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CONTENTS. 


es 


1875. 
Nov. eer eee tiaeeeen neo st Cr Corie 


1876. 


Jan, 21,—Puorxsson Trxpait—The Optical Condition of the 
a in its =e on Putrefaction and 


a = 2 eas Hoxusr—Tho Border Morrtory | between 
the Animal and the Vegetable Kingdoms 
Feb. 4.—W. H. Paxnor, Eeq—The Applications of Elec- 
tricity to the Protection of Life on Railways 
»  7.—General Monthly Meeting - a 4 
11,—W. Cxoones, Esq.—The Mechanical Action of. Light 


18,—Dr. C. Wx. Simaexs—Tho Action of eae: on 
Selenium . 


» 25—Tase Rey, Srarnen J. Penny—The Transit of Vouus 
Mar. %.—Pnoressox Ontwe—The Paraffin and their Aleohols 
»  6.—Genoral Monthly Meeting .. 


Page 


1 


101 


iv OONTENTS. 
1876. 1 
Mar. 10.—Prorzsson W. H. Frowsr—Tho Extinct Animals 
of North America .. 


»  17.—Sm Henry Sumer Mame—Tho State of Feudal 
Property in England and France on the Eve of 
the first French Revolution 


»  24.—Prorzsson MoK. petri Measures of 
Time “ 


»  81,—Pnrorgssor James Drwan—The Physiological Action 
of Light. Pagr I. é . 


April 8.—General Monthly Meeting .. 
»  7—Epwanp B, Tytor, Esq.—Ordeals and Oaths 


» 28.—G. J. Romanzs, Esq.—Physiology of tho Nervous 
System of Meduse se ” a oy 


May 1,—Annual Meeting 
” —Prorzsson Guapstons—Methods of Chemical Do- 
composition as illustrated by Water 
% 8.—General Monthly Mecting .. 


»  12—W. Frovps, Esq.—Fundamentel Pend of the 
Resistance of Ships 


»  19,—C.'T. Newton, Esq.—Recent Discoveries at L Olympia 


»  26.—Ma. J. F. Moutton— Verification of Modern Scien- 
tific Theories ” . ” “ - 


June 2.—Prorgssor Rosooz—Rocent Discovories about Vana- 
4 5.—General Monthly Mocting os ” . 
Ps 9.—Prorzssor Tynpatt—Parallel Roads of Glen Roy 

July 8.—General Monthly Mecting .. 

Nov. 6.—General Monthly Meeting .. 

Dec. 4.—General Monthly Meoting .. 


a 


1877. 
Jan. 19,—Pnorssson Trxparx—A Combat with an Infective 
Atmosphere (see p. 467). 
» 26.—Stn Jonw Lvnpoce—The Habits of Ants .. 
Feb. 2.—Paorzsson Osnonxe Reyxoups—Vortex Motion 
»  5.—General Monthly Meeting . z 
» 9 —Faancts Gaurox, Eaq.— Typical Lawn of Horedtty 
»  16.—Paormson F. Guraam—Solid Water 
»  23,—J. F. Moortox, Esq.—Matter and Ether .. 
Mar. 2.—Puaoresson Hoxtry—The History of Birds 
» 6 —General Monthly Meeting . 


9.—Faepentox J. me Bye Pature of 
Steel fs 


» 16—Dn Jars Betow Artanis and Ararat 7 
»  23,—Prormson Guavetoye—Influence of Chemical Con- 
stitution upon Refraction of Light 
April 2.—General Monthly Meeting .. 
» 18.—Whasam Srormewoopr, Esq. aint with a 
Great Induction Coil 
»  20.—Faepvgntce Potzocs, Seca, 
» 27-—Joux Raz, M.D.—Aretic Life 
May 1.—Annual Moeting 
» 4—Rev. W. H. Tian Cighn and Dela 
of Minute and Lowly Forms of Life 
eo 7.—General Monthly Meoting . 
» 11—D. Mackeszm Wattacr, Tag, Sees Move- 
ments and Secret Societies in Russia 


» 18.—Loer.-Gey. Rrowanp Seema Causes 
of Indian Faminos 2 


vi 


1877. 


May 


June 


” 


April 


CONTENTS. 


25.—G. J. Romanes, Esq.—Evolution of Norves and 
Nervo-Systems “ . ee ” 


1.—Oscark Brownine, Esq.—History of Education 
6.—General Monthly Mecting .. 


8.—Prorgsson Tyxpatt—Putrofactive and Infective 
Organisms from a Physical Point of View 


2.— General Monthly Meeting .. * 7 
5.—General Monthly Meeting .. vi a ei 


8.—General Monthly Meeting .. ” ” “ 
1878, 


25.—Proressor Huxtey—William Harvey 43 ” 
1,—Ws. Henny Prerce, Esq.—The Telephone 
4,—General Monthly Meeting at 
8.—Marruew Annotp, Esq.— Equality (no dieu, 
15.—P. L. Sovarse, Esq. oes Distribution and 
some of its Difficulties 
22.—Prorzssor Optrva—The New Metal Gallium C 
Abstract) 
1.—Riosanp Lizsazice, M.D.—The Deterioration of 
Oil Paintings * wv wa 
4.—General Monthly Meeting 
8.—Prorgssor Gotpwin Surtu—The Influence of Geo- 
graphical Circumstances on Political Character .. 
15.—Lozp Rayterae — Tho acai of Certiin 


Acoustical Phenomena... Pe 
22.—Proressozn Tyxpatt—Recent Papert on Pe 
Signals . 
29.—ProressoR Dawan—Esperinents on » Ht Photo 
metry . 
1,—Genoral Monthly Meeting .. ae . a 


1 


(viii) 


Map of Parallel Roads of Glen Rey —.. « to face page 


ERRATUM. 


Pago 560, for James Sviiy, Esq., &c., read Proresson Henny Monuey, ‘ 
Loctures on Addison. 


Roval Enstitution of Great Britain, 





GENERAL MONTHLY MEETING, Ye; 
‘Monday, November 1, 1875. 


©, Wuctam Sremene, Beq. D.O.L. F.R.S. Vieo-President, in the Chair, 


Tus! 


“Sim Canes Waearstoxm has been a Member of the Royal 
Tnstitation since the ee Previously to that time he had made 
to the Evening on his researches in Acou- 
Stics ; and from that date he has from ‘ime to timo tent his valuable 
aid to the as onc of the Managers, and by 
discoveries which have been exhibited on the Library Table, and 
a—« eee the 
ing Lectares. 
« 


lh 


The Paesexrs received sinco the last Meoting wore laid on the 
and the thanks of the Members returned for the same, viz. :— 
rao 


table, 

of the Great Tri, 8 of Indi 
ir Sor le hth igonometrical Survey of India, 
Nee Zealand Governmest—Consus of New Zealand, March 1, 1874. fol. 1875. 
eer eians ef ome), Np 99. \ seed 1874, 


American Academy ings, Vol, X. B8yo. 1874-5. 
‘enn Pnpiet Sy Vol Sy ura en ier. 

saison ocean Vol. VI. No.4, Svo._187 

‘le cia 0 Be ngs a VLD Part 3, No, 4; 1875, 


? No. 10; Nos. 1-5. 8y0, 
Asiatic _ ‘Vol. VIL Part 2 8yo. 1875, 


a 


General Monthly Mekting. [Nov. 1 

‘BParts to, 1874-5 

of Admiral Sir Edward Cod 
beifora eee Ato. 


fp rges oe aloes a dari 


















‘ols, XL. XLT. 8yo, 1875 
a2" 1875: Nos, 1-6, 8vo. 
Byo. 1875, 


Vol VI. Syo, 1875, 
‘lla Raceolia Arborense 


8y0. 
Vol. Sut No Nos. 6,7. 8vo, 1875, 
jo. 128. 8vo. 1875. 
Vol. IX. No.2. 8vo. 1875, 
.R.I.—D. Lloyd: State Worthies, or the Statesme) 
since the Reformation. 2nd ed. 1670. 
Néerlandnises, Tome X. Liv. 1, 2 8vo 


Hayden, P. ¥. Ev. United States Geologist—Bulletins, Second Series, Nos. 2, 3 
ea to the Fossil Flora of the Western Territories, Part 1. 4to 


‘ol. XXV. Science, Parts 5-19. 4to. te 
10; Vol. Noe 18, 8yo, 1878-5, 


8yo. 
Workin; 


8yo, 1 
Linnean Soviet gt Part 9; Vol. XXX. Purts 2, 9 
thea Ree ete Zoology, Vol. L. Part 1. Ato. 1874-5 


Becond Series : 
Journal, Nos, 80, 81 
Bee Birmingham —Proocedings, 1875; April, June 


‘Traneactions, Vol. LVIL. Syo. 1875. 
Committee of the Royal Society ; Report fo. 


Quarterly eather Report, 1873, Part 4; 1874, Part 1. 4to. 1875. 
‘H. Scott : Instructions for the Uso of Metoorlogical Instruments. 8vo. 1875 


Magnetic, and other Observati 
Tr Ootada ie era. evo, 1ST, cK li ead 
‘Sociely—Quartorly Journal, Now Serica, No. 15. 8vo. 1875. 












GENERAL MONTHLY MEETING, 
Monday, December 6, 1875. 
©, Wautsam Santexs, Esq. D.O.L.F.RS, Vioe-Prosident, in the Obai 


Arthur Cates, Esq. ILRI B.A. 
‘Tho Vi iW Church, M.A. Dean of St. Paul's. 


Lionel 
ert Er ieplens fF 
WE aed Esq. baat OE. 


John MD 
Willian Packing Wright, Esq. 
wore elected Members of the Royal Institution, 


‘The Special Thanks of the Members were returned to Sir Wa. A 

Grove for his Donation of Fifteen Guineas to provide a marbl 

tal for the Bust of the Rev. Joux Banxow, presented by him i 
fovember, 1874. 


The following Arrangements of the Lectures before Easter, 187( 
‘were announced :— , 

‘Pnorrssor Poo: DOL, LID. F.R.S.—Six Lectures, adapted to 
Juvonile Audit on Experimental Electricity; on Dee. 28 (Tuceday), 80, 1875 
Jan. 1, 4, 6, and i, 1876, 

‘Pnovesson ey Gannop—Twelve Lectures on the Classification « 
Vertebrated Animals; on Tuesdays, Jun, 18 to April 4, 

F.R.S—Kight Leots Se Chemi: f th 
sina ar as AEN OT © 
Srornswoove, Esq. LL.D. Treas. B.8, on RL—Four Lecture 
on Polarized Light; on Thursdays, March 16 to April 6, 

R. P, Portas, be M_B,1.B,A,—Three Lectures on his Excavations in As 
Minor ; on Saturdays, Jan, 22, 29, and Feb, 5. 

W. . Tuwevrox Dyer, MLA, BSo. F-L.S. Assistant Director, Roy: 
apne Lectures on the Vegetuble Kingdom ; the Boundaries an 
Conneo of its Larger Groups; on Saturdays, Feb. 12 to March 4. 

“Prorrsson G. Croom Rosrersoy, M.A.—Three Lectures on the Huma 
‘Senses; on aren tan March 11, 18, and 2. 

Ep Dannnevr ‘Iwo Lectures Wi nd his Trilogy 

on Boturdaye, April 1 and 8 x ee = ee 


Tho Presents reccived since the last Meeting wero laid on th 
table, and tho thanks of the Members returned for the same, viz. :— 


nom 
The French Government—Documents Inédits sur I'Histoire de France: Carts 
Iniros do I'Eglise Cathédrale de Grenoble. 4to. 1868. 
Commissioners of the Admiralty—Nautical Almanac for 1879, 8vo. 1875, 





1875.) General Monthly Meeting, : 5 
F arnal, Second Series, Vol. XII. Part 2. 8v0, 1875. 
eae sete 
Society 1876, Part 1. No. 2. 8vo. Part 2 Extm 
‘Number. 4 





Notices, Vol. XXXV, No.9 Syo, 1875, 
1875. Heft2. 8yo, 


We 
Dexonshire Association for tha Advoncement Literbor, Boloie, and Art Report 
and VIL 8yo, eis, 


eee eo 


at 
Biitors—American Journal of Science for Nov., 1875. Svo. 


ng 
fie 
- 


¥. 
fol. IX, No, 1. 8yo, 187% 
ay le. 12mo, 1875, 
and Proceedings, No. 29, 8vo, 1875, 
Liverpool Literary = Garigaped ings, fo, v0, af 


re arom ie 16. 8yo. 187: 


‘rom Comptes Rondus, 1875), 
Bigg: Ber, Aebeer WAC M TET (ihe Nathor) Castor Lachsres” On iteeheniee 
f dara: 
fon the Energies of Gravity, Vitalliy, Heat, &e.; nnd on Tosls, fa Svo. 


on Stove Competition, yo. 1874. 
ay lios ‘Leadon—Philosophical Tranmetions for 1875, Vol. CLXY,, Part 1. 


Faby (he Author)—Milk in Health and Disense, I2mo. 1875. 
he ae r. (the Author)—Symons" Monthly Metoorological Magazine, 
Fustitute—Tramsactions, No.35. 8vo. 1875. 

Ve nn Referer &; as sath) — Sal Epoca della Completa Cecita del Galilei. 
‘Various Memoirs ® Atti dei Nuovi Lincoi di Roma," &s,). 1844-75. 4to. 
Satmione del BroMsmn plane alle Conwtal Cavallo is, Roma, 1873. 

Watford Natural History Society—Transsctions, Vol. 1. Parts 1,2. S8vo 1875, 


fey 
Fc iy alee oa 
ep Sty “tery Surly aH dito, 1874-5. 
— Journal, No. 124. S8yo. 1875. 
Geological es ‘ol. TV. Part 2, 8yo, 1875, 


| 


6 Professor Tyndall on the Optical Condition of the (San. 2) 


WEEKLY EVENING MEETING, 
Friday, January 21,1876, 
Gzonor Buss, Esq. F.R.S. Treasurer and Vice-President, 
in tho Chair, ' 


Provesson Trxpawn, D.O.L. LL.D. F.R.8. WRI. 


Tho purely gascous portion of our atmosphere was thus shown t 
pe te nlly end tot, to vesier th ‘us optically 
vent and that, 0 air t 
it was only necessary to loavs. It to itself for » sullclant mo in | 
closed chamber, or in a suitably closed vessel. The floating matte 
gradually attachod itself to the surrounding surfaces, leaving behim 
it oir possessing no scattering power. egadbemgtin ce 


lent researches of Schwann, Schroeder and Dusch, Schroeder himsol! 
and of the illustrious Pasteur, in rent to the question of “spont 

aoe gues ion,” berate to sits as cae the power of seatterin) 
ight lucing life by the air would be found to 

lig! in pare: ng ts & 

is conclusion waa strength an experiment easily mad: 

and of high significance in relation to this question. inet ber 





* Since the delivery of the discourse some new matter, dealing with question 
subsequently dit has been added to this abstract, 
+ Vol. vi. p. 1. 


may Maer mere ae ak Tin, T 


light, and mating a are tabe (ot tubs actually employed 
was o lam warm in a flame to prevent enc tation) 
Des toverds the gad of the axpiriion tbe whee ack red, 


with optically pure ai sr whch a mc ano paw 1 eo the 

pa ceeces en pT Ty experimental 

arrangement is given i ar <p geen rl the heated Iam; 

Geceat ite ooo out of the beam issuing from the lamp at L. 
Fu. 1. 





I Sought this simplo mothod of oxamination could not fail to be 
tf use to workers in this entangled field. They had hitherto pro- 


@ * No putrefaetion,” says Colin, “can occur in n nitrogenous substance if it 
Satay bes mth enran of tw Bair ater ie Shih tay ‘contain 
hare Seeeieclis ce peane elas soon as Racteria, even in tho smallost 
maumbers, ary {ptroduced. It progresses in direct pro- 
Tertin ty, the raltipliation of Seat the Beertay itta retarded Shen the Baterss\fer 

. 
‘ 





temperature) develop ® small amount of vitality, aud is brought 
Ail influences Which either stop the development of the #20feria or 
1 bactericidal teedia are therefore antiseptic and disinfocting.”— 
‘Tedizage zur Biologie dor Pfinnzen, Zweites Hof, 1872, p. 203, 


? 





Professor Tyndall om the Optical C eannee 


- gs! 223 ; 
i qa! sii 


£ HE ae ey 
nea 


cooded 


j 
i 





aegeigk G83 ig 249 32 
eae Ge 
ie ttlie 

Hibea Bun 


a Hig Hue 


Hla 


gts 


i 


Sa ee 
ql: 
palieatt 
Waal 
ieee Petey 
oF eee 26 = 
PRE 
boric 
Te ge aNa 
iat He 
healiviiiqis 
Pee OD beret =: 
LET ES A wei 
HERE 








"94 jee ae 
Vie He 

HR ie 
Li Si 
Fi roe Herrin ee eaeht 
2 ede sn aa eae tley 
fhe! i nie He HUSEG ies, Wildes 
Fi eauend in a i Hue el HA i 


—_—=n 


10 Professor Tyndall on the Optical Condition of the [Jan. ‘ 


le 
i 
2 
F 
E 
z 
3 
= 
i 
i 


temperature of from 60° to 70° Fabr., all fell into putrefaction in | 
course of two to four days. No matter whero the infusions w 
placed, they were infallibly smitten in the end. The number of | 
tubes containing infusions was multiplied till it reached 600, buts 


In his published works, Dr. Bastian has frequently dwelt upon 
eee f of employing strong infusions when investigating the phet 
mona of spontancons generation. I would therefore refer to the fi 
that in most of the experiments hore described the infusion at start) 
was strong, and that it was permitted to evaporate with extreme slc 
ness throu, RBIS adbeRTaS tha top of dhe daso, anil diac 
centration. ec bated four ao what it had been at starti 
Every experiment was thus con’ into an indefinite number 
experiments on infusions of different strongths. Never, in 





* The temperatures, in some cases, reached 105° Fahr. 





res aaa ll 


Hi 


tii 


AEE 


if 


bina 
ein 


8. 


te 


tl 


nates Be favia this 
short of the trath ; for I 


a3 


il 


i 


Ss 


fal 


ii 
iis 


cic 


of the searchi 
‘scatter 


tH 


a 


=e 


entitled to coneludo 


Buag £he3%s 
fll Fal 
un fala 
dtc gens eS 
HU au 
ahh (iia: 
5 HE 
if u ei 
HH] 3 i 
i 


Serinnart 


cea 
nleeties of the 


eerie fire 


ticles is 
tle more 


fit 


us inquire a 


suspended 


yy 


‘That Bacterial life arises from mechanicall, 
‘thus reduced to ocular demonstration. Let 


® See Pree. Roy. S00! vol. xxi p. 180, whore a temperaturo of 70° is described 


| 


i 
i 
H 
fr 


i 
i 
! 
Hy 


| 
2 
: 


iF 7 
i 
i 
f 
i 
| 
| 


iH 
Bi 

i 
uf 
i 
ii 


i 
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luminous 

polarized ‘The optical deportment of the matter o 
air proves it to be composed, in part, of particles us excessi 
minute character. When the track of a parallel beam in dusty 0 
looked st horizontally through a Nicol’s prism, in a direction 
: woosidstie inate aio aoe 
vertical, i portion 

In extinguished, The coursce motes, on the other hand, fash out 
from nae ult Hmeseretecty aa 

. It is among the finest ultra-1 io i 
oped tial as regards the development of Bacterial life 

nought, 

Tho existence of these icles, foreign to the atmosphere 
Hoang fe cranny a et between te age 
hoon by the naked eyo, Supposing them to augment in magnitu 
Guz bose, not only within rango of the microscope, but within 3 

ied wensen, Lot it be assumed that our knowledge of 


jake tase apace remains a8 defective i it is now—thi 
In HOt lmow whother they are germs, particles of dead ic 
we Partalea of minoral matter. Suppose a vessel (saya ha 
tw i) Nand filod with wutitions carth, with which we mi: 
Wiliiwh partloloss and that in three days buds and blades of 
Hed ernenin init \rMAKoS a) above the soil, Suppose th 
Ht when ropontod A hundred times to yield the same unya 
What would be our conclusion? Should we regard 

iva planta nw the products of dead dust or mineral particle 
wut we souoni thom na the offspring of living seeds? The 
i Heapoldau M) We should undoubtedly consider the exper! 
{Hh the Howerspat we clearing up our pre-existing ignorance 
i) Hoynrl tho fot of their producing creases and grast 
WWF PmtTh¥e Hint Wie particlos sown in the earth of the pot wor 








» ALY UMtliqiet line filet to doteot thems with « fyi 
Avi ANMane, Hae Rb tees Apeat Sanat Mnsnlfsing: power of 





“Hi LPL Biveerh 
i ‘ee ieee Hibaetll 
Paik abtiale letaaag 
S seggaesh 3 gh42 “88537 egrdieeaf3 
bikea! ble guia 
btlise qin iene 
PSB, HU) Gagiate 
i iide| aii: gli ah 
ee Hane 
2 Ti: 
tH fia Hl Re 
z ne Heal Hah ale 





roe 


really 
ors tn ict 
were 
‘wood was coated with cement, in which, while hot, a heated 


jing his ri- 
very different from 


statements correct? This is the 
myself. 


of infection. He 
generated. Such are 
group of twelve 
igh a slab of 


regard 


be 


ip of Bacteria, which, in 
spontaneously 


of the 


addressed 


danger 
Society. 


ges 


A 


4 cro} 
jiest arguments on this ques- 


cae 


ti 
e 


ithout 
igh 


to the 
air-tight throu, 


i expomed 
, Obtains 
are 
wei; 
inference would 
to filtered air. 


pass 


some 
ped 


woot of 
been 


; a 


Mu nese ane the a rice of the an 


Rea aan oat pre fl 
Sacro 


caused to caver twelve other tubes filled wi 


Fre, 3, 





HA be was exhausted 
feo toy pad rough a 
Ww. a1 
hot platine tubo, containin 
roll Fifi red-hot platinum ga 
‘Tested by the beam, 
calcined air was found quite 
from floating matter, Not a sj 
has in the inna 
infusions «: to 
twelve similer tubes 0 
side have fallen into rottenne: 


matter, it was only necessar 
permit a platinum wire heate 
whiteness to act upon it for a 
ficient time. I availed 


and through which passes t 
large test-tubes nearly filled 
the infusion to be examined 
Padoum bere p unites the 
of two uj t wires, W 
pase through ee and 


marked + and — outside it. The sh shade is surrounded by ¢ 


collar, with a 
tho shade, 
Connecting 


of about half an inch all round between il 
spaco is filled with cotton-wool firmly 
the wires with a battery of Bftoen culls, the epiral p 





* §Proo. Roy. Inat,’ vol. vi. pp. 4 and 5. 





ae wa Sa 
tut ‘i ae ii ATH elt eel 
ike nul Gani ith Hiahas 
Bee, Hine ee ahaa 
Seaualgi! ce 
F Ha dail Hi ig in wifi enet 
cae in . 4 LC Hn 
ae Hi : : ia 

7 Huteal ‘ Heal 
on 


16 Professor Tyndall om the Optical Condition of the [Jan. 


Previous to reading this statement I had operated upon sixt 
tubes of hay and turnip-infusions, and upon twenty-one tubes of bi 
mackerel, eel, oyster, oatmeal, malt, and potato, hermetically sea 
while boiling, not by the blowpipe, but by the far more handy spi 
lamp flame, In no case was any appearance whatever of Bacteria 
allied organisms observed. The perusal of the discussion just 
ferred to caused me to turn again to muscle, liver, and kidney, wii 
view of varying and multiplying the evidence. Fowl, pheasant, sn’ 
partridge, plover, wild duck, beef, mutton, heart, tongue, lungs, bra 
swootbread, tripe, the crystalline lens, vitreous humour, herri 
haddock, mullet, codfish, sole, were all embraced in the experime 
Thore was neither mistake nor ambiguity about the result. 
January 13th one hundred and thirty-nine of the flasks operated 
wore submitted to the Fellows of the Royal Society, and not om 
this cloud of witnesses offered the least countenance to the asser 
that liquids within flasks, boiled and hermetically sealed, swarm, 1 
sequontly, more-or less plentifully with Bacteria and allied organi: 


In connection with these experiments, I have sought, to the 
of my ability, to meet every condition and requirement laid dow: 
others as cssential to success. With regard to the questio: 
tomporature, 90° were generally attainable in our laboratory, whil 
certain days of mild weather without, and in Srcarable, peal 
within, the temperature to which the infusions were subjected rea 
over 100° Fabr. As Dr. Bastian, however, has recently laid 
sidorable stross on temperature, though most of his results 
obtained with temporatures from 15° to 30° lower than mine 
thought it desirable to moet this new requirement also. The « 
tubes, which had proved barren in the Royal Institution, were 
pendod in boxes copiously perforated, 80 as to permit of the 
circulation of warm air, and placed under the supervision ¢ 
intelligent assistant in the Turkish Bath in Jermyn Street. 
washing room of tho establishment was found to be particu 
suitable for our purpose; and here, accordingly, the boxes 
suspended. From two to six days are allowed by Dr. Bastian fc 
generation of organiams in hermetically sealed tubes. Mine rem 
im the washing ream for nine days, Thermometers placed ii 
Doxes, and read aff twice ar three times a day, showed the tem 
to vary from a minimum of 101° to a maximum of 112° 
the end of nine daye the infusions were as clear as at th 
ginning. 

They were then removed to another position where the ¢ 
Tatura wan aw few degrece higher, Dr, jan mentions 1) 
fhrourable to spontaneous tin, For fourteen day: 
temperature horared about thie point, falling once as low as 
rradinyt VUE awe Arewe vewaaiagy TIS on one, and 119° of 


Sis Bh ht Wl a PO LA Aes Teg tnninge of Lifes well i p 


1876.] Atmoaphere, én its Bearings on Putrefaction and Infection, 17 


th of an 
It 

to infer 
result of 


specific gravity, and IT havo 


great diver- 

ific gravity as those 

careful to do in 

for, I fear incau- 

atl some of his efforts, 

satisfy Dr. Sunderson that in boiled and hermetically 


juce the evidence which 
loyed on the occasion 


infusions, of accurately 


P} 


in swarms. With purely 
in an oil bath, carefully sealed 


gd sed 
to reprod 
turnip-i 


se 
s and 
and r 
Pea, 

to iy see 


gencral conformity to pre- 
pemny 
tended 


also. The stron; 
ures. In multiplied experimenta 


all my infusions, through their 
eae 


I am therefore compell: 
Bastian failed to obtain Bactoria in 


incompetent 
the 
ocoup) 
op 
wn ont, 
minor limi 
temperatur 
ly worked wi 
in Albemarle 
ictly to his i 
acters lie 
coe egg : 
new 
of concentration, which was al 
alroady referred to the great, divor- 
its 
ly the same 
as those em 
were illustrations of correct ex; 


‘This I was 


by 
than 
ay i 


was observed 
fixed by 
precisel; 


of life in other cases being the 
is, I submit, very strong. But to err is human; 


same 
while 
the 
for 
Prior 
had 
my 
= Oe 
a 
is 
L have 
But 
sometimes 
and in an inguiry so difficult and fraught with such momentous ixsuos, 


in whi 
sealed tubes 


Fae ee EEE Ey br Peat 
ipa jee { jie 
Ball 


a erigesapetises eali 
Bue Hearne iiat 


o 


‘My thanks are doe to the mauagors of the bath for their obliging kindness 


im this matter, 
Vou VILL (No. 64.) 


FEEL 
ie 
aut 
HH 
i 
irit 


FE 
U 
i 
FE 
ge 
Pa 
si 
i 
E 
& 7 


a 
=e 
i 
f 
ib 
Fe 
Fe 


Pecdiioo turbidity. Why, moreover, should life be absent from t 
member of the present group of tubes? I searched this agni 
and found in it scanty but certain Zs of life, This augmented r 
jexity. A third tube also showed scanty traces of life. Revert) 
second tube, where life had been so copious, I found that in 
organisms had become as scanty as in the others. I eonfin 
myself for a time to the threo tubes of the first row of the six, goi’ 
over them again and again; sometimes finding an organism here a 
there, but sometimes finding nothing. The first extraordinary ¢ 
hibition of life it was found impossible to restore. In my difficulty 
took specimens from the three tubes, and sent them to Professor Huxl 
with a request that he would be good enough to examine them. 

On the 22nd my search was extended to the whole of the tub 
Early in tho day lively Bacteria were found in one of them ; later « 
not one of the six yielded to my closest scrutiny any trace of li 
On the evening of the 22nd I received a note from Mr. Huxl 
stating that a careful examination of tho specimens sent to h 

no living thi 

Pipettes had been employed to remove the solution from the te 
tubes. They were short pieces of narrow glass tubing, drawn out 
« point, with a few inches of indiarubber tubing attached to the 
"This was found convenient for bending, so as to reach the bottom 
the test-tubes. Suspicion foll upon this indiarubber. I washed 


eS 


ot ihe cat 


fed wo eval « 
of the 
ise 


a 


Het 


= aunanseaeryia ins 11783 
ine Hf ne aay aul 
3 ae Hae gee a3 ee eagE 
He eae ead arual 

al giieita fay) 

ual i ine 
i ii a ne ee 
aj 


- 


ae 


ait 


beam 
Paty 


itl 


Tee ese 
Heuh Hdhle 
ae aaiige tial iaasit 
bn aeenel 
fatal 
HN Iny! 
Hubs Fnisse 
ral: pHGuE : Hat 
HELE ut 
a 
silt Hal ak 


Ee 
cS 
Ee 
é 
& 
- 
4 
5 
2 
gE 
2 
3 


the ‘Philosophical Transactions for 1874. Dr. Roberts fl 


with the infusion to becxamined. In the neck of the pete pa 
a plag of cotton-wool. Hoe then hermetically seals the a 
dips the into boiling water or hot oil, where he permite it 
remain for the requisite time. Here we have no disturbance fre 


BE Roberts lity contained them, In the gentle movement 
air to fro as the temperature changed, or by any shock, 
motion to which the pipette might be subjected, we have eek | 
cause sufficient to detach a germ now and then from the cotton=wi 
which, falling into the infusion, would produce its effect, Probat 
also, condensation occurred at times in the neck of the pipette, | 
water of condensation carrying back from the cotton-wool the seeds 
life, The fact of fertilization being so rare as Dr. Roberts found 
to be is a proof of the care with which his experiments were ¢ 
ducted. But he did find cases of fertilization after prolonged expos: 
to the boiling temperature; and this caused him to come to the o 
clusion that under certain rare conditions spontaneous generation n 
occur, He also found that an alkalized hay-infusion was so diffi 
to sterilizo that it was capable of withstanding the boiling temp: 
ture for hours without losing its power of generating life. Care 
cpesienis have been made with this infusion. Dr. Roberts is « 
ly correct in assigning to it superior nutritive power. But in 
Baad inquiry five minutes’ boiling sufficed to completely sterilize 


I shall hardly be charged with any desire to limit the power 
pny of matter in regard to life. But helding the opinions 1 
or on pe question, it a a the oy EE eae on me to afi 

at, a8 a5 experi) uiry has hitherto penetrated, life 
never been proved to appear independently of antecedent life, 


a geayeta3* 
(HUE HER Ag 
1 Ee joni a aril Hl fi HEY 
bus ual sited Tad Hit 
‘| aunt fib Hi Heal HE eae 
I i aids at # iil ty iad! 
ak Guy if sauae Bula HGH 
| lal th ! i sae ins i 
He ee a 
een 
F i He bis 


| 


i 
: 
L 
f 
i 
; 
é 


| 
: 
if 
| 
ue 
7 
i 


He 
é i 
" 
Hp 
ji 
We 
F ree 
tH 


the intermediate "liquid being tolerably clear. The whole proce 
bore a striking resemblance to the propagation of a plague amo} 
a eee ane aceeatye enh 9f Riremt cgi 


the air is not uniform. singling out, moreover, of one tube 
the hundred by the particular Bacteria that develop a groen pigme) 
shows that, as ity, the distribution is not uniform. T 


they resembled a rain of epereey beng so rapid and violent as 
be followed with difficulty by the eye. Reflecting on the whole 
this, I conelude that the germs float through atmosphere 

ips or clouds, with spaces more sparsely filled between the 
Pho touching of a nutritive fluid by a Bacterial cloud would natura 
have a difforent effoct from the touching of it by the intersp: 
between two clouds, But as in the conse of a mottled sky, 1 
various portions of the landscape are successively visited by sha 
80, in the long run, were the various tubes of the tray touched by ¢ 
Bacterial clouds, tho final fertilization or infection of them all bei 
the consequence. These results connect themselves with the expe 


with other experiments of my own.* 

On SSG Meipasliae aliveoed! tray, containing cao krmdsed 
tubes filled with an infusion of mutton was to the sir. 
On the morning of the 11th six of the ten nearest the stove had given 

to ‘Three, of the row most distant from the stove, 

while here and thoro over tho tray tubes were 


are 
are made which prove the error of the assertion that the germs aro 


bat distributed the air. There are billions of them 
in every London room. 
The of these actions ith the progress of infectious 


wil 
disease may be traced still further. The ‘Times’ of January 17th 
letter on typhoid fever, signed “M.D.” in which 
remarkable statement:—‘In one part of 


Fi 
3 
F 
| 





* In hospital pmetice the of id durin, Ppasan 
i sted very ‘ites om the opectog off tx the 
palmetto tre. lows, capricos in the beleviowr of dressed 


einen nfieerkalinisse’ wootselnc™ (Ehrenberg. “Infesicne ‘hier 

Y ht Chieroben,” 

ee as, erie teres for {Joe nothing 
concoption. My © ” however, are but amall miniatures 


24 Profeesor Tyndall on the Optical Condition of the [Jon. 21 


inhabitants is collected in pails or pans, and remains in their midst, 
in a partitionod-off corner of the living room, until the next 

, When it is taken down to the streets and emptied into the 

ration carts. Drunken and vicious Shongh the: poration: hey 

together like sheep, and with the filth oo ‘and kept for twen! 

four hours in their very midst, it is a remarkable fact that 

fever and diphtheria aro simply unknown in these wretched 
This case has its analogue in the following experiment, which is 

bes 


Te] tative of a class. On Noyember 30th a itity of 

Solem fcaitiecioy, Desh Mike malic t are aaa Tl in two large test~ 
tubes opening into a ing chamber containing six tubes. On 
December 18th, when the refuse was in a state of noisome putrefac~ 
tion, infusions of whiting, turnip, beef, and mutton were placed in the 
other four tubes. They were boiled and abandoned to the action of 
the foul “sewer gas” emitted by their two putrid companions, On 


lancet, was transferred to the turnip. Its clearness was not sensibly 


whiting; on the 28th disease had taken entire possession of the 
whiting. To the present hour the beef and mutton tubes remain as 
limpid as distilled water. Just os in the case of the living men and 
women in Edinburgh, no amount of fetid gas had the power of 
gating the plague, as long as the organisms which conatitute the true 
contagium did not gain access to the infusions. 
rapidity of development in an infusion infected by either 

a speck of liquid containing Bacteria or a drop of water is extra- 

inary, On January 4th o thread of glass almost as fine as a hair 
was dipped into a cloudy turnip-infusion, and the tip only of the glass 
fibre was introduced into a large test-tube containing an infusion of 
red mullet, ‘Twelve hours subsequently the perfectly pellucid liquid 
was cloudy throughout. Precisely the same experiments were made 
with herring, with the same result. At this season of the year several 
days’ exposure to the air are needed to produce the same effect, On 
December Sist o strong turnip-infusion was gees by digesting in 
distilled water at a temperature of 120° Fahr. ‘The infusion was divi 
between four large test-tubes, in one of which it was left unboiled, 
in another oiled for five minutes, and in the two remaining ones 
boiled, and after cooling infected with one drop of beef-infusion eon~ 
taining Bacteria, In twenty-four hours the unboilod tube and the two 
infected ones were cloudy, the unboiled tube being the most turbid 
of the three. Tho infusion here was peculiarly limpid after - 
for turnip it was quite exceptional, and no amount of with 
iubrilcvaseoye aibiced in receal in it at first the trace of a living 
rium ; still germs were thero which, suitably nourished, ina 
single day into Bacterial swarms without number, Five did not 


= 


a 





the Optical Condition of the (Jan. 21, 


26 Professor Tyndall on 
purest 





most delicate blue, the blue light being feted ee . It could 
be wholly quenched by a Nicol’s prism, the beam then passing through 
the liquid as through a vacuum, A comparison of the light with that 
scattered by such mastic icles as those above referred to, proved 
the particles of the ice-water to be far smaller than those 
of the mastic. No microscope, therefore, could come near them.” 
Such water, however, was proved by Dr. Sanderson to be as infectious 
as the water from any ordinary tap. 


* I havo endeavoured to convey somo notion of the smallncas of theso scatter- 
ing particles in ‘ Fragments of Science,’ 1876, pp. 441, 442, 448, 











28 Professor Hualey on the Border Territory (Jan. 28, 


WEEKLY EVENING MEETING, 
Friday, January 28, 1876. 


Tho How, Sm Wrasam Ronznr Grove, M.A. D.C.L. F.RS. 
Inst. O. P, Manager, in the Chair. 


Puorgsson Huxtey, LL.D. F.RS. 
The Border Territory between the Animal and the Vegetable Kingdoms.” 
Tur discourse with an examination of the distinctions between 


the animal and the vogetable eet forth by Cuvier in the 

second edition of the ‘Ragne Animal,’ published in 1 He charac- 

torizes animals by their of (1) Mobility and an aliment 

cavity or reservoir of food; (2) A ci system ; (3) A body of 

Sacan ieasent aed ay seathen rraiintgte are 

ni i ane jon— is, the al 

gan tah Vilgead ceised appli rire 

iological science o ication of the 
have abolished all these distinctions. 


1, Senconerells: plats and free plant cells are now known to 
the whole or part of their lives in an actively locomotive condition ; 
and their movemonts are, to all appearance, as spontancous as those 
of animals. Many animals of even complex structure, which live 
itically within others, are wholly devoid of an alimentary cavity. 
males of most rotifers have no digestive apparatus ; and amidet 
the lowest forms of animal life the speck of tinous protoplasm, 
which constitutes the whole body, has no permanent digestive cavity 
pte but takes in its food anywhere, and digests, so to apeak, 
over its a 
a. re Bpalt practically gives up his second distinctive mark 
whon he admits that it is wanting in tho simplor animals. 
8. It is now established that nitrogen is as essential a constituent 
of yogetable as of animal living matter; and that tho latter is, chemi- 


cally speaking, jnst as complicated as the former. 

4. green plant decomposes carbonic acid and exhales oxygen, 
while the animal absorbs oxygen and oxhales carbonic acid; yet the * 
pee erates ake Mame ee 
plant, which, in absorbs oxygen gives out carboni 
acid like any animal. While those plants, such as the fungi, which 
contain no ll and are not green, absorb oxygen and give out 
carbonic acid, 


* Tho fall discourse ia given in‘ Macmillan’s Magazine, Febroary, 1876, 








| 


80 Professor Huzley on the Border Territory [| Jan. 28, 
which condition the bean can make no uso of it:* and the chloro- 


oe ee 


E bse is ite itn th tho whe the 
ea has proved that the lowest fungi, rice ti 


times the weight of the original spore, uaa ne lavelatee 
basis of fact for tho gris we har yi 
terized by their manufacturing eapacity—by their power of working 


organic compounds. 
Son tat ania Gavi pei th opond directly or indivoa 
it, or yw 

vol thats belies + that is, elthor they are hothi- 
Lae threlarerser eg ere eae prea baer But for 
what constituents of their bodies are animals thus dependent upon 
plants? Certainly not for their horny matter ; brie Myer me the 
proximate chemical element of cartilage; nor for gelatine; nor for 
syntonin, the constituent of muscle; nor for their nervous or biliary 
substances; nor for their amyloid matters ; nor, necessarily, for their 
fats. It can be experimentally demonstrated that animals can make 
these for themselves, But that which they cannot make, but must, 


tory hs 
the two pers lg sort of no-man's land, the inhabitants of which 
certainly cannot be discriminated and brought to their proper alle- 
giance in any other way. 

The speaker then ated, that while examining under the micro- 
scope a drop of infusion of hay, at the request of Dr. Tyndall, he 
observed, in the first Laat poles of bacteria moving about with 
thoir py intermittent jodic wriggles; as to the vogotable 
there is no doubt. But other active organisms, very 


& 
Aa 
ES 


slightly incurved and cs tere into a pet curved filament, or cilia 
of extreme tenuity. Behind this, from the concave side of the incurva- 





* Tt is purposoly assumed Wore pa ro ee which the bean is supplied in the 
ease stated contains no ammoniacal 








32 Professor Hwley on the Border Territory —_[ Jan. 28, 
details of the development of the obscure and almost 

Pad inciash i steavapirer fungus which is the cause 

een ae pedal po has 

Sean sc aletontie alesis ond Hitch aoa a S tae 


axsumes the features of an organism, which is plant as an 
osk or an elm is, A green plant (Coloochmte) was shown to pass 
through a monad stage; while Chlam and the 


contractile vacuole like that of Heteromita lens ; and moreover possesses 
a red pigment spot like the simplest form of eye known among 
animals, The methods of fissive multiplication and of conjugation 
observed in the monads of this locomotive globe are essentially similar 
to those observed in Chlamydomonas ; though a hard battle has 


plant; and this conclusion would be very satisfactory, if % were not 
oq peters ee really no reason why it should not 


been described by Ehren! Dujardin, H. James Clark, and other 
writers on tho Infusoria. another infusion of hay in which the 
pinonts ~ Soon hace vere innumerable infusorial animal- 
cules belonging to the well-known species Colpoda cucullus. Full- 
sized specimens of this animaleule attain a length of between sho or 
«hy of an inch, so that it may have ten times tho length and a thou- 
saud times the mass of a Heteromita, In shape it is not altogether 
unlike Heteromita. The small end, however, ia not produced into 
one long cilium, but the general surface of tho body is covered with 
small actively vibrating ciliary organs, which are only longest at the 








Prof. Hualey on the Animal and Vegetable Kingdoms, [Jan. 28, 


EE Bee 
dalalin aps © 
Eyl Ae H ee 
qa SUAEH 
ici, Gla 
Ee) Wane 
ig Filan 
ui tr 
Haale 
Hanne alli 


he 


36 Mr. W. H. Preece on the Applications of [Feb. 4, 

In 1878, 17,246 persons met with violent deaths in England and 
Wales, which is an average of 750 per million, or 1 in 1854. The 
causes of these deaths are thus analyzed : 


Tasus L—Viotewr Dearss in Exouanp and Watxs for the Yrar 1873. 








| Cause of Death. No. 
Injuries in mines Gon ni Ne ) a pets 
Mechanical injuries (not on railways or in mines 
Chemical injuries pans 2784 








Some of these may be further analyzed as follows: 
Taste IL—Anatyeis of Taste I. 





Mechanical Injuries— 
Fall from scaffold (ladder) 
window 







in i 

” Got stated how) |. 
of heavy substances on 
Horse or other animals. 





strangled, and exeonted <. ” 
ughter, and suicide =... 228 


z 
Marler 











Mr. W. H. Preece on the Applications of [Feb. 4, 


38 
the proportion of passengers killed from causes beyond their own 
control to passenger journeys made was: 


Tapix V.—Pnorontioy of Passenczns Kuen to Jounyers Mave. 





ante VIT.—OCrassrrication of Raruway Accipests, 1870-1-2-9-4. 


2erO. | LSTL. 1872.) 1873,| 1874.) ‘Nature of Accident, 












works, 
From boiler explosions, failures of axles, wheels, 
tyres, or Shrines dofects in the rolling stock. 
trains entering stations at too it speed. 
From collisions between engines and trains follow- 
ing one another on the same Tine of Tails, except- 
at junctions, stations, or sidings, 
Oe or 














Included From collisions within fixed signals at stations or 
1 
2 the sidings, &0. 
3 From collisions between trains, &c,, meeting in 
opposite directions. 
2 From collisions at level crossings of two railways. 
u“ ‘From passenger trains being wrongly run or turned 
into sidings, or otherwise through facing pointa, 
8 ‘On inclines. 
9 Miscellaneous, 
131 





& Hin #e a 32 cE E. begacee ape gage 
i bce dial TeHUR HEHE 
Cui wiinial ania 
eH & ait | Erb fn He Lie 
> as z 33 HF 3 Pel = flee aall 
} ligt lupe i ul Mal 1 
i if fs F 38 Tate fi Hillis I 
inkdl Halle Pa | 
ZH ti He ie ie 
flit ai hs : Ht elit i ec 





innocuous, 
‘The greatest element of eafoty on railways is, however, the Block 


‘Tho block system arose out of the multiplication of traina, and the 
necessity for increased speed. Nocessity, the mother of invention, 
arate caval npon the gamo lino of rails aro kept apert 

ine eamo lino aro 
by « cortain and invariable interval of space, instead of by an un- 


‘Tho practice under the time system is to exhibit the danger signal 
for five minutes, and the caution signal for five minutes mare, after a 
train or engine has been despatched from or past any station, junction, 
lovel crossing, or siding. ‘Trains are thus said to be kept apart by 
fixed poriods of five minutos, and if the caution signals were properly 
re by an interval of time even longer than that, The safety 
of the train is entirely the responsibility of the driver. geommly, 
from accident is dependent upon his keeping a clear lock-out. 
sed en at regular and fixed speeds, if time tables could be 

to, if the line were not crowded with troffic, if the driver could 
always ensure a good view before him, if signals were near together 
and they were properly regarded, then a rigid interval of time might 
be maintained between following trains; but none of these elements 
of safety are constant. Fast expresses follow slow goods trains, now 
through a thick fog, now up a wet incline, at one moment in bright 
sunshine, at the noxt in a thick snowstorm; creeping mineral trains 
break down in a long interval between two stations ; passengers rush 
in at tho very last minute, detain tho train, and prevent the time 
tables from being adhered to; trains are so frequent at some places 
that the five minutes’ interval cannot be adhered to; obstructions to 
view arise from curves or cuttings, or from atmospheric causes ; long 
lengths of line are unprotected by any signal at all, and signals them- 
selves are too frequently neglected. Hence, the 5; is brimful of 
elements of danger, and the inexorable logic of has shown that 
the time interval is illusory and the system unsafo. 

But when trains, however rapidly or slowly they may bo running, 
however much punctuality has infringed, however crowded with 
traffic the line may be, are invariably kept apart by an interval of one 
or two milos, collision betwoon them becomes impossible. This is 





GENERAL MONTHLY MEETING, 


Monday, February 7, 1876. 
The Duge or Nontavupsriann, D.C.L. President, in the Chair. 


John Robertson Esq. 
Arthur Browin, Esq. F.R.AS. 
Emest De la Rue, 
Charles Flotcher, Esq, 
Thomas Matthew Gisborne, Esq. 
‘Mrs. Mite! Ea 

st jan, Haq. 
Francis Lys Smit ic 


Alesander Brown Thorburn, Esq. 
wore elected Members of the Royal Institution. 


Tho Special Thanks of the Members were returned to Samuzn 
Soorr, Esq. M.R.1. for his Donation of Five Guineas to aid the 
General Objects of the Institution. 

‘The Pursunts received since the last Meeting were laid on the 
bodes and the thanks of the Members returned for the same, viz. :— 


Lond Co Commissioners of the Admirally—Nautical Almanac for 1879, 8vo, 1875. 

Greenwich Observations, 1873, 4to, 1875. 

The French Government—Documents Inédits sur |'Histoire do France : 

Cartulaires de fie oe Cathédrale de Grenoble. 4te. 1869. 

eee Sooiet; yyot—Journal, New Serica, Vol. VILL. Part 1. 8vo, 1875, 
lapaagp Royal—Monthly Notices, Vol. XXXVL Nos 1, 2. Svo. 


. 1875, 
—Tho Militia, &e, vo. 1867-75. 
). BA patie General, Medical, and Pharma- 
averberttiongen, Sechstor Theil, 2tes Heft, 





General Monthly Meeting. 43 


he ay an Nos. 1-4. to, 
ror &o, fol, 1867-74. 
Vol. XL. Syo. 1875. 


‘I of the W 
Gocopany of Clekmmakers, deposited ihe Free Tikes or de Cheat 


1875. 
Sitors-Asoetisn fie 1eta done 1st 
Journal of Science for Des. 1875, Jan. 1876. Svo. 





Joureal of Sei Jon, 1878,  8¥0. 
Journal for Dec. }, Jan. 1876. 8ro. 
fournal, Nos. 599, 600. 8vo, 1875-6, 
Vol. XX. Nol. Svo. 1876. 
Gap iyo ran pt Soain Vo Her VoL HL. Par 28 
tl Eryn ap" a 
Lane Fox, Col. A. M-B.I. (the A in Cissbury Camp, (Journal 
Anthrop. Soe, 1875.) 8vo. 


Linnean ‘Second Serica: Botany, Vol. I. Part 2; a 
VoL Pat? tla 187. 3 te 
Manchester 


ions, Vol. XIV. Part 1. 8yo. 1874. 
MeCosh, John, (ae Serene naan noes meer ka esac, 
Switzerland, and Vol. EL. 16to, 1875. 
Mechanical Engineers’ Birmingham—Prococdings, 1875: July. Part 2, 


Mivart, Professor St. PhD. PRS. (the Author)—Lessons from Nature aa 
smnalfested fa Med ak alater Byo. 1876. 
Académie des Seiences—Mémoires de ia Section des Sciences, Tome V1. 
3; Tome VEL; Tome VIII. Fasc. 1. 4to, 1865-72, 
Nos. 262, 263, 80. 1875-6. 
Seciely of London—J. D. Everett: Illustrations of tho Centimotre- 


be 2 Tp cpr Vel XL fot 1875. 
eee ‘Transactions, Vol. VIE, Part 5; Vol. IX. Parta 1, 2. 
el tae eat hae lg het a nach ihrem 


fosen und Wirken buf allen Ni BVO. Berlin, 1876, 
Symons, G. J. Miuterscepmout Monthly Meteorological, Magasing, 
‘Dec. 1875, Jan. 8y0. 
United Service Institution, No. 83. v0. 1875. 
a, Soldlé Royale der fora Acts, Soriae IIL Vol. IX. Fase.2. 4to. 







pique, Vol. VI. Année 1874. dto, 1875. 
Ninth Annual Report. 8ro. 1875. 
Society—Ansual Report for 1874, Syo. 1875. 


\-~ 


a Mr. W. Crookes [Feb. 11, 


WEEKLY EVENING MEETING, 
Friday, February 11, 1876. 


‘Tae Hox. Ste Wruram Rosent Grove, M.A. Ph.D. F.BS. 
Just. O. P., Manager, in the Chair. 


W, Cuooxes, Esq. FBS. 
The Mechanical Action of Light. 


To generate motion has been found a characteristic common, with one 
exception, to all the phases of physical force. We hold the bulb of 
a. thermometer in our hands, and the mercury expands in bulk, and, 
rising along the scale, indicates the increase of heat it has received. 
Wo heat water, and it is converted into steam, and moves our ma- 
chinery, our carriages, and our ironclads. We bring a loadstor 
near a number of iron filings, and they move towards it, i 
themselves in peeuliar and intricate lines ; or we bring a piece of iron 
near a SA Sy we find it turned away from its ordinary 
position. ¢ rub a piece of glass with silk, thus throwing it into 
state of electrical excitement, and we find that bits of paper or thread 
fly towards it, and are, in a few moments, repelled again. If we 
remove the supports from @ mass of matter it » the influence of 
gravitation being here most plainly exprossed in motion, as shown in 
clocks and water-mills, If we fix pieces [Dele R ea 
string, and then sound a musical note near it, we find certain of the 
papers projected from their places. Latterly, the so-called “ sensitive 
flames,” which are violently agitated by certain musical notes, have 
become well known as instances of the conversion of sound into 
motion, How readily chemical force undergoes the same transforma~ 
tion is manifested in such catastrophes as those of Bremerhaven, in 
the recent deplorable coal-mine explosions, and indeed in every dis- 
charge of a gun. 

But light, in some respects the highest of the powers of nature, 
has not been hitherto found capable of direct conversion into motion, 
and such an exception cannot but be led as a singular anomaly, 

This anomaly tho researchos which I am about to bring before 
you have now removed ; and, like the other forms of force, light is 
found to be capable of direct conversion into motion, and of being— 
like heat, electricity, magnetism, sound, gravitation, and chemical 





w your 

attention to the diagram (Fig. 2 

illustrating what takes Sah whee 2 

bring a piece of ice near the appa- 

ratus. The centre circle represents 

my piece of pith; the arrows show the influx and efflux of heat, A 

jiece of ice brought near cuts off the influx of heat from one side, and 

erefore allows an excess of heat to fall on the pith from the opposite 

side. Attraction by a cold body is therefore seen to be Te~ 
pulsion by the radiation from the opposite side of the room. 

‘Tho later dovelopments of this research have demanded the utmost 
refinement of apparatus. WByerything has to be conducted in glass 
vessels, and these must be blown together till they make one piece, 
for none but fused joints are admissible. In an investigation de- 

ing for its successful prosecution on manipulative dexterity, I 
fan been fortunate in having the assistance of my friend Mr, Charles 
Gimingham. All the apparatus you seo before you are the fruits of 
his skilful manipulation, and I now want to draw your attention to 
what I think is a masterpiece of glass-working—the pump which 
enables me so readily to produce vacuum unattainable by ordinary 
means, 


is the actual apparatus that I tried to work 
with. The weight at the end isa piece of pith; in the centre isa 
glass mirror, on which to throw a ray of light, so as to enable mo to 
Bec movements by a luminous index. ‘instrument, enclosed 


Fig 3. Fo 


zero-point, to such a degree that it was impossible to try any experi- 
ments with it in such a place as London. A person has hes 
one room to another altcred the position of the centre of gravity of 
the honse. If I walked from one side of my own laboratory to the 
other, I tilted the house over sufficiently to upset the equilibrium of 
the apparatus. Children playing in the streets disturbed it. Professor 
Rook, who has worked with an apparatus of this kind in America, 
finds ‘that an clovation of its side equal to geagbsrrq part of an inch 
is sufficient to be shown on the instrument, It was therefore out of 
the question to use an instrument of this construction, so I tried 
another form (chown in Fig. 4), in which a fine glass beam, having 
discs of pith at each end, is suspended horizontally by a fine glass 
fibre, the whole being sealed up in glass and Ree ay, exhausted, 
To the contro of oscillation a glass mirror is attachod. 
Now 6 glass fibre has the property of always coming back to zero 
when it is twisted out of its ‘ition. It is almost, if not quite, a 
fectly elastic body. I will show this by o simple experiment. 
‘his is « long glass fibro hanging vertically, and having a horizontal 
bar suspended on it, I hold the bar, and turn it half round; it swings 
backwards and forwards for a few times, but it quickly comes back to 





to an indefinite distance beyond the violet. We do not know how far 
it would extend one way or the other if no absorbing modia were 
haa but, by what wo may call a physiological accident, the 
juman eye is sensitive to a portion of the spectrum situated between 
the line A in the red to about the line H in the violet, But this is 
not a physical difference between the luminous and non-luminous parts 
of the spectrum; it is only a physiological difference, Now, the part 
at the red end of the spectrum in the greatest degroe, the 
property of causing the sensation of warmth, and of dilating the 
in a thermometer, and of doing other things which are con- 
vonicntly classed among the effects of heat ; the centre part affects the 
and is thorofore called light ; whilst the part at the other end of 

© spectrum has the greatest energy in producing chemical action. 
But it must not be forgotten that any ray of the speotram, from what- 
ever part it is solected, will produce all these physical actions in more 
or less degree. A ray here, at the letter C for instance in the orange, 
if concentrated on the bulb of 4 thermometer, will cause the mercury 
to dilate, and thus show the presence of heat ; if concentrated on my 
hand I feel warmth; if I throw it on the face of a thermo-pile it 
will produce a current of electricity ; if I throw it upon a sensitive 
photographic plate it will produce chemical action; and if I throw it 
upon the instrument I have just described, it will produce motion. 
What, then, am I to call that ray? Is it light, heat, electricity, 
chemical action, or motion? It is neither. All these actions are in- 
separable attributes of the ray of that particular wave-length, and 
are not evidences of separate identities. I can no more split that 
ray up into five or six different rays each having different propertios, 
than I can split p the element iron, for instance, into other elements, 
‘ono possessing the specific gravity of iron, another its magnetic 








straction is shown in ee 6). It consiate of a flat bar 
white, a er horizontally in a bulb 
ing 


2) for the rays of light to pass in and out, A ray of light from 
‘a lamp, F, reflected from the mirror, B, to a graduated scale, G, shows 
the movements of the pith bar. 

‘The instrument fitted up for a photometric iment is in front 
of me on the table. A beam from the electric light falls on the little 
mirror, and is thence reflected back to the screen, where it forms a 
“eg of light, the displaccment of which to the right or the left shows 

movement of the pith bar. One end of the bar is blacked on each 
side, the other end being left plain. I have two candles, E EB, each 12 
inches off the pith bar, one on each sido of it. Whon I remove the 
screens, H H, the candle on one side will give the pith a push in one 
direction, and the candlo on the other side will give the pith » push 
in the opposite direction, and as they are the same distance off they 
will neutralize each other, and the spot of light will not move, I now 
take the two screens away; cach candle is pushing the pith equally 


1876.) 


Fic. 6. 


on the Mechanical Action of Light. 
D 
H 
W # 








58 


z 
[ERE 
Hue 
ua 
rf 
He 7 
to 5 


ze 

i 

3 

E 

z S 

it 

an 

nt 

ase 
EE 

rt 

ERE 


proporti 
54. urner is therefore equal to about 54 candles. 
In work on photometry it is often required to ascertain 
the valuo of gas, Gas is spoken pf commercil as of so many 
eandle-power. There is a certain “standard” candle which is 
posed to be made invariable by Act of Parliament, 1 have wor! 


samo luminosity from one hour to the other, and no-two candles aro 
alike, I can now, however, easily get over this difficulty. I place a 


1 

a tus that it will give a uniform deflection, say of 100 divisions, 
io standard can be reproduced at any subsequent time; and the 
burning of the candle may be tested during the photometric experi- 
ments by taking the deflection it causes from time to time, and 
altering its distanco, if needed, to keep the deflection at 100 divisions. 
‘Tho gas-light to bo tested is placed at such a distance on the opposite 
side of the pith bar that it exactly balances the candle. Then, by 
a ing the distances, I got the exact proportion betwoen the gas and 


o 
Before this instrument can be used as a photometer or light 
measurer, means must be taken to cut off from it all those rays coming 
from the candle or gas which are not actually luminous. A reference. 
to tho spectrum diagram (Fig. 5) will show that at each end of the 
coloured rays there is a large space inactive, as far as the eye is con- 


, 


EE 
56 Mr. W. Crookes [Feb. 11, 
chest ie eet a terenain ct eet 
scroon, 


ge EFE 
Ht 
ah 
zee 
Es 
eee 


AP a 
Se 
i 
c 
F 
3 
zs 
H 


slowly in comparison with the others, but it is not 
for the first instrument of the sort that was ever made, 
I will now, by means of a vertical lantern, throw 
on the screen the projection of one of these instru- 
monts, 80 a8 to show the movement rather better than 
th could see it on the table. The eloctric light 
ing vortically downwards on it, and much of the 
power being cut off by water and alum scroens, the ro- 
tation is slow. I bring a candle near and the speed 
increases. I now lift the radiometer up, and place it 
fall in the olectric light, projecting its image direct 


on tho screen, and it so rapidly that if I had not cut out the 
four pieces of pith of different shapes you would have been unable to 
follow the movement. 


The speod with which a sensitive radiometer will revolve in the 
sun is almost incredible ; and the olectric light such as I have in this 
lantern cannot be far short of fall sunshine. Here is the most 
sensitive instrument I have yet mado, and I project its image on the 
screen, letting the full blaze of the electric light shine upon it. 


