ W-.® ^w®

16 ^m^:fiM?;fM^™ ; ^:iimmi; mmi^^^ ^ ^^^^^

'7 lt.I.T.!.ITT.M.T.M:Tt.T.I.r,T.T.I.T>I.-M.I.M.I.T.i .I.M.I.M.M.M.T>T.T.T.T.M.r'T.T.T>I.t.T.l.I.13a l

303. Ornaments: Binny ^ Ronaldson''s Specimen
Philadelphia^ 1812

EARLY AMERICAN SPECIMENS 157

Thomas himself. Thomas also printed music — the Worces-
ter Collection of Sacred Harmony being his work. He was the
author of that standard book, The History of Printing in
America^ published in 1810 ; and the founder of the Ameri-
can Antiquarian Society of Worcester, of which he was the
first president.

The tide-page of Thomas's specimen shows his esteem
for William Caslon ^fig. 304). He had a complete series
of the Caslon fonts, with some large letters cut on wood.
In a manuscript note in a copy of his specimen belong-
ing to the American Antiquarian Society, Thomas says:
"£2000 sterling and upwards, were added to this Speci-
men, in types from Fry's, Caslon's and Wilson's Foundries,
between 1785 and 1784 \mc\. A great addition, and a
great Variety of Types were added to the following after
1 785. When complete the Printing materials were estimated
at Nine Thousand Dollars." His specimen shows a good
assortment of mathematical, algebraical, and astronomical
characters, a font of Greek, with some very good two-Hne
Greek letters, and a small font of neat Hebrew. There are
a number of type ornaments or "flowers," some of which
are very pretty. Of them Thomas says : "These ornamental
types may be varied in a thousand different forms, but they
are here inserted in the simple manner in which they are
cast"; though the compositor has tried his hand at new
arrangements without great success. Set in a commonplace
script is this concluding advertisement : "I. Thomas, Printer,
Worcester, Mafsachusetts, has with the greatest care and at-
tention furnished himself with the best Printing Materials
that could be made in Europe, and has purchafed these ar-
ticles to a very large amount. — He has every thing requi-
site for neat, elegant, or ornamental Printing, be the work
small or large, and will be happy to execute every com-

158 PRINTING TYPES

mand in the way of his Profefsion, on the most reasonable
Terms, and with DifpatchP The book is rare, but a copy
which Thomas gave to Harvard College may be seen in the
library of the University.

.■;ii!i;<in»>:iii!;-:iiiJ;-:iiii;-.iMi;:»iti.-;iiixitii;-:iiilxii|viMi;-:iiii:-:iin:-.mixii>:
Jx<f

J-<

SPECIMEN

ISAIAH THOMAS'^
PRINTING

Being as large and complete an ASSORT-
MENT as is to be met with in any one
Printing-office in America.

Chiefly MANUFACTURED by that great Artlft,

WILLIAM CASLON, Efq;

Of LONDON.

PRINTED ztWORCESTER, Massachusetts,
By ISAIAH THOMAS.

MDCCLXXXV.

iiixi.:ii>rn- iic-iii;ii •••iu>:ii( nixiixiir iiixmxiiiixiiix'iiixiiuxiiii:

304. Title-page: Isaiah Thomas's Specimen^ Worcester^ 1785

CHAPTER XIX

NINETEENTH CENTURY " CLASSICAL" TYPES
BODONI AND THE DIDOTS

THE pseudo-classical types which were in full pos-
session of the European field in the first years of
the nineteenth century, and which we best recog-
nize by the term "Didot," had their origin (l) in some special
tendencies or influences in typography, and (2) in political
and artistic movements,^ which must be described at some
length if we are to understand the typographical revolution
which they brought about.

In typography, the first and earliest influence was the
form of serif introduced into the French romain du roi by
Grandjean in the reign of Louis XIV. This thin, straight
serif, dazzling to the eye, rendered the romain du roi letter-
form quite unlike anything that preceded it. Grandjean's
serif was discarded by Luce in the types cut by him in
the time of Louis XV; but it was revived in types cut after
Luce's period, notably by the Didots.

The second influence was the fashion for more modelled
types, with light strokes in greater contrast to heavy strokes,
introduced in England by Basker\ ille. This style, although
it never took root deeply in England, was greatly admired
on the Continent, especially in France and Italy. For, as
Baskerville said when he offered his fonts to the Academic
des Sciences, " I have never sold my Types, nor do I intend
to sell any to London printers, as my Labours have always
been treated with more Honour abroad than in my native
Country." To France Baskerville's types ultimately went,
and his influence on both Bodoni and Didot is undeniable.

* For a full discussion of the latter, see Louis Hautecoeur's Rome et la Renais-
sance de I'Antiquite a la Jin du XVIIIe Steele. Paris, 1912.

160 PRINTING TYPES

A third influence was the condensation of type-forms —
as exhibited by Luce in his caractere poetique^ and by other
founders in the fonts called serve or approche — by which
letters appeared taller and narrowe?'.

And finally, all these tendencies were accentuated by the
taste throughout Europe for a lighter and more delicate
style of typography; sometimes arrived at by actually cut-
ting a lighter letter, sometimes by greater leading of the

type.

Chief among the artistic and political movements which
affected type-forms was the revival of appreciation of the
antique, which by 1800 dominated every phase of art. This
revival was the result of something over a hundred years of
unconscious preparation. Long before the discovery of Her-
culaneum and Pompeii, excavations had been made in the
neighbourhood of Rome, and the "grand tour" had made
Roman antiquities familiar to travellers. Although the first
discoveries at Pompeii were made as early as 1713, it was
not until 1745 that Herculaneum was uncovered, and not
until 1764 that the greater part of Pompeiian antiquities
were found.^ Even before the latter date public interest was
considerably aroused, and these discoveries were discussed
in learned publications — Cochin, who visited Italy with Ma-
rigny and Soufliot, WTiting on Herculaneum in 1751, and
Carlos III in 1757 promoting Baiardi's Antichita di Erco-
lano. The vogue of antique art was heightened by Panini's
paintings, Piranesi's engravings, and the sketches of Hu-
bert Robert ; encouraged by the French Academy at Rome
and the new Academies in Naples, London, Madrid, Parma,

^ The decoration which marked the reign of Louis XVI, known as style Louis
Seize outside France, was, owing to the classic tyiotifs that inspired it, called
in France d la grecque — the decorative work discovered at Herculaneum
and Pompeii being often more Greek tlian Roman in quality.

"CLASSICAL" TYPES 161

and elsewhere; and further stimulated by the sale of Sir
William Hamilton's Etruscan vases to the British Museum,
the installation of Roman collections of sculpture, etc., and
thejourneyingsof the erudite to Naples, Passtum, and Sicily.
The popularization of all these wonders by publications
illustrating and describing them — by Caylus, St. Non, Vis-
con ti, Winckelmann, Mengs, and others — led people to
consider Rome, in the language of the day, "the unique
Emporium of the Beautiful and the Temple of Taste."

In architecture, painting, and sculpture men soon formu-
lated what was supposed to be the underlying theory of an-
tique art. Artists searched Plutarch for subjects ; sculptors
chose living models on account of their likeness to antique
statues ; and the Beau Ideal was to be attained by study-
ing antiquity rather than life. In painting, these ideas were
exemplified by such pictures as Le Serment des Horaces of
David, by Flaxman's illustrations for the Iliad^ and by An-
gelica Kauffmann's pictures of antiquity a la mode. In sculp-
ture, Canova held first place in this revival, and made his
reputation by work which, because it was thought the last
word in classicism then, makes us smile now.

And in the minor arts all the forms of antique ornament
were pressed into the service of decoration. In furniture,
marble or mahogany was encumbered or enriched by clas-
sical ornaments in metal. In porcelain, Etruscan 77iotifs were
used at Sevres ; Wedgwood named his potteries Etruria, and
for him Flaxman made classical designs. Ruins became ink-
stands, tripods turned into flower stands, porticoes formed
clocks, and sphinxes, andirons. Pliny's Doves in mosaic be-
came table-tops, paper-weights, or brooches, buttons were
a Pantigue, and even fabrics were printed from Huet's de-
signs of Roman ruins.

By the year 1790, Greek and Roman antique art had com-

162 PRINTING TYPES

pletely captured public taste — social and political events and
ways of thinking in France being particularly favourable
to such a development'; though French students and artists
resident in Rome became so unpopular because of their
revolutionary opinions and license of expression that they
were driven out.^ But by 1796, the Pontifical States were
invaded by France, and the rage for antiquity showed it-
self in French demands. Paris must be a new Rome; and
so it was needful to make Paris what Rome had been — the
artistic centre of Europe. To effect this worthily we must,
said the French, possess Roman monuments ; and they pro-
ceeded to possess them. The Laocoon, the Dying Gladiator,
the Faun of Praxiteles, all set out for Paris, accompanied by
Raphael's Transfiguration, Domenichino's St. Jerome, and
a mixed company of goddesses, saints, nymphs, martyrs,
and emperors. There was even a plan to carry off Trajan's
Column, which proved, on investigation, so much too heavy
that a lighter obelisk was sent instead. The greatest works
of Italian art arrived in Paris by 1801, where they were
received with public rejoicing. For by that time, politics,
literature, art, all recalled the antique world. Government
was confided to senators, tribunes, and consuls — and, more
Romano^ a victorious general was made Emperor.

To us nowadays the antique seems something very hack-
neyed, but it was to the men of those days brilhantly and
thrillingly new — a resurrection from the dead; and, by an
association of ideas, antique art — and even sterile and frigid
imitations of it — symbolized that private virtue and public
wisdom which was then hopefully supposed to have made
its home on earth. The pseudo-classical tendency in paint-
To the Pontifical authorities the ' ' last straw ' ' was an unfortunate work of
art (somehow made into candelabra) showing Jupiter striking Aristocracy
with Thunderbolts and Apollo trampling under foot Superstition.

"CLASSICAL" TYPES 163

ing and sculpture made itself felt also in oratory and liter-
ature. And thus it seemed necessary, in typography, to
clothe new modes of expression in a new way, and new
type-forms were demanded to do it/ It required only a "man
of the hour" to accomplish this — in France Didot, in Italy
Bodoni. Thus artistic movements, political reforms, and dy-
nastic changes, together with certain tendencies in design,
contributed to the popularization of a kind of type which,
however far from classicism it seems to us now, represented
to the bibliophile of that epoch a return to "antique virtue"!

IN bringing about this change in typographic practice,
Bodoni showed great originality in his new type-forms,
and in this respect was the man most to be reckoned with.
The scholarly prestige of the Didots (in the long run a far
greater force) was influential in popularizing these new
styles of type.

Giambattista Bodoni, the son of a printer, was born at Sa-
luzzo in Piedmont in 1740. Leaving home as a lad, he made
his way to Rome, where he served as apprentice in the press
of the Propaganda Fide — lafelice scuola^ as he called it —

* As formal types called for a formal style of illustration, old decorators of the
book had to change their manner. The beautiful Italian (1754) edition of
Lucretius, — Delia JVatura delle Cose, — translated by Marchetti, edited by
F. Gerbaidt, and dedicated to the Marquis de Vandieres, brother to Madame
de Pompadour, or Le Monnier's Fetes des Bonnes-Gens de Canon, etc., pub-
lished by Prault and others at Paris in 1778, with frontispiece by Moreau,
are both printed in easy old style eighteenth century French types, with
which the decorations admirably accord. On the other hand, the embellish-
ments made for Didot's folio Horace of 1799 by the architect Percier meet
"Empire" requirements, and Moreau's illustrations to Legouve's ie iV/e-
rite des Femmes et autres Poesies, brought out in Paris by A. A. Renouard
in 1809, show a painful endeavour to do so. Both these books are printed in
Didot's "classical" fonts.

164 PRINTING TYPES

for which he always retained his early affection. Its direc-
tor, Ruggeri, a learned man, was kind to Bodoni, and en-
couraged him in trying to improve himself — even at that
early date we find Bodoni cutdng types for the establish-
ment. His stay there was not long. Ruggeri committed sui-
cide, and Bodoni, unable to endure further employment at
Rome, left the Press with the idea of seeking his fortune in
England. On his way there, stopping at his parents' house
at Saluzzo, he fell ill ; and before he had a chance to continue
his journey he was asked, in behalf of Ferdinand, Duke of
Parma, to take charge of the Stamperia Reale at Parma.
This was in 1768. Bodoni's work there was that of a private
printer; he produced either such things as were needed at
court, or interested the Duke ; or such work as he, on his
own initiative, proposed. His first stock of types came from
the Parisian foundry of Fournier, and he also cut type based
on Fournier's models. What this stock of type was in 1771
is shown in Bodoni's specimen of that year, and to this
period belong his Essai de caracteres Busses (1782); a Mon-
uale Tipogrqfico in quarto, a folio Manuale^ and a Greek
specimen — Serie di caratteri greci di Giambatista [sic] Bodoni
— all three produced in 1788. By this time Bodoni had
designed a great number of types, which, beginning as old
stvle, by degrees took on a more modern appearance. His
press became one of the sights of Europe, and was visited
by the dilettanti and cognoscejiti on the "grand tour";^ his

'Arthur Young, in his Travels in Italy, writing from Parma, December 9,
1789, says: " In the afternoon . . . to the celebrated rea/e ^zz/zoj^ro/Ja ofSig-
nore Bodoni, who shewed me many works of singular beauty. The types,
I think, exceed those of Didot at Paris, who likewise often crowds the let-
ters close, as if to save paper. The Dafihne and Chloe, and the Amynta, are
beautifully executed; I bought the latter, as a specimen of this celebrated
press, which really does honour to Italy. Signore Bodoni had the title of the
printer to the king of Spain, but never received any salary, or ev-en gratifi-
cation, as I learned in Parma from another quarter; where I was also in-

"CLASSICAL" TYPES 165

editions were admired and collected by bibliophiles every-
where. After 1790, his situation — vis-a-vis the Duke of
Parma — was improved. This came about through an offer
which Bodoni received from De Azara, Spanish Minister
to the Papal Court, who conceived the idea of starting a
press there (to bring out editions of the classics), of which
he invited Bodoni to take charge. This plan coming to the
Duke's ears, he made a counter proposal, with the result
that Bodoni remained at Parma with a larger press and a
more independent position, which permitted him liberty to
print for any one who wished to employ him. So, besides
Italian, Greek, and Latin books, Bodoni enlarged his field
by printing French, Russian, German, and English books
— Walpole, Gray, and Thomson being among the English
authors for whom he produced editions. He was appointed
printer to Carlos III of Spain; he received a pension from
his son, Carlos IV; he corresponded with Franklin; he was
complimented by the Pope; the city of Parma struck a
medal in his honour; he obtained a medal for his work at
Paris; he received a pension from the Viceroy of Italy;
Napoleon gave him another and a larger one, and in short
he was a great personage. He was one of those fortunate
mortals who, appearing at just the right moment, knew
exactly what he wanted to do, attempted it, succeeded in
it, was praised for it, and deserved (and highly enjoyed) the
praise. What more could one ask? He departed this life
at Parma in 1813, and even his funeral ceremonies appear

formed, that the salary he has from the duke is only 150 zechins. His merit
is great and distinguished, and his exertions are uncommon. He has 30,000
matrices of type. I was not a little pleased to find, that he has met with the
best sort of patron, in Mr. Edwards, the bookseller, at London, who has made
a contract with him for an impression of two hundred and fifty of four Greek
poets, four Latin, and four Italian ones — Pindar, Sophocles, Homer, and
ITieocritus; Horace, Virgil, Lucretius, and Plautus; Dante, Petrarcha, Ari-
osto, and Tasso."

166 PRINTING TYPES

to have been precisely what he would have wished them
to be!

As to Bodoni's specimen-books (apart from the charm-
ing little specimen of 1771, Fr'egi e Majiiscole, described
in a former chapter), the inscriptions in exotic types, — Is-
crizioni JEsotici a Caratteri novellamenti incisi ejusi, 1774, —
printed to commemorate the baptism of the Prince of Parma,
may be considered his first attempt to display his exotic
characters. It is an interesting book — of 50 pages, quarto
— and shows twenty of Bodoni's "learned" fonts {Jig. 305).
The magnificent Epithalamia'in folio, printed in 1775 and
later to be described, also falls into this class. Bodoni's Man-
uale Tipograjico of 1788 I have never seen. It was appar-
ently a quarto book of 360 pages, containing one hundred
specimens of roman and fifty of cursive types, displayed
in French and Italian on one side of the leaf. In it were
also included twenty -eight sizes of Greek character, which
were issued separately as well. This edition of the Manuale
seems also to have been printed in octavo form on various
special papers and on vellum.

In the same year, 1788, Bodoni issued the finest and most
imposing of his specimens — a folio collection of roman,
italic, Russian, Greek, and Cancellereschi types. The book
opens, unfortunately, with the last named, in fifteen sizes
of a detestable form of script capital; but the twenty-eight
alphabets of roman and twenty-seven of italic capitals which
follow are perhaps the most magnificent of their kind ever
displayed. The roman capital letters in larger sizes (from
1 to 5) are specially fine — brilliant in cut and splendidly
printed in ink of a wonderfully rich black. Then, too, un-
like Bodoni's later books, the paper has a pleasant surface
from which all the life has not been smoothed out. Nine
alphabets of Greek capital letters follow, both in upright

Hellenistica

ro ' JidSioixa • dvtov

iv • iBoSco • oiKOv • xaroiTretdoiiciroi;

xal ' XajXTtporrif; ' jiXeixjiaroi; * dvtov

ionv • 00^

XajXTtpotTii; ' fiXejxiiaro; • A^J-iAoy

UspisCoioev • dvtov

6 • T'-\\)iotO(; • oroAi)v • Sp^ni^;

xal ' (ji'vlc'Ae/ai; • xavxiil^^toi;

hsSvoev • dyroi;

np6(7(i);rov • dvtov • x^P^'^<^J^ * jxeatcv

xa] ' ^aviiaotbv

(o(; • darj)p • xal • co^; • toBov

cfcotiCov • iv • vs(peX(XL(;

(g)

305. Greek from Iscrizioni Esotici: Bodoni^ Parma^ 1774

"CLASSICAL" TYPES 167

and cursive forms — though how legitimate Greek ^''italic
capitals" are is a question. The sizes from 1 to 4, or 5, are
superb, especially number 1, in both italic and roman. Next
come Russian capital letters in twelve sizes of roman and
italic, and here again the cutting is brilliant and the im-
pression effective to the last degree. From that point on, the
types are upper and lower-case, beginning with roman and
italic papale, imperia/e, reale, duco/e, in three weights of letter
down to tresmegiste, below which roman and italic are shown
in ten sizes of each ; followed by similar Russian fonts of
great magnificence. Fonts of Greek follow in descending
sizes, and a few specimens of roman and italic {Jig. 306),
which are much more old style than Bodoni's later equiva-
lent fonts.

The splendour of this book depends upon pure typog-
raphy. There is not an ornament in it — not even the little
tablets by which Bodoni sometimes gave a dash of salt to
his books, but with which less skilful printers have pep-
pered their reproductions ! From a passing allusion in Bo-
doni's preface to his Manuale of 1818, it appears that only
a few copies of this specimen were printed.^

To this period also belongs Bodoni's "Letter" to the Mar-
quis de Cubieres^ in French and Italian, printed in 1785.
Concerning it Franklin wrote the following letter to Bodoni,
dated Philadelphia, October 14, 1787:

"I have had the very great pleasure of receiving and
perusing your excellent Essai des Characteres [sic] de Plm-
primerie. It is one of the most beautiful that Art has hith-
erto produc'd. I should be glad to see a specimen of your

* An example is in the Boston Public Library.

^ Lettre de J. B. Bodoni, Tyfiographe du Roi d' Es/iagne et Directeur de V Im-
firimerie de S. A. R. f Infant Due de Parme, a Monsieur le Marquis de
Cubieres. Parma, 1785.

168 PRINTING TYPES

other Founts besides this Italic & Roman of the Letter
to the Marq.^ de Cubieres ; and to be inform'd of the price
of each kind. — I do not presume to criticise your Italic
Capitals ; they are generally perfect : I would only beg leave
to say, that to me the form of the 7^ in the word LETT RE
of the Title Page Yjig. 307 a] seems preferable to that of
the Tin the word Typographie in the nextPage \_jig. 307 b],
as the downward stroke of T, P, i?, F^ B, Z), ZT, 7f , Z/, /, and
some others, which in writing we begin at the top, natu-
rally swells as the pen descends ; and it is only in the A and
the M and JV that those strokes are fine, because the pen
begins them at the bottom."

De Lama says that Bodoni was overcome with joy to
have from the President of the United States of America
this flattering letter, which he considered a title to glory
and preserved with religious care. Bodoni and De Lama,
although a little mixed about the ofiice which Franklin
held in America, were quite right in being pleased; and
this compliment so flattered Ferdinand, Duke of Parma,
that he had the letter translated into Spanish, and sent it
to his uncle, Carlos III, at Madrid, to whom Bodoni was
honorary printer by appointment.^

In 1806, the Oratio Dominica in CLV Linguas Versa et
Exoticis Characteribus Plerumque Expressa is another mas-

* Bodoni was often called "the King of Typographers and the Typographer
of Kings" — a phrase suggested by the epitaph on Plantin's tomb at Ant-
werp. He was also styled "the Baskerville of Italy" — just as Didot was
called " the Bodoni of France," the Foulis brothers "the Elzevirs of Glas-
gow," and ITiomas "the BaskervUle of America." This rather ridiculous
habit of calling somebody the something of somewhere else has always at-
tracted a certain class of mind in this country. A worthy gentleman who
lived in Rhode Island in the eighteenth century and collected pictures was
styled "the Lorenzo de' Medici of Newport," and a Boston schoolboy de-
scribed Demostlienes as ' ' the Edward Everett of Athens. ' ' It was reserved,
however, for Mrs. Piozzi to call Switzerland "tlie Derbyshire of Europe."

^
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307. (a) Title of Lettre a De Cubieres

^i dans les feuilles du Gomite de
Gorrespondance ^ a rankle de la
^2/pographie^ on a comble d'eloges
quelques faibles essais de mes ca-
ractereSj, vous savez que je les dois
enderement a tempressement fiat-
teur^ avec lequel vous avez exige

307. if) Text of Lettre a De Cubieres: Bodoni^ Parma ^ 1785

"CLASSICAL" TYPES 169

terly showing of what Bodoni could do in foreign and
ancient alphabets — though a somewhat tiresomely perfect
book/

The second and final edition of Bodoni's Manuale Tipo-
grafico — in two quarto volumes, with a Discorso by his
widow and Prefazione by Bodoni {Jigs. 308 a7id 309) — ap-
peared in 1818, five years after his death. It was completed
under the care of his widow and Luigi Orsi, who was for
twenty years foreman to Bodoni. Signora Bodoni, writing
to M. Durand Pame of Metz, from Parma (November 14,
1817), says : "The Manuale Tipograjico in two volumes on
papier-velin — the only kind of paper used for it — is not
yet completed, but it will be, without fail, at the beginning
of the coming year. I dare to believe that book-lovers will
thank me for having published a volume which is so very
important to Typography. The reception which it will have,
will make up for the trouble it has cost me (although Bo-
doni has left the blocks or models for it) and the consider-
able expense which I shall have had to incur before it is
finished. Also, in view of the fact that but 290 copies are
struck off, I cannot dispose of them at less than 120 francs,
without any reduction. M. Rosaspina has engraved au burin
the portrait after one which the celebrated Appiani . . .
painted in oils, which is a striking likeness."^

The first volume contains, under the title of Serie di
Caratteri Lati?ii, Tondi e Corsivi, a series of roman and italic

^ This polyglot Oratio Dominica was printed at the suggestion of Pius VII,
who, in May, 1805, had passed through Parma on his way from the coro-
nation of Napoleon. It was intended to outdo a like work published by the
Imprimerie Imperiale at Paris. Bodoni's book was dedicated to Eugene
Beauhamais, Viceroy of Naples, to whom he personally presented a copy.
In return for this work, Bodoni received a pension and an offer of the direc-
tion of the Royal Printing House at Milan.
From an unpublished letter belonging to the author.

170 PRINTING TYPES

types, which cover 144 pages. These run from parmigianina
to papale. Sometimes there are as many as fourteen vari-
eties of the same body in diflPerent designs and weights of
line. It is almost impossible to conceive why it was neces-
sary to have so many kinds which, even to a trained eye,
appear much alike: though it is perhaps justifiable in the
larger sizes — as in the three weights of ducale{Jig. 310) —
where differences can be clearly detected. The number of
sizes of type, so nicely graduated that one almost merges
in another, is more explicable. This great series enabled
Bodoni to place on his pages, not approximately, but exactly,
the size of type he wished to employ {_jig. 31l).

Succeeding pages (145-169) show Serie di Caratteri Can-
cellereschi, etc., in smaller sizes ugly, gray forms of script.
Here and there an interesting one appears — like number
13, or the large sizes, 16 and 17. The English scripts are
imitations of the "fine Italian hand" then fashionable in
England, and have little to recommend them. Volume I
closes with an enormous array of capital letters, both roman
and italic, followed by a few pages of hideous script capi-
tals unworthy of the collection.

The second volume contains an assemblage of roman and
"italic" Greek capitals, covering sixty-two pages; and ex-
otic types, beginning with Hebrew, run on to the ninety-
seventh page. These are followed by German and Russian
types, many of great splendour. The book closes with se-
ries of borders, mathematical, astronomical, and other signs,
musical notation, etc. Some few ornaments {fregi) are at-
tractive {Jig. 312), but most of them, while very perfect, are
chilly, sterile, and uninteresting. The borders {contomi) con-
fined in rules — a form of decoration which Bodoni affected
for his broadsides — are, however, quite charming {Jig.
313). The arabic figures displayed are distinguished, and

fonderia: ilManualepreseate ne ren-
dera esatto conto , qualora vogliasi
coiifrontare col primo, Converrammi
piuttosto osservare^ che 11 sesto e il
contorno sono i medesimi cliegli vi-
vente diede ad alcune pagine fatte
iniprimere per prova. In qaeste^a dif-
ferenza del suo primo Manuale^ ove
ogni pagina conteneva la descrizio-
ne di una qualche citta^ comincian-
do colnome di essa^ voile replicato
il principio della prima Catilinaria
= Quousque tandem abutere ecc.
per mettere sotto Vocchio de' com-
mettend di caratteri il vantaggio
che potrebbero ritrarre domandando

308. Page of Signora Bodom's Discorso: Manuale Tipografico^ Parma^ 1818

dono puro di Dio e felicita di natu-
ra, benche spesso provenga da lunga
eseicitazlone e abitudlne, clie le piu
difficili cose agevola a segno clie in
fine senza plii pur pensai vl riescono
ottimamente fatte. Che pero la gra-
zia dell a scrittura forse piu che in al-
tro sta in certa disinvoltura di tiatti
franchi, risoluti, spediti,e nondime-
no cos\ nelle forme esatti, cos\ degra-
dati ne'pieni,c/ie non trova rinvidia
ove gli emende. Ma forse piu sicuro
e ristringerci a dire che han grazia
le lettere, cjuando sembrano scritte
non gia con isvogliatezza o con fret-
ta , ma piuttosto , che con impegno
e pena, con felicita ed amore.

Tanto pivi hello sara dunque un
carattere, quanto avra piu regolari-

309. Page of Bodoni's Prefazione: Manuale Tipograjico^ Parma ^ 1818

Quousque tan-
dem abutere,Ca-
tilina, patientia

Quousque tan-
de abutere, Ca-
tilina, patientia

Quousque tan-
dem abutere^
Catilina^ pad-

310. Specimen of BodonVs Ducale in three weights
Manuale Tipografico^ Parma^ 1818

PHILOSOPHUS

ORATOR

ciTiS'Kom&teus
flniToa BtOQOSMTissin

fniiosorJiui

311. Largest^ medium^ and smallest Roman and Italic Capitals
shoxvn in BodoJiVs Manuale Tipograjlco^ Parma^ 1818

:V:|^) FREGI ^4*

922

923

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929 ^W "m^ ^^li^^' '^lii^'^ ^<tl)^ ^1^ ^li^ ^IJ^ ^<<iii^'^ '^iij?

980 t|y't^^p^^{rt{r\[rx^\lr'»lK-<lrt|K"W"t|K't|y

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312. Ornaments: BodonVs Manuale Tipografico^ Parma^ 1818

*>^ CONTORNI \

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•••o o o o 0----0 o a o 0......0 o o o—

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313. Borders: BodonVs Manuale TipograJicQ^ Par-ma^ 1818

"CLASSICAL" TYPES 171

deserve mention. The music type is uninteresting, the plain-
song notation in particular being too modern in effect. The
work is probably the most elaborate specimen that the world
has ever seen — an imposing tour deforce — and the acme
of Bodoni's late, chilly, dry manner.

Bodoni's work may be divided into two periods : (l) when
he employed old style or transitional types and used decora-
tions somewhat profusely, and (2) when he depended on his
own type-designs and unadorned typography for his effects.
His early printing shows French influence very distinctly,
and in the specimen of 1771 — Fregi e Majuscole — the bor-
der of Bodoni's title-page is almost a copy of that of the
second volume of Fournier's Manuel Typographique. But
earlier than that, the French fashion of printing appears in
such books as Le Feste d\4pollo and the Pastorale of 1 769 —
which commemorate gala performances in honour of the
marriage of the Duke of Parma. Some other early books of
the Stamperia Reale — such as Alberti's Saggio di Poesie
Italiane (1773) or Trenta's tragedy VAuge^ issued about
1774 — are so far from Bodoni's later style that it is at first
sight difficult to believe that he printed them. Such a book
as the Epithalamia Exoticis Linguis Reddita of 1775, issued
in honour of the marriage of Marie Adelaide Clotilde, sister
of Louis XVI, printed in Bodoni's "first manner" from old
style types, is a masterpiece ; really magnificent in its types,
their arrangement, and the superb engraved decorations
which, for once, enhance the effect of the page ^figs. 314
and 315). I think it one of his finest volumes.

In 1784, Bodoni printed another very charming book in
this early manner — Prose e Fersi per onorare la Memoria
di Livia Doria Caraffa^ a collection of poetry, prose, and
inscriptions which is probably one of the most beautiful me-
morial volumes ever produced. The fonts of delicate roman

172 PRINTING TYPES

and italic type are distinctly old style. In 1785, Bodoni's edi-
tion of Anacreon's Odes, in quarto, was published — a most
beautiful book (printed entirely in capital letters) in Greek
and Latin. The volume In Fimere Caroli II I^ of 1789, and
the Orazione Funebre of Botteri (for the same occasion) are
also good specimens of his earlier taste. The Greek and Ital-
ian Callimachus of 1792 retains a great deal of his early
style; and his Tavola di Cebete Tebano of 1793 is another
delightful piece of printing — simple, and very character-
istic. The Brief of Pius VI of 1792, of which there were
but twelve copies printed in folio, may well have caused the
Pope to exclaim that he must issue a second brief to praise
the way in which Bodoni had printed the first one! Of
all this work, a little 32mo Anacreon in Greek of 1791 is
my favourite — one of his most exquisite bits of printing.
Meanwhile, the increasing number of books prefiguring
his later way of working — like the Horace and Imitation of
1791 and 1793 — show that he was feeling his way into the
refrigerated manner of his last days. But his first period —
less known, and when known, less considered — is his best.
Of Bodoni's second manner — which, roughly speaking,
may be called his nineteenth century style — there are in-
numerable examples, and in all these later books the area
of unprinted space on his pages is great. Bodoni lightened
the solidity of close-set composition by exaggerating his
ascenders and descenders, and also by ingeniously plac-
ing small faces of type on large bodies, which effectually
prevented such fonts from being set solid. His quarto Taci-
tus of 1804 is a fine book — transitional in style, perhaps.
// Bardo delta Selva Neva of 1806 is a full-blown exam-
ple of his favourite and typical way of working. The Oratio
Dominica of the same vear, Tasso's Genisalemme Liberata
of 1807, the Greek Iliad in three volumes folio of 1808, La

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"CLASSICAL" TYPES 173

Rochefoucauld's Maximes in French of 1 8 1 1, and the French
THemaque oi 1812, which Bodoni thought perhaps his best
work — all these are books showingoriginality of conception,
even though the conception may not be of a very endearing
kind.

One of the last and most typical of his editions is La
Giuditta of 1813 — begun but not finished by Bodoni — a
book absolutely without ornament, and very fine in its way.
Some smaller volumes of poems in 16mo, delicately printed
from delicate types, on paper which is much like vellum in
quality, are delightful of their kind. Such are Parini's Odi
of 1799; Fersi di Giordani, in four volumes, of 1809 ; and
Fersi del Conte Aurelio Bemieri., 1811, in four volumes.

Finally, Bodoni's broadsides — inscriptions in capitals,
framed in borders made up of ornaments — are among his
most interesting performances. These are rare ; and while
no reproduction gives much idea of them, I refer the reader
to their facsimiles at the end of Bertieri's admirable book.^

Bodoni's larger volumes were certainly often magnificent.
They were planned on a great scale. It has been very well
said of him that those who came after might choose to do
something else ; but that what he chose to do could never
be done better. His first manner, in one way less character-
istic of him, is, as I have said, much the more agreeable
and sympathetic. He was then under the influenceof French
styles, although perhaps he had given up employing French
types; but there was about the books of this period — as
in those of his rival Didot — real charm. The distinction
of old style type was retained, but it was slightly refined.

* For these and other interesting facsimiles see Bertieri and Fumagalh's
UArte di Giambattista Bodoni. Milan, 1913. The series of plates at the end
show at a glance the difference between his early and late manner of printing.
A chronological table of Bodoni's editions forms Vol. II of De Lama's Vita
di Bodoni. Parma, 1816.

174 PRINTING TYPES

But while it was in his first period that he produced his
most beautiful books, he himself did not think so. It may
be said that this is self-evident, because he soon changed
his style for one which he must have considered an im-
provement. But it was not Bodoni, but the spirit of the art
round about him, that made his later types more and more
rigid, their heavy lines thicker, and their light lines thin-
ner and more wiry. Wonderfully perfect as these types
were in detail, they contributed to a style of printing that
made these later books as official as a coronation, and as
cold as the neighbouring Alps ! His volumes were to other
printing what Canova's statuary was to earlier sculpture.

Many of Bodoni's books lacked intimacy and charm, too,
because of his conception of the function of his press. He
cared nothing about printing as a means to popular instruc-
tion. He did not despise the masses — he forgot all about
them ! He was a court printer, existing by the patronage of
the Lucky Few. His editions were intended to be livres
(Tapparat} He not alone saw no harm in making them so,
but the bigger and more pretentious they were, the better
he liked them. In fact, he openly said so, and told Renouard,
the French publisher, " Je ne veux que du magnifique, et je
ne travaille pas pour le vulgaire des lecteurs." I am afraid,
too, that he always retained an eighteenth century Italian
carelessness about detail, which often gave Italian archi-
tecture and painting of that period such delightful brio. But
"broad effects," when applied to scholarship and proofread-
ing, lead to disaster. Thus the texts of Bodoni's classical
editions have never been considered very correct, and his
books, apart from their appearance, are not valuable to the

* A collection of Bodoni's books in all tlieir different editions, on large paper,
" special " paper, vellum, etc., is preserved in the Ducal Library at Parma,
where the matrices of Bodoni's types are also exhibited.

PARANGONE I.

N'ayez de T attacliement, et
de r amour pour le monde ,
qu'a proportion du temps que
vous y devez etre . Celui qui
voyage^ ne doit point s' ar ,

Non ahhiate attacco^ ne amo-
ve pel mondoy se non die a pro-
porzione del tempo ^ che voi vi
dovete dimorare . Quegli che ec .

PARANGONE IL

Iln'ya au monde que deux
m^nieres de s' elever; ou par sa
propre industrie ^ ou par V imbe-
cilite des autres . On ne vole . ec
Non ha V uomo che due mez-
zi per aggrandire; o la propria
industrial o V altrui imbecillitd.
Non si vola colle stesse ali etc .

>'^mi

316. Roman and Italic: A?norettVs Sag-g^io de' Caratteri
Parma ^ 1811

"CLASSICAL" TYPES 175

scholar. Didot, who published much better editions, but did
not print so well, justly enough said that Bodoni's books
would figure on the shelves of collectors, but not in the
libraries of savants — adding, "Comme litterateur je con-
damne ses editions, comme typographeje les admire." There
were other eminent critics who took the same tone. Appar-
ently it was not only in the classics that he sinned; for Horace
Walpole, writing in 1790 to Mary Berry, who was then in
Italy, says, "I am glad you did not get a Parmesan Otranto.
A copy is come so full of faults that it is not fit to be sold
here." But whatever Bodoni's faults were, he was perfectly
characteristic of his period, and expressed it in his work.
Because he was so characteristic of his time is perhaps the
chief reason that he is a great printer.

Andrea Amoretti, a learned Italian priest, who, renoun-
cing his calling, engraved some of Bodoni's types, and who
printed some pretty books himself, issued a delightful little
specimen, Saggio de* Caratttni e Fregi delta Fonderia dei
Fratelli Amoretti Incisori e Fonditori in San Pancrazio presso
Parma (I8II), and this book shows how the Italian output
had been influenced by Bodoni and Didot ^ i^fig. 316). The
clear-cut ornaments, which are to earlier ornaments what
the Amoretti types of 1 8 1 1 are to earlier types, are very per-
fect, very brilliant, and extremely characteristic of the fash-
ionable style in printing at that period {^fig- 3 1 7). Indeed, Bo-
doni's work was much copied by such presses as that of the
Vicenzi at Modena and in other parts of Italy. The luxurious
books of the Tipograjia della Societa Letteraria at Pisa (now
almost forgotten), which employed Amoretti's fonts, were
important and collected by amateurs of printing. The effect

'The Amorettis also issued in 1830 another specimen — JVuovo Saggio
de' Caratteri e Fregi della Fonderia dei Fratelli Amoretti Incisori e Fonditori
in Parma. It is inferior to the first one and shows some types in theEngUsh
manner of Thome.

176 PRINTING TYPES

of Amoretti's fonts is shown in the folio Poesie di Catullo, in
Italian and Latin, issued at Pisa in 1815. This book recalls
Bodoni's manner, but just misses its excellence; somehow
the types seem commonplace, and their arrangement lacks
Bodoni's clever touch. Amoretti's types are also used in
Tasso's ^;72wto, printed in Pisa in 1804 at the same press;
but here the types are too much spaced and look weak, not
only on that account, but because they are so.

Ill

SOME account of the manifold activities of the Didot
family is given in a previous chapter, but we must now
consider their important part in the development of nine-
teenth century type-forms. Their eighteenth century influ-
ence in the movement toward lighter types is shown by
Frangois AmbroiseDidot's fonts cut by Wafiard about 1775,^
in that interesting book already spoken oi^Epitre sur les Pro-
gres de P Impnmene^ written and put forth by Didot raine
in 1784, and in the delightful Essai de Fables Nouvelles,
in which the EpXtre was reprinted in 1786. It is but fair
to say that mid-eighteenth century French specimens were
full of very light fonts, in what was then called the goiit
nouveau, and it was these that the Didots somewhat re-
fined upon. On the other hand, some of the graceful and
spirited but attenuated old style types used by the Didots
about 1780 were very beautiful, and have not been suffi-
ciently noticed — types just on the turn of the tide — fore-
shadowing the coming change in style, but by no means

I have not been able to examine any volumes showing large sizes of the
Waflard types, which were quickly superseded by Vibert's fonts, for which
Pierre Didot was responsible. Alphabets of Wafiard 's characters are shown
in Thibaudeau's La Lettre (T Imfirimerie , Vol. I, pis. 15 and 16. Tlie date
of their appearance there given (175?) would appear to be open to question.

ro8
109

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ALTRI IN QUADRO DIVERSO

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117
118

317. Ornaments: AmoreuVs Saggio de"* Caratteri
Parma ^ 1811

"CLASSICAL" TYPES 177

disfigured by it. None of these characters (save possibly
Waflard's) prepare us for the fonts cut by Firmin Didot
about 1800 for the Racine and also used in the composition
of the Constitution de la Republique.

The famous edition dii Louvre of Racine (1801-5) was
printed by Pierre Didot in three folio volumes, and con-
sidered his chef d'^ozuvre. "The splendid execution of this
book," says Bouchot, " was a true typographical revolution.
Never in any country had scrupulous perfection of detail
been joined to somasterly a knowledge of arrangement and
form of characters. The great artists of the Davidian school
were anxious of the honour of seeing their drawings repro-
duced as illustrations, and . . . designed the fifty-seven plates
with which the edition was adorned." Two hundred and
fifty copies were printed, one hundred of which had proofs
of the plates before letters. It was published by subscription
at 1200 francs for the ordinary edition, and with proofs at
1800 francs.

The series of typical "Didot" characters used in it is dis-
tinguished by the violent contrast of their thick and thin
lines. The heavy strokes of the letters are very strong, the
thin lines and the serifs are exaggerated and lightened to
a mere hair-line. The italic is almost as if engraved. The
eiFect as a whole is perfect, but dazzling; it sticks into,
rather than strikes, the eye. All the agreeable, mellow feel-
ing of the letter of Jenson and Garamond is gone. " Didot in-
con testably realized," says Thibaudeau, "a pompous roman
alphabet instinct with majestic grandeur, but of extreme
dryness and absolutely glacial rigidity of line." He adds
that a whole school of typography sprang up around this
Didot "formula-type." There existed, however, a minority
who did not accept Didot's fonts without criticism and
protest.

178 PRINTING TYPES

We can understand the enthusiasm excited by such books
as Didot's Horace and Racine only when we realize that
the men chosen to illustrate them were part and parcel
of the movement in Art that I have already outlined, and
that printing was itself but a tiny current in the far-reach-
ing sweep of this tide. Lifeless and pretentious as such work
seems to us now, to the public of that day it appeared the
quintessence of the antique spirit. For it must be observed —
and this observation has a moral for the printer — that what
the contemporaries of Didot saw and admired in his print-
ing is not what we see and admire now. Men of that day
saw, or thought they saw, in Didot's great folios, antiquity;
to us the only interesting thing about them is that they ex-
hibit Didot's idea of it. And since the Didot idea was not
particularly interesting, or his manner charming, neither
his types nor the books he printed with them much interest
us. The only "period" a printer can work in so as to give
pleasure at subsequent periods appears to be his own.

The development of this Didot letter is shown in the
Specimen des Mouveaux Caracteres . . . de P. Didot Paine of
1819 {Jig. 318). Here we see a new style of French type in
full swing. Pierre Didot says these fonts were engraved
under his personal supervision by the type-cutter Vibert,
whom he assisted (and probably inordinately tormented) for
three hours a day for ten years to get things to his mind.
Frangois Ambroise Didot, it should be remembered, had
reformulated a system of type-measurement — one reason
why his style of type became so popular with printers. His
son applied this mathematical sense to type-design, with
a resultant rigidity which is a mark of early nineteenth
century "classic" French fonts. Almost every trace of pen-
quality vanishes in these types. It is an alphabet "regular-
ized" to a painful degree; though very perfect and very

"CLASSICAL" TYPES 179

brilliant. There are marked and disagreeable peculiarities
in some letters {Jig. 319), and its disabled g and wounded y
warn us of the danger of too much fussing over details.

Some very horrid characters engraved for the Imprim-
erie in 1 8 1 8 by Jacquemin were a reflection of those heavier
types introduced by Thorne in England ; for after the down-
fall of Napoleon, English fashions were popular. They had
a counterpart in those of Henri Didot's nephew, Marcel-
lin Legrand, whose fonts of 1825 — a sort of mechanical
version of Didot's 1819 fonts — were followed by the same
engraver's unpleasantly condensed types of 1847.

The eflfect of types of the Didot school may be seen in books
published in France by different members of the Didot
family, by Renouard, and other progressive publishers, be-
tween 1800 and 1850. The following volumes, selected at
random, show a certain progression in style of type as the
century advanced.

In the BucoUques of Virgil and the Idylles of Theocri-
tus, translated and printed by Firmin Didot, his caracteres
d'ecriture were first used in 1806. In 1811, Renouard pub-
lished, in two volumes 12mo, an illustrated edition of the
Fables of La Fontaine, which was an important book in its
time and a characteristic piece of early nineteenth century
typography. The fonts used in the 1817 edition of Moliere's
works — in octavo, printed by Pierre Didot fame — show
further progression to^vard modern face types, as we now
understand the term.Baour-Lormian's translation of Tasso's
Jerusalem Delivree^ published by Delaunay and printed by
Didot le jeune in 1819, though virile compared with later
type effects, is a very frigid and tiresome performance.

Poesies et Traductions en Vers de Firmin Didot Paris, de
la Typographic de VAuteur, 1822, shows Didot's own views

180 PRINTING TYPES

as to what a book should look like ; and Napoleon et ses
Contemporains^ a series of engravings with text by A. P. de
Chambure (1824), published by Bossange and printed by
Lachevardiere^/^, is a good example of fashionable typog-
raphy of a little later time. Lettres de Napoleon a Josephine,
etc. (1796-1814), published and printed by Firmin Didot
Freres in 1833, in two volumes octavo, is also an example
of what the Didot house at that period thought fit to present
to the public. Paulin's edition of Lesage's Gil Blas{lS35),
with its hundreds of vignettes by Gigoux, and Curmer's
edition of St. Pierre's Paul et Firginie (1838) were consid-
ered delightful novelties in book-making. In the latter, be-
sides many full-page wood-engravings by Tony Johannot,
the text was smothered with innumerable woodcuts de-
signed and executed by the best hands — French and Eng-
lish — in the "romantic" manner of the day. These two
books interest us : first, as endeavours to make what were
then considered (and, in a sense, still are) remarkable edi-
tions; second, because in them all unity of illustration and
typography was thrown overboard. This style in the mak-
ing of gift-books persisted in all countries for many years.