EN hat cat candle flame as 100 
‘ellow glass reduces ee = 
Red 
Blue 





but in jerks, to come up to the boiling water with 
diffieulty, and to hurry past it. More more sli do they 
move past, until now one iled to get by, and the luminous 


radiometer was trying to push the resistance offered by the hot 
water; but it is not until I have Ticonght the candle so within ¢ feo 
inches of the glass globe that rotation is recommenced. On these 
pith radiometers the action of dark heat is to repel the black and 
white surfaces almost equally, and this repulsion is so energetic as 
to overcome the rotation caused by the candle, and to stop the in- 
strament, 

With a radiometer constructed of a good conductor of heat, sach 
as metal, the action of dark heat is different. Here is one made of 
silvored copper, polished on one side and lampblacked on the other, 
T have set it moving with a candle slightly the normal way. Here 
is a glass shade heated so that it feels decidedly warm to the hand. 
T cover the radiometer with it, and the rotation first stops, and then 
recommences the reverse way. On removing the hot shade the 
reverso movement ceases, and normal rotation recommences. 

If, however, I place a hot glass shade over pith radiometer tho 
arms at once revolve the normal way, as if I had exposed the instru- 
ment to light. The diametrically opposite bohaviour of a pith and a 
metal instrument when exposed to the dark heat radiated a hot 
glass shado is yery striking, Tho explanation of the action is not 
easy, but it depends on the fact that the metal is one of the best con- 
ductors of heat, whilst pith is one of the worst. 

One more experiment with this metallic radiometer, I heat it 
strongly with a spirit lamp, and the arms spin round rapidly. Now 
the whole bulb is hot, and I remove the lamp: seo what happens. 
The rotation quickly diminishes. Now it is at rest; and now it is 


60 Mr. W. Crookes [Feb. 11, 
it, but in this case I am obliged to set it going by an electric current. 


Ihave placed a candle near the etic radiometer. I now touch 
the key; the instrament immediately responds; the paper unwinds 


FIC.8. 






MORSE 
INSTRUMENT. 





BATTERY 


coe Gia 





KEY 


from the Morse instrument, and on it you will see dots in regular 
order. I put the candle 8 inches off, and the dots come wide apart. 
I place it 52 inches off, and two dots come where one did before. I 
bring the candle 4 inches from the instrument, and the dots become 


FIG.IO. 





four times as numerous (Fig. 10), thus recording automatically the 
intensity of the light line on the instrument, and proving that in 
this caso also the radiometer obeys the law of inverse squarea, 


62 Mr. W. Crookes [Feb. 11, 
thread, viz. its to resist torsion. Here is a still finer 
thread, stretched hori Shasta Sterile ec etl ae 


experiment 
‘of pressure which radiation exerts on a blackened I will put 
@ ray of light on tho of a balance, and give you its weight in 


be allowed a scientific uso of tho imagination, and may speak of 


E 
[ 
8 
3 
i 
: 
& 


described by him in the ‘ Philosophical Transactions’ for 
1830, Tho construction is somewhat complicated, but it can bo made 


and connected with the mercury pump by a spiral tube, F, ex- 
hausted as as possible. G is a spiral spring, to keep the 
Se eee are phate eps a 
a stopper, which is ground into the as perfectly as possib] 
Lean ighly polished and lubricated with melted indiarubber, 
which is the only substance I know that allows perfect lubrication 
and will still hold a vacuum. The pith, O, represents the scale-pan 
of the balance. The cross-beam, A B, which carries it, is comented 
firmly to the thin glass fibre, D, and in the centre is a piece of 
mirror, K. Now the cross-beam AB and the fibre D being rigidly 
connected to +, any twist which I give to the torsion handle K 
will throw the beam out of adjustment. If, on the other hand, I 
lace a weight on the piece of pith ©, that end of the beam will fall 
wn, and I shall have to turn the handle, BN, round and round a 
cértain number of times, until I have put sufficient torsion on the fibre 
D to lift up the beam. Now, according to the law of torsion, the force 
with which a perfectly olastic body like glass tonds to untwist itself 
is dircotly proportional to the number of degrees through which it 
has been twisted; therefore, knowing how many degrees of torsion I 
must put on the fibre to lift up the +}, of a grain weight, I can tell 


1876.] 


on the Mechanical Action of Light. 





63 


i : 
ta 
BF 
ue 
H 
z 
i 


fl 

a 
oF 
Ai 
Fiz 

oe 

2 

a 


L 
Bs 


Bre 
H 
Fe 
He 
aE 
EF 
/ 
i 


pressure ‘ht to 
of exactness. I lift up my little iron weight by means of a 
(for working in a vacuum I am restri in the means of 
I dcop it in tho contro of to pith: i knocks tho 
placed a pound weight upon an ordi- 
ey Sad the fades etyof ght has: dlopm fae Bereta sect 


ut 


t 
eA 
3 
5 


xeeeel 
ete 3 
eee 
steel 
rag ae 
BF. 
Ss ga 
Ze bee 
Bee ge 
pees 
slide 
ieces 
iEe<k 
nue 
Bru 


E 
Be 
: 
i 


now remove tho weight from the pith-pan of my balance, and 
from torsion by twisting it again. Now 
pete the ceiling is at zero, and the counter and index 


at O. 
Having thas obtained tho value of the ;4, of a grain in torsion 
degrees, I will get the same for the radiation from a candle, I place 


i 
i 


through which the torsion fibre has to be twisted to balance the light 
of the candle. 

It isan easy ealoulation to convort this into parts of a grain weight ; 
10,021 torsion degrees representing 0°01 grain, 1628 torsion degrees 
represent 0°001624 grain. . 


10, 021° : 0-01 grain :: 1628° : 0°001624 grain. 


‘The radiation of a candle 6 inches off, therefore, weighs or presses tho 
2 square inches of blackened pith with a weight of 0-001624 grain. 


66 Mr. W. Orookes [Feb. 11, 
stood that I do not attach the least importance to the actual numerical 
results, I wish to show you tho marvellous sensitivences of 
Co iaare which I am accustomed to work, I may, indeed, 
say I bo 


k Maxwell, in his ‘Blectricity and Magnetism, 
yol. ii. p. 391, writes as follows: “The mean in one cubic 
foot of sunlight is about 00000000882 of a foot-pound, and the mean 


Calenlated ont, this gives the pressure of sunlight equal to about 
2} Ib. per square mile, Between the 24 1b. deduced from calculation 
and tho 57 tons obtained from experiment the difference is great; but 
not ter than is often the case between theory and experiment. 
conclusion, I beg to call especial attention to one not anim- 
t lesson which may be gathered from this discovery. It will 
at once seen that the whole springs from the investigation of an 
anomaly. Such a result is by no means singular. Anomalies may 
bo regarded as the finger-posts along the high road of research, point- 
ing to the bye-ways which lead to further discoverics. As scientific 
men are well aware, our way of accounting for any given phenomenon 
is not always perfect. Some point is perhaps taken for granted, some 
peculiar cireumstance is overlooked. Or else our explanation agroos 
with the facts not perfectly, but merely in an approximate manner, 
leaving a something still to be accounted for. Now these residual 
piewmery, these very anomalies, may become the guides to new and 
portant revelations, 
In the course of my research anomalies have sprung up in every 
direction. I have felt like a traveller navigating some mighty river 


1876.) on the Mechanical Action of Light. 67 


in an unexplored continent. I have seen to the right and the left 
other channels opening out, all claiming investigation, and promising 
rich rewards of discovery for the explorer who shall trace them to 
their source. Time has not allowed me to undertake the whole of a 
task so vast and so manifold. I have felt compelled to follow out, as 
far as lay in my power, my original idea, passing over reluctantly the 
collateral questions springing up on either hand. To these I must 
now invite the attention of my fellow-workers in Science. There is 
ample room for many inquirers. 

Nor must we forget that the more rigidly we scrutinize our 
received theories, our routine explanations and interpretations of 
nature, and the more frankly we admit their shortcomings, the greater 
will be our ultimate reward. In the practical world, fortunes have 
been realized from the careful examination of what has been ignorantly 
thrown aside as refuse ; no less, in the sphere of Science, are repu- 
tations to be made by the patient investigation of anomalies. 


[W. c] 


68 Dr, C. William Siemens [Peb. 18, 


WEEKLY EVENING MEETING, 
Friday, Febroary 18, 1876. 
Grouce Busx, Esq. F.R.S. Troasuror and Vice-President, 
in the Chair 


©, Wa1iam Siemens, Esq. D.O.L. FBS, MRL 
The Action of Light on Selenium, 


Wuex, upon former occasions, I have ventured upon this arena, it has 

been for the purpose of Deis beret ae anaes inquiries of 

pyigra ine pecs) subjects, which circumstance gaye me some title 
your indulgence. 

This evening I cannot claim the same advantage, because tho 
subject matter which I am about to bring before you is almost entirely 
the result of the investigations of others, and especially of my brother, 
te Werner Siemens, who has not the opportunity of addressing you 

Tt is, however, a matter of undoubted interest, and in mention- 
ing some time the result of my brother's investigations to m 
friend Dr. ‘Tyndall, I did so in the hope that he might feel dis; 
to doal with this alan in his own mastorly fashion, and that I 
should thus procure for the members of the Royal Institution an 
evening both pleasant and instructive. I did not succeed, however, in 
obtaining for them such a treat, and it has become my duty to grapplo 

with this subject, for which I possess no other qualifica- 
tion than & somewhat intimate acquaintance with a kindred subject, 
that of the influence of heat upon metallic conductors, on which I had 
the honour of addressing you a few years ago. 

Amongst the powers of nature, light seems to be the one which 
enters least into the composition of matter. The beam of light falling 
upon the landscape, or upon a work of art, reveals instantly its form 
to our minds, but with the disappearance of the light its effects seom 
to vanish entirely: the landscape and the work of art still remain 
the same, and may be brought back again to our ocular perception, 
accompanied by all the beautifying effects of light and shade and 
colour, and yet there seems to be no permanent effect produced in the 
material condition of the objects us. Shall we wonder, then, 
that the true nature of light has remained a mystery more pro- 
found than that of the other forces in nature, and that Newton himself 
exclaimed, in desponding mood, the memorable words, “Nil luco 


ius. 
How well doos this modest exclamation sit upon the brow of 


70 Dr. C. William Siemens [Feb. 18, 
It is fusible, combustible, and similar other respects to 
i oelicchaen ys t eea oea eT ee 


jon or A SE nn ta anim alioiore ner t its 
cond 80 a pee 
battery a gals naar to show the effect. 


clearly that the action was due solely to light, and afterwards by 
Liout. Sale, R.N., whose further researches on this subject are described 
in the ‘Proceedings of the Royal Society,’ vol. xxi. p. 283, and in 
Poggendorff’s ‘ Annalen,’ bd. 150, s. 333. 

Hero the matter rested, when within the last twelve months, it 
was taken up by two independent inquirers ; ono in this country and 
the other in Germany; the one being my friend Professor Adams, of 
King’s College, who has recently communicated the result of his 
researches to the Royal Society, and the other my brother Dr. Werner 
Sicmens, who has made communications of his results to tho Academy 
of Sciences of Berlin. It is interesting to observe the difference of 





* ‘Journal of Society of Telegraph Engineers,’ vol. ii. p, 31, 


re 
bf 
i 
[ 
i 


a delicate galvanometer, the face of which will be thrown upon the 
erm De ai ky hy Shen oe late eae In closii 
‘the circuit it will be seen that no deflection of the needle ensues. 
ee ea reece ese pg el 
when again no observed, showing 
selenium in its condition is a non-conduetor both in the dark 
and ander the A ee 
of selenium, which has boon in boiling water for an hour and 
gradually cooled, to the same tests as before. veya the circuit 
while the plate is in the dark, a certain deflection of galvano- 
moter will be discernible, but I will now open.the lid of the box so 
as to admit light upon the disc, when on again closing the circuit a 
slight deflection of the galvanometer will be observed. In 
closing the box against the light, this deflection will subside, but 
will cps Fa rar Eve“ ET Ne 
clearly illustrated, . ao 
I will now insert into the same circuit another selenium plate 


E 
E 


eireni 
been heated up to 210° C., and after having been kept at 
ture for several hours has been gradually cooled ; it will be 
i Se Tip aeons Se ee 
ip of light, and other conditions to which I shall presently 
lade prove the selenium heated to a higher temporature to be in 
other respects dissimilar to the other two modifications of the same. 


i 
E 
z 


Fig, 2. 





80 120 100 200 MPH 240 sero 

These differences will be best revealed in describing my brother's 
experiment, Ho placed ono of his amorphous preparations of selenium 
in wn air bath heated above the melting point of selenium (to 260° C.), 
while the connecting wires were inserted in a galvanic circuit con- 





m4 Dr. OC. William Siemens [Feb. 18, 
periods in minutes from the commencement of the of the 
selenium into the hot bath, while the ordinates 


‘two curves 
Tho interpretation of these hich are of too deli 
i i it which are icate 
and elaborate a nature to be here, is as follows: Amorphous 
selenium retains a very amount of specific heat, which renders it 
8 non. of electricity: whon heated to 80°, this amorp! 


care 

100° C., and if it is very gradually cooled after having been maintained 
for wn hour or two at that temperature, a mass is obtained which 
conducts electricity to some extent, and which shows increased con- 
ductivity under the influence of light, But in examining the 
conductivity of selenium so prepared at various temperatures below 
80°, and without accession of light, it was found that its conductivity 
increases with rise of temperature, in which respect it resembles 
carbon, sulphide of motals, and generally the electrolytes. This 
my brother terms his first modification of selenium. But in extend- 
ing the heating influence up to 210°, and in maintaining that tem; 
rature by means of a bath of paraffin for some hours before gradually 
reducing the same, he obtained second modification of selenium in 
which its conductivity increasos with fall of temperature, and in which 
modification it is therefore analogous to the metals. This second 
modification of selenium is a better conductor of electricity than the 
first, and its sensitivencss to light is so great that its conductivity in 
sunlight is fifteon times greater than it is in the dark, as will be seen 
from the following table, and in Diagram No, 4, in which is given tho 
effects of different intensities of light on selenium (Modification IL) 
obtained at Woolwich on the 14th February, 1876 : 

















76 Dr. G. William Siemens [Feb. 18, 
pate m change of ite mitcalar condition nase the surface from the 


re rin of i pn ie ae an 
selenium, w! liberated heat is reabsorbed when the 
acne ce ureet oc 

accept as being more & wor! hypothesis, it seems 
be favoured by several collateral circumstances, 


the mass, notwithstanding a continuance of the disturbing cause, 
The fati, Vferecacats! Ry iree pee fennel mips 
return of the galvanometer needle tofrard its zero position when the 
influence of light is allowed to continue, 


These 
Adams, and which are as follows: 

1. That ‘the light falling on the selenium causes an electromotive 
force in it, in the same tion as the battery current passing 
Beth Sk lap aarcra ocean to the effect due to polarization in 

ol lyte, but in the opposite direction. 

2. That the light falling on the selenium causes a cl on its 
surface akin to the change which it produces on the of a 
phosphorescent body, and that in consequence of this change the 
electric current is enabled to pass more readily over the surface of 
the selenium. 

Time alone can tell which of these conclusions comes nearest to an 
wee theory. 

‘0 


these genoral results have to be added those regarding the 
relative influence upon sensitive selenium of different parts of the 
8 and the experiment which I am about to make will show, 


successful, that the actinic ray exercises no sensible effect, that the 
offect increases as we gradually approach the dark red, and that 
beyond that point the effect agnin decreases, reaching almost the zero 
in the heat rays. 

The following table shows the influence of the different coloured 
rays of the spectrum of a paraffin lamp produced on selenium of the 
second modification by a prism of bisulphurct of carbon, The fol- 
ae the different deflections of the galvanometer (conduc- 

vitios) + 


‘Uitra-violet, Violet. Binoy 
139 139 48 » 158 
Fellow. Red. Ultrasred. 
178 188 180 


y) 


| 





= a] 


78 Dr. 0. W. Siemens on the Action of Light on Selenium. [Feb. 18, 








it by means of a reflector. On opening the eyelids, a strong deflection 
of the galvanometer will be observed. I will now replace the white 
screen by black, when on opening the lids again hardly any movement 
of the galvanometer needle will be observed. A blue screen will cause 
somo ion, a screen a greater one, whereas the greatest 
cai. et 

0 rod, 

Here we have then an artificial eye which is sensible to light and to 


method, and Delisle’s failed from want of accurate longitudes. 

The transit which followed eight years later was well observed, 
and the solar parallax and distance deduced. The observers were 
numerous, and the computed values differed considerably. Encke, in 
1887, combined the results of various nations, and obtained 8°55 
re errata ein Wase chee i as distance more than 
95,000,000 miles. 

‘This value was accepted universally as a fair approximation, until 
other methods of determining the solar lax raised a most serious 
doubt as to the acouracy of Encke's tt. Foucault's determination 
of the velocity of light by a revolving mirror, and that of Fizeau by 
a rotating wheel, combined with the observed difference in time of 
the phenomena of Jupiter's satellites, or with Bradley's constant of 
aberration, gave severally 8-86 and 888 as the solar parallax. 
Hansen, from the lunar inequalities found 8-92, and Stone 8-85. 
Le Verrier, from 106 years of meridional transits of Venus, from her 
observed latitude in 1761 and 1769, and from an occultation of a star 
by Mars, deduced respecti 8''"86, 8" 85, and 8"*S7, And finally, 
tho discussion of the pai tic displacements of Mars led Sir 


82 The Roe. Stephen Joseph Perry [Feb. 25, 


contact at ingress were, as far as is known at present, those of Dr. 
des eee ang rd ely oe ee ee cape 
our 


The most advantagoous moment for taking direct measures with 
the heliometer, or for obtaining = Tani Nanen Saiemeta ta 


same tho 
arate ne Nan bad ee ee, 
pointed ont the advantages jis in multiplyin, good stations 
Shaeration, though many of the bot id-bsnat ataton are equally 
Halley's method, 
Bere sore gropecsion fur tho transit of (67d ooctled oveeal 
Large telescopes had to be collected, and new instruments 
Tiles hotics the: lecrsatselae ware ecrstrictel aul! the, nhaarvecs 
trained ; but thanks to the untiring zeal and energy of Sir G. Airy, 
Captain Tupman, and the whole Greenwich staff, all was in readiness 
by the time appointed for departure. Tho observers for distant 


Cape, where Commodore Hewett, V.C., and the Admiralty astronomer, 
‘Mr. Stone, did all in their power to assist us, H.M.S. ‘Encounter’ 
and ‘Supply’ had been appointed by the Admiralty to take tho 
astronomers from the Cape to Kerguelen, but an accident had hap- 


Lear Aas to be our guide, and wo soon found a site, which served 
tly for our primary station, The anchorage for our vessels 
herp oase the landing safe, the foundations for our instraments the 
id rock, the supply of water good, all our huts could be placed 
on the same level, and the spot was protected from the N. and W. 
pits, withont intorfering with the horizon. When the heavy work of 
raining, landing stores, erecting huts, building piors, and fixing tho 
instruments, was well advanced at our principal station, we selected 
a site for a second observatory, six or seven wiles south of the first. 
‘Two observers were placed there with a transit and small altazimuth 





a The Rev, Stephen Joseph Perry [Feb. 26, 


ee ee es 
to the work aera secure umairy 


| 
rt 
E 


esehily 
na 
Hun 
ite 
: i a 
partes 
i at 
Hilt 
penEEe 


ize 
H 
£s, 
gE 
u 
i 
a] 
i 
it 
FE 
ag 
B 


meridian, our two vessels were already under steam ; H.M.S. ‘Supply” 

bound fi of Good Hope, and H.MLS, ‘ Volage’ for Ceylon 

and Aden, en route for England. Five months on the Island of Deso- 
a 


availed ves of the opportunities afforded of collecting data for 
the formation of magnetic charts of the declination, dip, and intensity. 

With the sole exception of New Zealand, where fine weather was 
almost a certainty ot that season of the year, the observers at the 
remaining British stations were favoured with excellent weather, and 
the harvest is proportionately abundant. India was equally successful ; 
and the offical astronomers at Melbourne and Sydney can show much 
that will lessen our disappointment at the failure in New Zealand. 
But England did not depend solely on her Government expeditions, or 
on those of hor colonies for her share in the work of the late transit. 
Many private observers, as Mr. Tebbutt and Mr. Hennessy in Aus- 
tralia and ia, Admiral Ommanney and Colonel Campbell in 
Haypt and others, added their valuable results to those accumulated 
by jal astronomers; but no expedition was more perfectly equipped, 
or more ably manned, than that which rounded the Cape in the yacht 
“ Venus,’ aa we have very great reason to regret that sickness, caused 
by this journey to Mauritius, has prevented Lord Lindsay from giving 
us himself a full account of the noble part he took in the transit of 
1874. 


Unfortunately the very limited time at our disposal will only 
allow us to do scanty justice to the triumphs of other nations, but we 


86 Professor Odling on tha [March 8, 


WEEKLY EVENING MEETING, 
Friday, March 8, 1976, 


Gronor Busr, Esq. F.R.S. Treasurer and Vice-President, 
é in the Chair, 
Prorzeson Onuixa, M.A. ¥.RS. MRL 
The Paraffins and their Alcohols, 
I. Hyprocarzons m Guneran. 
Ouerranr gas, turpentine spirit, and the beautiful crystalline bod: 
naphthalone are familiar examples occurring in the gaseous, liquid, 
and solid states respectively, of a particular class of combustible 
substances; and although usually burning imperfoctly, that is with 
a smoky they are alike capable of complete combustion, that is 
of complete oxidation, by the oxygen of the air. 
however, of burning these substances directly in the air, 
metallic copper may first be burnt or oxidized in the air, and the 
Ct eas Pe then heated with the resulting oxide of 
. In this way, the previously burnt copper becomes unburnt, 
pe the combustible substance ponatnbaly burnt by the oxygen which 
it nequires from the oxidized copper,—this oxygen having been origi- 
nally acquired by the copper from the air in the process of its own 
oxidation or burning. 

Pure hydrogen by being burnt in the air or with oxide of copper 
furnishes water, and pure carbon by being completely burnt in 
the air or with oxide of copper furnishes only carbonic acid,—water 
and carbonic acid being the burnt or fully oxidized forms of hydrogen 
and of carbon respectively. 

Now olefiant gas, turpentine spirit, and solid naphthalene are 
alikeshown to be constituted of hydrogen and carbon by the cireum- 
stance of their alike yielding as products of their burning, water or 
burnt hydrogen and carbonic acid or burnt carbon. 

That they have no other constituonts than hydrogen and carbon 
is shown negatively, by the impossibility of Xeoognizing in them the 
presence of any other constituent; and positively, by weighing the 
amounts of water and carbonic acid produced by their buring,—o 
p of ico ease and exactitude when their burning is effected 
‘by means of oxide of copper. 

For instance, from a gramme of any one of these substances, burnt 
with oxide of copper, there are produced a weight of water correspond- 
ing to a certain quantity of hydrogen and a weight of carbonic acid 
corresponding to a certain quantity of carbon,—these quantities of 





Professor Odling on the [March 8, 


88 
‘thoir use in this being unattended with or even offensive 
smell; while th ight a most oll va Chapman 
a i uses in exceedingly dangerous 
=e Mp ns ena Roel Peer including the curious amin- 
aan Uaraiely a tia siaaictachore 


eral ozokerite as is well known, 
of candles. oe 


tional . Thus the compound formed by adding h; to 

poor ring ipa od for the iodine of ie eyduaitie of o! t 

eee ho ere beatae are st Manly hyde izod of hydro- 
ins jon. the most 

carbons, and the algal and mere Seine to bine 

with cortain other hydrocarbons, occupying but the place of the exces- 

sive hydrogen of ding , the inability of the paraffins 


A very simple relationship, in respect of composition, is found to 
subsist betweon the different parafiins one with another. In each and 
all of them, gaseous, liquid, or solid, the number of their proportions 
of hydrogen is found to exceed by two proportions, twice the number 
of their proportions of carbon ; or they are each and all of them expros- 
sible by the general formula ©,,Han42- 

Two liquid paraffins, for instance, mot with in benzoline or 
paraflin-spirit, boiling the ono at 99°, the other at 124°, have received 
the names of hi and octane, and are expressed by the formula 
C,H,,, and C,H,, respectively; not, however, as a mero result of 
analysis, which indeed shows very little difference between them— 
the one consisting of 84 per cent. carbon and 16 per cent. hydrogen, 
the other of 84-2 per cent, carbon and 15-8 per cent, hydrogen. 

The mode, however, in which the above and similar formule aro 
arrived at is very simple. If chloroform or prussic acid, for example, 
be converted into vapour, it is found that the volume of vapour 
(reduced to standard temperature and pressure) which contains one 
gramme by weight of hydrogen, is 22°4 litres; and, further, that this 
same volume contains also twelve grammes by weight of carbon. 

And taking tho vapours of o variety of gen. Cea gears 
whether or not carbonons also, it is found that 22-4 litres of such a 
vapour always contain, within the limits of experimental error, either 
one gramme or two, throo, four, five, or six, &e,, &o,, grammes of 
hydrogen. Similarly, taking the vapours of a variety of carbon com- 





90 Professor Odling on the {March 
And the similar derivatives, obtainable from the two bntanes 


similar present differences in their proper- 
tios. the butyric acid from normal butane is of 

atl gasyengerce 163°, and yields a calcium salt which, i 
‘Dut one proportion of water, is in being more soluble in 
cold than in hot water; while the butyric acid obtainable from 
ition 


as the other acid, and yields « caleium salt ing with five pro- 
water, less soluble than the other salt observing the 


Similarly with regard to or rather to the pentanes, alike 
represented by the formula O,H,,. One pentane boils at 38°, another, 
at 80°, and the third, which may be called neo. 
pentane, as low as 9°5°. The one yields an oily acid boiling at 185°, 
The other a like acid boiling at 175%, and the third a like acid boiling 
at 161°, all three acids of composition expressible by the samo formula 


05H. * = s, tee 

‘Ivo or more bodies, having in this way the same composition and 
unit weight, are eaid to be isomeric; and this property of i i 
manifested 


is increased probably fourfold by the number of instances of isomerism 
mot with among them. 


TV. Panarrixs anp Axconots, 


Before considering further the nature of the paraffins, and of the 
isomerism manifested by the greater number of them, it is advisable 
to examine the relationship subsisting between tho paraffins and a 
better known and far more active class of bodies, namely, the 
alcohols; and this relationship may well be considered first in the 
case of common or ethylic alcohol and its associated paraffin, ethane, 
—the paraffin producible nes hydrogenation of olefiant gas, and 
one of the few paraffins of which no isomers are known. 

It bas boon said that the paraffins are not readily acted on by 
chemical agents; still they are attackable by chlorine, and with a 
proportionately less degree of difficulty in the case of the simpler 
members of the series, Accordingly when ethane O,H,, aud chlorine 
Ol,, are mixed together, although the paraffin docs not combine 
directly with the chlorine, it nevertheless reacts with it, and so as to 
produce two new bodies, one of which is hydrochloric acid CIH, and 
‘the othor chlorothanc O,H,Cl,—a kind of ethane in which one pro- 
portion of hydrogen is replaced by ono proportion of chlorine. Or 





92 Professor Odling on the [March 3, 


and with isopentane O,Hf,, isopenty] or amy! aleohol C,H,,0”, boiling 
at 129°. The alcchol corresponding to neopentane O,H%, has not 
ts & pen os 


V, Atconons mx Genzran. 


As regards the sources of the different alcohols, although the chief 
product of the alcoholic formentation is common oot there is 
always formed in addition a considerable proportion of isopenty] or 
amyl alechol O,1,,0%, which constitutes the chief constituent of 
what in English tilleries is called “faints,” and in foreign dis- 
tilleries “fousel oil.” The propylic, isobutylic, and even it lie 
alcohols, O,H,0, 0,8,,0%, and O,H,,07 respectively, are wlso mot 
with, as minor products of fermentation, and are capable of extrac- 
tion from erude spirit of different kinds. But the greater number of 
the alcohols are derived by various processos from other and various 
sources, and are procured especially by the metamorphosis of their 

corresponding paraffins. 
From the relationship subsisting between the alcohols and 
paraffins, it follows that alcohols are as yaried in their obvious 
‘ties as are the paraffins themselves, The simpler alcohols, 


smoky flame; while the yet higher alcohols, as those procurable from 
spermaceti, Chinese wax, and beeswax, are fusible, orystallizable, com- 

Talthe ihe parafling, bi the alcohols, 

Unlike the 8, however, the ols, whether spirituous, 
oily, or solid, are readily oxidizable; and in the case of certain 
alcohols, which constitute the class of aleohols or primary 
alcohols, the oxidation takes place in this fashion. The first stage 








Paraffins and their Alcohols, 


J 





Hilt 


4 CS Hes ete ee ee 
faafHe ee y rate 
he pueda Be bea 
ifm lau 
EH ATH a es 

a desi uit aii gise 
lid iu PEEPS EET ERLE IS ETE ES 
ne ii Heh fie tn : Ht 


ce 





aes 
Wat instead & 


bil ii 























Hydrogen. 
Methane 
Ethane 
OH, Se 88° Psoudo-propylio s 
116° Butylie 0,1,,0 
re Bates 99° Paoudo-butylic a 
“ie 
109° Isobutylic . 
pean 82° Katabutylie ram 
137° Rentylic C,H,0 
ein) 119° Preudo-pontylic bs 
129° Amylic : 
‘He Tsopantane fer Pecud-amylic 
98° Katamylic “ 
Noopentano ? 
OH, Hoxanes Hexylic 04,0 
CH. Hoptanos Hoptylio 0,H,,0 
Oy Octanos Octylic 0,11,,0 
CHa Cotane Cotylio 0,,H,,0 
Cy Hy, Cerane Corylio Oy;H549 
CyHes Melane Melylic CHO 
C.Hay: | Parafiin Aleohol CnHn p10 


pes | 





Of associated Q-carbon compounds then, there is only one 
paraffin and one alcohol known. Of the 3-carbon compounds, there 
is only one but there are two alcohols; while of 4-carbon 


compounds are two paraffins and 


four al, 


Of 5-carbon 


compounds there are threo paraffins known, corresponding alike to 





[xoH, |Z 
Alehol 40 | CH,GHOy | XCH,GHOy YoHCHOy | ZcqHOy 
Aldehyd —H, |CH,O" | XcHO” | YCO" 

‘Acid +0 | CHCHOyO"| xcqHoyo" 
Carboxide -H, | 00,” 














pects tf kplevgos sail Soer singe of criti gas, there are 


successive additions of oxygen, but in four successive aubedintions 
of oxygen for the four proportions of neo in marsh-gas,—in a 
replacement, that is to say, of the firs ion of hydrogen by 
& proportion of oxygen saturated wah gen (HO), then in 
a. replacement of two proportions of hydrogen by one proportion of 
unsaturated or dind oxygen 0”, then in a replacement of three pro- 
portions of hydrogen by one proportion of half-saturated o: 
(HO) and one upertion of diad ox; tere! 0", jointly—and ly in 
a replacement of four a of hydrogen by two proportions of 
diad oxygen O" + 0", joint 
Now what has teat veatabtished with regard to the nature of the 

successive stages of marsh-gus oxidation has also been established 

with regard to the successive stages, so far as they proceed, of paraflin 
oxidation in general. In tho indirect oxidation then of o paraffin 
into its alechol, whether primary, secondary, or tertiary, there is an 
actual substitution effected for one proportion of hydrogen in the 
parafiin. In the further direct oxidation of the primary and secondary 
alcohol into aldehyd and ketono respectively, thero is an actual 
substitution effected for two proportions of hydrogen in the parafiin ; 


—y 


iii | 


Professor Odling on the [March 3, 


98 
and chlorine respecti' alike attended ib- 
Moca co dha ater clateet fee tea oe salon veep ad hear 


sessed of general notivity ; and accordingly, when substituted 
diet o indie fort Rrogen of parutn, are apa of 
ior little papell la day aera ey t 


is concerned, the metal behaves like hydrogen, abstracting the 
halogen and taking its under other conditions it effecta a 
mero remoyal of this romoval being attonded however 


butane, O,H,,. Similarly when iodomethane CHI is 
sodium, there is produced not the radical " 

paraflin, ethane, ©,H,; while when a mixture of iodethane C,H,I, 
and iodomethane GH,L, is acted upon by sodium, there is produced 
not a mixture of the two radicals C,H, and OH,, but instead the 


paraffin, e, C,H, and #o in other cases. 
then from its above mode of formation, ethane is 
H,C.CH, ; iodethane is consequently TH,C.CH,, or HyC.CH,T; and 
pane, resulting as it does from the reaction between iodethane 
Eccl, and iodomethane CH,I, is H,0,CH,,OH,. Or, so far as 


really constituted in pes by a grouping CH, ; and, inte the ae 


chlorides, O,H,C1 and O,H,"01, distinguishable from one another by 
the difference in their boiling points; and of these two ehloropro- 

08, the one of highest boiling corresponds to an alcohol oxidizable 
Tito an aldehyd and acid eam while the one of lowest boiling 


point corresponds to a pseudo-aloohol oxidizable into a ketone only, 


3 


Professor Odling on the Parafins and their Alcohols. (March 8, 


mnivalent reactions hay been actually 
Sandia Aad ing thus con~ 


iy 
% 
Hi 


A 
H 
Es 
! 
i 
A 
; 
E 


z 


a ketone, and a pri aloo! idizable into an 

successively. The scheme of the synthetic forma- 

two butanes, and three pentanes, is shown 

; wherein the combinations with ono another 

different taking part in the successive reactions are 
‘ity of their respective symbols. 


TABLE If, 


PERE 
Hh 





Todomethane. Bubane, 
1H,C + CH,I — I, = H,0.CH, 


Telethane. Propane. 


1H,0.CH, ‘OH, 
“+ OH, ~ = Ho(Gir 


‘Butane. 
Ledopropane HO(CH = + CHL -1, = H,0{CH oH 


Pentane, 
Kedooutane HOLS 4 CH — 1, = 1,0{G He OHe OH, 








Todopropane.* Isobutane, 
OH, 
moon —1,= olor 
+ CHI cH; 
CHT OH,.CH, 
__ {CH CH, 
Todisobwtane wo ot + CH,I— 5 = HO {ere 
Todtisobatane, Weopentane. 
OH, 
wi — = i 
+ OF,t 
[w.0] 


102 General Monthly Meeting. [March 6, 


Editors—American Journal of Science for Feb., 1876. 8vo0. 
Athenwum for Feb., 1876. 4to. 
Chemical News for Feb., 1876. 4to. 
Electrical News for Feb., 1876. 
Engineer for Feb., 1876. fol. 
Journal for A plied Science for Feb., 1876. fol. 
' Nature for Feh,, 1876. 4to. 
Pharmaceutical Journal for Feb., 1876. 8yo. 
Telegraph Journal for Feb., 1876. 8vo. 
r Meseaatt fant Sooty, eat fos. 601, 602, 8vo. 1875-6. 


; ga 

othe are Works of Bi ‘Joshua Reynolds, 1755-1820. 8vo, 1874. 
rge— Report of the United States 
‘ol. II. Cretaceous Vertebrata: by 





JSablonowski sche Gaischef Leip —Preisschrift, XVIII. 4to. 1875. 
Kemps, 5 ‘H.R. Keg. M.R.I. one hithor)—Handbool of Electrical Testing. 16to. 
Linnean "Aooiety—Sournal Zoology, Nos. 60-62. 8vo. 1876. 

Mocedice Messrs.—J. J. Monteiro ; Se ee ee oe 12mo. 


Society of London—! No. 166. 8vo. 1875-6. 
Ry En se Tein iwthor}—In the Beginning. Part 2. 8vo. 1876. 
{ina Author)—Symons’ Monthly Meteorological Magazine, 








Feb iste. 


104 Professor Flower [March 10, 
It must bo: that the material has come to hand so 


state, 
until the ‘flood of new ai begins oan nae be 
labourers in this plentiful harvost- pee ere ence ees 


many 

cannot say, and which, convenience, is generally subdivided into 
four sub-epochs, the Koceno, the Miocene, the Pliocene, and the Pleis- 
tocene, the end of which brings us to the period in which we now 


we 


in our chronology of the historical events in Europe, 


ago in Western America was that made known in 1846 by Dr. Hiram 
A. Prout, of teeth then supposed to belong to a gigantic species of 
Paleotherium,* and subsequently described by Leidy under the namo 
of Titanotherium, This was the commencement of that interesting 
series of discoveries, which have now made the “ Mauvaises Terres, 
or “Bad Lands” of the White River of Dacota, classical ground to 
the paleontologist. But it was not until 1869 that the older beds on 
tho western side of the Rocky Mountains were explored, and the more 
ancient Eocene Iand fauna of North America brought to light. In 
that year commenced the explorations in the vicinity of Fort Bridger, 
a i post situated in the south-west corner of Wyoming 
orritory, which lave yielded such an abundant harvest, and the 
locality of which is thus graphically described by Professor Leidy.t 
“Fort Bridger occupies a situation in the midst of a wide plain, 
at the base of the Uintah Mountains, and at an altitude of nearly 
soven thousand foct above the ocean level, The neighbouring country, 
extending from the Uintah and Wahsatch Mountains on the south 
* ‘Am. Journ. of Science and Arts,’ 1847, p. 248. 


+.‘ Extinct Vertebrate Fauna of the Bridger ‘Tertiary Formation of Wyomi 
‘Perritury,’ 1873. = =f ‘poe 





of the ancient history of which we have more com owledge 
than of any other, ia the large order of or hoofed animals ; 
and first among them I will consider those among many 
other distinctive peouliarities, by the unovon or structure, 


: : % vier’: Se aan ain - 

Eocene age. Cuvier’s in aris gypsum beds, 
which Taid the foundation of the study of mammalian palwontology, ro- 
constructed the form, now almost as well known as that of the existing 


tain ranges of western North Amorica have since bocn elevated were 


yaried in species and as numerous in individuals as those which at a 
0} ing period of time ranged through the marshes and foresta 
of the Paris and London basins. 


limited portions of the i pete only, as a few teeth, must be 

provisional my were undoubtedly quite distinct from 
any which we know from the Eastern world. It would be useless here 
to give a catalogue of the generic and specific names which have boon 
given to the animals of this group already discovered, A brief mention 
of the most important and interesting will suffice, The two best 
known genera are those named by Leidy Hyrachyus and Palosyops ; 





hia parla of the ook arranged symmetrically oa each side of & Iino a 
Danghitncmine ctikesiiiver wiv ah 


~ 


08 + Professor Flower . [March 10, 
& form ought to do if the one has been genotically derived from the 


therefore has a hi lace of interest among many 
hates soa which have lee pele our newly acquired 
knowledge of the ancient American fauna, If, however, as is stated, 
the fifth digit of the fore foot is only rudimentary, it could scareely 
have been, as remarked by Marsh, on tho direct line of descent from 
the four-toed Eocene to the equally four-toed Miocene rhinoceros, 
though certainly in such a case we know not what ought to be 


brought to light, are a number of species of 

the first known of which Leidy gave the name of 

papeti thes, fhesua have bens aimed by Mar: 

'y¥ Cope Symborodon,' 

They must, by their great size and strength, jue appearance, 
© ts Mioue tine: 


and 
of tho extinct Uintatherium of the Eocene, and were in their 
turn replaced by the Mastodons and Elephants of later ages. The 
rhinoceros of the present day will serve to give the best general idea 


* The firat indication of the existence of these animals is that mentioned 
above of the sup) Paleotherium teeth from the Mauynises Terres of 
described by Dr, in the * American Journal of Science and Arts ' for 1847, 

248, and afterwards by Leidy, os Titanotherium Prouté (Ancient Fauna of 
K ’ 1853), More complete remains, including the whole upper series of 
molars, woro described by the eame zoologist in. *The Extinct Mammalian Fauna 

ier Poet ‘Cope’s genus, Symborodon (1873), is differentinted 
from Titanotherium absence of usher, @ character which Marsh 


description af Brontotherium, says, “The only other of the known 
with, Rtainty in Tuancthadumeat Laity (Menodus, Pomel, hich, esr to 
Uierenoes 


and in the absencoof a tex on the femur. Lees important 
fare econ in the composition of the teeth and in the dinstema between the upper 
canine and first .” ‘The last-mentioned character is cortainly 1 


one Wy 
‘which if fs necomary to found a generic distinction (and a. generis distinctlon, 
unless necomary, Js fn my opinion scmething always to be avoided), and as to thoes 


ey vy, 
| Sag seal of Leldy's specimen were not present but only “ indicated ” in an imper- 
ee Extinct Mammalia of and Nebraska,’ p, 212), snd ane is 


sane aber (Dib, Units de Contver tex, SiS), tae the priority of Titano- 
terion, but it has never been adopted, boing too closely identical with the ati 


110 Professor Flower (March 10, 
explorations), gave to the Lecine lies sagem romains of soveral 
i onal aa ‘In Plaintooone scattered throughout 


every region of Pisperereoney te Escholtz Bay in the north 
faiPeegieie aa fib erat: These also became entirely extinet before 


Fis. ri 
= 
Bata tale Gf sondiSonttan ofthe fed efoet fous of Aipriean 


‘like anne (chiedl: Ly from. pat) showing gradual reduction of the 
outer, oo enlargement of the middle toe (IID. 

(Hocene); 6, Aesohinpus (Miocene); ¢, Afiohi (fiovene) ; 
=) d, Hipparion or Protohippus (Pliocene); e, Equus ( Aristooane). 


the discovery of America by the Spaniards—a most remarkable cireum- 
stance, considering the fitness of the country for their maintenance, 
ag proved by the facility with which the descendants of horses intro- 
duced by the European invaders have multiplied in a feral state.” 

On the other band, of tapirs, fossil remaing have been found most 
sparingly, though sufficient to show that they had a much wider 
geographical range northwards in the Pleistocene period than now, 
and yet several species of this gonus still linger iu the highlands of 
Centzal and South America, the sole direct representatives of the 
vast and varied Perissodactyle fauna of the continent in ages long 

1° 
a eee now pass to the remaining great group of hoofed animals, 
the even-toed or Artiodactyles,t represented at present by the Pigs, 





* For an outline of the as hed the Horse family in America, see 0. O. 
Marsh, “Notice of New Equine Mansmals from the Tertiary Formation,” ‘Am. 
Journ. of Science und Arts,” vol. vii. March 1874; ond “Fossil Horses in 
America,” ‘American Naturalist,’ vol. viii, May 1874, Also, EB. D, Cope, 
“ Osteology of Zeta in “ Roport on the Siratigraphy and Pliocene Ver- 
tebrate tol oj Northern Colorado,” ‘ Bull. U. 8. Geol. Sury. of the Ter- 
ritories,’ No. 1, 1874; (ead Lal ly's memoirs quoted above. 

t The parts of the feet are arranged symmetrically on cach side of a line 
dwn between the third and fourth toes. 


Si] 


ua Professor Flower [March 10, 


eee found pelarceotiy, ct verano] rensient- 
aller genase in 
n dege fee @ squirrel in size, 


have been applied. 
to the theca Teast 


pies not ihr genre Riieal preter ae the 
‘Pecora or Ruminants, is it to determine from the present 


Serena aa atatne ot the American Miocene Artio- 
on account of their great abundance both in species and 
Sece eed tise ea as heen Sollesod on te Seaix 
a Ae forms from any other 
pt the we to wh “Hon ficmarone paca 
played the part in the North American Miocene 
propery i cep in Central ata: The contr ts lors 
in were in nearly all points 
of stracture intermediate between tho aa and and (with 
ee ‘Old World forms, however) com ly bi the line 
of demarcation which our knowledge when li tod on to the existing 
fauna of the world caused zoologists to draw between those two grou: 

Thoy appear to havo ngtieleg throughout the whole of er the 
cone period, commencing genus called Agriocharus in the 
ib Roses andenainy endin, ‘in re Dagens of the early Pliocene ; 
a it of ol peelsrtal w that a gradual modification can be 
the animals of the group, p Sreapaag 

Larrea Ree ion nt rr ae ge i 
to the latest comparati specialized forms, thus affording one of 
the most complete pieces if evidence that is known in favour of a 
Topetanc alteration of form, not only specific, but even of generic 

Urlqep teen advancing ages, 

great interest made its appearance in re 

thee ree eh ctien wolrout, # ae mils of Rigen 

can be aad did not become extinct, like tho last, but continuin, 
to exist th: rough the Pliocene and Pipiaene ape te alleen 
on ta Aiseeal pact of lta earth ry Was Uncee oe Moar epecmas of Usa 
of South America, and the two species of camel of the Old World, 
The discovery of the early Miocene Péebrotherium and of the Pliocene 
icone efriginednaras of which, and of Pleistocene 
¢ size, though not generically distinguishable from 
ee modern vee are abundantly distributed over the North 
American cerry soem to show that that country was the original 
tare: ie the singular family of Camelida, which was probably intro- 
Bes in its perfect condition into bs Old World, 
oe os the transitional forms from the more generalized 

ruminants, like those aboye mentioned, have been met with,* 





* Seo Copo “On the Phylogeny of the Camels," * Proc, Acad, Nat. Scicnoos, 
Philadelphin,” Part IL, 1875, p. 261, : 


a = 
1876.] on the Extinct Animale of North America, 118 


sods a er erate 


or of the no representatives have hitherto 


Sete eee ces nee ruwi- 
nants aro entirely confined to the north. 

any group to which the term “ Order” is applied is so 
limited in Sere es epeoe eis on , from one 





of the most striking external of the animals composing 
ii, “Proboecidea.” The two species of elephant, that of Asia 


the largest and in some the strangest of all 
‘ite sole representatives, eon these two animals 
aes numerous essential 
characters, 50 really, in the world as we now see it, 
pee ceaives. 


EE 
Hl 

H 
i 
& 
5 


the existing condition of the 


well-marked fen pile 
of elephants, 


dak peregheemeapy peer 
ea food by by pep ae 
in ag y hywnas or other 

these subterranean dens, 
remains of a eniels extensively dis- 
of pert tear wie pautrrentarie hae 
of man. We ren moreover, that the 
@ period, judging from their bones, and 
not in most cases exactly car md in form 
kinds. Woe Stine ation oh remains un- 
vag betes eke cote 
a tag t the majority o! 
but differ more or leas 
Jae se feats sabrinlene 
eatowed upon them, as belonging to what are 


Be 
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eee 


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accra ryrete fated even with the Mareu- 


ively. . 
i deposits in Germany, France, Greece, Asin Minor, and India. 
Here our of the history of the order Proboscidea, as 
derived from ical researches in the Old World, ends. The 
Dinotherium being in its teeth and some other re: slightly less 
specialized than tho other forms, constitutes some kind of an approxi- 
mation to the Ungulate animals, especially the tapirs; but the pap to 
be bridged over is still very wide; and no remains referal 
animals of the order, or any intermediate forms between this and other 
orders, have been found in Old World Kocene deposits. 

Lot us now turn to America. Neither at the prosent time nor within 
the memory of man have any Proboscidean animals existed within tho 
length or breadth of the whole continent. But at one time, and that, goo- 
logically speaking, a very recent one, both true elephants and true mas- 

ons abounded in North America, and the last-named genus extended 
far into the southern portion of the continent. The elephant, the re- 
mains of which are most abundant throughout what are now the United 
States, differed but very slightly, if at all, from that which at the same 
period ranged throughout the northern portion of the Old World from 
the British Isles to Alaska. The commonest species of mastodon 
hie meh aen ar cte sees ster tee 
muc! peri any its col ers, even to 
have beon tho last extinct of all the American Proboscideans. 
Remains of other elephants and mastodons, though not differing in 
any remarkable degree from well-known European forms, lave been 


116 Professor Flower [March 10, 


short, broad, massive, and with five toes on each, At firet sight 
ih etn of thn fet (Boel by Maa) show ah extrac 
resemblance to those of the elephant, and to no other aaERA 
Raptealipee ab tone oF ths eacapaliny bal as clea ion it is 
seen that in the mode of articulation between the different of the 


» For the upper end of the third metacarpal, 
instead of joining almost alone to the magnum, as in elephants, is 
Segre nil eonreetti to the magnum and ,unciform, and 


the riser The presence, Ls shai of five com epee and distinct 
foot, is a definite 
A oe eget any known Perissodactyle. 
The vertel in their mata characters, resemble. those of tho 
Proboscideans ; the neck was somewhat longer in proportion. 
The tail was Tong an: slender. 





Restored akull of Uintatherium (Dinoceras, Marsh). 


The head was long and narrow, and in its essential features 
more resembling that of the rhinoceros than the elephant. It was 
elevated behind into a great occipital crest, as in the former, but, 
eal that of any other known animal, it had developed from its 

surface threo a of conspicuous laterally diverging pro- 
td ces, one pair (the largest) from the parietal region, one on the 


Uintatherider, retain, i >, many primi- 
i common to all Ungulates, st the com- 
number of incisor and teeth. These are 
information upon which wo wait.* 

It should be mentioned that has mado of Vinta- 
therivm and its immediate allies, a peculiar order of mammals, to 
has given the name of Dinocorata, while who formerly 
oe phe [Og ae with the 
Perissodactyla, has now (‘Syst. Cat. of Vertebrata of the Eocene of 
New Mexico,’ 1875) formed an order called Ai of which the 
Dinocerata, containing thé gonern Vintatherium and is one 


While, however, it would be the rashest ible assertion to say 
that these were derived directly from the Eocene Bathmodons and 


us some indications of the steps by which the might haye 
taken place, and as such their discovery is one of the most interesting 
that has been reveal: ogical research, 


martens and skunks, are numerous. The dogs also are widely dis- 
tributod and variously modified. The Welidw, though tolarably 
abundant, do not attain the same size and strength as in the Old 
World, and the Hyanide, Protelida, Oryptoproctida, and the great 
family of Viverride, the civets and genettes, are entirely wanting, 

As the modern tapirs and peccaries which pursue their peaceful 


* A figuro of tho skull of Bathmodon elephante and much additional infor- 
mation upon the geology and palmwontology of New Mexico, haa been publiahod 
by Professor Copo, in Lioutonant Wheelor’s * Annual pts the Geo- 


jhical Explorations and Surveys West of tho One Hi oridian,” &., 
asiugton, 1575, which rooched the weiter since Uke above waa in typo.” 


considerable num one another in theso animals, 
and many Known, resemble the well-known 
‘Hyanodon of Europe, a lost type i animal first found 
in the Upper ‘but abundant also in America at 
eee eens sei . Tho members of this of carnivores 
are all characterized and somewhat Sc a ee 


naectivora, ie 
Proboucidia, most of which have the generalized typo of fect. Tho 
structure indicates that the carnivorous genera named were planti- 


in ‘the carnivora are not gigantic Insec since the tibio-tarsal 
articulation in many, the separation of the scaphoid and lunar bones 
in ium, the form of the the absence of incisor 


Divorous Oreodons of Dakota, are more perfectly known, many of 
them having been well worked out and figured some years ago by 
Leidy. The most remarkable are several spocies of Hj a 


Buropoan co! its skull (which, as Leidy remarks, is not Lik 





* This idea has been more fully doveloped in a by Professor Cope, On 
the su Garnivorn of the Eovone of the Rocky Moustaina” (“Pros Acad, 
Nat. ” Philadelphis, Nor. 90 1878); and the group Creodonis a sabe 
order of Jnsetivora, proposed for tl ition of several cra proviow 

referred to the Carntcors, sat para aaa 


122 Professor Flower [March 10, 
eee ; but of the other families of the carnivora 


hitherto little has been |. Ureide and Mustelide, in Pleis- 
tocene ‘its, are very ; and, what is more remarkable, remains 
that can with certainty be referred to the a whose 
head-quarters aro in ica, have not been met with. ilies 
which were previously ment as not now existent in that conti- 
nent are Rackeaear in tis sattnet Mean. 

Perhaps the most conspicuous, both on account of their colossal 


the one in which we now liye, were the great sloths, known to 
us familiarly by the names of Megalonya, &e. 
As these animals are peculiarly American, it might have been ex- 
Lap Hershey of tho continont on which 
flourished were explored, the remains of similar or at least allied 
troy te  e ee But hitherto this bas not 
the case. 
of a genus (Morotherium, Marsh) allied to Megaton; 
and My en: Pliccan @ strata in Contral Californi: ea rans, 


have been Sceeribea Dot Hi tas moet remarkable fact that not a frag- 
ment attributed with certainty to an Edentate animal has been found 
in any Miocene or Eocene deposit on the North American continent, 
and therefore (if this negative evidence can bo trusted) we shall have 
aa look elsewhere (pro! to the Southern American apy for 
Sins ia Gas stig 2 Mien ies eroniutcs, an to look 
as but temporary excursionists into the Northern acta 

of the continent during the Pleistocene epoch. 

On the other hand, numerous pee races ee orders Rodentia, Tn- 
sectivora, and even Chiroptera, and some attributed to the Marsupialia, 
have been found in ean the hitherto explored fossiliferous de- 
posits down to the Hocenes, Of these, time will not suffice to give 
an account, and this is less important as it is difficult to draw am 
general conclusions from the fragmentary descriptions of them w! 

‘we possess at present, I must, however, not omit to call attention to 
two recently announced discoveries, which, when fully worked out, 
promise results of considerable interest. 

Professor Leidy, in 1868, described a single lower molar tooth 
from a ‘Tertiary formation, supposed to be Miocene, of Shark River, 
Monmouth County, New Jersey, apparently of Ungulate affinities, and 
to which he gave the name of Anchippodus riparius. Subsequently 
4 lower jaw of she renee character, from the Bridger Eocene, 
with large rodentel diet growing incisors, no canines, and 
bilobed molars, something like those of Palwotherium, was described 
by the same author under tho name of Trogosus castoridens ; but com- 
parison with the ie molar from New Jersey showed s0 close a 
resemblance, that the latter name was withdrawn, and both specimens 
referred to the first described, or Anchi . 

Other similar forms found in a more perfect condition have been 





1876.) on the Extinct Animals of North America. 128 


deseribed by Professor Marsh, who at a mecting of the Connecticut 
Academy, 17, 1876, suggested that as could be included 
ty kno or of mamas iy show bo lacl nt ew Oe 





aan ice our Gol and ANC 1676, Yue VE 


# These Professor “are the most 
remarkable teen 3 in Renee ee wall som to combine 
charncters of several distinct viz. Nerpchigay ny ites, 
Rodents, In Tilotheriam, Marsh, tho type of the order, tho skull haa 


areata Sod in aie ee ee 


the Rodents. ‘The adult dentition is as follows: Incisors, 2; canines, 


fi Promolary, 5: molars ¢. ‘Tho articulation of the lower jaw with 


the skal corresponds to that in Ungulates. The posterior nares 
behind the Inst molars. The brain was sall, and pines lar 


convoluted. The’ eae nee uence caeeivaras, pecially 
with + Am, Journal of | pppoe Cone ha dona vol. reelperay eel Did. March March 1575 
Doaseac ek Score = > amr Tees 


eee and carefully balanced deductions are required 
we can assign their various species to their correct position, 
and appreciate their bearings upon the gonetic history of the Primates, 
In some of the descriptions at present before us lemur and monkey 


forms have not been confined to the mammalia alone, The know- 
ledge of the past history of birds, reptiles, and of fishes has likewise 





Eoclcach ner hee record, we may hope that there is still so much 
the averse of events which have led aie 
the present condition of life on the globe, may have a great future 


[W. #. F] 


126 Sir Howry Maine on Feudal Property {March 17, 


WEEKLY EVENING MEETING, 
Friday, March 17, 1876. 
Sm Freveatcx Pottocx, Bart. M.A. in the Chair. 
Sr Hensy Sumer Manve, 5.0.8.1. 


Se Sie eT ete) Pesos Sectors od Trance on ie Bes of 
Jirst French Revolution.” 


Tue speaker began athe remarks on the nogloct of the provincial 
© cahiers,” or memorials, by French historical writers on the first revo- 
ap esetpyes Sion of some by SL. Pradhomme, 
cation some jomme, 
hhad already led to epaatiaailataa results, ty throwing more 
light on the causes of the hostility of the extioang peasantry to the 
territorial nobility in all France, except in the western provinces, 
such as Brittany and Anjou. The complicity of the peasants with 
the reign of terror was shown to be connected with ‘a wish to preservo 
great advantages obtained at the very period when France became 
their object in setting fire to a chiteau was to destroy 

the title~deeds of the seigneur of the fief. 

The Fronch nobles and gentry were evorywhero engaged in_un- 
ceasing litigation with the peentr and they had little or no analogy 
to a land great estates, and the largest part 
of them had little or no land let for rent to tenants at will, or lessees, 
‘but lived on the mon luce of the small incidental services 
due from owners of land held, as we Pa , 00 copyhold to the lord 
of the manor. They received fines, and had monopolies and various 
nondescript sources of income ; and concerning the legal foundation 
of these privileges a strong controversy was proceeding during the half- 
century preceding the Revolution. The first or constituent assombly 
ower away the greatest part of the fondal dues, with compensation for 

es etn ae legislative assembly, abolished the residue and 
roe the slit roe the third, the convention, was zealously 
supported by the peasantry, through a desire to retain "what had been 


‘The speaker, before considering tho Lethe whether the Revolu- 
tion took place because « great purt of the soil of France was held on 
copyhold tenure, demonstrated the fallacy of the Bepules: notion that 





* This discourse will be eventually published in full by the author, 


b Balderstone’s raids, deseribed in ‘ Bride of 
Lammermoor.’ In England, on the other hand, the bulk of the class 

ling to the French peasantry consisted of agricultural 
labourers or tenant farmers, never politically dangerous. English 
copyholders and French peasants, it was said, were not hirers, but 


i holders juently impaired their 1 condition 
eee Katie ate of throes Se te toot or 
by and sale through the unusual facilities more frequent 
in than elsewhere. Tho sacredness of contract was one of 
the sean pete the ir emcee Sapeera 
strongly influenced proceedin, whi e manorial rights 
the Ae utes were taken Wey, At first it was intended that 


manorial rights originated in violeuce, See eat onthe 
|, on the 


understood that the contrast between the sum of foudal obligations 
and rights taken in England and France is wholly to be explained 
by the causes analyzed in his discourse, but this set of causes appeared 
to him to have been kept too much in the background, 


v 
1876.] Professor Hughes on Geological Measures of Time. 129 


WEEKLY EVENING MEETING, 
Friday, March 24, 1876. 


Wirrsax Srorrimwoone, Bsq. LL.D. M.A. Treas. RS. 
Socretary and Vice-President, in the Chair, 


T, McK. Hvomes, Esq. M.A, 


WOOPWARDIAN PROFEMOE OF OPOLOGY, CAumeIDar. 


Geological Measures of Time. 


‘Tux speaker, in considering the methods which have been em; 
in attempting to estimate the absolute age of eat a ored 
thom under two principal heads,—TI. Astronomical, and II. 


in which = oe wid ee been cal cunses, 
as—A. Limitations (a, — uring wi , assuming 
the sun can me Seatiaad ha airs te heat 

; (8) of the time it would take the earth to 


Be (ete remarked that, as astronomers 
to millions of years, he had no reason 
geology required more: at any rate, it did not seem to 
by anything that would come undor consideration that 


he pointed out that it belonged to 
istoric period of geology; for we 

we any record of a molten carth, Lakes of 
great depth, or zones of heated matter ready to 
of the is removod, will do for us, 
also wo have no evidence to show—chemical 

cooling from original high temperature of 
equally well explain all we see— 
‘and tho difference in thin respect between » loose volcanic ash and the 


AE, 
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‘Yet he felt that it is to the physicist we must look for the next 

. Only the physicist must leave ux an carth 

within the whole period of which we have any record in the 

rocks has been mnder conditions which, though locally changing, have 
Me be, Kx 


3 
a 


Professor McK. Hughes (March 24, 


130 

been on the whole similar to those which now obtain—whose crust has 

Pacsesbereeeenbls as cotelas sufficient to cause at least 
con! 


coincidence of 
the extreme of excentricity of the carth’s orbit with the extrome of 
obliquity of the earth’s axis, would produco cxcessive cold or heat in 
the northern or southern ag the ease might require, or 
would produce such extremes in tho seasons as would result in glaci 
conditions owing to the summer's sun being unable to the 
winter's frost, or would produce much effect worth mentioning if un- 
aided by favourable geographical arrangements of land and water, or 
would produce any effect at all that might not be neglected in such 
inquiries owing to the certainty that it might be entirely counteracted 
ie aeaeh Coal aecersetiieal chia aa, We Tow eos oockeoeally 
on, 


ee Ee ea 
such combinations, that the difference of mean temperature under any 
circumstances that we have to do with would be trifling compared 
with the difference of climate produced to-day by geographical causes, 
such as give us, in the southern hemisphere, the land of the humming- 
bird in South Georgia on the same latitude as the ice-bitten hills of 
‘Tierra del Fuego, and, in the northern hemisphere, the coasts of 
N and North Britain on the same latitude as Greenland and 


It is, however, allowed that such combinations might Prec an 
appreciable effect in intensifying or mitigating extremes of tempera- 
ture in the winter and summer, 

ESO, Sey are in fis position, that lial show 
any periodicity recurrence of certain geographical arran, 
ments of land and water, then if the astronomical combinations which 
tended to produce the same effect coincided with this we should have 
a greater result. That is obvions. But there is no known law as to 
the proportion of land to water in any successive periods; and if, for 
instance, the astronomical causes which tended most to intensify, 
winter's cold coincided with a period when we had half land within 
the Arctic circle, how could that period be distinguished simply by 
effects produced from a previous period, during which perhaps three- 
fourths of the regions within the Arctic circle was land, and the 
astronomical causes tended to produce quite an opposite result ? 

6, Bat there is a still more serious objection to this method of 

ing time—one founded more exclusively upon geology. It 
of course assumes that we have fixed the exact position in the earth's 


Rae iegs bx emit cose Sok i exact measure of time, 
‘but we must | ieee eerie some other phenomena 


aay er in such speculations. 
Local divisions of the pliocone, and 


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evidence of an entiro extinction of 
always an oyorlap, many 
forms, if not identical with those in the older rocks, at any rate ana= 
ogous to them, a] ing in the newer. Now this is hi possible 
ice from north and south almost met in 
equatorial regions be true. The supposition that the northern fauna 
ae ee een ee ae the hills, or lingered along the 
at 


& 
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= 
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Fy 


t glacial ice, of which we have evidence ining in the 
peribern etie has probably been now here, now there, through 
all the periods the to our own time, when it is strongly 

in Greenland. the reason why we are not 0 likely to 
find traces of it going back to remote ages is, that denudation must in 
a long remove such thin local deposits where they have not 
been sul and covered up, and of course what we see is more 


. likely to belong to the period of later emergence than of subsidence. 


we need only to the almost recent shell-beds of Uddevalla and 
other places in Scandinavia, and in our own country to the ovidence 
afforded by the shells of Masclosfield and Moel ‘Tryfaan for proofs of 
upheavals up to at least a quarter of a mile vertical since the glacial 
period of those places—and Ui Corea the deposition of the Crag 
we may have had time enough ten times that amount of dis- 
acemont. 
- In the early days of science, when recent sea shells wore found far 
inland, and fossil shells imbedded in the rocks of the mountain tops, the 
whole was often referred to one tdeluge. The extreme glacialists 
aredoing much the same now, Not having yet sufficient knowledge to 
discriminate betwoon the periods when in each locality glacial condi- 


sineyiterats 
irtelette 
ff if a 

5s 
a 

al 

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sediment on tho low lands near the mouth of a great river. 

Similarly from examples quoted of the effects of thunderstorms 
and sudden floods observed by himself in various places, he pointed 
out the great irrogularity of the accumalation of torrent débris and 
river gravels, 


Bye 7s 

| et if HTH HL ee ag a He 
at jiuteieies Heatiee He 1 

vege | ifgialeioai di tuet Ue 

Hs il asl aie stl Hr Sip pate 

HUE a ppd 

i ala 4 ie i iu A 


inl ules 


tal Hii if igfs Hdl Sere 
ae tg di tlt i ee ig Hin 


{ile Hues 
ill La He mie Ui fa 


186 Professor Hughes on Geological Measures of Time. [Mar. 24,1876. 


which that part of their channel is being lowered now, but how long 
would it take the Somme or Thames, which once ran at the level of 
those gravels, to cut back from where its mouth or next waterfall was 
then to where it runs over rapids now. We ought to know what 
movements of upheaval and depression there have been; what long 
alluvial flats or lakes which may have checked floods, but also arrested 
the rock-protecting gravel ; how much the wash of the estuarine waves 
have helped. In it is clear that observations made on the action 
of the rivers at those points now have nothing to do with the calcula- 
tion of the age of the terraces above, and that the circumstances upon 
which the rate of recession of the waterfalls and rapids depends are so 
numerous and changeable that it is at present unsafe to attempt any 
estimate of the time required to produce the results observed. 

But although, when we examine critically the various measures of 
time that have been employed, it would seem that with our present 
knowledge there is no certainty to be arrived at with regard to the 
age of any geological phenomena of considerable antiquity, still we 
know that we have measured some good base lines, and if as yet 
we have got no sensible parallax for those far-off worlds, we may hope 
some day to measure longer base lines, and get a better result. 


[T. MoK. H.] 


ol pe gag gag eagle ob this current is not 
affected ight. It is, therefore, proved tl variation juced 
RE ogg ced pepegied ateapalyer lage apt 
retina when light impinges upon it. 

Rays of the Spoctram.—Which rays of the spectrum produce the 
greatest effect? We know, of course, that the rays which are the 
most luminous to our consciousness aro the yellow mys, The colours 
of a very pure spectrum were obtai the eye heing brought into the 
yarious rays successively, and the t noted. ‘To obtain comparative 
results, the ions were repeated as quickly as possible, It was 
found, in studying the results, that those rays which we regard as the 
most luminons produce the greatest variation. Wor instance, the low 
red rays af the end of the spectrum produce little effect, and 
if you go below the red into the heat rays there is no action. But 
the effect increases till you reach the yellow, and if you go on to the 
violet it gradnally becomes less and less until, boyond the violet, 
there is no action. 


of 
made havo ap alah bagi that a quantity of light, one hundred 
times in excess of anol 


known psycho-physical law of Fechner was applicable to this class of 
phenomena. 

The an of Fatique.—The retina, on the action of light, behaves 
in a i manner a8 regards fatigue, to a muscle that has been 
exhausted by repeated stimulation. Tho muscle diminishes in its 
mechanical effect for the same stimulation and recovers during 
The amount of electric variation in the case of the cye diminishes for 
the same amount of light stimulation, unleas the organ has had 
sufficient time to reoover its normal condition. In this case, the 
recovory takes place in the absence of light, 

We have continued this investigation in various new directions, 
and have arrived at results which may be thus shortly detailed. 

New Method of Kaperimenting.—One of the chief difficulties in 
arriving at the exact relation betweon the electrical variation and 
the different luminous and colour intensity of light, was the con- 
tinually diminishing sensibility to the stimulus, owing to the abnormal 
conditions of the eye when removed from the head. You can easily 
understand how this occurs. When you bogin the experiment, the 
eye is remarkably sensitive to light, and o large variation of current 
js obtained ; but the amount of this current is gradually falling in 


mo Professor James Dewar [March 81 


so a5 to havo a mvist surface; bring the electrodes into positiou, 
placing one in contact with the abraded surfaces and the other in 
contact with the surface of the cornea, aud you will at once obtain 
the effect, 





Diagram showing arrangement of apparatus in the experiment on eye of frog, A, Bye 
showing the electrode, E, in contact with it. B. Skin removed and subcutaneous 
tinue in contact with ether electrode, EK. Key. G. Galeanometer. Arrows 
indicate direction of current, Cornea, positive. Buck, negative. 





Action of Light in Warm-blooded same as in Cold-blooded Animals. 
By the use,of chinoline we were able to make experiments of the kind 
just described for a considerable time, without the necessity of main- 
taining artificial respiration. The result of those investigations upon 
warm-blooded animals has becn to show that in these, as in the cold- 
blooded, light produces first an inerease in the electric current on 
impact; continued light usually causes tho electrical curreut to 
diminish; and on the removal of light, there is a second rise, as 
dexeribed in the case of the frog. In our earlier investigations, we 
always observed in the case of warm-blooded animals (when the eye 
had ¢ither been quite removed from the body or was receiving an 
inadequate supply of blood), that tho action of light caused a negative 
variation, that is, a diminution in the electrical current. By improved 
mothods, however, which have the effect of placing the eye in con- 
ditions moro normal, wo find that light canses a posifive variation, that 





1876.) on the Physiological Action of Light. 141 

an increase ; thus agreeing with what bad hitherto been observed 

the eye of the frog. This is a point worthy of notice. Du Bois- 

Reymond showed, even in the case of sonsory nervos, that physio- 

logical action caused a negative variation. But it appears that in the 

ease of the rotina the action of the normal stimulus is to cause a 
positive not # negative variation. 

ment with the Living Lobster.—The action of light oan be 

readily shown in this animal. Vix it loosely in a cloth, and lay it 

i oblique position. With « small trephine 

remore a circular portion of the carapace, about three millimétres in 

a exposé the moist tegumentary surface. Bring one 

ith this surface, while the other touches tho 

cornea, The usual effects of light may then be noted ; but in the case 

i mised by the impact ia greater than what 





Tiagram showing arrangement of apparatus in experiment on living lobster, 4. Cor- 
peal surfer, having deetrode, EK, ie contact with it. B. Portion of carapace 
remored so as to expoie moist surface for electro K, Key. G, Galvanometer 
Arrows indicate dirrctica of current. 





pparently no current, but in reality the currants 

Light falling on the one eye causes the needle 
to more, say to the left, while if it fall on the other eyo, the needle 
aworves to the right. When the eye of the lobster, removed from the 
body, was divided longitudinally into segments, oach segment was 
found sensitive to light. The effect of light was then to increase the 
primary current, but no inductive action was observed on withdrawal. 





142 ——-Profeseor James Dewar [March $1, 
‘This observation is a8 a confirmation of the views of 
physiologists of action of a com 


Moe of Bayrinet on of Fah Rewnty wo nee sone to 
ee 6 a a imple way, 
rane i Protest Stiles Inorg viene 

some mont for another purpose. Take a: five it a 
sid I almost sigeioaliea, mud winks 


in 

die in consequence of paralysis of the movement of the necessary 
Sis rorpirasions Tse aie tally tia nicl out ofsthe center, at it 
upon o glass plate, introduce a little bit of cork under each gill, and 
then by means of an indiarubber tube placed in the month allow a 
little water to flow over the gills, the will live out of water in 
that condition for many hours. By this method we were able to 
perform the experiment upon the eye of a fish with the same 


results. 
Obsereation on Human Eye.—Having succeeded in detecting the 
action of light on the retina of the living warm-blooded animal 


without any operative procedures, it ap ible to apply a 
similar method to the eye of man. For emt e sinall trough 
of clay or paraffin was constructed round the margin of the orbit, 80 
as to contain @ quantity of dilute salt solution, when the Eee was 
placed horizontally and the head L peopel, secured. Into this solution 
the terminal of « non-polarizable olectrode was introduced, and in 
order to complete the cirenit the other electrode was connected with a 
large guttapercha trough containing salt solution, into which one of 
the hands was i . By a laborious process of education, it is 
possible to diminish largely the electrical variation due to the in- 
voluntary movements of the eye-ball, and by fixing the eye on ono 
int with concentrated attention, another observer, watching the 
galvanometer, and altering the intonsity of the light, can detect an 
electrical variation similar to what is seen in other animals. This 
method, however, is too exhausting and uncertain to permit of quanti- 
tative observations being made. 
nation of Variation in Direction of Current-—One phenomenon 
particularly attracted the attention of physiologists, and especially of 
those who first saw the experiments; viz. that sometimes, in the case 
of the eye of the frog, light uced an increase in the electrical 
current, and in other cases a diminution. This we could not at first 
account for, But we have been able to make out that the positive 
and negative variation, or the increase or diminution of the natural 
current on the action of light, depends upon the direction of the 
primary current, when the cornea and brain are in circuit. If the 
cornea be positive and the brain be negative, then light produces an 
increase of the electrical current. Tf, on the other hand, the cornea 
‘be negative and the brain positive, light then produces a diminution in 
the electrical current. It is thus conclusively shown that the current 
enperadded, or if wo may use tho language, induced by the action of 


144 Professor James Dewar [March 31, 


Action on Frog's Eye of Colours of Polarized Light. 


Initial Effect. Final Effect. 

Purple rise of 14 
Light Bluo >» 2 
Red Vivlet 25 
Blue » 20 
Red. |. , 15 
Orange Red ae) 
Green Blue 8 
Green wee 
Yellow ay 
19 





Action on Frog's Eye of Spectrum of Ozyhydrogen Flame. 










Initial Effect. 
Yellow, near Orange... rise of 70 
Green Yellow » 85 
Green—low 2 5 
Green—high 315 
Green—higher » 18 
Yellow Green nO 85 
Yellow. eo 80 





Determination of Electro-motive Force.—Very soon after the first 
experiments were announced, certain physiologists said, that although 
we had obtained the results of the action of light which I have 
just described as indicated by the galvanometer, we had no right 
to say that there was a change in the electro-motive force as stated in 
the earlier communications. Wo had, however, satisfied ourselves 
that the effect was due to an alteration in the electro-motive forco, 
but reserved details to the second part of our investigations. At first, 
in attempting this Sir William Thomeon’s electrometer was used, but 
the amount of electric potential to be measured was too small to get 
good results. Another plan of determining the clectro-motive force 
was adopted. This was the method introduced by Mr. Latimer 
Clarke, the eminent electrician, and described in his work on 
‘Electrical Measurements.’ The instrument devised for this purpose 
is called by him a Potentiometer, and measures electro-motive forces 
by a comparison of resistances. Practically we found the Daniell’s 
cell far too strong a battery to use as a standard of comparison. A 
thermo-electric junction of bismuth and copper was substituted for it. 
One end of the junction was constantly heated by « current of steam 
passing over it, the other being immersed in melting ice. The 
electro-motive force of this thermo-electric junction, as estimated 
many years ago by Regnault, is extremely constant, and is about the 

th part of a Daniell’s cell. By means of this arrangement the 
following results were obtained :—The electro-motive force of the 
nerve-current dealt with in our experiments on the eye and the brain 





eee Gt es ala 
ah Mit ay Bl uals 
: rt Fi iu qi iin Ht 
Ce 
ee ui iii ieee 

F a ne i j 2 $5823 pest 3 EP 
gal i i =3¢ i 34 ‘ a 
Fe Hil i hE wl 


P Hi FE ae 
i Ura sanlit Hata 


146 Professor James Dewar [March 31, 


Table showing oo ts aah 7) i inn ah aa 















55 28 16°C, 
61 23 19° GC, 
53 7 EO, 
43 89 29° 0. 
53 45 20° 0. 
60 45 37° 0. 
60 60 88° 0, 
53 4t 48°. 
60, 40 48°C. 





The initial amount of current was, however, increased on the 


whole by the action of the higher temperature, thus showing that 
the sensibility to light does not aim eat the amount of current 
casement the jometer, It will be observed, on in- 
specting this table, that the eye maintained at the temperature of 16°C. 
remains tolerably constant in its initial action, although it gradually 
gots more sluggish, whereas the final effect steadily rises. On tho 
other hand, in the case of the eye subjected to a higher temperature, 
the initial effect seems to have a maximum about 29° C., then 
gradually diminishes, and vanishes about 43° ©,, the final effect con- 
tinuously falling and being actually reversed. To succeed in this 
experiment, it is necessary to beat the electrodes which are to be used 
in the water bath up to 40° C,, in order to be certain that no changes 
are induced in the electrodes themselves that might be mistaken for 
those above mentioned, An eye that had been placed in dilute salt 
solution along with lamps of ice was found to have the usual sensi~ 
bility to light. 

Effect of Temperature on Dye of Pigeon—Having succeeded in 
experimenting with a water bath, in the manner above described, it 
appeared interesting to ascertain if the eye of a warm-blooded animal 
would be benefited by being maintained at the normal temperature of 
body. The head of a pigoon was placed in the water bath, at a 
temperature of 40° 0., the eyes were found sensitive to light, the 
action, however, being always a negative variation; but instead of 
vanishing colle, as it does at the ordinary temperature, kept up 
its activity for at least an hour, For example, in one experiment, the 
electrodes, being placed on the two corneas, 80 that the currents were 
balanced, CA ben active for an hour and n quarter, but half an 
hour later it had almost disappeared. In this experiment, the sensi+ 


i 





from Eye. ‘Seale. - 
Dio uw « 100 
6 feet 180 
Sfet . .. 230 
1 foot 5 - 920 





Exhaustion and Stimulation of the Retina.—When the same light 
is to act on the eye for successive 

intervals of time, say two minutes of light and two minutes of dark- 
ness, it off in electrical sensibility. Thus, a candle at 
9 inches gives the following results when successively usod as a 





circumstances, it is evident the image being always localized on 
the same minute portion of the retina, eal few of the rods and 
cones of that structure are really exhausted. If the eye be allowed 
a of from half an hour to an hour, it will 

tueh as triple the exhausted sensibility. But another mode 
that only a minute portion of the retina was affected was 
an alteration of position of the image by a slight move- 
followed by a new electric variation, 


ee 
E 
E 
ge 


i 
a 
F 
E 
H 
Es 
B 


or spring, 80 as to be able, by inducing vibrations in any 
direction, to stimulate in rapid succession different retinal areas. On 
oscillating « pendulum of this kind, we have observed an electrical 
‘variation whenever the amplitode of the vibrations is increased, and by 
inducing a combination of vibrations, the electrical variation observed 

ids to what would be found if the luminous intensity were 
sixteen times as great ax that of the stationary light. Similar experi- 
mente imay be made by throwing an image from a small silver mirror 


148 Professor James Dewar [March 31, 


connected with ametronome. The rapid exhaustion of theeye may be 
most readily demonstrated by cutting off the anterior half of the eye, 
leaving the vitreous humour in contact with the retina, observing the 
effect of a candle, and then subjecting it to the action of a magnesium 
lamp. The sensibility will now be enormously diminished. The 
electrical variations resulting from the respective actions of a candle 
and a magnesium lamp placed at the same distance from the eye 
were as follows: 


Initial Eee. Pion Bitect. 
Cg ee, Se ee 
Magnesium lamp: 190 1). Sl 138 


This experiment proves that an increase of 200 per cent. in the 
illuminating power of a source of light only triples the eloctrical 
effect. Thus the eye becomes less sensitive as the illumination 
increases. 





Diagram showing the recording portion of Regunult’s Chronograph, AA, Limbs of 
recording fork, worked by electro-magnets, GG. C, Stilette on limb of recording 
tuning fork. BB. Levers in connection with armatures of electro-magnets, FF, 
and bearing markers DD, which, along with C, record on E, a strip of blackened 
paper passing over pulley. 


Chronometrical Observations.—The Inst point I wish to bring under 
your notice, is what we havo recently been doing in the way of 
measuring the time required from tho initial impact of light 
hefore the electrical variation is produced, As the electrical variation 


— 


150 General Monthly Meeting. [April 3, 


GENERAL MONTHLY MEETING, 
Monday, April 8, 1976. 
esters Busx, Esq. Cog Treasurer and Vice-President, 


William Woolley ‘Turton, 

George Whitaker Walter, ey 

Allan V. White, Dsq. 

James Wilson Remington-Wilson, Esq. 
were elected members of the Royal Institution, 


Tho following Arrangements of the Lectures after Easter were 
announced :— 


Puornson P. M. Doxcax, F.RS.—Four Teotures on the Comparative 
Geology and former Ph eal L penereshios of India, Australia, and South Africa ; 
on imal aml 25 16, 

{YNDALL, wate LL.D. F.R.8.— Seven Lectures on Voltaic 
md oi hits April 27 to Juno 8, 

ram, Esq. FBS. F.G.S.—Two Lectures on Crustuces; on 
satudan amare. 29 und May 6, 

Phorrsson W. G. Avams, F.R.S.—Three Lectures on some of Wheatstone's 
Discoveries aud Inventions; on Tuesdays, May 23 to Juno 6, 

Faeomuack J, Forsrvauy, —Two Leotures on Chaucer; on Satur 
May 13 and 20. 2 as 

Proresson Havre Montacy, M.A.—Three Lootures on King Arthur's Place 
in English Literature ; on Snturdays, May 27 to Juno 10, 


The Presents received since the last Mocting were laid on the 
table, and the thanks of the Members returned for the samo, viz, :-— 


FROM 
aoe eet i New South Walee—Financial Statemont of Hon. J, Ruberteon. 
Agricalturat Sooiety of Bugland, Royal—Journal, Second Series, Vol. XLL Part 1. 
vO, 





152 Mr. B. B. Tylor on Ordeale anc Qatha. [April 7, 


WEEKLY EVENING MEETING, 
Friday, April 7, 1876. 


Groxor Busx, Esq. F.R.S. Treasurer and Vice-President, 
in the Chair, 


Eowanp Borxert Tyior, Esq. FBS 


Ordeals and Oaths. 


Iy ee stages of society the clannish life of rude tribes ma; 
well have been more favourable to frank and trothful and faithf 
relations between man and man, than our wider and looser social in- 
torcourse can be, Yet one can see from the habits of modern savages 
that already in early savage times society was ing itself to take 
measures against men who broke faith, to save th ves from harm, 
or to gain some coveted good. At the stage of civilization where 
social order was becoming regular and sottlod, the wise men turned 
their minds to devise tees stronger than mere yes and no, 
Thus the ordeal and the oath were introduced that wrong-doin; 
should not be concealed or denied, that unrighteous claims should 
not be backed by false witness, and that covenants made should not 
be broken. 

The principles on which these ordeals and onths were invonted 
and developed may to this day bo plainly made ont, It is evident 
that the matter was referred to the two intellectual orders of early 
times—the magicians and the priests. Each advised after the manner 
of his profession. The magician said, With my symbols and charms 
I will try the accused, and bind the witness and the promiser. The 
aie said, I will call upon my spirits, and they shall find ont the 

idden thing, aud penish the lie and the broken yow. Now magic 
and religion are separate in their nature and origin. Magic is based 
on a delusive tendency arising out of the association of ideas, namely, 
the tendency to believe that things which aro ideally connected in 
our minds must therefore be really connected in the outer world. 
Religion is based on the doctrine of spiritual beings, souls, demons, 
or deities, who take Cr deaa of men and interpose in their affairs. 
It is needful to keep this absolute distinction clear in our minds, for 
‘on it depends our finding our mental way through a set of complicated 
. proecedings, in which magical and religious elements have become 
mixed in the most intricate ways. ell they might, considerin, 
how Spmmenly the professions of sorcerer and priest hayo overlap 
80 a8 even to be combined in one and the same person. But it seems 
from a general survey of the facts of ordeals.and onths, that on the 





154 Mr. B. B, Tylor on Ordeals and Oaths, [April 7, 
clear. But @ difficulty arises if the accused to the 
same as he did five minutes 3 80 at as can be 
detected by a pair of heavy wooden scales wl would turn 


within an ounce or two. is embarrassing possibility 
Fen etre isis aise aga bot let pen One learned pundit says— 
Son Gen eee on ! A second suggests—weigh him 
again A thi itunes with aiiaty—i he weigh the same 
he is guilty, but not so guilty as if he gone right down! The 
fe fae parr ig ectnahi rpa er ale eet 
an imponderal ‘e may smile at Hindu striking 
Srtvaral belinoo, bat it ahoold ho’ remembered that a aimiar 


by sticking the points of the open shears into the rim, 
epimers raregp done eect the Howadin pond OF Shas haere: 


all suspected names, till the instrument at the right one. In 
the course of history, this childish divining-ordeal came to be 


mode is to tie in the key at the verse of the 50th Psalm: 
eWhen thou sawest a thiof, then thou consontedst with him,” and then 


wonder at the supernatural power with which the water would heavo 
up a wicked fellow, even if he weighed sixteen stone. 
Mediwval ordeals, by water or fire, by touch of the corpse, or by 


156 Mr. E. B. Tylor on Ordeals and Oaths. [April 7, 


al Mca oh Gas a and 
Re rural a ee in, and how after this triumphant 
issue ity manors were settled on the bish and church 


Z 
f 
: 
re 
j 
EB 
B 
2 
z 
Ez 


i 

ZF 

ee 
: 
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e 


gre 
Ha 
He 
sib? 
a 
eat 
FFE : 
EPLE 
a 
Fa 

rib 

i 


ag 
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BE 
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witch, stands with a yeesel of water before her in the midst of the 
assembled household, and makes bread pills to drop in, saying to each 
in order : “Ivan Ivanoff, if you are guilty, as this ball falls to the 
bottom, so your soul will fall into hell,” But this is more than any 
common Russian will face, and the rule is that the culprit confesses 
at sight. This is the best that can be said for ordeals. Under their 
most favourable as; Ga fe useful delusions or pious frauds, At 
worst, they are those wickedest of human deeds, crimes disguised 
behind the mask of justice. Shall we wondor that the world, slowly 
trying its institutions by the e: ence of ages, has at Inst come to 
the stage of casting ont the judicial ordeal? Or shall we rather 
wonder at the constitution of the human mind, which for so many 
ages has set up tho creations of delusive fancy to hold sway over a 
world of facts. 

From the Ordeal we now pass to the Oath. The oath, for pur- 
poses of classification, may be bost defined as an asseveration made 
under superhuman penalty, such penalty being (as in the ordeal) 
either magical or eanigtay in its nature, or both combined. Here, 
then, we distinguish the oath from the mere declaration or promise 
or covenant, however formal. For example, the covenant by grasping 
hands is not in itself an oath, nor is even that wide-sp: ancient 

‘of entering into a bond of brotherhood by the two partios 
Sanhy dope of their blood, or tasting each other's. This latter rite, 
though often called an oath, can under this definition only be 


_ el 


158 Mr, E. B. Tylor on Ordeals and Oaths. [April 7, 


the awearer, holding up an arrow, calls on Heaven to punish him if 

he lies; but by turning the arrow the other way, and using certain 

be neutralized. This is magic all over, What 

one symbol can do, the raverse symbol can undo. Trno to the laws 

of primitive tos a reasoning, uncultured men elsewhere still 
symbolic 


It has just been noticed that the arsenal of deadly weapons by 
which tho natives of Aracan swear includes a tiger's tusk and a 
crocodile’s tooth, This leads us to a group of instructive rites 
belonging to Central and North Asia. A few Reed ago, probably to 
this day, there might be seen in law-courts in Siberia oath on the 
bear's head. When an Ostyak is to be sworn, a bear's head is 
Trought into court, and the man makes believe to bite at it, calling 
on bear to devour him in like mannor if he does not tell the 
truth. Now the meaning of this act goes beyond magic and into 
religion ; for we are here in the region of bear-worship, among people 
who believe that this wise and divine beast knows what goes on, and 
will come and pai them. Nor need one wonder at this, for the 
idea that the will hear, and come, if called on, is familiar to 
German mythology. 1 was interested to find it still in survival in 
Switzerland a few years ago, when a peasant woman, whom a mis- 
chievous little English boy bad irritated beyond endurance, pro- 
nounced the ancient imprecation on him, “The Boar take 


this class of oaths, in i the lower culture, Let us 

a ae ei el eel oclil aed 
in culture, the thought comes in perjurer ra 

punished ina world grave, This was a ion 


‘J goes 
to destruction.” Tet this stage of culturo, thon, belongs the mire 
tion of the new “ post-mundane” element into oaths. For soa ater 
wards, nations might still use cither kind, or combine them by adding the 
penalty after di to that in life. But in the latter course of hist 
there comes plainly into view a tendency to subordinate the id 
mundane oath, and at last to suppress it altogether, How this came 
pees saiplett cx She fheeiof the matter. It was simply the result of 
accumula’ ience, The continual comparison of opinion with 
facts. could ek but force observant, minds to admit that © man might 
swear falsely on sword’s odge ales point, and yet die with a whole 
skin, that bears and tigers are not to be on to choose perjurers 
for their victims, and that in fact the corres) ce between the im- 
(ppt ceeilis Fie aged teaih x tos seid How it 
¥y real results thus shaped itself in men's minds, we may seo by the 
‘way it came to public utterance in classic times, nowhere put aust 
cogently than in the fumous dialogue in the “ Clouds" of 
The old farmer Strepsiades asks, * Whence comes the blazing cic 
bolt vey Zeus hurls at the perjured?” “ You fool,” replies the Socrates 
& the anos ny, “ you smack of old Kronos’ times—if Zeus smote perjurers, 
ave been down on those awful fellows Simon and Klconymos 
rs Theoros. Why, what Zeus docs with his bolt, is to smite his own 
temple, and the heights of Sunium, and the tall oaks! Do you mean 
to say that an oak-treo can commit perjury?" What is swid here in 
chaff, full many @ reasonable man in the old days must hayo said to 
himedlf i in the soberest earnest, and once said or thought, but one 
result could come of it, the result which history shows us did come. 
The scene of the judicial oath was tantly changed, and the later 
kind, of which the penalty cone the future life, remained practi- 
cally i in possession of the field. 
As @ point in the Science of Culture which has hitherto been 


Mr. B. B. Tylor on Ordeals and. Oaths. [April 7, 


162 

older and more general custom of it with the hand. Next, 

our attention must be called to the remar! formula in which (in 
not in Scotland) the invocation of the Deity is mado, “ 

help me God!” or “So help you God!” & modern English- 

man (erate aes a ran on the question is 


the between 
is actually done and said, that Paley, remarking on the different forms 
of ewearing in different ‘countries, does serene to say that they 


own. 

‘This remark of Paley’s aptly illustrates a principle of the Science 
of Culture, which cannot be + 35 eras euler at minds of all 
who 


are kept up by natural conservatism, so that they become less and less 


jed up with mystery. Applying this principle to the oath 

“4 ee it Sooty Wak It was Teutonic- 
Scandinavian, for though corresponding formulas are known in Latin 
(aes me adjuvet Deus”), and in Old French (‘Ce m’ait Diex,” &e.), 
these are shown by their tye Ae dates to be mere trans- 
lations of the Germanic origi 


want is fortunately supplied by a document preserved in Iceland. 
Some while after the scttlement of the island by the Northmen, but 
long before their conversion to Christianity, the settlers felt the 
urgent need of a code of laws, and accordingly Ulfliot went to Norway 
for three years to Thorleif the Wise, who imparted to him his legal 
loro, Ulfliot wont to Norway s.v. 925, so that the form of judicial 
oath he authorized, and which was at a later time put on record in 
tho Icelandic Landnfimabék, may be taken as good and old in Norse 
law. Its pre-Christian character is, indeed, obvious from its tenour. 
The halidome on which it was sworn was a metal arm-ring, which 
was kept by bed rane or priest, who reddened it with the blood of the 
ox sacrificed, and the swearer touching it said, in words that are still 
half English : “Name I to witness that I take oath by the ring, law- 
oath, 80 help me Frey, and Niérdh, and almighty Thor (eile! mer 
avi Breyr, ok Nidrdhr, ok hinn almAttki Ass), as I shall this suit 
follow or defend, or witness bear or verdict or as I wit rightest 





 ——a ey 


164 Mr. E. B. Tylor on Ordeals and Oaths. [April 7, 

ae to swear, and material ovidence is often lost by the 
een taught the 

as to the nature of an oath. I of a case only 


iportant point rested on the evidence of a 
BIE eel at cad mae ety 
the nature of an oath. Those in whom 


il 
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fi 

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i 
& 


EF 
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g 


A On ca tela er re rule, which an 


'p 
ans, and never let them ahead of us if we can help it. In 
this matter of children's evidence they are fairly leaving us 
behind, by introducing a plan which is at once more humano and 
more effective than ours. 

If now, looking at the subject as one of practical sociology, we 
consider what place the legal oath haa filled in savage, barbaric, and 
civilized life, we must adjudge to it altogether higher value than to 
‘the ordeal. At certain stages of culture it has been one of the great 
forces of society. There was a time when Lycurgus the orator 
could tell tho men of Athens that the oath is the very bond that 
holds the democracy together. There was a time when, as Mon- 
tesquien insists, an oath was ao binding on the minds of the Romans 
that for its observance they would do more than even patriotism or 
love of glory could draw them to. In our own day its practical 
binding power is unmistakablo over the consciences of a numerous 
intermediate class of witnesses, those who are neither trathfal nor 
quite reckless, who are without the honesty which makes a good 
man's oath superfluous, who will indeed lie solemnly and cireum- 
stantially, but are somewhat restrained from perjury by tho fear of 
boing, a8 the old Hnglish saying has it, * once forsworn ever forlorn.” 
Though the hold thus given is far weaker than is popularly fancied, 
it has from time to.timo led legislators to use oaths, not merely in 
pe and solemn matters, but as moans of securing honesty in the 

i's of public business. When this has been done, the conse- 

noos to public morals have been disastrous. There is no need to 
aa up ancient or foreign proofs of this, seeing how conspicuous an 
instance is the state of England early in the present contury, while it 
was sfill, as a contemporary writer called it, “a land of oaths," and 
the professional porjurer plied a thriving trade, A single illustration 





The Physiology of the Nervous System of Medusce.5 
Pee ee ee versed tai mbes Ue nee sal ae ee 


briefly describing in the anatomy of the 

afterwards be found more to concern us. The general form, 
then, of these animals varies in it species from that of a bell to 
that of a bowl, an um! ora saucer. The external, or convex, surface 
is separated from the int concayo, surface by a thick mass of 


highest point, of the internal surface of the swimming-bell there 
Sosa ce pene conccentile ee cea ete ieee nae 

This structure, altho a) 68 ifforent species 
Bev eec ts Gets Stet te alcane tie soli can Gemeab ie the 
animal. From the it at which the polypite is inserted into the 
swimming-bell there arise a system of nutrient , which radiate 


if 
BE 
B 
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B 
fr 
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4 
Hl 
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. The margin of the swimming-bell, both in 
and covered-eyed Medusm, & sorios of contractile tentacles, 
and also another series of jes which aro of importance 

eaeatat or eye- 


for us to-night. These are the so-called bodies, 
specks, yary in number, size, and structure in different species. 





© Badnas { 4: HAAS Oae, ual deepuercbus, “Magna ert verilaa, et procalet2” 
Pe at ae A rirasugalee tai the fescue Dideetes eters 
the'noyal Society, to be published in the forticoming volume of tho* Philosophical 


i- 





is ite, permanent 

is of tho ontire organ. That is to say, if we take any naked- 

re which is swimming peepid cs active 

and yigorous way that is characteristic of these animals, if with 

7 Pedigree gong sy epic ya ere 4 
peeks faly The BRIG SECS ae coase, and aro 


never 
again resumed. Tt wo a to e nes more 
decided than i is this Highly ble effect. Indood, I do anew 
Ne animal ee where the rem of a 
sae oP pe ReIY fs POUL veal Jy ys gua nm and so complete a 
paralysis fie Tanne ysteti-— gyn atcdi gels jc reflex twitchings 
‘as are observable in the muscles of vertebrated animals after removal 
of the brain not being here apparent, 
see much, ee for a matitted Meeps Soe) hte. pimernrd 
permanently paralyzed, But, on tho other margin 
which has just been removed from the swimming-bell continues its 
rhythmical motions with a vigour and a pertinacity not in the Teast 
impaired by its severance from the main organism. For hours, and 
even for days, after the operation these motions persist; so that the 
contrast between the death-like quiescence of the mutilated swimming- 
bell, and the active contractions of the thread-like portion which has j 
been removed from its margin, is a contrast as striking as it is possible 
to conceive. Of course it does not signify how it or how small a 
yt of the Ahsan fea is left adhering to the sov ace eee for 
whether this part be large or small, it continues to be an by the 
margin. For instance, if in Sarsia (Fig. Hy the incision be carried 
through the equator of the animal, then all the upper half of the 
swimming-bell is lyzed, while ‘all the lower half continues its 
contractions as ; only, as the latter is now converted into an 
open tube, it is, of course, unable to progress. 
Hence there can be no doubt that in the naked-eyed Meduswe all 
the oll acre of the awimming-bell is lodged exclusively in the 
ee tim, The question, however, arises, Is evory part of the mar- 
nally endowed with the function of spontaneity, or is this 
ih ae ged only or chiefly in the marginal bodies? Now it is 
impossible to answer this question by direct experiment in the case of 
most of the species, from the fact that the marginal bodies are too nu- 
merous to admit of being cut out separately. In tho case of Sarsia, how- 
ever, the marginal bodies are only four in number ; 80 that nothing can 
be easier than to try the differential experiment, of first cutting out all 
the four marginal bodies without injuring any of the intertentacular 


1876,] om the Physiology of the Nercous System of Modus. 169 


marginal tissae, and then, conversely, of cutting out all tho inter- 
i ti ithout injegi ‘nal bodi 
Tieng na eepetineen Seed te re (anh baby fn 


‘Medusm,) the principal si is seated 
SRN UccAtier oscar st tates ot eo eager 
qv v 'e-8) 
triment; but immediately the 
animal falls to the bottom of the water 


inEEETEE 
HF PG 
io 
ait 
ts 

iA 

i 

le 


1 
the 0} jon are conspicuously less 
i jevertheless, the fact that any 
place after removal of the marginal bodies alone, 
iia must be present in the intervening portions 
y. i ly, indeed, it happens that the swimming- 
continue its pulsations after all the margin has 
with the of a piece of the intertentaoular 
isible without the nid of a powerful lena. 
naked-eyed Medusm, Turning now to the 
or those large sea-blubbers with which we are 
I find that removal of the margin is attended with 
to, but not identical with, the results which we have 
remarkable in the case of the naked-eyed Medusw, 
the covered-cyod Moedusm, the paralysis, though 
time, is not always permanent, After periods 
seconds to half an hour or more, occasional con- 
to manifest ves, or the contractions may even 
with but little apparent change in their charactor and 
there are great differences in different species of 


Tt must, therefore, be sufficient to say that, looking to 


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the it ing portions of the margin in 
respect of ganglionic function, I have a different answer to give in the 
case of the Medusm from that which I have already 
given in the case of naked-eyed Medusw. For, in the covered- 
eyed Medusm, all the eens pemiyain effecta which follow apon 
cutting off the whole margin, equally well upon cutting ont 
the marginal bodies ; and any sized portion of contractile tissue 
Vou. VIL (No. 65.) N 


170 Mr. George J. Romanes [April 28, 


loft adhering to an excised marginal body will continue its rhythmi 
pulsations, while all other parts of the margin iim 
cease to move. ‘The differences, then, between the ganglionic system 
of the naked-and of the coverod-eyod Modus may be roughly summed 
up thus:—The pains ayatem of a covered. Medasa is 

more diffused than that of a naked-eyed Medusa, if we have mgard to 
aye err ee whole; but it is leas diffused if we have regard to 

ie margin a 

As the question concerning the presence of a nervous system in 
‘Medusm has long been a warmly disputed one, I may here observe that 
there is no other instance in the whole animal kingdom of so great a 
disproportion between the mass of a ganglionic contre and that of the 
stracture which it is capable of animating, as there is between the 
mass of a marginal body and that of foerenhs eee 
a large covered-eyed Medusa. Thus, in order to obtain an exact esti- 
mation in a good-sized jelly-fish weighing 30 Ib., I ent out all the mar- 

inal bodies except one, and observed, as is always the case when this 
i8 done, that the single remaining ganglion continued to animate the 
tmtire swimming-boll. I then cut out this ganglion and thus 
paralyzed the bell, Lastly, I weighed the excised body, 
and obtained the surprising result that it had been previously pay tO 
animating a stracture 30,000,000 times its own weight! 

Srmctation.—All the tissues of all the Medusm are keenly sensitive 
to all kinds of stimulation. When a swimming-bell, for instance, is 
paralyzed by excision of its margin, it invariably responds to a single 
stimulus by once porforming that movoment which it would have per- 
formed in response to that stimulus had it still been in an unmutilated 
state, 

To mechanical stimulation the sensitiveness of the paralyzed bells 
is wonderfully great—a drop of water let fall from an inch in height 
upon the contractile tissue being sufficient, in some species, to olicit a 
responsive contraction. 

‘Towards electrical stimulation the behaviour of the mutilated bells 


cases). This fact tends strongly to con the view that the 


y 
needle-point terminals (the being a small 
SE aa Taek Danone Pelee aed to 
on the mechanical stage of a Ross's microscope), I 
able to investigate the distribution of excitable tracts in 


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i i aii al IGRI EEL Ue 
: HH fea Hai SH ligula He 
paul iit we He HiatinieaHeet if. 
Tay tee ull! yt He ee 

3 i HRB) He tad itateill lie | 
Pee i Seat 
Hl Mi ni i ne at eed ue 
= Bet Sitg 2 2 
UHH Halley a ti ; it 

Pe 


Mr. George J. Romanes 


al 


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anervous plexus, Yet the jelly- 


bay 
ig was his: continued to swim about after 


iting cuts; and therefore a moment's thought will 
being cut im this way almost as woll as it did before the operation. 


pass at all, to zig-zag round and round the tops of 
show how destractive such « mode of section must be to the con- 


if 


if they 
intendigi 


tinuity of anything at all resembli 
fish nhs which thie drawin; 


obliged, ii 








See ee ae OL tia swimming-bell at the other. 
‘ell, a8 before, the contractile waves always originated at the gan- 
; but now they had to course all the way along the strip until 
arrived at its other extromity, and as wave arrived at that 


swimming-bell, which thereupon contracted. Hence, from this 
mode of section as from the last ono, the deduction certainly 


ee serene ce rerelenuectile worse cannot be 
dependent on the preseoe OT eli ec or 


is an important body of evidence to be adduced 

on the othor sido; but, as I can wait to state a fow of the chief 
J an # to the spiral mode of section. 
of all, T have invariably found it to be the case, that if 
this modo of bo carried on sufficiently far, » point is sooner or 


: 


dependent on the presence of a more or less in ted nerve-plexua, 
‘we encounter no ely; fron the ginal theory of ealtion 
is to be ted, that if such fibres are prosent in 

they not be constant as to position. 


Aes ‘ow I eens lain a Shiai ot 
in any other supposing that at that point the section 
ae tered Polat differentiated tissue—has severed 
an incipient nerve. 


On the whole, therefore, I provisionally adopt the supposition that 
all parts of the muscular ‘shot of tho isitas aro pecrada¥ re 


3 
continuity, by supposing that all the radiment fibres composing 
the plexus are capable, in'an extraordinarily high of vicarious 
action. 

There are a t many more things which I should like to sa: 
about these and other modes of section; but I fattak inbw tise pce 
attention to another part of the inquiry. Various naturalists have 

ited us to the possibility of the so-called eyo-spocks, or marginal 
bodies, of the Medusw being incipient organs of vision. Such specu- 
lation, of course, was of little r value than a guess; for the 
marginal bodies of the Meduew do not resemble any other form of 
visual apparatus with which we are acquainted. The guess, however, 
in this case happens to be correct. 

Having placed several hundred Sarsia in a large bell-jar, and having 
com) shut ont the daylight from the room in which the jar was 
standis means of a dark lantern and concentrating lons I then 
cast ate of light through the water in which the Sarsia were 
swimming. The effect was most curious and interesting. From all 


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Chloroform, ether, morphia, &o., all exert their anmwsthesiatin, 
fed $a Matin quite’ as Gcotdedly a they do.on tho higher 
ve been added to 























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178 Annual Meeting, [May 1, 
The 


166 volumes, the Managers, total 
fot ppesieeegee erty to the nae pit ecttanva, of 
‘Thanks voted to the President, Socretary, to 
wore " > 
the Committees of and Visitors, and to the Professors, for 
their services to the during the past year, 


Special PorTiswoope, the Secretary, 
his course of four lootures on Polarizod Light in March and Apri 


eae aa a) SAL Ra eet ala anemia 2 


Tho following Gentlemen were unanimously elected as Officers for 
the ensuing year :— 
Treason —-Goorgo Back, Hey, PROS FIRS. 
REASURER S. 
Szcretany—William Spottiswoode, Esq. M.A. LL.D. Treas.R.S. 
Corresponding Mem! 


ber of Academy of Sciences, Paris, 
Mawaoxns, Visrrons. 

i cro CR John R, Andrews, Esq. 
Willian Bowman, Ksq. F.R.S. oe 
Sir Began C ‘Collins Brodie, Bart, M.A. eee ee vi are 
‘Adm. Sir Henry John KCB, | Robert Pilkington Linton, Bq, FICS, 
Tho Right Hon. John Gi MP. | William Watkiss Lloyd, Esq. 
Sir'T. Froderick Elliot, K.C.M.G. Willian Longman, Eq. M.A, 
ae re Angustus Grant, C.B. | Colonel William Pinney. 

et ileekios, Yaq, PRS. Wyndham Catan Eq. 
Soon a ehbersst eg ‘GB. MD, D.C.L. | John Rao, M.D. LL.D. 

re. RS. ‘The Rev, Arthur Rigg, MLA. 

Alfred ‘The Bev. William Rogers, M.A. 
Hee ry MD. MRCS, John Bell Sedgwick, eq. 
Se TT TL PRS. Basil Woodd Smith, Esq. F.RAS. 


Benjamin Leigh Smith, Esq. 
Sir W. Frederick Pollock, Bart. M.A, 
c. William Siemens, Exq. D.C_L. F.RS. James Spedding, Esq. 


A Silver Salver, with the following Inscription, was presonted to 
Fuovesson Trspan by the Obairman : 


February, 1876, in Westminster Abbey, by Memsrns or tux Rovat 
Instirovion, to express their high esteem of his personal worth, and 
in grateful recognition of his eminent scientific scrvicos in its 
Laboratories and Lecture Theatre.” 


production of inflammable air on heating iron. 

tending that the phlogiston of the iron united with the 

which had not been freed. Lavoisier gave a different explanation of 
He held that “dephlogisticated air” isan elementary 


element, 
In the first year of this century, when the news of Volta’s great 
i of the pile was made known in England, Messrs. Nicholson 
and Carl yarions experiments with a series of halfcrowns, 
zine plates, and pasteboard soaked niet Knowing that water con- 
ducted olectricity, they inserted brass through corks at the two 
ends of a tubs filled with water, which they are careful to tell us came 
from the New River. They were rised to see a stream of minute 
bubbles rising from one pole while the other was corroded, and that 
this decomposition took place at each pole, though they were nearly 
2 inches apart. They enlarged the distance, and found that 36 inches 
of water was too much for their force to traverse. Substituting 
flattened platinum for their brass wires, they found that the water waa 
decomposed with the production of hydrogen at one end and oxygen 
at the other. 

The old notion that water, by continuous boiling, was turned into 
stone had been previonsly dis; by Lavoisier, but Davy found that 
some salts and earths remained behind when water was electrolyzed, 
and that when the experiment was conducted in two cells communi- 
cating with one another, the liquid in the one cell became acid, and in 
the other alkaline. He the origin of this in a masterly re- 


LK : = 


1876.) ‘on Methods of Chemical Decomposition. 181 
which formed the Bakerian lecture for 1806." He found that 


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from 
ha “oj treed aye gern anaieebesrre 
extraordinary precautions, 
ose eiee peers 
an vacuo, or ral ma 
SE tant hog Std “ots hyheogen cad cchoneied os 
ree ents Siepoesl noald) it, he then found 
that the water was decomposed wii the juction of either 
or alkali, “It seems evident then,” wrote Davy, “ that water, 
by electricity into gascous matter 


See eer eares ane metals of the alkaline 
earths, potassium and sodium, and found that when these bodies are 
prvi ames emul Pain ge arin dh eral 
mia Bu 
ity ” of the alkaline metals. 

1846 Mr., now Sir William, Grove obsorved that when steam 
wassubjected to something like a white heat, emall quantities of mixed 
oxygen and hydrogen gas were always produced.f It has since been 

are dissociated in one part of the flame 

of the oxy-hydrogen pe, their first combination. 
Tt thus appears that are three distinct ways in which water 
be decomposed:—By an electric current; + by some substance 
bas a superior attraction for one of its ita; or by heat 


of any one of those 
of cither of the others. 


if a pellot of sodium be thrown upon cold water it melts, 
the chemical action at once set up, but if upon boiling 
into flame throngh the greater 
reason why in Pri "s oxperi- 
steam, though it will not do so at 
the electrolysis of water is much facilitated if there is 
affinity between the and the metallic conductors, 
said that it requires two cells to decompose water 


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frictional electricity, and by 
i ( 








When the other metals of the above list are usod, not does the 
positive pole oxidize, but the oxide, or rather hydrate, dissolves more 
or legs in the pure water, and becomes itself an The con- 
sequence of this is that the positive electrode gradi wears away, 
while the metal is transferred to the negative electrode, and is 
deposited upon it in erystalline fri or filaments. With silver 
these are particularly beautiful, as they assume arborescent forms, 
especially when able to spread over the surface of the containing 


‘The temperature also of tho liquid subjected to electrolysis has a 
great influence upon the result. ms in an experiment where zinc 
poles and pure water were employed, the doflection of « galvanometer 
yn found to eran alle fourfold Sree 5° C.and 80° O,, and the 
action augmented nearly pari passu wit je temperature, 

A similar result occurs, as might be expected, when two dissimilar 
metals, such as zinc and copper, are placed in cold water in connection 
with one another, and the water is heated. The deflection was found 
to double between about 30° and 80° C,, but the difference for every 
5° at the higher temperatures was several times greater than at the 
lower ones. 

Another very important point in the electrolysis of water is to 
reduce to a minimum the very great resistance offered by the water 
itself. This is effected by bringing the electrodes as near to one 
another as possible: and for the same reason, if the force be tod. 
by the action of two dissimilar metals upon water, they should be 
brought into the closest ae 

A still more powerful means of decomposing water would evidently 
bo a combination, not of two, but of all three agents, chemical affinity, 
heat, and yoltaic force acting at an insensible distance. Thus zinc 
has a strong affinity for oxygen, but is unable of itself to displace the 
hydrogen of water: when united, however, with a more negative 
metal, such as copper, its power is enhanced to such a degree that a 


mii : 
Re uldind 


ipa 
=i 
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SHE i 
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exhibit the rapid acceleration of the action 





ea 


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op sino;e 





Zine propyl is a volatile liquid body, of specific gravity 1-098, 
which take fre spontaneously in the air, burning willis blab owhite 


flame, haloid lates are a new class of bodies which have 

been from ethyl iodide and iodoform, and their corre~ 
ing bromine and chlorine com: lk 

The couple has also thrown some light upon the chemical strac~ 








* Phenomena resulting from difforent metals in combination have frequently 
‘been observed Lidice experimenters, and come of thom nrc described by Mr, 
‘W. N. Hartley in the ‘Chemical News,’ vol. xiv. p. 7; but it does not appear 
‘that the metals have evor been freed from concomitant salts, or their action 
‘understood or ap] . 


186 General Monthly Meeting. [May 8) 


GENERAL MONTHLY MEETING, 
Monday, May 8, 1876. 
Gronag Busk, Esq. F.R.8. Treasurcr and Vice-Prosident, in the Chair. 


The following Vico-Presidents for the ensuing year were 
announced : 


Sir T. Frederick Elliot, K.0.M.G. 

Sir W. Fredorick Pollock, Bart. M.A. 

Dr. Josoph Hooker, C.B. D.C.L. Pres. B.S. 

George Busk, Esq. F.R.S. Treasurer. 

William Spottiswoodo, Esq. LL.D. F.R.S. Secrotary. 


Tho Hon. George Elliot, 
Ernest H. Goold, Esq. M.R.L.A. 
“Charles Rose Lucas, Esq. 
Major T. Myles Sandys, 
Edward W. Stanton, Esq. M.A. 


were elected Members of the Royal Institution. 


Joun Tynpaut, Esq. D.C.L. LL.D. F.B.8. 
was ro-clected Professor of Natural Philosophy. 


Tho special thanks of tho Members wero returned to Dr. WARREN 
De 1a Roz, F.B.S, for his valuable present of a Thomson’s Quadrant 
Electrometer. 


Tho deccaso of Mr. Rosgrr P. Linton, Visitor, through an 
accident, was announced, to tho great regret of tho Members. 


Tho Presents recoived since tho last Meoting were laid on tho 
table, and the thanks of the Members returned for the same, viz. :— 


FROM 

Accademia dei Lincei, Roma—Atti, Serio II, Vol. L II. 4to, 1878-5. 

Artom Rev. B- Chief Rabbi of the Spanish and Portuguese Congregations of 
England—Sermons, First Scrios. 2nd od. 16to. 1876. 

Axiatio Society of Bengal—Journal, 1875, Part I. No. 4. 8v0. 


Proceedings, 1875. No. 10. 8vo. 
Astronomical Bociety, Royal—Mouthly Noticos, Vol. XXXVI. No. 5. 8vo, 1876, 


1, Basho, Fst Ato, 1875, 
Almanseh. 15. 16to, 
a Cee intaeniae ee of HLM. 


inne Seon Por, 185-5, No 8 to. 


Musoun Grxco-Roman Sculptures, Part 2. 12mo, 


1878, 
. The Edda Songs and f Keolanit, 
0 ca aE a Songs Bagas of 
Gan Serfemt £2 WAHL (ihe Aulior) The Mochaniem of Man : an Answer to 
the “What am 12” Vol. 1. 16to. 1876. # 
Journal of Science for April, 1870. 8vo. 


| 


Chernienl News 1878. 4to, 
Electrical News fo April, 1870. 
pee Selence for April, 1876. fol. 


4 

? 

5 
ee 
5 
z 


vole, fol. 1870-4, 


i 


| 
! 


Hofman, Profewor 4. W. F.RS. (the Author)—Litework of Licbig. (amd 
Tes fA TETS) Bro. ABTS ieee! 
Medical and Rage Prosecdtogs Park 42 S10. 1876. 
eee Geography of the Atlantic, by Capt. Toynbee, 
Musée rs Haarlem (tho ives, Vol. IV, Fuse. 2. 8vo, 1876, 
fournal, No. ‘Sro, 1876, 
Part & | Bvo. | 1875. 


Prewmische Akadewie der ‘Monatsberichte: Jan. 1876, Svo, 
of London—Proceedings, No. 188. Byo. 1976. 

oi Witty, H.C dan) hcn of Lago Selenium. (K 101) 
a ne ose afer ed Correspondence by means of 
felt Heindaue ge ee Verbandelingen. 

Ge Gi th San nts Ha 

nid 40. d 

Verein des peel Me eld Juli-Dee, 1875, 
“jn. Feb. OT Wy 


bonne a an 
‘Proceedings, Part 4. 





_ WEEKLY EVENING MEETING, 
Friday, May 12, 1876. 
Sir T. Frepentox Exitor, K.0.M.G. Vice-President, in the 


W. Faovpe, Esq. F-RS. 
The Fundamental Principles of the Resistance of Ships. 
I prorose to consider those principles of fluid motion which 


whether of sail or steam power, is involved in ing this 
resistance, if ac Sy wanted sipcrtcd Sah coe ST 


correc! preci 
mae eo ject is w branch of the goneral question of the forces 
which act on a body moving through a fluid, and bas within a com- 
paratively rocent been placed in an entirely new light by what 
veers ths the theory of stream-lines. 
Sed atte bagoa nag ian ec oay penjemst ooh wer ta ws 


stood without the help of technical mathematics; and I will endeayour 
to explain Lgl ie bay I have myself found most conducive to 


a raad of Gestion it, which ep eensee first sight fo aes mae 
‘one, and we shall thus soc what gorms of truth that method contained, 
and how far these were devel into false conclusions. 

It is a crude but instinctive idea, that tho resistance experienced 
either by o ship, or by a submarine body such as a fish, moving 
through water, is due to the necessity of the body ploughing or een 
or cleaving « passage for itself through the cn that it has to drive 
the water out of its way and then to ww it in again after itself. 

‘When, however, an attempt was made to deal with the matter in a 
scientific manner, it was seen that an explanation was needed of how 
it was that water force to move it out of the way. For it 

Soulvacrinl ty whe How can there be reaction or resistance in 
fectly mobile material such as water seems to be? We can 
jtand carth, for instance, resisting a ploughshare dragged through 





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PRE LEH 
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posed ion to 
‘This ideo has eesti em- 


a given voyago, is to excavate in the surface of the 
aseanabitts exoga nection HE whi 6 Thy seme 


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it was generally admitted for many years to be the only practicable 


theory of stream- 
lines was brought to bear upon the question, then it was discovered 
t the fluid would cause against 
the surface of the body moving through it, and which were supposed 
iiazraives in a totally different 
manner from what had previously been supposed, and that, thorofore, 


according to the theory of stream-lines, a submerged body, such as a 
= ov speed the 





a ne 191 





‘eT: GE (astieeasteeay: 
ea ie alataga el 
cit ae ii 
3 38 #432 3 . 5 i : 
Heleatal en 
mt Hi uel ity 

3 Hi: a] -t A 
aay a Te if ine 


ded, aud force 
but that same 


fluids 





all bogin with a tees * 
Sotail, and which will sorvo t> pile as aciare ahs ths aeratcant Ta 
about to submit to you. 

8 rigid pi sectional area, of tho form shown 
in Fig. Fae is teas of Goatees ofc vessel, 

Fr. 3, 
ce 
A 


fing) seins BO, CD, shee eerste St 


curvature, terminating oie 
same straight a ieee fe witch Bi nteraneaal a 0 oc at Oe 


tly on cithor side of O, the middle point of its ° 
‘Let us now assume ee has a stream of frictionless fluid 
running through it from A E, and that the pipe is free to 
hh gut oa 

Tt is ne eas pray tant getters cane hs 
the fluid w: Je beat oi ipe forward, in virtue of the 
ste ee bs Benda tn'st—Ahat oth tha divergence 

A and C from iginal line at A, and the return between O and EB 


to that ine at id place parts of the interior surface of the pipe 
in some manner in opposition to the stream or flow, and that the flow 
thus obstructed would drive the pipe forward ; if however we endeavour 
to build up these supposed causes in detail, wo shall find tho reasonin, 
to be illusory, and I will now trace the results which can be establi 
by correct reasoning, 

he ouehss bets assumed to be smooth, the fluid, being a 
frictionless fluid, can exercise no drag by friction on the side of 
the pipe in the dircction of its length, and in fact can exorcise 
no force on the side of the pipe, except at right angles to it. Now 
the fluid Loin round the curve from A to B will, no doubt, have to 
be deflected from its course, and its inortia, by what is commonly 
known as centri fogal action, will cause pressure agninst the outor side 
of the curvo, and this with a doterminablo force. ‘The magnitude and 
dlireotion of this force at each portion of the curve of the pipe between 
A and B, are represented by the small arrows marked f; and the 

te of these forces betwoon A and B is represented by the larger 

arrow marked G. Jn the samo way the forces acting on the parts BO, 
OD, and DE are indicated by the arrows H, I, and J+ and as the 








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siabion on the Fundamental Principles of the Resistance of Ships. 193 


19% Mr. W Froude [May 12, 


tension is the same in amount im each ring, the tension will be the 
same at every point in the combined pipe. 