Finally, Horace's Opera, printed by Firmin Didot in 1855
from very tiny types, is worth examination. Ambroise Fir-
min Didot's address Au Lecteur gives some typographical
details about the edition. The smallest type in the book (cast
by Laurent & De Berny) is used in the notes to Didot's
address — not so small, however, as Henri Didot's micro-
scopic types used in 1827 in a minute edition of La Roche-
foucauld's Maximes.

Except for the reconstitution of books of that period,
types of the Didot school have little practical value to us
now.

LE TREIZE.

ConJLirant la melancolie,

La defiance et ses detours,

La froideur, et la jalpusie,

En ont confie I'heureux cours

A I'Hymen sensible, aux Amours,

A la raison, k la folie:

Heureux qui sait regler toujours

Leur accord, leur douce harmonic!

Lci, des dieux respirant la vie,
L'Hymen, par sa fecondit6,
L'Hymen, que mon coeur deifie,
Entretient, aug^mente, et varie
L amour, Fespoir, et la gaiete;
La douce paix, la liberte,
Y president de compagnie,
Versant, offrant de tout cote
Et le nectar et I'ambrosie.

Comme, apres un beau jour d'ete,
La nuit, plus calme et non moins belle.

319. Roynan in P. Didot's Sp^cimen^ etc.^ Paris^ 1819

"CLASSICAL" TYPES 181

OF early nineteenth century French specimens to becon-
sidered, the first is that of J. G. GiWe Ji/s, who in 1808
issued a folio specimen entitled Recueil des Divers Carac-
teres Vignettes et Omemens de la Fondeiie et Imprimerie de
J. G. Gille} The series of book-types shown are just on the
verge of modern face. The titling-letters are of the extreme
"Didot" form. The best fonts in this book are the beauti-
ful series of caracteres d'^ecnture in ronde, batarde, and coule,
which (especially in larger sizes) have much movement and
style. These were used with great success for administra-
tive and commercial printing. The vigriettes or type-borders
are distinctive, particularly those with black backgrounds,
which are among the handsomest of their kind {Jig. 320).
The collection of decorations cut on wood and reproduced
in poly type is an important feature. All kinds of interesting
ornaments are displayed. Many of them are in the pseudo-
classic taste of the period, which was taken uncommonly
seriously by Gille. In a prospectus about his designs for print-
ers, he alludes slightingly to the borders and tail-pieces in
Louis XV style, holding Luce up to ridicule, who, he says,
"did not consult the immortal and enchanting cartons of Ra-
phael. . . . But in our day," he adds,"Percier, Fontaine, and
other great architects have appeared. They have opened
our eyes, and iron, marble, steel, wood, all should breathe
the spirit of Raphael" — though I do not think Raphael
would easily recognize his "spirit" in Gille's type ornaments !
An idea of the collection may be had from our reproduc-

This foundry existed in the eighteenth centun-, when it was presided over
by a certain!. Gille, who published an interesting octavo specimen in 1773,
and another of 16mo form in 1778, entitled Caracthres de la Fonderie de
J. Gille, Graveur et Fondeur du Roi, etc. About 1790, his son acquired the
foundry.

182 PRINTING TYPES

tion of a broadside specimen of his types, probably issued
also about 1808 {fig. 321). In this, examples are shown of
the roman and italic types and the caracteres cP ecrituj'e just
spoken of, and the sheet is surrounded with one of Gille's
fine borders.

A less important specimen of about this period is the folio
book of Fignettes et F/eurons engr3.yed by Besnard and pub-
lished by him in 1812, printed by Mame, and interesdng for
its pretty ornaments designed in light style.

At the Exposition du Louvre of 1819, the Parisian type-
founder Mole J«/w<?, who began life as a painter and designer,
exhibited a series of fourteen great broadsides, surrounded
with wide borders, which is one of the most magnificent
type-specimens known. These sheets exhibit the result of
twenty-seven years of personal labour — 206 varieties of
roman, italic, civilite, Greek, Hebrew, Rabbinical Hebrew,
Arabic, Samaritan, Syriac, and also a fine series of roman
tithng-letters. In addition there are 468 borders (very varied
in design and many of great beauty), rules, etc. The roman
and italic are of the Didot style, and (except for the tiding-
letters)are less mechanical than is usual in such fonts. They
show this kind of type at its best, though owing much to
the splendid presswork of Pierre Didot Paine. We repro-
duce the sixth plate of the series {fig. 322). The Jury of the
Exposition commended "this immense and magnificent col-
lection as the w^ork of an artist who gready merits notice,
not merely for his admirable work, but for the labour, pains,
and immense sacrifices he has made to arrive at so high a
degree of perfection." As a conspectus of the best French
type of its day, Mole's fourteen Tableaux are classic.

French typographic ornament of this period, like type-
form, w^as much influenced by England, and an English en-
graver, Charles Thompson, — brother of the better known

321. Broadside Specimen Oj

"' fw fi ™4S" ""°"" " ™ " l?!! '' ! ^ J!* ? ^

c)o oJotanvaiCL-y cu LauCL^

AUG L S T I N

Un liomme qui consomme son
bicn iinprudcinincnt porle a ses
enfaiis un doniinagc considerable
ct pi'oJuil les incomniodites d unc
miserc suuveut prejuJiciable.

L 'urbanile nioittre Ics homines
coniirie i/s dct'roient ctre.

A. AUGUSTIN.

L'clude dcs llvres est un doux
amusement pourceux qui aimcnt
linstiurtiun ; clle Icurdiminue les
desagrcmens qu'on epiouvc dans
Ic commerce dcs bommcs.

La tratvjuiUitt/ de fame prouve
^videmnient la bonne conscience.

G. TEXTE.

Los homines que Ton croit
coniniunc'iiicnt hcurcux en ce
monde, ont iiirmimcat inoins
de parfait contentcmcnt, que
dc soucis ct d'amcrlumes.

L' irresolution est uii dejaut
ijuinuil a notrc avancemciit.

G. ROMAIN.

Evitoiis constainmcnl la
rcnconlre de ces liominos
Jc coininunicalioii librc ct
parlant conlimicllemcnt.

IjCS liommes cleiToiciit se
secourir inutuellement.

A. C. ROMAIN.

L'ostcntation dopulciice
est communemcnl la manie
deshommes qui n'ont point
de merile personnel.

La hi la plus exactement
observee est la bienseance.

P. PARANG ON.

Souvent rhomme ne
peu t se rendre raison dii
motif qui le determine.

Un homme vraimcnt
inslntit est ntodcstc.

G. PARANGON.

Limmense fortune
doiine de la vanite a
Ihommc comrmin.

JLa niort dim liomme
de bien est un malheur.

P. CANON.

Communcment
les hommes sent
emportes vers

L admiration.

G. CANON.

Conimune.
Estimation

D. CANON.

amour
amitie

atactt'tciJ

tcttfuxO.

£t ^omflaClu do Itu Aijio eju ttutoruii aj
J>oyer ttuj iihrteitr ttu i

JTettj cff^mtiiouiianeeo ^eWiauz* De.o yivtciO
tfe £u dkatiiiej eu dao /hfbuiclj.

£■« \o\\. iavciv (ju\t Jcio? uicrjJaiHuicMi.

Sitr petit Parangoiu
£eCL. QommiJJaireiL. vre'poje'x^
a_J lexamen Jej comvlea_

jUcii- cA.iliotiiinize<L. 9c fa Q'ttfttJ
PCJ (JjteujjifaitctJ ■'-^

Sur gros Purangon.

VoiUL- cteO— invite a voutL.
trouver cO t'CXjJemOle'cJ.

deaiiceJ puSCicjiie^ dcJ

Sur Petit Cimoiu

ULouA — comtitati^oiiiV aJ—

toti(<'(* — Clt^iiiiitioliatioii,i

Sur quatre Points Je Cicertt.

ifiunitionnairecL.
Ozaiiiatteiiieup^

Sur Je„x Point! de P. Canon.

( owiwietccj

yjiimumettcp
Uraonnanccs>

tllMBlia«gl>MltiliB«rn'iiWiil lhBil>iiiililjfllilfriihiiiiirt*ll<llALnBJii<WlB *«Tt«1lflMiilBiBiiiiiiiii»iinMM«iilftB)iiift)iiinB»iwil fliB^^

«, Paris ^ c. 1808 {reduced)

i^a^'^^g>^^g(;^^',^^gj^:/»^>;i».t^^»^-s»igHy;^i:»:-^(g^^j^sa&'».^so^g&#^g;^^ia&#^8^

"CLASSICAL" TYPES 183

John Thompson, — contributed to this. Settling in Paris in
1816, his engraved decorations were very much the mode,
and their multiplication by the process known as polytypage
put them at the disposal of the ordinary printer. Thomp-
son published, in 1826, the first of a quarterly series of
collections of his ornaments, entitled Recueil de Vignettes
gravees sur bois et polytypees par Thompson. This thin quarto,
printed by J. Pinard, shows his work, with prices for the
cuts affixed to each. They were not very charming produc-
tions, for though well engraved, they were somewhat dry
both in design and in line. But Thompson set a style which
was much followed in France.

Many of the cuts in the Gille^/^ specimen of 1808 are
repeated in Epreuves des Divers Caracteres^ Vignettes et Or-
nemens de la Fonderie de J. A. Pasteur^ Paris, 1823; a fuller
and in some ways more interesting collection. Though Pas-
teur appears to have succeeded to some of Gille's collection,
probably the largest part went to Laurent, Balzac, and Bar-
bier. After the failure and death of Gille Jils^ Laurent, a
former employee, had charge of the sale of his material in
1827. Later, he became a partner in the firm of Laurent &
De Berny.^

The type-founder L. Leger issued a brilliant broadside
which shows the persistence of those extreme "classic" type-
forms which the Didots made fashionable {Jig. 323). He
brought out, some time between 1831 and 1844, a quarto
volume of types and ornaments, entitled Specimen des Di-

* The De Berny foundry had an interesting history. With Laurent, and a
printer named Barbier, the noveUst Honore de Balzac formed an historic but
disastrous association in 1827, in a scheme to erect a foundiy, printing-office,
and pubHshing-house all in one. In 1828, the firm broke up, leaving Laurent
in possession of the foundry, who was joined by Alexandre de Berny (placed
there by his mother, whose sentimental relations with Balzac greatly influ-
enced the novelist's career) . This firm — Laurent & De Berny — existed until
1848, when the business was continued by De Berny alone.

184 PRINTING TYPES

vers Caracteres Vignettes et Fleurons des Fonderie et Stereo-
typie de L. Leger^ Graveur, neveu et successur de P. F. Didot^
which, according to its compiler, represented the results of
twenty-five years' labour. The ornaments and borders are
distinctly light in effect, black backgrounds having mosdy
disappeared {Jig. 324). The types, less excellent than the
ornaments, are still in the Didot style.

An extremely characteristic showing of types in popular
use in the first fifty years of the nineteenth century is made
in the Specimen Typographique de P Imprimerie Royale. These
two folio volumes (I, 1845; II, 1851), display a number of
fonts modelled on the Didot plan, and also make a distin-
guished showing of exotic fonts by Jacquemin. An index at
the end of the first volume tells who cut the various types
displayed — Firmin Didot, Marcellin Legrand, and Leger
Didot figuring among their designers ; while among ancient
fonts are those from Garamond, the Propaganda and Me-
dici offices, and Savary de Breves.

The Didot foundry remained in the possession of the
family until sold by Ambroise Firmin Didot, when its types
became part of the Fonderie Generale of Paris. In this house
were consolidated the establishments of Firmin Didot, Mole,
Crosnier, and fiverat. The 1839 specimen of the Fonderie
Generale, issued by E. Tarbe, who presided over it, shows
text types in the "classic" Didot style, and many of the or-
naments designed to accompany them — as well as vignettes
in the "romantic manner" which are very characteristic of
that time and very amusing in this. Another important spe-
cimen of the Fonderie Generale, then managed by Biesta,
Laboulaye & Cie, issued in 1843, showed, in addition to the
collections mentioned, those of Lion, Tarbe, and Laboulaye
Freres. The preliminary Avis supplies references by which
the types cut by different designers may be identified. The

•^Sr

Ahj^ PuiiiIs lit- Prill /tonic

AVRANCIIES.

BEJUMONT.

Deux Points dc Crvs lion.

MOULINS.

NJNTES.

IVOUVEAI

PAR LEGER, FONDI

NEVEU ET SUCCESSEUR DE DU

Dettjc Points dc Pfuhso/ftite.

CARCASSONNE.

DUSSELDORF,

Vflix Points dc Petit Parangon.

ORLEANS.

PJMIERS.

ERMENOr

FJBMOi

Deux Points dc C

QUIM
ROJl

Dtiix Puinis lie Tiismesisle.

YPRES

Mojtrmics de t^onte.

Nota. Ccs Caracltris onl tie fomliis par un noti\eau Precede qui olTrc plusicui-s avonlagcs faciles a apprcciir. II est |)roprc a 1
r'nfin, Ics lellrrs, depuis le Cros Roiiiain jusqiraiix Crosses dc fonlc, sent fondues sur un cor])s creux, ce qui economise un cinq
Lcncfice diiqiiel jo suis coproprietairc, el unc Medallle al'cxpoiillon de I'an iSoG.

323. Broadside Specimen of

TITRES

EN CARACTERES,

I DES AUGUSTUS, A PARIS.

Deux Potnts fie Saint /lugustin.

GRENOBLE.
HONFLEUR.

Deux Points dc Palestine, .

STENAY.
TURIN.

Deux Points de Gros Trite.

JOINVILLE.
LEUCATE.

Pctix Points de Petit dinoti^

UTRECHT

VANNES.

Deux Pvinls de Gros Canon.

E WORMS

mcnl dcs Lcltrfs de deux points, nials encore des Vignelles et dcs Caracltres d'ccritfire , qu'il rend a>issi purs que le poinQoii.
, comparativemcnt a la manicie ordinaire de fondre. Ce sont ces avantages qui ont merilc a ce Precede un Bret'et itinventlon, du

tzSW'

^^S

't^sl

*'><y*3'y9^9'^'y^<y^9^9^a9o'ysoo90'y9009099993909999a99'^909»»9<i<y9rityio9yyivvyvy)fyvi9<yvi(»s<i0990<^^

Paris, after 1806 (reduced)

^^^^^

®^ti@#

J/Jj^Jgy-'V^JlJ

^f@Kni)^

324. Borders: Lager's Specimen des Divers Caracteres^ Paris

"CLASSICAL" TYPES 185

book is important to any one desiring to reconstitute the
typography of a somewhat hopeless period. It has also the
doubtful honour of being one of the earliest specimen-books
in which a series of condensed letters for titling was shown
though the Didots used them in their own printing much
earlier. Types of the Didot variety, — "classic" types, as
they were called, — though degraded by condensation from
the best Didot form, remained in general favour until about
1850' (/^. 325).

Only a few years after the revival of the original Cas-
lon types in England, Alexandre de Berny brought out (in
1852) a sort of French old style letter modelled on earlier
fonts ^jig. 326), which, to quote an associate of De Berny's,
"belonged to the Latin family of letters — letters charac-
terized by the substitution of more robust — '^plus nourries'' —
lines for the fine lines of the 'classic' types." Similar types
were designed about the same time by the Lyons publisher
Louis Perrin, who used them in De Boissieu's Inscriptions
Antigues de Lyon. These types were made familiar to the
readers of a generation ago in the publications of the Paris-
ian house of Lemerre. "Elzevir" types were also issued by
Beaudoire (Fonderie Generale) of Paris. All these offered
agreeable relief from the monotony of fonts of the Didot
school — though much resented by the adherents of "Di-
dotery."

Since that time, many different kinds of old style fonts
have been brought out by French founders; such as the
Serie XFIP Siecle Elzevier^ a useful series of types with
attractive ornaments copied from Elzevir decorations ; and
imitations of seventeenth century cursive fonts and initial

* Werdet's Etudes Bibliographiques sur la Famille des Didot (Paris, Dentu,
1864) should be consulted for an account of the chief books and types pro-
duced by the Didots.

186 PRINTING TYPES

letters, produced by the Fonderie Mayeur. The utilization
of fonts of older style was later helped by such men as Jules
Claye (predecessor of A. Quantin et Cie.), who published in
1875 Types de Caracteres et cVOmements Anciens, an inter-
esting showing of "special " types employed by him. These
were cast from the original matrices of ancient fonts which
he called Elzevirien, and for them he produced some ex-
cellent ornaments and initials — those in the Lyons style
being particularly successful. "Modern designers," says
M. Audin, "have wisely reacted against the tendency intro-
duced by Grandjean in his types, a tendency that Basker-
ville and Bodoni did not know how to escape and that Didot
carried to its extreme. A better balance between the thin
and thick strokes, a little fancifulness also in line, has
changed entirely the physiognomy of modern typography." ^
While types showing Didot influence are still much used in
France, the most carefully printed books are now often set
in French old style fonts. During the present century, the
"historical types" of the Imprimerie Nationale have been
increasingly employed and appreciated — in works like
Claudin's Hhtoire de V Imprimerie en France^ and in the
agreeable editions of Balzac, Flaubert, and De Maupassant
printed by the Imprimerie for the Paris publisher Conard.
And some modern Parisian type-founders have resuscitated
eighteenth century styles in fonts and ornaments, with most
charming results.

To see how early nineteenth century fonts compare with the
historical fonts which preceded them, look at the compara-
tive table of roman and italic types employed by the French
National Printing-House from 1640 to 1825 {fig. 327). It is
one of the most enlightening documents about French type-

*Audin's Le Livre, p. 50.

Oi\ZE i\° 16. — 5 FR. 30 CENT. LE KILO.

Ego multos homines excellenti animo ac virtule fuisse, el
sine doctrina, naturae ipsius liabitu prope divino, per seipsos
et moderatos et graves exslitisse faleor : etiam illud adjungo,
saBpius ad laiidem alque virtulem naturam sine doctrina, quam
sine natura valuisse doctrinam. Atque idem ego contendo, cum
ad naturam eximiam alque illustr.em accesserit ratio qusedam,
conformatioque doclrinse; tum illud nescio quid praeclarum ac
singulare solere existere. Ex hoc esse hunc numero, quern pa-
ires nostri viderunt, divinum hominem, Africanum : ex hoc C.
Lselium, L. Furium, moderatissimos homines et continentissi-
mos: ex hoc fortissimum virum et illis temporibus doctissimum,
M. Catonem ilium senem : qui profecto, si nihil ad percipien-
dam colendamque virtutem litteris adjuvarcntur, nunquam se
ad carum studium contulissent. Quod si non hie tantus fructus
ostenderetur, et si ex his studiis delectatio sola peleretur: ta-
men, ut opinor, hanc animi remissionem, humanissimam ac li-
beralissimam judicaretis. Nam caiterse neque temporum sunt,
neque setatum omnium , neque locorum : haec studia adolescen-
tiam alunt, senectutem oblectant, secundas res ornant, adversis
perfugium ac solatium praebent, deleclant domi, non impediunl
foris, pernoclant nobiscum, peregrinantur ac rusticantur. Quod
si ipsi haic neque attingere, neque sensu nostro gustare posse-
mus, tamen ea mirari deberemus. Quis nostrum tam animo

Ego mullos homines excellenti animo ac virtute fuisse, et
sine doctrina, naturae ipsius habitu prope divino, per seipsos
et moderatos et graves exstitisse fateor -. etiam illud adjungo,
saepius ad laudem atque virtutem naturam sine doctrina, quam
sine natura valuisse doctrinam. Atque idem ego contendo, cum
ad naturam eximiam atque illustrem accesserit ratio quaedam,

IMPRIMERIE. FONDERiE. 123456789 0.

Fuit autem et animo magno , et corpore , imperatoriaque
forma, ut ipso aspeclu cuivis injiceret admirationem sui. Sed

Fondeiie G^ndiale, rue Madame, n<> 22, ;» Paris,

325. '"''Classic''^ Types: Epreuves de Caracteres^ Fonderie Ginirale

Pans^ 1843

c'est la famille des lettres Latines, lettres caract^ris^es
par la substitution de traits plus nourris aux traits fins
du type classique et par le leger raccord des empattements
termines en pointe, qui delimitentles traits, avec ces traits
eux-memes.

Cest la une creation vraiment originale, qui a ouvert
un champ nouveau a la Fonderie de caract^res, champ
si vaste qu'on peut dire que la plupart de ses creations
se rattachent a ces types, depuis leur apparition premiere,
en 1852. La Typographie a multiplie leur emploi dans
toutes les impressions si varices des ouvrages de ville, pour
rompre la monotonie resultant de I'emploi unique des
lettres d^rivees du type classique. II n'est pas t^mt^raire
d'affirmer que cette substitution sera plus complete dans
un jour prochain, et que des caract^res ordinaires proc^-
dant des memes principes remplaceront nos types actuels
dans presque tous les travaux de I'lmprimerie.

La Typographie reconnaissante rapportera le m^rite
de cette evolution, d^ja si f^conde, a son initiateur, et
associera aux noms de ses illustres devanciers, les Didot
et les Fournier, celui de de Berny.

326. French Old Style revived by De Berny ^ Pari.s^ in 1852

TYPES

CRAVES

A LONDRES.

PAR

cnATts

M. MARC" LEGRAND.

1818. m

182!

3. C)

KO.y.OUK.

no MA IN-.

ITAI.IQLE.

r.OMAlN.

IfAI.

KJLE.

C c

D d

E e

F
G
H

g
h

F
G
H

f
h

F
G
H

g
h

F
G
H

g
h

F
G
H

9
h

•

J
k

J
K

•

J
K

J
k

J
K

J
k

P
R

P
r

?
r

Q
R

P
r

S S

T t

\ V P

X X

Y
Z

to 1825

A GARAMONT.

1640. (:i

A
B
C
D

G g
H h
I i

" )

K k

L 1

M m

N n

1 P

R r
S sf
T t
u
V V
X X

Z z

J
H

f
g
h

J
k.

T t

Y
Z

PAR GRANDJEAN ET ALEXANDRE.
1693. (21

Q
R
S
T
U
V
X
Y
Z

A a

B b

C c

D d

E e

G o

H h

I i

J J

K k

L I

M m

N n

P P

Q q

R r

U u

V V

X X

Y y

PAR LUCE

1740. m

A a

B b

C c

D d

E e

F f

G g

H h

I i

J J

K k

L 1

M m

N n

O o

P P

Q q

R r

S sf

T t

U u

V V

X X

Y y

Z z

A a

B b

C c

D d

E e

F f

G 8

H h

I i

J
K
L
M

N
O
P

T
U
V
X
Y
Z

PAR FIRMIN DIDOT.

R
S
T
U
V
X
Y
Z

J a

B b

C c

D d

E e

F f

G 8

H h

I I

J j

K k

L I

M m

N n

O
P

R
S
T
U
V
X
V

p
'1

PAR JACQUEMIN.

1818. (5)

V V

A LONDRES.

1818. »l

A a

B b

C c

D d

E e

F f

G g

H It

I i

J j

K k

L i

M m

N n

O o

P P

Q q

R r

S s

T t

U u

V V
X X

Y y
Z z

A a

B b

C c

D d

E e

F f

G g

H h
I

J j

K k

L I

M m

N n

O o

P.\R M. MARC" LEGRAND.

1825. 1')

C c

D d

E e

F f

G g

H h

f i

J J

K k

L 1

M n:

N n

• Tab/e of Ti/pes used bij the French National Printing' House from its foundation to 1825

"CLASSICAL" TYPES 187

faces in existence.^ The letters of the Garamond fonts of
1540 are most irregular, and this is true of the characters
cut by Grandjean in 1693 and finished by Alexandre, and
those of Luce of 1740 — when compared with the greater
mechanical perfection of roman letters in Didot's font of
1811. The older types make elegant, easy, readable pages, but
pages set from Didot types appear rigid, formal, and tire-
some. This is still truer of the fonts of Jacquemin and of
Marcellin Legrand, w ho cut a more condensed version of
his type in 1847 — which by no means bettered its design.
Compare the Garamond types of 1540 with the Legrand
types of 1825, and it is plain enough that mechanical per-
fection does not necessarily make a fine font. And yet these
types were intended to supersede the splendid ?vmain du roi
of earlier days. All this came about in French typography
through Grandjean's mischievous serif, Baskerville's influ-
ence, the later printing of Bodoni and the Didots — and some
English fashions, which must now be considered.

From JVotea sur les Ty/ies Etrangersdu Sfiecimen de r Imfirimerie Royale
(Paris, 1847). There is a similar table in Duprzt^ s His(oirc de rim/irimerie
Im/ieriaie de France (Paris, I86I).

CHAPTER XX

ENGLISH types: 18OO-1844

IN England, a change in type-forms, analogous to that
which was taking place in France, and a like final crys-
tallization, brought about a new style of English type.
Transitional fonts which were far on the way to this, we
have seen in the work of English presses at the end of the
eighteenth century. It is their nineteenth century develop-
ment of which we have now to speak.

Classification of types by centuries is an arbitrary thing.
Typographical style does not, of course, change because im-
prints are dated 1800 instead of 1799, and many books pro-
duced in England early in the new century resembled, in
type-forms and manner, those issued during the last years
of the old. For instance, a poem in folio entitled The Sover-
eign. Addressed to His Imperial Majesty Paul^ Emperour of
all the Jiussias, by Charles Small Pybus, London, Bensley,
1800, is a superb showing of transitional English types
just about to become modern face{ Jig. 328). Dibdin wrote in
1817 that he considered this book the finest piece of print-
ing that Bensley had produced. Tasso's Jenisalem Deliv-
ered^ printed by Bensley and brought out in 1803, is a quarto
showing the use of old style type, much leaded, which was
one of the ways of obtaining the light effects then the mode.
Another book by Bensley which is interesting to the student
of transitional types is Macklin's beautifully printed folio
Bible of 1800 — an imposing work of great reputation, in-
tended to rival Bulmer's "Boydell Shakspeare." Hume's
History of England^ in five folio volumes, printed for Rob-
ert Bowyer in 1806 by Bensley, was highly praised by the
lovers of fine books of that day. Then again, Blair's Grave,
printed by Bensley and published by Ackermann in 1813,

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o

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o

I— H

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US
O

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03
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bJO

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bJO
03

Co
Co

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5:^

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ENGLISH TYPES: 1800-1844 189

with vivid and beautiful illustrations by William Blake,
is a book in which the fine types used in the introduction
and the poem itself are merely in the direction of what we
to-day call modern face. In the same class falls The Pres.s^ a
Poem. Published as a Specimen ofTypo^raphij. Bij John Mc-
Creery. Liverpool^ Printed hij ./. McCreery^ and sold by Ca-
dell ^ Davies, London, 1803 — a beautiful book in (juarto,
with wood-engravings by Henry Hole, pupil of Bewick,
after designs by Thurston. It is set in a charming great
primer character cut by Martin, much leaded, with Argu-
ments set in italic, and was printed with a special ink made
by McCreery himself.

There were, however, English books published in the
earliest years of the nineteenth century which did show a
distinct change in type-forms. For example, in 1801, Bul-
mer printed for J. Wright of London a quarto edition of a
book called Poetry of the Anti- Jacobin, a very charming per-
formance, in which the beautiful types are losing the last
vestiges of old style and are running into modern face. This
book is a collection of prose, poetry, and drama, and shows
verv ^^■ell the effect of these new types in various forms of
composition {fg. 329). In Scotland, James Ballantyne of
Edinburgh wasprindng in similarstyle. Agood specimen of
his work is a quarto edition of Johnson's Rasselas, illustrated
by Smirke, published in London in 1805.

The Rev. John Anastasius Freylinghausen was author
of a somewhat dreary book entitled An Abstract of t/ie J J^ hole
Doctrine of the Christian Religion, which he was able to
present in two hundred and sixteen pages — quite a feat
when one stops to think about it! This excellent \\ork was
edited to conform to the doctrines of theChurch of England,
and, the Preface says, "stood so high in the good opinions
of the Greatest Female Personage in this Kingdom, that

190 PRINTING TYPES

it was translated into English for the use of her illustrious
daughters" — the "Female Personage" being no other than
Queen Charlotte. This book was the first volume stereo-
typed by Earl Stanhope's process, and is interesting on that
account. The standard rules of the Stereotype Office affixed
to this book state that nothing is to be printed against Re-
ligion, everything is to be avoided upon the subject of Pol-
itics offensive to any Party, that the Characters of Individ-
uals are not to be attacked, and — what concerns us most
— that every Work which is stereotyped in this Office is
to be composed with beautiful Types. This notice throws
a certain light on the innocuous role which the Stereotype
Office proposed for itself, and also shows that they thought
this book printed from good types — it being the first of
their publications. These types are not old style at all. They
are what we now term modern face, and the book is men-
tioned because it shows an early use (1804) of this type-
form {Jig. 330).

An extremely good specimen of a real modern face roman
type was used in Thomas Frognall Dibdin's Bibliographical
Decamemn^ printed in 1817 by Bulmer in three volumes
{jig. 33 1). This work is one of the most successful typo-
graphical achievements of the early nineteenth century. The
typography is excellent, the pages splendidly imposed, and
the reproductions of old printers' marks and other illustra-
tions beyond praise. In presswork it is one of the finest of
modern volumes. It needed, ho\Aever, all that the printer
could do for it ; for its author wrote in an affectedly playful
style which makes his books among the most tiresome and
irritating in the language. Bulmer's fine edition of Dibdin's
Typographical Antiquities of Great Biitain (Volumes II, III,
IV) and Xh^Bibliotheca Spenceriana (1814-15) are also worth
examining.

Though thy disloyal sons, a feeble band,
Sound the loud blast of treason through the land :
Scoff at thy dangers with unnatural mirth,
And execrate the soil which gave them birth,
With jaundiced eye thy splendid triumphs view,
And give to France, the palm to Britain due:
Or, — when loud strains of gratulation ring,
And lowly bending to the eternal King,
Thy Sovereign bids a nation's praise arise
In grateful incense to the fav'ring skies —
Cast o'er each solemn scene a scornful glance,
And only sigh for anarchy and France.

Yes ! unsupported Treasons standard falls,
Sedition vainly on her children calls ;
While cities, cottages, and camps contend,
Tlieir King, their Laws, their Country to defend.

Raise, Britain, raise thy sea-encircled head,
Round the wide world behold thy glory spread ;
Firm as thy guardian oaks thou still shalt stand,
The dread and wonder of each hostile land !

329. Types used in Poetry of the Anti-Jacobin: Buhner^ London^ 1801

STANDING RULES

The Stereotype Office.

1. Nothing is to be printed against Religion.

2. Every thing is to be avoided, upon the subject

of Politics, which is oftensive to any Party.

3. The Characters of Individuals are not to be at-

tacked.

4. Every Work which is stereotyped at this Office,

is to be composed with beautiful Types.

5. All the Stereotype Plates are to be made accord-

ing to the improved Process discovered by
EARL STANHOPE.

6. School Books, and aU Works for the Instruction

of Youth, will be stereotyped at a lower Piice
than any other.

330. Ti/pes used by the Stereotype Office^ London, 1804

NINTH DAY. 43

see you in this field of contest, brandishing your unerrinfr
lance, or quietly reposing beneath the panoply of your
seven-bulls-hide shield ! . .

Lysander. This must be a very extraordinary cham-
pion.

LiSARDO. ' In his way ' (as they call it) he hath absolutely
no compeer; and Magliabecchi yields entirely to his ascen-
dant genius — for Nennius not only loves hoikes as lustily as
did the librarian of the Grand Duke of Tuscany, but he
hath something more than a mere title-page acquaintance
with them. His memory also is equally faithful and well-
furnished — and such a gluttonous bibliomaniacal appetite
doth he possess, that even liymer^ the Gallia Christiana^
and Bouquet's Recueil des Historicns ties Gaules, will scarcely
suffice him for a twelvemonth's ' victualling.' IVIabillon,
Montfaucon, and Muratori are his dear delights as foreign
authors ; while his deal-shelves groan beneath the weight of
annotation upon our home historians ; such as Gildas,
Jefiirey, his namesake, Ingulph, Hoveden, Malmesbury,
Matthew Paris, Ralph de Diceto, and Benedictus Abbas,
&c. &c. — and then for the * scribbled margins' (asAVarburton
used to express it) of his Leland, Camden, Twysden, Gale,
Sparke, Hearne, Batteley, Grose, King, and others of the
hke character — oh, "'twould do your heart good only to have
a glimpse of them !

Lorenzo. More and more wondrous !

LisARDO. I have not yet done ^vith Nennius. He hath
no small knowledge of the art of design ; and brandishes his
pencil upon castles, cathedrals, and churches, that it were a
marvel to see how his drawers and portfolios are craimmed
Avith the same. There is not a church, nor place of worship,
nor castle, within the counties of SiLSsex, Kent, and Bedford,

331. Pag'e of Bibliographical Daamcron: Buhner^ London^ 1817

ENGLISH TYPES: 1800-1844 191

Other examples of the employment of these modern face
types are found in the text of Rudolph Ackermann's cele-
brated series of illustrated quartos on Westminster Abbey
(1812) and the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge
(1814-15), and in the inimitable Alicrocosm of Ijmdon
(1808-11), etc., the coloured plates of which are so delight-
ful that they have obscured the merit of their straightfor-
ward typography — some of it Bensley's work. Another edi-
tion which shows this kind of type (and also its falling off)
is John Murray's 16mo edition of Lord Byron's JVorks^
published in five volumes in 1823. Here we begin to see
what such types were coming to when less well cut, less well
printed, and less well imposed, and also how poor they were
in smaller sizes. For printers at that date found the same
trouble with delicate modern face types that we do now. In
fact, Dibdin, in one of the few directly written passages in
the Bibliographical Decameron^ mentions this difficulty, and
(somewhat surprisingly) seems to feel that old style types
were better than the modern cut of letter in which his own
book had been printed. " In regard to Modem Printing,^'' he
says, "you ask me whether we are not arrived at the top-
most pitch of excellence in the art? I answer, not quite at
the topmost pitch : for our types are, in general, too square,
or sharp; and the finer parts of the letters are so very fine ^
that they soon break, and, excepting in the very first im-
pressions, you will rarely find the types in a completely per-
fect state. There is more roundness, or evenness, or, if you
will allow the word, more comfortableness of appearance, in
the publications of Tonson and Knapton, than in those of
modern times." Now Tonson's and Knapton's types were
old style.

As in all periods when particular attention was paid by
printers to making fine books, the cultivated amateur was

192 PRINTING TYPES

not lacking, and one such man, now forgotten, was Julian
Hibbert. He was an interesting character who, besides hav-
ing a hand in the social and political reforms of his day,
undertook to reform the Greek fonts then used in printing.
In 1827, he brought out at his private press in his house in
London, The Book of the Orphic Hymns, "in uncial letters,
as a typographical experiment" {Jig. 332). Hibbert says of
his alphabet that it "was first composed from the inspection
of Inscriptions in the Musaeums of London and Paris, and
thus it is no wonder, if it still retains more of a scidptitory
than of a scriptitory appearance." After reading Montfau-
con's Palxographia Grxca and examining facsimiles of the
Herculanean manuscripts, he altered the forms of many of
the letters. "If I had adopted the Alphabet of any one cele-
brated MS.," Hibbert says, "I should have had less trouble.
... As it is, I have taken each letter separately from such
Mss. as I thought best represented the beau ideal of an uncial
type ; . . . yet as placed side by side, they look very different
from a ms." But he calls it " a Greek type, which, at the same
time that it is calculated for ordinary use, approaches nearer
to old MSS. than types that have been hitherto used," and
"represents with tolerable accuracy the forms of the letters
used by the Greeks themselves, in the brightest days of
their literature. ... I do not mean," he adds, "a type like that
used in Bodoni's Callimachus, . . . ornamented (or rather
disfigured) by the additions of what, I believe, type-founders
call synjs, or cerejs.''''^ Two books were printed by this fore-
runner of Robert Proctor, who was indeed vox clamantis!
The fonts had considerable charm, but were at the time
considered — if they were considered at all — as complete
failures; and were afterwards melted.

' See " Preface addressed by the Printer to Greek Scholars" in The Book of
the Orfihic Hymns.

Ymnoi.lv. 31

LV . (54) eic ^(])pOAITHN

Y M N O C .

OYP^NiH . noAYV^Ne , (}>iAOMMeiAHC ^(^POAITH .
noNTorcNHC . r€NeT€ipk eeik . ({nAonANNyxe . c€mnh .

NyXTepiH . ZeyKTCipik . Z^OAOnAOKe . MHTCp JiNATKHC :

nANTA r^p €K cceeN cctin , y^fzeyi" ^e re kocmon ;

KM KpATeeiC jpiCCCON MOIPCJN . TCNNAIC A€ TA HANTA : 5

occA T eN oypANui ecTi . Kai en TAiHi noAyKApnui ,
€N noNToy Te Byecoi . ccmnh BAKXOIO nApe^pe .
TepnoMeNH saaihici . rAMocxoAe . MHrep cporcoN :

neieOI ACKXpOXApHC . Kpy(^)IH . XApiAUTI ANACCA .

<j)AiNOM€NH T . A(J)ANHC T ■ epATonAOKAM . eynATepeiA . 10

NyM<J)IAIH . CyNAAIT€ . eCCON CKHMTOyxe . AyKAlNA r

reNNOAOxeipA . cj^iAANApe . noeeiNOXATH . eioaoti ;

€N2€Y5ACA BpOTOyC AXAAINOTOICIN ANAPKAIC .

KAi enpcoN noAY 4)Yaon , epcoMANecoN yno (piAxpcoN ;

€px€0 . KynporeNeC eeiON reNOC : eir cn OAYMHWl 15

ecci . ecA BAciAEiA , KAAUi THeoycA npoctonui :

€iTe KAI eyAiFANoy Cyp'HC caoc AwtfjinoAeyeic :

€iT€ cy r eN neAioiC! cyN ApM.-.ci xpyceoxeyKTOic

MrynToy KAxextic lepHC roNiMUACA AoyxpA .

H KAI KyANeOICIN OXOIC €ni .nONTION OIAMA 20

epxoMeNH xAipeic NenoACON KyKAiH.ci xopeiAic :
H NyM(J)Aic xepnHi KyANuniciN €n xeoNi AIM .
eyiAC €n aitiaaoic v^ammwaccin aamaxi koy4)Wi :

€IX €N KY'^P'^I ' AN.VCCA . XpO(^)Ul C€0 I eNSA KAAAI Ce
OApeeNOI AAMHXAI NYM4)AI X ANA HiNX CNIAyXON 25

yMNOyClN C€ . MAKAipA . KAI AMBpOXON ATNON AACONIN .

CAee . MAKAipA eeA . maa ennpAXON eiAOC exoycA ;

lyxHI TAP ce KAAU CCMNHI AnOICI AOrOICIN .

332. Ju/ian Hihhert's Uncial Greek Tiifn-s^ London, 1827

ENGLISH TYPES: 1800-1844 193

It is to Scotch founders that we must turn for the next
step in the development of the modern face type-family.
Alexander Wilson, who in the eii^hteenth centurv made
types for the brothers Foulis, had left a foundry an hich was
still maintaining scholarly traditions. The taste which led
to the adoption of lighter type-forms had been followed
consistently by his house; and, probably still further influ-
enced by Didot types, the Wilson foundry early in the nine-
teenth century produced an English version of them — the
best English variant of this form of letter that we have. It is
sturdier and pleasanter to read than parallel French types,
and we are much more at home with it. It is not as good a
type as the Caslon character, but as produced by Wilson it
is a very handsome and serviceable letter, and in it we have
another English type-family — the Scotch modern face. It is
an English equivalent of the fonts shown in the 1819 speci-
men of the Didots.

The fonts, practically as we have them to-day, are beau-
tifully shown in the Specimen of Modem Printing Types cast
at the Letter- Foundry of Alex. Wilson ^ Son, at Glasgow,
1833. This quarto specimen is in two parts. In an "Ad-
dress to the Printers," which prefaces the volume, the Wil-
sons say : " In conformity with ancient, immemorial usage,
we have, in Part I. displayed our Founts in the Roman
garb — the venerable Qiioiisque tandem; but lest it should be
supposed that we had chosen the flowing drapery of Rome
for the purpose of shading or concealing defects, we ha\e
in Part II. shown oflfour Founts in a dress entirely English."
Two pages of titling-letters are displayed before we come
to the first body type — a spirited and fine cut of great
primer. Then follow varieties of roman, from pica to dia-
mond. A page of double pica Greek (used in the Homer
printed by the Foulis brothers) is followed by Greek fonts

194 PRINTING TYPES

down to "mignon," and t\\o pages of Hebrew. The roman
and italic types are again displayed in Part II, set in Eng-
lish, sometimes in prose, sometimes in poetry, and variously
leaded. A broadside specimen of Wilson's newspaper fonts
ends the book.^ Every roman and italic type in it is mod-
ern face. We show a pica font {Jig. 333). "The Foundry of
Messrs. Wilson," says Savage (writing in 1822), "at Glas-
gow, has been long established, and for many years enjoyed
a monopoly of letter founding in Scotland. They have, how-
ever, of late experienced a formidable competition from
Mr. Miller of Edinburgh, who derived his knowledge of the
art from them, and whose types so much resemble theirs
as to require a minute and accurate inspection to be dis-
tinguished."^

William Blades considered "the year 1820 as a boundary
line between the old and new style of punch -cutting. About
that time great changes were initiated in the faces of types
of all kinds. The thick strokes were made much thicker and
the fine strokes much finer, the old ligatures w ere abolished
and a mechanical primness given to the page, which, ar-
tistically, could scarcely be called improvement. At the same
time, printers began to crowd their racks with fancy founts
of all degrees of grotesqueness, many painfully bad to the
eye and unprofitable alike to founder and printer."^ Thus
taste, which in England had sanctioned very light types,
began to change to heavier faces about 1815.^ Exactly as

' A similar quarto specimen was issued in the same year by the Exiinburgh

branch house of Wilsons 8c Sinclair, which may be also consulted.

^Decorative Printing, p. 73.

' Blades' Early Tyfie Sfiecimen Books of England, Holland, France, Italy,

and Germany, London, 1875, pp. 21, 22.

* Blades says 1820, but Vincent Figgins' specimen of 1815 is full of these

dropsical types, and Thome's specimen of these letters appeared as early as

1803.

Quousque tandem abutere, Catilina, patientia nos-
tra? quamcliu nos ctiam furor iste tuus cliidet?
quern ad linem sese effrenata jactabit audacia?
nihilne te nocturnum preesidium palatii, nibil ur-
bis vigilise, nihil timor populi, niliil consensus bo-
norum omnium, niliil hie nuniitissimus habendi
senatus locus, nihil horum ora vultusque moverunt?
patere tua consilia non sentis? constrictam jam
omnium horum conscientia teneri conjurationem
tuam non vides? quid proxima, quid superiore
nocte egeris, ubi fueris, quos convocaveris, quid
consilii ceperis, quem nostrum ignorare arbitraris?
O tempora, o mores! Senatus hoc intelligit, consul
vidit: hie tamen vivit. vivit? immo vero etiam in
senatum venit: fit publici consilii particeps: notat
et designat oculis ad ceedem unumquemque nos-
trum. Nos autem, viri fortes, satisfacere reipub-

ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUV

ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ

£0123 4 56789
Pica Italic^ No. 3.

Quousque tandem abutere^ Catilina, patientia nos-
tra? quamcliu nos etiam furor iste tuus cludctf
quem ad finem sese effrenata jactabit audacia? ni-
hilne te nocturnum prcesidium palatii, nihil urbis
vigilicB, nihil timor populi, nihil consensus bonorum
omnium, nihil hie munitissimus habendi senatus
locus, nihil horum ora vultusque moverunt; patere
tua consilia non sentis ; constrictam jam omnium
horum conscientia teneri conjurationem tuam non
vides ? quid proxima, quid superiore nocte egeris,
ubi fueris, quos convocaveris, cpiid consilii ceperis,
cpiem twstrum ignorare arbitraris? O tempora, o
nwres! Senatus hoc intelligit, consul vidit, hie tamen
vivit. vivit? immo vero etiam in senatum venit: Jit
puhlici consilii particeps: notat et designat oculis
ad ccedem unumquemque nostrum. Nos autem, viri
fortes, satisfacere reipub. vidcmur, si istius furorem

AB CD EF G HIJKLMN O P Q R S

AnCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZJECE

333. Modern Face Types: Alexander Wilson ^ Son^s ^Specimen
Glasgoiu^ 1833

ENGLISH TYPES: 1800-1844 195

in France, the weight of these new type-faces was at first
gained, 7iut by a greater weight of line throughout^ but by a dis-
proportionate thickening of heavy strokes of letters, which
left their hair-lines much as before. This reaction from fra-
gile to sturdy letters was a change which, if it only had been
guided by someone familiar with early type-forms, might
have led to better results. But at that time materials for the
comparative study of types were not readily assembled.

The further development of these fashions brought about
a kind of swollen type-form^ in which all the lines of a letter
were of nearly equal strength, and these were the types of
which Savage says: "The founders have now introduced
another change in the proportions of letters, and have gone
to a barbarous extreme, from their first improvement. The
rage is now, which of them can produce a type in the shape
of a letter, with the thickest lines, and with the least white
in the interior parts." He adds that the founders said that
such types were meant for printing hand-bills, etc., and if
they were introduced into book-work, that it was contrary
to the original intention. Savage displays sheets in which
original Caslon types are shown in contrast to the current
Caslon types. If these are bad types, he says, "it may be
attributed to the bad taste of others, whom the founders are
desirous of obliging" — but this is merely an ancient and
poor excuse for not sticking to one's principles! These hid-
eous fashions for a time drove original Caslon types to the
wall. Hansard, writing in 1825, says: "Caslon's fonts rarely
occur in modern use, but they have too frequendy been su-

' These characters were often called in type-specimens and elsewhere "Egyp-
tian" (no doubt in allusion to their "darkness"); and a London jest-book
of 1806, under the heading "Fashionable Egyptian Sign-Boards," says : "An
Iiishnian dcscriliing the Egyptian letters which at j)rescnt deface the Me-
tropolis, declared that the thin strokes were exactly tlie same size as the tliick
ones ! ' '

196 PRINTING TYPES

perseded by others which can claim no excellence over them.
In fact, the book-printing of the present day is disgraced
by a mixture of fat, lean, and heterogeneous types, which
to the eye of taste is truly disgusting."^

In London, Robert Thorne, successor to Thomas Cottrell,
is responsible for the vilest form of type invented — up to
that time. Thome's specimen-book of "Improved (!) Types"
of 1803 should be looked at as a warning of what fashion
can make men do. His "jobbing types" look as their name
suggests ! His black-letter is perhaps the worst that ever ap-
peared in England. In Vincent Figgins' specimen of 1815,
and in Fry's specimen of 1816, and naturally in the speci-
men of William Thorowgood (Thome's successor) of 1824,
1832, and 1837, the new styles are triumphant {Jigs. 334
««Qf335).Fashions like these, as Hansard says, "have left the
specimens of a British letter-founder a heterogeneous com-
pound, made up of fat-faces and lean faces, wide-set and
close-set, all at once crying Quousque tandem ahutere patientia
nostra?'*'' The Caslon specimen of 1844 shows the adop-
tion of some of the worst current fashions in types; and we
exhibit a selection of the unattractive ornaments intended
to accompany the " fat-face " fonts produced by this famous
house {Jigs. 336 and 337). A tide of bad taste had swept
everything before it by 1844 — the precise year of the revi-
val of Caslon's earliest types!

Much the same thing was happening on the Continent,
and the curious may consult such "documents" as the Sup-
plement to the Specimen of the Spanish founders, J. B. Cle-
ment-Sturme y Compania, published at Valencia in 1833,
which is full of types of this kind ; the Didot, Legrand et Cie.

'Hansard's Typ.ograp.hia, London, 1825, p. 355. As early as 1805 theCas-
lons ceased to show in their specimen the original types cut by tlie first
William Caslon.

English No. 2.
Quousque tandem abutere, Catilina, patientia
nostra? qiiamdiu nos etiani iViror iste tuuselu-
det? quern ad iineni sese effrenata jactabit au-
dacia? nihihie te nocturniim pra.\sidiiim palatii
nihil nrbis vigilia?, nihil timor popvili, nihil
consensus Ijononim oniniuni, nihil liic niuni-
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det? queni adfinem sese effrenata jactabit au-
ilacia? nihilne te iiocturnuni praesidiuni palatii
nihil urbis vigilice, nihil timor populi, nihil
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English No. 2, on Pica Body.

Quousque tandem abutere, Catilina, patientia
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det? quem ad finem sese effrenata jactabit au-
dacia? nihilne te nocturnum i)ri>^sidium i^alatii
nihil urbis vigilia?, nihil timor populi, nihil
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tissimus habendi senatus locus, nihil horum or
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det? quem ad ^finem sese effrenata jactabit au-
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334. Roman and Italic: Ji'. TJiorowgood'' s Specimen, London, 1824

DOUBLE PICA PLAIN BLACK, No. 1.

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GREAT PRIMER PLAIN BLACK, No. 1.

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GREAT PRIMER OPEN BLACK, No. 1.

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i6. Ornaments to accompany '' Fat- Face'' Ttjpes
Henry Caslon, London^ lS-14

Two-Line English.

10
11

12 ^ssaassMa

Four-Line Minion, No. 7.

337. Ornaments to accomjHimj ''Fat-Face'' Types
Henrij Caslon, London^ 1844

Pica, No. 0.

Quousque tandem abutere, Catilina, patientia nos-
tra? quamdiu nos etiam furor iste tuus eludet?
quern ad fiiiem sese effreunta jactal)it uudacia? ui-
hilne te nocturnum praisidiuui palatii, nihil urbis
vig'ilite, niliil timorpopuli, nihil consensus bonorum
omnium, nihil hie nnniitissinnis habendi senatus
locus, nihil horuni ora vultusque moverunt? patera
tua consilia non sentis? constrictam jam omnium
horum conscientiateneri conjurntionem tuam non
\'ides? quid proxima, quid su})eriore nocte eg'eris,
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ABCDEFGHLJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZyE

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£ 1234507890

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tra? quamdiu nos etiam furor iste tuus eludet?
quern adfiiiem sese effrenata jactabit audacia? ni-
IiiJne te nocturnum jnresidium palatii, nildl urhis
vigilicCy nihil timor populijnildl consensus bonorum
omnium, nihil hie munitissimus habendi senatus lo-
(yuSy nihil horum ora vultusque moverunt? p)atere
tua consilia non sentis? constrictam jam omnium
horum conscientia teneri conjurationem tuam non
vides? quid proximay quid superiore nocte egeris,
ABCDEFGHIJKL3IN0PQRSTUVWXY

58 •0-^-###-##-#-#

338. Types and Oniamcmts of Period of Cadon Revival
Caslon Son and JJvcnuore and Henry Caslon Sfiecimena, 1844

ENGLISH TYPES: 1800-1844 197

Specimen issued in Paris in 1 828, for like French tvpes ; for
similar Italian fonts, the 1838 Specimen of Cartallier, of
Padua, in which some characters show this tendency. En-
schede' s Letfcrprot^l^ issued atHaarlem in 1841, as compared
with older Enschede specimens, is another telling but dismal
document in the annuls of this change of style — a few good
fonts being buried in pages of uninteresting or ugly letter-
forms. The Second and Third Parts of Enschede's Letter-
proef^ issued in 1850 and 1855, leave one nothing to say,
except that nothing good can be said ! But if this great house
sold or threw away interesting ancient types to buy Di-
dotschen rubbish, it must be remembered that the Caslon
foundry had sacrificed to False Gods its own Children!
(/^. 338).

I have said that Grandjean, Baskerville, Bodoni, and
the Didots had a mischievous influence on type-forms ; for
the derivations from types that their work made popular
culminated in a kind of letter which was capable of greater
vulgarity and degradation than was ever the case with older
fonts. The ordinary English, French, or Italian book printed
between 1830 and 1850 was very often a cheap and mean-
looking production. Perhaps Bodoni and other great per-
sons were not wrong in their own day; but they put t}pe-
forms on the wrong track. Their "recovery" in England is
the subject of another chapter.

^ Proevevan Drukletteren. Letter gieterij van Joh. Enschede en Zonen. Haar-
lem, 1841.

CHAPTER XXI

REVIVALS OF CASLON AND FELL TYPES

REVIVALS of type-forms are periodical. They are
usually brought about by dissatisfaction caused
^ by too intimate knowledge of the disadvantages
of types in use, and ignorance of disadvantages which may
arise in the use of types revived. In other words, one set of
types falls into neglect through certain inherent draw-
backs; and it is not revived until the difficulties known to
those who formerly employed it are forgotten and only the
advantages appear. A constant factor also is a natural love
of variety and change.

The best early work of the nineteenth century was the
result of a sincere effort toward the betterment of printing,
according to the standards of that day; but before the mid-
century, English typography, except here and there, had
again fallen behind. The fine editions printed by Bulmer and
Bensley were things of the past. Bulmer was dead in 1830
— Bensley in 1833. Several other publishers brought out
well-printed books, but they were without the distinction of
those issued some years earlier. There was, however, an ex-
ception in the work done by the two Charles Whittinghams
— uncle and nephew — at the Chiswick Press, founded in
1789, though established at Chiswick in 1810. This press
is famous in the annals of English typography, the sound-
est traditions of which it has upheld for over a century. Its
best books were printed by the younger Whittingham for
the publisher Pickering. In 1844, Pickering and Whitting-
ham proposed to issue an edition of Juvenal (in contempla-
tion since 1841), and requested the Caslon foundry to cast
some of the original Caslon types which they wanted for it.
This Latin edition of the Satires of Juvenal and Persius, in

JLady Willoughby.

her Cheeke by fome Query refpedling a parti-
cular Piece of Needle-work in hand; and
added, on perceiving the Effed: fhe had pro-
duced, fhe had heard S"^, Rraf7nus de la Foun-
tain much commend the delicate Paterne:
whereat poore Margaret attempted to look up
unconcern'd, but was obliged to fmile at her
Sifter's Pleafantry. I was difcreet, and led the
Converfation back to the Spinning.

The Days pafie fmoothly, yet Time feemeth
very long fince my deare Lord departed on his
Journey. We heare no News. Armjlrong will
perchance gain fome Ty dings at Colchejler:
and I muft await his Return with fuch Patience
I can.

Since my little Fanny s long Sicknefle I have
continued the Habit of remaining by her at
night, fometime after fhe is in Bed: thefe are
Seafons peculiarly fweet and foothing; there
feemeth fomething holy in the Aire of the
dimly lighted Chamber^ wherein is no Sound

heard

339. Cadon Type as revived hi/ Whittingham^ London^ 1844

CASLON AND FELL REVIVALS 199

quarto (a handsome book except for its red borders), was
delayed, however, and not published until 1845. So the great
primer "old face" Caslon font intended for it, appeared first
in 1844 in The Diary of Lady JVilloughby. For this fictitious
journal of a seventeenth century lady of quality, old style
type was thought approjjriate.The Diary w as a success, ar-
tistically and commercially. Though its typograjjliy does not
seem much of an achievement now, it came as a novelty and
relief to printers ^\■ho had long since abandoned good earlier
type-faces in favour of the fonts of the school of Thorne
(.A^"- 339). This was the beginning of the revival of original
Caslon fonts, and a very sound revival it was. From that
time to this, Caslon type has had the popularity it merits.
In fact, the chief typographic event of the mid-nineteenth
century was this revival of the earliest Caslon types in the
competent hands of Pickering and Whittingham. United
States founders reintroduced these fonts about 1860, but
they did not become popular until some thirty years later.
The Aldine Poets, Walton's Complete Angler^ the beauti-
ful Latin Opera of Sallust (in the type of the Juvenal and
Lady Willoiighby\ an octavo edition of Milton and Herbert,
and the famous series of folio black-letter Prayer Books are
among the best of Pickering's publications. But the series
of 16mo volumes, which for beauty and utility have not been
surpassed in modern times, are Mhat is particularly meant
by a "Pickering edition" {jig. 340). All these were printed
at the Chiswick Press, as well as many other beautiful books
for publishers, book-clubs, and individuals — among them
the Bannatyne Club's Brevianun Aberdonense and Henry
Shaw's books on mediaeval alphabets and ornament. The
Chiswick Press still holds preeminent rank — the present
establishment at Tooks Court, Chancery Lane, London,
being conducted by Charles Whittingham and Griggs, Ltd.

200 PRINTING TYPES

The use of the Fell types, which had lain for many years
neglected at the Oxford,University Press, was revived by a
little press (first started atFromein 1845, and continued at
Oxford) which was a private venture of the Rev. C. H. O.
Daniel, late Provost of Worcester College. Dr. Daniel had
the taste to recognize the possibilities dormant in Fell's fonts,
and after 1877 he used them in his rare little issues with
delightful discrimination {Jigs. 341 ami 342). The Daniel
books were printed in both roman and black-letter, and in
connection with the former type many pleasant old orna-
ments were revived. The publications of this press were
continued until 1919.^ The Fell types are now the pride —
or one of the " prides" — of the Clarendon Press. Their re-
vival was of real importance in modern printing. The Ox-
ford Book of English Ferse, the volumes in the Tudor and
Stuart Library, the Trecentale Bodleianum of 19 1 3 {jig- 343),
and the Catalogue of the Shakespeare Exhibition held in the
Bodleian Library to commemorate the Death of Shakespeare
(Oxford, 1916) are familiar examples of their admirable and
effective modern use.

The Ballantyne Press of Edinburgh, founded at Kelso by
James Ballantyne in 1796, later, at Sir Walter Scott's sug-
gestion, coming to Edinburgh, and known under the name
of Ballantyne, Hanson & Company, has done delightful
work for many years past. The business has been acquired
by Messrs. Spottiswoode & Company of London, and has
been removed from Edinburgh. This firm, that of Messrs.
R. & R. Clark, and the establishment of T. & A. Constable
of Edinburgh, have been more constant to types of Scotch

' See The Daniel Press. Memorials of C. H. O. Daniel, with a Bibliografihy
of the Press, 1845-1919. Oxford, Printed on the Daniel F^ess in the Bod-
leian Library, 1921 — " the first book printed within the walls of the Bod-
leian," where the third Daniel press, on which it was printed, is deposited. It
is illustrated with portrait, facsimiles, etc.

I. THE TEMPLE

The Dedication.

Lord, my frj} fruits prefent th em f elves to thee;
Yet not mine neither : for from thee they came.
And muf return. Accept of them and me.
And make us f rive, who pall fng left thy name.
Turn their eyes hither, who fiall make a gain ^
Theirs, who pall hurt thcrnf elves or me, refrain.

I. The Church-porch.

Perirrhanterium.

HOU, whofe fvveet youth and early
hopes inhance
Thy rate and price, and mark thee for
a trcafurc.

Hearken unto a Verfcr, who may chance
Ryme thee to good, and make a bait of pleafure .
A verfe may finde him, who a fermon flies,
And turn dehght into a facrifice.

Beware of hift; it doth pollute and foul

Whom God in Baptifme wafht with his own blood

It blots thy lefTon written in thy foul ;

The holy lines cannot be underflood.
How dare thofe eyes upon a Bible lookj
MuchlcfTe towards God, whofcluftis all their book!

340. Ccislon Type tisvd in a ""Pickering edition'"
Whittingluim^ London., 1850

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MARGARET L. WOODS

DANIEL : OXFORD t

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9^.

342. Fell Types as used by the Daniel Press
Oxford^ 1896

THE

LIFE of Sir Thomas Bodley ^
Written by himself.

I Was borne at Exeter in Devon, the £.^>-/> ///«.
2 of Marche, in the yeare 1^44;
descended, both by Father and
Mother, of Worshipful! parentage. By
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by Crediton ; and by my Mother from
Robert Hone Esqj of ottereySamt Mane,
nine Milles from Exon. My Father in
the time of Queene Marie, beinge knovvnc
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lie observed, by those that malliced his
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selfe, and my Mother, who was wholly
affected as my Father, he knew no waye
so secure, as to flie into Garmanie :
B 2 Where

343. Fell Tiffyes an rised in Trecentale Rodleiamim
Oxford University Press ^ 1913

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N CERTAIN CONFUSIONS OF
MODERN LIFE, ESPECIALLY
IN LITERATURE: AN ESSAY
READ, AT OXFORD, TO THE
GRYPHON CLUB OF TRINITY
COLLEGE.

If I were in need of a single word to
express the idea which I wish to follow out in this essay, I
could scarcely, I think, find one in English ; none, at least,
that would completely fit my meaning : I should have to fall
back upon the Greek. We translate the word Koa-fxog by order,
bemity, or world, according to the context ; but we have no
single phrase that combines and identifies in our minds, as
this word did in the minds of Greeks, the beauty of harmo-
nious arrangement with the beauty of the visible world. We
do not seem, indeed, to have at all the same quick perception
of this kind of beauty that they appear to have had. The
Author of " Modern Painters " has pointed out that, in the
Odyssey, when Hermes approaches Calypso's cave, what he
admires is, not so much the wild beauty of the island, as the
trimness of the goddess's own domain, her four fountains

345. Type used in The Hobby Horse: Chisrvick Press^ London^ 1890

CASLON AND FELL REVIVALS 201

letter-founders, and for many years have successfully used
"revived old style" and also characters of the modern face
family.' Constable employed an interesting Scotch modern
face for David Nutt's distinguished series of Tudor Trans-
lations. The fine revived old style or (as I should prefer to
call them) modernized old style fonts were used by the same
printer in the three volumes of BiUiographica (1895); and
Mr. J. P. Morgan's monumental Catalogue of Manuscripts
and Early Printed Books from the Libraries of Aloiris, Ben-
nett, etc. (1907), is a magnificent example of the skilful use
of these types by the Chiswick Press. In smaller sizes this
type was delightfully employed by the same press in their
reprint of Sir Henry Wotton's Elements of Architecture,
issued by Longmans in 1903 {fg. 344).

But the early and "classic" use of this type was in Her-
bert Home's periodical, The Century Guild Hobby Horse
(1886-92). Its later volumes (beginning in 1888), printed in
a large size of the "modernized old style" character, with
delightful decorations drawn by Mr. Home, are most dis-
tinguished pieces of typography {fg. 345). Of The Hobby
Horse not many volumes were issued, but they will always
hold a place in the annals of the revival of printing at the
end of the last century.

In Mr. Home's typographical venture, William Mor-
ris had a hand ; but as Morris rode a very Gothic hobby-
horse of his own, and Mr. Home's charger was much more
Italian than Gothic in its behaviour, it is easy to see why
Morris soon turned his attention to printing in a way more
to his mind. His endeavours, their results, and the influ-
ence they have had on modern printing have now to be con-
sidered.

' In England Caslon types are called "old face"; what we call ** modernized
old style" is tliere termed " revived old style" — a type designetl about 1850.

CHAPTER XXII

ENGLISH AND AMERICAN REVIVAL OF EARLY TYPE-
FORMS AND ITS EFFECT ON CONTINENTAL TYPES

WILLIAM Morris was born in 1834 — the son
of prosperous middle-class people, who lived
freely and pleasantly. He was educated at Marl-
borough School and Exeter College, Oxford, \vhere he formed
a lasting friendship with Burne- Jones. Originally intending
to take Holy Orders, he changed his mind, and studied ar-
chitecture for a year or two under Street; then, between 1857
and 1862, through Rossetti's influence, he took up painting.
Meanwhile he had begun to write — his Defence of Guene-
vere appearing in 1858. From then until his death he wrote
many volumes of poetry and prose, most of it of a very high
order. Painting proved unsatisfactory, so he began about
the year 1870 to work as a decorator, eventually turning his
hand to illumination, — in which he was expert, — to the
making of wall-papers, rugs, hangings, and stained glass,
and to house decoration. It was an era of pattern, and though
in Morris's hands the pattern was often magnificent, houses
decorated or furnished by him would now appear rather
tiresome and aifected.

In socialism Morris was seriously interested. It was the
somewhat romantic socialism of a well-to-do, fastidious man,
which had the added attraction of placing him in the oppo-
sition ; for he somewhat enjoyed "otherwise-mindedness."
Morris never went into the slums and lived with the people
— indeed, he gave scant attention to the particular individ-
ual in his large and roomy movements — it was not the
manner of his time. He desired with great desire to see
the life of workmen improved by being made more like his
own, rather than to get nearer the workmeri^s point of view

REVIVAL OF EARLY FORMS 203

by making his life more like theirs. Yet he was thoroughly
in earnest about his socialism. That the workman's life was
so sordid made him miserable. He loved mediaevalism
because it appeared to him — I think rather unhistorically
— a close approach to the life he wished to see commonly
lived in the world. None the less, he had sometimes impos-
sible manners, often a furious temper, always short patience
with fools, and there was a bit of pose and "bow-wow"
about his daily walk and conversation. In his character, as in
his wall-papers, one was a little too conscious of the pattern,
but the pattern was fine, and there was lots of it! Over and
above all this he was an educated, cultivated man, tremen-
dously observant and shrewd, and his driving power was
enormous. Like Bodoni (whose work Morris detested), no
man knew better what he wanted to do. Morris's motto was
" If I can," and by hard work, enthusiasm, and — we must
admit — a fixed income and a good deal of incidental pros-
perity, he usually "could."

Morris's style of printing, therefore, may be partly ex-
plained by the interiors of his own houses or those he deco-
rated ; and lis motive hy\\\s idea of socialism, which, through
a kind of Religion of Beauty, was to produce the regenera-
tion of a work-a-day world. It was to be a wonderful world,
and it was, potentially, very real to him. His printing was
for it, or was to help to its realization by others. If his deco-
rations now appear a bit mannered and excessive, and his
socialism somewhat romantic and unreal, it is because Mor-
ris was very much of his period. Thus (again like Bodoni,
though from diametrically opposite theories) Morris made
magnificent books, but not for ordinary readers — nor, for
the matter of that, for ordinary purses — but only for a cer-
tain fortunate group of his own time.

To understand the work of the Kelmscott Press we must

204 PRINTING TYPES

understand this much of the environment and ways of
thinking of a man as forcible and sincere as he was many-
sided.

Some years before Mr. Morris set up any press of his own,
he had made a few essays in printing. The Roots of the
Mountains^ which was issued in 1889, was printed yor him
at the Chiswick Press in a character cut some fifty years
earHer, belonging to the Whittinghams, and modelled on
an old Basle font; and in 1890, the Gunnlaug Saga was
printed in a type copied from one of Caxton's fonts. In 1891,
almost fifty years after the Whittinghams' revival of Cas-
lon's type, and some fifteen years after the Fell types were
resuscitated, Morris established the Kelmscott Press, named
after Kelmscott Manor House (on the upper Thames, about
thirty miles from Oxford), which Morris acquired in 1871.
The first "Kelmscott" book that he issued was The Story of
the Glittering F/aifi, and its effect upon lovers of fine books
was instantaneous. Opinion was at once divided about Mor-
ris's printing. To a limited public, the Kelmscott editions
opened the millennium in book-making. Others were irri-
tated at what they considered their affectation and faddish-
ness, and condemned them utterly, as unreadable — which
was only a half-truth. The effect on printing in general that
Morris was to have through his types and type-setting en-
tirely escaped most printers, as did the sources from which
he derived his methods. Because they knew very little about
early manuscripts or early books, about the characters of the
one or the types of the other, the Kelmscott books appeared
to them to have fallen from the sky — either very new and
wonderful or else very freakish and senseless — just as they
would to anybody who knew nothing whatever about it ! On
the great English public, or the majority of English print-

REVIVAL OF EARLY FORMS 205

ers, Morris's books had — at that time — scarcely any effect
at all. Indeed, Mr. Morris was a much more widespread
popular force in America and Germany than in England,
where his work was known only to a comparatively small
artistic group.

"I began printing books," said Mr. Morris, "with the
hope of producing some which would have a definite claim
to beauty, while at the same time they should be easy to read
and should not dazzle the eye, or trouble the intellect of the
reader by eccentricity of form in the letters. I have always
been a great admirer of the calligraphy of the Middle Ages,
and of the earlier printing which took its place. As to the fif-
teenth century books, I had noticed that they were always
beautiful by force of the mere typography, even without the
added ornament, with which many of them are so lavishly
supplied. And it was the essence of my undertaking to pro-
duce books which it would be a pleasure to look upon as
pieces of printing and arrangement of type. Looking at my
adventure from this point of view then, I found I had to
consider chiefly the following things : the paper, the form of
the type, the relative spacing of the letters, the words, and
the lines ; and lastly the position of the printed matter on the
page

"Next as to type. By instinct rather than by conscious
thinking it over, I began by getting myself a fount of Ro-
man type. And here what I wanted was letter pure in form;
severe, without needless excrescences ; solid, without the
thickening and thinning of the line, which is the essential
fault of the ordinary modern type, and which makes it dif-
ficult to read ; and not compressed laterally, as all later type
has grown to be owing to commercial exigencies. There was
only one source from which to take examples of this per-
fected Roman type, to wit, the works of the great Venetian

206 PRINTING TYPES

printers of the fifteenth century, of whom Nicholas Jenson
produced the completest and most Roman characters from
1470 to 1476. This type I studied with much care, getting it
photographed to a big scale, and drawing it over many times
before I began designing my own letter; so that though
I think I mastered the essence of it, I did not copy it ser-
vilely; in fact, my Roman type, especially in the lower case,
tends rather more to the Gothic than does Jenson's.

" After a while I felt that I must have a Gothic as well
as a Roman fount; and herein the task I set myself was to
redeem the Gothic character from the charge of unreadable-
ness which is commonly brought against it. And I felt that
this charge could not be reasonably brought against the
types of the first two decades of printing ; that Schoeffer at
Mainz, Mentelin at Strasburg,and GuntherZainer at Augs-
burg, avoided the spiky ends and undue compression which
lay some of the later type open to the above charge. . . .
Keeping my end steadily in view, I designed a black-letter
type which I think I may claim to be as readable as a
Roman one, and to say the truth I prefer it to the Roman.

" It was only natural that I, a decorator by profession,
should attempt to ornament my books suitably: about this
matter, I will only say that I have always tried to keep in
mind the necessity for making my decoration a part of the
page of type." ^

Morris's three types (two black-letter and one roman)
were as follows :

A roman letter, called the Golden Type, cut in English
size, finished in 1890, and first used in his Golden Legend,
issued in 1892 (/^, 346).

^ A J^Tote by William Morris on his Aims in Founding- the Kelmscott Press.
Together with a Short Description of the Press hy S. C. Cockerell, Isf an
Annotated List of the Books Printed Thereat. Hammersmith, London, 1908.

THE ARGUMENT.

UCIUSTarquinius (forhisexccS"
sive pride surnamedSuperbus)afx
ter hee had caused his owne father
in law Servius Tulh'us to be cruelly
murd'red,and contrarie to the Ro^
maine lawes and customes, not re^
quiring or staying for the people's suffrages, had
possessed himselie of the kingdome : wentaccom"
panyed with his sonnes and other noble men of
Rome, to besiege Ardea, during which siege, the
pn'ncipall men of the Army meeting one evening
at the tent of SextusTarquinius the king's sonnc,
in their discourses after supper every one comment
ded the vertues of his owne wife: among whom
Colatinus extolled the incomparable chastity of
his wife Lucretia. In that pleasant humor they all
posted to Rome, & intending bv theyr secret and
sodainearrivall to maketriall or that which every
one had before avouched, onely Colatinus finds
his wife (though itwere late in the night) spinning
amongest her maides, the other ladies were all
found dauncing and revelling, or in severall dis"
ports: whereupon the noble men yeelded Cola^
tinus the victory, and his wife the fame. At that
time SextusTarquiniusbeingenflamed with Lu^
crece beauty, yet smoothering his passions for the
present, departed with the rest backe to the campe :

346. Morris's Golden Type: Kelmscott Press

REVIVAL OF EARLY FORMS 207

A black-letter great primer font, called the Troy Type,
showing the influence of Schoeffer of Mainz, Zainer of
Augsburg, and Koberger of Nuremberg, although difi'erent
from any of these, and first used in the Historyes of Trvye^
issued the same year {Jig. 347)-

A black-letter, called the Chaucer Type, differing from
the Troy type only in size, being pica instead of great
primer. This was used in some parts of the Ilistnryes of
Tivye^ but was first employed for an entire book in The
Order of Chivalry, published in 1893 (/^. 348).

Morris also designed a fourth type, based on the fonts
used by Sweynheym and Pannartz in St. Augustine's De
Civitate Dei, but it was never cut. All Morris's types were
finally lefl to trustees, and their use is occasionally permitted
for special books. The wood-blocks of illustrations to his
editions have been placed in the British Museum.

As we look at Morris's typographical achievements in per-
spective, they seem to be more those of a decorator apply-
ing his decorative talents to printing, than the work of a
printer. His books are not always what he said books should
be — easy to read, not dazzling to the eye, or troublesome
to the reader by eccentricities of letter-form. He says he
admired fifteenth century books because they were beau-
tiful "by force of the mere typography, even without the
added ornament, with which many of them are so lavishly
supplied." But what is true of those books is only partly
true about his own. He did make books which it was a plea-
sure to look at — as arrangements of type and fine pieces of
printing — but he did not make books that it was a pleasure
to read. If Morris admired Jenson's fonts, it is hard to see
why he did not copy their best points more closely. One has
only to take a Kelmscott book and compare it with a good

208 PRINTING TYPES

specimen of Jensen's printing to see how far away one is
from the other.

On the other hand, many people did not at all under-
stand Morris's greatness — for great he was. As he was both
visionary and practical, his visions bothered the practical
man, while his practicality somewhat disturbed the vision-
ary. "Perhaps this kind of character is rare in our time," says
Mr. Clutton-Brock, "only because craftsmen are rare; for
the craftsman, if he is to excel, must be both industrious
and a visionary, as Morris was. He must have honesty and
common sense as well as invention; and his work devel-
ops and harmonizes both sets of qualities. We shall under-
stand Morris best if we think of him as a craftsman, . . .
as one who could never see raw material without wishing to
make something out of it, and who at last saw society itself
as a very raw material which set his fingers itching."^

I doubt if Morris himself realized the enormous effect his
work would have upon typography. Neither did he know
that, while his types were not particularly good types, and
his decorations were often unduly heavy, by this very over-
statement in the colour of the type on its paper, in making
characters which loudly called attention to earlier ones, and
in designing somewhat over-splendid decorations (which,
nevertheless, were in harmony with his type), he led the
printer of his particular moment to see how imposing, and
even magnificent, masses of strong type, closely set and well
inked, combined with fine decorations, may be. And Morris
taught a lesson in the unity of effect in books for which the
modern printer is deeply in his debt — a unity now influ-
encing volumes very far removed from those rather precious
productions in which it was first exemplified. Nowadays,

* William Morris: His Work and Injluence, by A. Clutton-Brock, London,
1914, p. 208.

such as choose to scch it: it is neither
prison, nor palace, butadecent home.

LL camcn i jsei/

XIRBR praise nor
blame, but say that
so itis:some people
praise this homeli-
ness overmuch, as
if the land were the
very axle/tree of the
world; so do not I, nor any unblind-
ed by pride in themselvesandall that
belongs to them : others there are who
scorn it and the tameness of it: not
1 any the more: though it would in-
deed be hard if there were nothing
else in the world, no wonders, no ter-
rors, no unspeakable beauties. Y^^
when we think what a small part of
the world's history, past, present, &
to come, is this land we live in, and
howmuch smaller still in the history
of the arts, & yet how our forefathers
clung to it, and with what care and

347. Morris'' s Troy Type: Kelmscott Press

pams tbcy adorned It, this unromantic, un-
eventful/looking landofengland, surely by
this too our hearts may be touched and our

hope quickened,

OR as was the land,
such was the art of it
while folk yet troub-
led themselves about
such things ; it strove
little to impress peo-
ple either by pomp or
ingenuity : not unsel-
dom it fell into com-
monplace,rarely itrose
into majesty ; yetwas it never oppres/
sive, never a slave's nightmare or an
insolent boast: & at its best it had an
inventiveness, an individuality, that
grander styles have never overpass-
ed: its best too, and that was in its
very heart, was given as freely to the
yeoman's house, and the humble vil-
lage church, as to the lord's palace or
the mighty cathedral: never coarse,
thoughof ten rude enough, sweet, na-
tural & unaffected, an art of peasants
rather than of m erchan t prin ces or court/
iers, it must be a hard heart, X think, that
does not love it : whether aman has been bom
among it like ourselves, or has come wonder/
68

348. Morrises Chaucer Type: Kelmscott Press

REVIVAL OF EARLY FORMS 209

the old-fashioned method of using various fonts of type on
a title-page, or an unnecessary numl^er of sizes of type in a
volume, has been given up — even in the commonest com-
mercial work. And, too, Morris's reforms have extended to
illustrations, which are at present almost always by one
hand, and not, as in old-fashioned illustrated books, by
half a dozen different designers and drawn without any
relation to the type-page. These newer and better fashions
in book-making may be directly traced to sounder concep-
tions of what a book ought to be; and Morris — as with
the weapon of the Viking heroes he loved so well — ham-
mered this conception into the consciousness of gentlemen
who will even use Truth, if it appears to be an "asset"! For
no man ever had the courage of his convictions more than
Morris, or a heartier contempt for foolish opponents. When
asked to hear the other side, he replied (like Garrison on the
slavery question), "There is n't any ! " This very intolerance
made Morris a tremendous force in typography; for, in spite
of certain conscious overstatements, it was a sincere intol-
erance, and was aimed not at people, but at their shallow
views of things. In the last year of his life, when in failing
health, he attended a public meeting, and returning from
it with a friend, showed signs of weakness. The friend, more
amiable than discreet, suggested that this was the worst
time of the year. "No, it ain't," said Morris, "it's a very
fine time of the year indeed. I 'm getting old, that 's what it
is." In short, Morris hated humbug, though he sometimes
mistook for humbug, opinions with which he disagreed —
as 't is human to do. He was a great printer because he was
a great man who printed greatly, as he did much else.

V^hen Morris began to work with types of his own in his
own way, other people (most of whom knew rather less

210 PRINTING TYPES

about it) began to design their own types and print with
them too. Charles Ricketts of London, who was already-
interested in making fine books, instituted the Vale Press.
Mr. Ricketts' books were actually printed at the Ballantyne
Press, but the types were designed by him and arranged
under his direction, and some very charming decorations
for the Vale Press books were by his hand. In a paper issued
in 1899, called A Defence of the Revival of Printing (which
no one had seriously attacked), he contrasted the work of
the great Venetian printers and of William Morris, with his
own. Morris, as was well known, hated the Renaissance,^
but Mr. Ricketts called it "a charmed time in the develop-
ment of man." Admitting himself "utterly won over and
fascinated by the sunny pages of the Venetian printers," he
defined the pages of a fine Kelmscott book as "full of wine"
and those of an Italian book as " full of light." This being
Mr. Ricketts' point of view, it is surprising that his type
appeared so much like Mr. Morris's ! For it is fair to sup-
pose that the types which he designed looked precisely as
he meant that they should. Apparently the Vale Press in-
tended to deal not in "wine" but in "light," and it must be
terribly uncomfortable when you want light to get wine!
But in spite of this rather affected Defence, the Vale books
had style and distinction — being more classical in feeling

* Mr. Mackail says, in his life of Morris : " With the noble Italian art of the
earlier Renaissance he had but little sympathy : for that of the later Renais-
sance and the academic traditions he had nothing but unmixed detestation.
Some time in these years [c. 1873], his old fellow -pupil, Mr. Bliss, then
engaged on researches among the archi\'es of the Vatican, met him in the
Bodleian Library at Oxford, and pressed him to come with him to Rome.
His reply was too characteristic to be forgotten. 'Do you suppose,' he said,
' that I should see anything in Rome that I can't see in Whitechapel ? ' Even
the earlier and, to his mind, the far more interesting and beautiful work of
the twelfth jmd thirteenth centuries in Italy did not appeal to him in the
same way as the contemporary art of England or Northern France. ' ' Mackail
adds: "He much preferred Iceland to Italy."

CAPUT LXXXIII.

^^f^In pinacothccampcrvcni, varlogcncrc tabu-
larum mirabilem : nam ct Zcuxidos manus vidi,
nondum vctustatis injuria victas; ct Protogcnis
rudimcnta, cum ipsius naturae vcritatc ccrtantia,
non sine quodam horrore tractavi. Jam vero
Apcllis, quam Graeci monochromon appellant,
ctiam adoravi. Tanta cnim subtilitatc extremi-
tatcs imaginum crant ad similitudinem praecisae,
ut crcdcrcs ctiam animorum esse picturam. Hinc
aquila fcrcbat, ccelo sublimis, deum. Illinc can--
didus Hylas repellebat improbam Naida. Dam-
nabat Apollo noxias manus, lyramque rcsolutam
modo natoflofc honorabat. Inter quos ctiam pic'-
torum amantium vultus, tanquam in solitudinc
exciamavi : Ergo amor ctiam deos tangit ^ Jupiter
in ccclosuo non invenit quod eligeret, ct, peccca-
turus in terris, nemini tamen injuriam fecit. Hy*-
1am Nympha praedata impcrasset amori suo, si
venturum ad interdictum Herculem credidissct.
Apollo pueri umbram revocavit in florem, ct om^
nes fabulae quoque habucrunt sine aemulo com-

Elcxus. At ego in societatem reccpi hospitem,
ycurgo crudeliorem. Eccc autem, ego dum
cum vcntis litigo, intravit pinacothecam senex
canus, cxcrcitati vultus, ct qui videretur nescio
quid magnum promitterc; sed cultu non proindc
speciosus, ut facile apparcret cum ex hac nota
littcratorum esse, quos odisse divites solcnt. Is
ergo, ut ad latus constitit meum. Ego, inquit,
xxxv

349. The Vale Fount: Vale Press

^^Ejusmodi fabulae vibrabant, quum Trimalchio intravit, el,
detcrsa fronte, ungucnto manus lavit, spatioque minimo inter-
posito: Jgnoscite mihi (inquit), amici, multis jam diebus venter
mihi non respondit: ncc medici seinveniunt; profuit mihi tamen
malicorium, et taeda ex aceto. Spero tamen jam ventrem pudorem
sibi imponere; alioquin circa stomachum mihi sonat, putes
taurum. Itaque, si quis vestrum volucrit suae rei causa facere, non
est quod ilium pudcatur. Nemo nostrum solide natus est. Ego
nullum puto tam magnum tormentum esse, quam continere. Hoc
solum vetare ne Jovis potest. Rides, Fortunata! quae soles me
nocte desomnem facere. Nee tamen m triclinio ullum vetui facere
quod se juvet: ct medici vetant continere; vel, si quid plus venit,
omnia foras parata sunt : aqua, lasanum, et cetera minutalia. Cre-
dite mihi, anathymiasis si in cerebrum it, in toto corpore fluctum
facit. Multos scio sic periisse, dum nolunt sibi verum dicere.
Gratias agimus liberalitati indulgentiacque ejus, ct subinde casti-
gamus crebris poiiunculis risum. Nee adhuc sciebamus nos in
medio lautitiarum, quod aiunt, clivo laborare. Nam communda-
tis ad symphoniam mensis, tres albi sues in triclinium adducti
sunt.capistris et tinlinnabulis culti, quorum unum bimum nomen-
culator esse dicebat, alterum trimum, tertium vero jam senem.
Ego putabam, petauristarios intrasse, et porcos, sicut in circulis
mos est, portenta aliqua facturos. Sed Trimalchio, exspeciatione
discussa: Quem, inquit, ex eis vultis in coenam statim fieri.''
Galium enim gallinaceum, phasianum, et ejusmodi naenias rustici
faciunt: mei coci etiam vitulos, aeno coctos, solent facere. Conti-
nuoque cocum vocari jussit, et, non exspectata electione nostra,
maximum natu jussit occidi; et clara voce: Ex quota decuna csr'
Quum ille, ex quadragesima, respondisset: Emtitius, an, mquit,
domi natus esr' Neutrum, inquit cocus, sed testamento Pansae
tibi relictus sum. Vide ergo, ait, ut diligenter ponas; si non, te
jubebo in decuriam villicorum conjici. Et quidem cocus, polenliae
admonitus, in culinam obsonium duxit.
CAPUT XLVIII.

^^♦Trimalchio autem miti ad nos vultu respexit; et, Vinum, in-
quit, si non placet, muiabo: vos illud, oportet, bonum faciatis.
Deorum beneficio non emo, sed nunc, quidquid ad salivam facit,
in suburbano nascitur mco, quod ego adhuc non novi. Dicitur
confine esse Tarracinensibus et Tareminis. Nunc conjungere
xxxvii

350. Tlie Avon Fount: Vale Press

QuQRe non racimusr' Turn eqo, Tories exci-
TQTUs, plane vehemenTen excandui, ex «ed-
didi illi voces suas: Aux donmi, aux eqo jam
paxRi dicam.
CAPUT LXXXVIII.

>^>C«ecTus his seRmonibus, consulene pRuden-
xioRes ccepi aGxaxes xabulanum, ex quaedam
anqumenxa mihi obscuna, simulque causam de-
sidiae pRaesenxis excuxene, quum pulcheRRimae
aRxes peniissenx, inxeR quas picxuRO ne mini'-
mum quidem sui vesxiqium Reliquissex. Turn
ille : Pecuniae, inquix, cupidixas haecxRopica in^
sxixuix. >^>VeRuni, ux ad plasxas convcRxaR,
Lysippum, sxaxuae unius lineamenxis inhacRen--
xem, inopia exsxinxix: ex MyRon, qui pacne
hominum animas FeRORumque acRe compRe-
hendix, non invenix hcRedem. Ax nos, vino
scoRxisque demcRsi, ne poROxas quidem oRxes
audemus coqnosccRe; sed, accusaxoRes anxi-
guixaxis, vixia xanxum docemus ex discimus.
Ubi esx dialecxicar' ubi asxRonomia ^ ubi sa-
pienxiaeconsulxissimavia ^ Quis,inquam,venix
in xemplum, ex voxum recix, si ad eloquenxiam
peRvenissex ^ quis, si philosophiae Fonxem ax-
xiqissexr^ Ac ne bonam quidem valexudinem
pexunx : sed sxaxim, anxequam limen Capixolii
Tanqanx,aliusdonumpRomixxix,sipRopinquum
divixem exxulcRix: alius, si xhesauRum errO'-
dcRix : alius, si adxRecenxies HS. salvuspcRvC"
ncRix. Ipse senaxus,RecxiboniquepRaecepxoR,
xxxix

351. The King's Fount: Vale Press

REVIVAL OF EARLY FORMS 211

than the Kelmscott books, and less so than those of the
Doves Press.

The Bibliography (the last book issued by the Vale Press,
in 1904) is printed in Vale type, and at the end a page of
Latin text is shown in the Vale Fount {Jig. 349); another in
the Avon Fount — a smaller roman type more successful, to
my eye, than the Vale {Jig. 350); and a third in the King's
Fount, which is less happy through the introduction in its
lower-case of some capital letter-forms {Jig. 35 1). The first
Vale Press book was Milton's Early Poems., issued in 1896.
The Avon seems to have been first used in 1902. Unfor-
tunately, most of the wood-blocks of the ornaments were
lost in a fire at the Ballantyne Press; and the punches, ma-
trices, and type were destroyed on the issue of the last of
the Vale publications. The tendency in these books was cer-
tainly toward Italian models, but so much influenced were
Messrs. Hacon and Ricketts — like every one else at that
moment — by Morris's work, that they did not get as far
from it as they either thought or intended.

Four years after Morris's death in 1896, T. J. Cobden-
Sanderson, with Emery Walker, Morris's learned associ-
ate in the work of the Kelmscott Press and a man who (as
every one but himself would admit) has been the mov-
ing spirit in most of the good and scholarly ventures in
modern English typography, founded the Doves Press. It
owes its odd name to an old riverside inn at Hammersmith
on the Thames, familiar to row ing men, which in turn gave
its name to a cottage which Mr. Cobden-Sanderson (who
had already set up a bindery) used as a work-shop. The
Doves Press was founded, says Mr. Cobden-Sanderson, in
his Catalogue published in 1908, "to attack the problem
of pure Tvjiography, as presented by ordinary books in the
various forms of prose, verse, and dialogue, and keeping

212 PRINTING TYPES

always in view the principle . . . that 'The whole duty of
Typography is to communicate to the imagination, without
loss by the way, the thought or image intended to be con-
veyed by the Author,' to attempt its solution rather by the
arrangement of the whole book, as a whole, with due regard
to its parts and the emphasis of its divisions, than by the
splendour of ornament, intermittent, page after page." For
this press, a single roman font was cut, and the first book
produced in it (in 1891) was the Agricola of Tacitus. This
Doves type discarded the extreme blackness of Morris's
fonts, and was more Italian in character than any which had
hitherto appeared in England. It is based on Jenson's roman
font, "freed from the accidental irregularities due to imper-
fect cutting and casting," — perhaps a fault rather than a
virtue, — "and the serifs altered in some cases." It is a very
beautiful type, although its regularity, and the rigidity of the
descender in the y,^ make it thin and spiky in appearance,
and thus a little difficult to read ; nor has it the agreeable
"opulence" of the best Italian fonts {Jig. 352). The Doves
Press books have been, however, among the very best of
those printed under the influence of the Morris revival. The
Doves Bible (1903) is a masterpiece of restrained style; and
although in one or two later volumes a commonplace italic
is introduced into the fine roman text, the Doves books have
delightful consistency and simplicity. All ornament is es-
chewed in them, but fine, free initials give a decorative note
to the pages here and there. Mr. Walker withdrew from
the undertaking in 1909. Mr. Cobden-Sanderson, with con-
siderable elegiac ceremony, brought its work to a close a few
years later. He died in 1922.

'a test of the excellence of any type is this — that whatever the combination
of letters, no individual character stands out fi'om the rest — a se\'ere require-
ment to which aU permanently successful types conform.

between the seen and the unseen, the finite and the
infinite, the human and the superhuman, and is a
monumentalwork of the eighteenth as distinguished
from the seventeenth century, the century of the
Bible and of Milton. Finally, in the nineteenth cen-
tury, Sartor Resartus, the Essays of Emerson, and
Unto this Last, are related & charadteristic attempts
to turn back the Everlasting Nay of scepticism into
the Everlasting Yea of affirmation, & in the presence
of the admittedly inexplicable & sublime mystery of
the whole, to set man again at work upon the creation
of the fit, the seemly, and the beautiful. Browning's
Men & Women, now in the press, conceived about
the same time, is a more dired; presentment of the
same positive solution.