This being so, if wo imagine the pipe to be flexible (but not 
clastic), and to be fastened at the ends, the pipe, although flexible, 
will not tend to be disturbed in its shape inertia of tho fluid 
which is running through it; because the fluid does not cause any 
lateral force, but only a longitudinal stretching force, and that, the 
samo in amount at evory point. And thia will clearly be so in a pipe 
of any outline, because oe may be mado up by thus piecing 


together short bits of ares of appropriate radii. 
Let us then take a flexible pipe having the two ends in the same 
straight line, bat pointing away from one another, as in Fig. 5, 


Bio, 5, 
— 
; a 
the intermediate part being of any outline you please. If the ends 
are fixed we havo seen that the flow of fluid will not tond to disturb 
the pipe, and therefore all that will be necessary to hold it in its 
position, will be an equal and opposite tension supplied by the anchor- 
ages at the ends, to prevent the ends being forced towards one another, 
And if, instead of anchoring the | we put a strat between them 


to keep them apart, the pipe thus fitted will require no external foree 
to keep it in position. other words, whatever be the outline of a 














1876.] on the Fundamental Principles of the Resistance of Skips. 195 


it 


line, a 


only with pipes 
an 
the 
the 
of 


ip ciagniariest 
‘cairo 


‘its 


ss permed 
the behaviour 
a 
Fis. 6. 
se 
agninst 
ras it 
experienced 


ee il 


leas than that at any other 


y respect crroneous ; the pressure 





; 


A 
—> 
ity implies 


increase of velocit 


forward velocity must have a 
it; for no other con- 


iy; 
ts 





direction of the motion, to 
it is to 6a! 


AB which has a contraction 
ity of tho fluid at B must be 
Fie. 9. 


eal 
= 
altachea 


ee 
cf 


‘ral 
‘This 














tel 


sEE 
= 
F 


paige leche 3 
differences of 


ieee srs bang lane 
ment followed by a contraction (soo Fig, 10). 





verified by experiment. as follows. 

Figs. 11 and 12 show certain pipes, the one a contraction followed 
by an enlargemont, the othor an enlargement followed & con- 
traction. At certain points in each pipe there aro small holes, com~ 
municating with vertical gauge-glassces. The height at which the 
Auid st in each of these vertical glasses, of course indicates the 
pressure in the pipo at the point of attachment. 

In Fig. 11 the sectional areas at E and P are equal to one another. 
Those at C and K are likowisa equal to ono another, but are smaller 
than those at Hand P. The area at I is the smallest of all. Now, 
the fluid being frictionless, the pressures at E and P indicated by the 
heights ED and PQ would be cqual, these being greater than © H 


=) & 


——————— 
1876.] om the Fundamental Principles of the Resistance of Ships. 197 


and KN. OH and KN would also be equal to ono another, and 
would be themselves greater than I J. 


Fio. 1, 





SS ee 


‘The results shown in Fig. 12 are similar in kind, equal pressures 
corresponding to equal sectional areas. 
Bot if the experiment were tried with water, some of the pressure 


Fro. 13, 





at each snoceasive point would be lost in friction, and this growing 
defect in pressaro, or “gradicnt,” would be indicated in the successive 
in the manner shown in Figs. 13 and 14. 


- 








b ¢ (sce Fig, 15) is a continuous series of glass 
tubes, through which water is flowing from the cistern n to the ontlet 
The cistern is kept full toa certain level. The tube from h to? 
what I have called an enlargement followed by a contraction ee 
0); from ¢ to g, the diametor is the same throughout; and 
; is a contraction followed by an enlargement (like Fig. 
Just as in Figs 11, 12, 18, 14, gaugo-glassos are here fitted to 
yarious tubes, to show the pressures of the water in them at 
various points. 

_ Let us first consider the parallel pipe eg. If the fluid were frie- 
tionless, the diameter being uniform, the pressure would be uniform 
thronghout, and the fluid would stand at the same level in each of the 
throe gango-glasses, But, owing to the friction, the water surfaces in 
the three glasses do not come up to a leyel line, but form a descending 
line, namely the frictional t. 

Now take the pipe ac. Here the smallest pane denoted by 
the water lovel at b’, is in the middle at b, where the diamoter is 
smallest, and the greatest pressure denoted by the water levels at 
a',c', ia at the two ends a, c, where the diameter is greatest. And if 
the fluid were frictionless, the pressure at the two ends, which haye 
the same diameter, would be the samo, but with water there is, as in 
ee parallel pipe ¢ g, © gradient or loss of pressure duo to tho 

ictic 


on. 

The frictional gradiont, according to well-known hydraulic rules, 
has a definite law of variation in terms of diameter and velocity, 
ently it has been possible by calculation to so arrange the 
diameters of the pipes, that the parallel pipe ¢ g should, according 
to tho rule, have the same frictional gradient as tho pipo a ¢, and as 
we see that the gradients are in fact the samo, the result not merely 

illustrates but verifies the propositions. 
In the pipe hk ft we have the smallest diameter at the two ends 


Fig 
3. 
the 


1876.] on the Fundamental Principles of the Resistance of Ships. 199 








Fra, 15. 














A and J, and the largest diameter at the middle point k, and conse- 
jucntly we have the smallest pressures denoted by the water lovels at 
Fy and /’,at the two ends, and the groatest pressure in the middle 





i 


1 328 
qlee 


HE aaa 


il 


a fe 
F| 
tel (ie 


impressed on the pij 
tid. flowing aoiee it must be 
, SRR SIS 





i! 


in the 
ine word, as long as 


Silinpaniss treats 
have tho same sectional area 


to it end 
fatigut line, wot 








1876.] on the Fundamental Principles of the Resistance of Ships. 201 


the speed and direction of flow of the flaid are the same in leaving the 
‘as in entering it; and in this und proposition concerning 


flow of fluid pipes, I have the foundation 
for the treatment of a ofthe Bom of a ero anon 
dealt with the instance of » singlo stroam of uniform seo- 


contents finally retarn to their origi: ARSE Star ay 

they administar no total endways force to the pipe or channel which 

jing to deal with a combination of such streams, each 

to some extent curved and to some extent varying in sectional area, 
a i sul r, BOO 18; ere 

Sapa gegen ities 
constitute ocean i it, return to 

‘ Ricsetioe ssi faleally, shay Cosncd odeniatar ta the body eng 


force. 
Every particle of the finid ing this ocean, as it the 
etiteines aionbledly follow some. pathior other, wo may 
not be able to find out what path; and particle so passing ia 

and followed by a continuous stream of particles all fol- 


w tho natural courses of the particles. 
streams to a suflicient distance ahead of the body, 


Th. 
ian 
a 
rfl 
Hi 
bl 
seat 
ei 
FLEE 


HL 
; 


AnH 
att 
ltl 
eau 
nega EE rat 
F i: ; i 
Ht 


PF 





be apt lepine Mle f ‘The other parts of the skins of 
1 


fluid from fluid, which finid ex hypotheri would be flowing exactly as 
does flow if the skins Cbd ged hat petal tre by 
@ fluid would nowhere tend to flow 


clearly cannot bring any force to bear on any of tho skins of ay of 
the pipes, except on the innermost skin of the innermost layer. 
wo know that the fluid flowing through this system of pipes admini- 
sters no total endways force to any one of the pipes or to the system 
asawhole. But it produces, as we have just seen, no force whatever 
upon any of the skins which separate fluid from fluid ; consequently, 
if these are removed altogether, the force administered to the remainder 
of the system, will be the same as is administered to the whole system, 
namely, no total endways force whatever. But what is this remainder 
of the system which has no total endways force upon it? Simply the 
surface of the body, which is formed, as I have already said, by the 
innermost skins of the innermost layer of pipes. Therefore no total 
endways force is administered to the body by the flow of the fluid, 

T have now shown that an infinite ocean of frictionless fluid flowing 
past a stationary submerged body cannot administer to it any endways 


1876.) on the Fundamental Principles of the Resistance of Ships, 208 
foree, whatever be tho nature of the nent deviations of the streams 


Rankine. : 

a earner reali aloes Wil patNcles Aine 

io esd be regarded as boundaries of the streams into 
we imagined the ocean to bo divided. 

We see that, a5 the streams approach the body, their first act is 
to broaden, and consequently to velocity, and therefore, as we 
rae Raeaerestad peta Presently they begin to narrow, and 
therefore juicken, and diminish in pressure, until they pass the middle 
REE dy ig wiaeA Ura shay have [become narrowee than in thelr 
original condition, and consequently have a greater 
ee ewe be the undisturbed fluid. After passit 
tho they hae wutil they become broader than in 
their original condition, therefore have less velocity and greater 

than the undisturbed fluid. Finally, as they recede from the 
og ies accu again until they ultimately resume their original 
dimension, velocity, and pressure. Thus, taking the pressure of the 


pressure at both the head and stern ends of the body, and a defect of 
pressure the middle. 

We just now that, taken as a whole, the pressures due to 
the i of the fluid could exert no endways push upon the stationary 
body. We now sev something of the way in which the separate pres- 
sures act, and that they do not, as seems at first sight natural to 
Seeieieeaeieierestea ts pooenc, wad ect to dion ao 
pressure pressure, and suction to suction, an 
ar not ones to nett ; and thus it is 
ocean of frictionless fluid, flowing at 8 a 
or body, doos uae tend aes it inten 
if ing #0, 8 sul tra’ at a si 

ie Maticsry coeen ol iti Auld will sree 


i 


rie 


i 


i 


Epes tay meee ik ae bare nach fo concider abat ere 
body moving through it, we have next to consider what aro 
‘causes of the resistance which such a body experiences when 
through water. 

difference between the behaviour of water, and that of the 
fluid is twofold, as follows : 

rat, the particles of water, unlike those ofa frictionless fluid, exert 
frictional resistance upon tho surface of tho body as they 
This action is commonly called surface-friction or 

r2 


Hi 


re 








i 
i 
i! 


[ 

i 
al 
feu 
a 
iW 
dl 


Ai 
i 
i 
i 
ee 

i 
: 
ae 
Ee 


bs 
S 
‘ 
F 
' 
u 
| 
E 
a8 





i 


ee eee) es rgerenn at ae aces ct the bial, 
greatly reduc in part converted into negative 
and usa very great, Feistance result, itis Sorth 


body with one end round and the other 
cen experienvet least resistance when going with the 


a 


i 
bef 
F 
3 


Teall this source of resistance “ ed resistance,” and as 
T havo said, it will be im ible in forms of fairly easy shape, 
such, for example, as 2. Such » form of subm will 


as thin plano, like Fig. 1, moving edgeways, which possesses the 

Seared ae In wo may say generally, that all sub- 

——-«<- -  - 
throu, 


ghout the whole of this reasoning, been deal- 
ing with sul bodies only, by which I mean bodies travelling at 
& great low the surface of the fluid ; and I have shown the sole 
canses of resistance to be the two I have termed respectively 
surface-friction and eddy-making resistance. But when we come to 
ip, or any other body travelling at or indeed near the 
new cause of resistance introduced; a cause, tho 

often of most vital importance in the design 
of of ships, and which renders the question of the form of 
a ship, entirely different that of the form 
of least resistance for a submerged body. This new cause of re- 


<< 


f=) 











Mr. W. Froude [Moy 12, 


ray abe pe pen rer ogres ep 


fe 8 ee 
206 
sistance, 





line motions will be the same as for a submerged body, of which the 

ip may be regarded as the lower half; and the ship will move 
without resistance, except that due to the two cena have just 
spoken of, namely surface-friction and eddy-making resistance. The 
stream-line motions being the same in character as those we have 
been considering, wo shall still have at each ond an excess of pres- 
sure, and along the sides a defect eee which will tend the 
one to force up the shoot of ico and the other to suck it down. If 
now we remove the ice, the water will obviously rise in level at each 
end, in order that excess of hydrostatic head may afford the necessary 
reaction against the excess of pressure, and the water will sink by the 
sides, in order that defect of hydrostatic head may afford reaction 
against the defect of ure. 

The hills and va! which thus commence to be formed in the 
water are, in a sense, waves, and though originating in the stream- 
line forees of the body, yet when originated, they come under the 
dominion of the ordinary laws of wave-motion, and to a large oxtent 
behave as in lent waves; and in virtue of their independent 
action they modify the stream-line forces which originated them, and 
alter the pressures which are acting upon the surface of the ship. 

‘The exact nature of this altcration of pressure, in any given case, 
we have no means of predicting ; but we can be quite sure it must 
operate to alter the balance of forward and backward forces in such a 
way as to cause resistance ; for we see that the final upshot of all the 
different actions which take place is this—that the ship in its passa, 
along the surface of the water has to be continually supplying 
waste of an attendant system of waves, which, from the nature of their 
constitution as independent waves, are continually diffusing and trans- 
mitting themaolves into the surrounding water, or, where they form 
what is called broken water, crambling away into froth, Now, waves 
represent energy, or work dono, and therefore all the energy repre- 
sented by the waves wasted from the system attending the ship, is so 
much work done by the propellers or tow-ropes which are urging the 
ship. So much wave-cnergy wasted per mile of travel is so much 





eerie Biles 
jie ul i AEH 
/ f; ie | FRA 
a4 BB gar i H UHH 
i EHS belly 
di yiebal alta 
in Hee Bu it 
His end 

ga al 





| 


ly to 


fluid, in order to trace 


through 


of resistance we bare dealt with, come 


il So moving edgeways through frictionless fluid. 
raetdelcnnes 


T think it will be useful brief 


jig point, 
motion 


arrivod at th’ 
the several cases 
‘the several causes 


a 
uti 


the middle, 


and there- 


Or, 
body moving throngh frictional fluid. 


pressure along 


tof 
ward pressures balance one 


stream-line motion, canses excess 


d surface friction. 


ibmerged body moving through frictionless fluid, 
Nee 


A plane moving edgeways throngh frictional finid. 


resistance due to 
‘A su 

fluid 

two 

back 


= il 


eet t Hue 


Also, if the body 
of the particlos of fluid 


will destroy the balance between the 


by 
50 
Labarianiact 


excess of pressure at the 
frictionless fluid, but at or 
on the surface of the body, are 


thus causing eddy-making resistance. 


through 
pressures 


of the wave system which has beon ereated, 


to surface friction, 
ies, part of the 
the friction 


moving 


direct 


i 


: af 


oe 





its made upon the 
water. The space 


Speed in Knots per honr- 2 
dotted lines is the curve of surface-friction 
ugh 


moving edgeways 


——= 
1876.) on the Fundamental Principles of the Resistance of Ships. 209 


between the line and the dotted line above 

Pavoiaap hopes amount of resistance tise sldpciking dadosed aoe 
data which it would take too to describe here. The spaco 
between this upper dotted line and the plain line above it is the wave- 


ole resistance. ips, however, do 
often attain under steam, speeds at which the wave resistance is 
more than somo forty per cont. of the whole. 

Tt is « point worth noticing here, what an exceedingly small force, 
after all, is the resistance of a ship, compared with the apparent magni- 
tude of the phonomena involved. anyone, I imagine, seoing 
for instance the new frigate ‘Shah’ steaming at full speed, would bo 
ewe, See a ereoe 
wi a necessary to luce that apparently tremen- 

effect is only 27 in fact less than one two-hundredth part 
of the weight of the And of this small propulsive foree, at 
least 15 tons, or more than one-half, is employed in overcoming surface- 


Thus, 6 the veasel carries at her bow a wave seven feet 
high, the forees which produce this aro 60 far neutralised by other 
See ael eetoromaies ty is connmet proent onl te 

represented by on w 

east tie’ c chee rave fonntans | 8 high. Indeed, a 

would represent a sternward pressure equal 


the 
‘The truth is, that the forces which are at work, namely the stream- 


the fluid, are indeed very great; 

what we have to deal with, in the shape of eddy-making or wave- 
making résistance, is nothing but a minute difference or defective 
epee necro eena)\aod tosbanade iis thet, they 
balance With a well-shapod ship at moderate 
any resistance but skin friction, for the 


ae Re 


shag s3 


iat a sibaE 








an 
hich tend 


5 






come 


that 
the 


at which the rapid growth of resistance 


ieee een Saat tha ayproiis fo the 
Meu eae cea oro ek 

is to it; 
eer 


the 
longer will bo the waves which tend to 


made, the higher will be the speed she will be able to go before 


great wave-making resistance, and the less 


we-rmaking: 
features,” as we may term them, should be 


long in comparison with the length of the wave which would naturally 


for the ship. 
admit of my describing to you in detail how the 


i affect the practical question of how 


you to imagine for yourselves, if yon 


i Shay question, how the desirability of 


lessening wave-resistance, is to a 


less extent counteracted by the desirability of shortness of 

ae erate eecete Eiblinn: food ho a many other sayy a 

certain variation of form, while it is gain in one way is a loss in 

another, 80 that i sae eet) least resistance is a com- 
promise between conflicting methods of improvement. 

My principal object has been to combat the old fallacy of “head- 


resistance,” as it has boon so! 


motimes called, due to the inertia of the 


water acting against the area of the ship's way. I hope I have mado 


it clear to you, that the inertia of a frictionless fluid could offer no 


opposing to a sw 
oh ang 


necessity push it forwards 


section theory. 
eee secretes Fig. 22 represents the respective water-lines 
the same tonnago but of different proportions of length 


breadth. Now it is true 
speed of the wave appro] 


great wave~ 


priate 
making 


body of any shape moving through it, 
by the inortia against the Sete eat 
exactly as much as they push it back- 


body is moving through a frictional fluid, or 


of a fluid, this balance is only more 


that the shorter of the two, when the 


to its wave features is approached, wil] 
resistanco, and will therefore probably 








a 


—————— t—t—“‘“‘“‘CSCé‘C;~*~‘“—s~s~s“‘“‘<i<i<i<i<‘C;S = 


1876.] on the Fundamental Principles of the Resistance of Ships. 213 


that at the higher speeds, the form with the largest cross section made 
barearee Bid an omerrins Tho oxplanation of this lies of 
course in the fact that the addition amidships, thongh increasing the 
is forms a of the wave features of the two 


In conclusion Jot me again insist, and with the greatest urgency, on 
the hopeless i gp ena ele b+ Sheurlee. a of frm 
in ships, except strong entirely new light whi 
oof a - sla feck that th eee it 
8 sim) 2 Wl 
ipa aisctol sonata 


delusive and misleading. And real improvements are not seldom 

attributed to the guidance of those very ideas which I am charac- 

terising ns delusive, while in reality those improvements are the fruit 
Ice. 


of painstaking, but incorreetly rationalised, e: 

‘See nagre opie which tho highes it mathematicians of 
the day have establi bly ; and my work has been to appro- 
ciate and adapt these views wi to 

Noone is more alive than to tho plausibility of the unsound 
viows against which I am contending; but it is for the very reason 
that they are so plausible that it is necessary to protest against them 
80 earnestly ; I hope that in protesting thus, I not be re- 
garded as assuming too dogmatic a tone, 


In truth, it is a protest of scepticism, not of dogmatiam ; for I do 
not profess to direct anyone how to find his way straight to the form 
of least resistance. For the present we can but feel our way cautious); 
towards it by careful trials, using only the improved ideas whi 
the stream-line supplies, as safeguards against attributing this 
or that result to or rather, non-existing causes. 





SEE 


au Mr. Charles T. Newton [May 19, 


WEEKLY EVENING MEETING, 
Friday, May 19, 1876, 
Sm Freveatox Portock, Bart. M.A. Vice-President, in the Chair. 
Cuantes T, Newroy, 0.B, 


EKER OF THE GREER AxD ROMAN ADTIQEHTH OF THK METRIC NESECR, 
The Recent Discoveries at Olympia, 


Tux discourse began with i eee mon Om eee MapcezepEy, oo tha 
Olympian plain in Elis, in the Peloponnesus, and a desoription of the 
nature and objects of the ancient Olympic festival, revived by Iphitus, 
King of Elis, to promote harmony in Greece, of which we havo records, 
beginning with the victory of Corcbus, 776 u.c., and ending with its. 
abolition by Theodosius, a.n, 394, The games included races on 
foot, on horseback, and in chariots, wrestling, boxing, and other 
athletic exercises ; and the contests were open to free Greeks of all 
ranks, of pure Hellenic blood, an pes prize being to them the 
highest honour conceivable. During the festival a sacred armistice 
was established “if held in time of war; and treaties of peace were 
often published at Olympia, One of the objects was military training, 
to enable a small number of Greeks to resist a vast number of foes ; 
but the chief motive was undoubtedly religions. The hymns were 
more in honour of Zeus than of the victor in the contests, and Pindar’s 
odes are more admonitory than laudatory. 

In the second century of our era Olympia was visited by Pausanias, 
who gives in his ‘Itinerary’ a most interesting description of the 
then state of the Temple of Zous, Phidias's colossal statue of the god 
in ivory and gold, the large number of statues of victors, with edifices 
abounding in treasures (occupying a space of abont a square mile), 
which no doubt conduced to the abolition of the festival. 

After alluding to the visits of Chandler, Leake, and Stanhope, 
Mr, Newton described the explorations of the French expedition in 
1828, whon the site of the temple was ascertained, and a plan made, 
of which he exhibited a copy; and the sculptures then discovered 
were conveyed to the Louvre. At the part where the French left off 
the work was taken up, in the autumn of 1875, by the German expe- 
dition, conducted by Messrs. Hirschfeld and Botticher, whose dis- 
coveries have been of transcendent interest, Some of these were 
described by Mr, Newton, who, in company with Professor Colvin, 


1876.] on the Recent Discoveries at Olympia. 215 


lately visited the spot. He specially commented on a noble but 
mutilated statue of Victory, most probably the work of Pmonios, a 
contemporary of Phidias, of which a description is given by Pausa- 
nias, and he also described some sculptures of the eastern pediment 
of the temple, stated by Pausanias to represent the preparation for a 
chariot-race between Pelops and CEnomaus, King of Elis. These and 
many of the torsos found are of very unequal merit, and proved, as 
was remarked, that the decorations of the Greek temples were often 
committed to inferior artista. After alluding to several other works, 
and commenting on some interesting bronze tablets, with inscriptions, 
recording treaties or granting civic privileges, the discourse con- 
cluded with a warm tribute of gratitude to the Germans for their 
noble enterprise, and the expression of a confident hope of still more 
important results. 


WEEKLY EVENING MEETING, 
Friday, May 26, 1876. 
‘Wrrirax Srorriswoonr, Esq. M.A. LL.D. F.RS. Secretary and 
‘Vice-President, in the Chair. 
J. Piercar: Movrrox, Esq. 
The Verification of Modern Scientific Theories. 


Oe ane to the rapid advances made by 
science in recent times aa in the world of organic as of inorganic 
matter. This advance had consisted partly of the discovery of a yust 
number of isolated scientific truths, and partly of the discovery of wide 
gonoral principles. Such is found to bo the caso in any age that is 
Goh ia disogtartes andl an:she wile general princi thus arrived 
at embrace many of the less genoral truths a1 discovered, the 
people in such an age have the choice of two mothods of demon- 
strating these truths; the one by direct induction from facts and 
experiments Mes relating thereto, and the other by deduetion 
from some wide generalization which has itself boon established 
by sn induction proper to itself. Different minds will be affocted 
ae Af See cee nae neNy, oe ar aca aa 
keenly alive to a sense of general or of special harmony. A 
parallel is to be found in the two rival styles of mathematical 
teaching so well exemplified in our English text-books—one class of 
iesbbonks. preter to prava,qartioalar theorems by: epecial. okonds, 
each of which is applicable to its own theorem alone, while the 
others prefer to face the difficulties of the demonstration of general 
thoorems at the outset, and deduce from them the theorems they noed 


a particular cases. 

org BN He eral tres | 
is in turn specially convincing makes them alike necessary and 
valuable even in cases where either would be sufficient alone, for 
in science our aim is to convince, and truths are often arrived at 
and firmly held by the better scientific minds long before the evi- 
dence for them is sufficient to render their demonstration incon- 
testable. Such cases, i. o. of truths to reject which is not insan 
but only stupid and unprofitable, constitute the most interesting 
part of science in every age, and it is the attitude of a mind 
towards these nascent discoveries that measures its enlightenment. 
But though both methods are useful in the attainment of scientific 
truth, the one that sooks to deduce particular traths from general 
ones is the one to which we should ultimately advance, and is, as 


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Sa 2bsiea 2 38 3de BaSR | Es 
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3 43 


‘ae : spagecd ; 5 | i 
jel em) 
i BE rd é nit et HE i: ile 
eel ai! Habe Hilf Ane Fle HEE 2 


| 
il 
a 
a 


j 


i 
fil 
‘ 
i 
ull 


(tH 
ef 
i 
iy 
F 
F 
e 
g 


i 


u 
FLL 
Hee 
: 
ad 
F 


1G 
i 
E 


ite 

Plutonic history of the earth. So useful are they for purposes 
such as this, that by their aid we spoodily arrive at a gonoral know- 
of the types of change that will most frequently present them~ 
selves in the universe; and in this way we arrive at a scientific 
measure of the probability of theorics, and are enabled to determine 
how great or how small an acy tices eee Lee pe to sup- 
rt them. Apparent strangencas is no longer a gror for rejecting 
Basal its credibility is measured by its harmony with some one 
of the prevailing types of change; and we have thus taken a further 
towards freeing ourselves from the disturbing influence of unen- 
lightened wonder—the faculty which is the most detrimental of allto 
scicntifie thought, and the greatest hindrance to scientific progress. 
This determination of the amount of evidence necossary to support 
a Theory may be considered as an indiroct verification (though an 
incomplete one) of all such thoories as are shown thereby to bo 

highly probable, cven in the absence of direct evidence for them. 

Such considerations as these have led some eminont philosophers 
to bolieve that we can arrive at sccondary laws of change, by the aid 
of which we shall be able in all cases to foretell the course of de- 
yolopment without going back to the fundamental laws. This the 


ee tp 


elias apt 
fel Hlaiep cian 


Sepa eae S34 ai 3 
Hedrtei iti 
= s wt 33 i e 
: if 2 a EE vill 


Ee 


the fact that one of the most 


coe i at No such 
r, and none can be 
3 those 
ion that can be 
sonia tet 


wa to neo at 


acl : 
ie a hiss nea 


: 





world of auimated nature from simple organisms, with that requisite 
iit he intial more dial qoston of foe tat ave 
guided and it di Lad gees reper And 
secondly, the novelty of the onused the world to over- 
estimate the amount of evidence requisite to establish it, as might 
Lech pe pp ee pnt ic on 
etee titeapt bo wecity che which more peculiar 
‘more poetes 
sean Deets hu Taste the gar’ played bp uatoesl aaheatien 
evolution, leads to very different results to the above, though it 
soon becomes evident that natural selection has had a most important 
influence in dirceting development. phay “stieript to: eatinasts aos 
large a part it has played, necessurily implies we have cither 
or that we have obtained a 


oa 
of gratitude to him, is that he 


5 
FE 


us most. Up to his time the peenliar adaptations so common in 


[FM] 


i 
: 











i 


: 





: Be a ii 


careful and 

Mr. 

mage 

y 
of plat ty 
vanadium exerts 
then a retardation, 
action of the poison 





diye inn wares el tae 
se rg coc abte ipl 
fans ods Hod angle 
aii HUY 


respiration are at first an accel 


and ultimately an arrest of respiration, due to an 


dently 
pon. 





* Pree. Rog. See. xxiv, 254. 


t 


* ‘Phil. Trans” 1870, 


.* 








i 
ih 
I 
i 
f 


walts of ortho-and meta- and pyro-vanadic acids, we find that the 
‘poisonous is least in the case of the first, and greatest in that 
‘of the third of compounds. A subsequent examination of the 
Pere eer Se oorreeponling Fee ogiae: 
the remarkable fact that whilst ortho-phosphates appear 
to be inert, the pyro-phosphates are almost as poisonous as arsenic 
‘The speaker had recently been able to still closer in another 
direction the links connecting vanadium the older members of 
‘the triad by the of a new vanadium mineral, which 
Sera tks third aber of the ing series of phosphorus, arsenic, 
and vanadium compounds, all of doubtless erystallize in 
same form, and certainly have an anal: chemical composition. 
a ee ey a th local where 


C 
i 
ae 
i 
é 
B 
E 
i 





, to which Dr. Proposes to give the name of 
4 AI°VO, + E,81,0,, + H,0_ 


Ttisa tale-like minoral in , wervin, 
Ll pe apere te emer is seal anion Aton onrinisa 


8 


Hau: 


HET 
a Hen 


developer, 


exposure 


He 
i 
Hah 


tee 


application of vanadium 


pester ad salma exteiely olay @ permanont marking 


the preparation of a permanent 


eas Pe ele Lavette 
Fane Mee ing tea see 


black which 


"3 


1 
it 


aegOf he comarca wl of pemanont veh Wack digo i 


difficult for the uninitiated in such matters to form an idoa, 


d patient inquiry; si 
it wo may look forward wi 


It is not at first sight easy to understand how a raro substance like 


<a 





was first made by Mr. Jaios Gibbons in 1874. 


* This proposal 


HELE LPI gt oe ee at 
# Ht Pe a 
jE: anette i 
ii al gua ile at an 


ses 


cig Hi iat 





228 Professor Roscoe [June 2, 
almost solid mass is produced. In order, however, that the process 
aaieapale tpdig. cal’ weet ‘it in absolutaly 


which can be w against it is that the black thus obtained is 
not perfectly it, but is liable to become groon when exposed 
to reducing agents, such as the sulphurous acid contained in the 


and to return to the black 
when treated with alkalies, is au ossontial Properly at the substance, 


in presence of acids and allalies. 
‘That the aniline black can not only be produced in presence of 
copper but also, as Mr. Lightfoot in the year 1871, in 
resence of vanadium salts, and that by vanadium alono can the black 
bo obtained of the requisite permanent character, has now been 
proved beyond doubt. Moreover, the quantity of the vanadium 
necessary in order to produce the oxidation of the aniline is about 
one thousand times less than that of the copper, Thus if a pice 
of calico be dipped into a solution of 2°5 grains of vanadate of 
ammonia dissolved in a gallon of water and then dried, the cloth thus 
prepared is capable of producing an intense black if treated with the 
mixture of aniline salt and chlorate. In the same way if 1 gallon of 
colour be made containing 20 ounces of aniline hydroch]orate, 10 ounces 
of chlorate of soda, and 3 grains of vanadate of ammonia, a mixture 
is obtained with which no less than from 20 to 25 pieces, or from 
500 to 600 yards of cloth, such as that exhibited, can be thus printed 
of @ permanent black. 


Uyguieia tele ee mdi 
ie tell Ui ab dy quedln 1 
Hoa He JO LICEL ey iH! 

: sa a bi He ult alia Bf 
He [ee Hut iit ei it Dea Hi 
ae Hush Ath ju] sit 
HE a a Ha 5 il 

ceil ae Hel ie A 


Ad: a 
a 


i 


ley 





1876.) General Monthly Meeting. 231 


GENERAL MONTHLY MEETING, 
Monday, Juno 5, 1876. 


Georcs Buss, Esq. F.R.S. Treasurer and Vice-President, 
in tho Chair. 


General the Lord Sandhurst, G.C.B. G.C.S.I. 
Major Henry Collett, 

George Alexander Dick, Esq. C.E. 

Thomas George Barrett Lennard, Esq. 
Sydney McHenry, Eeq. 

The Rev. Stewart Dixon Stubbs, M.A. 


were elected Members of the Royal Institution. 


Srepaen Buss, Esq. was elected Visitor in the room of Mr. Rosrrt 
P. Linton, d 


Tho Presents received since the last Meeting were laid on tho 
table, and the thanks of the Members returned for the samo, viz. :— 


FROM 


Agricultural Society, Royal—Minutes of the Chemical Committee. 8vo. 1876. 

‘Armit, Lieut. R. H. (the Author)—History of New Guinea. (K 101) 8vo. 1876. 

‘Asiatic Society, Royal—Journal, New Serics, Vol, VIII. Part 2. 8y0. 1876. 

‘Astronomical Society, Royxl—Monthly Notices, Vol. XXXVI. No. 6. 8vo. 1876. 

Belgique, Académie Royale des Sciencea—Bulletins : 1874-5. 4 vols. 8vo. 
Annuaire, 1875-6, 12mo. 

British Architects, Royal Institute of Sessional Papers, 1875-6. No. 10. 40, 

Chemical Society-—Journal for April, 1876. 8vo. 

Crostie-Dawewon, G. J. Eag- (the ‘Author)—Streot Pavements, (K 101) 8yo. 


De Candle, C. (the Author)—Sur la Structure ct les Monvements des Feuilles du 
Dionsa Muscipula. (Archives des Sciences, Avril, 1876.) 

Editors—American Journal of Science for May, 1876. 8vo. 

Argonaut for May, 1876. 8vo. 

‘Athenwum for May, 1876. 4to. 

Chemical News for May, 1876, to. 

Electrical Nows for May, 1876. 

Engineer for May, 1876." fol. 

Journal for Applied Science for May, 1876, ful. 

Nature for May, 1876. 4to. 

Nautical Mugazine for May, 1876. 8vo. 

Pharmaceutical Journal for May, 1876, 8vo. 

Telegraph Journal for May, 1876, 8vo. 








282 General Monthly Meeting. [June 5, 


Franklin Tntitde Journal, No. G05, vo. 1876. 
sphical Bociety, Hoyal—Journal, Vol. XLV. | 8vo. 1876, 
Ge Society Quarterly Journal, No, 126. ‘gro. 1876. 
Dr. FV. United States Geologiet—Report of the Geological and Geo- 
“MW grephical Survey of the Territories. Bvo. “1876. 
Lewins, Robert, M.D. (the Author)—Lifo and Mind, (K 101) 8vo. 1876. 
‘Linnean Society—Journal, Nos. 63, 83. 8vo. 1876. 
Longmans and Co. Mess —W. N. Hartley ; Air and ity Relations to Life. 2nd ed. 
1 1876. 
Manchester Geological Society—Transactions, Vol. XLII. Part 11; XIV. Part 3. 
8v0. 1876, 
Preussische Akademie der Wissenscha/ten—Monatuberichte : Feb. 1876. 8y0. 
Royal Society of London—Proceedings, No. 169, 8vo. 1876. 
Hoyal Sooily of Tarmania— Monthly ¥ Notices for 1874. 8 vo. 1875. 
Société Hollandaise des Sciences, Haarlem—Notice Historique, &¢. 8v0. 1876. 
Archives Néerlandaises, Tome X. Liv. 8; Tome XI. Liv. 2,8. vo. 1875-6. 
Statistical Sociey—Journal, Vol. XXXIX. Part 1. 8vo. 1876. 
ints "Bag. (tho Author Symons’ Monthly Meteorological Magazine, 
y, 1876. 


8¥0. 

Tyndall, ‘Profesor, F.RS. (the Author)—Fragments of Scionce. 5th edition. 
12mo. 1876. 

Yorkshire Arc jeal and Topographical Association—Journal : Supplement 
Pak evo ove Te nee 























i 
22 
Y 
i 
il 
i 
I 
rt 


lH 
ul 
et 
Hi] 


i Ge ees ee eee ay 


B 
i 
il 
i 
l 
i 
u 


gs 
i 
at 
a 
if 
i % 
8 Fo 
g 
E 
ALE 


put them in their LS setting. I refer to Sir Thomas Dick-Lauder, 
1 a or ee 
a over 


this spirit of penetration, this force of scientific insight, more con- 
spicuously than Sir Thomas Dick-Lauder. ‘Two distinct mental pro- 
cesses are involved in its treatment. Firstly, the faithful and sufficient 
observation of the data ; and secondly, that higher mental process in 
which the constructive ition comes into play, connecting the 
separate facts of observation with their common cause, and weaving 


Adjacent to Glen Roy is a valley called Glen Gluoy, along the 
sides of which ran a si shelf, or terrace, formed obviously in the 
SAgapeMeag Ate ET Sen Pin wore ok proces te vane love ent 

e were at precisely the same le 
DicktLandet wished to ri whether, eh] how, they became united at 


the head of the He followed the shelves into the recesses of 
the mountains. bottom of the valley, as it rose, came over nearer 
to them, until finally, at the head of Glen Gluoy, he reached « col, or 
cole eam the same elevation as the road which swept 

The sli height of this col is 1170 foot above the soa. It is 
therefore 20 feet above the highest road in Glen Roy. 





Panatcet Roane or Girx Ror. 
After a Sketob by Sir Thomas Dick-Lauier. 


From this col a lateral branch-valley led towards Glen Roy. Our 

Saree ieseestat cen ie ool $0 the Lighuet Pond ls that giea; ood 

pursued it exactly as he had pursued the road in Glen Glaoy. For 

® time it bolted the mountain sides at a considerable height abore 

the bottom of the valley ; but this rose as he eded, coming ever 

nearer to the gee shelf, until finally he & col, or watershed, 
reed 


: 


stopped by = barrier, if 
gle aro alowed collet it would form behind the barrier a 


would gradually rise, until it had reached the level of the col 

which divides Glen Roy from Glen Spey, Here the rising of the 

lake would cease; its superabundant water being poured over the col 

into the valley of the Spey. This state of things would continue as 

long as the barrier remained at the mouth of Glen Roy. The lako 

thus dammed in, with its surface at the level of the meee Sue 

would act, as in Glen Gluoy, upon the friable drift ovor- 

a ig the mountains, and would form the highest road or terrace 
Roy. 

And now let us suppose the barrier to be so far removed from the 

mouth of Glon Roy a8 to ostablish a connection between it and tho 

upper part of Glon Spean, while the lower part of the latter glen 


rere 
In of the observed facts, this solution commends itself 
to the scientific mind. AL le What was 

the of the assumed barrier which stopped the glens? There 


‘are at the present moment vast masses of detritus in certain portions 
of Glen Spean, and of such detritus Sir Thomas Dick-Lauder imagined 
his barriers to have been formed. By some unknown convulsion, this 
detritus bad been heaped up. But, once given, and once granted that 


Sporeriey anv nea Somer cee 
Tanner, 


r LE ie Deora er reer -Home reached a col, or 
watershed, of the precise level of the second Glen Roy Koad. When 
the barrier blocking the glons had boon so far removed ag to open 
era og tral wink fo’ i Laval ft weap 


i 
E 
i 


FF 
F 
: 
Hl 
: 
re 
i 


| 
Ut 
i 
j 


fife 
4 
H 
Eg 

teit 
ta 
tal 
He 


F 
: 
[ 
2 
i 


if 
: 
E 
i 
tl 
ree 
at 
ft 


FE 
F 
zZ 
3 
H 
$ 
F 
Ey 


mound of detritus which, had a glacier followed the formation of the 
shelf, must have been cleared away. Taking all the circumstances 
into account, you may, I think, with safety dismiss the detrital barrier 
a8 incompetent to account for the present condition of Glen Gluoy 
and Glen Roy. 

Hypotheses in science, though apparently transcending experience, 
are in reality experience modified by scientific thought and pushed 
into an ultra experiential region. At the time that he wrote, Sir 
‘Thomas Dick-Lauder could not possibly have assigned the cause sub- 
sequently assigned for the blockage of these glens. A knowledge of 
the action of ancient glaciers was the necessary antecedent to the new 
explanation, and experience of this nature was not possessed by the 
distinguished writer just mentioned. The extension of Swiss glaciers 
far beyond their present limits, was first made known by a Swiss 


1876.) on the Parallel Roads of Glen Roy. 239 
re fcc a pray ade ind a kag pias Koay Bat 
behind, their furmer existence in places wl 
wakon. Tho subject of glacier extension was sul ad Bibeed 
ih tinge oon Cnr et 6 ee he 
perichha best aged hstdécsain of Bviteetlend. Hla coxun torts 
country in 1840, and found in various places indubitable marks of 
_ amolent glacior ection. England, Scotland, Wales, and Tzoland he 
Sere ees oes gies eel ice reas He visited Glen Roy, 
oy t ” pronounced, conse- 
ac of hi eatin, Urs wh ped ae a 
16a. oO 


ee, roads to have beon barriers of 
abst haee ses es indebted fenthe tbanoogh 


theory. 
eases aay teat iz is i 
those wl to i i i i 
sion, but he abounded in that force and freshness of the scientific 
imagination which in some sciences, and probably in some stagos of all 
to the creator of knowledge. To A; was 
the refiner, but the instinct of the discoverer, 
gth of the delver who brings ore from the recesses of 
ore may contain its share of dross, but it also con- 
metal which gives employment to the refiner, and 
ich his occupation would dey 


f 
Be 
BE 
o 
ae 
HE 


Fie 
i 
BEB 


SEE 
HE 
ith 

He 

re 

if 

sf 


H 
i 
i 
FE 
i 
i 


ered cea lunged in a mixture cold mp pe 
water, Asa <n § rage we obtain a mass of ice, 


HE 
rere 
& 

ark 
Bay 
EEEE 
aH 
atet 
ie 
ith 
i 


ti 
i 
fs 
28 
i 
t 
q 
i 


; 
E 
- 


the 
ice. The cold must have the proper material to work upon ; 
this material—aqueous vapour—is, as wo here see, the 


Le 


= 
rs 
a¢ 


f 
i 
7 
Ef 
; 
32 


i 
I 
| 
| 





ip 
| 
i 
; 


ts 

HE 
H 
F 
r 
it 


& 

Hi 
Hi 
it 
A 
ef 
i 
; 
F 


i 
if 
A 


as ossential a part as the cold of the mountains which condenses it.f 
It was their ascription to glacier action that first gavo the parallel 
roads of Glen Roy an interest in my eyes; and in 1867, with a view 
to self-instruction, made a solitary pilgrimage to the place, and 
explored pretty thoroughly the roads of tho principal I traced 
the highest road to the col dividing Glen Roy from Glen Spey, and, 


* +Heat a Mode of Motion,’ fth edition, chap. vi: Forms of Water, §§ 55 
56, 


t oe hg ie perages Principles of ' Geologyy the ee that " several 
writers have fallen into the strange error of # iat the glacial period must 
have been one of highor mean ture Pel gemt The feally error 
was the forgetfulness of the fact that in the production of glaciers, heat played 
quite ns important # part as cold, 


1876.) on the Parallel Roads of Glen Roy. Qa 
‘the more friable of the rock being perfectly distinct to this 
hour, My of the region was, however, far from complete, 
and nine years had di the of the porti 


ee Mees the . Guided by the excel- 
on Y morning we went up the 
stream called Allt Bhresc Achaidl, theo the 


BREESE? 
a 
ie 
ay 
af 
He 
pin 


& 
& 


over which foll the waters of the lakes which 


i 
E 
E 
3 
: 
H 


i 
Li 
E 


tif 
LE 
gE 

| 
ALF 
i : 


§ 

| 

i 
pier 
i 
oF 


(f 
i 
2 be 
il 
iv 
Hy 


of this ut the he 
er Le Be 
roads, were the mountains south and 


sir 


#i 


inp. 


He 
ise 


it : ea 46 ia ey Ribot 

forei| it out by ol ations * 

i Cant, Fort Williams ut the south- 

western end has, as just stated, 86 inches, while Culloden, at its 

north-east end, has only 24. To the researches of that able and 

accomplished meteorologist, Mr. Buchan, we are indebted for these 
data of the most interesting and valuable kind. 

Adhering to the facts now presented to us, it is not difficult to 


produced and the glens 
time with sufficient upon the tropical ocean, the vapours 
Paareadt aeited otto northern mountains were more and 





g an Sr 
ae : 


; lune 
: ; a HE 
iebes iui ial iis Hn ne 


il SHIH LE gle 





flanks of the glens a 
Tu presence then of the fact that the barriers which these 


there ; in ce of the fact that glaciers once most 
filled these valleys—that the whole region, as by Mr. Jamieson, 
is filled with the traces of their action; the which ascribes the 


parallel roads to lakes dammed by barriers of ice has, in my opinion, 
an amount of probability on its side which amounts to a practical 
demonstration of its truth, 

Tnto the details of the terrace formation I do not enter. Mr. 
Darwin and Mr. Jamieson on the one side, and Sir John Lubbock on 
the other, deal with trae causes. The terraces, uo doubt, are due in 

t to the descending drift arrested by the water, and in part to the 

ing of the wavelets, and the ent of the stirred detritus, 
along the belts of contact of lake and hill. ~The descent of matter 
must have been frequent when the drift was unbound by the rootlets 
which hold it together now. In some cases, it may be remarked, the 
visibility of the roads is materially exalted by diferences of vegeta 
tion. grass upon the terraces is vot always of the same character 
as that above below them, while on heather-eovered hills the 
absence of the dark shrub from the roads greatly enhances their 

icuousuess. 
iewing our work, we find three considerable steps to have 
marked the solution of the problem of the Parallel Roads of Glen Roy. 
The firet of these was taken by Sir Thomas Dick-Lauder, the second 
was the + conception of Agassiz regarding glacier action, and 
the third was the testing and verification of this conception by the very 
thorough researches of Mr. Jamieson.* To these may be added the 





* No circumstance, or incident, connceted with this discourse [ed me greater 


than the recognition of the value of these researches. ey tre marked 
it by unflugging industry, by novelty and acutoness of observation, and 


1876.] om the Parallel Ronis of Glen Roy. 245 


SE a et athena ee Hers with 
een otra ergeres rae He meatirs of the 
ere eat cee sere) eocney of ia trie oni 

ends our rand of Se Hoe apsibe 58 ths Eye) 

Peereraor We Boceiinh Elis, that is to say, in comparison wi 
the imensarbl lan of ine through hich, poe rare 
oa field sae ars eae ee 

a two y to 

ety eh 


that where truth once could not fin payleeeny 
a 


[The formation, connection, successive subsidence, and final dis- 
> essay tebe Se a on ie oie 
penta lee acd model constructed under the supervision 
of oka Cottrell Glen Gluoy with ite and 
SETA Ios tatarecl'oves {ts als Glen Roy and its threo roads with 
their respective cataracts at the head, of Glen Spey, Glen Glaser, 
and Glen Spean, wero all represented. The snecossive shiftings of the 
barriers, which were were formed of plate glass, brought each successive 
lake and its road into view, while the entire removal of 
the barriors the streams to flow down the glens of the model 
ee ures earn the veal glove of to-day, A map of the district, 
with the parallel roads shown in red, is annexed.] eT] 


Lirenarvas or Tas Sunseer. 
‘Taomas | pepsi on aes Caesar ge Lent ey 
Jome MacCoucon.— Ian Hoy. Geol. Boe. Trans. 


te 1817, a 
Lavoen = (afterwards Sim Tuomas Diox-Lacorr, Bart.).—On the 








GENERAL MONTHLY MEETING, 
Monday, July 3, 1876. 
Sir T. Frepeatorx Exuior, K.0.M.G, Vico-1 
in the Chair, — 


Yol XXXVI No.7. 810.1876. 
periny he Royal Asiatic journal, Vol. XI. ro. 1876. 


‘Arehitects, Royal Papers, 1875-6, No, 18, to, 











wa Genrral Monthly Meeting. [Nov. 6, 


GENERAL MONTHLY MEETING, 
Monday, November 6, 1876. 
Admiral Sir Hexey Jonx Copnixorox, K.C.B. Manager, in the Chair. 


Robert James Mann, M.D, 
John Ralph Shaw, Esq. 


woro elected members of the Royal Institution. 


Serna ere arial repre ag He 
table, and the thanks of the Members returned for the same, viz.:— 


FROM 
French Government—Doouments apt THistoire de France = 


L, Benier. 4to. plies 
Lettres Misaves de Henri FV. : ‘Tome 1X, Bupplement, 
Brazilian (rele apey y of Brazil at the Universal ‘enibition of 1876. 


ne Sva. 
ge Subsdies to the Formation of « Physical Map of Brasil (with 
Maps) 

The Hon. Hamilton Fish (See. State US. (he Oraaliadippas 
Petied Bats to the international Mahitiion, Viewe tens tae ee 
1876. 

New Zealand Government—Statistics of New Zealand for 1875. fol. 1876, 


Agricultural fournal, No, 24, ent 1876. 
Mi cy of cial, 1875, Part If, No. 3. 
Proceedings, 1878. veces 
Asiatic Society, Royal, Bombay ¥y Bronch—Journal, No. 38, vo, 1876, 
momical Seiely Nsocidty,' Royal—Monthly Notices, Vol, XXXVL, Nos 8 9. Sro. 


Bawa Academy of Sciences, Royal—Abbandlungen, Bund XII, Abth 2. 4to, 


Sitsungberiohte, 1875, Heft 3. 1876, Heft 1. 8vo, 
ae Natural History—Memoirs, Vol, iPad ‘. Nos, 2, 8,4. 4to. 


Proceadings, Vol. XVIL Parts 3,4. Wol. XVIIT. Parte, 2. 1875-6. 
Gcoasional Papers, II. N. M. Hente : piers of the Unlid Baten 8vo. 1875, 
Prick Te as denied Soe an de oes 
jon for the Belenee ° 
Bristol, August, 1875, Svo. 1876, a Z 
Cernuschi, M. HE (the Author)—Silver Vindicated. 8yo, 1876. 
Chemical “osiaty Journal for June-Oot 1876, 8yo, 
4 Bginaere nstitution—Minutes of Proceedings, Vols, XLIV, XLV. XLYI. 
bvO,, 




















1876.) General Monthly Meeting. 29 
Connetiat Acalemy of Arts and Sciencee—Transactions, Vol. IL. Purt 1. Sr 


Franklin Inetitute—Journal, Nos. 607, (aha ES Byo, 1876, 
Society, Royal-—Proceedin ‘ol. XX. Ne 6, 8yo, 1876. 
Institute, Pioneer 1578. No.2 Svo, 1876, 
ve Nos. 7-10. Svo. 1 


Gealcpieal GatiaMemoiea, Vel XE Part 2 8vo, 1875. 
Hee Fol 1, Fa 8 Bro, 1876. 
Tndica: Jurassic Fauna of Kuteh, Vol. I No. 4. 1875. 
Ranger Priln Noel Soiey—Proceotings, Val X.No.1- Gro, 1870 
James, PRL MRL ‘Professor Heer; Primwyal 
Mra t oelonand. ik oe isi 
nneret ee 


nats EAR 


and Steet , No. . 
DA, Bey, MET. (the Author)—Simplified Weights and Measures. 


Lana Seity Trastiont: Send Sai: Botany, Vol. I, Part 3; Zeology, 


First Series: General Index, Vols. XXVIL-XXX. 4to. 1876. 
Preeeedings, Nos, 64, 65; 84, 85, 86, Svo. 1876. 


Mancheter Geological ‘Transactions, Vol. XIV, Part 4, 8yo, 187th 
Manche Leary sd Php. Sori Metsn. tt oe Py 


Medical and eae Parsee oa ly a 1876. 
Of Hert of Meteo Canaitie ofthe Tegal Sakety 
Motoorology of Japan. to. 1878. 


Metrorological Canada—Reports of Observatories of Canada, 
Maelo Sayers Joan, No 18 ie bs 


of 
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ane Norwich Ne Sociely—Transactions, 1869-76. 2 vols, 
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1875. S¥o. 


eg ye 
‘Abadenis der ‘Monataberiohte: Apeil-July, 1876. 


Royal Eiterature—Tranmetions, Vol. XI. Part 2. 8yo. 1876, 
Vou. (No, 65.) £ 


le 







aes ie Anon) —Psigo User da Movement, a 
, Projertr, DOs PRS. MRL, (o Author)—Laseons in Hlctricity. 


Nos, 84, 86, 87, 80. 187 
Now, 4, 86,87, ro, 18TH, 


Parts 2,3, 8¥o, 


i 





352 General Monthly Meeting. [Dee. 4, 1876. 


Editora—American Journal of Science for Nov. 1876, 8v0. 
Argonaut for Nov. 1876. 8v0. 
Athensum for Nov. 1876. 4to. 
Chemical News for Nov. 1876, 4to. 
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Engineer for Nov. 1875. fol. 
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The following arrangements of the Lectures before Easter, 1877, 
were announced :— 

Paorssson Joun Hatt Guapstove, Ph.D. F.R.8.—Six Lectures adapted to 
8 5 Joven Anita, on the Chemistry of Fire; on Deo. 28 (Thursday), 30, 1876; 

Jan. 6, 

Prorzssor Aurarp H. Gannon, M.A. F.R.8.—Ten Lectures on the Human 
Form; its Structure in relation to its Contour; on Tuesdays, Jan. 16 to 
March 20. 

Dr. C. B, Avpen-Wataur, F.C.8.—Four Lectures on Metals and the Chief 
Industrial Uses of these Bodies and their Compounds; on Thursdays, Jan. 18 
0 Fel 

Witu1ax Pots, Esq. F.R.S. Mus.Doc.—Six Lectures on the Theory of Music; 
on Thursdays, Feb. mt March 22, ee 

Eanst Paver, Esq.—Two Leotures on the Nature of Musio: talia 
French, and dee eed” on Saturdays, Jan. 20, ‘OT, panes, We Heals 

J. A. Symoxps, Esq.—Three Leeti Fk ledici ; 
dad Sos Be ures on Florence and the Medici; on 


Prorssson Hesry Morixy.—Five Lectures on Effects of t! 
tion upon English Literature; on Saturdays Feb, 24, te Mace ote voor BevOl- 


Professor Trnpatt will give a Coureo of Lectures after Easter. 


Ropal Enstitution of Great Britain. 


WEEKLY EVENING MEETING, 


Friday, January 19, 1877. 
W. Fuepvenicx Ponvocs, Bart. M.A. Vice-President, in the 


Prorzsson Trxpaut, D.0.L. LL.D. F.R.S. 


A Combat with an Infective Atmosphere, 


[Abstract Doferred.] 


WEEKLY EVENING MEETING, 





Friday, January 26, 1877, 


Wu1ax Srorriswoopx, LL.D. Tr.R.S. Sccrotary and Vico- 


President, in the Chair. 


MP. DOL. PRS. MRI. 


The Habits of Ants. 


earl pe gal eel 


Ste Joux Lusnoce, Bart. 
ar 


ret Pet 
wie 


Tar 


consider 


their Tango com 


organisati: eee 
ion, 
their 
C8, 
aa 


ee 


7 ik 
a3 f8 


7 i 


I 


ai 


a 
ei 
isi a 


a el 


3412 
ae Pe 





thers 
com- 


Piette, ory ome 
two distinct forms without 


aig Hue jung 
ti dat eat 
an fu r “ah hilt 


Goezgs eet aas. : 
ui tifa AH i 


: alii 
aE 

Pu i? ly iH 4 
ihe] ais ale aula 


rery 


vite ia 
b-diaphanous 
Cege 


ter ants, there are certain o: 
vo, and 


into an immense sul 


‘neu! 


uniform than in 
where some of them are more than twice as 


sralfen 


oat 
ount 
niger, 
more 
elaborating a kind of honoy. 
mon in gouthern Europe, there are also 


ius 
much 


form of ordinar 


here, 


in whick the abdomen is » 
ig 


which have the 


iH 


* Westwood, ‘ Modern Class. of Insects," vol. ii. p. 225, 


22 FI he *gsegceayss 
* IE rea aie 
bE “if ly Hig ial ea ftp 
tie Hse aeneRu nant (ite 
yaaa Hn Care un re 
3 ae : suit 2 ental hu aa, a 
SPORT EA erat bel an ee 
HE aul ipty Heth gt ar a f 
ap aalss ante: Be a Me janel 
ity el ne ul AY faa 7 
mo earner ee il ali 


256 Sir John Lubbock [Jan. 26, 
the larew live. Other species of the ‘are in the samo way para- 
sitic on bees, On the Lith of Tuek cheered iia pono 
auts had a mite attached to the undorside of its head. The 
‘ich is still in the same position, is almost as large as the 
‘The ont cannot remove it herself, She has nover come out of the nest, 
so that I could not do it for her, and none of her own companions 
EER Na ay Boe Bars Shona of peetoresing i Eine ae 
In character the different species of ants very much from 
is, a8 mi expected, extremely timid ; nearly 
tliat” carn b,c. testy, » cmeidrble amoral af 


F 


industry ants are not oven by bees and eo 
Goal deny tol ts wares Gealooe il beck to eno ea 
Lplaraa i aneratalinetgn pore = 
i i Thad put 


i 
Z 
E 
B 
a 
i 
= 
F 
i 
i 
q 
E 
B 
z 
E 


species, as our small yellow ants, the autumn larvw romain 
with comparatively little change seg ey the winter. It is much 
more difficult to ascertain the length of life of the perfect insect, on 





BR pbssigg"ai 34 if Baty initiate 
pe Hl a 
3 z art F 4 baleal ff 4p 
aa alae ie aide Hh ie ute 
a2 Walig at . Eee 34 fall? 
pies nine dtl tal (tain 
ine byte dl enie ie Le 
ink uit i Be HEE Pera 
ulate ibdilieti tae ant 
TLE ae iar i Hi ees in] tHe 
2 Hie PH peri cdeH ie rewind 


| 


eae Bt He n 
He Hh 


FET 


aaesitlarsa cadtguesii, ules Matt 
et sl ; rr TEE al ii i allt 
Ba HE bit at i vale 


Eat oa4 
nue 


mth 


ne 


in 
Hl 

4 
spi 


confirmed. 
mtr 
= 
for the 





* Huber, ‘Natural History of Auts” 


== 


“ya ea aurea 
He METH eH eter eee 
: ; 3 8 Hiiuii ile Hiatt fT 
dialll, mul eteeilia ae tues 
ola een OE Eee AL 
1 He gHe ie a tiainldiliial 
eri i Lh WEHEES Gail Heh 
Haig eyh iact aagitadidaag? taslaes 
33 F I ie a i 2 ite H wg # re 
He ia He ee eT Ee 
alec RSet alt 


afte Ht | 


aekdigz 
ee 


cae ‘o 
it some provisions in caalae 


le on one side, and put some 


cares 


‘wn, and the distance was so 
just as one was 


Thattere 90 that the 


it, 


eae 
aenis 
a 


raised one-third of an it 
Not 
of Lasius niger to the food. As soon as a stream of ants 


underneath 
sir oa hf this simple ex; 
On the other hand, I then 


box with a glass top, and a single 


ca hy 
pe te 

with 
sata 
was onl: 

i, 
uarter 


uth 
Hn is te ‘lilt 


aye 
ae 


them, 





Hl 


Te gene een lit 
His Ga Pe inlih 
bask gat ugk ae Gell p 2 

ca Be piitjuattt 

SEL PR ere Ute ee 

ainu nid i it sgiade- ("al eaagazia laa 

Hina tillatat Laid Rit 

ARR a ve 

Bey Rae biting Hil He id 

price ul TAREE : itll dink 


Fe ee ia un 
Te peiph FL He 3) nhl PELE 
Hn if Hitt lint eae ae 
a iby eee Hadniee 
qe en alan art 
Dee cel a ee Hee 
a eee 
a ua ee 
ae APE H ATLA rE 

s Ht Sa Ey ae Fa 


ealhestie ees 


peal 


ie 
il 
fig 
it i 
a za: 
iil 
HEE 
a 
fae 
i i 


£3) iain apt BE 
2 a gages qat= A a 

PB Marat at 

i i Bete ata j ru 3 i 

i aH IGR a Pp tk 

jai tulueiil sl tag 

eae! tiga ie 

a Hay nua E i want 

iil i aaa] a : nid ii asad 

diet a HE STH HE aU gt ehaaga 

Se Ru UT 

i iki re 53 


264 Sir John Lubbock [Jan. 26, 
1.80. Do, One now took hold of the friend, but soon seemed 
to find out her mistake and left go 
1.45. The friend is all right, ihe sree ing attackod. 
‘The friend also has been almost ; while on the 
ange he ene ee 
FE Oe et arena te tee another pair is 
2.50, ‘The feel fe bow aktaoet slean, so thet T ooald only Sua 
ive any colour. The stranger, on the - 
Tr aisiu us aatbl colinien ea ore She is now near 
the door, and I think would have come out, but two 
ants mot her and seized her. 
3.0, Two ants are ing the stranger. The friend was no 
longer distinguishable from the rest. 
3.80. Do. 
40, Do. 
5.0. Do. 
6.0, The stranger now escaped from the nest, and I put her 


The difference of behaviour to these two ants was most marked, 
ike tives wes qeadually Licked olsen and Steptoe ee 
and that evidently by mistake, was never attacked. The stranger, on 
the contrary, was not cleaned, was at once seized, was about 
for hours with only a few minutes’ interval, by ono, two, or three 
assailants, and at length made her escape from the nest at a time when 
a eipoda the f smell is keen, I placed 

most species of ants the power of sm very 5 
ants on a strip of paper, each end of which was supported on a pin, 
the foot of which was immersed in water. Thoy then ran backwards 
and forwards along the paper, trying to escape. If a camel’s-hair 
eee be suspended just over the paper, they pass under it without 
king any notice of it; but if it be scented, say with lavender-water, 
they at once stop when they come near it, te the most unmis- 
takable manner that they perceive the odour, is sense appears to 
reside, though not perhaps exclusively, in the antenna, I 
for instance, a large specimen of Formica ligni; with a fine thread 
to a board, and when she was quite quiet 1 approached a scented 
camel's-hair il slowly to the tip of the antenna, which was at once 
withdrawn, though the antenna took no notice of « similar pencil, if 
not scented, 

On the other hand, as regards their sense of hearing, the case is 
very different, Apprvaching an ant which was standing quietly, I 
have over and over again made the loudest and most shrill noises I 
could, using a penny pipo, a ea ec a violin, as well as the most 
piercing and startling sounds I could produce with my own yoi 
without effect, At the same time I by no means would infer from this 
that they aro really deaf, though it certainly scems that thoir range 





5 


Aen 


lee enti ilk, 
ati : 


L a il ala Hg al 


rete Bill Lan pase age FELT Ee i 

ae it ee HH 

33 S2gREGessacse & 
a ihe te ij igdre’ ue 
siidili ae i eqiindiadna ul 
nul ie Hecht bevy 
Esq 2 Cr ey tbe Biniaé : er 
ea i hietnlitiat is 
cE A ces 3 nay er Let 

: cs 

I 


F 
srl 
i 
? 
f 
if 


| 

i 

: 

5 

i 

Ea 

zs 

i 
yee 
Ht 


lf 
E 
i 
+ 
fi 


FE 
Hf 
L 


inl 
brett 
a g 
fae 
vi Ue 
err EE 
ily 
a 
site ie 
ries eS 


i 
i 
Hh; 
il 


EET 
Ih 
ate 
ERE 
i 

rele 
PhiE 
dea 

I 


ities 
& succession of individuals. The queens 
tas eo but Basin i the 
ain appear to do nothing except lay o 
A nest of suta aust not bo confused with an ent Kill in 


3 
3 
€ 


: 
z 
z 
Z 
i 


J 
g 
; 
: 
HM 
Z 
3 
i 
EF 


numerous colonies. M. Forel eyen found a case in which 


g 
i 
ar 


F. easecta had no less than two hundred colonies, and oceupied 
circular es with a radius of nearly two hundred yards, Within 
this area they had exterminated all the other ants, except a few nesta 


of Tapinoma erraticum, which survived, thanks to their great agility. 
Tn their modes of ea oa species of anta have their 


into a ball, not defending themselves evon if their nest is inyaded, to 
prevent which, however, they make the entrances small, and often 
station at each a worker, who uses her head to stop the way. Tho 
smoll of this species is also, perhaps, a protection, T'etramorium 


«i & 


| 


RPT I MUN ai ay inary iy 
H fi He HE file i REL ke a 
di ef HE $ ity ad ag i apy ae et eik 23 
He ele false 3 bene 
PP Pessieeds tivepslsedgs JUrtys elvis 
i PB ere ey lial asf] 
Ue ae a 
a (UGB i aay a 
agen Ae a 
Bey HARE ial ; iH td 
a rune UH RIOHMOn HiT Fil 


#4 aT re qi AE ene 
y al an banat i a 


el 


ee ae 


afl geste 





g 
a . sin Hany ot 
gd cee Sanaa 
a Ht & ome ore aoe GH T ay 
i ce ga2ddecesS2SSH8809 | i Hae u 
1 eat anh 
ll. HAAR 
[uti coe coe ose Hiiaafedtt ali 
MU aera vee AEE He i is 
HePyp 3329959035925990928 eli einsiis 
21 aaa i i He 
if a ay lined re 
Lalit: 


270 ‘Sir Joha Lubbock [Jan. 26, 
a heap, and is carried off to the of shelter. They then both 


Lar deepest pnb sane gale Lacs chance, 
quently conch that they might themselves find larver in the 


6 visite, and brought no friends. ‘The one with many larvem made 7, 
and brought 11 friends. 