([These Books printed, as a first essay, the whole
field of literature remains open to selecft from. To-day
there is an immense reproduction in an admirable
cheap form, of all Books which in any language have
stood the test of time. But such reproduction is not
a substitute for the more monumental producftion of
the same works, & whether by The Doves Press or
some other press or presses, such monumental pro-
duction, expressive of man's admiration, is a legiti-
mate ambition and a public duty. Great thoughts
deserve & demand a great setting, whether in build-
ing, sculpture, ceremonial, or otherwise ; & the great
works of literature have again and again to be set
forth in forms suitable to their magnitude. And this

352. Doves Type: Doves Press

REVIVAL OF EARLY FORMS 213

A private venture w hich has produced comparatively
few books, but among them some of the greatest beauty, is
the Ashendene Press, estabHshed in 1895, and directed by
C. H. St. John Hornby of London. Its first books employed
the Caslon and Fell characters — up to 1902. Later,an Ital-
ian semi-gothic character, closely resembling the Subiaco
type of Sweynheym and Pannartz, was designed for this
press by Mr. Walker and Mr. Cockerell {fg. 353). This
type uas first used in Dante's Infcnw^ issued in 1902. The
splendid Dante of 1909 — the works entire, with illustra-
tions by C. M. Gere; Le Moiie Darthur (1913); and the
beautiful Boccaccio (1913-20), with rubrication, and initials
designed by Graily Hewitt, are among its greatest achieve-
ments. The Dante ranks with the Doves Bible and the
Kelmscott Chaucer — described as the "three ideal books
of modern typography," from the three ideal presses of the
Revival.^ In many books the initials are in colour, and some-
times in gold.

Lucien Pissarro's Eragny Press (like the Kelmscott and
the Doves Press, placed at Hammersmith) took its name
from Eragny, the Normandy village where Mr. Pissarro was
born, and where he studied and worked with his father.
His earlier books were printed in the Vale type designed
by Ricketts. The Brook type, in which an account of the
Eragny Press was printed in 1903, is an agreeable roman
letter designed b}' Pissarro on the lines of the \^ale type,
with a pleasant movement and admirable legibility {^fig.
354). The superiority of its appearance to that of the Vale
fonts is due partly to the paper generally used, which is most
delightful. Wood-blocks printed in colours are a favourite
feature of the Pxagny Press books, and the text is their ac-
companiment. The designing, wood-engraving, and print-
* See Pcddie's Cantor Lectures on Printing. London, 1915.

214 PRINTING TYPES

ing are all the work of Pissarro and his wife, though some-
times the illustrations are by other hands.

The Essex House Press, although its first issues were
brought out in Caslon types, produced, in 1903, a font called
the Prayer Book type — ambitious, but not entirely suc-
cessful. It was designed by C. R. Ashbee, the director of this
press. There are some curiously unfortunate characters in
its lower-case letters — the g and f, e and n, for instance —
which resemble pen-work, and not very pleasant pen-work
at that. His Endeavour type, which in 1901 preceded the
Prayer Book font — a letter smaller in size, but with many
of the same eccentricities — is obscure and dazzling. And
set in these types, it is not surprising that the Essex House
books have no great merit. Its work in Caslon types was
much the best — and was (as when combined with Edmund
New's delightful illustrations in Wren's Parentalid) harmo-
nious and simple. As for the Cambridge type of the Uni-
versity Press, Cambridge, it is an unattractive letter, which
combines many of the defects of the fonts we owe to the
modern revival. It is difficult to see why it was ever cut at
all.

Herbert P. Home designed three types of importance —
the Montallegro, the Florence, and the Riccardi. These may
be called sister types, for they show a certain progression
of idea, and all attack the problem of what a fine type for
commercial printing should be — elegant, yet readable from
a present day standpoint.

The Montallegro type came first. This type was mod-
elled, as were the others, on an early Florentine font, and
was intended to be a good "reading type," which should have
rather more flexibility and grace than the fonts based on
older Italian forms. It was first used in Condivi's Life of
Michelagnolo Buonarroti by the Merrymount Press, Bos-

ODI profanum vulgus 61 arcco ;
Favcte Unguis : carmina non prius
Audita Musarum saccrdos
Virginibus pucrisq^ canto.
Rcgum timcndorum in proprios grcges,
Rcgcs in ipsos imperium est lovis,
Clari Gigantco triumpbo,
Cuncla supercilio movcnds.
Est ut viro vir (atius ordinct
Arbusta sulcis, bic gcncrosior
Dcsccndat in Campum pctitor,
Moribus bic mcliorquc fama
Contcndat, illi turba clicntium
Sit maior : acqua lege Hecessitas
Sortitur insignis &l imos ;

Omne capax movet urna nomen.
Destriclrus cnsis cui super impia
Ccrvice pendet, non Siculae dapes
Dulcem elaborabunt saporem,
Non avium citbaraeq3 cantus

353. Type used by the As/iendene Press

A BRIEF ACCOUNT OF THE
ORIGIN OF THE ERAGNY PRESS.

MR. PISSARRO first learned to draw from
his father, in the fields far from any art
school. One day M. Lzpkre, the well/known
engraver, showed him how his tools were held,
& finding him mterested.gave him two gravers
and a scorper. Thus furnished with the means
he made a start and taught himself; with the re/
suit that in 1886 F. Q. Dumas, editor of the «Re/
vue IIIustr^e», commissioned him to illustrate
a story, «Mait' Liziard», by Octave Mirbeau.
Four woodcuts appeared, but the subscribers to
the Review expressed so much disapproval of
these illustrations, conceived and executed in
the uncompromising spirit of Charles Keene's
work, which Mr. Pissarro greatly admired, that
his collaboration was cut short there and then.
He learnt later that this epistolary demonstra/
tion against his work, which inundated Mr.
Dumas' office, was the work of some students
in the atelier of a well/known painter. Dis/
appointed, and having heard that in England
there was a group of young artists who were
ardently engaged in the revival of wood/en/
graving, he crossed the Channel with the in/
tention of joining them, having in his pocket
an introduction from F^Iix Fen^on to John
4 Qray

354. Brook Type: Eragny Press

REVIVAL OF EARLY FORMS 215

ton, in 1905, and since in the volumes of The Humanist^
Library {Jig. 355 a). This type was cut under Mr. Home's
direction by E. P. Prince of London, an English crafts-
man of great ability and experience, and — within a nar-
row circle — of great reputation. The types of the Kelmscott,
Doves, and other English private presses w ere from his
hand, as well as the Florence and Medici fonts.

The Florence type of 1909 came next. It is somewhat
smaller in face and simpler in form than the Montallegro;
and is perhaps the most successful of the three. It was cut
for Messrs. Chatto & Windus of London {Jig. 355 b).

The last was the Riccardi type, also cut in 1909, based
on fonts cut by Miscomini. It has been used in the "Ric-
cardi Press" editions published by the Medici Society of
London. A litde monotonous in effect and gathering too
much colour in printing unless carefully managed, it is so
practical that it loses the elegance of the other two fonts
{Jig. 355 c). A smaller size of the type (ll-point) has been
cut for the same series of volumes.^

Among other interesting typographical experiments of
the later nineteenth century was a Greek type designed
by Selwyn Image. This was cut in two sizes, both used in
a Greek Testament issued in 1895 {Jig. 356). It was based
on the letter-forms of early Greek manuscripts, modified
as little as might be by concessions to the familiar cursive
Greek characters of Aldus, which have so unhappily in-
fluenced Greek typography. These types are not particu-
larly successful. Robert Proctor's very fine Greek tvpe —
the "Otter" — used in the Oresteia of Aeschylus, printed
in 1904, was another important essay in Greek tvpe-forms

' There are other modem private fonts on which I have not touched. For fac-
similes of some of them, see Steele's Rexnval of Printing, London, 1912,
and The ^4rt of the Book (a Special Number of The Studio) , London, 1914.
Also The Saturday Rez'ie^v, London, November, 1919.

216 PRINTING TYPES

{Jig. 357). It was based on the noble Greek characters em-
ployed in the New Testament in the Complutensian Poly-
glot Bible, printed at Alcala in 1514. For this type Proctor
designed the capital letters — except the 11.^ It is fully de-
scribed by Proctor in a note at the end of the volume ; which
was produced at the Chiswick Press, for Emery Walker,
S. C. Cockerel!, and A. W. Pollard."

Next to English special types, similar American fonts are
perhaps the most interesting. The fine Montaigne font
designed by Bruce Rogers for the Riverside Press, Cam-
bridge, was cut in 1901 for a monumental edition of the
Essays of Montaigne, published in 1903. This, Mr. Rogers
said, " was an attempt to meet a want that was felt for a
large type-face that should avoid, on the one hand, the ex-
treme blackness of the types which Morris's work had made
popular, and, on the other, the somewhat thin effect of the

Proctor says that witli this exception the original font had no capital letters ;
but according to other authorities it actually had nine. See J. P. R. Lyell's
Cardinal Xiinenes, I^ndon, 1917, p. 47.

' It would be an injustice to think that all the best energies of modem Eng-
lish printing (which for books I think at present the "soundest" in the world)
were exhausted in the work of special presses or the use of specially designed
types. All along there has been a steady flow of admirably printed English
books of a more normal kind, printed from old style, modem face, and otlier
fonts commonly obtainable. In these t}pes the best English printers have con-
sistently produced a certain class of memoir and many books on architecture,
painting, and the fine arts, which are delightful — agreeable to look at, to han-
dle, and to read. The Oxford University Press, the Chiswick Press, the Ar-
den Press, the houses of Constable and of Ballantyne have printed many such
books, and there are other less famous presses which almost, and sometimes
quite, equal them. Work like this is what the student must look to for some
of the best and most characteristic ELnglish typography of to-day. Though
American ephemeral printing has generally been superior to English, of late
some English presses have turned out such work most successfully. ITie cir-
culars, placards, etc., of the Pelican, Cloister, and Curwen presses are most
agreeable in feeling, and their striking effects have been arrived at with com-
mendable simplicity of attack and economy of means.

And if you set him beneath as good a man as him
self at the table: that is against his honour. If you
doe not visite him at home at his house: then you
knowe not your dutie.Theismaner of fashions and
behaviours, bring mento such scorne and disdaine
of their doings: that there is no man, almost, can
abide to beholde them : for they love them selves
to farre beyonde measure, and busie them selves
so much in that, that they fmde litle leisure to

La lungheza di decta chiesa insulata e braccia du-
centosexanta: la quale difuori e tuctadi uarii marmi
incrustata, con statue di marmo et porphiri molto
adornata per mano di nobili sculptori; maxima di
Donate ui e il gigante primo, dalla porta della As-
sumptione marmorea per mano di lohanni Banchi,
sopra la Annuntiata di musiuo per manodi Domenico
Grillandaro. Nellafacciatadinanzieunoeuangelista
a sedere et una statua di uno che si piegha, et in sul
cantone uno uecchio, tucte per mano di Donate. Ma
a dirti la uerita, decta facciata, la quale Lorenzo de'

and it is no exaggeration to say that in no printed
book between the closing years of the fifteenth
century and those of the nineteenth was any at-
tempt made to obtain them all, though the tra-
ditions of good craftsmanship ensured that some
of them were preserved in many cases. The
fifteenth-century book was avowedly an imita-
tion of a fine manuscript; its type was a copy
of the current writing hand, the arrangement of
its page was that of a manuscript, its spacing

1 EN AE TAIZ HMEPAII ciceiwaic napariNCTai 'Icodirac

2 6 BanncTHC KHpuccooN cn th epHJUop thc Moudaiac X^rooM

3 MeraNocTre, HrriKCN rap h BaciXeia toon oupaNcoN. Outoc
rdp ecTiN 6 ^Heeic dia 'Hcaiou ToG npo9HTOu XeroNToc

<t>«NH BOCONTOC is TH IpHUCO

'EroiudcaTC thn 696n Kupiou,
euedac noieTrc jbc xpiBouc auToO.

4 AuToc de 6 McoaNHC cTxcn to cNdujua qutoO anb rpixobN
kqjulhXou kqi zconhn depjuoTiNHN nepi thn 6c9un qutoG,

5 H de Tpo9H HN auToO oKpidec kqi ueXi arpioN. Totc
ezenopcucTo npbc quton MepocoXujua kqi naca h 'loudaia

6 KQI naca h nepixcopoc toO 'lopdoNou, koi efianTizoNTO cn
Tu> 'lopdoNH noTaucp un' qutoO ezojuoXoroujucNoi toc

7 ouLxapTfac auTcoN. MdcoN de noXXouc tu>n OapicaiosN kqi
ZaddouKafcoN epxoJucNouc cni to fidnTicJua cTncN auToTc
FcNNHJUOTa exidNcoN, TIC unedeizcN ujjiTn 9urcTN anb

8 THC jueXXoucHC oprAc ; noiHCOTC oun ■ KopnoN azioN thc

9 JueraNoiac * koi juh dozHre XereiN cn lauToTc FlaTcpa
exojucN TbN 'ABpadu, Xerco rap ujuTn on duNOTOi b
eebc cK tcon XiecoN toutcdn ercTpai tcknq Ta> 'ABpaoju.

356. Sehvyn Image's Greek Type

w I tx •^o X
o- ^ ^"^ '5 ^o

D =^ ,£ a, VD

_ y% .^ ^

^3 z
o

TJUL/ --

rt -co

3 'O ^ 2 g

ex c:
tu O

I-

P 'D

2 > -0

"> 6 z :c '3

L-^ Q^-? to Z

^^<r o D M -to

o o

REVIVAL OF EARLY FORMS 217

ordinary book-faces when used in the larger sizes. It was
modelled as closely as possible upon photographs of a page
of Jenson's'Eusebius,' but partly by reason of the designing,
and partly through the conventional training of the punch-
cutter (who was nevertheless a most admirable and skilful
workman), the desired quality was only partially attained.
The upper-case letters were fairly successful from the first,
and required little modification ; but the majority of the lower-
case characters were recut se\eral times — and were allowed
to pass when the expense and the delay became prohibitive.
This type is on the 16-point body." It has been delightfully
used by Mr. Rogers in the Montaigne and in some other
beautiful books designed by him {Jig. 358). Since that time
Mr. Rogers has designed another and, to my mind, finer
font — the Centaur. The upper-case letters of this font have
been, since 1914, in use for the work of the Metropolitan
Museum of Art in New York, and in 1916 the complete
font in 14-point size was shown in Maurice de Guerin's
Centaw. Mr. Rogers describes the letter as a refinement on
his Montaigne type, and though — as is his wont — he sees
ways in which this font could be bettered, it appears to me
one of the best roman fonts yet designed in America — and,
of its kind, the best anywhere {Jig. 359).

The type known as Merrymount was designed for the
Merrymount Press about 1895 by Bertram Grosvenor
Goodhue, the architect, who designed the well-known Chel-
tenham fonts. He, too, based the Merrymount font on the
Jenson letter, but instead of having the courage of our rather
wavering convictions and making a type as light as Jen-
son's, both he and I w^ere seduced by Morris's unduly black
types. So we merely modified the heaviness of the Morris
fonts, although adopting an early form of roman letter. The
result is that the type is too black unless used on large pages.

218 PRINTING TYPES

as in The Altar J^ooA* (1896) and an edition of the Agricola
of Tacitus (1904), both in folio {jig. 360).

The Humanistic type was designed in Italy, and was
based on a manuscript Virgil in the Laurentian Library at
Florence. It was cut for the University Press, Cambridge,
Massachusetts. Extremely ingenious in its clever render-
ing of a written letter, it is not, as type, easy to read, and the
excessive length of the descenders compels a somewhat
leaded composition.lt is an interesting letter-form and shows
research, but it was not a wholly fortunate experiment, be-
cause more calligraphic in effect than is comfortable to the
eye. It just lacks the charm of fine writing, and yet is too
like it to make a fine type ; and so falls between two stools.

What value have these specially designed and privately
cut fonts of type? And the answer is: In themselves, very
little. They are only in the nature of interesting experi-
ments ; and there is scarcely one of them that is absolutely
practical. If they have failed, the causes are not far to
seek. One minor reason is that most of them were not cut
by the man who designed them, and the type-cutter cannot
put into them as he works the touches which the designer
would instinctively give, if he were a type-cutter too. An-
other reason is, that when a book becomes decorative at
the expense of its readability, it ceases to be a book and be-
comes a decoration, and has then no raisoTi cPetre as a book.
Again : being unaccustomed nowadays to the purer letter-
forms to which these types usually approximate, fonts of the
kinds we have been considering are for continuous read-
ing almost always consciously trying to the eye. Last and
chiefly, such types do not readily lend themselves to the lit-
erary and typographical needs of to-day; and indeed there
is a great deal of printing that must to-day be done and done

THE BANQUET OF PLATO

APOLLODORUS. I think that the
subject of your inquiries is still fresh
in my memory; for yesterday, as I
chanced to be returning home from
Phaleros^oneofmyacquaintancejSee-
ing me before him, called out to me
from a distance, jokingly, * Apollodo-
rus, you Phalerian, will you not wait
a minute?' — I waited for him, and as
soon as he overtook me, * I have just
been looking for you, Apollodorus,' he
said, 'for I wish to hear what those
discussions were on Love, which took
place at the party, when Agathon, Soc-
rates, Alcibiades, and some others met
at supper. Some one who heard it from
Phoenix, the son of Philip, told me that
you could give a full account, but he

could relate nothing distinctly him-

358. Rnice Rogers' Montaigne Type

CTHE CENTAUR. WRITTEN BY MAURICE DE
GUERIN AND NOW TRANSLATED FROM THE
FRENCH BY GEORGE B. IVES.

>^(^f^^^^^^®Was born m a cavern of these mountains.

Like the river in yonder valley, whose first
drops flow from some cliff that weeps in a
deep grotto, the first moments of my life
sped amidst the shadows of a secluded re/
treat, nor vexed its silence. As our mothers
draw near their term, they retire to the cav/
erns, and in the innermost recesses of the
wildest of them all, where the darkness is
most dense, they brmg forth, uncomplaining, offspring as silent as
themselves. Their strength^giving milk enables us to endure with/
out weakness or dubious struggles the first difficulties of life; yet

359. Bnice Rogers' Centaur Type

E :i ?^ 6

2 ^ W o

C :i

.52 (u

V C/J

E .S

nj E

cro

a .fa

o .g ^ .S2 5 C <^ c

irpEfcr352<i^

S § a s I

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•p n 5 <^ *i j:^ tt

a.2

eg o

c S ^
s ^ ft

E
o

E 8

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4^ g .2 c^ .S _3 to 1;}
c/5 i-H 'rs 'i-t »-rt '"^ »-* '^

-^ E ^ '^

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■ ft Oh

t 6

V3 X ^

;=J Oh d " o (u

^ CO 00 CJ C 'S T=

«t •;

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S s S -^

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S^ to c o -■

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c
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Oh g

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o

fi 'fl^ o S E o o

♦J^ 00

; S t5 ^ - § g_^ a

cug E £ crcxg g,
^•S § J ^- .^ I :S

43C(uSooon3a^^

F^'

^
-^

;:)

THE CONTINENTAL REVIVAL 219

well, to which these fonts are not suited at all. The conven-
tion which is properly required in their employ restricts their
use. For in "artistic" types, as in so much else, art to the
Anglo-Saxon is thought out, not felt — conscious rather than
instinctive. So-called aesthetic printing, — be it English,
American, or German, — taken en bloc, is, in the long run,
a bit tiresome. It is so much in earnest that it charms too
wisely rather than too well, and fails in the purpose for
which all types and books exist.

These fonts have not, I think, directly accomplished all
that the designers in their enthusiasm expected. But they
are indirectly of value in making us think about earlier and
purer type-forms. Students of typography must be familiar
with them; and it is only the student who can place them in
their proper perspective, and, because he does so, appraise
them at their relative and therefore true value. And if type-
founders who produce new fonts will continue to study (as
they are at last beginning to do) the originals which usu-
ally inspired these modern essays, they will recognize how
much men have to hark back for good models to the older
types, after all. So in spite of some faults and impractical
qualities, such essays stimulate the eye and remind print-
ers of standards set by the past. It is from this point of
view that they are one of the important contributions of
late years to the appreciation and practice of good book-
making.

OUTSIDE of England, Germany was most influenced
by the English revival of twenty years ago; more
"popularly" influenced than England itself. Up to the time
of the War there Mas a sort of renaissance in German type-
founding and printing. The German books of the early nine-

220 PRINTING TYPES

teenth century were not well printed, — neither type nor
paper was good, — but they were simple in their poverty,
"poor but honest." From 1850 to 1880, the ordinary Ger-
man book was very bad indeed, because it was at once so
cheap and so pretentious. But a new "secession" movement
began about 1890, not only in painting but in other fields
pertaining to the arts. As far as printing was concerned, the
first important note of this revival was struck by George's
Blatter fiir die Kiinst; followed in 1894 by the appearance of
the secessionist periodical Pan^ which introduced Morris's
books to the German public, and the typographical style of
which greatly influenced contemporary German printers.
This was followed in 1899 by the Insel, a similar review,
from which grew the Insel-Verlag, Leipsic, whose entire
product took on a fine and thoughtful typographical form.
Some of its books were printed in modified German gothic
types. Books printed in roman type show the influence of
English models. Its ventures were effectively supported by
the public. Private presses were also set up, and some fine
special types were cut for them. Great attention was paid
to good calligraphic lettering,^ for which instructors were
brought over from England by the German Government.
The volumes brought out by the Hyperion- Verlag and Cen-
tury Press of Munich (Hans von Weber), by the Tempel-
Verlag, the Insel-Verlag, and the Janus Press at Leipsic,
the " special editions" of Ernst Rowohlt {Drugidin-Dnicke)
of Leipsic, the books of Diederichs of Jena, and of Georg
Miiller of Munich show the best book-making of this mod-
ern German revival.

As to types, besides the best current German and roman

' For Austrian work in calligraphy see Rudolph von Larisch's Unterricht in
Ornamentaler Schrift. K. K. Hof- unci Staats druckerei, Vienna, 1913 — an
important and interesting study. In this connection a i*oman type designed by
CO. Czeschka — the Czeschka Antiqua — should be looked at.

THE CONTINENTAL REVIVAL 221

types obtainable, fonts in both were specially designed and
cut for the work of these houses — notably the modified
gothic character designed by E. R. Weiss. This Weiss-
Fraktur was highly considered in Germany, and was an
attempt to sohe the problem of a "book face" of German
script which should be agreeable and readable. The types
designed by Behrens, Koch, Tiemann, Wieynk, Kleukens,
Konig, Hcilzl, and Ehmcke, are characteristic of the merits
and defects of this school of type-design.

Of the results of all this effort, it is less easy to speak.
While the cheapo popular books were admirable, the more
ambitious German volumes were mannered and intentional.
Like most modern German work in other forms of artistic
endeavour, they produce a certain sensation, but not that
of pleasure ; they astonish rather than charm. To one who
possessed a modern "secession" house, with a classic-hy-
gienic-penal looking library, I suppose such books would
be the only kind to have.^ For these determined \ olumes, as
we view them in perspective, seem to have run true to form
and to have been characteristic of the life about them — but
alas, that is another story!

For us, German book-making closed memorably with the
beautiful exhibition held at Leipsic in the summer of 1914.

No doubt a certain northern quality in Morris's work
commended itself more to Teutonic than to Latin taste. So
in Italy the "revival" showed itself chiefly in a return to
old forms of roman letter. A type closely modelled on Mor-
ris's Golden type was used by the Fratelli Treves of Milan
in an edition of D'Annunzio's Francesca da Rimini issued in
1902. Since that time there have been many similar books,

' For illustrative material I refer the reader to the T^mes Printing .Yumher,
London, 1912 (Fine /Minting- in Germany, pp. 58 el se(j.), and T/ie .Irt of
the Book, Special Number of The Studio, 1914 {The Art of the Book in
Germany, by L. Deubner, witli specimens of types described).

222 PRINTING TYPES

but the tendency has been toward lighter types and free
and sometimes startling unconventionality in decoration.
The Milanese magazine J?i.svrgi??iefito G?'qfico employs a
roman type of free design based on a font of Ratdolt's. It
was brought out in 1911 by the Societa Augusta of Turin.
While agreeable to the eye, there is too much space between
individual letters to make it wholly successful {Jig. 36l).

In Holland, there is evidence of the spread of the move-
ment toward earlier letter-forms in the Distel type designed
for J. F. van Royen's Zilverdistel Press at The Hague, by
Lucien Pissarro. This is intended to imitate old Nether-
lands writing {Jig. 362). The narrowing of paragraph-
marks is a clever way of subduing an obstreperous char-
acter in such fonts. The Zilver type {Jig. 363), on the order
of the Doves Press font, was cut for the Zilverdistel, and
the historic Enschede types have been employed for some
of its work. Interest in typography is also evidenced by the
existence of the Typografische Bibliotheek at Amsterdam.
In Belgium, the Musee du Livre at Brussels is a somewhat
similar establishment. The latter lately issued Sept Etudes
publiees a ^occasion du Quatrieme Centenaire de Chnstophe
P/aw^z//, printed from old types — more curious than beau-
tiful — in the Musee Plantin at Antwerp.

Although in France the Morris revival never had much
vogue, it is interesting to recall that a year or two before
the founding of the Kelmscott Press some delightful gothic
types — a clever rendering of the best form of /ettre batarde
— were cut by E. Mouchon for a reproduction of Simon
Vostre's Heures a P Usage de Rome of 1498, of which a
page is reproduced {Jg. 364). The book was printed by
O. Jouaust and published in 1890 by L. Gauthier, who
was, by the way, eleve and successor to Curmer of Paul
et Firginie celebrity. Save for this and a few similar exam-

c
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(f Q3ie fel den ho^ben dans verfraen

Dar ni^hen dar fwi^hen dar frille fcaen

Dar fweuen omme ende omme

Dar rreden van dar fweuen an

Die fnelle ho^he fpron^he

(f Die minne fraer die minne^aet

Dieminnefin^herdieminnerprin^her

Die mtnne rufc in der mmnen

Die minneflaepz: die mmnewaecr

(Die mach die al verfinnen

(fDie blenkende cleder fi jn al ^hefpreic

Die duerbaervaerfijn albereic

Glc nae fijn beboren

Al war dar in den boue dienr

Dar beef c die m inn e vercoren

If Died uerbaervaer van bo^ben fcbijn

(Diredelen cruden mirpuren wijn

Si bouden edel wife

Si ronen baren edelen aerc

Die minne die wilfe prifen

IJ^UJac vroecbde macb in den boue flfjn

Daer alfo milde fcbenkers fl jn

(^ic bo^be vroecbde maken

362. Distel Tijpe: ZUverdistel Ptrss^ The Hag-ut\ 1918

DECEMBER MCMXV. I]"DE ZILVERDISTEL
BRENGT TER KENNISNEMING: IfHET IS
ONSDOELNIET,DOORDITSCHRYVENTE
WYZEN OP DE WERKZA AMHEID VAN DE
ZILVERDISTEL. In een uiteenzetting, die afzori/
derlijk wordt uitgegeven, zai men alles omtrent haar
grondbeginfelen, haar fcreven, haar programma kun/
nen lezen. Dit gefchnft dient flechts, om een vastere
werkwijze te verzekercn voor een deel onzer voor/
nemens. l]^De ervaring heefc geleerd, dat ons ftreven
in het buitenland alle waardeering vindc, die hec mO/
gelijk maakt om de door ons overwogen ferie buiten/
landfche boeken uit te geven; naafc deze wiUen wij
echter die van Nederlandfche litceratuur niet ter zijde
laten. Veeleer dringc zij zich het eerft aan onze aan/
dacht op. Zij is het, aan wier meesterwerken wij in de
eerfte plaats de zorgen van DE ZILVERDISTEL
v^enfchen te befteden, opdat zij de boekkunftige ver/
werkelijkingvinden,waartoewijnaaronsinzichthen
als gerechtigd, ons als verplicht erkennen. De erva^
ringheeftnochtans mede geleerd, dat voorhetuitvoe/
ren van onze plannen op dit gebied een andere werk
wijze ware te volgen, dan voor onze boeken voor het
buitenland beftemd. Kleiner immers is ons land, ge/
ringer het aantal van hen, die tegelijkertijd ^n in de
Nederlandfche letterkunde ^n in de vaderlandfche
boekkunft belangftellen; en al weten wij door onden
vinding, dat een voldoende getal perfonen, die de be/

363. Zi/ver Type: ZUverdhtcl Press, 'Die Hag-iu\ 1915

'] : %a^k bc6 niaticrci^.
■j^cfci? nio6ifC'3 I cafcnbiicr pcrpctucf.
pucrc^ bii matin,
pzicrc ail ^amt/iEfpztt.
^oiifcctatiot) ail (acre ^ociit:.
pitcrcG bii foir.

Pfamnc IPc p:ofimbi(?, j o^.-j^itjcfiuit).
Oibinairc be fa i^^cffc.
^antique b'actiont; be grdcet?.
)r>ep:e6 bii IDunajicfie.
Conipftee;.

)?cp:eL> be fa fainte JOiergc.
£a nafimtc be notre^^cigncur.
£'iEpip6anie be notre^^S^eigncur.
£c IDimancfie be fa i^efiirrection.
£'afcenftot) be notre/^eigneur.
j^a'fctc be fa pcntecofe.
;fra'jFcfc bii $aitU/^acrenienf.
iT'affoniptiot) be fa famte ^Dierge.
£a "fttc be torn fee ^ainfc>.
X)cpiec; bci> (^7o'^»?.
Cf)cf[c be fenterrement.
piierct; poiir fc facremenf be penitence,
purree pour fa Communion.
^afut(3 bii $aint<^acrenient.
^crcmonieci j nieffc bu clr^ariafje.

■li-

364. ivr/ic/j Left re Batarcte, Paris, 1890

THE CONTINENTAL REVIVAL 223

pies of reproduction of old types, the old-fashioned yo;7;«//iC
for fine book-making still survive.

Entirely outside any influence of Mr. Morris, and for that
reason scarcely within the limits of this chapter,some recent
developments in French type-founding may be mentioned
here. Of modern French foundries, that of G. Peignot &.
Fils, Paris, has contributed most to interesting and unus-
ual typography. Founded by Gustave Peignot (who died
in 1899), in the hands of his second son, Georges Peignot,
it issued several series of type w hich strike a new note in
French printing. The first — which appeared in 1897 —
was the Grasset type, followed in 1902 by the Auriol type,
designed by Georges Auriol. Both of these had considerable
vogue in France, but were too distinctly Gallic in flavour
to commend themselves to the public of other countries.
A contribution of more general application is the series
called Les Cochms^ based on eighteenth century engraved
and typographic material, but by no means slavishly fol-
lowing it. About 1914, a brochure was issued describing
and showing these fonts, entitled Les Cochins^ Caracteres £s?
Vignettes renouveles du XFIII^ Siecle. Of the type-designs,
the first, Le Cochin^ is based on engraved characters, espe-
cially in its delightful italic {Jig. 365), and may be used for
entire books; Le Nicolas- Cochin^ much less good, is an ex-
aggerated form of letter with extremel} tall ascenders, more
obviously based on engraving, which it recalls in its sharp-
ness of outline. It is eflective for title-pages or ephemeral
printing, though too eccentric to have lasting value. Both
types are admirably adapted for what are called in France
travanx de ville. They have been used with charming effect
in the Gazette du Ihn Ton, in Christmas numbers o{ L^ Illus-
tration, and in similar ephemeral publications. To them were

224 PRINTING TYPES

added as eqiii])ment Le Fourmer-le-jeune^ a series of orna-
mental italic capitals a la Fournier, which he in turn had
adapted from engraved originals; and Le Moreau-le-jeune^
an imitation of engraved open lettering — wrong in theory,
but so well done as to be charming. The Vignettes Founner
suj)plied to accompany these types are more or less faithful
renderings of ornaments shown in Fournier's Manuel. The
other ornaments by Pierre Roy and by Marty are not good.

The Giraldon type cast by De Berny is an essay in aes-
thetic characters which is scarcely successful, though used
by Jules Meynial, who has employed the Cochin types with
such exquisite results.

But to my mind, the healthiest sign in modern French
printing has been the popularity of a revived use of Gara-
mond's and Grandjean's types and other ancient fonts in
editions printed by the Imprimerie Nationale. The monu-
mental Histoire de V Impiimene euFrance auXF^ et au XV F
siecle, by Anatole Claudin,^ begun in 1900, is the classical

' Monsieur Claudin had his Paris book-shop in a series of somewhat forbidding
rooms on the rive gauche, not far from the Institut, and there I once or twice
met him. Like most French bibHophiles, he was full of enthusiasm for his
favourite subject, took rare books most seriously, and — like most Frenchmen
— did not much enjoy travel. A friend of mine, a great collector of fine books,
met Claudin in Paris many years ago, and Claudin told him that he was mak-
ing some investigations about the Horse of Verard and others. "Monsieur,"
said my friend, "I have in America several of Vei-ard's Books of Hours
which are entirely at your disposal." Monsieur Claudin thanked him i)olitely,
and the conversation turned to other things. The next summer, my friend,
being agjiin in Fi-ance, paid another visit to Claudin. " I have so often thought
of those books you spoke about," said Claudin, "and wished that I could see
two or three of them." "Oh," was the reply, "had I known that, I could
have brought them over with me." Monsieur Claudin looked very serious.
"Sir," he said, " is it not enough to entrust your own life to the terrible sea,
without also offering to imperil tlie existence of les vrais chefs d^oeuvre ?^*
A much less famous bookseller on the rive droite, to whom I once applied
for a book, shook his head, saying wearily, "No, I liave not that work. It
can only be obtained across tlie water." After some questioning I discovered
that by "the water" he meant the Seine!

=!**!:^:2p-i

LES COCHINS.

LE COCHIN

2171 - Corps 6.

2115 - Corps 7.

Paris dans uoe Toiture publique.
L'ua ricoolc qu'il vicdI pour rpouur U Cllc <lc M..., JIl sc. Iiiiuot,
I'clJl dc luQ p^rc, cic. lis >ool couclicr 4 U m^me aubcrgc. U Icade-
mAln, rcpouS4.'ur mourt a scpl bcures du raalio, Avaat d'avotr fait sa
vistte. L'aulre, qui cUit un pUisaot d« profcssiuo, s'co va ckcz Ic b«au>
prrc futur, sc doDuc puur Ic gcndrc, le conduit co bommc d'cspril c(
cbdrroe toule la famillo, jusqu'au momcDt de soa depart, qu'il prccipi*
t.iit, disait-il, parcc qu'il avail rcadcz-vuus a six bi'urcs pour sc faire
culcrrer. C'^Uil ca cITcl I'bourc ou Ic jcunc bommc morl Ic malia
devoit elre ealcrre. L.« domcstiquc alia a I'aubcrge.

ljJ^5678i)o
ENTRAILLES DE PETIT- MAITRE A LA MAINTENON

21 16 - Corps 8.

Ccux qui rapportent tout a I'oplnion,
resseniblcnt a ces comcdiens qui joucnt inal
pour ctrc applauJis, quand le gout du public
est mauvais. Quelqucs-uns auraicnt Ic nio_)'cn
de bicn jouer si Ic gout du public etait bon.
jJI... duHi'U de yff. lit: la Reymiri:, cbez qui loul le
inonOe va pourcia table, el ifu'cn Iroiwe ennuyeux :
on le mangcj), maij on ne le digere paAj.
123^567890 — i2j^y6Sj()0
COULEUR CIIEVEUX DE LA REINE
JIASCAliyWE CHEZ LA JIARQUISE

2118 - Corps 10.

La plupart des falseurs de
recueils de vers ou de bons mots
ressemblcnt a ceux qui mangent
des cerises ou des hmtres, choi-
sissant d'abord Ics meilleures et
finissant par lout manger.

C'edt un pro%>crbc lure que ce beau
moLj : « malheur! je te rcnd(Xj
grac<L:>, sl tu eeu seull »

1234567890 — i2j^y6jS()o

GUEMENEE, FONTENOY
BERGERE ET JIENETRIER

Le mcJecin Bouvard avait »ur le visage une
balafrc en forme dc C qui le dcligurait beaucoup.
Diderot disait que c'ctak un coup qu'il s'ctait donnc
en tenant m.iladroitcmcnt la faux dc la morf.

On Jei)iani\iU a un policLinelte ce i/u'il y ui-ait Jjaj
ia boMt De dcvanU/. De«j ordrtAj, DU-'d. — El danj
ta boiM De DfmercJ ? — Dej conlre-orDrttij.
1234567890 — 12J;f$6y8<)0

VENTRE DE PUCE EN FifcVRE DE LAIT

rAi^e de nyjUPiie en beaux ATOURS

2117 - Corps 9.

II en est de la valeur des hommes
comme de cclle des diamants qui, a une
ccrfainc mcsure de grosseur, de purete,
de perfection, ont un prix fixe ct marque
mais qui, par dela, rcstent sans prix.

Un n'roijiie, biwant un verre de vliu,
liu dil : arrange-loi biciu, lu MraA/foule.

1254567890 — J2jjf^6j8()o
COULEUR QUEUE DE SERIN
B ATT ANT D'CEIL - BOUILLOTTE

2119 - Corps 12.

On est heureux ou mal-
lieureux par une foule de
choses qui ne paraissent
pas, qu'on ne dit point et
qu'on ne peut dire.

Et foil faudde soil ejpr'u^
comme on gate soiu Cdtomac.

1234667890 — i2j^j^6jS()o

GENLIS, FRONSAC
LEVER DE LA REINE

-^n^l^fT-

?!fc

365. Le Cochin: G. Pcignot £sP /H/.v, Paris, 1914

THE CONTINENTAL REVIVAL 225

example of the modern use of such types. Tlie prefatory
matter is composed in Garamond's characters, and the text
of the work in Grandjean's ronumi dii roi, from fonts newly
cast for this purpose. It is probably the finest book on print-
ing that has ever been published.

CHAPTER XXIII

THE CHOICE OF TYPES FOR A COMPOSING-ROOM

IN suggesting types for the equipment of a composing-
room, I take for granted that the owner of the ideal
printing-house' of which it is to form a part is a man
who adopts tlie professional rather than the trade view of his
occupation. This means that the workmanship in all depart-
ments of his establishment will be of the best, and that the
types will be chosen with an educated taste and from a schol-
arly point of view. The product of such a printing-house
cannot, from the necessity of things, be termed either "com-
mercial" or "artistic," as these words are usually employed;
since artistic printing is merely printing so exactly and
agreeably suited to its object as to charm us, which work
called commercial may certainly do. For "charm is noth-
ing but the kind of light that shines out from the fittingness
of things which are well put together and well devised one
with another and all together. Without this measure even
the good is not beautiful; and beauty is not pleasing." Such
a press as that of which I speak should have the aims which
so often exist in the mind of the amateur without technical
ability to execute them, combined with the execution of the
skilled technician who may not possess the point of view of
the lover or student of fine printing. Furthermore, if a press
is to do the work of to-day in a satisfactory manner, the
class of equipment analogous to that of the first printers —
which consisted of a few fonts of type, generally employed
in a somewhat rigid and inelastic manner — will not serve
its purpose. In making a choice of types for a composing-

' ' ' Printing-house ' ' was the old term for what is sometimes erroneously called
a print-shop — the latter, properly speaking, being a shop where engravings
or prints are for sale.

THE CHOICE OF TYPES 227

room, while some types of early form may be desirable, n e
shall find more material among those designed by Basker-
,ville, Caslon, Didot, Bodoni, Wilson, and other eighteenth
century founders, and their derivatives; to w Inch must be
added the best types of to-day.

There are two preliminary statements which apply to the
purchase of all types. First, that in buying a series of t\pe,
every size obtainable should be procured, so that the range
shall be as great, and the gradations as slight, as possible:
good typography demanding that the sizes of type used
must be, not approximately, but precisely, those that suit the
eye. Second, that each size must be bought in sufficient
quantity to meet all probable needs; for a few complete series
in large fonts are far more valuable than thrice the amount
broken up into small fonts of many different series. If a
printer knows how to use type, the variety of accent he can
obtain from one series is almost unlimited. For instance,
in a 12-point type he has roman capitals, italic capitals, ro-
man capitals in combination with small capitals, small capi-
tals alone, and roman and italic lower case — six variations

CAMBRIDGE CAMBRIDGE

Cambridge Cambridge

in size, colour, or effect, which should be, and indeed are,
enough for the requirements of an entire book. Multiply
these six variations by the number of body-sizes in a series
of type, and you have an enormous keyboard on which the
typographer may play. If, with this great repertoire to choose
from, a printer is obliged to resort to fanciful display letters
or heavy-faced type for accent, it proves that he lacks un-
derstanding of the use of normal types.

228 PRINTING TYPES

In discussing the selection of types and decorative mate-
rial I have made the following classification :

1. Types that seem indisputably standard,on which there,
is no possibility of going astray ; or, if I may so call them,
"types of obligation."

2. Types which, while standard, are not of universal util-
ity, as they can be used appropriately only for books of a
particular character.

3. Types that are based upon some historic fonts or show
that their designer was a student of early type-forms; and
fonts adapted for "publicity," though not usually suitable for
the printing of books.

4. Types of approved utility for decorative use.

5. Initial letters and type ornaments.

In the class of types which appear to be beyond criticism
from the point of view of beauty and utility, the original Cas-
lon type stands first. This is a letter identified with old Eng-
lish work, and as we follow the traditions of English print-
ing rather than those of Continental countries, Caslon's types
are ours by inheritance. Enough has been said about their
history to make further words here unnecessary. Caslon type
should be had from the Caslon foundry; for the versions
offered in various other quarters are not in all respects as
good. Fonts should be as closely fitted as possible — not al-
ways the case, even in types put out by the Caslons them-
selves. No Caslon font — or for that matter any other — is de-
sirable if adapted to the standard lining system by shortened
descenders.

The variant letters which are supplied with Caslon and
with many other types in the nature of old style, are charac-
teristic and useful — such as swash italic capitals, the italic

THE CHOICE OF TYPES 229

lower-case > and vp used to begin words, and the ^ for use
at the ends of words. These swash letters, as employed by
thoughtless compositors or designers, have sometimes pro-
duced very absurd effects. Only certain of the swash italic
capitals can be successfully placed in the middle of a word,
the design of the rest suggesting their position either as
initial or final letters. Used "discreetly, advisedly, soberly,"
swash letters give variety and movement to pages of type.
Furthermore, both in roman and italic, long s and its com-
binations with ascending letters are interesting letter- forms.'
Some tied letters lately supplied in the reproduction of an his-
torical font are : as, />, us, &, fr, II, fp, ^,tt.\x. is to be wished that
terminal a's, e's, m's, and n's, with tails intended to fill out
lines, were available. Apart from the agreeable appearance
of these specially old-fashioned characters, they are useful in
reprints of old books. And so, too, are superior letters, which
are desirable for reprints of old work, or for modern books
printed in antique style. In old style fonts, signs to indicate
notes — star, dagger, double dagger, etc. — are more interest-
ing and picturesque, typographically, than superior figures,
which I prefer not to use with an old style type. They are
particularly appropriate to books of an historical or genea-
logical nature. For liturgical books the common liturgical
signs must also be supplied, and of these peculiar sorts I sug-
gest — at the risk of repetition — that there must be enough
of each of them to allow work to go on unimpeded by an in-
adequate supply of a kind of material that at short notice it
is hard to get.

Finally, the original old style arabic figures — nowadays
called "non-ranging" — should be used with all old style

Tlie abolition of the long s, it is i)0])ularlv thought, we owe to the London
publisher John Bell, who in his British Theatre, issued about 1775, discarded
it. Fi-anklin, writing in 1786, says tliat " the Round s begins to be the Mode
and in nice printing the Long f is rejected entirely."

230 PRINTING TYPES

fonts. Such figures as those in the Dutch types given by
Dr. John Fell to the Oxford University printing-house are
among the best of their kind; and Caslon's old style arabic
numerals are lively and agreeable type-forms.^ Of these, the
numbers 1, 2, and cover only the middle of the body ; 6
and 8 are the ascending, and 3, 4, 5, 7, and 9 the descending
figures {Jig. 366). "In no characters," said Mr. Morris, "is
the contrast between the ugly and vulgar illegibility of the
modern type and the elegance and legibility of the ancient
more striking than in the arabic numerals. In the old print
each figure has its definite individuality, and one cannot be
mistaken for the other ; in reading the modern figures the
eyes must be strained before the reader can have any rea-
sonable assurance that he has a 5, an 8 or a 3 before him,
unless the press-work is of the best."

Second in the first class of types stands the modern face
known in America as "Scotch." In this type the letters are
more regular in design than in old style fonts. Perhaps the
most beautiful form of it ever brought out was that cut by
William Martin ; and a very close copy if not actually the
same face was produced in Scotland in the last century —
notably in the "Series of Old Founts" by Messrs. Miller &
Richard of Edinburgh. The Wayside Series of the Ameri-
can Type Founders Company — if in its original form, with
long descenders — is a fairly satisfactory equivalent.

Modern face types appear, at first sight, clearer to the eye
and more easily read than old style, but they are really less
so in the long run. Our newspapers are printed in various
poor forms of "modern face," which is, therefore, familiar

'The old-fashioned figures were employed until about 1785, when Hunter
introduced into his logarithmic tables the new form called "ranging." In
them a larger size was needful for legibility. About 1843, both the Royal As-
tronomical Society and tlie Superintendent of tlie (English) A''autical Almanac
decided to restore the non-ranging figures.

partes.

Hti. 2 . 5 . 4 • 'S ' 6 .7.

120

0. 0. 0. 0. 0.0.

60 0. . 0. 0.0. 0.0

II307 41. 32. 18 . 16. . 0.0

56'55 50.4^. 9. 13. . o.o(

2826 55. 23.4 .36.30 . 0.0

18S4

3<?. 55.25. 4.20. 0.0

1413

27. 41. 32. 18. 15. 0.0

57. 41.25? .14. . 0.0

51. 55. 0.28 . 53 . 21 .0

1558

50.44.37 . . 0. 0.0

3^5

46. 10.46. 4.20 .0.0

1087

41. 30.46'. 13. 55. 0.0

1087

41. 30.46. 15. 55. 0.0

4676

32. 13. 51 . 0. 0. 0.0

3263

4. 32.18 . 41.45. 0.

1413

27. 41.32.18 .15. 0.0

2826

55. 23. 4.35.30. 0.0

Arabic Figures u.ied by Simon de Co/iries, Paris, 1536

Old Style

234567890

Transitional

234567890

.1 Todern

2 345 6 7890

366. Arabic Figures^ Non-Rang'ing and Rang-itig'

THE CHOICE OF TYPES 231

to the public ; so that old style types seem a little archaic
to most persons. Modern face type is admirable for books
of a scientific or technical character, and, as it is likely to be
used for such work, the mathematical, geometric, algebraic,
botanical, astronomical, and other special signs should be
fully supplied with it. Very beautiful books have been made
from larger sizes of this type — such as the pica — gener-
ously leaded; but smaller sizes appear monotonous if set
solid, and if leaded, weak; and any size, if unskilfully used,
may become very commonplace in efiect. To make a distin-
guished use of a modern face is more difficult, it appears to
me, than with old style type. None the less, it is excellendy
adapted for certain sorts of work which could not be exe-
cuted so appropriately in an old style letter.

A third type (which originated with Binny &: Ronald-
son of Philadelphia over a hundred years ago) is in design
transitional between old style and modern face. For books
where the old-fashioned air of Caslon would be too obtru-
sive, and yet which call for a letter more interesting in de-
sign than the somewhat bald Scotch face, there is nothing
better. I should not advise the purchase of this transitional
series at the expense of the first two types chosen, but it
will frequendy do the work of either. Some of its italic has
a certain naive quality, though that for the 1 1 -point (No. l)
— superior to the rest — was the work of an accomplished
tvpe-cutter. This type is not obtainable above 12-point or
below 9-point, although Binny &. Ronaldson's specimen
of 1812 shows also brevier and minion.^ It is called "Ox-
ford" by the American Type Founders Company, from
whom it may be had. I have used it for this book. It seems
to me a type of real distinction.

' Tlie nonpareil and pearl do not appear to be of tlie same series.

232 PRINTING TYPES

§2
Types of our second class, while standard, are limited in
utility, because only to be used appropriately for certain
kinds of printing.

The type which stands first in value in this category is
called in English specimen-books "revived old style face,"
and in this country "modernized old style." It was an in-
tentional attempt on the part of English letter-founders to
modify the rather irregular character of Caslon's letter de-
sign without copying the rigidity of the modern face. It
has, in certain ways, an affinity with some of the types
which were put out by Wilson, in which he modified the
Caslon irregularities; and this type in turn is a modifica-
tion of the more spirited designs of Wilson's fonts. It is
rather a broader letter than Caslon's, with a body notably
high in relation to its ascenders. This type is useful only in
its best form, which appears to be that cut in England about
1850. If this best form is well composed and well printed,
fine books have been and can be made from it; but it re-
quires care in setting and printing because, like some of
its precursors, its effect may be spoiled by uneven type-
setting and poor presswork. While not a necessary type for
an office, it is a good one. It has the advantage of giving to
the repertoire of a printing-house a certain variety; for print-
ers often become weary of using the same kind of type, even
though their customers may appear to desire no change.

Another type for which one has a high respect, but which
can only be used for even more special occasions, is that
commonly called "French Old Style" or "Elzevier." The
best form of this type appears to be that brought out by
Mayeur of Paris, about 1878. Although styled "Elzevier,"
it has a greater resemblance to the types poetiques cut by

THE CHOICE OF TYPES 233

Luce in the eighteenth century. Its italic is more useful than
its roman, because it has an interesting series of swash
capitals and some unusual tied lower-case letters. Exten-
sively copied, I do not think, that versions produced in this
country — of which the best is called "Cadmus Old Stvle"
— are as good as the French original. I should therefore
suggest that the type be procured from French foundries.
If used with a nice sense of taste, such a type is suitable
for entire books and is excellent for ephemeral printing.

§3

The last fifteen years have witnessed, in architecture and
decoration, an increasingly careful study of the art of his-
torical periods, and this has had an effect upon book-mak-
ing. At first, such types as were available were utilized to
reconstitute books in the styles of different times and coun-
tries. Naturally enough, this soon led to the production of
types inspired by certain historical type-forms, the earliest
of which were privately owned fonts specially designed for a
given purpose or a particular press. Later, similar fonts were
put on sale by founders for whatever use a printer chose
to make of them; the success of their use depending on
the printer's skill. In the first of these, type-founders "im-
proved" what they said they set out to copy, with the in-
evitable result of impairing the original design; but several
later fonts of this class indicate a growing appreciation of
the necessity of a stricter adherence to the originals.

The Cloister Old Style roman was based on a study of
Nicolas Jenson's long-suffering and as yet unrivalled font,
and its italic is of an interesting early form. It is a practical
type ; not very inspired, perhaps, yet quiet and satisfac-
tory because not attempting too much; and, just because
of its unobtrusive quality, lending itself better to a good

234 PRINTING TYPES

deal of work than the more distinguished Garamond series,
based on the Caracteres de VUniversite cut by Claude Gara-
mond in the seventeenth century. In the latter, the italic
is better than the roman; for in its roman the height of
capitals as compared with short lower-case letters is much
greater than in the original, and they are also more con-
densed. Less free than the type which Garamond cut, it is
yet so much freer than most modern fonts that it may be
recommended as a picturesque and useful letter.

While the Cloister or the Garamond — both brought out
by the American Type Founders Company — may not be
absolutely necessary to an office, a type of this historic class
should be selected because occasionally useful in books deal-
ing with artistic subjects where slightly archaic types are
suitable; or for announcements and other ephemeral printing
which permit a certain latitude of treatment. I doubt if such
fonts make comfortable reading editions of standard w^orks.

The Kennerley type, cut by Frederic Goudy, whose work
has had a distinct influence on recent American type-forms,
is a freely designed letter which has been much praised in
many quarters.^ Its capitals are excellent, but the lower-case
roman, except perhaps in 10-point, seems to "roll" a little;
and, as was said of another of Mr. Goudy's types, "when
composed in a body, the curves of the letters — individually
graceful — set up a circular, whirling sensation that detracts
somewhat from legibility. That is to say, the curves are per-
haps too round and soft, and lack a certain snap and acid-
ity." The italic lower-case — less successful — is a letter of
approximately uniform line, recalling (to its disadvantage)

' This and other fonts produced by Mr. Goudy on his own account are inter-
estingly displayed on a broadside entitled, A S/iecimen of Tyfies designed and
sold by Frederic IF. Goudy, The Village Letter- Founder y, Forest Hill Gar-
dens, .A''evj York.

THE CHOICE OF TYPES 235

those used by some early French printers. The Kennerley
appears to me a little consciously modelled on early tyj)es —
more "precious" than vahuil^le. It is a question whether it
is merely an ennobled form of publicity type or a book face
the value of which has yet to be j)roved. According to
Leonardo, "Truth was the daughter of Time." So it will
be more polite — and safer — to let the Lady decide.

Cheltenham Old Style, designed by Mr. Goodhue, is
among those types that Time and his Daughter have defi-
nitely devoted to publicity, although it has been occasionally
used for books. Owing to certain eccentricities of form, it can-
not be read comfortably for any length of time. Its capitals
are better than its lower-case, which is too "perpendicular"
in effect — a fault appropriate to so distinguished an archi-
tect of Gothic buildings ! It is, however, an exceedingly
handsome letter for ephemeral printing.

A second type that seems to me to have found its place
in the same class is Bodoni. Some people might call it an
historical font; but the "Bodoni" t3^pe of commerce is a
composite picture of many of Bodoni's fonts, rather than a
reproduction of any one of them. None the less, it is in effect
somewhat foreign, and that is its disadvantage; for a vol-
ume set in it suggests a Continental reprint of an English
book — an impression by which one is perpetually, though
perhaps subconsciously, teased. It can be utilized for short
addresses, circulars, and advertising, with great success — as
in the charming use of it by Mr. T. M. Cleland. To printer-
designers as skilful as Cleland it may be recommended.

§4
Black-letter, though nowadays rarely used, as it originally
was, for the text of entire books, has survived for ornamental
purposes; especially in liturgical printing. This type is un-

236 PRINTING TYPES

readable to some people and puzzling (in mass) to most, so
it must be used cautiously. It can be combined most suc-
cessfully with old style types. With more "modern" faces
it is out of accord. The best form of this English national
letter is that cut by William Caslon in 1734. Most of the
variants of Caslon's black-letter have been unsatisfactory
because too thick or too thin, too modelled or not enough so.

The gothic paragraph-marks that sometimes accompany
black-letter types are interesting and should be had; as
well as the "peculiar sorts" of these fonts — the round r (|),
old ampersand ((t), ligatured letters, liturgical signs, etc. The
so-called black-letter arable figures, the dollar-mark, and
modern ampersand may be rejected. Roman forms of enu-
meration — by letters — should be used in printing numbers
in black-letter type, and the word "dollars" printed in full.
In many gothic fonts, the same letter-form is still used —
as it should be — for both capital I and J. But the capital
U — anciently used for V as well — is generally supple-
mented by a V of modern design, which is seldom satis-
factory.

Other black-letters that are sometimes useful and always
interesting are the Old Flemish Black, based on one of Cax-
ton's types, cut by Vincent Figgins ; and a round gothic
letter called Old Tudor Black, cut by F. Tarrant and E. P.
Prince for Messrs. Miller &: Richard, recalling round Italian
gothic types. Beautiful French batarde and civilite fonts may
be secured from French foundries.

A type based on eighteenth century engraved lettering,
although of an entirely different kind from black-letter, may
be employed in a similar way — to give here and there an
ornamental touch to pages set in old style types. Its pecul-
iarly French character limits its use, which must be spar-
ing in any case. It is called in this country French Script,

THE CHOICE OF TYPES 237

but the series brought out by Mayeur of Paris is styled Les
Batardes Coulees.

For hues set in capital letters on covers and in title-pages,
the Goudy Old Style ronian capitals are good. In design they
have an agreeable freedom, and they compose into strong
lines of dignified letter. Where a more unconventional letter-
design is not unsuitable, Goudy's Forum capitals are to be
recommended.

§5
For "free" inidal letters — to cover two, three, or more lines
of text — fonts of capitals cast without shoulders are de-
sirable. Complete series of these "tiding -letters"^ in lx)th old
style and modern face should be procured. With transi-
tional types, old style initials will serve satisfactorily.

French Old Style roman capitals make a distinguished
initial letter, and Goudy Old Style roman capitals are also
effective for this purpose. For use with black-letter, a few
good alphabets of free gothic capitals — notably the series
called "Missal" — are available. These plain roman or gothic
letters are, as a rule, preferable to ornamented initials.

For occasional use in printing of a more fanciful kind,
the four sizes o{ Moreaii-le-jeune outline roman capitals and
the three sizes of Foimner-le-Jeurw ornamented italic capi-
tals brought out by the Peignot foundry of Paris are very
good indeed.

Of decorative alphabets there are three classes: old alpha-
bets used by famous printers such as Tory, Ratdolt, Es-
tienne, Plantin, and others, which are handsome but some-
what hackneyed; alphabets of a much later style, some of
them versions of those used by Whittingham at the Chis-

' So called because often used for titles requiring several lines of capitals
where the shoulder of regular capitiils would intixxluce too much space be-
tween lines.

238 PRINTING TYPES

wick Press; and a few modern series. No rule can be laid
down in selecting such alphabets, because it depends so
much on personal taste. Nor can we tell where to find them,
for they must be gathered from many different foundries.
Initials of large size are comparatively rarely used ; so alpha-
bets of small-sized letter are usually the most practical, and,
it may be added, are somewhat harder to get. Furthermore,
if one can secure a capable designer who thoroughly under-
stands the line required in decorations to be used with types,
he may be employed to draw a special alphabet ; for this is
a valuable asset to a printing-office. Some volumes printed
by T. & A. Constable employ an alphabet designed by Lau-
rence Housman, intended to accompany a modified old face
type, which is a good example of a fine specially drawn se-
ries of decorative letters.

In some of the best old and modern printing, the only typo-
graphical ornaments used are solid black florets or "ivy
leaves." These are a very early form of type ornament, and
fifteenth and sixteenth century books, in which they con-
stantly appear, show most of the best varieties. Froben's books
are full of such ornaments. Those still used by the Oxford
University Press were part of Dr. Fell's gift. Florets give life
to a large or solid page of type, where other less sedate forms
of ornament would not be appropriate. Most of them accord
best with sturdy old style types. Some more sharply cut
designs of later date harmonize better with modern face
types.^

' Maltese crosses — still employed as florets in country printing-offices and by
countrified printers in towns — are not ornaments at all, but a definite litur-
gical sign indicating ble'I<ssing. Except where one is placed at the head of
a religious inscription as a symbol, they should not be used for decollation.
Oddly enough, they are most frequently employed by printers for non-litur-
gical Protestant bodies, which, if they knew what they meant, would not want
them !

THE CHOICE OF TYPES 239

As early types became lighter, ornaments became more
open and complicated in design, and in combination formed
definite patterns. Examples have come dow n to us from the
earliest foundries, and are seen in their specimen-sheets —
e.g., that of the sale of the Van Dyck types.

Rowe Mores (in his Dissertation) says, "Metal-flowers
were the first ornaments used in printed books to be set at
the head of the first page and the tail of the last page, as
well as the head and tail of any separate part of the w hole
work. And they were sometimes used as an edging to the
matter according to the taste of the author or the printer.
They were used but sparingly and with small variety, but
in time they became more numerous, and were cut in sev-
eral shapes, forms and devices, and continued in reputation
till Cutters in Wood supplanted them. When Mr. Moxon
wrote they were accounted old-fashioned. But the use of
them was revived by the French and Germans and the
variety of them considerably encreased by the Two Mr.
James's in England." The older English "flowers," he con-
tinues, often "expressed some meaning and were adapted to
other purposes than barely to dress and decorate a page.
They were formed from real objects, natural and artificial,
civil and military — as from weeds and flowers of the field
and garden, leaves, branches, fruits, flower-baskets, flower-
pots, urns, crosses, banners, launces, sw ords, and tilting
spears, and other simples culled from the fields of nature
and of heraldry; yet germane to the subject matter of the
work. They were frequently emblematical and monitory; as
cherubs' faces for the hymns of charity girls, hour-glasses
for lugubrious orators, and mort-heads for the parish-clerks.
They were symbolical of nations; as the crown and rose,
the crown and lyz, the crown and harp; — of dignities and
orders; as diadems, crowns, mitres and coronets; the red

240 PRINTING TYPES

hat called at Camb. the Cardinal's cap, where too the mitre
is called the golden night-cap; the courtelass; the arms of
Ulster, and the anchor of hope; the Scotch thistle and sprigs
of rue; . . . of states and conditions; as the myrtle, the weep-
ing vvillovv^, and the bugle-horn."

Equivalents of many of the "flowers" described by Mores
are to be found in Caslon's early specimen-sheets, which
show those he designed for use with his own types, and
which are carefully adapted to harmonize in colour with
letter-press. Solid black masses are usually avoided, and in
some designs cross-hatching is employed to give variety of
effect and help the presswork. Of their kind there is nothing
superior to Caslon's "flowers," and the larger assortment of
them one has,^ the better.

With the ebb and flow of colour and strength in types,
the weight of ornaments changed. As, toward the end of the
eighteenth century, type-faces became lighter, "flow^ers" be-
came more delicate — or, as Mores, writing in 1778, says,
"mere figures of fancy, made up of circular oval and angu-
lar turns, contrived to look light airy and unmeaning, and
to try the genius or patience of a compositor." With mod-
elled types of the early nineteenth century, ornaments be-
came still thinner and more wiry in eflfect. During the reign
of fat-faced types the ornaments also w^axed fat. In short,
there was a distinct difference between the type ornaments
of 1750, 1790, and 1820, and accordingly they cannot be
used interchangeably. The French ornaments, flowers, and
borders in Fournier's Manuel of 1764 show that they were
designed to decorate pages set in types of that time and in

'About twenty years ago, these old oniaments fell on evil days, a few of
them being redrawn for several American foundries in "chap-book" style,
lliis heavy rendering accorded in weight with the massive black type then in
fashion — a style withwhich they were out of keeping. The original forms are
the only ones worth considering.

THE CHOICE OF TYPES 241

those only. Employed with the types of Didot, used forty
years later, they look coarse and inharmonious. We can use
these "ivy leaves" or "flowers" properly, only by remem-
bering that typographic ornament must harmonize in line
and treatment with its accompanying letter-press.

The supply of good florets is not as great as one would
expect.To obtain them, specimen-books of different foundries
must be consulted, and those selected that are modelled on
the best old ones. Deficiencies may be supplied by specially
designed florets, copied from those in old books.

Before making a choice of " flowers," it is a good plan to
study the specimen-books of Caslon, Fry, Fournier, Didot,
and Bodoni, which will reveal many good designs and give
hints for employing what might otherwise seem useless ma-
terial. Many of the best "flowers" can still be had in their
original forms, and fair equivalents of others can be picked
up here and there. Good ornaments, which have been laid
aside by their founders as old-fashioned, can sometimes be
cast to order.

In making such selections as this, if a man has knowledge
and trained taste, it will show itself in a repertory of orna-
ments distinguished, individual, and peculiar to his own
office.

OUR composing-room has, therefore, only about seven
series of standard types for book work, and in all about
a score of varieties: "For what, then," the reader may ask,
"are all the other types in founders' specimen-books?" My
answer would be, "Chiefly to avoid." We are told that if
we know the truth, it will make us free ; and it will. If we
know the truth typographically we shall be freed from using
the many poor types that are ofl'ered us. There are hun-

242 PRINTING TYPES

dreds of pages in founders' specimen-books; and yet ex-
amples of almost every type that the world ought ever to
have seen could be shown in a thin pamphlet.^ If we know
anything about the history of type-forms, or have learned
to distinguish what pure type-forms are, most of the types
offered appear absolutely negligible. If printers had been
better educated in their own trade, many of these wretched
letters could never have been sold at all. Horace Walpole —
who printed none too well at Strawberry Hill — said about
people, that nine-tenths of them "were created to make you
want to be with the other tenth." This is true of types.

The types I have recommended — all of which may be
had from existing foundries — are mostly standard, and all
of them appear to me good. It is not, however, my purpose to
choose types for a printer, but to show him how to choose
types for himself. He may therefore make quite a different
selection, and this is as it should be. If only the types sug-
gested — no matter how excellent — were invariably chosen,
all printing-houses would be as like as the proverbial two
peas, with products as monotonous as Sahara. This can
be obviated only by exercising individual taste — wisely;
and the basis on which individual taste can be wisely exer-
cised has been already pointed out. It is applicable both to
old types that we may come upon, and new ones that may be
offered us.

There is, for instance, that large and interesting class of
types transitional between old style fonts and modern face
characters, shown in late eighteenth century English and
French specimen-books — types like Martin's in England
or Didot's early fonts in France. Such a fine transitional let-

*Out of 146 types classified by M. Thibaudeau in La Lettre (T Imfirimerie,
I find but four types that seem "possible" ; and De Vinne's Plain Printing
jy/ies displays only a very few.

DoMiNE omnipotens, Deus patrum nostrorum Abra-
ham, et Isaac et Jacob, et seminis eorum justi, qui
fecisti ca4um et terrain cum omni ornatu eorum ; qui
ligasti mare verbo prijecepti tui ; qui conclusisti abys-
sum, et signasti eam terribili et laudabili nomine tuo;
quem omnia pavent et tremunt a vultu virtutis tuae,
quia importabilis est magnificentia gloriae tu2e, et in-

sustentahilis ira comminationis tiice super peccatores;
immensa vero et investigabilis misericordia promissionis
tuce: quoniam tu es Dominiis^ altissimiis^ benignus. Ion-
gaminisy et multum misericors, etpcenitens super mali-
tias hominum. Tu ,T>omine ^ secundum multitudinem bo-
fi it a tis tu ceprom isis ti pa^ n it en tia met remissionem iis ,qui
peccaverunt tibi^ et multitudine miserationum tuarum

DoMiNE omnipotens, Deus patrum nostrorum Abraham, et
Isaac et Jacob, et seminis eorum justi, qui fecisti coelum
et terram cum omni ornatu eorum; qui ligasti mare verbo
prascepti tui; qui conclusisti abyssum, et signasti eam terri-
bili et laudabili nomine tuo; quem omnia pavent et tre-
munt a vultu virtutis tuae, quia importabilis est magnifi-
centia glorise tuse, et insustentabilis ira comminationis tuae
super peccatores; immensa vero et investigabilis miseri-

cordia promissionis tua: quoniam tu es Dominus, altissimus^
benignus^ longaininis^ et ?mdtum misericors^ et pcenitens super
malitias hominum. I'u, Domine, secundum multitudinem honita-
tii tuce promisisti fcenitentiam et remissionem iis, qui peccave-
runt tibi^et multitudine miserationum tuarufn decrevisti pceniten-
tiam peccatoribus in salutem. '^u igitur, Domine Deus justorum,
non posuisti pcenitentiam justis, Abraham, et Isaac et 'Jacob,

367. Examples of Transitional Types

THE CHOICE OF TYPES 243

ter will do all the work of an old style type, and has some-
times, as I have said, a distinction and delicacy which old
style fonts do not possess; while it is more interesting —
less bleak and commonplace — than a modern face type.
The two upper sections in our plate {Jig. 367) are set
in a transitional font, which is, both in roman and italic, a
fine and workable letter. The smaller roman beneath has
certain interesting peculiarities that render it unlike Cas-
lon's ordinary fonts — or Baskerville's either — but its ac-
companying italic came from the Caslons when under the
Baskerville influence, and is for all intents and purposes
a characteristic "Baskerville" type. A man must be thor-
oughly grounded in his knowledge of type-forms to select
these fonts; for an untrained eye may be easily deceived
by some mongrel type which is not transitional at all, but
merely a bad type for any period. But an eye trained to be
sensitive to type-forms will be able to "spot" good types
amid masses of worthless material. There is no need to limit
ourselves to American or English products in searching for
such types. Continental type foundries must have many
agreeable types hidden away among their material, which
might well be resuscitated.

And what are the types we ought not to want — which
have no place in any artistically respectable composing-
room? They are (in my opinion) practically all types on
"standard line," all condensed or expanded types, all "sans-
serif" or (as they are absurdly miscalled) "gothic" types,
all fat-faced black-letter and fat-faced roman, all hair-line
types, almost all "ornamented" types and types which imi-
tate engraving, and, with one or two exceptions, all shaded
types. To this list I would add the variant forms of many
standard series of types, which make up their "families."
These are principally condensations, distortions, or exag-

244 PRINTING TYPES

gerations of the original letter — the disreputable offspring
of honest parents.

To the printer the moral of all this is that studies in type-
forms teach us not only how to choose, but give us courage
to eliminate. There are many ways of being wrong, but only
one way of being right, and it is surely better to know the
one way of being right, and purchase types few but fit, than
to follow the many ways of being wrong, and expend much
time, labour, and money in the experience ! I have called this
book a study in survivals, because in it I have tried to show
not only what types have survived, but what should survive
through their fitness for the best typography, and in so do-
ing to lay down those general principles which may help
"the survival of the fittest" in days to come. Each year that
passes, we shall be called on to judge the design of types,
both old and new. We must have a trained taste and eye to
make a rewarding choice. For if we do not judge types
rightly, they will judge us — the penalty of fooHsh choice
being the penalty we pay for choosing foolishly in life. We
are punished by getting what we want !

It is a simple matter to make lists of good types — though
not as simple as it seems. It is still simpler — and much less
trouble — lazily to accept other people's conclusions and think
no more about it. But the ideal composing-room will never
be equipped in this way. It will be made what it ought to
be only by those adventurers who add to those types ac-
cepted as "standard "other interesting fonts selected from
sources to which study will have furnished a clue. The field
for fruitful research is still great ; and the printer who seeks
will find himself the possessor, not merely of delightful,
individual, and rare types, but of the ideal composing-room.

CHAPTER XXIV

INDUSTRIAL CONDITIONS OF THE PAST AND THEIR
RELATION TO THE PRINTER'S PROBLEM TO-DAY

y4 T first sight, the conditions of industry in the past
/% do not seem to have practical relation either to a
A ^ knowledge of printing types or to the work which
a printer has to do with them. This same objection, however,
might be made to the historical study of type-forms ; yet
the deductions made from such a study have a practical
bearing on the selection of material for to-day's work. I pro-
pose to show that a knowledge of past industrial conditions
is of like value. For over and above the eternal problem of
how best to do our work, some ambitious beginners in print-
ing have made a further problem of their own. These men,
knowing little of economic and industrial history, have
come to believe that the conditions under which a printer
works now are somehow very different from conditions in
the past, and that the reason men cannot do to-day what the
early printers so splendidly did, is because to-day's condi-
tions are so entirely different.

It is natural that any one who desires to become some-
thing more than a commonplace printer should be beguiled
by the romantic aspect of his art; and if he starts out with
a false although conventional conception of "the good old
times," it is only because he has derived such views from
pleasant papers, written by so-called "craftsmen," concern-
ing ancient guilds, the former unity of aim among work-
men, the stimulating environment which surrounded them,
and the ease with which masterpieces were thus produced.
The statements of these romantic writers have little rela-
tion to facts, or their deductions much application to our
problems now. Mr. Ruskin and Mr. Morris were long ago

246 PRINTING TYPES

responsible for some of the harm done in this direction; and
the disciples of the ideals of the one, and the imitators of the
work of the other, have had time to do even more harm.
There have been, indeed, many well-meaning persons —
some are still with us — who have written, and also talked,
in a manner very near to nonsense, about the advantages of
working long ago — though the precise years of these agree-
able periods are usually left dans la vague.

Such mistaken views have not been confined to writing
and talking, but were sometimes acted upon. Theorists and
sentimentalists here and there formed themselves into tem-
porary industrial groups, fenced away from what they called
the "corroding influences" of the period to which they really
belonged ! These men thought (or said they did) that they
were reproducing that tranquil and contented industrial life
under which — in some Golden Age — good work was uni-
versally done. A little study of the economic history of print-
ing, and of the life of printers in old times, would perhaps
have convinced these amiable persons that — as far as typog-
raphy was concerned — no such conditions existed. The
Gothic scene against which the old work was accomplished,
made in some ways as little difference to it as does the shape
of a room to the sense of what is said in it. What we think of
as the printers' foreground was usually their background,
and the remoteness of the period should not lead us to ideal-
ize it, or them. When we throw away all x[-\\s'''' bric-a-brac sen-
timentale et moyen-ageux*'' we find that the constant element
was the human will struggling against human laziness; and
that the victory of the one or of the other made for success
or failure then, precisely as it does now. When what they
did was admirable — as it sometimes, but not always, was —
it was produced with travail. The pity of it is that much val-
uable enthusiasm, which might have been applied to present-

EARLY INDUSTRIAL CONDITIONS 247

day needs, has come to nothing through these false concep-
tions. "The chains of the mind are broken by understand-
ing," says Gilbert Murray, "and so far as men are unduly
enslaved by the past, it is by understanding the past that
they may hope to be freed. But it is never really the past —
the true past — that enslaves us; it is always the present."

THE history of French type-founding, printing, and
publishing is extremely "documented," and I write
of early industrial conditions in France because we can so
readily get an idea of what they were at first in the print-
ing industry and of what they subsequently became. To be-
gin with, the men who copied manuscripts before printing
was introduced were often extremely inaccurate transcrib-
ers. To establish some proper standard and supervision,
they were placed under the control of the University of
Paris. The University had the right to license proper copy-
ists, and to approve the sale of their manuscripts — many
of which were in the nature of text-books in which exact-
ness was essential. To accomplish this, there was a great
body of regulations in force. The copyists in France were an
influential class — strong enough to prevent the setting up
of a printing-press in Paris for fully twenty years after the
invention of printing. Their opposition to the press shows
us that industrial conflicts existed at the very birth of print-
ing. Mellottee says that "documentsof the period tell us of
the frightful struggle of the manuscript-makers against the
first printers. No improvements in our present-day machin-
ery can be compared to the change which printing made
in the production of books. And even the revolution at the
beginning of the nineteenth century, brought about by the

248 PRINTING TYPES

introduction of the power-press, is as nothing really, com-
pared with the complete overturn which took place in in-
dustries connected with the book. In 1470, there were six
thousand men occupied solely in transcribing manuscripts,
and some years later they scarcely existed, the new process
doing ten times more work than all of them together." '
Rome, Venice, Milan, Nuremberg, Cologne, Augsburg, all
had printing-presses before a Parisian press was set up; and
when the first Paris press was established, it was in a sense
a private affair and came into being only through the influ-
ence of scholars like Heynlin and Fichet of the Sorbonne.
After a while the business men of that day saw the com-
mercial advantage of such enterprises, and began to inter-
est themselves in them. It was not, however, until about
1480 that printing was fairly established in Paris. Twenty
years later, there were Parisian establishments which pos-
sessed as many as fifteen presses.

If we keep steadily in mind that the making of printed
books was nothing more than the reproduction of manu-
scripts by mechanical means, we can better understand by
what insensible steps the supervision of the University was
transferred from the product of the copyists-by-hand (?>.,
manuscripts) to the product of the copyists-by-machine (?>.,
books). The copyists-by-hand, after printing was introduced,
had still some work to do on a printed book. In many cases
they illuminated the first page, just as they had decorated
the first page of the manuscript; and they still filled in par-
agraph-marks, initials, etc., in colour. There was no abrupt
transition from hand-copying to press-printing. Many men
continued in the waning industry of calligraphy and illu-
mination until they died; but their places were not filled.

^ Histoire Economique de V Imfirimerie . U Imfirimerie sous rancien Regime,
1439-1789, Paris, Hachette, 1905, pp. 2, 3.

EARLY INDUSTRIAL CONDITIONS 249

Others were at once forced into other occupations, and many
became writing-masters, some accountants. The same reg-
ulations that had been applied to the scribe and his manu-
script were applied by Louis XI in 1474 to the printer and
his book; the transition was accomplished, and the printer
found himself attached to the University in place of the
ancient copyist.

On the other hand, the examining and licensing prerog-
atives of the University, vested in a theological facult}-, were
one by one transferred to the King, and in the end it was
to the Crown that the three grades of French printers —
the apprentice, the journeyman, and the master-printer —
had to look for such privileges as they enjoyed. The copy-
ist having become a printer, and supervision having been
slowly transferred from the University and from Parliament
to the Crown — the chief result of sixteenth century legisla-
tion — we have to find out what were the conditions in the
printing and publishing trade in France during this and
succeeding centuries.

In the early days of French printing, there were three
classes of printers : the apprentice, the journeyman, and the
master-printer. To be a master-printer, a man had first to
be a journeyman, and before being a journeyman he must
have been an apprentice. Certain conditions had to be ful-
filled before admission was granted to these different ranks.
The rules which governed these positions descended to the
printing trade from the ancient Coi-poration du Livre; and to
this extent guild rules had some influence on printing. In
the thirteenth, fourteenth, and fifteenth centuries the guild
or trade-union was really a safeguard to the artisan, we
are told by Mellottee. The head of the atelier \\as in some
sense a father; the workman lived under the same roof with
him; in disputes he had a right of appeal; and he was

250 PRINTING TYPES

backed by his guild or company as the cleric was by his
bishop, or the student by his college. But this healthy and
true form of paternalism was on the wane when printing
Mas invented, and by the sixteenth century, although con-
ditions appeared to be much as in former years, the guilds
and similar associations had fallen into the hands of employ-
ers and become close corporations and monopolies. The in-
terests of the two classes became more distinct, and finally
were antagonistic. Whatever the guilds may have done for
manuscript-makers, as far as they influenced printing at all
they were not a particularly salutary force. For printing was
a trade that required capital, encouraged subdivision of la-
bour, and, to be profitable, had to employ workers in large
numbers.

The first master-printers engaged their apprentices on
various terms : sometimes paying in money only ; some-
times undertaking to feed and lodge the apprentice, and to
supply him with shoes during his stay — and at the end
of his engagement to present him with an extra pair! The
apprenticeship generally lasted three years. In 1571, ap-
prenticeship became compulsory, and a master was obliged
to certify that an apprentice had duly learned his trade
under him, and was fitted to become a journeyman. The
journeymen complained that stingy, ignorant master-print-
ers turned out half-educated apprentices, and that thus the
whole class of journeymen was discredited; and as a remedy
they suggested that pressmen should serve four years' and
compositors five years' apprenticeship — in any case three.
Later it was insisted — what from the first would have
seemed desirable — that apprentices should know how to
read and write ! In 1649, the lines of qualification were much
more tightly drawn, and apprentices were expected to know
something of Greek and to be able to read Ladn. The result

EARLY INDUSTRIAL CONDITIONS 251

was that so few apprentices applied for admission to print-
ing-houses, that in 1654 master-printers were again allowed
to engage apprentices who only knew how to read and write
in the vernacular.

There was also an inferior sort of apprentice called an
alloue. Nothing was asked of him except hard work. He
had the same obligations as other apprentices, but when he
had finished his apprenticeship, he was still a mere work-
man and not a journeyman. Journeymen could (if fitted for
it) become master-printers; but the alloiws could not. They
first seem to have been recruited from the ranks of little
boys, hewers of wood and drawers of water, who, because
they were strong and willing, were useful in printing-offices
and could be profitably employed. Later they arrived at the
status we have described. They were an antique form of
printer's devil. Child-labour — male and female — is not
new.

In those days of ancient peace there was really con-
stant war between employer and employed over the appren-
tices — a struggle that began with the invention of print-
ing and is scarcely terminated yet. The master-printer, to
increase the number of journeymen, wished to be free to
take as many apprendces as he pleased. The journeyman,
on his side, wanted to reduce the number of apprentices
so that the number of journeymen should be limited. A rule
issued in 1541 has a significant clause to the eflcct that
masters may make and take as many apprentices as they
choose, and that the journeymen must not beat or menace
the said apprentices, but must work with them for the good
of the trade, under pain of prison, banishment, and other
punishments. It was this dispute that was one of the causes
of industrial troubles which will be mentioned later.

The earliest French printing-offices were often very small

252 PRINTING TYPES

aftairs — ateliers de famille. They were conducted chiefly
by foreigners, mostly Germans, whose common origin, em-
ployment in a foreign country, and the fact that books were
usually in Latin, sometimes led to real community of inter-
est and some intellectual culture among the workmen. But
in the sixteenth century, men of means, principally publish-
ers A\ho were not themselves practical printers, organized
printing-ofiices simply for the returns they got from them,
just as we now organize manufactories and, I am sorry to
say, printing-houses, which interest us only for the money
they bring in. Then, as now, the disparity between the social
and financial situation of the two classes forced men into
groups governed by opposing interests. As early as the year
1536, a master-printer had been sentenced for the bad
food given to a journeyman, and the decree also censured
him for what it styled "his unbridled avarice," which made
him care for nothing but getting rich, though he was re-
ducing his journeymen and their families to objects of
charity. When establishments came into existence which
employed as many as two hundred and fifty workmen, the
masters tried to reduce the rate of w^ages. To effect this, the
number of apprentices was made as great as possible, for
apprentices were paid less.

The type-founders' legal situation was not, "up to 1686,
very clear. They w'ere not yet recognized as exercising any
special trade, and they could not, as type-founders alone, be-
come members of the Confrerie de St. Jean PEvangeliste^ (a
sort of guild-trade-union), or from 1618 become one of the
Community of Printers and Publishers. This difl[iculty they
got over by taking out permits, which allowed them to open

* St. John the Evangelist is the traditional patron of printers and publishers,
"comme celui qui fut le principal et le plus haut desdits secr6taires 6van-
gelistes de Notre Sauveur."

EARLY INDUSTRIAL CONDITIONS 253

shops and to call themselves publishers, or sometimes even
paper-makers; but real publishers were not pleased at this,
and instituted a suit in 1614 to forbid them to take this
title." ^ This quarrel lasted for a long time, and some thirty
years later Richelieu's favourite, Antoine Vitre, wrote that
"Letter-founders call themselves publishers, printers and
binders because they cast letters for books. I tell them that
the calf has about as much right to call himself a publisher
because he furnishes the skin for the bindings."

A decree of 1670 regulated the sale of new or second-
hand typographic material, which was scrupulously looked
after. No press and no font of type could be sold or ex-
changed without a declaration before the authorities, if it
was to be used in Paris ; or some special authorization, if
sent into the provinces. The Crown took these measures to
prevent the establishment of clandestine printing-offices,
from which disquieting political pamphlets Avere often is-
sued. Royal authority, enforced to the utmost through the
censure, had by the end of the seventeenth century reduced
theUniv^ersity to a negligible role in relation to printing. The
regulation of the printing and publishing trade I shall touch
upon later.

Ill

IT may come as a surprise to the lover of ancient cus-
toms that among the picturesque habits of sixteenth
century printers was that of going out on strikes. The print-
ers' strikes and resultant disturbances at Lyons and Paris
lasted from 1539 to 1572. The Lyons strike was an explo-
sion among the rank and file of the work-people, the out-
come of a series of abuses suffered at the hands of the mas-
ters ; for master-printers appear to have determined to re-

' Mellott6e's Histoire Economique de t'Jm/irimerie, pp. 401, 402.

254 PRINTING TYPES

duce their subordinates to men without powers or rights.
This Lyons strike had been brewing for a long time. In the
months of April and May, 1539, a number of the Lyonnese
printers stopped work, and also disorganized the labour of
other journeymen and apprentices, threatening them if they
dared to continue in their places. The sequel was a strike
so general that the printing industry was at a standstill.
Armed bands of strikers marched the streets day and night
and attacked masters, police, and officers of the govern-
ment; but among the workmen themselves excellent disci-
pline reigned, showing that a perfectly good understanding
existed, and had existed for some time, as to what was to be
done by the labour party. The outgoing men pledged them-
selves not to work except in a body, and punished any one
refusing to submit to the rules of their organization. The
number of men in the labour group was so great that it was
impossible to imprison them all, though here and there some
workmen were arrested.

The cause of the strike, according to the workmen's com-
plaint, was that master-printers supplied insufficient food,
that wages had been reduced, and that they were not free
to do their work as, and when, they chose. The masters re-
torted that there were certain classes of journeymen who
were never contented with their food and never would be,
and that there were always men who wished to take holi-
days on work-days and to work on holidays. But the num-
ber of holidays without pay was a positive evil then to the
working-man, as they would be now, for he often needed
to work at those times to support his family. On the chief
festivals, naturally, no m ork was done, but there were mul-
titudes of minor saints' days to be observed, leaving only
about two hundred and forty working days in the year.

The masters were willing to compromise on these points.

EARLY INDUSTRIAL CONDITIONS 255

but the workmen would not accept their offers. Meanwhile
the authorities of Lyons insisted upon some solution, for they
had the strikers' wives and children on their hands, many
of them in real destitution. To settle matters, two commit-
tees (one composed of journeymen, the other of masters)
appeared before the Seneschal of Lyons, w ho had authority
from the Crown to settle the dispute. The seneschal's de-
cision shows on how many points the two groups differed.
Journeymen \\ere forbidden to take any pledge among them-
selves, to gather outside work-rooms in larger parties than
five, to carry arms or sticks in printing-offices or the street, to
threaten or beat apprentices or to interfere with them; they
were also debarred from labour on festivals and from stop-
ping work on the eves of festivals earlier than was custom-
ary, and were not allowed to leave work to go to a baptism or
funeral unless it was in the family of their master or mistress/
As to master-printers, they could take as many apprentices
as they chose, but they must give the usual monthly wage
to journeymen and must feed them properly, with as good
food as they had customarily given five or six years before
— a' committee being appointed to decide wherein proper
board and lodging consisted. In most of these stipulations
journeymen were defeated and masters were triumphant;
but the Seneschal of Lyons, in receiving a group of jour-
neymen representing the workmen, inadvertently recog-
nized the labour party. By this an admission was practi-
cally made that workmen had the right to act in a corpo-
rate capacity and to be represented before the authorities.
The Crown, however, accepted the settlement of the dispute
and made a decree which was mandatory, and the strike
was ended. The government found itself face to face with
organized labour, and it was so frightened thereby that the
decrees which it put forth not alone regulated printing,

256 PRINTING TYPES

but were to be applied in principle to every other trade in
France.

The Lyons strike was a question of wages; the Paris
strike concerned the conduct of employees. It was precipi-
tated by complaints made by master-printers, who alleged
that journeymen and their helpers, by private clubs and
associations, had directly and indirectly stirred up dissat-
isfaction among apprentices, and had so influenced them
as practically to destroy their usefulness. The masters drew
up regulations which they wished the King to enforce,
based on decisions given in the Lyons strike, and meant to
forestall similar difficulties. These proposed rules debarred
journeymen from forming any club or electing representa-
tives, from assembling outside their master's house, and
from being armed; forbade them to beat apprentices ; made
masters arbiters of what journeymen should do and how
and when they should do it ; forbade assembling at dinners
to celebrate the beginning or end of an apprenticeship and
the asking of subscriptions for a common cause; forbade the
use of the word "trie" (a signal used when work was to be
stopped for a strike); forbade grumbling if work in a hurry
should be distributed among a number of workmen; and
prohibited them from absence on eves of festivals and from
working on the feast-day itself. Masters were to give jour-
neymen reasonable nourishment, pay them monthly, dis-
miss any who were mutinous or disreputable; were to insist
on eight days' notice before workmen could leave them (al-
though they were not to give notice of dismissal to work-
men); were not to hire away one another's work-people, or
use one another's printers' devices. They were also obliged
to have proofreaders who knew how to correct proofs prop-
erly. The working day was fixed from five o'clock in the
morning until eight o'clock at night. Type-foundries were

EARLY INDUSTRIAL CONDITIONS 257

included in the preceding rules. The King approved the
proposals and they became law. In Lyons, it was the jour-
neymen who complained; in Paris, the masters saw an op-
portunity to secure more pow er by precipitating questions
which forestalled like complaints. In August, 1539, when
the law was promulgated, the Paris strike began. The dis-
turbances which it caused were not settled by the Crown
until thirty years later — in 1572, by a compromise which
was satisfactory neither to the employers nor the employed.

Meanwhile, at Lyons the printing industry was ruined.
The master-printers decided to leave the city for Vienne in
Dauphiny, or some other place where conditions were bet-
ter. The Lyons authorities, frightened at the removal of an
industry and invested capital which would hurt the pros-
perity of the town (for next to Paris, Lyons was the great
centre for printing), met the masters and endeavoured to find
some way out of the difficulty. An appeal was made to the
King, who finally modified the laws in effect at Lyons, in
accord with rulings which had been enforced at Paris;
but it was only after some years of negotiation that the
matter was finally settled, and then only by royal authority.
It is recorded that among the many master-printers of
Lyons, Etienne Dolet, the author-printer-bookseller, alone
sided with the workmen, and incurred, by so doing, the last-
ing hostility of other master-printers — a hostility which
had something to do with the troubles to which he later fell
victim, Dolet, who had been proofreader for Gryphius, and
Mas friend to Jean de Tournes, was hanged at Paris in
1546 for heretical opinions, and his body and books burned
together.

These are but two episodes in the history of the print-
ing trade in France during the sixteenth century. Conditions
were probably the same in greater or less degree in England,

258 PRINTING TYPES

Holland, Germany, and Italy. At any rate, enough has been
said to show how very like the industrial conditions were
then to those we know now. Some of the details seem very
modern ; and yet Aldus had been dead only about twenty
years when these strikes began, and the Aldine Office still
existed and was to exist for years to come.

WE have seen what French industrial conditions were
in the sixteenth century. At the end of the seven-
teenth and the beginning of the eighteenth century, what
was the condition of printing at Paris ?

There was a certain Pierre Jacques Blondel who, about
1724, wrote a sarcastic memoir on Parisian booksellers
and printers,^ which, though not, perhaps, to be taken too
seriously, casts light upon the situation at that time. It is
amusing to find the writer begin, as we are apt to do to-day,
by telling about the wonderful old times of long ago. In the
happy days of Frangois I, he says, wistfully, there were men
like the Estiennes,' the De Colines, Vascosans, Morels, and

' Memoire sur les Vexations qu" exercent les Libraires et Imfirimeurs de
Paris, fiublie d'a/ir?s rimfirime de 1725 et le manuscrit de la Bibliothique
de la Ville de Paris par Liicien Faucou. Paris, 1879. For laws relating to
bookselling and printing in Paris in the eighteenth century, see Code de La
Librairie et Imfirimerie de Paris, ou Conference du Reglement arrete au
Conseil d' Etat du Roy, le 28 Fevrier 1723. . . . Avec les jinciennes Or-
donnances, Fdits, Declarations, Arrets, Reglemens Isf Jugemens rendua
au sujet de la Librairie iJf de P Im/iri?tierie, de/iuis ran 1332, jusqu'a /ire-
sent. A Paris, aux Defiens de la Commmiaute. 1744.
'Yet it must be remembered that a Latin poem was written by Henri Es-
tienne II in 1569, entitled Artis Tyfiografihicm Querimonia, de illiteratis qui-
busdam Tyfiografihis, firofiter quos in contemfitum venit. It was translated
into French by Lottin in 1785, the title reading, Plainte de la Tyfiografihie
contre certains im/irijneurs ignorans qui lui ont attire le me/iris ou elle est
tombee.