Exp. 3. Time occupied, three hours. The ant with few larve 
made 24 journeys, and brought 5 frionds. The one with many larve 
made 38 j ys, and brought 22 friends. 

Exp. p Time occupied, one hour. Tho ant with few larve made 
10 journeys, and brought 3 friends. The other made 5 journeys, and 
brought 16 friends. 
Ty ER A al oleae 
journeys, an t one friend. one Wil © made 
15 be and brought 13 frionds. 

Exp. 10. I now reversed the Slaenet, the same two ants bein; 
under observation; but the ant which in the provions observation had 
few larem to carry off now consequently had many, and vice versd. 
Time occupied, two hours, Tho ant with fow larvw made 21 journeys, 
and CEES: 1 friend. Tho one with many larve made 29 journeys, 


a 


“1a nee au 
é He aa ites PLR La Hea 
a elas eee eee 
la meiliiay pbaleue) 2 

aera parbiigGe ag 

Lene RES aa 

as Goad laid 
i ce Bala Hal pul 
ae ised? HEI fed a 
i dt a 

E rie Heat fia shi Te al 


[J.D] 


WEEKLY EVENING MEETING, 


Friday, February 2, 1877. 
Sia T. Frepenicx Exssor, K.0.M.G. Vicc-President, in the Chair. 
Provesson Osnonxe Reyxouns, 


skilfal manipulation. To-night, however, after you have scen what I 
shall endeavour to show I think you will readily admit that for 
once the case is and that the triumph rests with nature, in 
Daag Bis eee omelet hae tee Locriion eaeerly, neha a 


ational ipl 
but the student or philosopher has on all hands the object of his 
research, which, whether in the form of the Atlantic waves or of 
tho eddies in his teacup, constantly claims his attention. And, 
besides this, the exigencies of our existence render a knowlodge of 
these motions of the greatest value to us in overcoming the limitations 
to which our actions are otherwise subject. 

Accordingly we find that the study of fluid motion formed ono of 
the very carlicst branches of philosophy, ond has ever since held its 
place, no subject Vintec the attention of mathematicians more 
closely, ‘The results have been, in ono sonse, very successful ; most 
important methods of reasoning have been developed, mathematical 
methods, which have helped to revenl numborless truths in other 

its of science, and have taught us many things about fluids 
wi most certainly we should not otherwise have found out, and of 
which we may some day find the application, But as regards tho 


& Pasi a pes2 2343 23 g “3 gaze H 
EE ae a a 
Bea ts tea i ie re 3E3E ay edaai z 
real al fe a Fi dua aeial 
3 Hae Hib a a= g¢aceaead Pan rae Huh GE 
i Pare Tier #328543 hig lis ay 
Bian aifee ie een tee | 
z ii ait uaa Lett eee i: i 354 
; aiae valli ata i ea 
Se ey 
Hee PURER Ltt 





“7 


o74 peal [Feb. 2, 
of his Banlas, lise have been ‘the aid of* 
SHAM colons, Aa nt Bat me an fraps: with fluids, 


vin} fama ‘a bres peices beon entirely neglected, oe 
But ese hints appear to have 
left for nature herself, when, as it were, fully satisfied with ha 
maintained her secret so long, and tired of race a 
wore not taken, at last to divulge the secrat completely in 
tifal of the emoke ring. At Inst ; oo ihe ashe ee Sl 
probably a phenomenon of modern times, ‘The curls of smoke, as 
they ascend in an open space, present to the re 6 Ropelem enters 
ment; and although, wen know what to for, we can see a8 
it were imperfect rings in almost every smoke clond, it is rarely that 
anything sufficiently definite is formed to attract attention, or suggest 
anything more important than an accidental curl, The accidental 
rings, when they are formed in a systematic manner, como,cither 
from the mouth of a gun, the puff of a steam engine, or the mouth of 
a smoker, noue of which circumstances existed in ancient times, 
Although, however, mathematicians can in no senso be said to have 
diseovered the smoke ring, or the form of motion which it 
they were undoubtedly the first to invest it with ing 
not Professor Helmholtz some twenty years ago called attention to the 
smoke ring by the beautiful mathematical explanation which be gave 
of its motion, it would in all probability still be led a8 a casual 
phenomenon, chiefly interesting from its beauty and rarity. Follow~ 
ing close on Helmholtz came Sir William Thomson, who invested 


these rings with a transcendental interost by his ions that 
they are the type after which the molecules of solid matter are 
constituted, 


The noxt thing to enhance the interest which theso rings excited, 
was Professor Tait's simple and perfect process of producing them at 
will, and thus rendering them subjects for lecture-room oxperiments. 
Considering that this method will probably play a great part in 
perfecting our notions of fluid motion, it is an interesting question 
how Professor Tait came to hit upon it. There is only one of the 
accidental sources of these rings which bears even a faint resemblance 
to this box, and that is the mouth of a smoker as he produces these 
rings. This might have suggested the box to Professor Tait, » But 
since this supposition involves tho assumption that Professor Tait 
sometimes indulges in a bad habit, and as we all know that Professor 
Tait is an eminent mathematician, — we ought rather to 
suppose that he was led to his some occult process 
of reasoning which his modesty has hitherto kept him from pro- 


ee a 

But however this may be, his was a most important one, 

and ety its means the stndy of reg motion of these has 
Leon carried far beyond what would otherwise have been possi 


But it has been for their own sake, and for such light as they mi; 
throw on the constitution of matter, that these rings were 


_ ——— tt | i 


rr : 
1877.] om Vortex Motion, ~ 215 


motion. 
There was, however, at least one exception, which will not be 
in this room: the use of smoke to show the effect of sound 


eariietar ext we 
sec eed i aes aE alleen ee 
vortex rings might P in water/by projecting a 


wi that the vortex played a part in fluid motion which 
he had never dreamt of; that, in fact, it was the to almost all 
the problems of internal fluid motion. That these rosults were equally 
to those who had considered the subject much more deeply than 
had, did not oceur to him until some conversation with 
Mr. Froude wd Sir William Thomson. - ‘ 

. Hav fe eet ett ae lo aah oy was greatly 





about these air lines, It was evident, in fact, that they were the 
central lines of two systematic eddies. 

‘That there should be eddies was not surprising, but eddies had 
always been looked upon as a necessary evil which besets fluid motion 
as sonreca of disturbance, whereas hero they appeared to be the very 
means of systematic motion. 

Here then was the explanation of the nature of the motion caused = 
by the oblique yano, a cylindrical band of vortioes continually pro- 
duced at the front of the plate, and falling away behind it in an 

ique direction. 

recognition of the vortex action caused behind tho oblique 
vane, that thero might be similar vortices behind a 
moving through the water, such as are the eddies caused by a 


was ono consideration, however, which at first seemed to 
render this improbable. It was obvious that the resistance of the 
oblique vane was caused in producing the vortices at itsfurward part ; 
so that if @ vortex wore formed behind a flat plate, as this vortex would 
a en eee aol ak hare it be ea ee 
the resistance diminish after the plate was once set in motion ; 


ali 


we Professor Osborne Reynolds [Feb. 2, 
Se ee eee ee oo eee 


ant 
ae 
: be 
prak 8 
ad 
ane 
i 
Lint 
ae 


the vortex previously undreamt of. 

She ero a ne pr hte overy a 
motion was now evident, irregular soli: ing throu; 
ter must from its angles send off lines of vortices such as those 
the oblique vane. we move about we must be continual: 
and vortex bands in the air, Most of these wi 


FLLEYE Wt 
lel 
Ly 
} 
i 
le 
ri 
a8 
t 
ii 


surface of a glass vesscl fall of wator, and then lot drops fallinto it, rings 
are which descend sometimes as much as two or three feet, 


although thoy cannot move with higher velocities, since that of the 
smoke ring is unlimited, the speed at which they move is much more 
surprising. 

In the air we are accustomed to see objects in rapid motion, and so 
far as our own notions are concerned, we are unaware of any resistance ; 
but this is quite otherwise in water. Every swimmer knows what re- 
sistance water offers to his motions, so that when we see these rings 
flash through the water we cannot but be surprised. Yet a still more 
striking spectacle may be shown, if, instead of coloured water, a fow 
bubbles of air be injected into the box from which the puff is sont; 
& beautiful ring of air is seen to shoot along through the water, 


on Vortex Motion. 


z MUTeEvE Rea TeTennypiaage annTieT usa 
‘ae eu ee ‘ae i 
Pr eve ny 
2 iseaal Gi He Ped bGadile at 
ens Ee 
=e erea.cd 25, gules ists yibddy 23 i 
ig ea 
jee ips Hat FL Haliiy He sailiegG 
gi Hii hard HUTTE anid Bun 


278 Professor Osborne Regnolds [Feb. 2, 
ah taceipcibies is ayes in which the gyratory motion 
is rset lc As the one motion dies 
co the other, and any attempt to accelerate the velocity of 
the by urging forward the dise, invariably it. 

Decl sona beeper snaps epee disc with the 
vortex ring it, moves throngh the water, naturally raised 
}ogtaayeinge lide thee tai paitlealacenhecotlal seaport these 

was ba 
balls of water which allowed them to move freely, To try this, 
‘a solid of the same shape as the fluid ball was constructed and floated 
after the same manner as the dise. But when this was set in motion, 
it stopped directly—it would not move ot all. What was the cause of 
this resistance? Hero were two obj Pee eme ere ees 
the one of which moved froely Tie an cimnetio sae kia 
experienced very great resistance. flifference was ie 
nature of the surface. As already explained, there is no friction at 
tho surface of the wator, whereas there must be friction between the 
water and the solid, But it could be easily shown that the resistance 
of the solid is much greater than what is accounted for by its surface 
friction or skin resistance, The other respect in which these 


behind aE Yer y Tata greater than it would be without the 
ribbons—nothing to be compared to that of the solid. 


through the water without disturbing it, there is pany pret isturb- 
ance in its wake. An interesting question is as to w 


ly. 

Among the most striking features of the vortex rings, is their 
apparent elasticity. When disturbed they not only recover their 
eee but vibrate about their mean position like an elastic solid. So 
much 50, a8 to lead Sir William Thomson to the idea that the 
clusticity of solid matter must be due to its being composed of vortex 


rin 

Dat apart from such considerations, this vibration is interesting 
as showing that the only form of ring which can progress steadily is 
the circular. Two parallel bands, such as those which follow the 
oblique vane, could Progress if bast were infinitely long, but if not, 
they must be continually destroyed from the ends. Those which 


1877.] on Vortex; Motion. 279 


follow the obliqne vane are continually dying out at one end, and 
being formed again at the other. : 

If an oval ring be formed behind an oval plate, the more sharply 
curved parts travel faster than the flatter parts; and hence, unless the 
plate be removed, the ring breaks up. It is possible, however, to 
withdraw the plate, so as to leave the oval ring, which proceeds 
wriggling along each portion moving in a direction porpendicular to 
that. in which it is curved, and with a velocity proportional to the 
sharpness of the curvature. §8o that not only does the ring continu- 
ally change its shape, but one part is continually falling behind, and 
then overtaking the other. 

These were some of the forms of fluid motion which imagination 
or reason had failed to show us, but which had been re by the 
simple process of colouring the water. 

Now that we can see what we are about, mathematics can be most 
usefully applied; and it is expected that when these facts come to be 
considered by those best able to do so, the theory of fluid motion 
will be placed on the samo footing as tho other branches of applied 
mechanics. 

. [0. B.) 








Secondly, the progeny of all exceptional individuals par “revert” 
towards mi . Consequently the children of the giant group 
would not only be very few, but they would Sn be ey 


tion, 
in the same as before, The question, then, is this: How 
is ab at rach goat tlivideg] doenitne'ca wecio leave hie like 
him, yet successive generations resemble each other with great 


i 


though the charucteristics of hei strength, and flectness 
different in themed! H ee 


BLEL: 
ite 
a 
i 
EBs 

& 
i 
Pee 


i with which that law deals are like those 
i Fai ohity Glakespeare, whinle whe viewed avis: choy’ 
Dat confusion, 


i 
it 
| 


of differences in stature 
es ee yy, 
whence the law of deviation regards them, by taking 
the race, and not the ground, as the point of 
lor 


fi 
2 
: 


284 Mr. Francis Galton [Feb. 9, 


he corroborates his assertion. Threo of tho series in them rofer to 
the heights of Americans, French, and Belgians respectively, and the 
fourth to tho strength of Belgians, In each series there are two 
parallel columns, one entitled “ observed,” and the other “ calculated,” 
and tho close conformity between cach of the pairs is very striking. ~ 











American Soldiers France Belgium, Quetelet. 
Beale of (25.878 Observations). (Hargenvilliers). 20 years’ Observations. 
Ages . : oat 
vale Observed. | Calculated. | Observed. | Calculated. | Observed. Calculated. 
mites. i 
1°90 1 | 3 
1-90 7 | 5 5 Fe i 
“87 uo} oB 1 
8 
7 
6 


BRBSESSe ron HY 























of Men. 

pyolwonster a | on 
200 1 1 
io i} 8 2. 
gis) = 
uo Of a 
Bo} om | 
wo} 10 
90 vie a 
“yoo ~| 100 














1877.] on Typical Laws of Heredity. 285 


‘Theso tables servo another purpose; they enable those who have 
not had experience of such statistics to appreciate the beautiful balance 
of the processes of heredity in ensuring the repetition of such finely 
graduated proportions as those that the tables record. 

The outline of my problem of this evening is, that since the cha- 
ractoristics of all plants and animals tend to conform to the law of 
deviation, let us suppose a typical case, in which the conformity shall 
be exact, and which shall admit of discussion as a mathematical pro- 
blem, and find what tho laws of heredity must then be to enable 
successive generations to maintain statistical identity. 

I niall tava to speak so much about the law of deviation, that it is 





Fe. 1. 





absolutely necessary to tax your attention for a few minutes to explain 
the principle upon which it is based, what it is that it professes to 


Vou VIE. (No. 66) < 


o re Lbs ; gasae ze ggg = a3 Ey ee raya 
Tre cet al eG A 
Habe eg a ae 
de Tn a 
HEHE [id Haeiies eatield 
can a ia Wn ut 
eee ela ett 
Hii eed nadine has 
Used greene auital 


1877.] on Typical Laws of Heredity, 287 
Fin. 2. 





Pio. 2. 





Fis. 4. 





SS 


288 Mr. Francis Galton [Feb. 9, 


definite ends, so we have to select and define two points in its base, 
between which the stretch may be measured. One of these points is 
always taken directly below the place whunee the pellets were poured 
in. This is the point of no deviation, and represents the mean posi- 
tion of all the or the average of a race, It is marked as 0°. 
The other point is conveniently taken at the foot of the vertical line 
that divides cither half of the symmotrical figure into two equal areas. 
I take a half curve in cardl that I have again divided into two 
ions along this line; the weight of the two portions is equal. 
is distance is the value of 1° of deviation, appropriate to each 
curve. We oxtond the soale on cither side of 0° to as man: 
as we like, and we reckon deviation as positive, or to be added to the 
ay on one side of the centro, say to tho right, and nogative on 
ritgie: ls as shown on the diagrams, Owing to the construction, one~ 
ae or 25 per cant. of the pellets will lie between 0° and 1°, and 
Jaw shows that 16 per cent. will lie between + 1° and + 2°, 6 por 
cent. pervs + 2° and + 3° and 
Fro. 6, 60 On. is unnecessary to 
more minutely into the fe 
it will be easily understood that a 
formula is capable of giving re- 
sults to any minuteness and to any 
fraction of a degree, 

Let us, for example, deal with 
the case of the American soldiora. 
I find, on referring to Gould’s Book, 
that 1° of deviation was in their 
ease 1-676 inches. The curve I 
hold in my hand, Fig. 6, has been 
drawn to that seale. I also find 
that their average height was 67-24 
inches. I have here a standard 
marked with feet and inches. I 
apply the curve to the standard, and 
i intoly we have a geometrical 
representation of the statistics of 
height of all those soldiers. The 
lengths of the ordinates show the 
proportion of men at and about their 
heights, and the area between any pairs of ordinates gives the propor- 
tionate number of men between those limits. It is indeed a strange 
fact, that any ono of us sitting quietly at his table could, on being told 
the two numbers just mentioned, draw out a curve on raled paper, 
from which thousands of vertical lines might be chalked side by side 
Srpoee bse tie rc xe aogier a eg man in a rank 
of American soldiers, know that if the samo number of these 
American soldiors, taken indiscriminately, had been sorted according 





on Typical Laws of Heredity. 


4 BeBe 1h 
iH Haine tit i 
He bn He 
dail afteiny ty 
2H eMlautnt i 
bade eid ag ighesdledit ia 
fyi: pou a 
Cee Baek 326 53. 
yah ae 

E Hi DE ll 





HT Ga 

Hee 
Haul steel t ore 
peddle ai 
erie itis Bap 
He Heals ii 
ba ieed ab 
igh an See 
line i ie: 
Ace al 
ii PHT Ha Le i 


290 | Mr. Francis Galton [Feb. 9, 
J that any two or more of them, such as reversion 
ba porn stere follow laws so exactly inverse to one ~ 
that the one should reform what the other had deformed ; 
ecause charactoristios, in which the relative importance of the various 
processes is very different, are none the less capable of conforming 
sion te condition, 
the first occurred to me, it became evident that tho 
sateen ibe lerimead rake meg ere nm ngeetinergie lating 
periment. properties of the law of deviation aro not numerous, 
tnd they are very peculiar, All, thoreforo, that was necded from 
was suggestion. I did mot want because the 
of the problem would afford What I 
wanted was to bo started in the right direction, 
T will now allude to my experiments. I cast about for some time 
to find a possessed of some measurable characteristic that 
well to the law, and that was suitable for investiga- 
tion. I to take soeds and their woighta, and after many 
niries, fixed upon those of sweet-peas. ‘They were 
awe St een her eae eee 
which is a very exceptional condition ; are hardy, prolific, of a 
con} size to handle, and their weight docs not alter when the 
air is damp or dry, Tho little pea at the end of the pod, so cha- 
racteristic of ordinary peas, is absent in sweet-peas. I seeds 
individually, by thousands, and treated them as a census would 
treat a largo population. Then I selected with great pains several 
sets for planting. Hach set contained seven little and in each 
Fees aes Wen ois resimly Ge ees iT Number one of 
packets contained giant seeds, all ns nearly as might be of + 3° 
of deviation, Number seven contained very small seeds, all of — 3° of 
deviation, HN ae ge Srry Sey epee neane aT 
intermediate dogrecs + 2° + 1° and 0°. As the seeds are too small 
to exhibit, I have cut out dises of paper in strict to their 


éE 


sizes, and strips in strict proportion to their weights, and haye hi 
iehoy foliage produced by one complete set, Many fri 


fee, 50 that I had simultaneous experiments going on in various 


can 

Len tacit cane alae a lead tae alba Tt is 
to define these words clearly. By family variability is meant 
of the children of the same or similarly descended 
pacrenbnriy ees ads nd from the ‘ape 

i moan type to depart from the parent 
ee roy sit pares fairly de- 
the process in simple descent that affected the istios of 
& the dispersion of the race from its mean ideal type would 
indefinitely increase with the number of the generations ; but reversion 
checks this increase, and brings it to a standstill, conditions 

which will now be explained. 

Ea i Nace lect Pc haeg grater lapenaehig oN 


family varia- 

pod eras ba enaryy ep i 
t; for if ithad been 

RE ed a oi big greet 
next ro that reversion followed the simplest 
possible law; ion being constant between the deviation of 
the mean woight of the produce generally and tho doviation of the 
every cage from one standard point, In a 

Sees Sema eal frre ptf te Lengel seen 
tri 


to act not simultaneously, but 
in succession, and it is purely a matter of convenience which of the 


‘and then to fend to breed his like. there are stages: 

(2) the ion of parents, (2) that of reverted parcnts, (3) that of 
ing; or, what comes to the same thing, (1) the 

of parents, C1 pled peepee ahr pd Maced 
population to continue uniform in num! ‘This is a matter of no 
thooretical concern, as the whole of this memoir relates to tho distin~ 
Grishing ere ities of irrespectively of the absolute number 
of indi: 4 in those samples. The apparatus consists of a row of 
ENN daajadiactala’with taap-Siorstolow shorn; to bald) pallasa 


_ i 


Se, 


i ile 
2 3: 7 3333 5 
Haniielaith 
dill ae Het . 
TF ue i 4 ace il Teer 
li it saa ein 
Tass 3 iy i is Hy Be Te Mea ; 
sii BLE HB ae Hle Lilt 
i: ga 7 g z 3 32 pe : BAT Fpae: 
Be i ala La 
Fp Hen bry a 1a ity Hu 
u i Gellar Ep $33 ane Eee Pe 
HH qi SoHE Ha 
sialt fiat ieee seta Wau un 
ALE He 
ane en 
ight eis 


Baa) THLE TEUTEL 1ptiIE; fit f 
(i se eg iat ! 
Bis ana dedi 
Sut aida ete Rab 
a3; i ae pg Hil las i 
i iusssi ban geste < 
rH pee eH Heer EH 
abibhl Mini He PEE Hee 
pe HHT eeeee LU eer ee 
E tHe il HERG una tairaeey 


2 Mr. Francis Galton [Feb. 9, 


should be nil; that is, that there should not be the least tendency for 
tall mon to marry tall women rather than short ones. Each strictly 


remaining processes 
Physi they aro alike, and it is reasonable to expect the same 
general law to govern both. Natural selection is measured by the 
percentage of survival among individuals born with like character- 
istics. Produetivencss is measured by tho average number of children 
from all ts who have like characteristics, but it may physiologi- 
mally (be: Yectced aphit/un las gakoaniuga ot (nuryivalvor aivaak aad 
unknown number of pom embryos, producible by such parents. 
Sloe being w creates no difficulty, ct there tiny 
i to be, on an a the same in lass. iment 
could tell me little about either natural selection or prodactiveness, 
What I have to say is based on plain theory. I can explain this best 
by the process of natural selection. In cach st height, c&e., 
the most favoured natural seloction, is the ore in which the 
demerits of execss or deficiency are the most frequently balanced. It 
is therefore not unreasonable to look at nature as a marksman, her 
aim being subject to the same law of deviation as that which causes 
the shot on a tanget to be dispersed on either side of the point aimed 
at. It would not be difficult, but it would be tedious, to justify the 
analogy; however, it is unnecessary to do s0, as I propose to base 
the analogy on the exigencies of the typical formula, no other suppo- 
sition being capable of fulfilling its requirements. Suppose for a 


Fea. 7. 


moment that nature aims, as a marksman, at tho medium class, on 
rary to destroy and not to save it Let a block of stone, as is 
Pig: 7, ropresent ® rampart, and let a gun be directed at a vertical line 








1877.) on Typical Lows of Horedity. 295 


on its side on purpose to breach it, the shots would fall with the 
ones in the neighbourhood of the vertical line, and their 
diminish in frequency as the distance increased, in con« 
boy with the law of deviation, Each shot would batter away a bit 
of stone, and the shape of the breach would be euch that its horizontal 
outline will be tho well-known curve. This would bo the action of 
sti on poser of tho ithe xt srry nl wea Her 
action as preserver is the exact converse, and would be repre- 
pages aan ote and exactly replaced the material 
been battered aay percentage of thickness of wall 

hel Seabees lost cree degree of deviation is represented by 
the ordinate of the curve, therefore the percentage of survival is also 
an ordinate of the same curve of deviation, Its scale has @ special 
value in each instance, subject to the general condition in every 
Lea, oe Ure Satie ie ae Werle 

has or whatever the characteristic may 

Fig. 8, the thickness of wall that fas boon destroyed at cach 


Fis. & 





degree of deviation is re; ted by the corresponding ordinate of 
the horizontal outline of the portion which remains. Similarly, in the 
case of on imaginary population, in which each class was equally 
numerous, the amount of survivors at each degree of deviation will be 
ted by the corresponding ordinate of this or a similar curve, 

But in the original population at which wo aro supposing nature 
to aim, the representatives of each class are not equally numerous, but 

are arranged according to the law of doviation; the middle class bein, 
most numerous, while the extreme classes are but scantily represen: 
‘The ordinate of the above-mentioned outline will in this case repre- 
sont, not the absolute number, but the percentage of survivors at cach 
degree of deviation, 

fed soe epee is desired, that shall give the absolute 
number of survivors at each de, a we must shape the rampart which 
forms nataro’s target #0 ns to be highest in tien middle and to slope 
away at = sido peeping to Lo zene deviation. Thus Fig. 9 
represents the fore the battered has been 
removed ; 10, "yea ee 

I have 8 block of wool similar to Fig. 7, to represent the 








296 Mr. Francis Galton [Feb. 9, 
rampart is of equal height throughout. A cut has been made st 
right to ite Eee with a Sot-wam, to ditile 1 ito tol peekions 
—that which would remain after it had been breached, Fig. 8, and the 


cast of the breach. Then a second cut with the fret-saw has been 
made at right angles to its face, to out ont of is Sanne eee 
lent to the heap of pellets that represonta the original population, 
The gap that would be made in iseae and the cast that would fill 
the gap are curved on two facos, as in the model, This is sufficiently 
represented in Fig, 10. 


Fre, 10. 


‘The operation of natural solection on a population already arranged 
according to the law of deviation is represented more completely in 
an apparatus, Fig. 11, which I will set to work immediately, 

It is faced with a shect of glass. The hoap, aa shown in the upper 
compartment of the apparatus, is 3 inches in thickness, and the pellets 
rest on slides. Directly below the slides, and running from side to 
side of the apparatus, ia a curved partition, which will separate the 
pellots us they fall upon it, into two portions, one that runs to waste 
‘at the back, and another that falls to the front, and forms a new heap. 
‘The curve of the partition is a curve of deviation. The shape of this 
heap is identical with the cast of the gap in Wig 10. Tt is highest 
and thickest in the middle, and it fines away towards either extremity. 
When the slide upon which it rests is removed, the pellets ran down 
an inclined plane that directs them into a frame of uniform aud shal- 
low depth. The pellets from the deep central compartments (it has 
boon impossible to represent in the diagram as many of these as there 
were in the apparatus) will stand very high from the bottom of the 


1877.] on Typical Laws of Heredity. 297 
shallow frame, while those that came from the distant compartments 
will stand even lower than they did before. It follows that the 
selected pellets form, in the lower compartment, a heap of which the 


Fw. 11. 


in 
iM 


- 


I 
weil , 
ia a itl ad 





sealo of deviation is much more contracted than that of the heap from 
which it was derived. It is perfectly normal in shape, owing to 
an interesting theoretical property of the law of deviation (see formula 
at end of this memoir). 

Productivencss follows tho same general law as survival, being a 





1877] on Typical Lous of Heredity. 299 


APPENDIX. 

I will now proceed to formulate the typical lay In = has 
~ been said, 1° of deviation has been taken equal to to the « probable 
error” = C x 04769 in the well-known formula 

ath es 
Y= a7e 8 FB: 


po sdonaealonapdrapebdapseapdiasien de 


eT it will be borne in mind that we are for the most part not 

with the coefficient in the above formula). 

Let the modulus of deviation (c) in the original lation, after 
the has been gone through, of converting the measurements 
of all its members (in respect to the characteristic in question) to the 
adult male be written ¢,. 

1, ‘Bexual selection bas been taken ss nil thoreforo the ulation 
of “parentages” is a lation of which each unit of the 
mean of a couple taken indiscriminately. This, as well known, will 


esha alreudy eon shown to be equal to 73. e: 

2. Reversion is expressed pie sores fractional coefficient of the 
devistion, which we will write r. In tho “reverted” (a 
S riaas ghcna saveatue weal pesock bawh Biswas haga acti 


o 
ee 





st 
role 


In short, the population of which each unit is a reverted 
or the law of deviation, and has its modulus, whi Soak 


nal to re, . 
care po ductivanate We saw that it followod the law of deviation ; 
ok erin beara Then the number of children to each 
that ee Se ea es eae ek ELS 


came but the number of such parentages varies as ¢~ = therefore 
ih si cnay road eh aber al 
who 


o 
dovinted « wonld vary as ¢~ Fem , or as ¢ =" frets 
Hence the deviations of such children in their amount and aa 
would conform to the Inw, and the modulus of the po of 


3 
a 
i 
itp 
re 
a 
HE 
so fe 


F 
i 
; 
[ 
: 


E 
ie 
He 
PEECe 
Faal 


C 
tl 
FL 
Eilts 
sttErs 

PEt es 
BESEs8 
Tie 


5 
FS 
= 
3 
g 
5 
5 
? 
® 
J 
s 
a 
z 
+ 
se 


i 
Ee 
Z 
E 
I 


| 

iy 
i 
i 


Fig 


i 
i 
i 
A 


ite effect will be to leave the ion still in conformity wi' 
ia areas es a tered modulus, which we will w 
1 Deny 
a= V (sta): 


Putting these together, we have, starting with the original popu- 
lation eae s modulus = cy, 5 


ay 
2 





B= Vitaly. 
foe 
$= Vv taal } 


And lastly, as the condition of maintenance of statistical resemblance 
in consecutive generations, 


2 
a ae fey 
4. 
5 





* Airy, ‘Theory of Errors} § 43. 


1877,] on Typical Laws of Heredity. 


801 


Hence, given the coefficient r and the moduli e, f, s, the value of 


q (or c,) can be easily caloulated. 
aa} 


e case of simple descent, which was the one first considered, 
we have nothing to do with c,, but begin from ¢,. Again, as both 
fertility and natural selection are in this case uniform, the values of f 
and ¢ are infinite. Consequently our equatious are reduced to 


wera; aN bats =e, 
? 


v= 


whence 


Suppose, for example, that r = $ and » = 6, then 





or 
4 =10, 


‘a8 was mentioned in the course of the foregoing remarks. 


Vor, VIL (No. 66.) 


[F.@y 





8 Hi 


on Solid Water. — 


it 
Sg 


cd 


LE 


Hl il 


hall 
rere | 


HHS 


A 


gas] LU 21500 
Ca 
brlaaihia al 
eet yi 
2 dieieatey ae 
Z 3! Bu gil anit a Hi 
ital jls 8 i A 
haa te 1] 
il oct be Ge Be fee? 
AU HgeEn 





us here in 
of water to the 


Ee 
Fy 

h 

Ee 

r 

rie 

Z 

g 

E 


crystallization. 

It is to be remarked, and is indeed for our present 
noteworthy, that whole classes of salts are known which solidify 
with water of crystallization, while others of no noticeable chemical 
difference reject water as ca themselves together. Nay, 
more, that ults moat closely i to one another in their chemical 


: 

i 

£ 4 
i ai 


eee in those of other and anhydrous crystals, nature for once 
uso of planes and straight lines ? 
It has been my good fortune to have boon able, to some extent, to 


+ us saltpeter 
separates; but at 0° C, it is still rich in galtpoter, and is, of 
saturated at that temperature. ‘What takes place if Wo go on cooling 


on Solid Water. 


shay 


sa ee 
rare 5 atu rete int 


2epnegeaisy aise isbogeesai*qie 
ble ts u aH Bs iid 


ts have 
Bach 
peerranr 


iy oe ann 


i rae aa : . - ee 
Bea ‘iy eae eee : 
2 : size : fess! lil ail tia 
HGH Hee HIE lie cai 





INH SO, 


NANG, 


Discnam B. 








"ae a HH 
ae (ae gala a] 
fey gu Ge tues ie Be 

Jereg a Peau? Gla Hob 

g balyidiu au . 4 BI OIE 2 Sel ei Hien 

4 dajtey PH Ete en be ae ayn 
aan hie ted 
papacads it : Be ii fd agi aly i ap 
that a EidueHe Wea ‘i 

Bah araaley ii 4 aifeliel call 


i 





ite 


elite 


He 
Hl 
BG 


i 
iat 
beat 


grgitiea jaquiiis 
fen Hl 
ii ta pela 
SUH aie ae 
ane i alia r 
ee i i 
fans i 
: arnt es 
EERE Bt 
Pinal Gi 


311 


on Solid Water. 


ite 


a 


HE 


ae 4gt 
i 


‘My task will 
have brought forward evidence 


and I must end. 


ones 
pote 


Hn 
é 


simplest things, yot much 


§f:EB liz? = 
faa a 


of those wl 
substances 
am grateful 

assured 

stand 

that 

; jor oe 
‘and orchards mellow wi 


the 


ball i 
ileal 
ikl 


Gri tig 


Ruuae HH 


WEEKLY EVENING MEETING, 


Friday, February 28, 1877. 
Sm W. Feevertox Potroce, Bart. M.A. Vice-President, 


in the Chair. 
Joux Frierceer Mocrron, Esq. 


Matter and Ether, 


[Abstract Deferred.) 


— 





since the last Meeting were laid on tho 


‘The Puxsmyts received 
tah anf ie Mrs ind mee 


ee a Part II. No.3. 8vo, 





Hi 


ep 
rr 


i 


& 


at 


I 


4a 


: 


nh 








on the Future of Steel, 


87T-J 


an 


i niu fa Hee g i ArH Ee rar 
He ae 
aH ih eal A rte bit Ay 
fate Unalis na leas 
i Eatin] aah salaitin t 
Hercah ena ibile 
Hf ne ee a i 
: : 24 i pir onthe “i cif! i 
5 g iii Hie fH mali TEE te i 





the 

other ix not chilled. The chilling has been effected by pouring the 
Fei caus ioe tabs a/saoeld: cue pation af ouich eee oka 
which conducted the heat rapidly, and thus caused the iron to set 
quickly and to chill; whilo the othor ond of the mould was made of 
sand, and there the metal cooled slowly, and did not chill, You will 
also observe that the chilling, as it is called, has penetrated about one- 
wl lease Reidel raeegreons Mee 
im) to cut it, while the end of the bar may be filed with 
ease. The hardness is duo, I believe, to the iron being chilled by tho 
gh acre ler ektn Yntesies rents eee 
fecrrbad tetera weet ite, by liquation, Asa 
striking instance of chilling, I wo: your attention to a split- 

illod Palliser shell now on the table. 

Thayve here a sample bar of malleable cast-iron. This bar has bean 
made at one end, but has been left in the ordinary state of 


furnace, 
then is stirred about, commonly by tools called “rabbles" worked by 
Sean Sot Ses aly Se ae Sy ere 506; 
as tho latest improvement, it is agitated in a furnace of a special con- 
aA ee eee ee ne aceel 
churn. In whatever way agitation may be effscted, tho object is 
Sele net alae 7 a adler | 
with which the is i 
term) to unite with the carbon of the pig, and form carbonic oxide, 
which, rising to the surface, keeps the whole bath of metal in a state 


on tho Future of Steel. si7 


= 


Hib e323 
UF 


eine 


# 
a 
& 


& 
g 


1 


Pz 


i 


4 
r=) 


| 


ly 


E 


3 
a6 


1} 
. 


heat of 


2 
4 


88 


# 
s 


a 
i 


a 
a 
Het 


atl 


bB: 


be 


= 


lige 


323: 
Bd 


ute 


i 


cette 
BE 


ne 


$4 
i] 


acces hud 


fi 2 
ale 


to which I am now 
weight, of the 
into the puddl: 


= 


100 


will see that the tall 
iteolf, after 


nua 
deli 
Ht 


ee 


iii 


ing 
material produced, when uncontaminated with phosphorus or sulphur or 
silicon, is the iron whioh, as I have said, has about one and a ul tenths 


819 


on the Future of Steel. 


= 


Hn 


ree 


fit 
ua 


animal 


by 


Ree tea ts. ‘This was 
some suitable substance, 


aie 


closing the mhole in an airtight 


caso-hardon 
made at the 


The result was to carbonize and there! 


cone ‘The axle-trees of all our carr 


cae 


‘iages 


7 
Ha 


2 
as 


mute 
PH TE 
file 


i 


Ht 
fa 


fusi 
ee 


pga 


its 


th 
Hany 


Hi 


une 


ale Hi 


i 
rig 


ale 


iit 


LF 
4 
! 
iy 
t 
: 


fi 
: 
; 
Z 
| 
£ 


I 
i 
i 
2 
[ 
E 


2 g 
ee? 
Hf 
i 
ul 
i 
23 
te 
ite 
i 
uF 


i 
most fusible; and still more was 
milder qualities of cast steel. 
For many years, indeed, these mild qualities were not 
was long held that cast steel was not weldable, the fact being that the 
cast of those days was all too highly carbonized to admit of its 
bearing, when at a welding heat, the stroke of the hammer. After a 
time, however, the furnaces and pots were improved, and steel so mild 
as with great care to admit of welding was produced, and was looked 
a) 


steel contained bably in the harshest, such as that empl: 
for making ales, 1-0 to 12 ee tat ah ecroen eal Taare 


Not only was steel thus obtained expensive, but it was also limited to 


a 

i 

i a 
i: : 
t: es 
2g 

2 


‘2. 
H 
a 
& 
§ 
& 
F 
: 
= 
= 
: 
E 
: 


however, was overcome by, I believe, in the first instance, Krapp, 
who, by taking care to have a sufficient number of pots hot at onco, 
and by drilling his men, succeeded, in 1851, in pouring the pots, pot 
after pot, into the desired ingot, so as to form from these petty spoon- 
fuls, as it were, an ingot weighing as much as 4500 1b, This was 
exhibited in the Exhibition of 1851, and was the object of great 


structed that the ore could be put in at the top and could be drawn off 
at the bottom at a considerable distance below this zone of heat, and 


eects aunts the product was known as 
in converting east iron into wrought iron in 
polars furnace, the large quantity of carbon prosent in pig iron 


case, following a suggestion of my friend, Mr. Hawkesley, Prosident 
of the Institution of Civil Engineers, and Presidont of the Institution 
of Mechanical Enginoors, I will in this instance uso models. 


which is 1-2 on the side, and contains 


2-58 on and 

Berar ee fae On colic foot ; pine havo two smaller cubes, 
0 

1 per cont. of a cubic foot. 








To rovert to 


if i 


1st: 


} ry U 
ee 


casting being « 


et 
ae 
inp 


rateigdaii 


Boel Pee eres 
He 
z A & 223 a 
i 43 TAU 
(ues 
itate 2 
alas 
u tle 
Hee qi 
LEE 
Ue EL 
Hib 


old 


of the 


3 


i 


i 
a 


af 
33 


gE 


2 


2 


i 


as 1417 Hreeriits Hu 23 2 33 24322 
at a rae Hebe iit aaden i if 
Hie iu 5 Hai HE 1a ageitags) ah 1285 
HS ait ft aul fhe! Hun Hae 

He telat Raia till 

d Hataiira earning nity ae 

Henin at (ite 
ie tele sige ie Ha ih ie 

Sete ee rn cater) 





co 

men was one of the managers of this Institution, Dr. Siemens. He, 
as you know, somo years before had perfected his oxcellont invention 
of the regenerative gas furvace,* by means of which he is enabled 
to attain any heat consistent with limit of endurance of the fur- 
nace materials, Armed with this power, he has no cient in 


use he can always ensure that the 
be neutral, or even reducing. His 
(as I bave had an opportunity 
Steel Works, Swansea, and at 


SLE 


H ig itvs. snd to decriaizy Ube 
Set hin aid evn ht ce ban ced 4s nn enopiots 
te is fui t-iron, to it an 
i Fe eccalaen, tae ha at wen the bate ie conten ose 
takes about four hours for the melting of the pi 
iron, about hours for the addition, b ce a ea, 
about one hour for taking out speci eveuring that the correct 
pip bee beet arzived al, yates ne 
i portions being « great advantage in iomens process, 
Than tie Spogeinn mal the tapping require also about an hour, 
and another is employed in getting the furnace into condition for 
a further charge, so that about ten to eleven hours elapse from tho 
og pee tp nee reap eaten 
i i et on Satu: irteen charges of 
gig tac pralag aed orang anaene Owing to 
testing the stecl material before it is tapped out, this 


i 


pe 


and then 
is putin. A further ad) it regards 
of tho malrial (ibe iron oe), that hae ever boos 


778 * Proccedings of the Royal Iustitution, June 20, 1862, vol. fil 


tL 





i 





AuTian (fan 
THiS eor PH Fo He aE ee ase Te 
errs b ile wi Hiri ns = a Ea 
Hie FN Hein Hal Se HHH 
ual ER Ba Ha duled telat 
ee Heal hide LH aH eT Fa 
i jit aT tel Ar Hilal: 
vauul alee : Hae igfult 
1B Le ie 
griiiise Hie HE Ee 
TH art t 
Ha pectin 
st = Bo. = aun 
eal aT a3 


eay 


5S 


i 
aa Iie ae 
ia 


pilie 


aH 


Hot 


Ee i 


i 


Se 


i 


Fad 325 


2) 


ck 
in 





- by 20 (= 800) to break one square 


in a length of 100 a power of 


1877.) on the Future of Steel. $29 
inch. If it would bear 40 tons, and would elongate 15 por eent., it 
would equally roqnire a powor of 4 x 16 (= 300) to effect rupture; 
or if it would bear 60 tons, and would yield 10 per cent., it again 
would require a power of 300. ah oe ibe Geoae 
which the steel has to be applied, it may be desirable to increase the 
of resisting the quicscent load or to increase the power of exten- 
faculty of 
ee euiaebnti) Gia ta the asia earivlag and’ Ve onery. that cay 
i tors 


[ 


' 
z 
E 
= 
i 
& 


if 
it 
sl 
SEE 

ie 

i 
48 
5 
it 

ae 

ttf 


FF 
a; 
r 
Fe 
iH 
Pe 


bear more than the 30 tons. my mind th’s 
bo regretted. I should have thought the right thing to do would 
ill have our 20 per cont. in the 8 inches of extension ; 
ve a less ultimate tensile strain than 30 tone; but wo 
much obliged to you to give us as much greater a tensile 
it is ied by no decrease in extension, or in . 
your knowledge of steal manufucture can enable you 
ve.’ 
mented in ihe yar 1860 with podiied odin 
in the year wit 
nate: charvery at ee tn oread seal Ieee OE 
fistinction to the Limited ar Alacra 
in rail 


because up to the present time steel (choay sit as Hoo) 


not dearer of late when considered in rolation to its power of sup- 
Patebeanan it has been, the English engineer has 
not been able to use it, because tho Board of Trade will not 
as being a more valuable material than wrought iron; and therefore 
were to use steel, he would be compelled to employ just 
as much weight of stecl as ho would employ of iron if ho used wrought 
iron. 

In Holland the civil engineer is allowed to use steel in his bridges, 
| ot rag lig haat rghelapade pager replete 
a strain wrought iron; but in unhappy 
a ratsieel exjeetnan it stands in the way. Iam to say, how- 
ever, that by tho insistance of Sir John ee mari first case, 


Fe 
E 
5 
E 


5 
aie 
HE 

& 


t 


i 


ee eee menaraes tne Pity Association, inaugurated 
at the meeting by Mr. William Henry Barlow, of 
the Mochanieal 





1 


SES 


sf 


of sobre aise ose 


Yimitt 
us to 


les 


ae ariel 





juentl, 
weet Be 


lar di 
litera 
that defect ; I refer to tho cavities 


which has been done to render 
lefect that 


interior of the Bessemer ingots, 


that 
toa 


curing 


that were sometimes found in the 


results; but I 
provement further, because it 
Institution on a previous 


very 
amy 


is branch of steel ii 
Bee tas 


Piet 


i Hanne 


i 


and sent here by 


‘our attention to a 


obtai 


many 
by vith 


fe 
HEF 


lecture, you will 
ber that this slice is 
‘gia Teast sound 
been forged in 
t they are snaking 02 ft 
they can itl; 
is as free from cavities as is this sample. 


J ebslge a of which 
Marlee ig 


He 


right 
h 
that first of 


far superior 
i works su] 
London and North-Western, that he has entirely 


has given to tho use 
* ‘Proceedings of the Royal Institution,’ June 4, 1875, vol. vii, p, 524. 


of a locomotive 
i (cet 
tubes; and with 
vi 
construction. I have 
of careful observation he 
pplied 


of 
‘box, 
on. the 
difficulty wi 
every 
extension he 


ive engine I believe I am 


sinall 
has been 
ent 
heel 
Pate Loan 
Crewe, has made every 
iously made of wro 
the boiler) 
barrel, 
works 
bridges 
the 
after 
was 
for which the Crewo 


of 
80 


cpu 
for 
boiler, 
id other 
hie 
career) 
me that 
that stecl 


the Te 


ae ae 
Mr. Wi 
He i 
ae an 
ail the 
tore 








te 


HEE 
cette 
ial i 
inEE 
tage 
je 
ot 
y E 
ea “7 
aay 


ie 
He 
ai 
bi 
i 
g 


the very beat charcoal-iron was used; this is now re 
plates, of which we have samples from Landore before us. 
Reverting to that branch of modern steel manufacture, the 
sy the Riepe find that screw-propeller blades, 

belle fata toothed wheels, and, indeed, Mat Reali: thing in 


have got it. Twenty per cent. of extension in such samples as these, 
Is it desired to have enormous tenacity? We have gotit. Wifty tons 


purpose for which you intend to use it. 1s it desired to have cheap- 
ness? We have got that. Strength for strength, stecl is now as 





3 ral asad iad A re eee 
gagcite. uy ei88 a 
(ei igaea 
a iat lily hi 
j fat ital Hiastiee 4 
é aie om aE, a 
Pet 

Bye oe: — ase ye ie 3 
te Teer, 
THER OEE HEHE 
hy aul ful 
eH if HL 





m of art work, work in cast 


et 


ap: 
fe 


~ 


pests , that of ornamen- 


a, Tb 


ee 


al 


by steel 
she t dc itsmttn(hs 


believe, will never be im 
‘Op, 
the 


ine 





Vou, VILL. (No. 66.) 


a,gedsia? 
Han i 
rales 
S25a,85h 
Hale 
ea Stee 
PT LEL AE 
le qiit2 
PRE 
His thi 
ii kun 
anh a5 





, RRP HR eeraeey 
it; Ha Hira i 
eet 
gli fF . wee ea 
RE i 
pi at ie 

; Ha tale slit Hid i 











PARERERG 2 
EE 
it 
ii 
ene 
ff 
We 
i 
Ff i 
jail 


ry 

all, it is most remarkable that so little advance has been made in this 
direction. And not only is it the case that we are compelled to admit 
that our ignorance of the ultimate constitution of matter is well-nigh 
as dense now as it ever was, but if we examine the attempts at 
solving the problem, hitherto made, they strike us at once a8 havin, 
the strangest characteristics. While in most of the other regions 
research the results of all investigators have a certain family 
likeness, and the theories they propose—though perhaps mutually 
exclusive—have many points in common, yet here we find that the 
different solutions pro) have the wildest dissimilarity, and many 
of them present s0 fantastic an appearance, that it is difficult to 
belicve that they aro the productions of the sober investigators whose 
names they bear. We are too apt to analgesia 
taught us by the contemporaneous existence of the corpuscular and 
the undulatory theories of light, That two theories 50 diametrically 
opposite in nature, hypothesizing such utterly different constructions 
and properties of matter, could at « time not 80 very long past have 
been considered as possessing tolerably oqual claims to acceptance, 
a up a vista of ignorance as to the ultimate constitution of matter 
which is very humiliating. Nor will it suffice to say that those were 
the days when true science was in its infancy. Though the dispute 
between the two theories of light was speedily settled by the com- 
plete defeat of the corpuscular theory, and our ignorace of the real 
mechanism that produces and transmits light was rendered thereby 
less total—in fact we may say that it was so far dispelled that only 
those capable of thoroughly understanding the subject, can feel the 
difficulties and imperfections of the accepted theory—yet similar 
struggles are still going on in other kindred subjeots, and for them 


— 


sr7.] 
no such 


on Matter and Ether. 837 
excuse can be Take, for instance, clectricity and 


i ee Menta atinds tanaka sanectanty yee 


book a5 Wiedemann’s ‘Galvanismus’ shows an accumulation of 
observations on one simple branch of the subject that can scarcely be 
telod in any other science. Yet if we at the rival theories 


rivals of the Roman poot, they make similar demands on 
8 


our powers of belief. Weber and Am ideas of magnetism being 


uh 


Hl 
2 RE 
: 
7 


by cach moleculs of matter having its own special electric 


circulating round it evorlastingly; Poisson's idea that it is 
ing permeated by two mutually neu- 

external attraction, but 
molecule ; the rival theories of 
of no fluid, in electricity, the numerous 

as to the nature of the lnminiferous other and its relation to 
vortex theory of atoms, suffice to show that no 


1 


: 
i 
4 
i 
E 
i 
F 
Zz 
: 


HLL 


the in 


| 


easily 
chief and immediate cause of this is not far to seek. Any 
to arrive ot the hidden mechanism which causes 


must be a direct reflex of the knowledge and the ignorance of 


which it is made. Let us take tho case of some ingenious 
some 


known operations. If a person wholly 

eee atmachaatica, cove an far oc tbs clfortn cf aesane Tiss tench 

it to intelligent observers, wore to attompt to solve the of ite 

ne ee Bere, emi ecranpouent of or other 
1008 


the simplest and most elementary nature, 


would the desired it. Ifa mechanician hredadis i 
himself to the same problem, he would have present to his hl 
the refinements of mechanical science, and would probably arrive at 
eee en would resemble the one composed of 


while his might in no respect resemble that 


i be arrived at who, in addition to possessi 
rll ot whan, el “tn Hach of the 






would consist of the elements which the experience and 
the maker enabled him to use, and there would be no 


& 


of them ting the actual construction of the 
‘unless the artifices nsed in its construction were 
to some of the who were thus attempting 


lust 80 is it with the attempts wo make to arrive 
2n2 




















ESEE 
24k 
‘li 
We 
Hil 
z I 
- if 
IE He 
Hg 
felfe 


it 


| 
E 
t 


#3 
ee 


it 
Hie 
a 
ud 
oie 
i 
a 
all 
2283 ie 


: 
F 
i 
F 
z 


at 
BFE 
i 
if 
i. 
i 


I 
i 
i 
: 
L 


il 
i 
i 
iF 


an 
which, by their rain on 

clang 

Helmholtz discovered vortex-motion. Vortex-rings were 

move with little or no resistance in the medium, whether fluid or 


5 
uf 


complicated systoms of vibrations. Instantly a vortex-thoory of matter 


would at once lose all claim to be called the strictest school of belief, 
if it conntenanced any such Nt as a belief which could 
thus co-exist with disbelief. yet so great is the assistance 
derived from a well-constructed theory as to the mechanism producin; 
phenomena, that she cannot afford to allow all efforts at solvin, rv 
blems to be delayed until there comes a stage of such perfect know- 
foage, that the mind might claim to be capable of pronouncing on 
them with certainty—if indeed such a time could ever come. So she 


z li gs oe a4 Ae aR aL 
PELE Pere re 4 

Hl eb any 

j i un “ibee Ha rea eect 
veel ali apa ied 
dine He A 
ea Hy cee 
E Haul ale eae nate ie are 


* 








be very near to the trath ; it is 80 usual to consider that this is the 
final and sufficient test of the claims of » hypothesis, viz. that it 
should suffice to account for the ) 


pl ts, i 
oxomplify in its results the ree | of that single Jaw would, under 
such a canon as the one just refer 


whole of the observed complexity was due. In the history of such 
deep-reaching principles as thut of the Conservation of Energy this 
has been a common occurrence; but other instances are not wanting. 
After Sir W. R. Hamilton had deduced theoretically from Presnel’s 
Thoory of Light, that in biaxal crystals there must be intornal and 
external conical refraction, and their existence had been thereupon 
experimentally demonstrated by Dr. Lloyd, one might well havo fancied 
that the accuracy of so remarkable a prognostication was sufficient 





+ ypreannnearerenenygaznenininateyt seer 
a ae Aue RR ii : 2 
wi iia ies a alata ui! 
pertiey ag Had He ee iP E gaips 
HEL (REA Sa eee STE rT Se 
Al pl att Hi int Hollies 
area tat ee 
HAR ee Hae AUB HEHEHE 


i Pee 
bahia a 


: 3 
333 ni 5s af padi ahh Pap 
a Urine eae 





to 
a hgpotheste which iat fo be 


iH 
it 
il 
ig 
# 

Le 
i 


: 
a 
: 
= 
a 
s 
F 
FA 
58 
of 
$2 
if 
ibe 


first place, we have little or nothing to gui bederethan at inten 
cf ti Gonparreice’ oF ditkcent canes i ice rake 


In the world around ne wo seo only the sgeregnte results of infinitely 
numerous separate actions, none of whic 


Ba 


have in mechanics is of matter acting in masses. Chemistry 
physics give us certain phenomena, caused doubtless by a more inti- 
mate action of matter Upon matter, but the results are only known to 
us in gross; and even if we assume that the process is uniform 
throughout, it is only the result of that process that we see, and its 
nature is wholly concealed from our view. Similar remarks apply to 
the other branches of science. Nowhere do we get any direct infor- 
mation as to the nature or details of these processes, or as to the 
mechanism by which they are rendered possible,and thus we nowhere 
gt any knowledge of the types of mechanism that we may expect to 
ind at work. It is true that in all action of matter upon matter we 
see that certain Jaws are universally obeyed. But all that this enables 
us confidently to enunciate is, that the nature of matter must be such 
that when matter ucts upon matter in appreciable quantities, such and 
such laws obtain. We are not even justified in asserting that the most 


universal of these laws must hold in the case of the 
actions of which the is * Still lees are 
we in a position to say that one is to be preferred to another, 


aS ce ceeeauhehearia scab ae 

to be viewed by us as being in more simple or moro 
paid cases “i 
Unable then to use these canons in form, we are 


Se See 
tution, weight, of 
chemical combination consisted in the building up of new compound 


* This in no idle rofincmant, No law would seem to be more absolutely with- 
out See Th at of We test posafion. shot body to cold by, 


be led as an absolute physical truth as the atomic = 
"ie es seems to have but little het ht of 
simplicity, or, as we may term it, the Law of Parsimony, And the 
reason of this is, as has been shown, that we are too ignorant 
of the nature of the ultimate stracture of any portion of the universe 
fe beisble fo fell eehathes bay. eazpested structure 9) Reopens 
i.e. is one of a type frequently occurring. Slowly as we penetrate the 
mystery we shall acquire knowledge of particular instances or 
of stracture, and ehall learn what sort of results to i 





ditlrent investigators should separately work out theories ing 
some wholly on actions requiring a continuous medium for their 


> 


Fe 


i 
E 
if 


ree 
i in; 
Fs 5 Ee 


not to any process depending 


ignorance of what 
improbable—which causes us 
as 


one hand to 
of which we have gi 
or the 


Und 
accounting for them; and ane 
this hypothesis to be 


‘Theory, 
this with the enormous difficulty of reconciling 
such a mechanism with other 


anergy ere 
ing for the ti hive onrthiew this ba ot tha 
spaces is not propagated through a 























electric action, or—as at present seems more likely to be the 
that a medium hypothesized for the purpose of accounting for 


withheld so as cach new hypothesis suffices only to explain the 
special type of yp! Fancoaa er whieh tt waa teat 

Many of our best physicists are at work on such subjects as these, 
ane aye toaicog Boos . Difficult ax is the task, it is still one 
that ocoupies i f with what we have reason to believe is the simplest 
the most uniform and homogeneous type of ultimate structure. 
poe that we get of the nature of matter (such, for instance, as the 
revelations of the spectroscope or the phenomena of 
and chemical change) makes us start back astonished at the 
unimaginable complexity that it reveals. But in the case of light a 


electricity, although their manifestations must to some di 
bound up with matter, we have the attendant complexities of matter 


cated mechanism. It is true that we are at it baflled by this 
very difference from gross matter, which in all probability will ulti- 
mately render the problem more simple, inasmuch as our i 

ix little rich in suggestions that rise above modified experience. But 
the fact remains that we are here brought most nearly face to face 
with the phenomena arising dircetly out of a comparatively simple 
type of ultimate constitution, and though the complex bebaviour of 
matter would scem to give us more information as to its structure, 
and thus more guidance in our remarks, it is, as far as we can yet see, 
in the domain of light and electricity that we have best reason 
to expect success in our efforts to arrive at the hidden secrets of the 
mechanism of the universe. 