EARLY INDUSTRIAL CONDITIONS 259

others, who were "all men of letters, clever in their profes-
sion and much more anxious to perfect their art than to
make immense fortunes." And then Blondel goes onto speak
of theCamusats,the Vitres, and the Cramoisys as men who,
if not so learned, were at least of respectable standing; capa-
ble, as he quaintly says, of "consoling the Republic of Let-
ters for the loss of the first group of printers." Here we have
two sets of men. Note that the first class, who lived two hun-
dred years before Blondel wrote, were perfect prodigies of
learning, while the second group, living nearer Blondel's
time, though less learned were still acceptable. "But," says
Blondel, "into what decadence has this important art fallen
in our day, especially in Paris! What a gap there is be-
tween the printers that I named and those who mix them-
selves up in printing now and who degrade a noble art by
the meanest manoeuvres! . . . The earliest printers were
industrious, they applied themselves to their profession,
they were versed in belles-lettres and the learned tongues.
To-day, printers are men occupied solely in gain or amuse-
ment, without special knowledge and for the greater part
without general education — as we say, ignorant and un-
lettered men. ... If some of them went to college in their
youth, they brought away but a mere smattering of learn-
ing, . . . and the rest are simply tradesmen who have made
their fortune in second-hand books and who began their
career in situations so very different from their present call-
ing that it is a wonder they are printers at all ! They are
printers, not because of, but in spite of literature and men
of learning ; and furthermore, are rich printers, which edu-
cated men will never be." While Blondel is ready to admit
that there are two or three persons in the profession at his
own period who can be respected, he thinks that most of
them are mainly supported by a bibliomania encouraged by

260 PRINTING TYPES

financial magnates, who are in turn actuated more by van-
ity than by taste or intelligence. He proceeds to describe
the annoyances suffered by the public, the authors, and last
of all by the workmen themselves.

The privileges which the king accorded for the printing
of books (to the thirty-six printers fixed by law by the edict
of 1686),Blondel reminds us,expressly stipulated that books
should be printed on good paper and from good type, and
if they were not, the privilege became null and void. Print-
ers and booksellers, however, now sold books of importance
printed on wretched paper, from battered types, carelessly
corrected — all to avoid expense. If the public complained, it
complained without redress. Moreri's historical dictionary^
could not be bound properly, because the ink was so poor
that it oifset upon opposite pages, and some books were
so carelessly printed that whole lines of text ^vere left out.
Greek characters were used which were so worn that the
accents could not be distinguished. Booksellers, who had to
obtain a license for each new edition of a book, evaded this
requirement by omitting the number of the edition on the
title-page, or by placing old dates on new editions. The Eng-
lish at that period had a method of publishing works by
subscription — a number of subscribers clubbing together
to finance the expense of a book, each subscriber receiving
copies of the edition so published at a lower price than
outsiders. The French publisher took up this scheme and
improved upon it. He secured the subscribers' money in
advance and this furnished the chief part of the capital ne-
cessary for the enterprise ; and though subscribers got their
books cheaper than outsiders, yet they paid exorbitantly for
them. Nor did the publisher, having received the subscrip-

' Louis Moreri's (1643-1680) Grand Dictionnaire historique, ou Melange
nirieux de r histoire sacree et firofane.

EARLY INDUSTRIAL CONDITIONS 261

tions, hurry to issue the book. As long as it was ultimately
printed, he thought it "did just as well"; and should any
subscriber venture to suggest that the work ought to ap-
pear, his subscription would be haughtily returned. Blondel
says, humorously, that if r/// the subscribers had only asked
for the return of subscriptions, somebody would have been
much embarrassed! Again, when the public complained that
books cost a great deal, the publisher said that paper was
dear, that workmen insisted on enormous wages, — though
workmen were really scandalously underpaid, — and that,
after all, it was merely to keep business going that they
printed at all; they would willingly shut up shop, for all
the profit they got out of it! But in spite of all this, no less
a person than Jean Baptiste Coignard 11,^ who with Denis
Mariette printed Moreri's dictionary, boasted that every time
he published an edition he was able to marry off a daugh-
ter with a comfortable dowry. Some pious individuals, who
wished to publish religious books at their own expense, to
be distributed gratis among the poor, or sold at a small price
to those in modest circumstances, were astonished to find,
after these works of edification had been delivered to them
and paid for, that before they could be distributed they were
seized by booksellers as about to be illegally sold ^^•ithout
a license. Those who seized them then sold them a second
time for their own benefit.

The master-printers of an older day had the reputation
of attracting educated men, whom they treated "with some
consideration and not like convicts." But master-printers
of Blondel's epoch had arrived at their position, as we have
seen, not by knowledge or experience, but by favouritism
and money. In other trades, masters directed their appren-

' Second of the three Jean Baptiste Coignards, all eminent Parisian printers,
who held, among otlicr posts, that of printers to the jicadtmie Fran<;aise.

262 PRINTING TYPES

tices, but here it was the apprentices who directed their
masters. Masters were not only ignorant, but absolutely in-
capable of working at the calling of which they were osten-
sibly the heads. They had been, most of them, neither ap-
prentices nor journeymen, but simply moneyed men, — or
sons of prosperous booksellers, — who looked at the whole
affair as trade, and who set up a printing-office because
they thought they were rich enough to make it succeed.
Workmen had from time to time brought complaints to
Parliament, and masters had been forbidden by its decrees
to harass them or to require that workmen who wished
to change their place of employment must carry letters of
recommendation from the old to the new master — a plan
which, the authorities perceived, reduced workmen "to a
servitude from which the commonest servant in France
is exempt, because he is at least permitted to change his
place if he wishes." Then, again, master-printers had so in-
fluenced legislation, that when workmen tried to get justice,
they found themselves forbidden by law to act in a collec-
tive capacity, and consequently could not legally complain
collectively before any tribunal. The men's wages were arbi-
trated at a sort of board of trade, and were often determined
by persons who knew nothing about typography or how
much should be given to the printer for each page he com-
posed. "You might as well," says Blondel, "have the tailors
tell the cloth-makers what wages they should pay their
employees," and, "in fact," he adds, " a great deal better, be-
cause the tailors are far more conversant with the qualities
of cloth than are publishers with printing and paper. All
they know is (as Harlequin said) that the white is the paper
and the black is the print."

If any workman complained of the insufficient wages, he
was called mutinous, seditious, and dissipated; and yet, ac-

EARLY INDUSTRIAL CONDITIONS 263

cording to the statistics of the period, among the six hundred
journeymen printers in Paris, there were very few who led
loose lives; and Blondel adds sarcastically that "the ex-
tremelv small wages which they received w ere not capable
of furnishing the means for very serious dissipation!" That
the labourer is worthy of his hire, Blondel reminds his
readers, is a precept of the Gospel; but the Gospel did not
interest Parisian booksellers — unless it was to be printed.

If an author w as in a hurry to get his book finished, but
some new work of a more important and paying sort came
to the printing-office, ^\ ork-people were taken off the book
the author was clamouring for, and were compelled to stay
all night working on the more profitable job that had to be
printed quickly. If an author complained that his book did
not get on fast enough, what was the reply? It \\ as that
printers were dissipated, and that, of course, was not the
fault of the publisher !

Two well-known Paris publishers and printers, Barbou^
and David," " as stingy as they were unprincipled," says
Blondel, employed a publisher who had correspondents in
various countries to secure printers from Germany, whom
they would engage to pay three livres a day, together with
washing, lodging, and food. Eight German workmen, on
the strength of the publisher's letter (which, unfortunately
for them, they left behind at Frankfort), accepted the offer.
Six of them ^\•ent to Barbou, two to David. They all worked
exactly three days. Then Barbou said he was not satisfied,
because the men were Germans and did not know French ;
also he alleged that they did not work in the Parisian, but

' JosephBarbou.of the eminent family of Barbou, printers at Lyons, Limoges,
and Paris, who exercised their profession from 1524 to 1820. Most of
Foumier's books bear tlieir imprint.
* According to Lottin, this was Christophe David II.

264 PRINTING TYPES

in the German method — which (at this late period) appears
to us natural. He would consent to keep them, he declared,
only at tn o I'lvres daily to include everything and on condi-
tion they \\ould engage to stay with him for three years.
The men refused, saying that living was dear in Paris, they
were accustomed to a good table, and they could not afford to
stay at the wages offered. So Barbou locked them up in his
printing-office without food, and there they remained until
they made so much noise that he was shamed into setting
them free. When the men tried to return to Germany, the
masters held back their luggage. Their French comrades,
angry at such scurvy treatment of strangers, made up a
purse and sent them home. This the master-printers con-
sidered insulting and insupportable to the last degree, and
described as an attitude of open revolt.

At that day, there were six hundred printers in Paris,
and great opposition was made to bringing in foreigners at
all. "Why," says Blondel, "should people import labour?
What injustice it is to hire abroad people who take the
bread out of the hands of the French workmen." Little the
masters cared whether their men were foreign or native,
learned or ignorant! "They judged their qualifications by
their own," he adds, " and as many of the master-printers
hardly know how to read, they are absurd enough to sup-
pose that it is not necessary to know more, in order to be
capable of correctly producing Greek, Latin, French, and
scientific works. ... If this sort of thing goes on, they will
make negroes come to work at printing, as they employ
them in the Indies to produce indigo and sugar. "

But Parisian publishers in these sad, bad old times, did
not worry as to whether the books they printed wtvt cor-
rect, or well produced, provided they could sell them at a
high price. Illustrated Bibles had been printed a hundred

EARLY INDUSTRIAL CONDITIONS 265

years earlier which were cheaply and tastefully brought out,
but new editions — sold at a high price — contained plates
disgraceful in their slovenly execution. Editions of poetry
were issued, badly printed,wretchedly composed, with pages
swarming with faults of spelling and punctuation. Absurd
errors, the correction of which was absolutely essential, were
passed over. In a book of prayers for the use of lay -people,
a passage in St. Matthew was made to read iion timebis
Dominum instead of non tentabis^ and in a missal, the Canon
of the Mass lacked a word.

"Instead," Blondel concludes, "of keeping the loyalty of
their workmen by fair wages and inciting honest endeavour,
the master-printers hold them only to persecute them, to
decry their value, and to enviously snatch the very bread
from their hands. Was there ever such terrible oppression !
Slaves at Algiers do not fare worse. Is n't this precisely the
way to disgust decently educated men, as journeymen ought
to be, with such an ungrateful employment? . . . If matters
go on in this way, and a deaf ear is persistently turned to their
complaints, they will flee a country where they groan under
oppression. ... It is not to scandalize people, that this me-
moir is written ; it is to end a violence so tyrannical that
there is no way of opposing it save to cry loudly : Stop thief ! "

The tone of much of this is disconcertingly modern. The in-
troduction of the ill-paid and inexperienced foreign ^\•ork-
man, the oppression of the helpless labourer, the objection
to his forming any corporate opposing body, the associa-
tion of employers to determine the wages to be paid, the
statement that books were dear because the workmen re-
ceived such large returns — all these things are familiar to
us. Our own troubles to-day are only repetitions of these
old tumults : no more bitter, but on a greater scale.

266 PRINTING TYPES

Blondel's memoir was satirical, — and intentionally so, —
but it stated facts and reflected the general opinion upon
conditions among booksellers and printers in Paris in the
last years of the seventeenth century and the first quarter
of the eighteenth. It made some noise, and (as was intended)
aroused the authorities, who spent much time in trying to
find out who wrote it and where it was printed. As a result,
some real reforms were effected. Publishers were obliged
to submit to regulations which required the use of better
paper and greater correctness in printing, and in the matter
of subscription books they were held to stricter standards.

THE censorship of books and its later development were
further handicaps under which printers of old times
had to work — for freedom was first allowed to the press in
France in 1789. The inspection of the book-trade under the
kings of France was extremely severe, and imposed a strict
surveillance upon every conceivable aspect of the printer's
and bookseller's business, and a drastic censorship of all
printed books. It was forbidden, under pain of punishment
and fines, for any private persons, except master-printers,
to have or to keep in any place whatsoever, or under any
pretext, any press, type, forms, or printer's tools ; and to
every one except the bookselling publishers, to take part in
the commerce, sale, or purchase of books. All w^orks printed
without permission were taken from those who were at
fault, and in case they contained anything contrary to re-
ligion, the King, the State, or public morality, the authors,
printers, and publishers who had written, printed, or sold
such books could be condemned and punished as disturb-
ers of the public peace ; while the printers, booksellers, and

EARLY INDUSTRIAL CONDITIONS 267

peddlers could be degraded from their trade and declared in-
capable of exercising it. Type-founders were not permitted
to deliver fonts of types to any one except master-printers,
or their widows carrying on the business; nor could thev
sell to any one save masters in the trade, printers, and book-
sellers, in large or small quantities, their punches, strikes,
and matrices. The quartierde V Universite on the left bank of
the Seine, in which printers were obliged to live and work,
was exactly marked in its limits, and non-residence there
was punished by loss of outfit and sometimes by depriva-
tion of privilege.

The oversight of all this was exercised by different
classes of police inspectors. One of the eighteenth century
officials, d'Hemery, who became the general inspector of
the whole bookselling community, was authorized to make
visits to any bookseller or printer whom he chose to see,
either by night or by day, and to have an account given of
anything that he happened to find, about which he wished
to learn. He considered it necessary to know the precise
number of presses and the amount of type in every print-
ing-office, and to possess proofs of all vignettes and orna-
mental letters. Founders were not to be allowed, ^^•ithout his
consent, to deliver fonts of type without giving him a dec-
laration of their number, weight, and kind, and the names
of those to whom they were to be sold. He even expected a
list of all the apprentices in Paris, to whom he wished to fur-
nish tickets of ingress and egress for the particular print-
ing-office in which they were employed. The power that he
asked for was not fully granted; but it indicates an agree-
able conception of his own sphere of labour !

It would seem logical that the author should be held re-
sponsible for his ideas rather than the printer; but in early
times, the printer suffered and the author often went free.

268 PRINTING TYPES

Mellottee tells us that this was due to the theory that the
printer provided the author with the means of promulgat-
ing the errors in his works, and that it was not attacks upon
religion or existing institutions that were thought danger-
ous, but rather the popularization of such attacks; in other
words, the fact that they were printed and widely distrib-
uted. In the Middle Ages, before the invention of printing,
there had been many philosophers with heretical ideas, but
they had been quickly stifled by the Church or the Crown.
All this was quite different after the invention of printing.
Such people no longer merely addressed an assembly of a
few hundred individuals, but could make their appeal to an
entire people, and printing being the only means which
could give such power to thought, repressive legislation fell
upon printers rather than upon authors. It was for this rea-
son that such severe and rigorous penalties were inflicted
in support of the censorship of the press; for the men of
the sixteenth century were so frightened at what appeared
to them its incalculable power, that they took extreme mea-
sures to counteract this new force. Besides confiscation
and degradation, the ordinary punishments were imprison-
ment, whipping, or banishment, and capital punishment was
not uncommon. These pains and penalties were not alone
applicable to printers because they produced dangerous
publications, but even to people who merely neglected to
take out proper authorization for otherwise harmless work.
In 1547, punishment by death was proclaimed against all
printers who published a book without the impiimatur of
the faculty of theology of Paris. It was not only in the six-
teenth century that death was meted out to printers, but as
late as 1757, the declaration was made by the civil power
that all persons who were convicted of having composed
or printed works tending to attack religion, to disturb the

EARLY INDUSTRIAL CONDITIONS 269

public mind, or against royal authority, or the order and
security of the government, were punishable by death. It is
true that judges avoided these extreme measures as far as
they could; but from 1660 to 1756, less than a century,
eight hundred and ninety-six authors, printers, and sellers
of books, prints, and pictures were arrested and imprisoned
in the Bastille for having published works contrary to good
manners, religion, or the Crown. A third of these men were
printers. In addition to the more severe punishments men-
tioned above ^vas the public burning of volumes at the
hands of the hangman — the author himself being occa-
sionally added as kindling to the flames, as in the case
of Dolet. This charming custom was practised during the
happy days of the manuscript-makers, and, as far as print-
ing is concerned, was merely the survival of a picturesque
old-world ceremony applied to a new form of industry.^

It was much the same all over Europe. In the Nether-
lands, for instance, edicts were enforced by Charles V and
Philip II against printers who purchased or sold books fa-
vourable to the Reformation ; and in the sixteenth century,
Plantin was granted the post of proto-typographer,which em-
powered him to examine all candidates for the printer's and
engraver's trades. Among requisite letters \\hich a printer
must produce was a certificate from his diocesan authorities
that he was of the orthodox faith, while the magistrate of the
district bore witness to his good reputation. The number of
apprentices in his employ — if he was a master-printer —
had to be stated. Proofreaders had to give certificates of
birth, parentage, places of education and training, and good

' Under such conditions, printers and publishers had recourse to all sorts of
stratagems to conceal tlieir connection with a book. They invented names of
imaginary cities for their imprints, to which they added equally imaginary'
publishers, non-existent streets, and absurd emblems which have caused no
end of bewilderment to innocent readers.

270 PRINTING TYPES

reputation as Roman Catholics, prior to an examination of
their skill. Registers were kept, in which titles of the books
printed and other particulars had to be inscribed. Imported
books were subject to examination, and any sold in Antwerp
had to be recorded. Houses in which heretical books had
been printed were abbatues et ruynees par terre!^ quite in
the modern German manner.

AS to production — in 1571, three hundred to five hun-
-IV dred sheets a day was considered a good output,
but in 1654, it was twenty-seven hundred; and in 1650,
twenty-five hundred was the rule. These were for sheets
printed in black, but twenty-two hundred was considered
enough if red was also used. These sheets were printed by
hand on a screw-press. Such requirements put to flight our
pleasant idea that work in the old days had none of the
rush about it that it has now.

Hours of work for foremen, workers by the day, and
workers by the piece, were from six o'clock in the morning
until eight o'clock at night in summer ; and in winter, from
seven in the morning until nine o'clock. This was in the
eighteenth century. But agitation by work-people about the
length of the working day began as early as the fourteenth
century, and was neither the child of the French Revolu-
tion, nor the offspring of modern socialism. In 1395, shorter
hours, with the same wages given for a longer working day,
was a practical question. The Lyons printers complained
in 1571 that their day began at two in the morning and
lasted until eight or nine in the evening ; and this for print-
See Rombout's Certificats delivres aux Imfirimeurs du Pays-Bas fiar Chria-
tofihe Plantin. Antwerp, 1881.

EARLY INDUSTRIAL CONDITIONS 271

ers does not seem to have been unusual. Night work, as
such, it is true, was forbidden, — although most persons do
not much differentiate between 2 a.m. and night — not be-
cause it was bad for the workman, but, among other less
creditable reasons, because the danger from fire was great
and because the flickering lights of the period did not permit
men to do justice to their tasks. In England, the working
hours varied in different trades, and at different places and
periods. Even as late as the middle of the nineteenth cen-
tury, the ordinary working hours of the printer were un-
limited — though nommally from 7 a.m. to 8 p.m. — in such
excellent London printing-houses as that of the Spottis-
woodes.

If economic conditions are notkept in mind, we misunder-
stand the significance of certain historical facts, and twist
them to fit some fantastic theory. For instance, people talk
loosely about great printing dynasties like the Estiennes,
Elzevirs, Plantin-Moretus, etc., where generations of the
same family succeeded each other as printers. This was
caused to some extent, no doubt, by interest in and attach-
ment to the w ork ; but it was also due to an economic reason.
The amount to be had by the sale of the equipment of a
printing-house was, as in our time, by no means commen-
surate with the money value of the business if it could be
carried on. That was the chief reason why large printing-
offices were continued by one family, or by a long succession
of partners. We know, too, that in early times the widows
and daughters of master-printers were in great demand,
because when a qualified journeyman married the widow or
daughter of a master-printer, he acquired privileges facili-
tating his reception as a master. And this was another of
the causes for great printing families — which we like to
style "printing dynasties" if it all happened long enough

272 PRINTING TYPES

ago ! It was more commonplace and simpler — more reason-
able — than we think.

Nor were women in the bad old times permitted to lead
peaceable lives, occupied by the cradle and the distaff". From
the time of St. Louis, women were employed in trades re-
served for them — we find records of their names and occu-
pations as early as 1296. Quite apart from learned ladies like
Charlotte Guillard, who printed and published her famous
Greek and Latin editions of the Fathers in the sixteenth
century, women were very early employed in the humbler
branches of typography, and women have been in our com-
posing-rooms almost ever since. Like child-labour, it is
nothing new; very few industrial "novelties" are!

VII

THERE is, therefore, litde excuse for thinking that con-
ditions of labour to-day are very different from those
that long preceded them; and it is important to realize that
these conditions were all along factors, as they are now, in
the problem of turning out good printing. Types and books
reffect the state of the arts around them, because on one
side typography is an art ; but they are influenced by trade
conditions, because it is also a trade. Not to face these two
facts, or to neglect either one or the other, is merely to fool
one's self!

To make a book which should look like a manuscript,
and indeed counterfeit it, was what the first printers tried
to do. They wished to reproduce the manuscript of com-
merce as nearly as they could, and they did it by imitadng
such manuscripts in type. It was an effort to make cheaply
what had before been made expensively. Incidentally, they
imitated beautiful written books, but there is no proof that

CONCLUSION 273

their printed books were always consciously intended to be
beautiful.

All alont^, the changes in books were influenced by com-
mercial conditions. The first books were folios — large and
dear. What did the printer do? He produced books which
were small and cheap, and we have the Aldine 16mo vol-
umes, printed in italic (a letter adopted chiefly because it
was compact), for their period perfectly commercial though
attractive editions. Again, Pigouchet and Verard at Paris
printed their Books of Hours, and they were very charming
volumes. They were not as charming as the manuscripts
from which they were copied, but they were far, far cheaper.
By and by, when printers discovered the ignorance of the
public and its willingness to buy books however badly
printed, they dared to make them poorer and poorer. They
printed what we call "good" books, because ours are worse ;
but what they thought ^vere poor ones, because older books
had been so much better. This they did because they could
sell them, and because they did not even then realize what
we know now — how wretchedly books can be made and
still be sold! In short, the rank and file of early printers were
not often actuated by conscious artistic standards, and they
had trade conditions to struggle against, just as we have,
and in an environment singularly like that of to-day.

Yet beautiful printing was done, and fine books were
made, because there were a few men among these earlv
printers who were actuated by conscious artistic standards,
and who made trade conditions helps, and not hindrances,
to successful production. To print things suitably and well
was the problem of the good printer then, just as it is now.
The few printers and publishers w ho were then faithful to
artistic and scholarlv standards in the face of trade condi-
tions are the men who did this, and the men we remember.

274 PRINTING TYPES

As in the Roman alphabet as opposed to other alphabets —
as in certain famous types as opposed to other types — we
see a survival of the fittest, so the printers whose names have
survived have had a modest immortality because, though
few, they were fit.

Apparently it was not so much conditions as personality
and education that produced the fine books of early days.
Tyjiography was good then, and has been so, under va-
rying circumstances, and at different periods, whenever it
was practised patiendy by educated men of trained taste,
who had convictions and the courage of them. When we
think of a Jenson or an Aldine book, a Pickering or a Mor-
ris edition, a definite typographical vision passes before the
eye. All the greater printers had a conception of what they
wanted to do. They did not permit themselves to be over-
whelmed by trade condidons, by so-called practical con-
siderations, by "good business," or the hundred and one
excuses which printers make for being too ignorant, too un-
imaginative, or too cowardly to do what the o-lder men did.
Nor were they pulled about by ignorant customers who
wanted first this type and then that ; and by obliging whom
the work would have become merely a series of compro-
mises. If they had allowed what some standardless, unedu-
cated printers to-day allow, no individuality would have
been left in their books to be remembered !

In every period there have been better or worse types
employed in better or worse ways. The better types em-
ployed in better ways have been used by the educated printer
acquainted with standards and history, directed by taste and
a sense of the fitness of things, and facing the industrial con-
ditions and the needs of his time. Such men have made of
printing an art. The poorer types and methods have been em-
ployed by printers ignorant of standards and caring alone

CONCLUSION 275

for commercial success. To these, printing has been simply
a trade. The typography of a nation has been good or bad,
as one or other of these classes had the supremacy. And to-
day any intelligent i)rinter can educate his taste, so to choose
types for his work, and so to use them, that he will help
printing to be an art rather than a trade. There is not, as
the sentimentalist would have us think, a specially devilish
spirit now abroad that prevents good work from being done.
The old times were not so very good, nor was human na-
ture then so dift'erent, nor is the modern spirit particularly
devilish. But it was, and is, hard to hold to a principle. The
principles of the men of those times (since they require noth-
ing whatever of us) seem simple and glorious. We do not
dare to believe that we, too, can go and do likewise.

The outlook for typography is as good as ever it was —
and much the same. Its future depends largely on the know-
ledge and taste of educated men. For a printer there are two
camps, and only two, to be in : one, the camp of things as
they are; the other, that of things as they should be. The
first camp is on a level and extensive plain, and many emi-
nently respectable persons lead lives of comfort therein; the
sport is, however, inferior! The other camp is more inter-
esting. Though on an inconvenient hill, it commands a
wide view of typography, and in it are the class that help
on sound taste in printing, because they are willing to
make sacrifices for it. This group is small, accomplishes
little comparatively, but has the one saving grace of hon-
est endeavour — it tries. Like Religion, "it will remain a
voice crying in the wilderness; but it will believe what it
cries, and there will be some to listen to it in the future, as
there have been many in the past." Around this camp ideal-
istic lunatics hover, but they are quite harmless, and were
never known to hurt or print anything seriously. This camp

276 PRINTING TYPES

I think the only one worth living in. You may not make
all the money you want, but will have all you need, and
moreover, you will have a tremendously good time; for as
Stevenson said, "work that we really love is nothing more
than serious play."

The practice of typography, if it be followed faithfully,
is hard work — full of detail, full of petty restrictions, full
of drudgery, and not greatly rewarded as men now count
rewards. There are times when we need to bring to it all the
history and art and feeling that we can, to make it bear-
able. But in the light of history, and of art, and of know-
ledge and of man's achievement, it is as interesting a work
as exists — a broad and humanizing employment which
can indeed be followed merely as a trade, but which if per-
fected into an art, or even broadened into a profession, will
perpetually open new horizons to our eyes and new oppor-
tunities to our hands.

THE END

CHRONOLOGICAL LIST OF SPECIMENS
AND INDEX

CHRONOLOGICAL LIST OF SPECLMENS

Described, iUuatruted, or mentioned in these Volumes

1 486 Ratdolt, jiitgsburg ( Venice) ,

I, 77, 133
1525 Petri, Bcis/e, i, 133, 134, 145
1561 Geysslcr, J^uremberg, i, 134
1567 Plantin, Antiverfi, i, 134, li,

7, 8

1592 Typognii)hiaMcdicea,/?07«(?,

'i, 134, 179

1593 Van Hout, Leyden, i, 134
1595 Raphelengius, Leyden, i, 134
1616 Fuhrnianii, JVuremberif, i,

134, 146, 147

1628 StaniperiaVatiaina, Rome, i,

134, 166 168

1629 Propaganda Fide, Rome, i,

134, 135

1658 EUzevir, Leyden, i, 135
1665 Nicholls, London, i, 135, ii,
94,95

1669 Moyion, London, I, \o 5, u, 9 5

1670 Luther, Frankfort, i, 135
1681 Elzevir (Van Dyck), Am-
sterdam, I, 135, II, 19-22

1686? Atliias, Amsterdam, i, 135,

n, 22, 23
1693 University Press, Oxford, i,

135, u, 95

1695 University Press, Oxford, i,
135

1707 Cot, Paris, i, 270

1710 Pater, Lei/isic, i, 152

1713 Watson, Edinburgh, n, 44,
100

1721 Endters (Ernesti), ATurern-
berg, I, 152, 153

1732 Bortlazar (Morales), Valen-
cia, II, 50-52

1734 Caslon, London, ii, 103

1 739 Breitkopf, I^ifisic, 1,154-156
1739? Erhardt, Lei/isic, ii, 44

1740 Luce, Paris, i, 246

1742 Founiier le jeune, J^aris
(two), I, 252

1742 Lamcsle, Paris, i, 213, 270

1743 Mozet, Paris, i, 268

1744 EnscliedC-, Haarlem, ii, 38

1745 Gando, y-V/r/*, I, 271

1751 Lovson & Briquet, Paris, i,
268

1756 Foumicr le jeune, Paris, i,

253

1757 Briquet, Paris, i, 268

1757? Founiier le jeune (?), Paria,
I, 252

1757 Sanlecque,/*<3m, 1,212,213,

266,267
1758? Foumier le jeune, Paris, i,
252

1758 Lamesle (Gando), Paris, i,

271

1759 Trattner, Vienna, i, 156, 157

1760 Gando, y^am, I, 271

1 760 + Rosart,5r«ss(?/«(?), 11,40-42

1762 Baskei"\ille, Birrningham

(two), II, 113

1763 Caslon, London, ii, 104, 105

1766 Foumier le jeune, Paris, i,
262-265

1766 Moore, y?mro/, II, 118

1767 Foumier /f/s, Paris (two), i,

250, 251

1 768 Ensc-hed<:-, Haarlem, u, 38, 39

1769 Trattner, Vienna, i, 156
1771 Bodoni, Parma, i, 184, 185
1771 Espinosa, Madrid, ii, 80, 81

1771 Luce, Paris, i, 244-246

1772 H6rissiuit, Paris, i, 269

1772 WWson, Glasgo^v,n, \\7

1773 Uclacolonge, Lyons, i, 213,

267, 268
1773 Gille, /'ans, II, 181

280

LIST OF SPECIMENS

1777 Convento de S. Joseph, Bar-

celona, II, 81, 82

1778 OillC-, Parifi, ii, 181

1779 Decellier, Brussels, ii, 42
1782 James, London, ii, 102

1782 Kodoni, Parma, u, 164

1783 Wilson, Glasgmu, ii, 117

1784 Ploos van Amstel, ylmster-

da?n, II, 42

1785 Caslon, Z,o«(/on, II, 119
1785 Fry, London, 11,118
1785 Pien-es, Paris, i, 272-274

1 785 Thomas, Worcester {Mass. ) ,

II, 156-158

1786 Wilson, Glasgmv, ii, 117

1787 Baine, FAinburgh, n, 152
1787 Fry, Zonrfon, n, 120

1787 Momoi-o, Paris, i, 249, 250

1787 Real Biblioteca, Madrid, ii,

82, 83

1788 Bodoni, Parma (three), i,

185,11, 164, 166, 167
1789+ Herissant, Paris, i, 269
1790? Bache, Philadel/ihia, ii, 153
1791 J. de Groot, The Hague, n,

1791 ? Unger, Berlin, i, 157, 158

1792 Figgins, London, ii, 122

1793 Pradell, Madrid, ii, 83, 84

1794 Zatta, Venice, \, 186

1795 Fry 8c Steele, Zon(/o72, II, 120,

121
1795 Ifem (Pradell), Madrid, ii,

84, 85

1798 Caslon, London, n, 121

1799 Imprenta Real, Madrid, ii,

85, 86

1803 Thome, London, n, 196
1804? Harmsen, ^7?2.9?(?rc^c7??, n, 42
1805 Caslon, London, n, 196
1806+ Leger, Paris, n, 183

1807 Harris (Martin), Li-verfiool,

II, 124

1808 Gille^/«, Paris, ii, 181

1808? Gill67?/J9, Paris, ii, 182

1 809 Binny & Ronaldson, Philadel-

fihia, II, 154
1811 Amoi-etti, Parma, ii, 175

1811 Pi-adell, Madrid, ii, 57

1812 Besnard, Paris, ii, 182
1812 Binny & Ronaldson , Philadel-

fihia, II, 154, 155

1815 Figgins, Ijondon, ii, 196

1816 Fry, London, ii, 196

1816 Ronaldson, Philadel/ihia, ii,
155, 156

1818 Bodoni, /Vzrma, II, 169-171

1819 Didot, Paris, ii, 178, 179
1819 Mole, Paris, ii, 182

1822 Ronaldson, Philadelfihia, ii,

156

1823 Pasteur, Paris, n, 183

1824 Thorowgood, London, n, 196
1828 Didot, LegrandetCie.,Pam,

n, 196, 197

1830 Amoretti, Parma, n, 175

1831 + Leger, Paris, n, 183, 184

1832 Thorowgood, Zon(/o7z, II, 196

1833 Clement-Sturme, ro/enda, ii,

196
1833 W^ilson,G/c.9^OT:>,n, 193,194

1837 Tliorowgood, London, n, 196

1838 Cartallier, Padua, ii, 197

1839 Fonderie Generale, Paris, n,

184
1841 Enschede, Haarlem, ii, 197

1843 Fonderie Generale, Pcn«, n,

184, 185

1844 Qaslon, London, u, 196

1845 ImprimerieRoyale, Pans, n,

184
1850 Enschedg, Haarlem, ii, 197
1855 Enschede, Haarlem, n, 197
1875 Claye, Paris, n, 186
1 905 Musee Plantin-Moretus, Ant-

wer/i, II, 8,9
1914 Peignot, Paris, u, 223, 224
1921 Goudy, JVcivYork, n, 234

INDEX

ri^HECEDARIUM, I, 93, 94.

AcadCniie des Sciences, i, 7, 241,
245.

Acad6mieFran(;aise,i, 209, II, 2(51 n.

Ackermann, Rudoli)li, ii, 191.

Addison, Josc]jh, IVorks (liaskej--
ville),u, 111,112; (Tonson),135.

Adimari, A., La Clio, i, 168.

Advertisements of books, earliest, i,
63 and n.

Advertising leaflet, Caxton's, i, 117.

JElfredi Regis Res Gesttr, ii, 91,128.

/Eschyhis, Oresleia, ii, 215.

/Esop, Fahles. See Desbillons.

Alberts, R. C, ii, 36.

Albertus Magnus, De Secretia JVa-
turse, I, 122.

Albrizzi, i, 174.

Alcali, II, 46.

Aldine italic. See Italic, Aldine.

Aldis, H. G., quoted, ii, 15.

Aldus Manutius I, ronian types of, i,
76, 77\ the Aldine mark, 77\ and
Lyons printers, 91; his italic type,
125-131; his letter to Scipio Car-
teromachus, 126; his Greek type,
127, 128; mentioned, 74, 170, 199,
234, II, 16, 215.

Aldus Manutius II, i, 181.

Alexander, \\'illiam, Earl of Stirling,
Recreations nvith the Muses, ii,
131.

Alexandre, Jean, i, 242, 244, u, 187.

Alloues, 11, 25 1 .

Alpliabets, decorative, ii, 237, 238.

Altihahetum Ibericum, i, 135.

Altar Book, The, u, 218.

Amadis de G'fl?// (Cromburger) , ii,
62; (Groullcau), 80 n.

Amadu/.zi, C, i, 182.

America, Nortli, types and print-
ing in : seventcentii and eighteentii
centuries, ii, 149-153; early nine-
teenth centuiy, 153-158 ; modern,
216-218.

America, South, early printing in,

II, 60; and see Mexico.
American Antiquarian Society, ii,

157.
American point system, i, 33, 34.
Ameiirun 'I'ype Founders Co., ii,

156, 230, 231, 234.
.■\mes, Joseph, quoted, ii, 103.
.\moretti, Fratelli, s])ecimens, ii, 175

and 72.; types of, 175, 176.
Ampersand, i, 19 and n.
Ampzing, Samuel, ^f«c/;ri/T;/w_§-e . . .

der Slad Haerlem, ii, 29.
Anacreon, Odes, ii, 172.
Andilly, Arnauld d'. Vies de Plu-

sieurs Saints, etc., l, 209, 210;
(Euvres Diverses, 210.
Andrae, Hieronymus, i, 140 n.
Andi-eae, J . , Baum der Gesi/i/ischa/t,

1, 64.
Andrews, Robert, u, 99, 103.
Andrews, Silvester, ii, 99, 103.
Angulo, Andres de, n, 67.
Anisson, Jean, i, 212.
Anisson du Perron, i, 184.
Annmary Bmwn Memorial Libi-aiT,

I, 68 and n., 95.
Annunzio, Gabriele d', Francesca da

Rimini, ii, 221.
Antique, eigiiteenth centur)' api)re-

ciation of the, ii, 160 ff.
Antonio, Nicolas, Bibliotheca His-

paiia, II, 56, 75.
A])pi:ui, Roman History, i, 237, 238.
Apprentices, disputes over, ii, 251.
Aquinas, St. Thomas, Commentum

FJhicorum, i, 107.
Arabic numerals, i, 19, ii, 229, 230

and n.
Arden Press, ii, 216 n.
Ariosto, Orlando Furioso, i, 175.
Armstrong, John, The Art of F^e-

sei~i<ing Health, ii, 138, 139.
Arrighi, Antonio, De Vita . . . F.

liJauroceni, i, 172.

282

INDEX

ylrs Moriendi,!, 118.

Artofao, Job. P., i, 156.

Artois, Comte d', i, 216.

Ascham, Roger, 7^/ie Scholemaster,

II, 127.
Ashbee, C. R., u, 214.
Asbendene Press, ii, 213.
Atliias, Josepb, specimen, i, 135;

buys Elzevir material, ii, 22, 23 ;

mentioned, 100.
Atbias foundry, ii, 36, 37.
Attaingnant, Pierre, i, 195, 196,

213.
Audin, Marius, i, 232 n., ii, 8 n.;

quoted, 186.
Augustine, St., De Civitate Dei, i,

72, II, 207.
Augustinus Dactus, i, 123.
^ureum o/ius regalium, etc., i. 111,

112.
jiuteurs Classicjues Franqois et La-
tines (Didot), I, 230.
Avignon, early printing at, i, 82;

foundry at, 180.
Avila. See Gonzalez de Avila.

ijACHE, Benjamin Franklin, pupil of
F. A. Didot, I, 217; specimen, ii,
153; mentioned, i, 274, ii, 152.

Bacbelier, J. J.,i, 223.

Bade, Josse, i, 196.

Badius Ascensius, Jodocus. See Bade,
Josse.

Badius, Perrette, i, 190, 191.

Baemler, Jobann, i, 64.

Baiardi, Ottavio A., Delle Antichitt
di Ercolano, ii, 55, 160.

Baine, John, ii, 117, 152.

Baine, Jobn, and Grandson in Co.,
specimen, ii, 152.

Ballantyne, James, ii, 189, 200.

Ballantyne Press, n, 200, 210, 211,
216 n.

Balzac, Honore de, u, 183 and n.,
186.

Barber, Mary, Poems on Several Oc-
casions, II, 138.

Barbier, AndrC-, i, 1 2 1 , ii, 1 83 and n

Barbin, Claude, i, 210.

Barl)ou,Jeim Josepb, i, 216, 252.

Barbou, Joseph Gerard, i, 215, 216,
222, 224, 244, ii, 56, 263 and n.,
264.

Baretti, Josepb, quoted, ii, 85 n.

Barlow, Joel, Columbiad, ii, 154.

Barra, Pablo, u, 83.

Bartbolomxus Anglicus, De Profiri-
etatihus Rerum, i, 114.

Bartolozzi, Francesco, n, 147.

Barzizi, Gasparino, i, 84.

Basa, Domenico, i, 181.

Baskerville, Jobn, ii, 107-110; his
ViiTjil, 111, Addison, 111, 1 12, Ju-
venal and Persius, 112 ; bis speci-
mens, 113; history of his types,
113, 114; his ornaments, 115 ; his
work and influence considered,
115, 116 ; his influence on Bodoni
and Didot, 159 ; mentioned,!, 186,
217, 219, 228, 273, ii, 55, 56, 57,
58, 83, 100, 104, 120, 122, 123,
141, 142, 144 n., 145, 186, 187,
197.

Basle, sixteentli century printing at,
I, 142, 143, 144; foundries at,
150, 151 ; mentioned, 89, 90.

Baiibloom, Louis, i, 199.

Baudoin, J., Les Saintes JVTetamor-
fihoses, etc., i, 207, 208.

Bay Psalm Book, n, 149.

Bayer, Perez, De JVumis Hebrseo Sa-
7naritanis, ii, 52, 58, 78, 79 ; men-
tioned, 72 and n., 75.

Beaumarchais, P. A. Caron de, buys
Baskerville types, i, 228, u, 114.

Bebel, J., i, 143.

Belgium. See Netherlands.

Bellaert, Jacob, i, 97.

Bembo, Pietro, i, 76.

Beneventan writing, i, 47.

Bensley, Thomas, ii, 118, 121, 122,
147, 148 72., 188, 191, 198.

Bentley, R., Designs for Gray's
Poems, II, 140.

Benton, Linn B., his punch-cutting

INDEX

283

machine, i, 11; "self-spacing"
type, 34.

Berlin, Koyal Foundry at, i, 151.

Bernard, Auguste, quoted, i, 189 n.,
2.38, 243,11, 106.

Bemy, Alexandre de, ii, 183 and n.,
185.

Berthelet, Tliomas, ii, 88, 90, 125,
128.

Besnanl, Jean, Vignettes et Fleurons,
II, 182; mentioned, i, 275.

Bewick, Thomas, II, 122, 143, 146 n.

Bewicks, the (Thonias and John) , ii,
123, 124, 145, 146, 147.

Bey, Jacob, II, 151, 152.

Bible, the 42-line and 36-line, i, 61;
(iernuu) (Kobcrger), 64, (Lu-
ther's), 145, 146; the first printed
in Fi-ance, 85; Spanish, 105; Im-
primcrie Royale, 240; Dutch and
Slavic, II, 32, 3o\ Cranmer's, 90;
Macklin's, 121, 122, 188; Isaiah
Thomas's, 156; Doves Press, 212;
and see Poljglot Bible and New
Testament.

Bibliografihica, il, 201.

Biel, Friedrich. See Fadrique de Ba-
sUea.

Biesta, Laboulaye & Cie., ii, 184.

Billetes, Filleau des, i, 241 n.

Bindoni, F., i, 173 7i.

Binny, Archibald, ii, 153, 154.

Binny&Ronaldson, specimen (1809),
II, 153, 154; (1812), 154, 155;
transitional types, 231.

Blades, William, quoted, i, 3,4, 115,
116, 118, 119 Ti., 136, II, 23,
194.

Blado, Antonio, i, 180.

Blaeu family, printers, of Amster-
dam, II, 24, 30-32.

Blaeu's JVovus Mas, ii, 30.

Blair, Robert, The Grave, u, 188.

Blake, William, II, 189.

Blondel, P. J., Memoire quotetl, ii,
258 ff.

Bocciiccio, (iiovanni, Decamerone
(heirs of F. Giunta,1527), i, 160,

(1573), 163, 164; (I':Uzevir), ii,
IH; (Ashendene), 213.

B<Kchi, A., SymbfJicarum Quitntio-
num, I, 164.

IVnlley, Sir Thomas, ii, 95 n.

li<xloni, (iianibattista, his career, il,
163flr.; at I'arma, 164, 165; tyi)es
designal by, 164, 166, 167; his
early mannerof working, 171, 172;
his later manner, 172, 173; his
two manners compaivd, 1 73, 1 74 ;
his conception of tiie functions of
apix-ss,174,175; specimen of 1771
{Fregi e Alajuscolc) , i, 184, 185,
II, 81, 84, 164, 166; specimens of
1774 and 1788, 166, 167; Oratio
Dominica, 168, 169; Manua/e
Ti/iograjico (1788), ii, 166,
(1818), I, 185,11,169-171; Iscri-
zioni esotiche, i, 185 ; K/iitli(iUuiiia
exoticis tingtiis reddita, i, 185, ii,
166, 171; Lettre ci te iMurijids de
Cubi^res, 167, 168; mentioned,
I, 38, 148, 176, 177, 182, 186 and
n., 219, 230, il, 55, 57, 72, 121,
123, 159, 186, 187, 197, 203.

Bodoni type, modem version of, u,
235.

Boediius, 0/iera, i, 160.

Boileau Desjjreaux, Nicholas,
CEuvres, i, 221.

Boissieu, A. de, InscrifUiona jintiquea
de Lyon, ii, 185.

Boke of St. Jlbans, The, i, 120.

Bologna,Francescoda,i, 76,128,129.

Bonasone, (i., i, 164.

Bona\cntura, St., i, 193.

Bonhomme, Pasquier, i, 86, 87.

Boixlazar, Antonio, Pkuitificacion,
etc., 11,50-52, 71 ; mentionetl,58.

Bosch, Jan, li, 34.

Bossuet, J . B. , Discours sur /' Histoirc
Universelle, i, 211.

Ifctteri, B., Orazione Funebre, U,
55.

Bouchot, Henri, quoted, ii, 177.

lioullencourt, L. J., de, Descri/ition
(ihu-ralede C Hostel Royal des In-
valides, i, 206.

284

INDEX

Boiirgoing, Chevalier dc, ciuoted, ii,

56.
Bowver, William I, ii, 101 and n.,

102, 115 and n., 134, 136, 137,

139.
Bowyer, William II, ii, 101 n., 137.
Boydell, Jolin and Josiah, ii, 144,

145, 147.
•' Boydell Shakspeare," ii, 123, 144.
Bradford, William, ii, 151.
Bi-alie, Tyclu), ii, 30, 31.
Bi-andt, Cierard, La Vie dc ISIichcl

dc Ruiter, ii, 32.
Bi-ant, Sebastian, StuUiferas JYaves,

I, 108.
Breda, Jacobus de, i, 95.
Brcitinger, J. J., Dichtkunst, i, 147.
Breitkopf, Bemhard C, specimen,

I, 154, 155, 156; mentioned, 147,

154, II, 44.
Breitkopf, J. G. I., i, 148, 150, 155,

262,11, 115.
Breton, Richard, i, 201.
Breves, Savary de, i, 208, 238.
Brez'iaire de Paris, i, 85.
Breviarium Gothicum, etc., ii, 55,

56.
Brieven . . . den Johan de Witt, u,

33.
Briquet specimen, i, 268, 269.
British Museum, Facsimiles from

Early Printed Books in the, i,61 //.
Br'itish JMuseum, Catalogue of Books

printed in the XVth Century 7io-iu

in the, i, 61 n.
Brito, J., I, 97, 122.
Brocar. See Guillen de Brocar.
Broctes, B. H., Irdisches Vergnilgen

in Gott, I, 147.
Brogiotti, A., i, 167, 181.
Brothers of the Common Life, i, 95.
Browne, SirT., Works, ii, 133.
Bruce, George, i, 32, 33.
Brun, P., I, 107.
Bude,Guillaume, DePhilologia, etc. ,

I, 196; De Transitu Hellenismi,

etc., 196.
Bulmer, W., quoted, n, 145-147;

mentioned, 121, 123, 124, 143,

145, 154, 189, 190, 198.
Bulmer, W., & Co., ii, 144, 147.
Burger, K., Monumenta Germanise

et ItaliiK lY/Ziogra/i/iica, i, 61 n.
Burne-Jones, Sir E., ii, 202.
Bumey, Charles, History of Music,

II, 118.
Bus, Jan, ii, 23, 35.
Buyer, Barth61emy, i, 89.
Bynneman, Hemy, ii, 128.
Byron, Lord, Works, u, 191.

V><ADKLL, Thomas, ii, 142.

Caesar, Commentaries (Sweynheym
and Pannartz), i, 83; (Vidoue),
195, 198; (Vascosan),198; (El-
zevir, 1635), II, 17, (1661), 18;
(Tonson),135.

Calligraphic types, Spanish, ii, 86,
87.

Callimachus, JVorks,ii, 143.

Calviac, Gilbert de, Civile Honne-
stete fiour les Enfants , etc., i, 201.

Cambridge (;Mass.), first press at,
II, 149, 150.

Cambridge University Press (Eng-
land), ii, 96 n., 214.

Camusat, Jean and Denise, i, 209.

Canones Ajiostolorum, i, 142.

Capelle,Pierre, quoted, i, 250, 257 n.

Cappon, Vincent Denys, i, 262,269,
273.

Caraciircs d' Ecriture,\i, 181, 182.

CaractPres de F Universite (Gara-
mond's), i, 234 ff., 238, 240, n,
234.

Carlos II, II, 51.

Carlos III, patron of Spanish indus-
tries and arts, ii, 54, 55, 77, and
of Bodoni, 55, 165 ; makes Ibarra
court printer, 57; mentioned, 52,
53, 79, 82, 84, 160, 168.

Carlos IV, II, 165.

Carolingian manuscripts, I, 70.

Carolingian minuscule, i, 48-51; re-
vived by Humanists, 53-55.

INDEX

285

Cartallier, F., specimen, ii, 197.

"Cases," niodeni, described, i, 20-
22,22n./ theSUmliope, 23,24n.;
the I^fDvre, 24; for foreign lan-
guages, 24.
Casiri, Miguel, Bibliothcca ylrahico-
Hisfiano Escuriatensin, ii, 52, 71.

Caslon, William I, and the history of
Englisli type -cutting, ii, 100 ; his
origin and career, 101 ff.; death,
104; specimen of 1734, 103; spe-
cimen of 1763, 104 and n., 105,
117 ; his types considered, 105,
106; his ornaments, etc., 106,
107, 240; his types copied, 118,
119, 120; his "English" roman
first used in Selden's O/it-ra, 136,
137; his types in North America,
151,157; mentioned, I, 20 n., 37,
u, 21,44,83, 110, 121, 125,236.

Caslon, William II, ii, 103, 105,
121.

Caslon, William III, buys Jackson's
foundry, u, 122; mentioned, 105,
and n.

Caslon family, the, ii, 105.

Qislon found r)', later history and
present ownership of, n, 105 and
n.; address prefixed to specimen
of 1785, 119; specimen of 1798,
121.

Caslon types, original and later, com-
pared, II, 195, 196; revival of
original in 1844, 198, 199 ; recom-
mended, 228.

Castell, Edmund, Lexicon Hefita-
glotton, II, 98.

Castro. See Ciomez de Castro.

Catherwood, John James, ii, 105.

Catlierwood, Nathaniel, ii, 105.

Catholicon, i, 63, 64.

Catullus, Odes, in Latin and Italian,
II, 176.

Cavalca, D., Esfiejo de la Cruz, i,
108.

Cavellat, (Jviillaume, i, 200.

Caxton, William, introduced print-
ing in England, i, 113; his life,
113 ff.; at Cologne, 114; quoted.

114, 115; his press at Bruges,
115; in I>ondon, 116; his types
described, 115-118; number of
books printed h\ , and their char-
acteristics, 118, 119 and n.; his
woodcuts and initials, 119; histori-
cal significiince of his types, 120;
books on, 120 «.; his types com-
pared with Continental ones, u, 88;
mentioned, i, 3, 55, 95, 97.

Cecchi, (iiovanni F., i, 169.

Censorship of books, in France, ii,
266-269; in the Netherlands, 269,
270.

Century Dictionary, ii, 141.

Ceremonies et Coutumes Religieusea,
etc., II, 34.

Cen'antes, Miguel de, Don Quixote
(Cuesta) , u, 49, 68 and n.; (Ibar-
ra), 55, 56, 57, 7o-75\ (Chis-
well), 133; (Tonson), 135.

Cesar and Stoll, i, 88.

Chamberlaine, John, Imitation of
Drawings by Holbein, ii, 145.

Chambers' Cyclojiitdia, quoted, li,
103, 117.

Charlemagne, revival of learning
under, i, 48 and n., 49, 50.

Chatelain, Zacharie, ii, 34.

Chatto and Windus, ii, 215.

Chaucer, Geoffrey, Works (God-
frey), u, 126;' (Pvnson), 126;
(Islip), 128, 129; (Kelmscott),
213; Canterbury Tales, i, 122;
Dives and Fau/ier, 122.

Chiswick Press, ii, 198, 199, 201,
204, 216, 237, 238.

Choffard, Pierre Philippe, i, 214,
225.

Chronicle of Roderigo of Toledo, ii,
66.

Chrysostom, St., JVorks (Eton),ii,
95 and n.

Cicero, Ofiera (Estienne, 1543), i,
197; (1538-39), 198; (Elzevir),
u, 17, 18; De Oratore, I, 72.

Cisneros, Cardinal. See Ximenez.

Civilit6 type, i, 131, 201, 202.

Claeszoon van Balen, Pieter, u, 27.

286

INDEX

Clarendon, Eiirl of, History of the

Rebellion, ii, 133, 134.
Clarendon Press, ii, 200.
Clark, R. & R., ii, 200, 201.
"Classical" types, ii, 159 fl"., 163

and ti.
Claiidin, Anatole, Histoire de r Im-

firimerie en France, etc., i, 83 7i.,

II, 186, 224 and n., 225.
Claye, Jules, Ty/ies de Caractires,

etc., specimen, ii, 186.
Clemen t-Stiirme, J. B., & Co., spe-
cimen, II, 196.
Cleland, T. M.,n, 235.
Cloister Press, u, 216 n.
Clousier, J. G., i, 226.
Ckitton-Brock, A., quoted, n, 208.
Cobden-Sanderson, T. J., n, 211,

212.
Cochin, Charles Nicolas, i, 242.
Coci, George, ii, 45, 46, 61, 62, 65.
Cockerel], S. C, u, 206 n., 213,

216.
Codex Alexandrinus, ii, 121.
Codex Deer etorum (Gmtian), i, 78.
Coignard, Jean Baptiste II, i, 219,

II, 261.
Coignard, Jean Baptiste III, i, 221.
Colines, Simon de, i, 190; his italic

and Greek fonts, 191, 197, 198;

mentioned, i, 198 7z., 200, u, 4, 9.
Collection des Auteurs Latines (Bar-

bou), I, 215 andn., 222.
College de France, origin of, i, 233.
Collombat, Jacques, teaches Louis

XV to print, i, 247, 248; men-
tioned, 269.
Colonna, Francesco, Hyfinerotoma-

chia Polifihili (Aldus) , i, 76, 199 ;

(Baiibloom), 199.
Colour printing, early Spanish ex-
ample of, II, 62.
Columna, Aeg. de, Regimento de Ion

Princip.es, i, 110.
Commines, Philippe de, iV/f;wofrd'.9, i,

246, 247.
Comfiania de Imfiresores y Libreros,

n, 53.

Complutensian Polyglot. See Polyglot

Bible.
Composing-room, modern, selection

of tyi)es for, ii, 226 flF.
Coni/irehe7isorium, i, 105, 107.
Condixi, Asauiio, Life of Michel-

agnolo Buonarroti, ii, 214.
Confession de frire Olivier Mail-
lard, La, I, 87.
Congregation of Propag-.mda Fide,

catalogue of, i, 182; despoiled l)y

the French, 183; after 1800, 183,

184.
Constable, T. & A., ii, 200, 201,

238.
Copper-plates in book illustrations,

I, 147 72.; effect of increasing use

of, 165, 166, 172.
Cordoba. See Fernandez de Cordoba.
Corneille, P., Le Theatre de,i,210.
Coster, Laurens Janszoon, i, 4, 93,

n, 29.
"Costeriana," i, 59, 93.
Cot, Jean, i, 269.
Cot, Pierre, specimen, i, 270.
Cottrell, Thomas, ii, 104, 122, 196.
Cours des Princi/iaux Fleuves, etc.,

I, 247.
Courses de Testes et de Bague, i,

206.
Cousin, Jehan, Livre de Perspective,

I, 202 and n.
Cramoisy, Sebastien, i, 206, 207,

211, 239.
Crane, Walter, quoted, i, 70, 147 n.,

165.
Crapelet, G. A., quoted, i, 248.
Cratander, Andreas, i, 143.
Cromburger, Jacob, ii, 59, 62, 67.
Cromburger, Johann, u, 60.
Croniques de France, i, 87.
Cuesta, Juan de la, u, 68.
Cuivres de Cochin, etc., i, 242, 243.
Cunningham, W., Cosmografihicall

Glasse, ii, 91, 126.
Cupi, W., II, 100.
Curio, Valentinus, i, 143.
Curwen Press, u, 216 72.

INDEX

287

LyANFRiK, Philippe, I, 201.
Daniel, C. H. O., private press, ii,

200 and n.
Daniel, Roger, ii, 131.
Dante, Alighieri, Divina Commedia

(Marcolini),!, 160, 161; (Sessa),

162, 163; (Zatta), 174, 175;

(Asliendene) , ii, 213 ; Purgatorio

(Aldus), I, 12y; Inferno (Ash-

endene), ii, 213.
Dauvillier, Hubert, ii, 94.
David, Christoplie II, ii, 263 and n.
David, Jacques Louis, ii, 161.
Day, John, ii, 27, 90-92, 98, 99,

126, 127,128, 132, 149.
Daye, Stephen, u, 149.
DeVinne, T. L., i, 5, 18, 33, 77n.,

II, 21, 22, 104n., 135«., 24271.
Decellier, Madame, ii, 42 and n.
Decker, Georg Jacob, i, 148.
Declaration of Independence, set in

Caslon, II, 151.
Delacolonge foundry (Lvons), speci-
men, I, 213, 267, 268.
Delbene, A., Civitas Veri sive

A/orum, i, 206.
Desbillons, F. J., Fabularum jEso-

fiiarum, i, 222.
" Descenders," i, 35-37.
Dfsrri/ition des Fetes donnees fiar la

Ville de Paris, i, 213.
Deviliers, Nicolas, i, 250.
Diary of Lady IVilloug-My (1844),

II, 199.
Dibdin, Thomas F . ,Bibliot/ieca S/ien-

ceriana, ii, 190; Bibliografihical

Decameron, 190; Ty/iogra/ihical

Anti(juities of Great Britain, 190;

quoted or mentioned, 91, 106,124,

144 n., 148 n., 188, 191.
Diccionario de la lengua Castellana,

II, 70 and n., 71.
Dictes or Sayengis of the Philoso-

/i/ires, The, i, 116.
Dictionaries, methods of printing, ii,

140, 141.
Didot, .\nibroise Firmin, i, 189 n.,

218, 11, 180, 184.

Didot, Denis, i, 216.

Didot, F^icie, i, 218.

Didot, Firmin, i,217, 218; interested
in stereotyping, 218 ; translator of
Virgil, 218; his sons, 218; men-
tioned, 157, 158, 186, 225, 226,
227, 230, u, 177, 179, 180, 184.

Didot, Fran^xjis, i, 216, 221.

Didot, Fi"an(;ois .\mbroise, Paine: his
point system, i , 31, 32, 217; his
types cut by W'aflard, 216; his
collection of French classics, 216;
introduces //w/i/>r x'e//«, 217; his
sons, 217; influence of, on Dutch
printing in eigliteenth centur)-, ii,
43; Baskervillc's influence on, 159 ;
quoted, 175; mentioned, i, 38,
148, 218, 226, 227, 228, II, 55,
57, 176, 178.

Didot, Henri, i, 218.

Didot, Hyacinthe, i, 218.

Didot, L<:-ger, i, 218,

Didot, Piei-re, Paine: his editions du
Louvre, i, 217 and n.; heads neo-
classic movement^ in printing, 2 1 7,
218, 230, 231 ; Efiitre sur les Pro-
grhs de rim/iritnerie, 218, 226,
227, II, 56, 57; Essai de Fables
nouvelles, etc., i, 227, li, 176;
specimen of 1819, 178, 179; men-
tioned, I, 228, 230, II, 121, 123,
176 n., 177, 178, 182, 186, 187.

Didot, Pierre Francois, i, 216, 218,
228.

Didot le jeune, son of Pierre Fran-
cois, I, 218, 229.

Didot, Legrand et Cie., specimen, ii,
196.

Didot family, history of, i, 216-219 ;
and the develojiment of nineteenth
century types, ii, 176 ff., 197.

Didot foundry, types of, sold to Fon-
derie GC'nerale, ii, 184.

Didot types and derivatives, books
printed in, ii, 179, 180; influence
of, in France, 186; mentionetl,
177, 178, 187.

Doctrina Christiana en la lengua
Mejcicana e Castellana, ii, 60.

288

INDEX

Doctrinal of Sa/iience, The, i, 118.

Dodoens, Rembert, Scir/iium Hiato-
ria, II, 13, 14.

Dolct, Etienne, li, 257.

Dollar-marks first made in type, ii,
153.

"Domesday" character, ii, 121,
122.

Donatus, /Ellius, i, 72, 93, 94.

Dorat, Claude Josepli, Fables JVou-
velleSy I, 224; I^es Baisers, 224;
Lcttres en Vers, etc., 229.

Doves Press, ii, 211, 212.

Drouart, Ambrose and Jerome i,
206.

Drue kschrif ten des XV bis XVIJI
Jahrhunderts, i, 62 n.

Dudley, Rotiert, Dell' Jrcano del
Alare, i, 166.

Duff, Gordon, Early English Print-
ing, I, 55 n.; quoted, 118, 119,
120,121.

Durandus, G., i, 63, 65.

Diirer, Albert, i, 194 and n.

Dutch school of printing, i, 3 ; and see
Netherlands.

Dutch types, in England, i, 25, ii, 43,
44, 99, 100; in Vienna, i, 156 ; ver-
nacular, u, 8 ; in Germany, 44.

Dwiggins, W. A., quoted, n, 106,
107.

JiLguia, Miguel de, n, 67.

"Egyptian" types, n, 195 n.

Eisen, Charles, i, 214, 224, 259.

Eliot, John, Indian Bible, ii, 149.

EUstolj , Elizabeth , ^4n English- Saxon
Homily, etc., ii, 134, 135 and n.;
Anglo-Saxon Grammar, 135 n.

"Elzevier" tvpe, modern, ii, 185,
232.

Elzevir, Abraham, ii, 15.

Elzevir, Bonaventure, ii, 15.

Elzevir, Daniel, u, 18, 19, 22, 23.

Ellzevir, widow of Daniel, letter of, to
wife of Moretus, ii, 19, 20; speci-
men, 20 and n., 21.

Elzevir, Louis, i, 22 n., n, 15, 19.

FJzevir books, i, 37, ii, 15; in 32mo,
17, 18; in octavo, 18; in folio, 18,
19.

Elzevir family, history of, ii, 15 ff. ;
mentioned generally, i, 150 ?;.,
238, 239, 11,99.

Elzevir foundr)', later history of, ii,
22, 23.

Elzevir specimen-sheets (1658 and
1681), I, 135, (1681), II, 20, 21.

Emblems in specimen-books con-
sidered, I, 274-276.

Endters family, i, 153.

England, types and printing in : fif-
teenth century, I, 113-124; from
1500 to 1800, II, 88-148; from
1800 to 1844, 188-197; revival
of Caslon (1844) and Fell (1877)
types, 198-201; revival of early
type-forms and their modern use,
202-216.

English law-books, ii, 137.

Enschede, Ch., Fonder ies de Carac-
th'es dans Ies Fays-Bas, etc., i,
98 n., II, 39; quoted, i, 150n.,n,
42, 43.

Enschede, Isaac, ii, 36.

Ejischede, Johannes, i, 98, n, 23, 34,
36,38.

Enschede foundry (Haarlem) , n, 37 ;
specimens, 38-40, 197.

Episcopius, Nicolaus, i, 143.

Ei-agny Press, ii, 213.

Erasmus, Desiderius, i, 143; his
Greek translation of New Testa-
ment (Froben, 1516), 143, Latin,
(l52l), 144; Antiharbarorum,
144; La Civilite Puerile, etc. ,201.

Erliardt, Hr., i, 150, 156, ii, 44.

Emesti, J. H. G., specimens, i, 152,
153.

Es])inosa, Antonio, specimen, u, 80,
81.

Essex House Press, n, 214.

Estienne, Charles, De Dissectione
Parlium Cor/ioris Humani, i, 191 ;
mentioned, 237.

INDEX

289

Estienne, Henri, I, 190, 192.
Estiennc, Robert, i, 190, 191, 196,

197, 198, 204, 205, 233, 235,

236, 237.
Euclid, Elements, ii, 126, 127.
Eusebius, l^nfiaralio Kvangelica,

I, 237, 238; mentioned, 73.
Evelyn, John, quotetl, i, 209, 239,

240, II, 16 and n., 30.

Fadriquk de Basilea, i, 106, 107,

108, 111, II, 61.
Fann Street Foundry, ii, 121.
Fell, Dr. John, types imported by,

II, 95, 96 and 7i., 97; mentioned,
44.

" Fell " types, nuxlernuseof, ii, 200;

ornaments, 238.
F^nelon, Francois de S. de la Mothe-,

(Euvres, i, 228 ; .4ve7itures de

Tclhnacjue, 228.
FenoUar, B., Ohres e Trobes, i, 105.
Fenzo, Modesto, i, 173.
Ferdinand, Duke of Parma, and Bo-

doni, II, 164, 165, 168, 171 ; men-
tioned, 55.
Femandez de Cordoba, Alonso, i,

105.
Femel, Jean, Monalosfihaerium and

Cofinio T/ieoria, i, 197.
Fertcl, Martin, Science Pratique de

ri/n/irimerie, i, 26, 260 n.
Feyei"il)end, Sigmund, Thurnier

Buch, I, 140, 141.
Fichet, G., i, 83, 84, 188, n, 248.
Fifield, A., ii, 98.
Fifteen Oes, i, 121.
Figgins, Vincent, specimens, u, 122,

194 n., 196, 236.
Fine, Oronce, De Rebus Mat/iemati-

cis, etc., I, 200; mentioned, 198.
Firmin-Didot, house of, i, 218.
Flaxman, John, illustrations to tlie

Iliad, u, 161.
Fleischman, J. M.,ii, 23, 34, 36, 37,

38, 39, 40, 41, 43.
Fliscus, (irammatica, i,107.

Horets, ll, 238 AT.

Florio, Jolin, J\fe^v IVorld of Words,
II, 141.

Focard, Jacques, Parafihrase de
r Astrolabe, i, 199.

Fonderie (iCnC-rale, Paris, specimen,
II, 184, 185.

Fonderie Mayeur, ii, 186, 232, 237.

Font of ty])e, numerous characters
in, I, 8; standard, 16, 17; classes
of characters in, 18.

Fontenai, AbbC* de, quoted, ii, 16,
108, 109.

Fontenellc, Bernard le B. de,
(Euvrcs Diverses, ii, 34.

Ford, Richard, quoted, i, 104, ii, 73,
85.

Foulis, Andrew, i, 186, 230, ii, 117,
118, 122, 123, 142, 143, 193.

Foulis, Robert, i, 186, 230, n, 117,
118, 122, 123, 142, 143, 193.

Fournier, Antoine, l, 254, 256.

Foumier, Francois, i, 248 and n.

Fournier, Jean Claude, and his chil-
dren, I, 205, 248.

Fournier, Jean Francois, 7?/«, i, 249;
specimens, 250 and n., 251.

Founiier, Jean Pierre, Paine: his
foundi-y, i, 248; marries Charlotte
Pichault, 249; his daughters, 250,
251; mentioned, 205, 257, 262,
266, 273.

Fournier, Pierre Simon, lejeune: his
point system, i, 26 ff., 32, 217,
252; his career, 251 ff.; Manuel
Tyfiogra/ihique ( 1 764, 1 766) ,
252, 260 and n., 261 ff., II, 8 1,1 71,
240; specimen-books, i, 252 and
n., 254, 262-264; other works
of, 253; his marriage, 253; his
houses in Paris, 253, 254 and n.;
death and eloge of, 254, 255 and
n.; his widow carries on foundry,
256 ; his types described, 257 ff.;
type oniaments, 264, 265; special
characters, 265 ; quoted, I, 28-
31, 149-151, 155, 156, 179, 180,
204, 205, 207, 215,216, 241 n.,
243, 255, 261, 262, 263, 267, u.

290

INDEX

35, 36, 53, 103, 104, 108; men-
tioned, 1, 148, 184, 185, 186, 216,

221, 222, 223, 2'J4, 225, 227, 250,
2ri, 273, 274, ii, 5, 37, 41, 43,
44,83, 84, 153 and ?t., 164.
Foil micr, Simon Pierre, son of Pierre
Simon (/f jcuue), i, 256; men-
tioned, 251, 254, 257 and n., ii,
152 and n., 153.

Fonrnier family, import;uice of, in
liistory of French tyjje-founding, i,
257; genealogical table of, 258.

Fox, Justus, II, 151.

Foxe, John, Book of Martyrs, ii, 92.

Fraktur type, i, 62, 139 ff., 145,
146, 148, 149, 150, 153, 155,
156, 157.

France, types and printing in: fif-
teenth century, i, 82-92; from
1500 to 1 800,188-276; theDidots,
II, 176-180; nineteenth century
foundries and specimens, 181-1 87;
modem, 222-225.

Francis de Sales, St., Introduction d
la Fie devote, i, 240.

Francois I, reign of, i, 189, 190;
mentioned, 195, 233, 234, 238.

Francour, Jean de, i, 101.

Frankfort-on-the-Main, foundries at,
I, 150.

Franklin, Benjamin, and the Four-
niers, i, 257 and n.; quoted, ii, 56,
57, 150, 151; letters to Bodoni,
167, 168; mentioned, i, 59, 217,
267, 273,274,11, 99 n., Ill, 113,
114 and 7Z., 139, 153, 156, 165.

Franklin, James, ii, 150.

Freart, Roland, ParaW^le de f Archi-
tecture Antique et de la Moderne,
I, 209.

Frederick the Great, i, 148, 151.

Freiburger, iM., i, 83, 85.

French books published in Nether-
lands, II, 34, 35.

French and Italian printing con-
trasted, I, 198, 199.

French Old Style, ii, 232.

French printing-offices, eiirly, u,
251, 252.

French Script, n, 236.

French types imitated in Germany,

I, 148.
Freylinghausen, J. A., An Ahatract

of the Whole Doctrine, *i\.z., ii, 189,

190.
Frisius, Ciemma, I.es I^-inciJies

d' Astronomic, etc., i, 200.
Froben, Johann, i, 143, 144, ii, 66,

89.
Froschauer, Chiystoph, Kunstrich

Buch, I, 142.
Fry, Edmund, Pantot^rajihia, u,

120.
Fry, Edmund, & Co., specimen of

1787, II, 120, 121; of 1816, 196.
Fr>', Heniy, ii, 120.
Fry, Joseph, ii, 118, 120.
Fry, J., & Co., specimen, ii, 118,

119,^121.
Fry and Kammerer, u, 154.
Fry and Pine, ii, 118.
Fryand Steele specimen, n, 120, 121.
Fr>^'s Type Street Letter Foundry,

II, 121.
Fuchs, Leonard, De Historia Stir-

fiium, I, 144, 145.
Fuhrmann, G. L., specimen, i, 134,

146, 147.
Fuller, Tliomas, quoted, ii, 4; Holy

and Prof ane State, 131.
Fundamentbuch, i, 141.
Fust, Johann, and Schoeffer, Peter, i,

61, 62,66, 71, 82.

vJABRiEL Antonio de Borbon, Don,

translation of Sallust, n, 56, 58,

59, 71, 7o.
Gaguin, Robert, i, 84, 195.
Gallner, type-cutter, i, 151.
Game and Playe of the Chesse, The,

I, 115.
Gando, Francois, le jeune, i, 249,

271.
Gando, Jean Louis, i, 271.
Gando, Nicholas, raine, specimen, i,

271, 272, 273.

INDEX

291

Garamond, Claude, i, 234 ; his car-
acteres tie r L/niverailt, 234, 235,
240; his g-recs du roi, 236-238;
his types now in collection of Ini-
prinierie Niitionale, 238; revived
use of his types, ii, 224, 225 ; n)en-
tioned, i, 191, 205, 207,243, 245,
249, 259, 268, ii, 4, 6, 7, 22, 36,
177, 187.

Gamier, J. B.,i, 220.

Gas/iarini Kfiistolu', i, 83, 84.

Gas/tarini Ort/ioifra/i/iia, i, 84.

Gast, Matthew, u, 48, 49.

Getl, \\'illiani, ii, 99 n.

General Councils, Acts of, i, 240.

Geographiail works, Dutch, ii, 23,
24, 29, 30.

Geoi-ge III, II, 147 n.

Gering, Ulrich, i, 83, 85, 86.

Gering ;uid Renibolt, i, 191.

German printers in Spain, i, 99, 103.

Germany, types and printing in:
fifteenth century, i, 58-69; from
1500 to 1800, 139-158; modem,
u, 219-221.

Gessner, Christian F., Buchdrucker-
kunst und Schriftgiessercy,!, 154,
II, 44.

Geyssler,Valentine, specimen, 1, 134.

Gil, Geronimo, ii, 74, 82, 83, 86.

Gille, J., specimen, ii, 181 n.; men-
tioned, i, 148, 273.

Gille, J. G.,Ji/s, specimen, ii, 181,
183.

Giunta, Filijjpo di, i, 160.

Giunta, Luc Antonio di, i, 160.

Giunti, the, i, 130.

Glover, Joseph, ii, 149.

Godfrey, 'Diomas, ii, 126.

Godfrey of Boloyne, i, 1 1 7, ii, 131.

Goethe, J. W. von, Faust, i, 149;
IVilhelm Meister, 149; mentioned,
154, 155.

Golden Legend, The, i, 120.

Goldoni, Carlo, Ofiere Teatrale, i,
175.

Goldsmith and Parnell, Poems by, ii,
123, 124.

CJoltz (Goltzius) , Hubert, O/iera, ii,
52; Fh'if Omnium fere Imfiera-
torum Imagines, 27; C. Julius
Cusar, etc., 28.

(ionic/, de Castro, .\lvar, De Rebus
Gestis a Francisco Ximenio, li, 67,
79.

Gonzalez de Avila, (i., Teatro de las
Grundezas de . . . Madrid, ii, 69.

Goodhue, Hertram G., ii, 217, 234.

(iorgonzola, Nicolas, I, 159.

Cioschen, Georg Joachim, i, 149.

Ciottsched, J. C, Critischer Dicht-
kunst, I, 147.

Goudy, Frederic W., u, 234, 235;
specimen, 234 n.

Gourmont, Gilles do, i, 236 n.

Ciower, John, Confessio Amantis, n,
125, 126.

(irafton, Richard, ii, 90, 129 n.

(irandjean de Fouchy, Philippe: his
romain du roi, i, 241 and n., 242,
243, 244, II, 159, 187, 225; his
form of serif, 159; revived use of
his types, 224; mentioned, i, 7,
254, 259, 264, 271, ii, 186, 197.

Granjon, Robert, civilite types, i,
201, 202; italic, 203, 204; men-
tioned, 131,167, 179 and n., 181,
249, 250, n, 4, 5, 7, 8 and n., 41.

Gi-a])heus, J., n, 27. •

(inive, Nicolas de, u, 26.

(iray, 'lliomas. Six Poems (Do<ls-
ley), II, 140; Poems (Foulis), 143;
quoted, 88; mentioned, 165.

Grecs du roi. See (iaramond.

Greek, mss., Aldus's imitation of, i,
127, 128 and n.

Greek Testament, i, 240.

(ireek tyi)es, De Colines', i, 191;
Gai-amond's, 236-238 ; " Royal,"
238 (and see Silver Ixtter) ; in
Complutensian Polyglot, ii, 46;
Hil)bert's, 192; Image's, 215;
Proctor's, 215. 216 and n.

Green, Samuel, ii, 149, 150.

(Irifii, Francesco, i, 76, 128, 129.

(irismand, J., il, 98.

292

INDEX

Groot, J. de, si)ccimcn, ii, 42.

Groppo, Antonio, i, 174.

GrouUcau, Ksticnne, i, 200, ii, 80 n.

Grovcr, James, ii, 99, 103.

Grover, Thomas, ii, 99.

Gnpliius, J., I, 162.

Gryphius, Sel)astian, i, 204.

Guerin, Maurice de, Le Centaur, ii,
217.

Gu6rin (H.L.) andDelatour (L.F.) ,
I, 214, 271.

(Juicciardini, L., Descrittione di Tutti
iFaesi Bassi, ii, 28; mentioned, 13.

Guillen de Brocar, Aniald, i, 106,
108, u, 46, 47, 65.

Gumiel, Diego de, i. 111.

Gutenberg, Jolumnes, perfected in-
vention of movable types, i, 3, 4,
5 ; mentioned, 61, 63, 84, 90.

Guyot, Fi-an^,ois, ii, 4, 5, 49.

Guzman, Perez de, Cronica de Don
Juan II (Brocar), ii, 47, 65;
(Monfort),58, 77, 78.

JriAAS, Wilhelm, i, 151.

Hacon, W. L., ii, 211.

Haebler, Koni-ad, Tyfiografihie
Iberique du Quinzihne SiH/e, i,
102 n.; Early Printers of S/iain
andPortugal, 102 n.; quoted, 99,
100-102, II, 45, 47, 61, 62, 65;
mentioned, i, 106, 107.

Haener, Henri, i, 251, 267.

Hagenbach, Peter, i, 109, ii, 45, 61.

Hall, F. W. , quoted, i, 49, 50, 53 n.

Han, Ulrich, i, 72, 79.

Hanmer, Sir Thomas, his edition of
Shakespeare, ii, 139.

Hansard, Thomas C, quoted, n, 195,
196.

Hansy, Honore T. de, i, 273.

Harmsen & Co., n, 42.

Harper, Thomas, ii, 131.

Hart, Horace, ii, 97n.

Harvard College, and the first Colo-
nial press, II, 149, 150 ; types
given to, by Hollis, 150 and n.

Hatfield, Arnold, II, 131.

Hautin, Pierre, i, 195, 213, 250,
II, 4.

Hawkins (Rush C.) Collection, i, 68
and n., 95.

Hebrew types, Le Be's, i, 204, 205.

" Heiglit- to-paper," i, 34 n.

Hele, Geoi'ges de la, Masses, ii, 5,
9, 13.

Helvetiorum Res/iublica, ii, 16.

Hemery, J. d', ii, 267.

Henric of Delft, i, 97, 98.

Hentzsken, Michael, i, 142.

Herbort, J., Jenson's successor,!, 74.

Herculaneuni and Pompeii, effect of
discovery of, on design, n, 160.

Herder, J. G. von. Brief e, i, 148.

Herissant, Jean T., i, 262, 269.

Herissant, Marie N. (Estienne) , spe-
cimen, I, 269.

Hewitt, Graily, ii, 213.

Heynlin, Johann,i, 83, 84, 89; n,248.

Hibbert, Julian, Book of the Orphic
Hymns, ii, 192 and n.

Hispanic Society of America, ii,

68 72.

Historia von D. Johann Fausten, i,

146.
History of the River Thames, n, 147.
Hobby Horse, The Century Guild, u,

201.
Holland, Philemon, translation of

Pliny, u, 130.
Holland. See Netherlands.
Holle, L., I, 66.

Holhs, Thomas, II, 101 n.,150 andn.
Holtrop, J. W., Alonuments Ty/io-

graphic/ues des Pays-Bas, i, 93

and n., 94.
Holyoke, Edward, quoted, ii, 101 n.
Homer, Iliad and Odyssey (Foulis),

n, 1 1 7, 143 ; Iliad (Bowyer) , 136.
Hondius, H., ii, 29.
Hondius, J., ii, 24, 28, 29, 30.
Hongre, Pierre, i, 90.
Hooft, Pieter C, JVederlandsche

Historien, ii, 32.

INDEX

293

Horace, Ofiera (Miscomini), i, 80;

{edition du Louvre), 217, 231;

(Iniprimeric Kovale) ,240; (Pine) ,

II, 137, 138 ; (Koulis), 143 ; (Di-

dot) , 1 63 «. , 1 78 ; Odes arid Kfii.s-

tles, I, 197.
Hor;r ad usum Sarum (Caxton), i,

117; (Pvnson), 123; (Notary and

Barl)ierj, 121, 122.
Horap BcatfE Virginis ad usum Pari-

sienscm, i, 191.
Ilornian, W., Vutgaria, ii, 89, 125.
Honiby, C. H. St. John, ii, 213.
Hoi-ne, Herbert P., The Century

Gitild Hobby Horse, ii, 201 ; types

designed by, 214.
Hostingue, printer at Rouen, ii, 89 n.
Hours, Books of, i, 88 ; and see Ho-
rse.
Hours of work, ii, 270, 271.
Housman, Laurence, n, 238.
Hugo, Obsidio Bredana, ii, 14.
Humanistic Mss., and Italian roman

types, I, 70.
Humanistic writing, a revival of Car-

olingian minuscule, i, 53 and n.,

54, 55; results of its adoption, 56.
Humanists' Library, The, ii, 215.
Hume, David, History of England,

II, 188.
Hurio, Francesco del, ii, 70.
Hurus, Juan, i, 106.
Hums, Pablo, i, 104, 106, 107, 108,

109, 110.
Hurus printing-house, ii, 45, 46.
Husz, Martin, i, 89.
Husz, Matthieu, i, 91.
Hutten, Ulrich, De Unitate Eccle-

siff Conserxianda, i, 142.
Hutz and Sanz, i, 110.
Hij/merotomachia Poli/ihili. See Co-

lonna.

1, CAPITAL, originally represented J
also, I, 22 and n., 23, ii, 236.

Ibarra, Joachin, his career, ii, 54
flF.; court printer, 55, 57; books
printed by, 55, 56, 71-75; rival ly

between Didot and, 55, 56; liis
death, 57; his office carried on by
hiswidowand sons, 59 ; mentioned,
I, 177, 186, 219, n, 53, 82.

Iciar, Juan de, i, 110 and n.

Ideograms, I, 40 and n.

Ifem, Pedro, si)ecimen, ii, 84, 85.

II Fi-ancia. See Kaibolini.

Image, Sehvyn, ii, 215.

Imjjrcnta Real, ii, 79 ; specimen, 85,
K6; mentioned, 59, 69.

Impressao Regio (Lisbon), ii, 54 n.

Imprimerie Nationale, and (iara-
mond's types, i, 238; "historical
types" of, II, 186; comparative
table of, 186, 187; and see next
entry.

Imprimerie Royale, founded, i, 238
ff.; first books printed at, 240,
241 ;GrandjeiUi's types (rc//7/o//2 du
ro/) cast for, 241,242, 243; Luce's
types and omaments bought for,
245, 246; aided by royal subven-
tions, 246, 247 ; productions of,
248 n.; specimen, ii, 184; men-
tioned, I, 212, II, 179; and see
Garamond.

Index Exfmrgatorius, i, 180.

Initial lettei-s, calligraphic, in early
French books, i, 87, 88, 91; en-
gi*a\ed, in early Spanish books,
100, 111; selection of, for modem
composing-room, n, 237.

Irish type, ii, 95 n.

Islip, Adam, n, 128, 130.

Italian art, influence of, in France, i,
190.

Italian cursive handwriting, and italic
tj'pe, I, 125, 128, 129.

" Italian letter " (roman), ii, 89, 91.

Italic, Aldine, i, 125 ff.; reasons for
invention of, 126, 127, 128; based
on Italian cursive hand, 128, 129;
model for all later italic tj-jjes,
129 ; different names of, 129;
counteifeitedat Lyons, where italic
capitals were first added, 130.

Italy, types and printing in : fiftt.enth
century, i, 70-81 ; Aldine italic,

294

INDEX

125-132; from 1500 to 1800, 1.59 -
187; Bocloni, n, 163-175; mod-
em, 221, 222.

J , CAPITAL, I used for, in early times,
I, 22, 23, II, 236; differentiated
from I, I, 22 n.; lower-case, dif-
ferentiated from i, 22 n., 23.

Jacobi, J. Cr., Iris, i, 148.

Jackson, Joseph: his "peculiar"
fonts, n, 121 ; his fovuidry sold
to Caslon, 122; mentioned, 104,
105 71.

Jacquem in, type-cutter, II, 179, 184.

Jacquinot, Dominique, L' Usage de
r Astrolabe, i, 200.

James, Thomas, ii, 99 n., 100.

James foundry, obtains types from
Holland, n, 99, 100 ; purchased
by Mores, 102 w.

Jansson, J., ii, 29.

Jaugeon, Nicolas, i, 7, 11, 241 and n.

Jenson, Nicolas, at Venice, i, 73 ; his
roman types, 73, 74, 79;hisgothic
tvpes, 74, 78 ; books printed and
published by, 74 ; contemporary
eulogy of, 74-76; mentioned, 71,
234, 243, n, 116, 177, 206, 207,
208, 212, 217, 233.

Jobin, BeiTihard, i, 141.

Johannot, Tony, ii, 180.

John of Westphalia, i, 97.

Johnson, Lawrence, n, 156.

Johnson, Samuel, quoted, i, 126;
Dictionary, ii, 140, 141; Rasselas,
189.

Joly, Maurice P., i, 267.

Jombert, C. A., i, 222.

Jordan, Peter C, n, 156.

Josephus, Flavius, Works, i, 193,
194; History of t/ie Jews, 200, 201.

Junius, Francis : his gift of (iothic,
Saxon, and other types to Oxford,
n, 95, 96; Etymologicum Angli-
canum, 135 n.

Junta, Tomas, ii, 69.

Juvenal, Satires (Du Pr6), i, 91;
(Imprimerie Royale), 241.

Juvenal and Persius (Aldus), i, 126,
128; Haskerville, ii, 112; (Chis-
wick Press, 198, 199.

JS.ANTKR, Berlin type-founder, I,
151.

Kauffniann, Angelica, ii, 161.

Kchlin, Ignacc A.,i, 180.

Kelmscott Press, established by W.
Mon-is, II, 204 ; editions of, con-
sidered, 204, 205, 207, 208, 216.

Kerver, Jacques, I, 191, 199.

Kerver, Thielman, i, 193.

Ketelaer and Leempt, Dutch print-
ers, I, 94, 95.

Klopstock, F. G., Alessiaa, i, 147.

Koberger, Anton, i, 63, 64, 65, ii,
207.

Koler, Andr., i, 156.

Konnecke, Gustav, Bilderatlas zur
Geschichte der deutschen JVational-
litteratur, i, 141 n.

Kranz, Martin, i, 83, 85.

JL/A Fontainp:, Jean de. Fables Choi-

sies, I, 213, 215, 222 and n., 223
and 72.; Contes {edition des fer-
miers-generaux) , 215; {edition
du Louvre), 217.

La Motte, Antoine H. de. Fables
JVouvelles, I, 219, 220.

La Rochelle, Nee de, quoted, n, 57.

Lactantius, 0/iera, i, 72.

Laet, J. de, Gallia, ii, 16.

Laigue, Estienne de, i, 195.

Lama, Giuseppe de, ii, 168, 173 n.

Lamesle, Claude, specimen, i, 213,
270, 271; mentioned, 202.

Latin alphabet, l, 38-57.

Latin writing, periods in histoiy of,
I, 42 ff. ; and see Carolingian mi-
nuscule. Humanistic writing.

Laud, William, n, 95, 96.

Laurent, J. F., ii, 183 and n.

Le Be, Guillaume I : his Hebrew
types, I, 204, 205; mentioned, n,
4, 6, 7.

INDEX

295

I^ He, Guillaume II, letter of, to
Morctus, II, 5, 6; mentioned, i,
205, 212.

Le Be, (iuillaumelll, and his daugh-
ter, I, 205, 248; mentioned, II, 36.

Le m foundry, 1,266.

L'hxluse, Charles de, liariorum
Slirfiiurn Hisfuinve Historia, ii,

10, 11, 13.

I>e Fcivre, Haoul, i, 114.

Le Jay, (iui Michel, Polyglot Bible,

1,208, 238, II, 98, 103.
IjC Mercier, P. (i., i, 213.
Le Monnier (Abl)(;), Ft-len dfs

Doiiues-Gens de Canon, ii, 163 n.
Le Petit, Jules, Bihlioirrafihie dts

J^inci/iales Editions, etc. , i, 232 n.
Le Petit, Pierre, i, 209, 210.
Le Preux, Poncet, i, 195.
Le Rouge, Pierre, i, 88,233.
Ijd Roy, (iuillaume, l, 89.
Le Royer, Jean, i, 202.
\jt Sueur, Nicolas, i, 223.
I^eeu, Gerard, i, 95.
Lef&vre, Th.,i, 24.
Leger, L., specimen, ii, 183, 184.
Legouve, (iabi-iel, Le Merite dea

Femmes, etc., ii, 163 n.
Legi-and, type-founder at Avignon,

I, 180.

I>emcrcier, Pierre G., i, 273.
Ix;nzoni, C, La Clori, i, 168.
Lesage, A. L., Gil likifi, ii, 180.
Leslie, Charles, T/icological J I oris,

11, 135, 136.

Lessing, (iotthold Ephraim, JVat/ian

der IVeise, i, 148.
Letters of Charlotte, The, ii, 143.
Letters of Indulgence, i, 60, 61.
I^ttersnijder, Cornells Henriczoon,

II, 26 and n.
Lettersnijder, Jan, ii, 26.
I>ettou, John, I, 122.

Lettre batarde, i, 55, 60, 86 and n.,
87, 91,92,96,116,122,124,192;
(Mouchon's, 1890), ii, 222.

Lettre de forme, i, S5, 60, 61, 62,

86 and n., 89, 90, 93, 96, 116,

117,121,122,124,192,193,194,

195.
iMtre de somme, i, 60, 63 and n., 64.
Lettre francoyse d^art et de main.

See Civilite tyj)e.
Leyes del Quaderno, etc., I, 110.
Leyes fior la Brtrvedad dea loa

Pleitos,\, 109.
Liber Festivalis, i, 120.
Lihros Alenores, i, 108.
Lied auf die Schlacht von Pavia, i,

141.
Liliode Medicina, i, 110.
Lille, Abb6 de, i, 226, 227.
Lipsius, Justus, ii, 11, 13.
Littlefield, George E., ii, 149 n.
Littleton, Sir Thomas, Tenores A''o-

velli,i, 122.
Litui-gical works in Spain, ii, 50.
Livermore, Martin, ii, 105.
Livy, 0/iera (Coci), ii, 62, 65;

( Wetstein and Luchtnians) , 33.
Lobel, Mathias de, ii, 13.
Lol)inger, Ptuicr., i, 156.
Loneissen,(i.E., Fon Zeu?nen,i,14l.
Loritus, Henricus, Dodecachordon,

I, 145.
Lorraine, Jean de, ii, 89 n.
Los Santos, Fi-ancisco de, Descriji-

cion breve, etc., u, 69, 70.
IjOthaire, Cai-dinal, Comfiendium

Bre^ye, I, 89.
I^ittin, Augustin Martin, i, 212,

247, 251^ 266 and n., 268, 272.
I^uis XIII, I, 207, 209, 238.
Louis XIV, I, 206, 241, 242, 246,

275.
I^ouisXV, I, 245,247, 275.
I^Hiis XVI, I, 48, 216, 247, 272, 275.
Ix)uis Philippe, i, 276.
Ijouvain, airly printing at, i, 95, 96,

97, 98.
Ix)uveiui, J., I, 201.
Ijower-case letters, beginnings of, i,

45.
Ley son specimen, i, 268.

296

INDEX

Lucan, Pharsalia (Rcnouanl), i,
230; (Strawberry Hill), ii, 140.

Luce, I>niis: his types, i, 244, 245,
246; his lissai cVune Aouve/le 7]/-
/ipqra/t/iie, etc., 244 and n., 245 ;
K/ireuve du Preynier Aljihabeth
Droit ft Pencfic, 246 ancbi.; men-
tioned, 148,259, 263, ii, 159,160,
181, 187.

Lucena, Juan de, Refieticion de Amo-
res, etc., i, 110.

Luchtmans, Samuel, ii, 33.

Luckombe, Philip, History of Print-
ing, II, 104 n.

Lucretius, Z)f Rerum Ab/wra, Italian
ti-anslation of, u, 163 n.

Luther, Ei-asmus, specimen, i, 135;
mentional, 150 and 7i.

Luther, Martin, German Bible, i,
145, 146; mentioned, 143, 150.