{J. F. M.} 


WEEKLY EVENING MEETING, 
Friday, March 2, 1877, 


Joseen Hooxee, M.D. D.C.L. LL.D. Pres. RS. Vice-President, 
in the Chair. 


Prorzssor T, H. Huxtey, LL.D. Soc. B.S. 
The History of Birds, : 


Tux speaker commenced noting Cuyier’s well-known saying, that 
OEE baler ea by aoe adaralles nad illustrating 


sore peeeent 6 a Brea uniformity, Le 
4 constantly increasing divergence t state of thi 
Nevertheless the amount of the di of o ancient forms of life 


Ree ee onan niece wiih sin in a given ti 
speaker selected the class of bi: weiole at ths Saran 
most 


348 Professor Huzley on the History of Birds. _ [March 2, 


In conclusion Professor Huxley referred to his discourse on 
Feb. 7, 1868, on “the Animals which are most nearly intermediate 
between Birds and Reptiles,” when he demonstrated that, “in past 
times, birds more like reptiles than any now living, and reptiles 
more like birds than any now living, did really exist.” * 


[T. H. H] 
* © Proceedings of the Royal Institution,’ vol. v. pp. 278-287. 





——EEE 


1877.) Dr. Bryce on Armenia and Ararat, 349 


WEEKLY EVENING MEETING, 
Friday, March 16, 1877. 


Writs Srorriswoopr, Es}. LL.D. Tr. R.1. Socretary and 
‘Vice-President, in the Chair. 


Jauzs Bryor, Esq. D.O.L, 
Armenia and Ararat. 


advantages which their situation on two seas secures to them. 
; Proceeding to k of fneaity the lecturer ceaceliet at some 
ength its orogra structure, It is a country of lofty, irregular 
va formed by the meeting of three groat mountain erohiiees tho 
whose southern offsets, forming the watershed between the 
Kor and the Rion, ramify over the north of Armonia, the Taurns, 
whose easternmost branches enter it on the west, and the rangos of 
Tran, which run up into it from the 8. and SE. A moro dotailod 
account was given of the Caucasus, which the speaker had himself 
traversed, the sae of its oe its fecredl, 
narrowness, its steepness, © great persistent elevation which it 
maintains, were described. The volcanic phenomena of Armenia 
were then commented on, and the peculiarities of its soil, climate, 
and vegetation. It isa high and bare country, with one or two rich 
the and finest of which is that traversed by the 
Araxos; and with threo remarkable lakes, two of which, those of 
Uramiah, are closo basins, not discharging to the sea. The 
climate is a climate of extremes, ee in winter from the 
(ie goneral elevation of the country, and the prevalence of N, and 
winds, and in summer very hot and dry. ‘There is therefore a 
want of wood, and a vegetation on the whole scanty: cultivation 
is in many places only possible by means of artificial irrigation. 
Some account was then given of the inhabitants of Armenia. 
Exclading the Georgians, who live rather to the north of Armenia 
proper, and the Russians, who are recent immigrants and com- 


uy 
tet 


i HA 
ue te Hi 





ING, 
1877. 


Wannew De ta Ror, Esq. D.O.L. F.R-S. in the Chair. 


WEEKLY EVENING MEET 
Friday, March 23, 


Puorrszon J. H. Guapstoxs, Ph.D. F.RS. 


Influence of Chemical Constitution on the Refraction of Light, 


of the 














Tae 


i is bs 


ray of light is bout in 


other than a rij 


present discourse was to describe the advunce that 


a % gees 
eeu ita 


ln Cds 
Rab nytt 








852 





{| 











j 
i 


S2-5e: seseege 
af: ti : wERE 
= 


La Tlsess] 


ele 











al 


1877.] on Influence of Chemical Constitution on Refraction of Light. 858 


A glance at the above table reveals several remarkable features, 
is evident, for inatance, that such non-metallic clemonts as phos- 
phoras, sulphur, fear ali carbon and boron have remarkably high 


= 

















specific refraction, is more than double any other in 
value. A more remarkable relation is one that a) when the 
specific refractive onergy of the metals is compared with their com~ 
bining proportion, that is to say, with the absolute amount which 
“unites with one univalent atom—say 35+5 parte of chlorine—to from 
& stable compound. This is exhibited in the following table, in 
which the metals are ranged according to their combining proportions, 
hydrogen boing included on chomical grounds, 
a Specific Refractive 
1-300 1 
606 47 
540 7 
307 ‘ol 
305 4 
292 12 
260 20 
0 22:4 
2827 34-3 
209 275 
214 28 
209 23 
208 66 | 
207 Ba 
205 25 
208 29-5 
201 psa 
187 69 
184 29-4 
183 31-7 
ey ss 117 20-4 
Didyimium 4... 166 48 
Rubidium .. 164 42-7 
Iridium .. 160? 49°5 
156 82-6 
155 43°8 
143 46 
182 49°35 
15 108 
ne 65:7 
1 56 
120 103-5 
115 3-5 
100 
208 
133 
120 








It is evident that as the figures in the first colamn decrease, those 
in the second, as a rule, incroase; that is to say, Ria si syste 
© 


i ¢ 


Thallium .. 





Tho law ovidontly holds true, roughly, for this group, with the 
exception of sodium, which as noticed above is discrepant. This is 


beforehand the refraction equivalont of any compound of which the 
composition was known, and its refractive index also if we knew its 
density. This would be interesting, but we should evidently gain no 
information as to the chemical constitution or structure of the com- 
pound. But the fuct is otherwise, Asa rule, the refraction does not 
vary: carbon, for instance, whether alone as in the diamond, or 
combined in beater bodies as bisulphide of carbon, coal 
cyanogen, alcohol, paraffin, sugar, and a hundred othora, is ox ig 
same influence on the rays of light which travorse it; but thera 
are certain compounds pry ae which it exerts a different influ~ 


: 
F 
: 
F 
i 


# is 
inyariably found to have a refraction equivalent of 5°0, This is 
independent of the manner of combination, so that isomers such as 
eee ot jr loan ‘end orice, of ethylene hare: preciealyy the 
samo value. 

There is, however, a of in which the carbon is 
Syd aber yyy =e 
etoms aro associa! in ond that they thus 
combine with six uni it atoms. This large group forms what 
chemists call the aromatic group, of which benzene, aniline, oil of 

acid, carbolic acid, are well-known members. 


The naj has evident 
phi wa heerd a 


oe = oh \c-n  #H-c# big bon 


Anthracene is probably more complicated, and its refraction 
exooeds the theoretical amount by o still largor quantity. In fact, 


ion and eesion ion increase i ith th bar of 
atoms of carbon are eel oh tun wo Of Dpdzonee 
or their equivalent. 


Ui Ay ii 
begets 
iil 


FF 








1877,] General Monthly Mecting. 387 


GENERAL MONTHLY MEETING, 
Monday, April 2, 1877, 
Gronas Busx, Esq. F.R.8. Treasurer and Vice-President, 
in the Chair. 


Mrs, 8, Bircham, 
Sir Robert Burnett, 
James Edmunds, M.D. 
George Barnet Goolden, Esq- 
were elected Membera of the Royal Institution. 


eee eee ce eecenia tw, Lehner Saas 


Bens lady ktm F.RS.—Five Lectures on the Chomistry 
of he Henealy Bese on Tuesdays, April 10 to May 15. 
ee eee 
Provessor J. EE Sent ted 
5 malaga Ny oa Tuesdays, May 22,29 and Juve 8 


ames rei DS. LL.D, F.B.8.—Eight Lectures on Hoat; on 
12 to May ist. 


Saat Daysaecruen, Eay.—T'wo Lectures on in and Liszt: with 
ote TT to; on Saturday, MM, and Thursday, 
june 7. 
The Rey. A. H. Savor, ee arian Lens on 
Saturdays, April 21, 28, and May 5. 
Wauren If ta ‘M.A.—Three Lectures on Modern French Poetry ; 
shane slp Modan ded 
Cuantes T. Ni eres eel earn cee oeectees ons Che Tess ipey tanto 
at Myconm ; eh Galamioys Juve and 9, 


The Pansexrs received since the Inst Meeting were laid on the 
table, and the thanks of the Members returned for the same. 
uo. 


The Inetruction}—Inventaire des 
NSS td rcp dla Ht jue jen Sallam L te tele ane 
ivea de la Dibliothéque Nationale, 1876. roe 


Gecernncad 1 mn Report of Pablic Instruction in Bengal, 1875-6. 
‘The Lords | ata frag retro tetas Sro. 1876. 

Green ‘Observations for 1874. dito, 

Teas of ron Oaervtos a as Cape, UB. J, tne 1871-3, 


Standarde—Comparisons of the three Parliamen! of 
The Merde of ; one tary Copies 


1876. ee 
Tron ane Steet Institute No.2. 890. 1876. 
ng, Nou OG 


adh Je SoD WIE Uh futhon Tennent Maud 


Ix. 
Vol. X11, 8vo. 1876. — 
Académie des Bulletins, Tome XXITE, No, 2. ‘1876. 
O. {tte Author) Symone? Monthly Mevordogeal Massing 
jiety of Scionces—Nova Acta: Ber, IE, Vol. X. Fasc. 1, Ato. 


Bullotin Métdorvlogique Monsuel, Vel. VIL. Année, 1875. Ato, 1875-6, 
Yoram» sur Dafering de Geverifalve in Proumen—YV erbandelungen, Aug.~ 
, Augustus, Lag. M.R.L—IL Petrarcha colla Spositione di Missor Giovanni 
Wei ee Corvette. Vinegla, to, 1815, J 











WEEKLY EVENING MEETING, 
Friday, April 18, 1877. 


Gxonce Bosx, Esq. F.R.S. Treasurer and Vicc-Prosident, 
in the Chair. 


Wiuiam Srormswoonr, Esq. M.A. LL.D. Treas. B.S. See. RI. 


Eaperiments with a Great Induction Ooil, 


AM OO alana cr illustration of tho 


1 
secondary consists of 280 miles of wire, acylindor of 
87-5 inches in length, 20 inches in external, and 9°5 in internal 
._ Its conductivity is 94 per cent, and its total resistance is 
apts chins, _ 


i omy 
with al spark coil, viz. 136 shoots of tinfoil 18 inches by 8.35, 
separated two thicknesses of varnished paper, the two thicknesses 


r Petes: ih bn ae te inches ; with 
irty such one inches, and subsequently ono of 42 inches, 
the points were placed about an inch apart, 




















‘itions, and be studied separat when too to be 
Feeaniangod by the beara eye. Tht ceethod, eran te alana 


ming 
effect of causing the tube itself to move during the discharge; and 
after a variety of experiments, I finally attached the tubes to the 
wooden arms about 6 fect in length, which were made to revolve 
ubout their centre like the arms of a windmill, and succeeded in ex- 
hibiting the phenomena on a large sealc. The instrumental 


tre. 

This being so, every stratification which remained fixed duri 
the entite discharge described the arc of a circle, and a column 
strim appeared as a series of concentric luminous rings or portions of 
rings, according to the duration of the discharge. Sit  Strie 
which were moving in one direction or another along the tube, 
described ares of spirals, the pole of which was situated towards the 
beginning or end of the discharge, according as the motion was from 
the contro towards the extremities of the arms, or from the extremi- 
ties towards the centre, 

Any alteration in the velocity of the striw along the tube, or 


LS = 


ILI. The proper motion of the strim is generally directed towards 
the positive terminal ; and its volocity varies only within very narrow 


ch as are usually seen in carbonic acid 


< 










r 





tubes, are a jomenon; and are due to a succession of 
short-lived stri regularly renewed. The positions at 
which the renewals ¢ determine the apparent proper motion 


& 
=F 
? 


velocity of motion varices, other circumstances 
i # diameter of the tube. This was notably 


E 
F 


E 
F 


if 
he 


i a 

known, continuous through i ; 
dissymmetry in extending from the point of 
of the ieee teaettoad It is, eh 


362 Mr. Spottiswoode on Experiments with Induction Coil. [April 13, 


illustration of the subject is referred to the figures which accompany 
my paper in the ‘ Proceedings of the Royal Society,’ 1877, vol. xxv. 
73. 


At the close of the discourse I expressed a hope that it might 
prove possible with this great coil to photograph the image of the 
phenomena hero described; and I am glad to add that subsequent 
expericnce tends to confirm this hope. LW. 8] 


1877. 


Mr, Frederick Pollock on Spinoza. 863 


WEEKLY EVENING MEETING, 
Friday, April 20, 1877. 


Wuran Srortrwoovr, Esq. LL.D. Troasurer R.S. 
Secretary R-I. and Vice-President, in the Chair. 


Ferpeucx Poruock, Esq. M.A. 
Spinoza, 


also stirred pene interest, one ap eng yoy 
now 


outline 
work done by him in philosophy which has had so great an influence 
feguane4 


i 


E 
ze 
i 

g 

i 

i 

& 

F 

= 

° 


i 
it 
' 
ie 
A 
: 
: 
i 


a | 
EE 
25 

F 

i 

Hf 


i 
E. 
E 


g 
iu 
Ls 
ef 

i 

i 

g 


EEE 

Hf 

be 
et g 

i 

F 2 

: 

i 

Zz 


a 
i; 
i 
fi 
i 
i 
i 


it the Germans were a poor iy 

y- But in due time there rose 
was Otto von Bismarck ; he is no philosopher that I know of," but his 
Ee ee Fichto and Scharnhorst had sown was 


follower of the Stoic doctrine ; and the St 
strikingly like Spinoza’s on its practical to Ficht 
Pelecety, eae very different from Spinoza’s as a whole, 


li 

of November 1682: his parents were members of tho 

synagogue, a community founded by Jewish exiles from Spain and 
Portugal. A high standard of knowledge and culture prevailed in 
this Jewish society, and at an early age Spinoza was learned in all 
the wisdom of the Rabbis. Ho made himself read! 
with Latin under the teaching of Dr. van den Ende, \@ story told 
by his first biographer, and since often repeated, of his love for Van 





* Since writing this I have seon it stated that Prince Bismarck was at one 
timo a atudont of Spinoza, 


1877.] on Spinoza. 365 
den Ende’s daughter, and his rejection in favour of a richer suitor, is 


now known not to be true in that form, and is probably mere fiction. 
pesge een of doubt ati Rr sx of doubtful policy, and 
x 


Amsterdam, 
wi an attempt on his li is teste dveligeyhower 


Hhijeaerg wr aoten (1661) Voorburg, oe att 664), 
near ‘oor! 
and murs 3607. teat ‘about at 1070) ial Ene th of 
ry was known to men and science, 
Hage (ell . 


Sources af Eipincea'e Pillovophy. 


very mame in its native lately recovered by the 
research of Dr. Munk. But my ripen version raid his work ited Vita) 
became current in Europe, and found kindred spirit in Giordano 
fpeoearr iran ts taen pameelcn Avioobron’s Scisa, alcog willl his own, 
~o pepe ae ee he heap ay 9 ey esa eae ee ae 


break with the Peri; tradition, This was Chasdai Creakas, of 
Barcelona, who ed about the end of the fourteenth century, 
His ideas were original and daring, and some of the most peculiar 
Madetearta Epdicmt eophilemogihy ie now acoomcled ter.ky hie? 


flacnoe.* 








[April 20, 


Mr. Frederick Pollock 


366 


fee eee 


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“meraoyeyg ON: *(earanqusg YEI-MOL) MOoYG YRMAP pu orgosy 


‘op wut HD “form 
] 














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1877.] on Spinoza. 367 
Descartes! own part in the formation of Spinoza’s philosophy, after 
Of ting untetaiod ows Eeltritr wi of Spimsee tha ho ooiy 


misapprebension, The ditfcrences betwoon the philosophy of Spinoza 
and that of Descartes are of a radical kind. Spinoza used Cartesian 
terms as he used acholastic terms; but he was no more a Cartesian 
than he was a schoolman, There is no doubt, however, that the study 
of Descartes gave a most im it stimulus to Spinoza’s philo- 
kophic and had much to do with settling its form and 

Spinoza himself did not seck to extenuate his obligation, 


conjecture to meas i 

Bee wets Jo. saake vp merenle 09 eon man’s work, a 

enough to know Spinoza wrought, as all men must, u) 

matter given him by the conditions of his nt 5 in that 

environment Descartes certainly filled a prominent place. 

One point, however, deserves to be distinctly noted; no man ever 
more clearly than Spinoza the idea that a phil which 
to account for things in genoral must include and i 
a 


pene. < learn |, 80 far as I know, from 
alone. His application of it was, indeed, a very different 
one. 


i reasons extremely difficult in Spinoza’: 
ly n'y gg but his own. Tita woe dios not i 


to any of ee Te cue be ae el 
to label syrtoms of philosophy. For exam: it is ensy to it 
Pantheism ; but what docs that tell us? Al . The 


fo eee ith its overgrown Buddhism, is 
wil 
Ne eet foe cer Western ways of [hiking then 


2 


Hide 
fr 


to mako 


i 
ih g3! 


ie 


forbidden 
ter 


t thorel 
give it thus: You ba 
by all advances in 
by day. Sooner or lat 


ven hit 


3 
ei! 
E 
3 


ala 

al 
3 
i 


from domini: “Thovofone Sarge om 
its dominion, if ld 
from perishing utterly, you must Bethe new li 


ing like 


about for centuries without 


The manner in which 


thi 


fies 


TE Pri 


any! 





aneasure of all things ? Be imcallise varios the things we know are 
not the real things, and bowail the impotonce of human faculties ? 
Not so: that which we know is real, but it is not all. A world of 


and differing in kind from thought and extension and from ono 
another, even as thonght differs from extension. We cami incniye 
an Infinite which is infinite in limited ways. Extension and Tho 


reality, brings forth, not by a special act of creation, but by the 
fact of his existence, tet ase peig te which infinite 
Parr diicaien besides the ipenttalsy of teohng it by experience, 
es the in it by experience, 
which to us ts is Sho moet obvious objection ofall but is tho very last 
that would have occurred to any philosopher of Spinoza’s time. But, 
inasmuch as as Extension and ‘Thought aro the only attributes we have 
to do with, the Infinite Attributes lie outside the rest of the system, 
whose real contents (the pxychological and ethical part) ee 
by this singularity of form, The infinite attributes may 
Bee ere) Snape of Nercliow ws tho ereee 


may us for Spinoza’s treatment of that vered uestion 
< ics, tho relations of mind and matter, We are all aware 
of two Ra cleat of erected wiih arti distino iia iad I wish 
‘to move my hand: that is a feeling, as we say, in my own mind—an 
event of which nobody can be conscious but myself. Each of you 
may have a notion of it by the analogy of what you have known in 
own minds. But you can never have direct experience of it. 
ee nent en ees 
‘the world of mind. 


is im some cedaetphatevehes to oak how—part of your 
as woll as mine. This ieee eee 
of that class is the world of matter. a 
D 


le £ 


‘bat no link in the 


3 


chain of material events 


i 
Linh 
F 
i 


sai 





gs 
ake 
i 


5 


if 


# 


i 
ne 


ahaa 


lid 








idealist systoms, The thing in“ ‘and connexion” 
to an * "in my mind is not the thing I think about—or of which 
I have an idea—but the state of my bodily organism jing to 


association i 
as modern psychologist, and also states that there is a physical 
ag ae a ent arg as 

‘The othical of Spinoza’s doctrine is introduced by a purely 
Bo) of the passions, in which he proposes to “ consider 
men’s actions and desires just as ove would consider lines, surfaces, 
or solids.” As to the scientific value of his results, I need only 
ce eros De aries one ce the ee ot a i 


‘Miller, in his classical work on Human A pears 
speak of the passions, he expressed himself thus: 
“With regard to the relations of the passions to one another, 


therefore 
confine to giving the propositions of Spinoza on that subject.” 
epee tien Dem ingly, without peek i criticism s per 


the 
Bees ron o at otk tain whe ltinoa haa tomo ooegt 


& 
: 
i 
z 
P 
z 
i 


juces tho passions to the ts of 
and » Pleasure is defined ag the passage from to greater, 


teractions beosfcial to tho orgeniam, pain to thoes which ate injariona 
to it. Desire does not mean for Spinoza a desire of t things 
asench. All living things, whether couscious or not, have appetite— 

or 








lead, as might be to 


pepe ieee ey 
of 


the which has 


versal fact which you cannot got rid of. But it is of the same 
order Reps 


that man is a and sociable ani Ho cannot bo 
solitary if he would, Henco the only trae self on of man 
is to be found in society; tho self-maintaini is not individual 


but social, ‘The desire of man's nature is f only in the fellow- 
eos reasonable men, The welfare of the citizen is one with the 

of the city, and the life according to reason—a favourite ex- 
pression both with Spinoza and with the Stoica—is a life devoted to 
me Wel ae eta Spi riod th of 

‘o have seen that Spinoza cai out without aT 

kind the principle of the uniformity of nature. He melted it to the 
actions of men no loss than to the motion of a planct in its orbit, 
‘The question is naturally asked, does this not crush morality under 
the load of necessity, and drive us, if we really accept it, into mere 
fatalism ? We have no room here for avy but a practical answer. The 
Stoics belioved in universal law no less firmly than Spinoza, and tho 
belief did not destroy—there is no evidence that it weakened—their 


« morality. 


Tho sentimental objection to the doctrine of universal order 
proceeds in great measure from a confused notion that it means an 
arbitrary destiny imposed upon tho world as it were from outside, 
But this is not what Spinoza and the Stoics meant. They believed in 


* Eth. 4, Pr. 18, Schol. 








1877.) on Spinoza. 


873 

unbroken “reign of law"—as the ieee 

it, bat in it and of it, Every creat Hatha i et of this 

etiiead sn pene serve it; bubiaanta Divlge te to serve 

‘aud therein his happinose. Tt serves blindly 
will, the righteous man in wisdom and 

is the service wl is perfect freedom, to fulfil in one’s 

Riley Sealow of Sos world, cuit tor sear dn tas law of baa 

own 

ri 


peite 
: 


bi 
a 
3 
A 
Hh 
? 
E 


FF 
E 
Hit 
i 
rite 
ee 
7 
sea 


thought in the saying, Frei und Kins mit dem Gesete: “Bree 
one with the law.” Freedom is thus the frait and reward of 
if nor does she seck any other—and the wise and 
i man alone is free, 
From Ethics we should naturally pass on to Politics, but an gccount 
'a doctrine on that subject, which offers a striking el, 
eaten < comin roc therefor Se 
space Py cae ore, to: 38 
survey of the fortunes of Spinoza’s philosophy since his death. res 


E 


Spinoza’s Influence. 


ean Lael tga rd 
a part a eden hilosophy. The most 
notable exception be the E down to the ond of the 


Fee 
Fey 
Hi 
Pg 
Bie 
if 
. 
HELL 
i 


etl 
i 
li 
ny 
& 
Hi 
ae 
2 
a 
sf 
HE 


him. 
soloap peel pipe Al of Spinoza’s philosoph: 
had been more than a slight and second-hand ate inconeeivablo io 





pene 


fe 


many of 


ont Pac perp 
“hada 
fo ie 


Puna 
ate si uy LE 


ee 
te Et 


work, 
Tesrikaaans tasarans 


ached rr vine = 
aera ee 


Spin 


ot 


jozistie atmosphere abow 


ita, There is a set of speculative pooms aera 
See tain is 


too bad found 
ow the study of the 

not 

a 


his character. 


f his mature 
that 


‘hile 
recorded h 
evelopment of 
rims 
init of Spi 2 
and 
Ethics,’ but there is a 


give 


it 


Loan 
be has 
the d 
or that i 
thou, 


out by the wil 


the spirit 


ee 


a Hala of 


: 
iatailunted ny 


3 


Prasitet 


neat 


part of Coleridge's influence. Those who 
Spinoza to English readers as he deserves to bo 


y. 


inoxa, to which he 


low 


best gen 
Anggeean tics thone bo. 
is Mr. Matthew 


ing for us. We have Mr, 


i 8 
istry of P 


as and workii 


among 
finished form in his ‘ Hi 


eee 
me ie 
pea ane tre sees artolen soe we 


Me Froude 


y on Spinoza,t perhaps the 


his doctrine which has beon given in our 


oral account of 


‘ial 5 
ble Chee the aiates ‘Theologico-Politicns,t 


their 


Seated 


not mako 
Arnold's 


| 


inozises," in the * Conterpornry 
¢ In ‘Short Studies on Great Subjects,” 


00 * French Thought and Spi 


view tor at 137 
“Spinoza and the Bible,” fn * Easaya in Criticiaas’ 


Review * for 


hier, ‘ons she 
The unlikenoss is great 


shest 
ith. 


08 


Ba 
zg 
Es 
E 
2 
8 
3 


Hi Lule 





1877.] . on Spinoza. 877 


themselves as they did the servants of the truth, they taught for the 
truth’s sake and not for their own, and each of them forbade his 
friends to call a doctrine after his name. Though cut off from the 
protection and fellowship of their own law, and condemned by the 
professors of its letter, they never ceased to honour the spirit of it, 
and they both fulfilled the precept which bids the teacher live by 
the work of his own hands. It is hardly possible for a man to con- 
sider seriously the profoundest questions of life without at some time, 
and in some measure, taking the one or the other of these men for 
his master. One of them was Baruch de Spinoza, the Jew of 
Amsterdam, afterwards called Benedict; the other was Saul, the Jew 
of Tarsus, afterwards called Paul. [FP] 


ei ag 


rf 


end 


intention to 





HEE 


“# 


i 
fu 
Hl 
"i 


auch as 180 


23 zt = 2 iF 
eee or 


ae 

. eit 

7; \ 
_ att 2 2822223 285% 





interest. 
‘The first among these are the musk-rat, or musquash (Fiber zebi- 
MeL pe se eae (nee ete, shoes eke 
water amphibia, a torm rather improperly, but commonly, applied to 


ii 
E 


Fae 
ie 
lle 

: 

i 

j 

i 


places, or I are scattered at intervals all over 
at distances of fifteon-or twenty yards apart. The nses of 
obvious, when I mention that during the whole winter 
of five or six months’ duration, from the first frost to the disa) co 
of ice in spring, these little animals obtain all their food the 


i 
i 
: 


gS 
: 


extend their of 


Tl r 
ir domain, which enables them to got without difficulty to every 
of it, I have seen one of my men, travelling in winter, not 


ie 
H 


FE 
| 
E 
E 
i 
z 

F 
t 


° Hi er t 
am 
PlnG 
i if 
RE iF k 
HH a : 
encere ; 
regi 
cn | 
ae 
Gall i 


F 


great ingennity, being 
‘bsoll to ‘out their 
peace ely eee keep 
The beaver honse is much 


MM) 
bottom of the pond, as deseri jouse. 
Unlike the rat, however, the beavers do not build up little huts for 


‘The next work is to cut down and haul into the a number of 
trees (usually the poplar) for the winter stock of f¢ ‘These trees, in 
their groen state, are heavier than water, and consequontly sink to the 
bottom. As the bark alone is eaten, it may be imagined what a 
supply is needed, and what care must be taken that a sufficient quan- 
tity is stored up, otherwise starvation would be certain. 

For at least six weeks or two months of the autumn, the labours of 
the beaver must be very severe (ns is indeed indicated by their bein, 
then in somewhat condition than at other times), aud most 
their work is done in the night. 

One thing has puzzled naturalists, and that is, what is the use 
of the beaver's curiously-shaped tail? Some people have assorted 
that it is used as a trowel for plastering and smoothing the mud of its 
dwelling! Ido notthink this is so; but one use for it I do know; and 
that is, to give an alarm on the approach of real or supposed danger, 
When crossing the Rocky Mountains, I tested this over and over 
again in calm nights, when listening to these industrious creatures 
hard at work at, no doubt, some kind of usofal and necessary labour. 





On intentionally making a noise, there was instantly » sharp report 


portion of them leave their old habitation, and if thero are still suffi- 
cient trees of the kind for food in the neighbourhood, these 
a Pe but if the 


ol 
tree is becomin, there is m migratis erull; 
eager Tica ce, a de yemc ry an 


imporvious to air as it is to light, and when the family amounts to 
er a rae eae Se bs Yard tink Et Syesete 


‘more without change or purification of any kind that I am aware of, 
unless indeed the water jal A coder eo 


the air that has been rondored impure by Constant respira 
Deere skabty tho icy sn wal are toa cotats porons, | 


2 clay and mud th 
wet ie  cn Ena Fn eaad 
depertment of the South Kentington Musens, | 


~~ i) 


‘teks ‘that of 4 
not the case; for both 








* Rod fox (M1 fox (V. decussatus), silver fox (¥, argentatus), 
‘Arota fox, wate ( * lagopus) Srotie tos, tue (¥- fulpinoney, 


+n ent Ur ET 
fan SRST real He 
4B stds! thie, We “agit. pHitua gyekesy #2 
Mata TBs peat TB 
: nl ap 4h ialifue laine isl 
13 oat i aa iy hail! ils un 
z ge"33 Tae gl 233 HALE! ii re = 
PTO HP reset eT vile 
5 Hal POOH Pe EA Hib 
agigciss abegdes tie peeae aubgisipad Bi 
_ Henge eee cll Bee BETH aHe 
Bb abillidie Genie nial is 








= EF 3 
rea te ze 
r & 


if 


naintance w 
animal isso slight that I can little more aboot bi, Tendeavoured 
frequently to get a skeleton of this bear, but failed, beeause the Indi 
nee ition about its being unlucky to preserve the bones, or 
= ~ 


sometimes 
winter, 


= 


i 


‘too 
and 


E 
“= 


E 


the 
it is abundan' 
y in the autumn; and when the sea 
freeze, it was interesting to watch them keeping breathin, 
in doing which they seemed to splash about the water mi 
at first appeare zeal until an examination of one of these 
led me to discover the cause. "We all now thst tis Soe 
of ice is only so little less than that of water, that ice six inches thi 
floats with certainly not more than one inch above the surface, 
I found, on 
accumulation of 


E 
Hi 








* This cetacean is as frequently called a porpoise as a whale, and it is of its 
skin that the much valued porpoise-leather boots aro often made, 


i b 





a 5S 


on Aretie and Sub-Aretio Life. 


3 


i 


23 


53 


[ 


a 
i 


Be 


a 


i 


Hel 


tho 


"Beoel 


salmon, I always found that these 


if 


Strait, live in 
‘Kenzie east- 


to 


¢ fairly classed into three great divisions. 
the Mo 


ai 


i 


pie 


ular idea, is that thoy migrated from 


from the 
y o gradually 
the true locality from which their 


from each other, 
an oxcellont inter~ 


driven thereto 
from the 


beliove that the Eskimos mi; 


Pil id 


ST 


386 Dr. John Rae {April 27, 
abundance of oily substance for light and fuel to warm these Yourts 
or dwellings. 
‘When the Eskimos crossed to America, found large quantities 
of driftwood, and they (being from my own 
the prs nine aconeding toe Sper fruingsikin earls 
for heat and light; whales, walrus, an being obtainable. 
East of the McKenzie there is little or no wood te be found, there 


have no fuel towarm it. They therefore take the very wisest step they 
could possibly adopt, and build a hut of snow, wl without is 


warmer than any other, These snow-hut-l Eskimos extend all 
tho way eastward to Hudson's Bay; but whe 's Bay, Greenland, 
and Hudson’s Straits are reached, tho form of house in Siberia is 
again resumed. The cause seems sufficiently for the wan- 


derers have now again come to seas teoming with mansine Life of altuass 
the same forms as were found on the shores of Siberia, See EY 
obtain oil enough for lighting and heating these otherwise 
dwellings, 

It is of the life of the snow-hut Eskimos that I shall now speak, as 
I know more of them than of any other. In size they aro by no means 
so dwarfish as is generally supposed, being taller, 1 believe, than the 
average Chinaman or Japanese, whom they very much resemble both 
in face and figure. They are of grent solidity, their defect of height 
arising from the shortness of their logs and neck. Their faces are 
pleasant, especially among the young; and all the young girls and 
women have very fine teeth, and remarkably amall feet 
Intter becoming coarse and clamsy after time, by working up seal and 
other skins into a condition fitted to make dresses, te. 

‘The duties of the women are, howover, not very arduous; and they 
are, as far as I have seen, treated with great kindness by their husbands, 
showing in this respect a remarkable contrast to the Red Indian of 
America. The woman's duty is to attend to and trim the lamp [of which 
a sample was shown], and to cook when there is cooking; but as 
prefer their venison and fish raw, this does not oceupy much of 
timo; they prepare the skins, make the dresses boots; all this 
entails a largo amount of, however, not very hard work. Their sewing 
is beautiful, not only for its neatness, but for the manner in which itis 
done, with Meg ban matorials, 80 Sit the onan are eet 
tight. Thoir winter dresees are always made of the finest of the 
reindeer skin ; two coats being worn, the inner one with the fur inwards, 
Bisicader ae (which is generally taken off when indoors) having the 


Their beds are made of x bank of snow covered with two or three 


| 


1877.) on Arctic and Sub-Aretic Life. 387 


large enough 
the hut, When going to rest at night, Poca roare Stee 
Pear cadet ong tl smartening ag cd 
# race, but with an entirely ‘ite object. The athlete strips himself 
i arpobe of oostasis a Belin does eo to key Limael! wim 
‘The routine of Eskimo life at or near Repulse Bay is as follows. 
In the autumn and early winter they live in tents deor skins 
with the bair on (the tents for spring and summer being of skins with 
the hair remo rca i di pe alle ai eer vecten 
killing reindoor, on the south shore of some narrow lake 
‘ows icon mart Nipper to the route of migration, across 
which the animals readily swim, of going se miles out of 
their way to get round the lake. 
When in the water they are chasod in the swift kayak and 
great numbers, and di wanes shore afterwards, as they float 
the surface when ki If the season is favourable, cient: 
venison is obtained and put into “cache” to last the whole winter; 


During this time they are not idle, for the men have their hunting 
weapons, und perhaps frames of canoes, to make, whilst the womon 
are occupied in sewing by the light of their ape the children are 
being oducated ; the girls are sang visors of skins together in the 
form of dolls’ clothes, &o., whilst boys are making miniature 
ledges, bows and arrows, and spears. When the weather is not too 
stormy they also angle for trout. This kind of lifo, if provisions hold 
out, continues until late in spring, when all move to the sea-coast, first 

the purpose of killing seals, the skins of which are wanted for 

ing boots and canoes, and the oil for light and cooking during the 
following winter, The seal killing goes on until the ice begins to 


barrier, which is much below high-water mark, the ealmon pass with 
are prevented returning with the ebb, and remain 


the 
where thoy are strock with a fish spear, such as I show you, far 
superior in almost every respect to anything of the kind I have ever 


F 
i 
F 
z 





wash was 
Seren ee eee 


t. 
Thoir domestic relations are eee the women being troated 
with much kindness and comalderatlon and’ 


ly be eligible for a seat in that important 
assembly, I am certain that if the Eskimos had a elie Soe 


i 
: 
4 
* 
E 
i 
Es 
i 
g 


officials of the other, A chart of about 200 miles of coast, drawn 
by a woman of Ig-loolik for Sir Edward Parry, I found, on my 
survey, to be wonderfully accurate. 

ey readily accommodated themselves to the ways and customs 
of my men, all steady, fine fellows, and at onco the men and 
took to smoking tobacco, although they had never done so before. 
giving one of the women a silver fork to eat some food with, 
handled it as neatly as if she had been accustomed to its use all her 
life; and when taking some tea and biscuit, said she had tasted thom 
before when @ little girl at Ig-loolik, when on board Oo-miaka- 
yukes (ships) there—Parry’s vessels of course, which been at the 


and I had good opportunities of pata ais to the test. Thad with 


books ; and more than this, they mentioned things that had occurred 
twenty-four yoars before, which were not in Sir Edward Parry's narra- 
tive, but which Sir Hdward told me he perfectly remembered to have 
occurred, although thought of too Little interest to be recorded. They 
did tell falschoods occasionally, which might bo in somo measure justi- 
fiable, because they did so to endeavour to prevent us from travelling 


1877.) on Aretic and Sub-Aretic Life. 889 


away or caches ons my, 
ete cpec wus patape: Ca lpeiae Gane peas gate 


Their delicacy of fecling was shown in acurious way. Whenever 


occurred when they saw my servant bring me my dinner, 

Their gratitude for kindness was shown in a refinement of manner 
that could not bo excelled in the most civilized community. When 
Ee a See in bing 2 1) seal, the young mon sated lanes 

‘some three or four old people might be allowed to encamp near us, 
0 a6 to be under our protection, which of course was readily 
with a promise that we would give them some food if we any to 
spare. Fora fortnight or three weeks these old folks lived near us, 
and never asked for anything; and the only way I could learn whether 
they had food or not, was by seuding over my man Corrigal (who was 
ee eae ee eee om Hm we pat (avery ume oles) 

out, and su) them if required. 

hunters returned, they thanked me for my kindness; 
ag ‘men wanted some seal fat to fry their venison with, I told 
to buy some; but a deputation of the natives came with the inter- 
and said that as I had been so to their people, they would 
us with what fat we required, but would not receive any pay 
penoey neat eacos Biers. seal gepaoe was talc wt tie 
a atere ta nd a bad spirit, and say that the good 
a and a it, an it 
ii ficent the will not hineolt hurt thenn, but lo Swill 
to the evil influence of the bad spirit if do what is 
therefore propitiate the spirit of evil. ey believe 
that meteors (falling stars) and the brightly moving aurora are the 
spirits of their dead visiting each othor in the heavens, 

Whenever the Exkimos come in contact with civilized man they are 
found to be docile, and to assimilate themaclves to our best qualities; 
such bas been the caso at Churchill, in Hudson's Bay, the mis- 
sionaries at Labrador, and among the Danes in G 3 whilst 


E 
i 
E 


erate 


g 


HE 
ft 


; 


te, 
trustworthy men were ever seen than Augustus, the interpreter to the 
Franklin Overland Expedition ; than Albert, the interpreter of Sir John 
Richardaon’s ing Expedition of 1848; or the Eskimo and his 
wife who the American, Hall, in most of his Arctic 


Surely, pooplo with such good qualities and such beautiful ideas 
have right t'a higher rank amongst the wocviiza rae than ae 
a them. 


(J. Ry 


Silk Bewas, i FRS. 
Warren De le Rus, Kage DCL PhD: 


K.C.B. 


3. 
William Pole, 
Frederick 


Sir W. 
The Lord hy MAL R.RS. 
The Lord Tanne wat, MP. 





ills, 


Colonet William Pinney. 
‘The Rey, Arth 


ira ran 
Orns |. 

















1877.| Rev. W. H. Dallinger on Minute and Lowly Lifeforms, 391 


. 


WEEKLY EVENING MEETING, 


Friday, May 4, 187. 


Wr1am Srorriswoove, Esq. LL.D, Treasurer B.S. 
Secretary and Vice-President, in the Chair, 


Tae Rev. W. H. Dattrsarn, FARMS. 
Recent Researches into the Origin and Development of Minute and Low; 
ions witha tnt he Barn a po te Org 


Brovoarcat science nts us Wil 
Scan Gnd sends a on cca 
enormous 


cage info we, yt a ru 
, and their i 


apex i 

the lowly organized and the 

met oes is imposing continuity find its terminus on the fringo 
jis inn con’ ii us On 

Belvactie cf Gis crpakie taciée, and for-evée there? or can wo 





uu Ey 


fe 


ine 
ri 


Hf 


i of the 
experiment ; and therefore to my mind the: 
i nh he a ae 


‘This fact early and deoply impressed me, and 
I was animated with a hope that such a life-history f 
Four wore spent in accumulating facts, obtain 





1877.) on Minute and Lowly Life-forma. 893 
of these minute forms is a scientific of which 

Me sy esol onan "Ties ace be eabrcean Sean 

could bo 

kept from eva SS 

set Saamatying Fs wers constructed. An 

Salty tie, Usa ePGNeat accompli Uf th work two err 


aa 


Se abe together. Our plan of labour was, never to 
SPelictay tmedinebals aie ee 
aegis Son Ak egpioncng 10s eee 
Mod ast kwaie re organisms present an immense 

both in form and he Meche ytol tia hemes 
diverse.* Between this giant, Spirillum volutans, and 
minute form, Bacterium termo, thn rt verge, et th 
Hage sin rarely exceeds on an a except in cases of exces- 
eet yon say sos ra fore toalogs See 
ou not Bacteria. 


But fied an: 
peat ictly 5 usnally iccmpasients of « mor 
, and in many more amenable than the Bacteria; and we 


eS of our earliest work. By quiet persistence 
A aaa ce ‘of fo of these 


EES Pestehpreng Bgeeie 
it bost conserve to examine largest 0 smallest 
ai Gatepcing Ths eppeacen we of the former is now before 
hero, Tes divergent from the comn fyyo when sun in it pure 
ation 2 Mere ete no jpactin laeschagy cea ace 
It is uge in its proportions ; its a ‘ex! 

rego Te normal real Heat iy Seay adiargt 


as 

Tess snrcode. Its Seestiatioos See S eeslese ts , hot common 
to the monads ; generally ce ating vacuoles, open and 
close like the li fn ten to twenty times in every minute; 
and lastly, ed neader 2 ben Seagal ‘That the power of 


the um 

Mies SSrsia “eb ix oe Dikthonia S4/3e ont upon theeo 
flagella, I believe there can bo no reasonable doi In the monads 
the ity, rapidity, and power of mevement is always correlated 
with tho number of these. 6 one before us could scross tho 
fiold with majestic slowness, or dart with lightning swiftness and a 


* Transparencies drawn from nature by a simple method devised by Dir, Dul- 
linger were exhibited by the oxy-hydrogea microscope, 








few hours 


o end 
e. 


other remainin, 





enormously onl, These never appear alone: forms in a like 
dition are di 
state for hours. Meanwhile the diffluence causes a 


united, the swimming being again resumed, the flagella in 
apparent concert, fills map ieautindis fi pire Manel eee 


Pleasure realized in foll 
all the varied 


increased six millions of times; and this continued antil the whole 
sac was empty, and its entire contents di. 
th our utmost powers these exquisite specks was an 


pemee oxelling or 
of three hours a beaked appearance was presented. Raj th 
Sie sca Us lon end of omctier bout-fo> haw nbc, ns— 


an and rapidly developed, until at the end of 
“at peabeabeeitupirelaiene ¥ollewsd.r Yh paamenaeee 
pee ea arn ae ack of Seakow. In this way, with what difficulties 
1 not woary mado 


and the sphere had segmented into a coiled mass. 

There was no trace of an investing membrane; the constituent 
parts were related to each other, simply as the two i 
of an ordinary fission; and they now commenced a quick writhi 
motion like a knot then, in the course of from seven 


at multipli- 

by ses st 
increase, The other and essential method was comparatively rare, 
and always obscure. In this instance, on the first occasion the eon- 
tinuous observation of the sate “field” for five days failed to disclose 
to us any other method of increase but this multiple-fission; and it 
was only the intense suggestivencss of past oxperionce that kept ua 





a )" 


1877.) on Minute and Lowly Life-forms. 397 
still alert, and prevented us from inferring that it was the only 


But eventually perceived that while this wns tho prevailing 
int er and pa apap’ 
rest, and with a singular as 
flagellate lated Sorepaeheaty ae 
contrasted with the normal or ordinary form. Now by doggedly 


Fe 
Is 
gf 
5 | 
E 
z 
£ 
H 


au 
it 
a 
tet 
: 
: 
L 
: 
i 


I 
ie 
Fl 
2 
: 
B 


rapidly diminished, w! bi form expanded and became 
vividly active until the two bodies actually fused into one, 


this its activity diminished; in few minutes the red 
became quite still, leaving only a feeble motion in the flagellum, whi 
eee all Gta ihe bod esitetrnod andl aren Toul All that was left now 
was a still, spheroidal, glossy speck, tinted with a brownish yellow. 
A peculiarity of this monad is the extreme uncertainty of the 
Pe nat ei Ta Slabe bales aren. Sea moet delist Sinem 
in this sac is visible. Its absolute stillness may continue for ten, or 
it may be prolonged for thirty-six hours. During this timo it is 
absolutely inert; but at last the sac—for such it is—opens gently, and 
there is poured out a brownish glairy fluid; at first the stream is 
small, but at len; cp lrtal satan, sabrina me roe ey 
clondy volume of its contents out, and the hyaline film that 
enclosed it is all that is left. The nature of the outflow was like 
that produced by pthc atthe jen spunea But no 
detect r 


‘The result was a reward indeed. At first the space was cloar and 
white; but in the course of a hundred minutes there came suddenly 
conceivable specks. I can only compare the 
these to the growth of the stars in « starloss space 

in a summer twilight. You knew but 
‘1s fow momonts since a star was nof visible there, and now there is no : 


5 
& 
z 
a 


Wee H 


1877.) on Minute and Lowly Life-forms. 399 
Wo took a scrics of slips of glass, and 

examination drops of of the septic fd ress 
monads. ile flee see wate ae 
tinuous stage powers, until in every case we convinced 
asta re pagan ceilmh Canute Thi 
was done in every separate in tion with not less than six slips 
for each of the six ips of glass—covered of 
course with thin dises of cover-glass—were put into a cold metallic 
box for heating. This was covered, and the bulb of 
s long thermometer was so placed as to be in the centre of 
ies uensacitia ia grates ae! obowe ear ocvee tito tha mi and oonld 
easily be read. 

is box of air was now slo i con atid uired tempe- 
ature; and when that was it was maint for at least 
ten minutes. In this way, with a large series of we 


water 


ihe 
Ht 


ovory case then n will understand that in tho instances of 


F 
Hd 


it 
i 


i 
33s 


followed after heating, just 

been before ; bon doeoecan eo h all their changes 
i afas oma tho monad prod aids hi 
it of t] ucin Young—the 

Gla shall bee bone, toa ek ae ki, 
In other cases the spore were seen repeatedly to become 


perfectly develop after exposure for ton minutes to 800° F, 


the two extremes. In the remaining instances, the highest 
which the would bear and afterward develop, was 


Harte we i the young emitted from the eyst in a 

“stato, the | pe alae etplag iea lowly 

poasces 8 Toaistin, greater than ir parents 
of 11 to 6. rage 


er words, the minute spore can 


resist heat nearly twice as intense as the adult. 
‘Now in relation to the question of so-called “ spontanoous genera- 
tion" us it has been discussed during the last five ycars, this is a fact 


VIII. (No. 67.) Qe 


above i 
do a aly fr dows a de 
wr toa 
carry us—down indeod Lipo are tae Be 


but in some sense sare cgeee 





clear! 

TW ecllablo'oloabi Slisinbiers in: Whitoll thé motes of the air have 
time to subside, the electric beam will demonstrate its optical purity 
by leaving no trace of its path ; but whilst the most exquisitely minute 





a te 


1877.] om Minute and Lowly Life-forme, 401 


icles lingor in the air, tho palo track of the beam will show that 

You farthor know that Professor Tyndall has shown that if putro- 
factive infusions, filtered, be boiled in, and exposed to such » moteless, 
cpieslly  puxe ‘Si, Bacteria— ive i not 
a 3, but if on the 


yan 


ae 


3h 


iat 





germs. 
germs, 


wi 
i skye ot 


ariso in 
in relation to 


kno 


HT 
i 
; 
i 


i 
: 
: 
i 


‘The motes which determine tho Bacteria are Bacteria 


1 
di 
Hd 
Wh 
ae 
ie 
3a 


HG 


(W. H. D,j 





1877.] General Mouthly Meeting. 403 


GENERAL MONTHLY MEETING. 


Monday, May 7, 1877. 
Gonos Busx, Esq. F.B.S, Treasurer and Vico-President, in the Chair, 
The following Vico-Presidents for the i ‘ear were 
5, rf ensuing y 


Adm. Sir John Codrington, K.C.B. 

Warren Do la Rue, Esq. D.O.L. F.RS. 

The Lord Arthur phy MP, 

George Busk, Esq. F.R.S. Treasurer. 

William Spottiswoode, Haq. LL.D. F.RS. Secretary. 


Arthur Williams, Esq. 
were elected Members of the Royal Institution, 


Joux Trsxpaut, Esq. D.C.L. LL.D. F.RS. 
was re-elected Professor of Natural Philosophy. 


The reported that on April 9th, they appoi Janes 
Dewas, A. FLH.S.E. Jacksonian Professor of Natural Philo- 
sophy, Cambridge, to be Fullerian Professor of Chemistry for three 
years. 


Tho Paxsexrs received since the last Meoting were laid on the 
table, and the thanks of the Members returned for the sume, viz, :~ 


rom 
Accaiomin dei Lénce, Rome—Atti, Serie IU. Trunsunti, Vol 1, Faas 4, Ato 
Astronomical Society, Moa Vol. XXXVIL No. 5. 8vo. 187. 
Rogal— Notion Vol fo. 


Cg ened "Dream. New Edition. 1877. 
, Royal Institute GPS nah Ho. 


erin sion aE 4to. 1876. 
Chemical Soeiety—Journal for tether, Ap April, 1877. 8ya. 


ln L 





1877.] Mr. D. Mackensie Wallace on Secret Soeioties in Russia. 405 


WEEKLY EVENING MEETING, 
Friday, May 11, 1877. 


Guonce Buss, Esq. F.RS. Treasurer and Vice-President, 
in the Chair. 


D. Mackexziz Wantace, Esq. M.A. 


MEXEER OF THE INTERIAY RUSTAK GUAORAFIICAL FOUIETE, 
Secret Societies in Russia. 


Mu, Watiace began with a brief sketch of Russian history down to 
Siig rong ot Flee tha Cieeak, whet SoA politteal gyetent was entieaty 


establishing a federal republic, with virtuous, happy citizens, 
Sal welising (oie pelts Ltn oom Teta 


The first of these was the “ Union of Salvation,” in 
1816, chiefly the guards, Itwas reorganized in 
1818, as the “ Union for Public Welfare,” and professed to help the 

t in suppressing malpractices. But as the Em 
Prrai eioea Pans cObAzy utsnn soclety wee Paced) Wilt INE Oise Gk 
paren Imperial family and constituting a federal republic. 
At the death of Aloxander, in ee ee ee 
tion failod. Five officers were and « trans- 
ported to Siberia, 


406 Mr. D. M. Wallace on Secret Societies in Russia. [May 11, 


mutual responsibility, with much self-negation. Its officers succeed 
in rotation, part of them being educated and part uneducated. There 
is an active propaganda, by means of conversation, reading, excite- 
ment of discontent, publication and circulation of books and tracts, 
and the establishment of libraries and funds. Agitation is promoted 
to terrify the government and the privileged classes, and to raise the 
spirit of the people. 

In conclusion, the speaker expressed his opinion that the ex- 
treme devotion of the mass of the nation to the Czar will prevent 
these societies having any more success than Fenianism in 
Great Britain. 


1877] Lt-Gen. Strachey on Causes of Indian Famines. 407 


WEEKLY EVENING MEETING, 
Friday, May 18, 1877. 
Gronce Busx, Esq. F.R.S. Treasurer and Vice-President, in the Chair. 


Lisor.-Gex. Riovanp Srnacusy, RE. F.BS. 
Physical Causes of Indian Famines. 


and disease; a few weeks, or be hours, sweep awa; results 
it ha the] pede 


ave to deal, I think it desirable to draw attention to certain points 


PL iMigsig:] Gre 
Tey He ee 


3s 


ai aoe a sant 


33 
Ss 


RET ee 





that the population waa sixty-seven millions, where previous estimates 
had made it forty-two millions, 


its great tributaries to the Arabian sea, 

ee ee ee ol a 
than 1 era ro Sig pelea mp pew 
almost unbroken surface, which the appearance of perfect hori- 





i eye ee 
aati 4 ne Hat 
ti He ne 
A ditsdae gil ielagtaede 

i aah pies 
Le i ee ull 
338 au. aun A sivas 
ae ae sad2 28 Han 
ily ie ftir 
Hui Bue eyed 


A 


will nateralt? bo autsibeton vi the ake This is 

bn peg elitr ve been drawn lines indicating ap- 

proximately the a eS ee oe ee ee 
Wi ions, to whieh special attontion will be A 


the bein; i a summer mins il over 
ai yagi er readies ecard 
ence of the south-west winds, namely, from Arabia to China; and 


are felt in a more or leas marked manner to it distances it 
abundant over India , and the whole of the 
slope of the pais the Brahmaputra to the 
St ee cd ie Hilo bgen "Ou 


pinay hrongh Duro fo Scam a te ite 

north i isina arrested ‘moun- 
fain, 60 that it caly just reac! ina ager 
borders of Tibet. i 


the west, sig Ou Goa nok ce Ob ccaslal cree tec 


# 
Uni 
ee 
2H 
Ea 
Hi 
| 
i 
F 


correctly how theee winds thus 
operate, some explanation of their cause and mode of occurrence will 


Tt is & common, but erroneons mode of stating the efficiont cause 


Hite 


‘S38 
geeahes 
Li 


[ 


jeelenigeeieyie sali 
mde rT i 





direet of 
Tt is no doubt well known to you that two well-marked soasons of 
periodical wind recur by year along the coasts of 
Asia and over seas, as the south- 


the development of winds from the land towards th 
© 
the north-cast monsoon. 


it 
F 
E 
E 
i 
F 


i 


r regions in the 


! 





i 
i 
A 
: 
: 
f 


FE 
i 
a 
i 
E 
; 

& 
vad 
ne 
Eee 
Hl 


tf 
i 
fi : 
| 

& 
He 


it 
: 


cool the ascending and at length to condense all that is in 
excess of what the reduced temperature of cach successive stratum 


The supply of vapour Leese upwards is therefore being oon- 


found below at altisale cf 20,000 feet. Where the evaporation at the 
surface ik very copious, as it would be in a tropical sea with an 
air temperature for instance of 80° Fabr,, if the vapour spread itself up- 


=) - 


ote circumstances which greatly add to the 
are, Ki wi 80 to 

intensity of the condensation of ina pepe is of the air 

ag to call for notice, eWnees 8) Waid chareaivs vapour blows 

over an surface, as from the sea across the face of a mountain, 


chief season occurring at hottest of the *, Whereas 
the condensation that causes main is essen! a it of we 
havo to remember that the is relative and not absolute, 
snd thnt as the water suspended in the air is greater in ion as 
a pee BA TE et DE by any 
disturbances capable of producing condensation will also be greater 


similar Moreover, the dispersion upwards, 
4 Vil (No. 67.) Hae 


ll : 





417 


on Physical Causes of Indian Pamines. 


rice 


of the mountain 


the smaller amount of disturb- 


character 
Soca ss 
coast 

e find 
ell of 
of 

with no 


by 


ing diminution at the northern extremity 


able to 
le 
it. "Po fact that 
abode iles from. 
eae 
force 

re i 
this wind 

Ghats, 


at ia 


e188 FF ta 


fal rae GH je 
ry iB aie isl Ge ‘ Lene 
Hid leds HID aig 
fag coin eu Wing 
PATS PER EE Hi Haka 
P seat? CE Ee pe] a fa y3 a 
eb eu Hides HIN Bie 
tala; PISHie a8y8s 44545 
Hi reas Be i nn 
ae atu i 14; ajith gies 
rin 


eh ERE iH 














The difference between Bengal, with a rainfall of from 60 to 70 
inches, and Si with hardly any, is very remarkable, Tt is suffi- 
ciently explained by the distribution of the high land that is con- 


i 
LE 
dl 
i 
a 


i 
h 
fi 


i 
He 
Ez 
es 
zi 
gE 
a 
i 

iset 


i 
et 
F 
fe 
ie 
Fe 
i! 
Hel 


gress of tho winds being arrested in Bengal by the current set 


Concwrently with the reduction of the rainfall in passing from 
east to west in northern India, wo find an increase in the quantity as 
we approach the Himalaya, and a diminution as we 
range, the gradation being distinctly marked from a distances of 150 
or 200 miles to the foot of the mountains. On the outer slopes of 
the Himalaya the fall is very greatly increased, but it rapidly 
diminishes again in amonnt as we penctrate among the mountains, 

‘These resulta are bronght about in a manner that deserves par- 
ticular attention, At all timos of the year winds blow up the 


419 


see 


on Physical Causes of Indian Fe 


A Hae HH Stay. 329 3 
aH ait u Hae ae Blt 
spetageisess 2, Hee eae: auIU EE 
Peau e ial ie LST 
Eee Lae walla 
REA ee ii aeaaiage 
23 sHaatieae ai? inns assay 24? 
ay ae4 H 235458 Passa! P qe i be He Pie | 
eu apatatglizy aged: er tet ith i 3g 
Teteye wait Fi Ce 
HRS i egheils : ii 
233415 Ha TTF He He Hath 











‘The map which is before resumes the facts into which I 
some 


of 
for 
40 inches, and excepting the 
ub cat Mallia the phar ren beast 
we 


la learpe ne a 
is extremely small all over Sindh, and that the tract in wl the 
fall is less than 80 inches ineludes all the excepting the 


be said in general terms that ture is not there possible othorwiso 
than with artificial irrigation; and thus it has happened, that the 
tion of the districts whore the rain is of all others Jeast 


nbundent, haye made themselves in a great independent 
of the local rainfall. On the thee han 


E 
& 
= 
Be: 
see 
fe 
Fi3 
2 FE 
SRE 
Rig 
Bes 
HE 
Be 
eae 
a8 
FJ 


port an 
Ea population, the fluctuations which reduce the fall below 
what is ossontial are so frequent, as to lead to repeated seasons 

scarcity of greater or less severity. The north-western part 


peni i 
the whole of the dry region of the peninsula. The drought of 
1887-38 was een ps in the Nor 





421 


_ Sree Cove 


1877.] 


tho footing of 
ition 


Eipecance of the th 


Wi gis: srai> HI ages 
3 


Wa Hie jue 
ie dE 


4 
Pree i anne ! aH 8 aj a 
fAMee Hee ola 


- 
oir 


, like Ind 


effect of drought in the destruction of the 


he 
of its surest and most 


ist the pressure put on 


where thore is no 


Seat Seas, 


ane He PELE 

Haar i We il 
Glin iin iis 

oe i ll sel 


countries. 


is one 
wil be apart that the 
purposes of 
th fd ely 
pulses, and 
ting, on 
eaten, © 
pop’ 
portance, 


363 


he 


ap 
t 
E 
i 


i 
i 


: ie 
fH 





food snpply of the country is without doubt due to the security which 


they give to the wheat and barley harvests, though their ema 
atikty’ in adding to agricultural produce of all descriptions is very 
it. 


distinguished. First, as the power of the tropical sun utterly 
dries up the soil in the hot months that precede the rainy season, 
the first showers are almost essential to admit of the final ploughing, 
and the sowing may thus be unduly late in unfavourable seasons, 
Where artificial irrigation is available, this delay is avoided. Next, 
the thorongh saturation of the soil, and its maintenance in a suffi- 
cient state of moisture, are requisite for the germination of the seed, 
and this is always one of the most critical periods for every crop. 
In many cases, thoroughly favourable rain at this stage will secure 


























UA Heil! 


sees 


ee TY 
ie # qbey 33 He Ee He 4 ar Hy 
1 ub aie Eg 
i thie nee fillesg quik Eide 3 
lu Aapat label FOP H EESTI 
feelaypeart aL taper ead 
ee ie aoe 
ih aii ay af ala ali [ ule i: nll 
ihn aa ete 














tdlst 
i 


FE5F 
ie 
i 
E 
: 
= 
E 
H 
[ 


ese 
2 
z 
= 

fl 
7 
: 
: 


a maximom and minimum mapeyetes infors that this isa 
of a true periodical variation. a 


credit the alleged proof of Dr. Hunter’s conclusion, than the con- 
clusion itself, yet much doubt appears to me to be thrown on tho 
probability of any such direct connection between the rainfall at 
Madras and the sun-spot period ns has boon spoken of, by a compari- 
son of the Madras observations with those made during the same Loner 
at Calcutta and Bombay. It is extremely difficult to conceive, if 
such a connection existed at Madras it should not be apparent at the 
other two places; yet the same treatment applied to the Calcutta and 
Bombay figures as that adopted for Madras, shows no correspondence 
in the results. Neither can any persistent relation be seen to exist 
between the quantities of rainfall at the three places. There is an 
occasional likeness at one time between one pair, at another between 
# second, and again between the third, but no uniformity. And this 
is what might havo been expected, from what we know of the general 











= 1 gine) Seale miu rma a 
2 fide : i 
uh he Haniel uh ileal 

i iH ° \ 

cui Te etilnh ana ie 

44 i ag ut i a3 aie 

ne Hea, 

i a Puae ‘ abit 

Pana pall tersetses 

a ayett Maia! 
= 2a 23: 
dilaennleat dest ca 

y ae i“ aia adel BAL 











that extornal aid could be given on an: scale the 
roquisite material ‘it is certain that the mora Ds 
Tamepnaliy wate ses teat ‘nd, what Gite quality makes 
possible, self-sacrifice. 


ined 

and continued exertions of the localities immediately concerned, and 

no ing on assistance to be supplied from without. 

scatsionipont sa the poople of nls’ srere wafting nal psa 
existence im ‘on the peo; jin severe an ‘iodi 

uals if they submit to these conditions unresisting ; 

severe toil, and persistent intelligent effort, if they are to escape their 

extreme consequences. The Government and the people must every- 


where huve this tically enforced upon them, and until it is 
the movement will not have fairly set im the right direction. 
rience in India leads to exactly tho same conclusions as those 
at elsewhere, that a system of public relief in time of distress, not 
guarded by the sense of specific local financial responsibility, is » 


it 


selfish effort to escape at any cost the pain of witnessing it, be 
permitted to stand in the way of that real benevolence which is 


1877.) Mr. G. J. Romanes on Evolution of Nerves, &c. 427 


WEEKLY EVENING MEETING, 
Friday, May 25, 1877. 
Geonar Busx, Esq. F.R.S. Treasurer and Vice-President, in the 
Chair, 


Groncr J. Romans, M.A. F.LS. ko. 
Bveskstim Rf Haraes ciel acm capes 


animal body. wba ere belie ate Siw Weeeree eaaaey ei 
them, present mi same 3) fere, for instance, 
ahh of highly magni er as we find it in the human 
brain, and here is one of my own drawings of nervo-tissuo as I havo 
found it in the jelly-fish; and you soe how similar the drawings are 

—notwithstanding tl Are takin from the extreme Tits of the animal 


cab ard tak ws aoe with the Babe iaye tate cman tins 
body in all directions. When such a bundle of nerve-tbrea 
ganglion, or collection of nerve-cells, it splits up like the end of a 
oo teeter ie eesti ancient mgt hiding Sy 
out of the nerve-cells, so interlacing with one another in all 
directions, ax here diagrammatically represented, More true to nature 
is this disgram, which reprosents a mngnifiod section of human brain 
—the human brain being itself nothing more than a collection of very 


the funetion of nerve-cells and norye-fi 1 
ty reap thatch tapratleg flyanpere phan 


7 eae to represent a muscle cut from the of a 
freshly animal, So long as you do not interfere with it thes 
Inte it, either with a pinch, Tverd, or, on nipeenented Sn te dig 
with an clectrical shock, the muscle will give » contraction in 


| ae 











is from 
to the nerve-fibre; so that if » muscle is attached to the end of the 
Laide repay mb pide gyre Sissy net Se ae 
norve-cells are collected into gunglia often appear to discharge 
their energy spontaneously, without any observable etimulus to cause 


we 
meet with apparently spontaneous action, we infer that ganglia are 


between such parts withoul the necessary passage of contractile waves. 