Luthei-an Found rj-, i, 150 and n.,
157.

Lyons, early printingat, i, 89-91 ; Al-
dus' s italic pii-ated at, 130 ; print-
ing at, in sixteentli centur\', 202-
204; printers' strike at, in 1539,
n, 253-256, and its results, 258.

JVIcCreery, John, The Press, ii,
124, 189; specimen, 124 n.

McCulloch, William, quoted, n, 152,
153.

McKerrow, R. B.,ii, 93 and n.

Mabre-Cramoisy, Sebastien, i, 211
and n.

Machlinia, William de, i, 97, 117,
122, n, 89.

Mackail, J. W., quoted, u, 210 n.

Mackellar, Thomas, n, 156.

Mackellar, Smiths and Jordan, ii,
156.

Madan, Falconer, The Oscford Uni-
versity P}'ess, II, 97 n.

Magalotti, Lorenzo, Count, Sag-gi
di JVaturali Esfierienze, etc., i,
169.

Mainz, early printing at, liy Guten-
bei-g, I, 4, 5; earliest dated piece

of printing printed at, 60; other
works printed at, 61 fF. ; sack of
(1462), ciuises printers to scatter
througli Euroj)e, 67; their chief
customers, 67, 68 ; the types they
made, 68, 69; went mostly to Italy,
69; at Subiaco, 71.

Malo de Lugue, Eduartlo, Estabti-
cimientos Ultra mar inos, etc., ii,
75, 76.

MaloiT, Sir T., Morte Darthur, n,
213'.

Mame,A. H. A.,ii, 182.

Manifiulus Curatorum, x, 85, 106.

Manni, Joseph, i, 171.

Mansion, Colard, i, 95, 96, 97, 115,
116, 119,11, 89.

Manuel de Mena, Francisco, n, 52.

Manuale Burgense, i, 108.

Manuscripts, first printed books imi-
tations of late, I, 38, 39; copying
of, under Charlemagne, 48, 49 ;
relation of gothic types to, 48, 52,
53, 60; Italian and early printed
books, 80, 81; and printing, 136,
137; and see Humanistic writing.

Manutius, Aldus. See Aldus.

Manutius, Paul, i, 180, 181.

Mappa, Adam Gerard, u, 152.

Marcellin-Legrand,n, 179, 184,187.

Marcolini, F., I, 160.

Marder, Luse & Co., i, 33.

Mariana, Juan de, Historia General
de Esfiana, ii, 56, 58, 77 .

Mariette, Denis, n, 261.

Marillier, Clement Pierre, i, 214,
224.

Marin, Antonio, n, 59, 79.

iVIarshall, 'Diomas, quoted, li, 96,
97; mentioned, 43.

Martens, lliierry, i, 96, ii, 26, 27.

Martial, Efiigrams, i, 197.

Martin, Edme, i, 209.

Martin, Robert, n, 114.

Martin, William : his types, ii, 123,
124 and n., 230; mentioned, 121,
144 and n., 145, 146, 147, 189.

Martinez, Antonio, i, 108.

INDEX

297

Martinez de Jai-avia, Antonio. See

Nebrija, Antonio dc.
Mathematical signs, early use of, i,

18 n.
Matthaeus of Flanders, i, 105, 106.
Mattioli, P. A., commentaiy on Di-

oscorides, i, 173 n.
Aluximes Morales et Politiquea tireea

de Teletna(jue, i, 247.
Mayeur. See Fonderie Mayeur.
Mazi6res,Veuve, I, 220.
Medailles sur les Princifiaujc Eve-

nements dii R^ffue de Louis le

Grand, i,242. '
Medici, Cardinal Feixlinand de', i,

134.
Medici Society, London, ii, 215.
Mellottee, Paul, ii, 249.
Mena. See Manuel de Mena.
Mendez, F. , Tyfwgrafihia Es/iaTiola,

11,52, 53, 55,59, 82 n.
Mendoza. See Salazar de Mcndoza.
Mentelin, Jolin, i, 65, 66, ii, 206.
Mer des Hijstoires, i, 88, 91.
Mercator, ii, 23.
MercatorandHondius, Atlas JVorvus ,

II, 29.
Merrymount Press, ii, 214, 217.
Mexico, first American book printed

in (1539), II, 60.
Microcosm of London, The, ii, 191.
Millar, A., II, 139.
Miller & Richard, "Series of Old

Founts," II, 230, 236.
Milton, John, Works (Baskerville),

II, 109, 110; Poetical Works (Bul-

nier), 144, 145; Paradise Lost

(Foulis),143; Early Poems (Vale

Press), 211.
Miroir de Vie Humaine, i, 89.
Mirouer de la Redemfition, Le, i, 89.
Mirror of Consolation, i, 121.
Mirrour of the World, i, 117.
Misconiini, Antonio, i, 79, 80.
Missal, Bamberg (1481 and 1488),

I, 62 and n.; Sarum (Notary),

121, (Pynson), 123; Tolcdan,

109; ;md see following entries.

Missale Dioceaia Colonienais, i, 191.

Miaaale Pariaienae, l, 86.

Miaaale liomanum, u, 45, 46.

Miaaale Salisburgenae, I, 62.

Miaaale aecundum uaum Lugduni,
I, 90.

Miaaarum AIuaicalium,i, 195, 196.

Mn\6Jeune, specimens, ii, 182; men-
tioned, 184.

Molicire (J. B. Poquelin, dit) , CEuvrea
(Prault), I, 230; (Didot), 230.

Molini (G. C.) and Lamy(P.M.), i,
227.

Momoro, A.F.,i, 249 and n.

Monfort, Benito, n, 52, 56, 58 and
n., 77, 78.

Monnet, Jean, Anthologie Franqoiae,
etc., I, 223, 224.

Montaigne, Michel de, Kaaays, ii,
216.

Montano, Benito A., ii, 4, 13.

Montfaucon, Afonumens de la Mon-
archie Frajiqoiae, i, 220.

Moore, Isaac, & Co., specimen, n.
118.

Morales, Juan Gomez, ii, 51, 52.

Moi-ante, Diaz, Arte JVueva de Ea-
cribir, ii, 87.

Moreau, Pierre: his types, i, 207,
208; mentioned, 269, ii, 163 n.

Moreau, J. M., lejeune, i, 214.

Moreri, Louis, ii, 260, 261.

Mores, Edward Rowe : his Disserta-
tion u/ion English Ty/wgrafihical
E'ounders and Founderies quoted,
I, 25 n., 86 n., ii, 43,96,100, 102,
103, 239, 240; specimen of James
foundry, 102 n.

Moretus, Edouard, ii, 15.

Moretus, Johan I, Plantin's son-in-
law, letter of Le Be II to, ii, 5, 6 ;
mentioned, 13, 36, Sii.

Moretus, Julian II, ii, 13, 36.

Moi-gan, Jolin Piei-jjont, Catalogue of
Alanuscri/its, etc., in libraiy of,
11,201.

Morosini, Andrea, Historia Veneta,
I, 166.

298

INDEX

Morris, William, as writer and dec-
orator, II, 202; as printer, 203;
establisiies Kclniscott Press, 204;
his .Yote on his ylims, etc., 205,
206; his types, 206, 207; his work
considered, 207, 208, and its effect
on typogni])hy, 208, 209; quoted,
230; mentioned, 201, 210, 211,
212, 216, 217, 245; The Roots of
the Mountains, 204 ; Gunnlaug
Saga, 204 ; 77;<? Story of the Glit-
tering Plain (first "Kelmscott"
book), 204; The Golden Legend,
206; Historyes of IVoye , 207; The
Order of Chivalry, 207.

Moxon, Joseph, sketch of, i, 9 n.;
specimens and Mechanick Exer-
cises, 9 n., 135, II, 43, 44, 95 and
72.; quoted, 43; his foundry, 99;
mentioned, i, 261, n, 20, 21.

Mozai-abic Breviary, u, 45.

Mozai-abic Missal, n, 45.

Mozet, Claude, i, 268.

Muller, J. C.,i, 156.

Murray, Gilbert, quoted, n, 247.

Murray, John, ii, 191.

Music printing, i, 155, 195, 196.

Music types, Sanlecque, i, 213 ; Four-
nier, 265 ; Plantin, ii, 5 ; Elzevir,
21; Rosart, 41, 42.

Myllar, Androw, first Scottish print-
er, u, 89 n.

JNannini, Remigio, Considerationi
Cix'ili, I, 164.

Napoleon I, i, 183, 218, 275, 276,
u, 165.

Napoleon III, i, 276.

Nebrija, Antonio de, Introductionum
Latinariim, i, 108, 109 ; Introduc-
tiones in Latinam Grammaticam,
11, 66, 67; Hymnorum Recognitio,
67 ; mentioned, i, 101 ; and see Un-
known Printer of Salamanca.

Nebrija, Sancho de, n, 65, 66, 67.

Nebrissensis, ^^ius Antoninus. See
Nebrija, A. de.

Neobar, Conrad, i, 233.

Netherlands (Holland and Hdgium) ,
types and jjrinting in the : fifteenth
century, i, 93-98 ; from 1500 to
1800, II, 3-44; modem, 222.

Neudorfer, Johann, i, 140 n.

Neumeister, J., i, 62, 90.

New, Edmund, n, 214.

JVe%o English Dictionary, ii, 141.

New Testament (Froben), i, 143;
(Uidot), 229, 230; (F.stienne),
237 ; Irish (Everingham) ,ii, 95 n.

Newcomb, Thomas, ii, 132.

Nicholls, A., II, 98.

Nicholls, Nicholas, earliest English
specimen (1665), i, 135, ii, 94,
95.

Nichols, Charles L., ii, 156.

Nichols, John, ii, 121.

Nicol, George, ii, 123, 144 and n.,
146, 148 n.

Nicol, W., II, 144.

Nijhoff, M'outer, L'Art Jl/pogra-
fihiquc dans les Pays-Bas, ii, 25
and n., 26, 27.

Nogarola, L., Dialogus, etc., i, 162.

North, Sir Thomas, translation of
Plutarch, ii, 90, 128.

Notary, Julian, i, 121.

Novan-a, C. G. de, Conteiyi/ilaciones
sobre el Rosario, etc., i, 111.

Noyers, Sublet de, i, 239.

.Nuremberg Chronicle, i, 65.

Nutt, David, n, 201.

xJbelisco Vaticano, Delia Tras-
fiortazione dell', i, 181.

Obra Allaors de S. Cristofol, i, 110.

Occleve, 'Iliomas, i, 56.

Officia Quotidiana, i, 106, ii, 45.

Officina Isingriniana, printing-house,
I, 144.

Officina Plantiniana, u, 14, 15.

Ogilby, John, u, 99, 132.

Old Style, " Modernized " or "Re-
vived," II, 201 and tz., 232.

Oliveros de Castillo, i. 111.

Olivier, Peter, ii, 89 n.

INDKX

299

01schki,LeoS.,quotetl, I, 39, 178 n.
Oporinus, J., I, 143.
Orcesi, Niccolo, i, 177.
Ordinate sen IHca Sarum, i, 117.
Orga, JosC- dc, ii, 52 and n., 53 and

n.,58.
Orga, Tomas de, ii, 52 n.
Oriental types, i, 179 «., IHl, 182;

II, 95, 96, 98, 122.
Oriental typography, i, 179 n., 181,

182.
Orsi, Luigi, n, 169.
Ortel, Abraham, Theat7~um Orbis

Terrarum, n, 11, 29; mentioned,

13, 23.
Ortiz de Saravia, Maria, n, 69.
Os, (iottfried van, i, 120.
Oudn', Jean Biiptiste, i, 213, 215,

222.
Ovid, Heroides (Bindoni), i, 173

n. ; Metamor/ihosrs (Gorgonzola) ,

159, 160; (Tonson),ii, 135. Sec

Vita, La, etc.
Oxfoixl, early printing at, i, 123.
Oxford Book of English Verse, u,

200.
Oxford Foundry, n, 97.

Oxford ' ' type, u, 23 1 .
Oxfoi-d University, u, 94.
Oxford University Press, specimens,

I, 135 ; history of, u, 95 ff. ; men-
tioned, 43, 44, 122, 133, 135 n.,

238.

X ABLOS, Juan, II, 60.

Pace, Richard, Oratio, n, 89.

Paderbom, Johann of, i, 95.

PaflFraet, Albert, ii, 27.

Paffraet, Richard, i, 95.

Palencia, Alfonso de, Efxistula de
Btllo Granatensi, i, 108.

Pahmrt, Lambert, i, 105,106, 107,
108.

Palmer, Samuel, ii, 99 72., 136.

Pannartz, Arnold, i, 71, 72, 78,
79 ; and see Sweynheym and Pan-
nartz.

Pantagraph, uses of, in type-cutting,
I, 11, 12.

Paolini, Stefano, i, 182.

Paolo (iiovio, Historiarum sui Tem-
/ioriN,i, 161; Vitf/' duodeci/n Vice-
comttum Mediotani Princi/ium,
235.

Papillon, J. B., 1,215,220, 222,223,
274.

Paradin, Claude, ^^///fl«f^« Cicnealo-
ffifjues des Rois dc France, i, 202,
203; Hymb'Aa Heroica, 11, 10.

Par6, Amljroise, Methode Curative,
etc., I, 202.

Parentalia in jinniversario Funere
Mariai'. Clementinae, etc., i, 182,
183.

Paris, early printing at, i, 82; six-
teenth century printing at, 1 88 fT. ;
printers' strike in, in sixteenth
century, 11, 256, 257; conditions
of printing in, in early eighteentli
century, 258 and n., 259 ff.

Parker, Mattliew, quoted, 11, 91;
De AntUjuitate Britannicfe Eccle-
siae, 91, 92; mentioned, 98, 128.

Parma, Duchy of, 11, 55 and n.; and
see Ik)doni, Giambattista.

Pamell, Thomas. See Goldsmith.

PasquaH, J. B.,i, 174.

Pasteur, J. A., specimens, i, 274, n,
183.

Pater, Paul, specimen, i, 152.

Pavoni, Giuseppe, i, 165.

Peignot foundry, Paris, n, 223,
227.

Peintures Antiques de Bartoli, pix>-
spectus of, I, 227, 228.

Pelican Press, London, 11, 216 n.

Pepys, Samuel, 11, 70.

Percier, Charles, i, 231, u, 163 n.

Pemot, type-founder at Avignon, i,
180.

Perrin, I^^uis, 11, 185.

Persius, Satires, 11, 67; and see Ju-
venal and Persius.

Peter the Great, his Bible, n, 32,

300

INDEX

Petit, Jean, i, 193, 200.

Petit Bernard, I a:. 6>f Salomon, Ber-
naixl.

Petnurh, Francesco, i, 78, 128.

Peti-i, Henric, i, 145.

Petri, Joh., specimen, i, 133, 134,
145.

Phalaris, E/iistolfe, i, 109.

Philip II and printing in Spain, ii, 48,
49.

Philip V and printing in Spain, ii, 49,
50; mentioned, 71.

Philip, Duke of Parma, ii, 55.

Piazzetta, J. B., i, 174.

Picart, Jean, i, 250.

Picart, Bcmard, ii, 24, 33, 34.

Pickering, William, ii, 198, 199.

Pickering editions, n, 199.

Pierres, Philippe Denis, specimen, i,
250, 255 n., 273, 274; his career,
272, 273 ; mentioned, 269.

Pignoni, Z., i, 168.

Pigouchet, Philippe, i, 88.

Pinard, J.,u, 183.

Pine, Jolin, his edition of Horace, ii,
137, 138.

Pine, William, n, 118.

Pinelli, Antonio, i, 166.

Pissarro, Lucien, ii, 213.

Pistorius, Jean, i, 151.

Pius VII, I, 183,184, 276.

Plantin, Christophe, specimen, i,
134, II, 7, 8 ; career of, 3 fF. ; made
Antwerp a centre of printing, 4;
his Polyglot Bible, 4, 7, 10 ; divers
printing "privileges," 5; rela-
tions with Du Tour, 5 ; his music
types, 5 ; his earlier and later work
compared, 10 ff.; his death, 13;
mentioned, i, 143, n, 28, 29, 36,
37, 47, 48, 49, 52, 53.

Plantin-Moretus family, ii, 48.

Plantin-Moretus office, ii, 13 ff.,
50.

Plantin-Moretus Museum, ii, 14,
37; S/iecimen des Caract^res, etc.,
8,9.

Plautus, Comcedise, i, 222.

Pliny, Hiatoria JVdturalis (John de
Spire), I, 72; (Elzevir), ii, 17;
Holland's translation (Islip), 130,
131.

Ploos van Amstel, brothers, ii, 23,
39, 40, 42.

Plutarch, Lives, Nortli's transla-
tion, ii, 90, 128.

Poetique type (Luce), i, 244, 245,
246.

Poetry of the Anti-Jacobin, ii, 189.

Poggiali, C, Memorie j\er le Storia
Letteraria di l^acenza, i, 177.

Point-line. See Standard Limng Sys-
tem.

Point-set, i, 34, 37.

Point system, Foumier's, i, 26 ff.;
his description of it, 28-31; and
the metric system, 32, 33; the
American, 33 ; effect of its adop-
tion in typographical practice, 34 ;
adopted in England, 34; and see
Foumier (Pierre Simon), Didot
(Frangois Ambroise).

Pole, Reginald, Cardinal, De Con-
cilio, I, 180, 181.

Pollard, Alfred W. , Catalogue of the
Annmary Brown Memorial (Haw-
kins) Collection, i, 68 n.; quoted,
I, 4, 5, 65, 68, 88, 95, 96, 103,
109, 125, 126, 137, ii, 94, 126,
216.

Polyglot Bible, Complutensian, his-
tory and description of, ii, 46,
63-65; mentioned, i, 192, ii, 98,
216; Plantin's, n, 4, 7, 10, 98 ; Le
Jay's (Paris) , i, 208, 238, n, 103 ;
Walton's (London), n, 92, 98,
132.

Polyglot Founders, the, n, 98.

Pombal, Marquis de, n, 54 n.

Pompadour, Madame de, as printer,
I, 247 and n.

Pompeii. See Herculaneum.

Pomponius Mela, Cosmografihia, i,
108.

Pontanus, J., Rerum et Urbis Am-
stelodamensium Historia (Hon-
dius), Latin, ii, 28; Dutch, 29.

INDEX

301

Ponz, Antonio, quoted, n, 73, 82.

Pope, Alexander, Works (Tonson),
II, 135; (Bowyer), 136; (Foulis),
142 ; translation of the Iliad (Bow-
yer), 136.

Pradell, Kudaldo I, ii, 83, 84.

Pradell, Eudaldo II, specimen, II, 83,
84.

Pradell, Mai-guerite, wife of Pedro
Ifern, ii, 84.

Pi-ault, Pierre, i, 230.

Pr6, Galiot du, i, 195.

Pr6, Jean du, I, 86, 88,91.

Pr6vost, Abbe, travels, i, 216.

Prince, E. P.,ii, 215, 236.

Printers, early, methods of, i, 66-
69; their own type-designers ;ind
founders, 133.

Printing, date of introduction of, in
various Eui-opam countries, i, 59 ;
sejjaration of, from letter-found-
ing, ii, 98.

Prior, Matthew, Poeiits, u, 135.

Proctor, Robert, i, 80, 90, 91, 236,
II, 95 7z.,215, 216 and n.

Propag-anda Fide, press of the, speci-
men alphabets, i, 134, 135; men-
tioned, II, 163, 164.

Prototype, the, i, 29, 30, 31.

Psalter, Latin (Mainz), first dated
book printed from mo\able types,

I, 62, 82; Sarum (Caxton), 117.
Psalterium . . . Virginia Alarie, i,

193.
Ptolemy, L. Claudius, Cosmogra-

fihia, I, 66.
Pulgar, Fernando de, Cronica de los

Reyes Catolicos (Monfort), ii, 58,

78; (Sancho de Nebrija), 66; El

Gran Cafiitan, 62.
Punches, hand-cut, i, 10 ; invention of

machine for cutting, 1 1 ; tlie meth-

otls compared, 11, 12.
Py bu s , Charles Small , 77if5orer«^n ,

II, 188.

Pyes of Salisbury Use, i, 117.
Pynson, Richard, i, 122, 123, u, 88,
89 and n., 125, 126.

K^UJESTIONES Jntonii Jndrese, i,

122.
Queen Elizabeth's Prayer Book, ii,

92.
Quincufilex Paalterium, i, 192, 193.

K. BizARRK," font of the, i, 65.
Racine, Jean, CEuvrea {edition du

Louvre), i, 217, ii, 177, 178;

Jthatie, i, 211.
Ramirez, Gabriel, ii, 54, 59, 79.
Ramsay, A. M. de, Histoire du Vi-

conxte de 7\irenne, i, 220, 221.
Raphelengius, F., specimen, i, 134;

mentioned, ii, 13.
Ratdolt, Erhard, boi-ders and initials,

I, 77 and n.; specimen, 77, 133,

145; mentioned, 79.
Rayon, Jose Sancho, ii, 45.
Real Biblioteca, Madrid, specimen,

n, 83.
Rechten, ende Costumen van Ant-

iver/ien, u, 12.
Recuyell of the Histaryes of Troye,

I, 114.
Reed, T. B. : his History of Old Eng-
lish Letter Foundries quoted, I,

14 n., II, 89 n., 91, 93, 100.
Regnault, Francis,:, 193, 200.
Relaciondel Ultimo Viage al Estrecho

de Magallanes, ii, 59.
Rembolt, Berthold, i, 85, 86.
Renouaixl, Antoine A., i, 230,231.
Renouard, Ph., i, 198 n., n, 174,

179.
" Republics, The " (EUzevir), n, 16,

17.
Resfiublica, sive Status Regni Scotise

et Hibernias, ii, 16.
Revelation of St. jYicholas, i, 122.
Reynolds, Sir Joshua, Discourse,

etc., II, 142.
Ricaitlo, Antonio, ii, 60.
Riccaixli Press editions, ii, 215.
Ricci, Seymour de, A Census of

Caxtons, i, 120 «.
Richelieu, Caixlinal, Les Princifiaujc

302

INDEX

Poinds de la Foy Catholiquc De-
fenduH, I, 240; mentioned, 209,
238 and «., 239.

Ricketts, Charles, and tlie Vale Press,
u, 210,211 ; mentioned, 213.

Ridolfi, B., Oratio in Funere Caroli
III, II, 55.

Ringhier, Innocent, Dialogue de la
Vie et de la Mort, i, 201.

Ripoli Press, i, 9 and n., 10.

Risorgimento Grajico, il, 222.

Riverside Press, n, 216.

Robert, Hubert, n, 160.

Roberts, S. C, Fhe Cambridge Uni-
versity Press, 1521-1921, 11, 96 n.

Rockner, Vincenz, i, 140 n.

Rogers, Bruce, quoted, i, 11, 12;
his types, ii, 216, 217; men-
tioned, I, 189.

Rolu, Dutch letter-cutter, n, 100.

Romain du roi. See Grandjean.

Roman, Jan, n, 23.

Roman capitals with italic fonts, i,
130.

Roman characters, source, i, 38, 39.

Roman cursive hand, old, i, 44 ; new,
I, 45.

Roman period, in history of Latin
writing, i, 42-45 ; scrifitura cur-
siva and scrifitura erecta, 43, 44.

Rome, early printing at, i, 72 ;
foundry at, 179, 181.

Ronaldson, James, specimens, n, 155,
156; mentioned, 153.

Ronaldson, Richard, n, 156.

Rooman, Adriaen, ii, 29.

Rooses, Max, Christofihe Plantin, ii,
5 n.

Rosart, Jean Francois : specimen, ii,
40, 41, 42 n.; and the Ejischedes,
40, 41 ; his music types, 41, 42.

Rosenbach, J., i, 111.

Rouen, and tlie ti-ade in types, u,
89 7z.

"Round" Gothic type. See Lettre
de somme.

Rousseau, Jean Baptiste, (Euvres, i,
221.

Royal printers and types in Fi-ance,

I, ^oo.
Royci-oft, Thomas, ii, 92, 98, 99,

132.
Ruel, Jean, De JSTatura Stirfiium, i,

197.
Ruggeri, C, i, 182, ii, 164.
Rusch, Adolph ("R Printer"), i,

65.

O, LONG, lower case, u, 229 and n.
Sacrobosco, Johannes de, Textus de

S/ih^ra, I, 197.
St. Albans, early printing at, i, 123.
St. Aubin, A. de, i, 223, 259.
St. Joseph, Fabricadel Conventode,

Barcelona, specimen, ii, 81, 82.
St. Juan Climaco, De las Tablaa y

Escalera S/iiritual, ii, 60, 61.
Saint-Lambert, J. D. de, Les Sai-

sons, I, 224, 225.
Saint-Non, Abbe de, Voyage Pitto-

resc/ue, etc., i, 213, 225, 226.
St. Pierre, Bemardin de, i, 218; Za

Chau7niire Indienne, 2277z.; Paul

et Virginie, 227 n., li, 180.
Salamanca, early prmting at, i, 101,

102, 106.
Salazar de Mendoza, Pedro, Cronica

de el gran Cardinal de F^fiaha,

etc., n, 69.
Sallust, Ofiera (Freiburger, Gering,

and Kranz),i, 84; (Gering), 85;

(Ibarra), u, 55, 56, 57, 59, 71-

73, 81.
Salomon, Bernard, i, 199, 203, 204.
San Pedro, Diego de, Car eel de Amor

(F. de Basilea), i, 108; (Rosen-
bach), 111.
Sancha, Gabriel de, ii, 59, 70,75,76.
Sanguisti, the brothers, i, 180.
Sanlecque, Jacques del, i, 212.
Sanlecque, Jacques de II, i, 212.
Sanlecque, Jean de, i, 212.
Sanlecque, Jean Eustache Louis de,

specimen, i, 212, 213.
Sanlecque, Marie, widow of J. E. L.

de, quoted, i, 267.

INDEX

303

Sanlecque found rj' , specimen , i , 2 1 2 ,

213, 266, 267; mentioned, 273,

II, 4.
SanUuider, Juan de, ii, 82.
Saragossa, early printing at, i, 105,

106.
Saravia. See Ortiz de Saravia.
Sardini, Giacomo, Storia Critica di

A'lcolao Jenson, i, 177.
Sauer, Christopher I, ii, 151.
Sauer, Christopher II, ii, 151.
Saugi-ain, C. M., i, 229.
Savage, WilUani, quoted, ii, 194,

195.
Savile, Sir H., and the Eton Chn-

sostom, II, 95 and n.
SchefTers, Jacques, i, 98.
Sc.hipper, J. J., u, 23.
Schmidt, J. M., i, 151, u, 36.
SchoefTer, Johann, Reformacion der

Stat Franc kenfort, i, 141, 142;

mentioned, ii, 206, 207.
SchoefTer, Peter, Hortus Sanitatis,

I, 64; mentioned, 85, 98; and see

Fust and SchoefTer.
Schonsperger, Hans, Ditirnale, i,

139, 140; Teuerdanck, 140 and n.
Schrij\er, Pieter, Laure-Cranfi voor

Laurens Coster van Haerlem, ii,

29.
Schwabacher type, i, 64, 139, 141,

142, 145, 149, 150, 153, 155 and

n., 156, 157.
Scotch modem face type, ii, 193,

194.
Selden, John, Ofiera, ii, 102, 136,

137.
"Self-spacing" types, i, 34, 37.
Scnsenschmid, Johann, i, 62.
"Series of Old Founts" (Miller 8c

Hichai-d),ii, 230, 236.
Serif, the, defined, i, 16 and n., 243

72.; (irandjean'sformof, 243, and

its influence, ii, 159.
Sermo fratris Hieronymi de Ferra-

ria, II, 89.
Sers'ius, Oliverius, i, 79.
Sessas, tlie, i, 162.

Scversz., Jan, n, 26.

Sewidl, Jonathan M . , Carmina Sacra,

II, 156.
Shiikesjjeare, William : tlie First Fo-

liosand Quartos, II, 129; Hanmer's

edition, 115, 139; tlie " Boydell

Sliakspeare," 123, 144; divers

editions suggested for comparison,

130 n.
Shakespeare Exhibition, Catalogue

of, II, 200.
Shakespeare Head Press, u, 130 n.
Shakespeare Press, il, 123, 144.
Sheldon, Gilbert, ii, 97.
Sheldonian Theatre, II, 133 and n.,

139.
Shelton, Thomas, n, 133.
Siculus, Marinxus, De Hispanias

Laudibus, i, 107.
Signs for foot-note references, ii,

229.
Sigiienza y Vera, Juan J.;u, 53,57 n.
"Silver Letter" (Greek type), n,

95 andn.
Silvius, G.,n, 28.
Simon, Claude, i, 220.
Simon, C. F., i, 151.
Simpson, Benjamin, ii, 94.
Smith, Charlotte, Elegiac Sonnets,

II, 156.
Smith, George F., ii, 156.
Smitli, John, Printer's Grammar,

II, 120.
Smith, John F., Ii, 156.
Smith, Richard, ii, 156.
Smith, T. W., takes over Caslon

found r}-, ii, 105.
Soci6te littei-aire Typographique,

Kehl, I, 228.
Soliani printing-house, Modena, i,

172.
Solis, Antonio de, Hiatoria de la Con-

quista de Mexico (Villa-Diego),

II, 70 ; (Sancha), Tf', 77 .
Somervile, William, The Chase, u,

147.
Sommaire des Sinffularitez de Pline,

1,201.

304

INDEX

Sorboniic, the, and the first printers
in Fai-is, i, 83, 84 ; and tlie decline
of printing in France, ii, 3.

"Sorts," I, 19.

Soto, Perez de, ll, 52, 54, 71, 79.

Southcy, Robert, quoted, ii, 59.

Sower. See Sauer.

Spain, types and printing in: fifteenth
century, i, 99-112; from 1500 to
1800, II, 45-87.

Spanish Academy, ii, 79.

Spanish books, chai-acteristic national
typography of, ii, 80.

Spanish typogi-aphy, fifteenth cen-
tuiy, characteristic style and ex-
cellence of, I, 102, 103 ; assimila-
tion of foreign printers, 103, 104 ;
decorative features of incunabula
in, 104; books about, 112 n.; great
traditions of, persisted in sixteenth
century, ii, 45, 47 ; influence of
Netherlands, etc., on, 48 ; in eigh-
teenth century, 49 ff.

Specimen-books and sheets of print-
ers and founders, i, 133-136 ; and
see Chronological List of Specimens
preceding Index.

S/iecidum Christiani (Machlinia) , i,
117, 122.

Sfieculum Salvationis (early Dutch
editions), i, 59, 93, 94 and n.

S/ieculum Vitas Christi (DeWorde),
I, 121.

Spindeler, Nicolaus, i, 107, 111.

Spire, John de, roman types used by,
I, 72, 73; mentioned, 79.

Spire, Wendelin de, roman types
used by, i, 72 ; mentioned, 79, 89,
234.

Spottiswoode & Co., ii, 200.

Stamperia della Capilla del SS. Sacra-
mento, printing-office, i, 170,171.

Stamperia Medicea, i, 179 ?z.

Stamperia Reale (Parma), under Bo-
doni, II, 164, 165, 171.

Stamperia Vaticana 8c Camerale,
specimen, i, 166-168, 181.

Standard Lining System, i, 35, 36,
37, n, 228.

Stanhope, Charles, Earl : his " case,"
I, 23 ; his stereotyping jn-ocess, ii,
190.

Star Chamber decree of 1637, u,
94 and n., 98.

Steele, Isaac, u, 120.

Stiffens, Fra.nz,Paleogra/ihieLatine J
I, 42 n.; on periods in history of
Latin writing, 42, 43 ; quoted, 52,
56.

Stephenson, Blake & Co., n, 121.

Stereotype Office, England, rules of,
u, 190.

Stereotyping, employed by F. Didot,
I, 218; the assignata and the re-
vival of, 218.

Stockum, W. P. van. La Librairie,
f Imfirimerie et la Presse en Hol-
lande h travers Quatre Slides, u,
33 n.

Stower, C, quoted, n, 120.

Sti-ahan, William, n, 56, 140, 143.

Sti-ange, E. F., i, 110 n.

Strawberry Hill Press, n, 140.

"Strike," in making punches, i, 10.

Strikes of French printers in six-
teenth century, ii, 253 ff.

Stubenvoll, J. H., i, 150.

Stuchs, Georg, i, 62.

Subiaco, first press in Italy at, i, 71;
books printed there, 72.

Sulpitius, 0/ius GrammaticuTn (De
Worde), i, 121; (Pynson), 123.

Suma de Confesion, i, 109.

Superior letters and figures, n, 229.

Swash italic capitals, ii, 228, 229.

Sweynheym, Coni-ad, at Subiaco, i,
71; at Rome, 72; mentioned, 78,
79.

Sweynheym and Pannartz, i, 54, ii,
207, 213.

Swinburne, Henry, quoted, u, 73,
74.

1 Aaxus, Ofiera, n, 11, 12; jigri-
cola (Doves Press), ii, 212;
(Merry mount Press), 218.
Tarbe, E.,u, 184.

INDEX

305

Tarrant, F.,ii, 236.

Tasso, Torquuto, Gerusalemme lAb-
erata (Pavoni),i, 165; (Stiinipe-
rui ddla Cappillii del SS. Sacni-
niento), 170, 171; (Alt)rizzi),
174; (Groppo), 174; (Z;itta),
175; (in French, Hiirbin), 210;
(Didot),227; (Iniprinierie Roy-
ale), 240; (in English, Hatfield),
u, 131; (Bensley), 188; Aminla,
176.

Tavemier, Ameet, ii, 8 and n., 49.

Taylor, Isaac.quoted, i,40 and w., 41 .

Tem/ile des Muses, ii, 34.

Tfodulus, Kcloga, i, 109.

Terence, Como'dife, i, 240.

Textur type, i, 62.

lliibaudeau, P., La Lettre d' Im-
firimerie, i, 232 72.,260,ii, 176n.,
177, 242 n.

Tliiboust foundry, i, 269.

Thierry, Denys, i, 211, 269.

lliomas a Kenipis, De Imitatione
Christi, i, 240.

Tliomas, Isaiali, quoted, il, 152; His-
tory of Printing in America, 155,
157; specimen, 156-158; men-
tioned, 150 n.

Thompson, Chai-les, Recueil de Vi-
gnettes, etc., II, 182, 183.

Tliompson, Sir E. Maunde, Intro-
duction to Greek and Latin Palae-
ogra/ihy, i, 41 ?;., quoted, i, 41,
48,49,51,52,80,81; mentioned,
55.

Thompson, John, ii, 183.

'lliomson, James, The Seasons (Stra-
han),ii, 143; (Bensley), 122, 147;
mentioned, 165.

Thorne, Robert, specimens, ii,194n.,
196; mentioned, 122, 175 n., 179.

Thorowgood, William, specimens,
II, 196.

Thunieysser zum Thuni,I^onhardt,
Historia . . . a tier . . . Erdge-
ivechssen, i, 142.

Tipografia della Society. Lettemria,
n, 175.

Tyrant lo Blanch, i, 111.

"Titling-lettcrs," ii, 237 and n.

Tonson, Jacol), ii, 133, 135, 191.

Tonson, J. & R., ii, 112, 115.

Torivntino, Ixirenzo, i, 161, 162.

Torresjmo, A., i, 74.

Tortis, Battistu de, ii, 82 «.

Tory, Geofroy : Chanififleury, i , 1 88,
189 n., 194; influence of, in the
disjjlacement of gothic by roman
types, 189; use of accents, etc.,
introduced by, 189; mentionc-d,
86 «., 88, 189,193, 197, 198, 201 ,
231, 233, 235, 237, n, 126.

Tour, Henri du, and Plantin, ii, 5 ;
mentioned, 8, 36, 39.

Toumes, Jean de I, I, 1 99, 203, 204.

Tournes, Jean de II, i, 203.

Trattner, J. T., specimen, i, 156,
157 ; mentioned, 150.

Trecentale Bodleianum, n, 200.

Trincher, Petlro, i, 110.

Trivorias, (iabriel, Obserxmtio Afiol-
ogetica, etc., i, 206, 207.

Trott, Bartholomew, i, 130.

Truchet, Sebasticn, i, 241 «.

Tudor and Stuart Library, ii, 200.

Tudor Translations, il, 201.

Tuileries, the, printing-house at, i,
247.

Turrecremata, Cardinal, Medita-
tiones, i, 62, 71.

Type, defined and described, i, 15.
1 6 ; measurement of, 28 fF. ; names
of sizes of : in England, seventeenth
century, i, 24, 25, 26 n., 27;
varied in different countries, 25,
26, 27; ti-aditional names aban-
doned for point svstem bv Didot,
32.

Ty])e Facsimile Society, Publications
of, I, 78, 80.

Ty]X'-ciisting, different methods of,
I, 7; hand-casting, 8, 9, 14n.; ma-
chine-casting, 13; the two meth-
ods compared, 13.

Type-cutters, early, i, 5, 6, 133.

Tyjie-forms of fifteenth century,
cJasses of, i, 59, 60.

306

INDEX

Tvpc-iuetal, in early types, i, 9, 10;
in modem types, 13, 14.

Types, method of study of, i, 131,
132; of fiftcentli century, tlie
clussicsof ty])e-history, 132; dete-
rionition in, in sixteenth century,
136 ft". , 142; cflFect of mixture of
different sizes and styles of, 161,
162, 163, 168; specially designed
and privately cut, value of, dis-
cussed, II, 218, 219; selection
of, for modem composing-room,
227 if.; undesii-able kinds of, 243,
244.

Types i-ecently cut (private fonts
starred): *Ashendene, ii, 213;
Auriol, 223; *Avon,211; Batardes
Coulees, Les, 237; *Brook, 213;
Cadmus Old Style, 233 ; *Cam-
bridge, 214; *Centaur, 217;
*Chaucer, 207; Cheltenham, 217,
235; Cloister, 233, 234; Cochin,
Le, 223; *Distel, 222; *Doves,
212 ; *Endeavour, 214 ;*Florence,
215; Foumier-le-jeune, Le, 224,
237; Garamond (modem version) ,
234; *Golden, 206; Grasset, 223;
*Humanistic, 2 1 8; Kennerley , 234,
235; *King's Fount, 211; *Mer-
rymount, 217; *Montaigne, 216,
217; *Montallegro, 214, 215;
Moreau-le-jeune, Le, 224, 237;
Nicolas- Cochin, Le, 223; Old Flem-
ish Black, 236; Old Tudor Black,
236; *Otter (Greek), 215, 216
and n.; *Prayer Book, 214; *Ric-
cardi, 215; *Troy, 207; *Vale,
211, 213; Weiss Fraktur, 221;
*Zilver, 222.

Typographia Medicea, Alfihabetum
ArabicuTTiy i, 134, 179 n.

U , CAPITAL, V used for, in early

times, I, 22; differentiated from

V, 22 n.
Uncial letters, how distinguished

from book-hand capitals, i, 44.
Unger, J. F., specimen, I, 157, 158;

mentioned, 38, 149, n, 43.
Ungut, Meinardus, i. 111.

Ungut and Stanislaus, i, 106, 108,

110.
United States Type Founders' Asso-
ciation and the point system, i, 33,

34.
University of Paris and the copying

of Mss., n, 247, 248.
University Press, Cambridge, Mass. ,

II, 218.
Unknown Printer of Salamanca, i,

101, 106, 107, 110, HI.
Utrecht, early printing at, i, 94,

95; EUzevirs at, n, 15.

V , CAPITAL, originally stood for U
also, I, 22 and n., 23.

Vagad, G. F. de, Cronica deAragon,
I, 104, 110.

Vale Press, books issued by, n, 210,
211.

Valencia, first Spanish press set up
in, I, 105; and the revival of print-
ing, II, 58.

Van Dyck, Abraham, u, 96.

Van Dyck, Christoffel : his charac-
ters, n, 37, 39, 43, 44, and their
fate, 37; mentioned, 19, 20, 21,
22, 23, 35.

Van Hoochstraten, Michiel, n, 27.

Van Hout, J., specimen, i, 134, n,
40.

Van der Keere, Henric. See Tour,
Henri du.

Van Oosten de Bruyn, G. W., De
Stad Haarlem, etc., n, 34.

Van der Putte, Isaac, n, 35.

Vasari, Giorgio, Le File de' fiiU Ec-
cellenti Architetti, etc., i, 161,
162.

Vascosan, Michel, i, 191, 199, 200.

Vatican printing-office, specimen, i,
134, 179.

Vautrollier, Thomas, n, 90.

Veldener, Jan, i, 96, 115, 122.

Venice, airly printing at, i, 72 ff.;
a great centre of printing, 77 , 78 ;
wide vogue of types of, 90 ; illus-
trated books printedat, eighteenth

INDEX

307

century, 173-176; foundries in,
179.

V6rard, Antoine, i, 88.

Vergetios, Angelos, i, 236.

Fersi Sciolti di 7Ve Fjccellenti Mo-
derni yiulori, i, 172, 173.

Vesalius, Andreas, De Humani Cor-
fioria Fabrica, i, 143, 144.

Veterum Alathematicorum, i, 212.

Vibert, type-cutter, ii, 176 n., 178.

Vidoue, Pierre, i, 195.

Villa-Diego, Bernardo de, ii, 70, 76.

Villanova, A. de, Rudimenta Gram-
matics, I, 107.

Villegas, E. M. de. Las Eroticaa, n,
76.

Vindel, P., Bibliograjia Grajica, n,
60 and n.

Virgil, Ofxera (ms.) , i, 78 ; (Gering) ,
85; (Aldus), 128-130; (Manni),
171; {edition du Louvre), 217,
230, 231; (Imprimerie Royale),
240; (ELlzevir, 1636), ii, 17,
(1676), 18; (Baskerville) , 109,
111, 139; (Tonson), 133; j^neid,
I, 208; Bucolics, 218; Georgics,

. 226,227.

Vita, La, et MetamorfoseocT Ovidio,
I, 203.

Vitr6, Antoine, quoted, u, 253 ;
mentioned, i, 208, 209, 236.

Volpe (Uella), Lelio and Petronio, i,
172.

Volpi-Comino, printing-house, Pa-
dua, I, 172.

Voltaire, Arouetde, Kehl editions of,
1,228,229.

Vorsterman, Willem, ii, 25, 26.

Voskens, Dirk, ii, 35, 96, 100.

Vostre, Simon, i, 88.

Voyage de Jean de Mandaville, i,
94.

Vytwerf, H., ii, 36.

W AKLARD, type-cutter, i, 216, ii,
176 and n., 177.

V^^aldfoghel, Pixxrope : his "artifi-
cial writing " at Avignon, i, 82.

Waldis, Burkliard, Fabeln, i, 146;

Urafirung und Herkumen, etc.,

146.
Walker, Elmer)-, ii, 211, 212, 213,

216.
W'alpcrgcn, Peter, u, 97.
Walpole, Hoi-ace, Strawberry Hill

Press, u, 140 ; quoted, 175; men-
tioned, 165.
Walsingham, Thomas, Huttoria Bre-

vis, II, 128; Y/iodigma A'eut-

trift, 128.
Walton, Brian, ii, 92, 99.
Walton, Izaak, Lives, u, 132, 133.
Watelet, C. H., L'jirt de Peindre,

1,214.
Watson, James, History of the Art of

Fainting, ii, 44, 100; specimen,

44.
Watts, John, ii, 101.
"Wayside Series," n, 230.
Werdet, Edmond, Etudes Bibiio-

gra/ihiques (Didot family) , ii,

185 n.
Wetstein, G., n, 32, 33, 36.
Wetstein, Rudolph, n, 36, 38.
Whitchurch, Edward, u, 129 n.
W'hite, Gilbert, A'atural History of

Selborne, ii, 118.
Whittingham, Cliarles I, n, 114,

198, 204.
Whittingham, Charles II, n, 198,

204, 237.
W^ilkins, David, Pentateuch, u, 102;

mentioned, 136.
Wilkins, John, Essay towarda a Real

Character, u, 95 n.
Wilson, Alexander, types, ii, 116,

117; specimens, 117; mentioned,

120,143, 193, 232.
Wilson foundry, specimen, n, 193,

194.
Winckelmann, J. J., Geachic/ite der

JCunst des Alterthuma, i, 148.
Winship, G. P., quoted, i, 113.
Woide, Charles G., .Yovum leata-

mentum Gntcum, u, 121.
Wolf, G., I, 85, 86.

308

INDEX

WolflFchaten, Balthazar von, ii, 36.
Wood, T.,ii, 136.
JVorcester Collection of Sacred Har-

7iiony, II, 157.
Wordc, M'ynkyn de, quoted, i, 1 14 ;

his types, 120, 121; mentioned, ii,

88, 89 n., 90, 99.
Wotton, Sir Henry, Elements of

Architecture, ii, 201.
Wren, Christopher, Parentalia, ii,

214.
Wright, T., II, 98.
Writing, history of, i, 38 ff.

yviMENEZ, Franc, De la JN'atura

Angelica, ii, 61.
Ximenez de Cisneros, Cardinal Fran-

ciscuSjComplutensian Polyglot due

to, II, 63; mentioned, 46, 65; and
fiee (iomez de Castro.
Ximeno, Josef, ii, 76.

Young, Arthur, quoted, ii, 164 n.
Yriarte, Juan de, Obraa Sueltas, ii,
52, 79.

Gainer, Gunther, i, 65, ii, 206,
207.

Zatta, A., books printed by, i, 174,
175; specimen, 186.

Zeigler, H. A. von, Asiatische Ba-
nise, I, 147.

Zilverdistel Press, ii, 222.

Zingt, Christian, i, 156.

Zonca, Vittorio, JVovo Teatro di Ma-
chine et Edijicii, i, 169.

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