I will now conclude all that is necessary to say about the function 
of nervous tissue by describing the mechanism of reflex action. 
Supposo this to represent any peripheral structure, such asa part of 
the skin of some animal, this a collection of nerve-cella or ganglion, 
and this a muscle, The part of the skin represented is united to the 
nerve-cells composing the ganglion by means of this in-coming nerve- 
trunk, while the nerye-cells in the ganglion are united to the muscle 
by means of this out- nerve-trunk, Therefore when any stimulns 
falls on the skin where this in-coming nerve-trank takes its origin, 


one of their characteristic di of nervous energy, which dis- 
then down this ont nerve and 60 causes the musele 
to contract. Now'this parti kind of is called 


reflex action, because sinus ve doe nt pas fe 8 gh 


i 
i 
fi 
F 
u 


Hay 
in 
alo 
aie 
gears 
BHT 
pares 
pul 
tee 


from one member of the body to another is effected exclusively 
eee 
‘Those among you who are acquainted with Mr, Herbert Spencer's 


‘a 
writings are doubtless well aware how a case he makes out in 
favour of his theory ing the gonosis of norves, This theory, 
you will remember, is that which supposes rere fee conductile tissues, 
‘or rudimentary nerve-fibres, to be differentiated from the surrounding 

hich is five to Th Tegioniog wit ce 

wi lve sim] use. e ease 
Cae Mr. neeaag echinat ate 
every portion of the mass is equally excitable and equally 


are 
which other of its parts are exposed. Consequently, as protoplasm 
Beer ceaks cava ber aiisl MB 

er gladly liarly situated with reference to 
external wi be more. frequea! rr a “perth 


Anust 
of the mass. Ni cases the relative frequency. 
Sistah waves of ulation tatints tree tha oes enpvet aes 
sort 





Mr. calls it a “line of 


Fw 1. form of a mushroom. The organ 
oc 


animal, and is called the swimming- 
bell, Both the polypite and the 
swimming-bell are almost entirely 
comp of a thick, transparent, 
and non-contractile jelly; but the 
whole surface of the polypite, and 
the whole concave surface of the 
bell, are overlaid by a thin lay 
or sheet of ureclager tissue. te This 
ae tissue constitutes the earliest 
Auretin owrita, £ not, ize, pearance in the animal (ingilcm ot 
trne muscular fibres. Tho thickness of this continuous layer of in= 
cipient muscle is pretty uniform, and is nowhere greater than that 
very thin paper. The margin of the bell supports a series of highly 
contractile Saecles and seater series reese are oe 
+ importance for us to-night. jose aro the margii 
Eodies, which are here eine but the structure of which Tien 
not describe. Lastly, it may not be surperfluous to add that all the 
Meduse are locomotive. The mechanism of their locomotion is very 


: 





a 


8 a F full 


H iil | 
ace a 


¥ 


in 


Hura i 


ok Ha 


uaaale 


ce 
34 





if! 


Hea 


To begin, then, with this diagram. It reprosents Aurelia aurita 
Tait Ste phy pits ont off at the fase aa Gb nrlcyar eniahra eta 


Fia, 2. 





of the bell exposed to view. The bell, whon fully expanded, ns here 
represented, is about the size of a soup-plate, and im it all the ganglia 
of the margin are collected into the eight marginal bodies; so that 
on cutting out these eight marginal bodies total paralysis of the bell 
ensues, But althongh the bell is thus paralyzed as to its spontaneous 
movements, it continues responsive to stimulation; for every time 
you prick or electrify any part of the contractile sheet, a wave of 
contraction starts from the point which you stimulate, and sproads 
from that point in all directions as from a centre, Such contractile 
waves, at ordinary temperatures, travel at about the rate of a foot 
and a half per second; and the important question with regard to 
them which wo shall havo to consider to-night is this—Aro they 


1877.} on Eoolution of Nerves and Nerco-Systems. 433 


merely of the nature of muscle-waves, snch as we seo in undiffer- 
entiated protoplasm, or do they require the presence of nerve-fibres 
to convoy thom —tho stimulus wave in tho nerve-fibros progrossivoly 
causing, a8 it advances, the contractile wave in the muscle-fibres ? 

Now the great argument in favour of these contractile waves being 
musclo-waves, and nothing more, is simply this —that the contractile 
tissue is able to endure immensely severe forms of section without te 
contractile waves in it becoming blocked. For instance, when 
Dell of Aurelia is cut as here represented, and capper nee 
is stimulated, a contractile wave radiates from the point of stimulation 
just as it did before the cuts were introduced, notwithstanding the 
wave has now to zig- pees} round the ends of the overlap- 


ents, Similarly, i artificial stimulation 
ben den ganglion (7) be left in On mn aie ea Ol the other seven are 
Fm. 3. 


g 





removed, contractile waves will radiate in rhythmical succession from 
ae Lai remaining ganglion, and course all the way round the dise. 
this experiment seems to prove that the contractile waves « 


Lalas opp aie or itive» 


pees another form of section. Seven marginal bodies 
having been removed as before, the eighth ono was mado the point of 

circumferential ial wsctlon, swhish’ wea than Guedied svienelaeae 
Sours; bang thie eng ribbon shaped step of Unsee withthe pangtion 








J 


Nevertheless there isan important body of evidence to be adduced 
on the other sido; but as I can only wait to state a fow of the chief 
ints, I shall confine my observations to the spiral mode of section. 
‘irst of all, then, I have invariably found it to be the case that if this 
mode of section be carried on sufficiently far, a point is sooner or 
later sure to come at which the contractile waves cease to pass 
forward : they become blocked at that point. Moreover, the point at 
which such blocking of the waves takes place is extremely variable in 
different individuals of the same species, Sometimes the waves will 
become blocked when the strip is only an inch or less in len 
whilo at other times they continue to freely from end to of 
4 strip that is only an inch broad and more than a yard long; and 
between these two extremes there are all degrees of variation. Now 


| 
| 


1877.]__ on Erolution of Nerves and Neroo-Systems. 435 
the 


if we suppose that the influence of the ion at 
strip is propagated as a mere muscle-wave along the 
see why ® wave should ever become blocked ot Jess that 


IY 
a 
HE 
soeae 
ie by 

petit 
fet 

i He 
BEESE E, 
tH 
ifthe 


: 
aE 
Ey 
: 
. 
E 
A 
F 
E 
7 
Ee 
is 
l 
y 
Er 


Hf 
fH 
iE 
a) 
Hi 
i 
ao 
ore 








ery a atc Sarees pie ih aa 


toot rr ts exy perp of eereniny oes peter mae ies 

the ota tuneeer tis rater iaetlaticts er such vicarious 
fibres is tins an obvious in the ease of a evolved nervous 

it by no means follows that any dogroe of be in 


BEEe 
Fu 
He 
5 E 
uh 
fale 
We 
erase 
ieieee 


: 
[ 
E' 
Es: 
iH 
= 
B 
Hal 


is 
@ bridge of the matter of the 
spade late eo ward. Moreover, the admi 
would seem to indicate vicarious action is also 
feta ecgle cecateaen ee! of the brain, I may add 
tended tosuggest a novel in! ition of the way in which 
ns af tia, act upon the ; for whercas it los hitherto 
the at reflex excitability whieh thes poisons engender is due 
exerting a stimulating influence on cord, the researches in 
fairly well that the 


4 
iz 
# 
F 
Holt 
careiie 
FIPTEELE? 


z 
fi 
: 


E 


= 

i 

ti 

2 
: 

aE 


2 

A 

E 

ae 

i 

= 
SFSSEE 


ES 


my sn depressing 
ence on the tiksues; for un extremely seewater solution has the offp f 


FE 
ae 
Be 
2 
s 
& 
&) 
Lt 
Ez 
E 
E 
a 
g 
z 
Es 
9 
& 


of this stimulus wave admits of ieraped seen, For 
itisa aera of the numberless aded the 
of this Medusa, 


Belgreen ear nero, 
issue of the bell. Consequently a stimulus may be aj 





ccxttuaiis dees of hn bal Aloe io aah aicans amteet sa, 


contractile wave in the bell-tissue itself, and is stron aoe 
itacles—one ntarl 


pr alinaraigete wave in tho ten 


‘bat the 


— 





symmetrical form 
one set of lines should be used much more Srequadity Gant eras 
set, it follows from Mr. Spencer’s theory that all the lines should 
more or less resemble one another as the extent of their 
differentiation.* That is to say, they sh: all be lines presenting 





it applies to other parts of the norvons system. For although it is true that « 
jusa os a whole ie “exposed all round” to an “avornge equality of forces," it 


<<. 2 


on Evolution of Nerves and Nervo-Systems. 





























waves, but depend for 


Hunan 
a a 
SMe eral 
aap ae 
Ae AU HEAP 
He eH eT 

Bret Leber ret 
et ie a 
au BREE atta 
eee Ae dE 


a 














cure 


forces 
Hence, 








tmarginal bolice having eeu removed, the eighth one continued to originate 
ho now 


made a radial cut half un inch on one side of the marginal body, and extending 
to the centre of the swimming-bell. The contractile waves were immediately 
blocked—thus showing, as did a somewhat similar experiment detailed in my 
first Royal Society paper (p. 293), “ that the influence of the marginal body 
had previously beon communicated to the ewiraming-bell from one side only.” Bat 
in the ense we are now sce the discharges of the marginal body wore 
still rendered apparent by vary hk contractions of u tissue orca in the immediate 


nye 
ip—the contraction being therefore general, 


tion 
ag 


tie 


‘operat 


the 


than balf on hour after th 


fo contract rhythiuicall: 
taper ce nema te 


al 


nitrate 


‘contractions pene 
conti: 
the 
‘first 
cont 
became eq! 





aera influence, there succeeded « period 
the area © m continued to contract 


rat ore) 
ae 


merle 


nities 
ee nl | 





so of 
de- 


i : 
lity 


a benefit to this Medusa that its i 
stimulation in the bell; for the end of the 
a stinging  Pectaera ben Bite perdi 
sequently, when any living object touches the bell—whether it be an 
enemy or a creature serving as prey—it must alike be an advant 
sade Modem dist is pelyntie Se a)ieito:sorrei ore ickly to 
ight spot, in the one ease to sting away the in the other 
ioe mb eee Heo Tt tst store doctin would 
to convert lines ischarge in promiscuous directions, 
qo aoa bf iddechange 4a ‘actaitta directions—thus bet pore 
function of localization. At first, no doubt, this function 
performed only in a general and tentative manner (as, indeed, T have 
observed in the case of Aurelia); but gradually, by the combined action 


os 





= sere enenmeienreneenr tit 
see een OC 
i eet (en a3 EG a 4 Hil i 
2. 2} ie te 43733 red 233 aay i Eu ; a F 
‘ Ue 33°! i nea =F ae TbuR 3 zy 
Vi Ay HHiHEE: aia Hg! Ae 
i PE int ie AT eeTT HH if 
He terre eae 
: gee2= itiy a cet 7 ey i322 
i ¥ Sgedesgess das 22334.63 nile un 
Bers are liieet a i He 
= Bale: oP 
E Perils THE Hua elds af 





44d Mr. George J. Romanes 


that the hi of 
Pialeapeat cetera 
Fo the etc of romdettog wonk cael ai 


pping ents, in 
to destroy, not eee 
the polypite—the latter then remaining passive, aie 
waves are wholly blocked. 
And lastly, Dofore leaving the are 
like to mention the notoworthy fact, 
to perform the intricate pie fr actin de 
stimulation in the bell, no signs of 
dotected with the microscope. Riasonere pert 
is removed from the polypite continues ppt sly! 
function, in just the same way as docs the entire organ. 
words, this localizing function, which is so hee rt 
by the polypite of this Medusa, and which, if 
occurred in the higher animals, would Rear ls 
for its structural correlative, is here shared 
the exceedingly tenuous excitable tissue that ae 
of the organ, The case of the incipient of the polypite 
resembles that of the incipient nerves of at Papen nel 
in both cases obvious signs of characteristic function are | 
before any corresponding ow of structure can be 
Nervo-cells thorefore, no Tess than sere aro thus shown to havo 
their first beginnings in differentiations of protoplasmic substance 
which are too ret for the microscope to analyze. 
There is one other species of Medusa about which I should 
to say a very few words, because it 
heryous evolution than Tiaropsis. 

















1877.] on Eeolution of Nerves and Nervo-Systema, 445 


by singe sort tog the mara of We bl Tas 
by o le out © in © bell, 

tis ee that I was first able to perceive any 

of co-ordination among the marginal ganglia. “ ns aibe other 


ies of Meduse the marginal lia appear to act independently 
one another; but in this atlantis 

the marginal ganglia are first neen to be Fic. & 

united by a visible nerve-fibro, they always 

act in concert. So much, indeed, is this 

the caso, that the animal is able to steer 

samt in any required direction, as ered 

by the Cease! Bens Se es 

year, whereby indivi i8_ species 

were shown to have the power of folloy 

a moving beam of light round and ro 

tho vessel in which they were contained. 

I may also remark that individuals of this 

species present inuch more nervous energy 

than those of any other species of Meduse 

which I have had the opportunity of ob- 

serving. 


I have now, ladios and gentlemen, os 
munieated some of the points wherein m 
work has tended to elucidate the car! wy 
stages in the evolution of norves 
nervous systems. And these are just the 
stages concerning which elucidation is 
most required. once nerve-fibres 
and nerve-cells have been fully evolved 
= arranged i Fa oe form of simple reflex 

beequent ae of 
their Seer Brae eemipoane ae 
an is readily intelligi The pele 


See i for instance, these 

which represent severally the nervous sy8- Sersie febuloea, x throo tines, 

ina of an ertiororms & centpey an . 
Ansoek, end a spider 5 and observe the progrossive Heated exer 

which has taken place. Tho progressive centralization w! 

thus effected is no doubt ultimately duo to natural selection, if 
not exclusively, at any rate in large part ; i eee 

consolidation of the reflex mechanisms must be of great benefit 

to the organisms which prosent it—scrving as it does to render 

possible muscular movements ever more more varied and com- 


Te 
: 


L 


able 


iat 





as to admit of boing actually seen, and are therefore entitled to be 
called nerves. All round the margin, and likewise along the course 


in Aurelia. In the next place, this greater difforentiation of nerve- 
tissue renders the nervous connection between any two parts of the 
organiam much more definite, and therefore vicarions action less 
promiscuous, than we have seon it to be in the other jelly-fishes; so 


4 , 


1877.] on Evolution of Nerves and Nerco-Systems. 445 


that, for instance, a tentacular wave in this species may be blocked 

by a single short cut through the margin of the bell, Lastly, itis fn 

this species that I was first able to ive any i ovidence 

sys At te ral gana ape ot inept 
ies use the in ay 

AG clecten phan ae ue besie — 2 
margi ny are seen to 

pai hope cepeesucoaeret always Lesh 

act in concert. So siek, fodsad Ok this 


whereby individuals of this species 
Ee fin the power of salle tae 


Ty lo fen tha vis of this 
present much more nervous energy 
Tica thseictlasy ols arien of Mcrae 
which I have had the opportunity of ob- 


work has tended to elucidate the earl; 


HAgTaRs 
represent severally the nervous sy8- Sursia (shulosa, x throo times, 


inseot, and a 4; 3 and progressive fusion of 
which bas place. Tho ive centralization which is 
oN Skeeter genase cee ion, if 
not exolusi: at rate in largo ; for this increasi 
senealidatien of tho re aa 


cL 





ae 


exprossing thi to you, I should be just 
little on tho way towards proving materialism, as T am 

you that a blow on the head produces insonsibility. Sci 
never go farther than common sense in ing any 
tion to subsist between mind and matter; all 
ever do is to ascertain numerous details wit 






i 
Hee 


| 
: 
if 


ever, materialism or no materialiam, it is manifest that the facts 
what they are, Mr. Spencor’s theory as to the genesis of nerves 
not be allowed to stop short just where its presonce is most 

As we have seen that the cerebral hemispheres of man resem! 
other ganglia in structure, we cannot hesitate in concluding, 
‘Mr. Spencer’s theory is valid in explaining the genesis of it 
general, in can be no less valid in ining the genesis 
supreme ganglin in particular. And as we have every 
believe that functional operations of these supreme gang 


Eni 


HE 


e 


4 a 


447 


on Evolution of Neroes and Nervo-Systems. 


1877.] 


aE Uses ayeni 2332 S23) rH Bs ii 
eee TRUTH eee EERE iP it. 

anil (iti i Hall ule ia ti 

Hutt i tare 

FEE eu Leer ree LE Lae eH LA et 
Aas are ers i Eo ae Z oga34 vi i dds 

3 S Ain 3 2 ite cet Hey | iF hog 


Palen ag ftisk ; afte 
Bt PHL PUTT HH die 
eel HU RIHIS i Hire 





Pa 


Mr, Oscar Browning on the History of Education. 449 


1877] 


sag 


i 


3 


af 


ieuenty 


a: | 


Gaue 


i 33 mie _ 


agsapeiggdips tata 
ellie 
at? 25s Pers 

andy 


bay 


ni 
itil 
BHATT 


3253 
ain 


Wil 


has assumed 


if 


EEEES % 
ule 
ule 


i 
He 











He 
Un 


: 
a8 
i! 


was made to 


rtd 


Tactopely Wr id aluecy. The MER St iuee ean Egypt 
Whe first had but little offect on the of 


source of enlightenment to surrounding nations. Not only the great 
Jawgiver of the Jews, but those who were most uctive in stimulating the 
nascent energies of Hellas, were careful to train themsclves in the 
wisdom of the Egyptians, Greoce, in giving an undying namo to the 





4 k 











until Groece took the conqueror captive, a was trained for the 
duties of life in the foram and the senate house. The Greeks were 
the first to develop a scionce of education distinct from ecclosiastical 
i he rie a, tens et eee aT 
ics, one Com) ment 
Music was at first little more than the study of the art of 
But the of intellectual education which had been 
fiistmige‘aled |arctiaal teachers was thus further 
ists, until it received a new stimulus and direction 


s 
ral 
i 

a RE 


ne 
ready listeners and his most ardent disciples? In the intervals 
running, wrestling, or the bath, the young 
discoursed with phil who had come 
the good, the beautiful, the truo, The lowest 
teachers were to train them to maintain any view which they 


Hl rs war oie» ving the Knowl 
. lauatinfoction with cenatved 


: 

i 

t 

ae 
iis 

eel 


P 
| 
: 
He 
E 
i 
iE 


re 
¢ 
HG 
| 
a 
i 
: 
4: 


He 
if 
g 

ne 
Pee 
fy 
A 
if 
lit 


for the contest of life, the other to excite in them varying feelings 
tendern is 


ine 
Hires 
PEErat 
Lf a3, 
| H 

é 
rill 
5. A, 
brid: 


i 


i if a 


LUGE 
ip 


Pi 


the 


3 


ae 


alive 
ually: mi 


eq 
that 


a 


Hobie He 


H 


5 
i 
3 


key 
ne 
of 





























ri Huu Pere ED TEE r ; 
uae 
Ha eeu itt eee eo 
ieliapeditee til Ha UE 
i pained HEHE te HELGE 
: Be silat diniial Hay ulin Bie 
ah unig dane hake f 
Lala tl ee eal 4 
e HUE dana Ebi lii 


sae 4a 


ee 


i 


3 


i a ; ges! 
pee Habs Bini oH 
Hie ale | ela aly ai 


Melanchthon attempted to supply his ee ies < 


g2% a 


set i 


course, 
existing 
We 


inquiry more fruitful than in 
institutions 


the ve 

philosophical argnments as tho results of conscious wi 
tudied in the dark 
ipon thom. 


to deal with the Quadrivium, and wrote 
to defend our existit 
great school use they were not 5: in ages, and 


if we wish to ascertain the real reasons for our 


ipted 
physical science. The schools of the Reformation seldom included 


in their curricula more than the studies of the three 


Tn nothing is the historical method of 


ce of Greek, the terror of the obscurantists ; 
each department of the Trivium, grammar, dialectic, pie pres he 


We now como to tho names of two theoretical and 


do not care to ascertain that mathematics hold a subordinate 


even attem) 

education, 

arrangements. We often attem) 

by 

our 

because Aristotle did not write a treatiso uy 





pe EE qa gpgea 4 
* Ean fy Te A iy q 
Ue ile piel 
SU ae ee lea by 


pyigeboazss teh 29i2. HL ca LE 
Han ila wali | ee 
a , ‘=, 


Hea eee aUn a Pua 
PA 
aetna rel unica (el 


much 
of education is sntignied and 





1820 pBagetien philosophy out of Aristotle 


ro 


Ir 


5 


on the History of Education. 


21? 1s ehete a # ep ane Er 
Hanae ae SE 
ai ae neat ete 
Uae Tat paca 
Ble Ea EH 
fan 232% 2 g ipa 28 is a ; 
Fla ti Rela Het 
LOT a eae 
ips. ete Tee = i : 
ig aE i HORI eur et 


del 


Hig 


ky 
He 2: 


i 
a 
3 4 
a 


= 


Fie 


the forests of Versailles 
1 church, the 
Racine, 


‘of th 
of 


jon amon, 
us of Pascal, 


the 





, lacation. 
pecs sd 
om 


1877.] 


r 


f 


Hiyue 
24 tate 
28 i iii! Fri 
ngs eat nda 
eat “eu Bae 
i HT anni a2: Had 2 As ‘ 
i Hie i pat eH #343; 
# #3 3 (Hl EEEEEE aie ES fs} A i rey 
i gebiiiees gues z i aq ie if #3 dhe 
: SoHE nae iz # 
Hee Ue qeley siizite + 
raat Heute a ualelt tg 
le 
ete 
a a 
a mt 
siPekedl 


of 


a 


is 


a ae in the 
low, the 
0 prop between whom tho world-child 


the 


3 
i 
3 
2 


Rebellion 


| 


ft 


in of 
nd Lavater, one of 


' 
7 
i 
E 


the heroes of the 


iti 
injue! 


Aaa ei 


‘bus ‘hs 
Bil 
are 




















a AEN Nee He Tn 
leer e si zs8i ‘ue é bit fh 
LE ae ite at 

eee ae ee 
er wii: Ho HF Hi hs ae :: He sEirtiis s 

sua deate iii dara 

Pita inaitl 7 i 

a ee ‘ull feels Ly ay HH He 
Pacilaa un aul tt 

E USUMriennen upanieitie 


rear (i 


a 


} 


giige 26531 in 
By SE BE HL 





a —_ 
1877, on the History of Education, 463 


perp ae Regs ae hich be closely studied 
nation that wishes to solve # "ts rotten fori Bat bare 


oe . 

still best 

been uni condemned by educational reformers for tho last two 
i and customs derived from age of 4 


observation, A ho should succeed in this, would 
etd beeen os is coos oh Pers ree Por 


ss 
i 
ut 
Lf 
f 
Ee 
i 
| 


a7 


Ft 
beet 
i 

i 
[ 


I 
i 
ui 


largo 
Lo le ple peered pang gd we must urge them 
ECT ae ence hanced ich are recorded in 


education, 


( 464 ) [June 1, 


CHRONOLOGICAL LIST 


or 


THEORETICAL AND PRACTICAL TEACHERS. 





Quintilian 
Alcuin .. 
Gerhard Groote 
Erasmus 
Luther... 1 
Ignatius Loyola 
Melanchthon 
John Sturm .. 
Montaigne. a 
John Amos Comenins i 
Dr. Busby : 
Milton 
Lancelot 
Locke .. 
Féndlon .. 
Rollin 
Roussean 
Basedow .. 
Pestalozzi 
Goethe .. 
Jean Paul 
Jacotet .. 
Janes Miil 
Dr. Arnold 













TRIVIUM AND QUADRIVIUM. 


GRAMM(atica) loquitur, DLA(lectica) verba docet, RHE{torica) verba colorat ; 


MUS(ice) canit, AR(ithmetics) numerat, GEO(metris) ponderat; AS(tronomia) 
colit astra, 


THE SEVEN STUDIES OF KNIGHTLY EDUCATION. 


PROBITATES hw aunt: oquitare, natare, sagittare, cestibus certare, aucupare, 
ecacis ludere, versificarc, 


1877.) Gencral Monthly Meeting. 465 


GENERAL MONTHLY MEETING, 
Monday, June 4, 1877, 
Guouae Busx, Esq. F.R.S, Treasurer and Vice-President, in the Chair, 


Leber a a) 
Wiitas Aicconder Menke Hallow . MLA. 


Charlee Rogers Heap, Esq 
Mar Jol Pletcher Moditon, 


were elected Members of the Royal Institution> 
The Presets received since the last Meeting wore laid on the 
table, and the thanks of the Members returned for the same, viz. :— 


Fanos 
ssaedinate: dot pied, oye 2 Fae TE Teepe Tas oe eae ito. 


Pes eee eet een a 1877. 
Agricaltural Society, Hoyal—Journal ; Second Series, Vol. XIU. Part 1. 8yo. 


1877. 
Ca Philosophical Society, Philadelphia —Vol. XV. Vol. XVI. No, 98. S8yo. 


Monthly Notiocs, Vol. XXXVIL No. 6. Gvo. 1877. 
a ee as angen, Band ‘XIE Ste Abthr. 


eens 1876, (Haha On 
Bria feats 1a76-7. Now sh 11. to, 
# ro Fa Ge ds srt 
cota en : 


Cental Rey dri tM 
cee ae 8: (ie dahon) Détrvaton de la Vitesso de i cEaniy 3 
des Expériences exéoutéos en 1874 entre l'Observatoire et Montihéry. 


1878. 
Gout, Soke, Ho. (Che atctaaa and Entelleet. Ito. 1877. 
jean Journal of Sclence for May, 1877. 8vo. 


Nautical for 

Pharmaceutical Journal for May, ‘1877. 8vo. 
ene ey. 1877. 810. 
0. 617, vo, 1877. 


f 





Voreis dos 
Dee 18762 Apr err 
Yorlshire Archeological Assoctation—Journal, Part 16. 8y0, 1877. 


1877.] Prof. Tyndall on Putrefactive and Infectice Organiams. 407 


WEEKLY EVENING MEETING, 
Friday, June 8, 1877, 


Grouse Buex, Esq. F.R.S. Treasurer and Vice-President, 
in the Ohair. 


Joux Tyxpat, LL.D. D.C.L. P.R.S. 
Profesor of Natural Piilowoptiy in the Royal Institution. 


Researches on the Deportment and Vital Resistance of Putrefactive and 
Infective Organisms, from a Physical Point of View, 

(This Abstract includes a notice of tho discourse given on Jnn. 19, 1877.) 
Poxrions of the autumn of 1875, and of the winter and of 
1875-76, were devoted to the first section of these researchos, on 
Seale of January, 1876, its main resnlts were communicated orally 


jon.* Tho completed memoir was handed in to 
the Royal Society on the 6th of April: it is publiahed in vol. 166 of 
the‘ ‘Transactions,’ 


Many of the “closed chambers” ie in US Sees were 
Batiattiel on the Qlst of Jannary to s inspection of fembers. 


= 


Hl 
i 
af 
Ae 
Ee 
aE 


file igus At Wa the generation and maltiplication of such 


experiments embraced, among others, the following 
vent in ihe meters) Gamage infusions of mutton. Re 


ip, sole, haddock, codfish, salmon, turbot, mullot, 
oyster, whiting, liver, kidney, bare, rabbit, barndoor fowl, 
vessels containing these liquids which 

oxposed. to eration “puted ir amounted to” sovra 


* Geo p. 6 of this volume of the * Proceedings ofthe Hoyal Institution’ 


=! 


Hae 
a 
Bile G 


i 
A 
‘gi 
2 


A laetialy 

The majority of these mixtures remained unchanged ; minority 
became charged with organisms, which are, in my opinion, com 

accounted for by reference to the protective action of the choese, 

In the memoir of which this is an abstract such protective action is 

illustrated by the fact that when ordinary mustard seeds were tied 





“ i i 


— 


withstand temperatures 
Hifusion $e free, I need not remark on 







i 


f 
g 


i 
ch 


only 
changii a 
art fusions extracted from 
in the autumn of 1876 behaved 
of 1875, being completely ilized by five minutes’ 


tee 


I 


i 
f 


infusions 


: 
: 


new +, the 


ing to which had not been subjected to long-continued 


‘As the inqui 
spre eevee 





i 





at the later date. The scientific mind ‘not | 
Mole between re Cope ate » 
‘or my own it a 
my own part the gradi irresi eit 


treatment of my infusions, 
I finally 





PX ie 


Putrefactice and Tafectice Organiema. 471 


1877. 


ti 
or the remarkable 
By 


placed before us :—Lither 


A second olear issuo is thus 
pari areas Gardens an inherent 


Royal 

Street 
waded. 

ing at Kew. 


z 
as 
is 


fe 
al 


P32 


ote Pa TI 


sia He 


wee 


i 


ey 


Bag - 


Hie 


elie 
ue 45 


tagin we 
higher than in wator, the self-zame temperature 
latter and sensibly harmless in the former ; hence my 





I n 
with filtered air. They were almost as unsuccessful as those made 
with ordinary air, From timo to time I succeeded in 

Lanai sterility by five minutes’ boiling; but these successes were 
so checked by failures that, similar to other cases referred to, they 
appeared in the light of accidents. They were, however, by no means 
eae y ogee SSisnares et Als aati of leseka in Shee 
lence contagium, which, ler circumstances, might have 
been foreseen. 

A rapid glance at the means employed to improve the method of 
experiment, and at tho results of their employment, may be permitted 
here, Bulbs, exhausted by an air-pump and afterwards heated almost 
to redness, were filled when cool with filtered air. While being 
charged with the infusions the bulbs were warned, so as to produce a 
gentle outflow of air, and their necks were sealed while the outflow 
continued. twas thus sought to avoid the contamination consequent 
on an indraught, 


1877. 


- a 


Putrefactive and Tifective Organiams. 473 


‘The failures resulting from this mode of i 
lures ting vis my experiment greatly pre- 


over the successes. 


with infusions of this hay. In inl cases, moreover, gerins were 
found so indurated and resistant, five, six, and in one case even 
eight hours’ boiling failed to deprive them of li 


life, 
All the difficultics tered in this and laborious 


rilized by 
times multiplied, would fail Caos 
contin . Four minutes in the one case can 
accom what four hours fail to accomplish in the other. 











1 bard end icy hep frots Gondioed, which I Layo we tosson to echadiar 
Per stirrer Gea peri ee 


1877.) Putrefactive and Infective Organisma, 475 


ible. A temperature, moreover, far below the boiling 
point suffices for storilization.* 
Another mode of sterilization, Ge te and remarkable, 
in followi: 


fe tite ee oreo shown in other cases, appeared 


ents aereeh $6 Oe ee nee 
O altene caso 


by 
the air which has esipole Bio) 
carefully restored to the 
infusion, ere is no revival 
of lif, By peti te veh is wk tn tro 


organisms, Bacterial germ: 
excess Si ee defect of oxygen. A rosbaaiial Dotion 
may also come into play. 


I hardly think it necessary to summarize what has been here 
brought before you. In fact, the whole discourse is but a summing 
up of eight months of incessant labour. From tho beginning to the 
ond of the in eee) there is not, as you have seen, a shadow of evidence 
in favour of octrine of ppanienvons generation. ‘There is, on the 
contrary, overwhelming evidence against it; but do not Senet 
with you the notion sometimes erroneously ascribed to me, that 





1877.] Putrefactive and Infective Organisms. 407 


deem spontancous generation “ impossible,” or that I wish to limit the 
power of matter in relation to life. My views on this subject ought 
to be well known. But possibility is one thing and proof is another, 
and when in our day I seek for experimental evidence of the trans- 
formation of the non-living into the living, I am led inexorably to the 
conclusion that no such evidence existe, and that in the lowest, as in 
the highest of organized creatures, the method of nature is that life 
shall be the issue of antecedent life.* A F 1 
J.T. 





* Throughout these laborious researches I have been sided, with his sccus- 
tomed zeal and ability, by my excellent senior assistant, Mr. John Cottrell. He 
has been worthily seconded by Mr. Frank Valter, and, in « humbler but still 
effectual way, by William Card. 


wore elected Bombers of the Royal Tnstit 


reooived I 
Recaps pag tater enter tas 





rROM 
viene pgm 


Atco Vol Xt fo Te Vol. XXXVI No.7. Sy, 1877. 
Dr. Emile 


Sloomer Polonia Vol 1 Papua! Oteecratan, ft Woke 


in, 1876, 
Britiah Institute of Sessional at 
Royal of- nell Tange eae Bede 


nee, ore 

aes A ee Greenwood: River Terraces, So, 1877. 

eae seks ene for Son, 15 8vo, 

Athenwum for Ji roa Pl 

Tihensial Mews fer dias cist Ato, 
une, 

Hts ural fr Sony 177, By0. nm 

Nature for June, 1877. tte visbl 

‘Nautical for 1877. 8¥o, 


eee a oe 
fournal, No. 618. Svo, 1877. 
Geological Journal, No.130. 8vo, 1877. > 
‘Vol. X. hae 
eee 








apy & Co. Mar he Dubs) W. R. Cooper: Short History of Bgyptian 


Bavarion ‘Acadamy of Selances, Royal— Sitsungsborishte, 1877, Holt 32 ee.) 
Barton) FED (ha Autor) —The Spas of Ais-loe-Bains and Marion, Savoy. 
Boston Society of Natural ‘Memoirs, Vol. II. Part 4, No. 5, 


ito. 
Procoedings, Vol. XIIL Ne j Vol. XIV. Nos, IH) XVII 
3,4. Sro, 1871-8. me ee Yat 5. 
Occasional 


— ane A, T. W. Harris: Entomological Correspondence. 

British Association for the Advancement 2 
5 1876, Svo. ar 

British of Chi 

of Birds. Vol. III. 8yo, 

of Ancient Charters. Part IIT. fol. 1877. 

Buckler, George, Big. (ihe Author}—Oolchester Castle » Roman Building, bo, 


Colchester Castle, &e, Rey. H. Jenkins. 


a aia ‘Vol. XIL. Parts 











. 








- 7 rs: | 


1877.) General Monthly Meeting. 481 | 


Clemente Lond" Sappawent to Lie Vol. XLIX. Svo. 1877. 
the Lord—Supplement to Life and Works of Sir John Fortescue. 4to. | 


nr, Wn, Ba. BRAS (Ge Authory—English Landscape Art in 1877. 
Desemshics disoetot ne or he teens ‘Literature, Science, and Art—Report | 


B¥o. 
Svo. 
Geographical Society, Yo Text Wow 4, 6 6; and Charter. 
1877, Nos. 1, 2. 8vo. 1877. 
osm =. . 


eactcuee Ww i Sv. 1877 
Sree arvani ee or Menerim and ta 


Hea © fpr, Be, LIL Shr) Idan Fae: Water is the 
‘the Author)—Atlas des Monvements Supérieurs 


de ’Atmosphire. (M3) a 
Hell and P) 8yo. 1876-7. 
Halon Pip ty ha aceite 
Kershaw, SW. the Author) Notes on Grosdon Palace Sro. 1877. 
Leeds Phil for 1876-7. 
Linnean — fea ea 7s 1 a Se 1877. t cbeusciser 
Lunacy Commissioners—Thirty-firet Ropart. 1877. 
Manchester Geological Socidly—" Yok XIV, Parts 11, 12, 13, 8y0, 


Mechanécal Inatitution—Proceedings, jaly, 1877, 8 
Metical and ee Sa brag ve a 


Merten se Gurr Comat oe pee to. 1877. 
Mead dain 


Sgr ee eT. ray 1877. 
a )—El Reacato de Cervantes, (K 102.) 8vo, 
Pigs yer tala rns BP ay 8vo, 1877. 
apr ies Beef metneccngs VoL Pat I 
atti) Sr: 
ao oa pac sea laeg —Mopatsberichte: Mai, Juni, Juli, 
Qarith, MB. (ie Pei) Caner Catalogue of Books: Supplement. 
222 


zx - 








GENERAL MONTHLY MEETING, 
Monday, December 8, 1877. 


Gronce Busx, Esq. F-RS. Treasurer and Vico-President, 
in the Chair. 


were elecled Mombers of the Royal Institution. 


‘The Parsenrs received sinoe the last were laid on the 
ee ar ee ee oa same, viz. :— 


Fae Leds oe Adnity Naga Ataf 8 fro. 1877, 
Line Gitection of Boectise Atpnsatar at tie Bost nollie ance! (sc 
tated ro 1 rte 


dicie ios, BS 1865-7. 
a Taisen ofa Socal Nos. 1,2. dito, 
ween, rs ej lof Soe Pa 1354-15, Vol. IL. 
(Cain hg ee fto, 1877. 
Bottom, Boe, 
Wal RT the Deep-Sea (RB. Goog. 
Chemical jov. 1877. Bya. 
Vol. X. vo, 1877. 
Bilitors—Awerican 


Clinical 
el ee 1877. B¥o. 


Japs Dewar, ber che FRS.—Twelve Lectures 
on 


01 World; uradays, Jan, 24 to April 11, 


Ray. W. Hoveutox—Threo Lectures on the Natural 
on Saturdays, March 16, 25, 30, 





= 


Royal Enstitution of Great Britain, 


WEEKLY EVENING MEETING, 


Friday, January 25, 1878. 
Sin W. Faevericx Poixoce, Bart, M.A. Manager, in the Chair, 


214033: 


ap HON 


popularly 
i te 
the higher animals; 
‘ich enthrone him i 


three hundred years will hay 
the a 
to 


ri 


of Willi: 


tho birth 
diseoverer of the circulation of 


plese of the physiology 
at 
arisimo—| 


Many opinions have been held 


iebin of Harvey's contril 


il 


ib 


a ai | 


£233 


Sasuece. 


aT 


ae 


i 


. 


venous 
vens 
respectively. 


cat 


i 


SEF 


i 
il 





il 





into the same ventricle, and this was provided with triangular 
branous valves, like those on the right side, but only two in 





F 





g 


* We that the heart, in man and the bigher animals, consists of 
auricles and two ventricles; and that each auricle has an appendix in the form 
of n pouch. We term the vessel which arises from tho right ventricle the pul- 
monary , because it supplies the lunge with blood. ‘Those vessels 
bring away th blood from the lungs fo the left auricl, we cull tho pulmonary 
ng, 


«Seok 


as the arteria vonosa branches ont im the longs, what more likely 
its ultimate ramifications absorb the air which is inspired ; 


1 Vinityi 

penis which tape te ape the air ; or, it bs ll of cooling 
too great beat of i 

bounding feel of « pulsating artery by the hypothesis that it is full of 


More than four hundred elapsed before the theory of the 
motion of the blood retui ‘epee more to the strait which 
co lapel hata else i IG lo 
method, thatof experiment. A man 
Galenus, of 


“ genins, 
Pergamos (born in nl a in of abont 201), was 


trained to anatomical and physiol investigation in tho groat 
schools of Aloxandria, and spent a long life in incessant research, 
teaching, and medical practice. More than one hundred and fifty 
treatises from his pen, on philosophical, literary, scientific, and practi- 
cal topics, are extant ; a1 there is reason to believe that they con: 
Stitute not more than a third of his works. No former anatomist had 
cl exprinial phyla precy Danase be ws 

experimental physi » And, it is ‘because he was a 
alana pee abhapenn§ method, that babe aio more 

™ 





- ta Eula iF Uae Heel tra! 


iF iste 


on William Harvey. 
is so fond 
arteriona, 

ventricle 

Blood 

out 

wit 

is out 
ihe ome 

definite 
the arteria 
tends 

but it is 
ear 

with « 


2. 1 ay 
fault Ei be 


laut fied uuaall alls 


1878.] 


scorn 


PTE. 
F i 


Ee 


by, pectl 
bellows fill, not as bags are fall. 

The ultimate ramifications of the arteries oj 
into those of the veins all over the body ; 
blood thus communicates its to the 
the veing Under certain eon itions, however, the 


ry: 
The ventricles, the auricles, the pulmonary vessels, 
aorta with its branches, are conceived by the Greek anatomist to be an 


but 
circulation was understood, and eae 


each 





1878.) on William Harvey. 491 


logical considerations overrode those based upon mere structure, there 
was much more to be said for it than for the opposite fashion. 


of the vena cava, it is impossible not to be struck by the 
= ogee 


z 
é 
: 
é 
i 
a 
i 
i 
3 
i 


fatal objection to the view of his opponenta, that the 
their riso in tho heart; and the argument is unanswerable so 
the mere anatomical facts are concerned, 


— 
Rate 
Eve 


= 
i 
| 
i 
d 
F 
E 
i 


bFy 
+ 
i} 


< 
e 
t 
& 
e 
i 
z 
i 
& 
E 
F 
: 


i 
Lee 
ti 
ul 

ie 
ul 
Files 


ul rumifications of the latter communicate, both in the bedy 
and in the Inngs; that his goneral viow of the functions of 
heart was just; and that be knew that blood passes from tho right 
side of the heart, through the lungs, to the left side, and undergoes a 
ape _ hahha Sad ut by its ten ir i 
lunes, its course. It is nestionable, therefore, Galen, 
far, fpined the eristonct ofa! * monary circulation,” and that 





The 
Michal 
anatomy, 


: 
: 
i 
! 


fie 
it 





tho tendency to headlong speculation, which is so characteristic of tho 
man, led him to rush in where his more thoughtful colleague held 





i ai 


writing in radars refers to 


i 
ee 
Hee 
3 
a 


mah ts 


I think 
credit 


ener tr 





a) 


the 
the 


BS i 
ile 


hn poe 








* The whole title of the copy of the rare first edition in the litrary of the 
of Physicians runs, * Exerciatio Anntomica de Motu Cordis et nig 
in Auinalibua § Gulielni wei, Al Medici Regii et Professoris Anutomim: 

legio Medivorum Londinensi. Francofurti, sumptibus Guliclmi Fitzori, 
Anno MDOXXYVIIL” The dedientiona, of which that to Oharles I. is in, 
as if it had been an afterthought, extend to p. 9; the Proomium to p. 19; while 
the Exercitatio itsclf occupies ae 20 to 72 inclusively, There are two plates 
Ilustrative of experiments on the veins of the arm, 


i % 


on William Harvey. 


i a a 
eri thik au He 1H ffs na i 
at Hi nl aed Hee FHUPH ee Male 
eed gues bated Teh alat lis 
1s dies! bygliel yt seal 
ili aes ee si 
a 
HE TH al Be RHR alt! 1/3 
UTA ail van aTl 


One of the woightant axgamenta in Harv 's demonstration of the 
circulation is based upon the ¢omparison of the of blood 
ig ren esol ee a each beat, with the total quai 

This, so far as I knot 


progress 

» lies in the ‘otek of exact Leblanc 

ee ysiological experimentation and observation, Tho ee 

use ae of accurate measurement, which their forefathers neither 

possessed nor could conceive, inasmuch as they are products of 

mechanical skill of the last hundred years, and of tho’ advance of 

branches of science which hardly oxisted, even in germ, in the seven- 
teenth century. 

Having attained to a knowledge of the circulation of the blood, 





\ 


4 k 


on William Harvey. 


1878] 


eyes Ages: fg3 S2aE 3 iieiz? Ha — 
pay ail (ee Ta je 
Ha anne te i eer Hait 
i: in iiite HE Beal jiiiil: 
Heald ali at Haat 
ain Fe tan) aun (Hage 
THe uy cped ie i aH HE : 
uel ne at 
ut Hee he fa HE: 





. . « 
On the faith of a conversation reported by Robert Boyle 








is said to 

blood reases wate fee eee of 

ape On this I may remark, firstly, the words to 

a ee ee it nee RO ae 

did, statement could not be true, because wo 

own evidence to the con' ; and thirdly, that if the 

wore warranted by the and were not contradicted 

By Harvey himself it wou be worth becanse it is im- 
ible to prove circulation of the blood from such 


4 
: 
g 
3 
Eas 
if 
3 
I 
if 


3 
t 
= 
i 
g 
i 
i 
% 

ag 


ve 
blood towards the heart, but opposed the passage 





oA te about the Final Causes of Natural Things—Boyle's Works, 
vol. v, p. 427. 


499 


and it is 
ion of tho 


on William Harvey. 


1878] 


must have learned the views of his master Fabricius ; 


diseover whether those-hints were valuable or worthless. 


th that to bis acute mind Fabricis 


explanati 


the valves seemed rather lame, But, as a matter of 


+ 
4 


fonctions 


likely 


me of 
Borin 


sagaseyagreavssiqaty Ae 45 
afaitall cai eae uy Hi i 
HRBREU nee aia a a 
ran A yee ate 
Lee eH fg eT E 
Aes nents ° i: TLE ae a 
Sie ale if ap gat? Bp 
ea lain i i 
ianaaauettl i 
Sallie Hi ineis aad a 
iigatilale ns Ba ; 
Baia ene fueti eele| 
En 
Gall call i 243 i 


— 


“from the veins into the 


eres, ad the 


i 


He propesy ape th pamagi othe 
+ Guliolini Harvoji, *Exercitationes Anatomiom,’ Exercitatio I. cap. viii. od. 


the 
Wherefiire 


the 
the: 
termed 


rae 


Huai “ 
ere ay eae as THe 





1878.) 


WEEKLY EVENING MEETING, 


Friday, February 1, 1878, 
Wannes De ta Rov, Esq. D.O.L, PRS. Vice-President, 


in the Chair. 
Wrasse Henny Parwox, Memb. Inst. 0.8. MRI. ko. &e, 


pial, GApIR ni 


i] 


ast wages 


the writer 
jo. 68.) 


Vint 


i F ; 
e 3 a 
435 § i; = 
nee 


Vou. 





‘box was 


i 


siete 


‘The amplitude of vibrations is very small. Lord Rayleigh 
that a motion of usoveseoth of on inch is 
audible sounds, ped 


by 's tele- 
phone is very limited—the distance traversed can be measured 
yards. To transmit or reproduce them at distances the 
Gee a by miles, we call in aid of 
tricity. - 

An electric current when transmitted around a bar of iron converts 
that bar of iron for the time being into a magnet. When amomentary 
current is sent around the iron it is magnetized, and then demag- 
netized, Page, in 1837, showed that these tions, when 
with sufficient rapidity, produced sounds which he called “galyanie 
music,” The bar of iron alters its form, it in fact vibrates, and 
these vibrations are imparted to the air. 

Again, this bar of iron, when magnetized, will attract another piece 





on the Telephone. 


1878,] 


a 


in 


Hl 


4 


‘The minstrel boy to the war is gone, 


Tn the ranks of death you'll find him ; 


His father’s sword he hes girded on, 


And his wild harp slung behind him. 


iil “ay vie 
: a ae 


a 


un £84373 








LINE 








aa 


i 


Z 
3 
é 


z 


i 


FE 
gas 
Pre 


ig 


hal 
ats 


i 


es 


egos 
LE 





* This experiment is due to Mr, H, Edmunds, jun. 


: Ha i 
Sa hE 
3S 

. 


* Hae f 
tn ian 


on the Telephone, 


1878.] 

of the 
2 
mone 
this very 
ete 
oil of 
current 
Dell or 
agree 
jomaet 
shown with 


Fin. 3. 





tHe 


! 


ria 


nal 


able to take up a portion of the sonorous vil 

much of the actual enorgy of the yoice is lost in 
resistance of the disc and in heating the wires. 
the sounds omitted at the second station are 


iz 


! 


| 
i 


E 
: 
F 


New York to Boston, 260 miles. The writer has spoken between 
Holyhead and Dublin, 70 miles. Conversation between Dover and 
Calais was maintained by Mr. Bordeaux with great ease, 

Turner, RE., whi 





It has been shown that discs vibrate under the influence of 
sonorous vibrations, and that these vibrations can bo recorded. If 


greater 
Caan ata al string Spry Apaprate eis paces 
and the production of sound. Helmholtz’s researches led him to 


where 
tion suggests experiment, and experiment evolution puces: 
growth and perfection. Thin, Lees 
as true, Hise acoounsr ofl ine tolegtauecee seeairee te 
with oes Deis ane ke bata tewatres an tay 
is shown 





The India O; ors erap fcr 4to. 1878. 
a =A ln 1 
Col. J. F, RR SE ot See amen, oe ee 
Lahore, Dee. 8, 1874. to, 1877, 
ean dee th f Asfonomical Obervaton atthe Cope at Good Hope 


Scfences—Proceedings, 
American ee of rs an ‘New Series, Vol. LV.; Old 


American Sociely—Proceedings, No, 69. 8yo, 1863, 
Auetie Soak, Revo, Bombay Bracke Journal; Notes Se 181 

iO, + 
‘Aiiatie onal ABT, Bast I. Nec 2 ve 


stand dere Wo 6. Bre 
drone ‘Rooiely, Royal—Monthly Notices, Vol. XXXVIIE, Nos. 1,2. Sra. 
Memoirs, Vol, XLII, 4to. 1877. 


“ates 


Bavarian Academy of Sciences, Royal — Sitzungsberichte, 1877, Hoft 2. S8vo. 


1877, 
Briggs, 12. Eag. (the Avthor)—On the Relation of Moisture in th Health 
ari Combo ia Kt Journal, Vol OV. 1878 yet 
British Tnutihate of Bomsenal Papers, Noe. 8 4,8, 6. 


Pe) 





——y 


1878.] General’ Monthly Meeting. 509 


British Museum lhe TPN pedal pe li 8yo, 1877. 
Catalogue of Groek Coins: Tauric, Chersonese, Thrace, &e. Bvo._ 1877. 
Catalogne of Prints an d Drawings: Division 1, Satires, Vol. ITE, 1734-60. 

Brussels Royal Obserealory—Annalea Météorologiques, 1874-5-6. dito. 1875-7. 

‘Dec. 1877 and Janu. 1878. Sya. 


feta genet MAE epee Re 
PS Ris be 


Clinical Soetely—Transactions, Vi 
Coutts, Je Author) ‘the Seven Principl 
Gri: nh Rete Spay Ap 
Seal oben ae tee Terr aid aoe 1878 8¥0. 


Biesesancias 
enya for Dex ST and Sa 18 8y0. 
Athenaum for Dec, 1877 and Jan. 1878. dito. 


Frankland, z tr er ny 1 aie 
a pean uns (the Author) — 

Researchos in Pure, A) ae oes 8 aT 

Franklin Institute—J. fos, 624, a aren sas 


=< end No, 1. 8vo. 1877. 
detec a ame tee ie a Sie hae 
an 
Edueational a SES 16to, oie gS 
imac 2, 8,4,5. 8vo, 1877. aes 


Verhandelinge, de Vern. Decl TL. No. 6. Ato 1877 
Mario Wl Boy (eo) “Te Lay ays Prove Tinagiuiogs. 16to. 


Leads Phitonophieat ond Leeary Sotay—The Archbishop of Yorks Addrca: 
isa Tae Very Mb Dew ericmaes Vol, IL, Mauritius 
Linnea Bockty_-Prooeoliags No, #4 Bre. 1877 
tig Sora Na, 2834, 32, 2; aand Selected Notes 
ae coer Vol, XIV, Parts 15, 16, Sv, 
paar ; ies Peon re a a 187. 
alate for 187 be tern : 


ke Institute of Mining Engincere—Traumetions, Vo XXVI. 810, 


React Pa rind 
Sept. Oct, 1877. Bvo, 


er “scaly her i) om ie 3 “ 
a vO. 
nn Saari eps Oe 3 (Hoyal Dublin Soclety, Proceedings). 


A 


natitation, Royal—Journa}, No. 98 Sro. see 





WEEKLY EVENING MEETING, 
Friday, February 8, 1878. 
Tue Loup Anraun Roeseir, M.P. Vice-President, in the Chair. 


Matraew Arnotp, Esq. 
Equality. 
Discourse is ted in full in the ‘Fortnightly Roview’ for March, 
1S are I ae sean, 


« 








1878.) Mr. P. 1. Sclater on Zoological Distribution. 511 


WEEKLY EVENING MEETING, 
Friday, February 15, 1878. 


Wu1am Srorrimswoopx, . M.A. LL.D. Tr. BS. Secretary and 
Vice-President, in the Chair. 


P, L, Scuaren, Esq. M.A, Ph.D, FBS. 
Zoological Distribution, and some of ite Dificulties. 
Avren pointing out that “locality” is quite as much of the 
ty fatal op of iam 
cad © ‘ 


in these and other 
“ distribution” was that of the derivative origin of species, But the 
ot 4 


lecturer then proceeded to call attention to six cases of a 


: 

: 

33 
i 

i 
ay 
a 


i 
i 
i 


i 
Pad 
Hf 


gui Se ee ee kee ee 
discontinuous generic, if not specific, area, in order to bring it 
within ordinary rules it was necessary to suppose that the 

form bad been formerly existent throughout Europe and 


origin of the Lemurs from a common source, a continent mi 
have formerly existed in the Indian Ocean, and formed 
home of the Lemurine family, of which the paenais 
widely sundered. It would, however, be difficult to recon 


Msaregrt with that of the former Iand-comnection of 


h; 
with the Antilles through Africa, previously adverted to, 
6. The Giant Tortoises—The giant land tortoises, whi 
had lately formed the subject of the claborato studies of Dr. Giinther, 
roscuted « still more extraordinary instance of anomalous distribution, 
Tveso animals now only existed in the Galapagos Islands and on the 
coral reef of Aldabra, north-west of Mada, r, but a third grow 
which formerly inhabited the Mascareno Islands, had only recently 
become extinct, In order to derive those throa groups of all 
‘ies from the same stock, it would be necessary to assume first that 
Gisut Land Tortoises were formerly distributed all over South 
America and Africa, where no traces of thom now existed; secondly, 





1878.) on Zoological Distribution, 513 


to su that the Galapagos were formerly united to America; and, 
irdly, that the Aldabra reef had oneo formed part of land that 
was joined to the African coast. But even then all the difficulties 
not have beon surmounted, for it that the Mascarene 
form of these tortoises was more nearly allied to that of the Gala- 
than to that of Aldabra, It would further have to be assumed 


common to the tropics of both hemisp! and tho prosence of several 
ee tek ies in the same area, Salad 
it to 1d where the continent could have rly 
now so widely separated. In the second place, it 
havo been explained satisfactorily how more than one 
succeeded to a pre-existing one in the same area, and the hypoth 
that allied forms had always originated in areas, and 
come into the same area by appeared, in some 
cases to bo almost untenable. 
nestion whether identity of atructure must be taken, without exception, 
preeibaiiaticte cb liniaetists deacons Sos o ateexiers — At 
ee osds) hitctigech saeesed tite cone iaaill: cranrioe alsceaieay 
not, as some recent writers had appeared to assume, a matter which 
tonst bo rogarded as fally and incontrovertibly set at rest. 


[P. L$] 


WEEKLY EVENING MEETING, 
Friday, February 22, 1878, 
Wannes ve 1a Ro . D.C.L. FBS. Vieo-Prosidon! 
ks ray Chair. ona - 


Paoresson Opurna, M.A, F.BS. MRI. 
The New Metal, Gallium, 
[Abstnet deferred] 


f 
eS 














The Deterioration of Oil Paintings, 


On ings are subject to various kinds of changes, which may 
be sesten’ A 'maldsen abode 3c We Seman PEaSE a 


those constitutional diseases which, even in cases where no 
noxious influences can be traced, are the causes of docay, after a com- 
paratively short period of existence, As medical science is above all 
things based on Anatomy and Physiology, so the exact know! of 
the structure of a picture would have to be acquired provi to 
any study of its diseaso. Unfortunately, direct investigation alone can 
procure no such exact knowledge : a ee 


unlimited; for, in order to enable us to secure tho conservation of 
each valuable ‘ee we ought to know exactly how it was made, 


fessional restorers ot can sit ie kein» gel 





1878) on the Deterioration of Oil Paintings. 515 


personal know! skill, and care knows how to avoid it, The 
public too little attention to tho subject, and therefore it 


what wo know about this question, of the Geneon tis 
Painting are exposed, at well as ofthe means to 
cure them. 
We have to consider, first, the material on which the artist has 
painted, that is, as far as oil painting is concerned, principally wood 
canvas, 


Secondly, the priming, that is, the substance with which the 


and replaced by wedge-shaped pieces. If, however, the greater part, 


or the whole substance of the panel, is rotten, the pi must be 
ieeeeiAe Ui Bstet i asl trnaaferred 4o tay aools or to canvas. 
‘This was first tried by Hacquin in Paris, and was performed 


ees Snares others, one of 
's in Gallen Aa SLasrpes aa cn Sobastian 
(Picnibsrs Remcrrastion ot Leasves,: now in'tbe National re 
‘The process no longer appears so very marvellous; it is 
executed in the fol way > 
First of all, the surface of the picture ia pasted over with ganze 
‘ght A 


if necessary, by making incisions with the saw, into which cuneiform 
Pisco of'sod a driven By means of a tenon-saw the panel is to 
Bee SslssJitla as wari gl cele raxatived yy « okies] aad 


in this way the thickness of the wood is reduced to half an inch ; it is 
‘then planed until )no thicker than paper, and the reat is 
removed by means of a a fingers. Tho 


ring, and after 


other, he puts a 


: 
3 
= 


ag 
ag 
# 


having 


Hea ; uit 
an Ht yu i 





1878] om the Deterioration of Oil Paintings. 817 
coat of oil which, as it the dis it 
- wi as it were, changes distempored ground into an 


With oil priming it is of that the principal colour be 
white-lead, to which sre comparatively small quantities of 
» black, or other colours, For a whole a school, 
Uthat inated in Italy, which abandoned this 
iple. During the second half of the 17th and tho first half 

of the 18th , most of the Italian masters of other achools 
followed its exam Pro for the of obtaining more 
effect of chiaroscuro they painted on @ 

‘brownish-red priming, which consisted of bolus mixcd with umber. 
Tigh cae nt nae Sian Hs Eee reas colouri Not only 
has tho priming caused all the to ie darker, but 
it has d or nearly so, all ing, so that only those 
colours can which cither contain white, or are glazed 
on white, I can you numerous instances of this, for, on 


aceount of the extreme fortility of this school, there is little 
difficulty in procuring pictures of masters of that time or of their 


canvas, which tiie an peor epie hip Thereforo the 
= or Ti acy sate are dor Gigiraad 
bilely’ jotaabs of diffrent oontarien 


the canvas. The disease is by far the most frequent, 
among pi on canvas di with paste. rps pra 
are sealing off or blistering, they are fixed again to the ground 
by a solution of size pass between the detached part and the 
and ing both gently . If the deterioration extends 
over a ible surface, the has to be lined. While this 
oe ag Garett pel mere wi ig eased 

are on again 

If the wholo threatens to como off, it be better 


‘to take tho picture entirely the panel or canvas, and to transfor 


canvas. 
I shall show examples illustrating the beforo-mentioned 
polnte, and ameog, them two pictures; one in oil, taken off from 
in tempera, taken off from wood. Both of them, 
Wg alee erlareran bali Serger 
to m new canvas, and without log Sophie an ie 


before them off show 
carey serdberraph voy ip mer fat fhe ft 
Vou, VIII. (No. 68.) 


others, or produce a reciprocal : 
8. Those which are so little durable that, even when isolated from 
other pigments, the mere contact of the vehicle, the air, or the light, 
al 


makes them in time fade, darken, or disappear 
sabe old caper ceed eidy Teer onl 


mixed orpiment, carmine-lake, and 
lue-black together. Now, orpiment is tae a ia eee 
second category, carmine-lake one of the third, That is to say: 
iment, as long as it remains isolated, keeps its brilliant yellow or 
dish-orange colour; but when mixed with white-lead it decom- 
poses, because it consists of sulphur and arsenic, and it, moreover, 
blackens the white-lead, because the sulphur combines with it, 
Carmine-lake, even if left isolated, does not stand as an oil colour, 
and therefore has been superseded py adiesiste. 

Unfortunately some of the most brilliant colours aro perishable to 
such a degreo that they ought never to be used ; yet, it seems to me, 
that just m one branch of art in which of lato remarkable progress 
has been made, I mean landscape painting, the artists, in order to 
obtain certain effects of colour not easily to be realized, do not always 
resist the temptation to make use of a number of pigments the non- 
durability of which is proved beyond doubt, However that may be, I 
think it pretty certain that the pigments in themselves play only a 
subordinate part in the deterioration of oil paintings, and that the 





a 


Oil and fat are bodies consisting of carbon, bydrogen and oxygen. 
‘They Rasy Te saat dered ay BLES iC arin) oS Pa Se 
bined with siftaces eels, siecele acid, palmic acid, oleic acid. If 
tte hes eco air, it changes; certain kinds of oil 

liquid ; others become thicker and darker, an paciay tel 


drogen to form water. Sh 


id, 
Sigerent oils dry with difforent, eae but this mi ore) eB , 


removed by a process, 
capone oa a gh nd explo age tena es 
begins to dry, and is transfc Gaetan ot Pah aka 
gradually into a solid opaque substance. by Goes oF inden 
=. iy tg Se ppm bee penetra on 
or many a quicl i oil varni 

Ree tig ete Th followe hak ties: ure cachola 


it, Amongst the ee eee 
of Brodian whi: , zine-white, minium, ilion, for Ferri 
facilitate the ; others, such as ivory-black, bitumen, madder- 


lake, will imy it Bi ices Selb ete acs dle ttt 
iJ 


gi a ro to tho consistency 


I ast tas fn iy 
the colour man: 


White-load .. .,  .. a 
se eeame Cpe) ine a im require met 


¢eaetssasea 

titsssaases 

st ezeasaaes 
2 





otsssesaaas: 





. 


if 


ey 
iplicated 
grinding the 


peu 


. But fortunately the i 
material and by the same method as masters, 
pictures by the pupils, well preserved or in different stages of 
may be easily 


«aay 


LH 





521 


on the Deterioration of Oil Paintings. 


sa 
mate 

tin at Hi 
Hint eal 
eta 

ballet 
“Wn 4 ele ut 


sie a8i22 a4}. : $13 
a 
Hp Wun PH BHD 
PRESALE 
if ee aul 
apa ate 
#13 Tne Hk 

i nue i 
addi ieee 


monasteries, may pereag esd have passed from one bric-d-bre sh 
to another, whore thoy have Eeoeli tae up, to be pulled about at 

new inspection, and literally t n under foot, whereby they have 
finally been reduced to o state of colourless, greyish, or bloke mags. 
Still anch pictures may not unfroquontly be awakened, as it wore, to 





1878.) on the Deterioration of Oil Paintings. 593 


new to their original brilliancy of colour; if, with all necessary 
ca fresh nourishment, air, thorough cloansing, aro 
administered to their lacerated bodios. 

A pa if course, & ae zt 
ining an; result, without it we can obtain « partial 
cure. retain ris rctereae Gs) ais school of the 
17th contury, Tho pictures which you see here aro instances of this. 


The Ee ptoms of their bad constitution are :— 
the opaque bright colours. 7 
2. Fading of the transparent brilliant coloura 
8, Darkening, and above all, cracking of tho transparont dark 


colours. 

‘The best to atudy these several a} cos is given 
us in the Se te rats ee Suite Alan seat 
al erred rollers occupied by the school. I 


theso cracks are the following :— 
cea are all but oxclusively found in the thickly Isid on trans 
parent the deeper and the more gaping in 





a3: i 
g 3 


Bale 


a 


in his 


painted the 
‘white 


whitin, 
then whi 





gan ne ee ee 
Sir Joshua 
tely 


it, if we read 


which he 


with 


ively with wax, 





by usin 


into a new 
the 





sod bare 
and " . 
avoided these 
am 
in 
which ho beret 


‘Thero it was pil 
painted, 
waa chosen, 
Others 


ui 
38: 
SHS 


C4 
Muse was 


model 


lh 


1878.} om the Deterioration of Oil Paintings. 525 
the works of the old masters, would suggest tho following rules for 


the of pai 5 
Pha on enna in al colours be reduced to a minimum, and 
under no form should more of it than absolutely necessary be intro- 


ery i pieaieie dn ours which dry slowly, should be 
col s 
rot wilh oil sf all, bot with » resinous vehicle 


und to replace it by a thin layer of new varnish. It is here that 
ture restorers, or we may say picture cleaners, display their 
their ive activity. 


remained sound and even, varnished with an easily soluble 
es mace it neue Tie can in ancl 
nor in removing 8 can, in ® case, 
Belle te atace wastes Shad ais by cabo toe ec 
tho tips of tho fingers, and thus reducing the varnish by to 
a fino dust, or by dissolving tho varnish As tere ion of ids, 
eiig, oil act eadaager ik We ines, Lewcecr, sun Unk ie 
not it. ‘6 have, however, seen. o 
Stark tha oll vastaes eos ited with oil colours like those 
foil ty tel patel ee = Oe aa need 
especially transparent colours glazing, were 
only with resinous substances. These latter have, in the course of 
time, been so thoroughly united with the layer of varnish spread over 
ooops ele eae Mero ects fap grays! Spree 
a amount of experience, wi process userd 
eins datara, os wall so vostoction: axe bes: eg iia 
away from the varnish as much only as is lo, and without 
interfering with tho picturo itself. Numberlesy works of art have 


I 
i 
| 
: 


Ea 


great 
Luporini’s method. Lu i is a painter and 
he bel himself to are lratted Spo santa Gf 


ah val Dek Se 
Andrea Gel bars, ovo of tho fins poe 


which are, it is true, their material property, but which intellectually 
belong to the whole civilized world of the presont and of the future. 


[R. Ly 





1878] 


General Monthly Meeting. 


were elected Members of the Royal Institution. 
Thanks of the Membors were given to Wannex Dz 


last 


GENERAL MONTHLY MEETING, 


Pounds for tho 


Meeting were laid on the 


the 
table, and the thanks of the Mombers returned for the same, viz. :— 


on Fducation—Conferences held in connection 
the Special Loan Collection of Scientific Apparatas, 1876. 2 vols. Sve. 


dito. 1877. 





in the Chair. 
Proresson Gotowix Surrn. 


The Influence of Geographical Cirewmstances on Political Character. 
Two instances were taken as illustrations, one from eucient and the 


mien ine aged 


maser ee 


Friday, March 8, 1878, 


WEEKLY EVENING MEETING, 
Tux Dexs or Nonraumpre.anp, D.C.L. President, 


a Hp! He 3 


emucn a Hew le HE 
tt il ahi ala 


id. 
see eee 
Ag 
organizal 
islands 
uch 
owtieg nas 
reas 
t of Ni 
the 
larger. 
iT divided 
aloes 
ay or 
of minerals 
These 
Saeeracs 
is likely 
ip end, 
peieeonenes 
sea does: we 
forth on a 
the two 


of 


He laaliaea aati 
i: esa a ue i ee bs 
"3 


TEE 
cuit due 23 Hime 








i 4 m 
gono before the most adventurous keel, limi 


enchanting the universe of Ulysses and Si ; but the Phoenician 
and the Northman put off into a really unknown world. Ni i 
a race which comes 


brings with it comparative immunity from 
perhaps wo have owed more politically to this comparative immunity, 
than it is flattering to our self-esteom to suppose. Charles I. had no 


Charter, if England had not been rescuod at the critical moment by 
the ambition of the French prince, Navies are not political, they do 
not overturn constitutions. 

A third consequence of insular position is isolation, especi 
early times. An extreme case of isolation is Egypt, which is i 


jealousy of a powerful pricsthood; and the great monuments of the 
“ae dovelopment remained unapproached, enigmatic, and mysterious 








1878] Geographical Circumstances on Political Character. 531 


for ever. England, by her insularity, escaped all permanent trace of 
Roman est ; Seotland and en the conquest alto- 
str fs ie 


faci perdi es plage dia cun Tepes hes oan td ces lee 
insular charucter; and the Reformation, as a national, though notas a 
doctrinal revolt from Romo, commenced in En; das early as tho 


prosodic argtint pr system, has 

prechiys ey a has acted as a 

She has been the asylum of 

Sa ee i the sovsnteenth centnry, w the 
absolutist reaction prevailed on the Continent, she was 


Setar a icra tae nce When tho 
French Revolution over the Continent, she threw herself into 


: 
seer 
nae 
He 
i 
i 
F 


: 
7 
z 
: 
i Fl 
aes 
E ee 
Hi 
ate 
Elite 


; 4 2 qiizs Gyeaa peas 
din Watt 


oe 


dee all 


a 


salapgsa]isaspasis 
GPU: 








Fe HE Hy 


a ie 
Tea 


je 
[ie 
Hil 
E iti if 


2 


Easegs 


aly 


ae 
He 


1 att 
ail 


2 


ai 


i 


if 


3 


: 


dake 


sath 


u 


g"3 


3 


ii 


if 


i 


a 


4 


to the present and future, i 
controverted question, we might per! 
are at work which will probably chan, 
The very obvious facts just stated 
trated, if illostration wore need fal, by roferen 
struggles in England. In the Middle Ages 
the reformin, Geneon et At the time of the 
Roses, thor there was not m 
two 


ically and socially, the very ite of what it is now. 
the time of Charles I. the South and were still the great seats of 
commerce, manufacturing industry, and wealth; and these districts 


lo A, 





just beginning to rise, were Parliamentarian, and followed the standard 


aan 


1878.] Geographical Cireumstances on Political Character. 585 


of tho Fairfaxes, Eph ter fame apr 7 ope eel cr 
an Bee Se mnpaialy within the King’s country, were Parlia~ 

Tf a city was Royalist, it was under ccclosiastical 
praca It is true that tho most ardent su and the best 


raised to a remarkable extent by religious enthusiasm above material 

and social intorests. Thore was hore an important eae lho 

range of influences, at all events to the ran; 

eee ads a direct kind; and it is the crore) bh a naka because 

tha Seloay, As pandbabtias of whschiwed Go hiiantiy’ ab Ikea tha tee 

momentous result of tho Revolution, was distinctly a religious colony, 
eek od co 


Tesggus bad base chedand Darmee ans seigh ot Oust ea ts 


i ee ee 


[G. 8) 


2r2 


¢ case only 
‘ie 


et 
bee: 
ites 





HALL Hiatt Hi rie uh ui 


he tg 


disperse 
completely confined. 


into the mass of lead, and it is not difficult 
vibrations of this class aro those in which the vil 


i 

i lah | ; 

i ie Heine 
rs eeeTe TL | eT TTL 
He Hah it | 
nisiny Fa He i 
afraiara aeerelk He H 





He 
neh 


4 
3 


a i 
i 


Hl 


of heat takes at the 
eet 


Fall 


HY 
ae 


i 


in a phenomenon which has often been ol 
and was made the subject of a systematic investi 


ot 


iit ak 
PEEEE2 FEE 


donsation wwhigh at 


a 





sear iD 





aus 
=“ eeu 43 za 


oie 


ost 
24332 


shed 


of 


justment 
deviates 


‘doar 


aa ae 
HET ai Hi He fe if 


of the 
‘te 
wats 
ea 


1878.) Ona eee ee 


3 
3 
a 
a 
; 4 
3 


thus the tem 


ce 
ie 
i 


HIER La 
eae Buh a 


i 
3! 
: 
2 
Ss 
=f 
g 





HEH Hu das 7 f 


i 


. 
3 


i 


Jonger than a 
materially different 


tube is somowhat 


iH he Hea 
ia iis ge itu HIP iF i 
i! Hialeliat Hl 

Hi He niin ETE 
ao 


| 
if 
nip 


te 


ta He aaa 
ils ail 


333) HL i 
eau Het fils 


2 aay 


Galle 


in 
Ble 


1878.) emanate bre 
rein teslent 
which the motion. 
(cramer ae 
is sufficient 
ae 
: : 
Ta yay se 
= = 
argh whieh oping 
but by 
vane 
for an 
ag the 
ns! 
at 
aay 
best 
to ler 


ae 


a 


1878.] 


WEEKLY EVENING MEETING, 


Friday, March 22, 1878. 





tI a 
i Hedi Ue ‘i ent 
ape dat HE iieyen 
2) HISREIUDE all 
2 Lbbileailiel jaditus 
fey UH ete aR 
ate a sing 
i BST oy 


Hil 


ay ce " 


ie 


gs onset 


is intractable to light. The sun cannot 


terrestrial source of illumination, Hence 


a5 
a 
Hy 
uy 
a2 
al 
ce 


‘the elec! 
may be 


hen thick. 


: 
3 
a 
: 


light, and 


houses 
Kray 


Our most intense Ii 


vy 
» wi 








1878] on Recent Baperimenta on Pests 545 


firing 
tho same charge. Hore was a hint to be on by tho Elder 
Brethren, Tho effectiveness of the sound depended on the shape af 
the gun, and as it could not be assumed that in the howitzer we had 
hit accidentally upon the beat ible shape, arrangements were 
made with the War Office for staatractioa tf & gan 
calculated to produce the Loudest sound attainable from the combus- 
tion of 3 Iba. of powder. To prevent the unnecessary landward waste 
of the sound, the gun was furnishod with « parabolic muzzle, intonded 
to project the sound over the sea, where it was most needed. Tho 
construction of this waa based on a searchin, coal 
ments executed at Woolwich with small models, 
muzzles of various kinds, A drawing of the gun is before you. a 
was constructed on the principle of the revolver, yo acing pattie 
being loaded and it in rapid suecession into the 
The promo ofthe gt, proved the cormctness of the pips 
on which its construction was 





Fe it with Bell Mouth,* i , 
Broech-loading loner ry we : eepiata by Major Maitland, 


© The crrriage of Unis gun has beer moifified In comstruction snes Ubhe drawing was mate, 


An incidental point of some interest was decided b; the earliest 
Woolwich soe ap thvew dere a nn ong 
artillerists, ze gun wees a special Youd 
Scat ee fone nod inte Tokio 











effective sound-producer, fi 
iderutions caused mo to fix my attention 
remarkable it of 


Ny, by i 
are 


are we, 
briof but 


-wave consists essentially 
i Now air is a very 
im to it lack due promptness, the wave is not prod 
reggie poral ce ee Coe eee 
which might be e: to generate correspondi: 
in ‘the air, When, for examplo, the bo moves to the ri see 
a partial 








* General Campbell oxsixns a trae canse for thia difference, The of the 
bronze gun represents so much onergy withdrawn from the explosive of 
the gunpowder. Further experiments would, however, be to place the 
superiority of the cast-in gun ai » distance beyond Guertion. 


1878] om Recent Experiments on Fog-signals. SAT 
this rapid power of reijostment this refusal o to, spac, to allow 


Swiciorucbe ta ceewdad hele a 
Stokes, with admirable refera the 
koa, by Sir Joh Linear a SSoree Deas 


upon sound, 
eee ee aco 6 complete vibrations in a second, 
if struck gently on a pad and held in free air, emits a 
audible note, “il bene de th 


rarefactions, 
Stokes, however, spleen hee be interco; by 
“eh iets rib cael of 
easy eary sound of the fork is the 


cute the shock imparted to the air, the greater is the 
fractional part of the on of the shock converted into wave motion. 
And as different kinds Lappisate considerably in their 
fo uid takey it may they will Ret fled 
This oortie Snference Se 56 ly vorified 

ceeiene as Tn a series of trials conducted at Wool- 
wich on the 4th of June, 1875, the sound-producing powers of four 
different kinds of powder were bapa Se ee eee 
of their Lr Saher the names of Fine-grain (F'. G.), 


CPt” Geee wane ie Kangra (1-6), .), and pee rpes 


s at? @ 
= we 





g 
v.0, uo aL, 
rn 
four masa Taesceeleenes Deng feogiaant the respective 
shrew of whom, without a eee 
das grovel the wand othe negra order powder loudest of 
all. In the opinion of seven of the eleven the large-grain camo 


s 


February, 


with 


i 


a 


BE 


> 


< 


Fs 


i 


z 
3 
% 


i 


Pri 
faail 








* For cazges of this weight the relletor Is of modemte sls, and may be 


employed without fear of 


1878.) on Recent Experiments on Fog-signale. 5Ag 
howitzer, a 24-Ib, cast-iron howitzer, and the 18- 
employed at the Sonth ih Poveland The result tig Fh wea, 
bili sis Dadt epi rae Une Bigel aaves 

1 


His a rrilet 
= pra seared dor ini th gon Bun-cotton. ee 
on the other -cotton is reported as 
i m by all the gam tie: an expressly See 
feanwi botrpe muzz in 
ray a tetedl ead te the Sled cel Sarde 
is ier Toa leh tart Pitted aeons 
it wore a 16-poun ria Diack howitzan, Uy We of | of 
po tecay Ny 8 rare repre A el ee pal 





‘Gun-eotton Slab (If Ib.) Dotonated in the Foous of « Cast-iron Reflector, 
detonated in free air. On this occasion ninetoon Gsm 


previously to 

parative merits of the gun-cotton fired in tho and the - 
Us mean values ebapedary acs! 

same. Fired in the focus of the reflector, the gun-cotton clearly 

i over all the other sound-produecers.* 


* Tho reflector was fractured by tho oxplosion, but it did good service aflerwarda’ 
Vor, VIII. (No, 68,) 2a 





H 


in the direction of its axis. The same is true of a 


rf 


HH 
Pane 


tions, not far removed from the line of fire, the gun-cotton detonated 
in the open had a slight advantage over the new gun. 
Theoretic considerations it probable that the 
size of the exploding mass would affect the constitution of the wave of 
sound, I did not think large rectangular slabs the most favourable 
shape, and accordingly proposed cutting a large slab into 
different sizes, and pitting them against each other. The differences 
hetweon the sounds were by no means so great as the differences in 
the quantities of explosive material might lead one to expect. The 
mean valucs of eighteen series of observations made on board the 
Une at distances varying from 1} mile to 4-8 miles, wore as 
follows :— 


Weights .. 0 2. 402, Gon,” S02, 12-02. 
Valuoof sound ., .. 3912 334 4°90 4°03 


These charges were cut from a slab of dry gun-cotton about 


2 





ee 


parr 
Siar 


my 


experiments rendered still 
ag the economy, of the smaller 
coe 


t 


the effectiveness, as 
gun, 


aes 


ates 


foregoing numbers. Sul 


jtiade 
_falghe 
; ie Hina 


putlere 
more certain 


a abe 


prt Aas 


tit 


by the 


ig 


cel 


ik 


it 


Hill 


Ss 


se 


eet 








and 
aa 


el 


at distances varying from 3 to 6 miles. The 
ions in the air excecded that of the explosions ne 
 milos 
disk 
the 


cal 


advantage. 
Towards the closo of the day the atmosphere became 
A few distant cumuli sailed near the horizon, but the zenith 


if 












ay Heer: a aig eit 


li i aH 
an i sk 





the 


i 


thoroughly into tho subj 


iaee i ad 





aa 





experiments with Tr. 

te at the 

sere while others, containing similar quantities of cot! y 
had been supplied by the cotton- jer company at Faversham, 


happened 
8 Iba, of Tyas se Feat eas 

Pathan fil ites geeootion and 

naa were re pct aus fg prod: 

The effectiveness of small charges was Pilate. 0 ay 
striking manner, onl; eat unit separatin, ni ae 
of the Bon. rooket fear that of the 2-oz, t, The former was 
recorded as 6-9 and the latter as 5-9, the value of the 4-oz. rocket 
ss intermediate between them, These rosults were recorded by a 

of very practised observers on board the ‘Galatea’ Thr 

ame completely borne out by the observations of the 

who marked the value of the 8-oz, rocket 6-1, and that of the 2-oz. 
rocket 5:2. The 18-pounder gun fell far behind all the rocketa, a 
result, probably, to be in part ascribed to the imperfection of the powder, 
The performance of the syren was, on the whole, less sat 

than that of the rocket. ‘The instrament was worked, not by steam 
of 70 Ibs. pressnre, as at the South Foreland, but by compressed air, 
beginning with 40 Ibs. and ending with BO Ibs. pressure, The 
trumpet was pointed to windward, and in the axis of the inatrument 
the sound was about as effective as that of the 8-oz. rockot, But in a 


a bk 


palate erh merges powermilncn atl esate aD 

On the 2nd of A 1877, for example, experiments were made at 

Ating pont wit land tntervnisytha)-pounder Going 3b chat, 
wi a 

was qerts vablsarilis Heth Wis @-tanteke a Ge eaengcobeatioe 

ever, reached an elevation which commanded tho acoustic shadow, 


: 
B 
i 
: 
‘E 
5s 
BEE 
i 
i 


: 
ay 
Fa fe 


the ovening of February 9th, 1877, a romarkablo seri 
eotton rocket. From the report with which he has kindly ni 


Hy 


: 
E 
: 
- 
& 

i 


‘Melton .. 4. 15 Signals distinctly heard. Thought at firet that 
ie 4 a oes een ate eee 
= . m S'Tiv eed fis eloced Tote. Wind ta Iavour of 
Stratford, St, Andrews 19 (Celle prelims ih 
‘Toddenham, St.Martin 10 Reports ery loud : roltedt like thunder, 
Christ Church Park .. 11), tarived moore then a malnate after 
Nottlestoad Hall... .. 6 ,, Distinct in every part of observer's howe. V 
> enheare vo 
” | 
Watkat”ss 1a alte nc mite by nant 
ape yundor. 
Aldboro a Rockets through atmosphere ; 
y SSoreeaes eaoe 
Capel Mills UM» ope awe observer's 
Lawford a. 154 » Reports distinct; to distant thander, 
cases, 


5 


foggeal 





bere erred mace: one on ee ee 
aecompani explosion in air, : 

Fn ee etntlen ie ol sons ban wtih oe ee 
the first time in my Re; on bale 
ration of Trinity Houso in 1874,* these echoes I o 
fundamental si There was no visible reflecting surfice 
from which could come, On some days, with hardly a cloud 
in the air and 4 ripple on the 


H 
i 


oat 
supeeiy: As far as the sense of hearing cor 


Es 

f 
a 

i 
zie 


E 
z 
i 
F 
H 
: 
FEE 


point of observation, and finally dying away at great distances, T) 
echoes were perfectly continuons as long as tho sea was clear of 
ships, “ tapering” by imperceptible gradations into absolute silence. 
But when a ship happened to throw itself athwart the course of the 
sound, the echo from the broadside of the vessel was returned as a 
shock which rudely interrupted the continuity of the dying atmo- 
spheric music. 


5 





* Seo also ‘Philosophical Transactions’ for 1874, p, 183. 


4 tL 8 








lik al iil ‘eed 
ane Pau LH 
eal ie Ea 


ae 
1B 
#1 
is 
AEE 


aut Bay 


that in 


I have 
inches 


the flame in front of it is violently agitated, and 
Turning on the 
above the flames 





[3.7] 





* These carried 12 oz. of gunpowder, whieh has been found by Col, Fraser to 
require an iron case to produce an effective explosion. 


1878] General Monthly Meeting. 589 


WEEKLY EVENING MEETING, 
Friday, March 29, 1878. 
Wareex De 1a - D.O.L. F.RS, Vice-Prosident, in 
ae as Chair. 


Provesson Dewar, M.A. F.RS. 
The Chomieat Actions of Light and their Electrical Relations. 
[Abstmot deferred] 


GENERAL MONTHLY MEETING, 
Monday, April 1, 1878. 


Guonox Busx, Esq, F,R.S Treasurer and Vice-President, 
in the Chair, 


ee eles eens 


Depot cd ties Ws et edie a 
table, and the thanks of the Members retarned for the samo, viz.:— 


mou 
American Aendemy of Arts and Sciences, Boston—Proceedings, Vol, XII, Part 1. 
Astronomical Society, Royal—Montlily Notices, Vol. XXXVIIT. No 4. Syo. 


Sela De nat ol peel gad peep ee oe lh Nos. 8,9. Ato, 
De ta Re, Taran . DOL. FRB. Se ee ee 


No. 45. Sy. 1878. 


Vitetoria 
pes eas Ww. iat POS. hors 
i Division 


saints, ying niin, “Dein VE | 
Prcctingn 16%, farted, bro 1s 


The following Arrangements for the Lectures after Easter were 
W.'. Tusezox ‘M.A. B.Se, F.L.S. Assistant Director, Royal Gardens, 


Rete ae on Points in Vogotable Morphology; on Tuesday, 


Lonp Ravuuiow, M.A, F.B.8,—Four Leotures on Colour; on Thuredays, 
May 2 to 23, in 


Hexny Moruey.—Four Lectures on Richard Steele ; on Saturdays, 


Prorrsson 
May 4, 11, 18, 25. 
on Researches in Minute 


Tey, W. A. Dauuinorn, F-RMS,—Three Lectures 
wad Low Forms of Life; on Tuesdays, June 4, 11, 18. 
on Studies in Molecalar 


Provesson F. Goran, F.R.S.—Three Lectures 
Physics; on Thursdays, May 30, Juno 6, and June 13. 


Jastes Suny, Esq.—Three Lectures on the Psychology of Art; on Saturdays 
June 1, 8, 15. 


ye ' 








Dr. W. Spottisweoode on Quarts. 


arrapesecegpurpeegnca 
fee be ate 


8 
aio 


ls 
i aah selial 


in tho Chair, 


Friday, April 5, 1878, 
Wriram Srorriswoopn, Esq. M.A. LL.D. Tr.RS. Sec.R.I. 


Grorox Buss, Esq. F.R.S. Treasurer and Vice-President, 


i qi ivi 
He oe HTH ST 
ila sella itil nate 


caer ene 


WEEKLY EVENING MEETING, 


fe 


li 


band 
vered, 
shows 


EE 


fd 
aE ta 


= 
a 

i 

Ts. 


portions pass through the junction of 
of either of the rings, the order of colours in the 
be reverse to one another, 

If with the same arrangement as last described the 
turned round through an axis parallel to the line of divisi 
biquartz, the following results may be observed: first, 
two images will be tinted by the biquartz in two com 
the tints of which depend upon the position of the Nicol ; % 
the two images will, as usual, present tints complementary to one 
another ; thirdly, the parts where the complementary tints overlap 
will, as usual, appear white; fourthly, the where the sarae tints 
overlap will be more brightly illuminated than the parts which do 
not so overlap. The interest of the last feature consists in showing, 
as first noticed by Helmholtz, that the low-tint colours, risset, 
brown, drab, &e., are really subjective effects due to red, orange, 
ept &c, when ae illuminated in comparison with somo other 
righter part of the field, 

The effect of right and left-handed quartz in combination is 


eu 





s 


4 b 





that of the cone, 
in all other ts similar to the first excepting that it is hollow, is 
tub owiehe baaael quarix and the two are cemented, one inside 


contre. Midway between the contre and circumference, where the 


sectors, us as to form circular 
dises. Ono of the discs was cnt from right-handed, the other from 
quartz, and one which was in front of the other, 


Soe platen of ferent thistoas were bro ve ono anoth 
tes ifforent wore posite one another, 

pee career! 
differonce. Tho vividnoss of the colours increased to a maximam 
when the rovolution amounted to a right angle, after which it 
diminished until at two right angles, or an éntire revolution, it 
again disappeared, 


Ropal Lnstitution of Great 


WEEKLY EVENING MEETING. = 


Friday, March 29, 1878, 
Warnes pe La Rvs, Eso. M.A. D.C.L. F.B.S, Vice-President, 
in tho Chair. 
Professor Jamxs Dewan, M.A. F.R.S. 
Experiments in Electro-Photometry. 


(Abstract.) 
jwEnEL, in the year 1839, up a new field of 
chemical research through the discov at cloctrie currents may 
Be aisealopet aula Gin peoteaiicn of closstoal in 


Hunt, in the 1840, repeated, with many modifications, Boc- 
querel’s caperiments, and confirmed his results. = 


ean tie, 1 ees een La he iM rett es wh 
a tation 0 chemical action taking place at 
the electrodes ze 


Beequerel, in his well-known work, ‘La Lumiirs,” published in 
1868, gives details regarding the construction of an electro-chemical 
actinometer Secu y coasing plates of silver with a thin film of the 
Se en ad aboot canis eating for many hours to a temperature 

iff, in 1877, suggested the nse of a double apparatus of Boc- 





the modifiod akan Under these conditions 
onl sents is avoided, and the maximum 


neutral substances which increase tho resistance without producing 
now decompositions improves the action of the cell, 

Care has to bo taken in these experiments to use the same apparatus 
in a scries of comparative experiments, as infinitesimal differences in 
the contact of the active pole render it diffieult to make two instru- 
ments giving exactly the same results. Colls haye been constructed 
with two, three, and four poles, and their individual and combined 


Pn © 





1878.] on Experiments in Electro-Photometry. 567 


action examined. Quartz surfaces have also been employed instead 
of glass, thus enabling the chemical opacity of different substances to 
be determined. 

The electrical currents derived through the action of light on 
definite salts aro strong in the case of ferro- and ferri-cyanide of 
potassium, but romarkably so in tho case of nitroprusside of sodium. 

Of organic acids the tartrate of uranium is one of the most active. 
A mixture of selenious acid and sulphurous acid in presence of hydro- 
chloric acid yields strong currents when subjected to light in the 
form of cell described. The list of substances that may be proved to 
undergo chemical decomposition by the action of light is very exten- 
sive; full details will be found in the completed paper. 


(J. D.] 


2 n2 





WEEKLY EVENING MEETING, 
Friday, April 12, 1878. 


The Dean oo Rearepoee  es 
President, in the Chair, 


Sm Joseen D. Hooxer, 0.B. K.S.1. MD, D.O.L. President RS 
MRL. &e, 


The Distribution of the North American Flora. 


Ulmer eines Gon epee FS 
a ee es poally inode by hespbrey esti 
in many eases ym immigran 
countries, in thts ave im intl eet ale SR 
Nearly forty years I arrived at it at tho 

Tae wns ma oaths ot ashore 1 omnis the hips 
arrival to the Governor; and, being eager to know something of 

ogetation of the islands, I askod the officer iu change of hie boat to 
pluck for me any plants ho could feel for, a8 it was too dark to seo 
tha English and the armful he brought to me consisted of nothing but 


a and that was covered with the plant, donbt- 


with ty the graye had been dug. 

It was hence no surprise to me to find myself, on landing at 
Boston Inst summer, greeted by Western Baropean plants that had 
established themselves as colomets i in New England. Of these the 
first was the wild chicory, growing far moro luxuriantly than T ever 
saw it do elsewhere, forming a tangled mass of stems and branches, 
studded with turquoise-blue blossoms, and covering acres of ground ; 
the very next plants that attracted my attention were the Ox-eye 
daisy and Mayweed, which together ‘vhitoned the banka in some 
places, and which I subsequently tracked more than half-way across 
the continent. 

These, and more than 250 other Old England plants, which are 
now peopling New England, were for the most part fellow emigrants 


* Lord Auckland's Esland, south of Now Zealand. 


Distribution of the North American Flora. 569 


1878.] 


Eig rE L gos eee 
le ine ele 
agi aie 4393 iH 
Hepa EH - 
fen citaial 
re tay ThE 
sue due 
i sa nua 
ee 
alga nt eet 


e 
8 


i 


z 


pied 


HHH 


boritcdgis 
Hitt ite 


i 


iylay SUE 
angH 


i 


3 
23 


a 
nl 
43 


[F 
4a 
z 


Hi 


i 
é. ; 





* Pragaria indios, Ande. (Potestilla Duraadit, Torr, and Gr.) 





. 


Mississippi, and Missouri, the latter at ite intersection our 

parallel being nearly midway across the continent and 1300 

the Atlantic. From the Missouri the ascent is very 

elevated region of the Rocky Mountains, which 

plicated os hie rocky ridges rarely exceeding 14,000 feet elevation, 
occupying Fee rot. ietirelipen ‘from ry sna ee 
enclose ver |-watored, open 

rivers freon usually discharge from the range through narrow 


Sores, called Cations, 
he parks and = to the leptin ese lig it 
the (grassy) vegetation prairie, those on west, 
the h sage-bush (Artemisia) vegetation of the dry country to the 
west 3 and these often intersect, so that a transversé ridge may 
separate a green and well-watered park from a hoary and dry one. 
The deseont from the Rocky Mountains on the west, is on to a tract 
slevated upwards of 4000 feet above the sea, extending for 400 miles 
to the foot of the Sierra Novada. This tract is intersected by several 
short ranges 8000 fect high and upwards ; its climate is dry, its soil 
saline, and many of tho rivers Tose themselves in sult and 


= 








671 


1878.] 





Distribution of the North American Flora 









id sad Sons proes =uy) geng-a8es aust sraae Sper TH Sane 
oajdre t aopeq 19769 Gade is me bal ya *t a 
ruofBau poorer, syaoo pazaquayy-f}a900] pue pIetA Tan Ayzved ‘uopBas ouyiry—— Sthaeoy ‘uoyBar enor2sTa0D 
SES, eer? —_———oOoo Orr 
io ES SAE EERE + le 
eure z $2 2 ateeg 
5 2 moog 4) 10 want 2 wey e 
a *opre1010), S AUS wean = 
P| yo saymunoyy £920 ® way Py 3 
é : 2 : 
£ z 3 
r z 
2 
? 


-wiouad opuysy wae Lave “89223 enonpprop <gaiq> Jo “uorBad PIPL 





1899 HOY 


2 suena z= = Be 
= suwpay = z 
3 i z i 2 
= z 35 
3 2 
i 


so1qo puw jddyeuresiyg a7 Jo. eqt0A 
‘OF “LVI LQOGV NI LNANILNOO NVOIWANVY HLUON AHL JO NOILOGS 


cane onwards to Baffin's Bay, and presents various American 
5 
third 
presents several anomalies, which T shall " 
this eastern and western distribution of the Arctic flora, it streams 
southward along the three meridional movntain chains of the 
continent, 
British North-American Flora.—South of the Arctio flora is that of 


10) 
meridional belts, 1, to the castward, hi 


in its vegetation to that of Kamtschatka. 

United States Flora—It is on entering the United States that 
the flora of temperate North America attains its great develo; t 
of a and species in all the meridians, and that the boundari 
of the ‘meridional bolts of yogotution are most strictly defined. 

I. The Great Hastern Forest region, extonding over half the con- 
tinent, and consisting of mixed deciduous and evergreen trees, reaches 
from the Atlantic to beyond tho Mississippi, dwindling away as it 





fiat 3 
ite 
Hite 
Hu 
le | 
i 
iEEE 3 


ize 
FE 
re 
Es 

5 

3 

it 


i 
f 
; 
i 
} 
; 


in Missouri ; but with Gray's aid I counted kinds of trees, 
poplars, with nearly 
I predyablss ion of the hich proach 
ww of no temperate re, of in wi any ay 
to this aggregation pooper penear greens 


identity, however, gives but 
the Fast American and 


that the clement in East America isa dying-out 


ono, 

Leaving ont of consideration the purely American genera of this 
flora, thore remain the genera common to Europe, Asia, and America ; 
the genera confined to America and Asia; and the genera confined 
to America and Europe. I shall give an illustration of the propor- 


you, 
stnaller shrabs and herbs afford infinitely more numerous and ne 
examples; thus, of thosa common to the three northern continents, 
find in Anecice hisy-cight with about ono hundred and fifty 
species, there i ‘ ashes, hollies, olms, planes, oaks, 
* For the indication and names of them I am indebted to Dr. Bugelmann of 





Tn the parks and lower 
trees are fow and 


Another nut of Mexican affinity (P. monophylla) traverses 
the centre of his vegion in a narrow Sede strip, and the propor- 


tion of endenic ita, herbaceous i large. 
Iv. ho sidya Nevada i clothed with ho one 





species, 

Tn this in outline of the botanical features of temperate and 
Arctic North America, I have alluded to three as most noteworthy, 
namely, the vogetation of Greonland, the Asiatic character of the 
vegetation of the eastern half of the continent, and the more southern 







7 











Distribution of the North American Flora, 
and cvon Mexican Ser et eae 
How are these features to be accounted 


1878] 


fie ete it if Horta ay ala! F 
age iat 1s al Lue he 
Fo ae alae 
TE Prue mees ares art LE 
reat eT er 
fi A eae etre i 
tes iii Hi nelle tin! ie : 
aay ree eta i 
“30h is Hon Hie ean Hl 





2 Eyej ee Nmearte pees eee ee of Japan and North 
Fannie an iporing affinity, Professor refers to the fact 
that many of the existing genera and even ies of both floras co- 


the Great Lakes was submerged 500 feet below their level, 
‘This diminished arca and lowered elevation of the land, by inducing 
a milder climate than now obtains in the Lake region, favoured the 
extension of tho flora to a higher latitude than it now attains, and 
hence effected a second commingling of American and Asiatic its. 
Lastly, Dann’s Terrace epoch supervened, when the previously de- 

* Whilst these pages were still in the press, Prof. Gray has informed mo 
that he now lays litile stress on the conditions supposed to be duc to the Glactal 
and Flavial oy 4; and that he is rather disposed to consider the separation of 
the northern floras by the Glacial opoch to hay boon final. 





<e=8 


such speculations as that the western half of the conti- 

Ro the loftier, was submerged during the southern 
migration of the northern Miocene plants ; or that the climate of. the 
West was unsuited to the habits of these, which a) to me to be 
at variance with the fact that when imported it they thrive 


1 
ion which I have to offer will be best understood by 
to have been singularly adapted for the retention of vast bodies of ice 


for long after the Glacial period, We find there ee A eos 
ee ae ea feet eleva- 


were clothed with ico during the Glacial epoch, and that 
the valley was by a vast lake; for on a 
of the many shelves which the retiring waters of this Inke cut on the 


flanks of LESS A ated jierra Nevada, the skull of the 
the most ic of land quadrupeds, has been found. 

Tt is obvious that this whole western region must have re! 

mantle for an incaleulable period after Eastern Am 


au 
i 
7 
Hy 
aFf 
reste 


; 
| 
| 
Be 
i 
Fy 
4 
F 
EFr 


the 
which now commingle. 
MAS eoacil tint desrectincion cf Bent: Asti types te Wesker 
America was not total; a few are found in the valleys of the 
‘Mountains and Sierra Ni * and also the coast of the 


the warming influence of which favoured 
during their northern migration. 
‘Two instances of thoso escapor are of such interest that I shall in 
* And also on tho highlands of Central Mexico, where somo Asiatio types 
remain which have not ‘ted farther north or south im America, Such 
ge eeee eneeelly Macey ESAS 





SS _ 


; 

to the sky their massive crowns; 

from a distance the fret pres team eat of green 
gracefully following the complicated topography 

and river basins which it clothes. 

: Re er vey aoe Society rl hitherto re eee 

the disposition groves is, that tl oooupy sin 

the Sierra which were first laid bare when its imate 


commencing at the north, 
Calaveras snd ‘Soslonia 
the Merced River, which sculptured the famous Yosemite 
i of trees cooupying lofty spur 
extension of the forest (of 40 miles) occurring exactly whore, owing 


Pes 





F 


ey: aE Hit iq 8 ue ag 7auae 
Liat aie aa ge 
4 Hu ae ES Hele Ae 3 
Ca ae 
VGH THe Hele eH 

eee at ala Be peti: ue FE 
HURT 
failing slau Tet deena ; 
HOUHBR TCR HHieuetr rai 


* "On tho 
Cal. C 
meoting, 

very 


+¥. 
Professor Whitney (Stato G 
forks pobfidhed crates cho suahority othe Geslgt 


flap 


cn 


g. iH 


focal fi pedicery peste? hich is utterly 
ian forest is in, rate which is 
i troe that a fow of the most insigni- 
at the northern extreme of its 
iv lature, and that a law has 
forbidding the felling of trees over 15 fect in diameter ; 
a law to eee es burning of the sa 
the uation © grove depends, or to prevent 
of the ld trees, which, if they do escape the fire, sucom 
drought which tho sweeping away of the environing 
occaston. 
During tho last Phenol of a century the Anglo-Saxon has 
c > . 


E iole 
ital 


fs 


noias as 
with whi to 
eration, which has actually witnessed its discavery, i 
Soy of it, that “ Tho place which knew it ahall know imo mare.” 
[J.D H) 








1878.} Annual Meeting. 581 


ANNUAL MEETING, 


‘Wednesday, May 1, 1878. 
Gronon Busx, Esq. F.R.S. Treasurer and Vico-Prosident, 


in the Chair. 
Senet ee iene ASU ENS 
, testifying to the continued i efficient management 
of the Institution, was read and  Tyaring the leat -five 


ears the number of Members paying annually (five guineas) has 
Inoreased from 844 to. 644. The Real and Funded Property now 
amounts to above 84,5001. entirely derived from the Contributions 
and Donations of the Members, 
Forty-one new Members paid their Admission Fees in 1877. 
Sixty-two Lectures and Nineteen Mri ing Discourses were 
delivered in 1877. cle 


The Books and eta presented in 1877 amounted to about 
190 volumes, with those purchased by the Managers, a total 
of 371 yolumes pigs asp trier nye Saenger 


Thanks were voted to the President, Treasurer, and Secretary, to 
the Committees of Managers and Visitors, and to the Professors, for 
thoir services to the Institution during the past year, 


Parsipext—The Duke of Northumberland, D.O.L. LL.D. the 


Lord Privy Seal. 
‘Taras vnen—Goorge Busk, Esq. ¥.R.CS. F.RS. 
Sxcnerany—William Spottiswoode, Esq. M.A. LL.D, Treas. B.S. 
Corresponding Member of 'Y of Scionces, Paria 


Jobu Prateric PRS.P.GS. 
Charles Brooke, Req. M.A. FR. 
3 Willian Henry Domville, Ea. 

A D.CInF RS, | Sir Philip de Malpas Grey Br, 


! MP, FBS, 
» D.C.L. FBS. fee, | Alexander Jobn Ellis, Esq. RS, FSA, 
LA. FBS. F.G.8. ae Enfield, Eeq. 












Dr, W. Spottiswoode, 


Friday, May 3, 1878. 

Proresson E. Faanxcanp, D.C.L. F.RS. &e, MRL in the Chair. 

W. Sporriswoopr, Esq. LL.D. Tr.RS. See.R.TL 

A Nocturne in Black and Yellow, 
known that tho coloured bands and rings shown by white 
polarised and transmitted through and 
visible when the retardation of the rays, due to the thick- 
eaeee The feebleness of tint and con- 


$i 


i 
S4 
Es 


i 
f 
Fy 


Hu 


Ea 
i 
i 
4 
if 
i 


be obtained, For oye observations, a spirit lamp, sometimes with the 
addition of « little salt, suffices; but the illumination from this souree 


gen Soe by melting borax, and to this small picces of hard 


mental work; but for projection on a large scale a still more 
powerful source of light is required. For a burner adapted to lecture- 
purposes I am indebted to a suggestion of Professor Dewar. The 
burner consists of an oxy-hydrogen jet, with the addition to the 
hydrogen tube of « chamber containing metallic sodium, The metal 
is volatilized by a Bunsen’s burner placed below it; so that the 








+ 


g 4 He Th hee 3398 
Ue a GT 
a § A RURHEE a gl! ai ih : ie 
: fas att sit #2 nl iE id 
Heri esa et 
eHaiupe jie Ht sila fall 
teen esa i il 
if He i iil RE nila a ti 
Teg] Pa Pea td 
size? th at He aye 
gis ae HEL Hu ay 2H ah y] laa #31 qi5u 








finite breadth; and on that account are the better suited to represent 
the interference rings of crystals. Secondly, the distance between 
tho several convolutions of the harmonograph curves is greatest near 
the outer part of the figure and less to the centre, while in 
tings the reverse is the casc; and with reference to 
secondary figure due to the erossing of the curves or rings, this differ- 
el RS 
o curves here as representing the rings i 
are those produced when the two vibrations of the pendulum are in 
unison, viz. they are as nearly circular as may bo, but it is difficult to 


avoid a slightly elliptic form, A plate, originally drawn by the in- 
strament, has been photographed twice; the two facsimiles are 
now together projected on the screen. The figures in ques- 


tion are then seen in the portion of the pp te between 
centres. I have selected three such pairs and fixed them with their 
contres at mieren distances if he is them Tae ellipses; another 

licl straight lines; the yperbolas, as secon figures. 
Tr one plate be made to slide over the other, the Phere he: are 
usually observed. Whon the centros aro near together, the crossing 
of the curves gives rise to secondary hyperbolas ; as the centres recede, 
the hyperbolas, at first rectangular, become oblique; they then ¢ol- 
lapse into straight lines 1 to the plane passing through the 
axes ; and finally they are converted into sige approximating 
and more to circles as the contres recede still farther from one another, 
T have, however, found a pair of plates ia which the order of the figures 
is reversed, and which consequently represent the phenomena as they 
actually occur with erystals. 


& 


aa 
= on 
Hea ni Hines 





@ Nocturne in Black and Yellow. 


Hate 


raall He Has rue 3 j 


ae 








irs eal et at 


or will consist of two parts, different 

qe 

two of vibrating ray. In ‘this 
the two rays emerging from the will in 


for the secondary figures, a serios of it lines 

and bright, known as “Savart’s, Tnode” Wen carried to 
approximation the formulm indicate that in the neighbourhood of the 
i the sccondary figures will be conic sections, When the 
Principal plancs of the crystals (planes containing the axis and the 
normal to the plate) are at 180° to one another, the conic sections are 
central, In that case, the expression for the square of one of the 
Principal axes of the curve is a cubic in the line of the angle at which 
the crystal has been cut, This expression when equated to zero 
must, by the theory of equations, have one real root; in other words, 
it will vanish for one particular value of the eh grejaoss 
for greater values and positive for less values of the angle. If, 

fore, the crystals be cut at an angle to the axis smaller than the angle 
given by the cubic equation, they will, when placed with the axes 
inclined to opposite sides of the field, show hyperbolas for the 
secondary figures; when cut at a certain anglo (about 59° 60’ in the 
case of quartz), the figures will be straight fines parallel to the line 
joining the ring-centres; and whon cut at a greater angle, the figures 
Re eee Nero to circles a5 the angle of section 
approaches to 90°, 

“ But leaving aside the mathomatical aspect of the question, the 
principal intorest of tho method of monochromatic light consists in 
the simplicity of the results, and in the opportunity which it affords 




















9 e 


5 BH ist] an ie tH lap e 

Hi ea a He a He ne lel 
fe e a 
we 


@ Nocturne in Black and 


te a 
fait ae 


ie Fy HTHEE Fr j 


pies 


: 
Hl 
: 
F 
4 
i 


display, as upon simplicity of character, on fidelity to truth, on 
strict but willing obedience to law. 


[W. 8] 





1878.) General Monthly Meeting. 989 


~ GENERAL MONTHLY MEETING, 


Monday, May 6, 1878. 

Sir W. Freventox Portoox, Bart. M.A. Vice-President, in the Chair. 

The following Vico-Prosidents for the ensuing year were 
‘announced : * 


Philip Boyd, 
Trl Ge. E LL.B, eee Hon. Sec, BR. Mic, Soe. 


wore élected Members of the Royal Institution, 
Joux Trxpatz, Esq. D.C.L. LLD. F.RS. 
a ee os kde 


‘The Secretary announced that the Managers had ited the use 
éf the Lecture’ Thesire to tho Siactany Lxersrora ov * Barram 
for their Anniversary Meeting on July 3 at $ o'clock, when an 
Address would be given by Mr. Frank Bucktanp, M.A. on “The 
Pollution of Rivers, and its Effects upon the Fisheries and tho 
Snpply of Wator to Towns and Villages! 


The Special Thanks of tho Members wore returned to Cuanurs 
Hawnxstzy, Esq. for a donation of Five Guineas for the Promotion of 
Scientific Resesrohes. 


The Chairman announced that the Follerian Professorship of 
Physiology became vacant on the Sth of April last; and that the 
Managers would proceed to the election of a Profossor on the 4th of 
November next. 

Tho Paxsexts received since the last Mocting were laid on tho 
table, and the thanks of tho Mombers returned for the same, viz, :—~ 

rho 


Academia det Lincoi, Reme—Atti, Serio IT, Transunti, Vol. LL Fass 1, 3, 4 
dito. 187K, 





Akademie 

Roonsetti, Sig. F, (the Author)— 
Sulla Temperature 

Royal Society of 

Russian Physical Central is 

St. Pe 1, Académie des Soionces—Mémoires, 7* 

Ail; XX. Nos. 1-4, 4to, 3877. 


br Ftp Achebe posi spond = 






Sir William Thomson ow Stress on Iron, &c. 


1878.) 


Discs nr 
od tall Gea 
i ae 
CA EE Sine lh 
u ee cn Hing 
g B23) He eiatad Pai i i 
: : a | au ‘ eae i 

PIS iii i 

2 HUNCH Ha 


s 
F 
se 


i 7 
the stonework of the Oxford Cathedral, having been given 
Dr. Buckland in May, 1836, was exhibited and Tt was 
to have its 0) 4 true north pole. It was inverted before 
audience, instantly that end became a true south pole 
other a true north Thus nearly four hundred years 
position had done nothing to fiz the magnetism. In its 
position it was hammered violently on each ond by a wooden : 
this increased the magnetism somewhat, but did not fix it, The bar 
was inverted again, and then, in its first position, its original uppor 
end, now up again, became again a true north pole. 
The 


ee 
SEF 


H 


iron. 
Bars of nickel and cobalt, unique and did specimens, for 
which the er was indebted 3 the celebrated metallurgical 
chemist, Mr, Wharton, of Philadelphia, were exhibited, and found to 
ae effects of concussion quite as do bara of iron of different 
qualities, 

An altogether new effect of stress was discovered about ten years 
ago by Villari, according to which longitudinal pull augments the 
tem] induced magnetism of soft iron bars or wires when the 
magnetizing force is less than a certain critical value; and diminishes 
it when the magnetizing force exceeds that value; and augments tho 
residual magnetism when the magnotizing force, whether it has been 
great or small, has been removed. 

The speaker had measured approximately the Villari critical 
valuo, and found it to be about twenty-four times the vertical com- 
ponent of the terrestrial magnetic force (or about 10 C.GS. units), 
The maximum effect in the way of augmentation by pull he had 
found with about six times the Glasgow vertical force, He had found 
for bars of nickel and cobalt opposite effects to those of Villari for 


ae ee 
a Ht ty 
sain itutie aac ll FiO 
i il 3 are ia Ha iar} Po cey q ahs i 
lie ae aiaae teak! ue 
‘ igi tin it ‘fal MASE 
ae nT 
2H esae TBH 


goths 


— 


BOL” Proferor Ramsay on the Geology of Gitraliar [May 24, 


WEEKLY EVENING MEETING, - 
Friday, May 17, 1878. 


WEEKLY EVENING MEETING, 


Friday, May 24, 1878. 


Sir W. Prepenrcx Portock, Bart. M.A. Vice-President, 
in the Chair. 


Fe ce rt ey Her 


e 
: 
? 
ut 
Bre 
err F 
a 


Sena but which somewhat 


Without going into details 
Mole, the Devil’s Bellows, mala 1e aenten barton of the Advance 





— 


i i agLEET L/L 
i nt Hate TNE Hi | Bat if } 

Ue les ay | 
val; aie abe WT 
jie aby) Sees an GF 
fa aaa | ute sits Suulinagdh af 3 
bl ital lity Hj Hbee 2) 
2 Fe Fre i Ho z st ef gia - 3 if 
A ea | 
ek arr leg UP al 


596 Professor Ramsay on the (May 24, 
st ts a a 


between Plata in Spain, and Cape Spartel in Africa, show that 
Gilarapheayal would be se Bicisck G:Vouiiaed te continents, 
a ee ee oscillations 


j as 

E. primigeneus, or mammoth, is by others surmised to have been the 
@oite of the ae Indian ol te 

By and by begun a slow intermittent ion of the area, 
the result of which was the formation, by cute of the lime- 
stone platforms of Windmill Hill and Ruropa Flats, the first from 870 
to 396 feet, and the latter from 90 to 120 feet above the prosent level 
of the sea. Both are undoubtedly true plains of marine denudation, 





* For tho latest detaile of the Mammalia found in the Genista Cava, sec 
‘Transactions of the Zoological Society,’ 1877, by George Busk, F\R.S. dc, 


i353 


328: 


ae 


BLEU dil PEpHPHUIT En aynan 
Ht i! ee Li la APH 
F 


ik ee 
se 5€8 Syetcet z 4 : 
i id He agi i te i ih 


r alee But tit ie 
tate AEE ia ig} 
mia ue Be nuitay a 


- 


u 


FE 


area of 
haye 


: 
i 
: 
A 
= 
Fi 
i 
ie 
H 


shown by Admiral Spratt, both in form and sizo somewhat resembled 
the Sea of Marmora, Like that sea or salt lake, it also communicated 


the Straits of Gibraltar. This channel, which is 1272 feet deep where 
shallowest, is aptly compared by Admiral Spratt to the salt stream of 
the Dardanelles, for they are much the same in length and breadth, 
‘and in each caso the soundings rapidly deepen outside their ends, 

It thus appears that at a certain period of its history, the Mediter- 
ranean area of depression was occupied by three great lakes which 
role raieag tren DESTOR Hirstslibe shanty and it may 

temporarily |, 9 similar @ time con- 
sacinclabe-orostace lakaciths bald axticuaae ae 

‘Under these circumstances it is hard to say whether the waters of 
the Moditorrancan area wero saltor or fresher than are now. 
‘That they were not fresh we may well believe; but if a river current 
tan from the Mediterranean into the Atlantie it may be that, like the 








* See Admim! Spratt “On tho Maltoso Bono-caves,” “Quarterly Journal of 
the Geological Sotioty? 1867. 2 “! 5 


a 


' Ha uae il eri nani i. 
| a nh i syaaes oe Alt nat in” 
eee eH tall 
(h ie Haan ue 
HE CHAAR 
se eeah Galle i Bei 
: ance HR i a 
Feely aia He ad 
Pe ec ear Pe te al 


Caucasus i 

Till this elevation took place, what we now call Europe had but 
little resemblance to our modern continent, and it was after the eleva- 
tion of these mountain chains that the Miocene strata of Enrope were 


The Miocene epoch of our Euro) area was a period of repose, 
excepting the oceurrence hero and eres Brome [Sor pheno- 
mena, accompanied by minor oscillations of the of land in 
relation to the sea, as, for example, in Switzerland, where the Miocene 
strata consist of alternations of marie and lacustrine strata, But at 
the close of this epoch, or rather what brought it to an end in the 
area under review, a renewed upheaval took place of the Alps, the 
Pyrenees, the Caucasus, and other mountain ranges already named, 
pect euaees praee woe aerp imeg Tent me 
Miocene rocks that flanked the bases of the older Alps, were with 
these mountains heaved thousands of feet above their former level, 
Most Swiss tourists know the minor mountains on the north side of 
the Alps, one of these being the Righi, the summit of which is 
5919 feot high; and in older times these hills must have been much 
higher, considering the great denudations they have suffered during 
long geological ages. 

‘the same kind of minor Miocene hills adhere to the Pyrenees 
and the Caucasus, and also in other regions already named, in- 
cluding the Atlas south of the Mediterranean; and indeed they 


The cause, or rather the complement, of these last important 
elevations seems to me to have been the gradual sinking of the great 
aroa of inland drainage, by which, according to Pallas, an old Asiatic 
Mediterranean was formed, the approximate limits of which from the 
Black and Caspian seas eastward, have in later days been insisted on 


1878.| History of the Mediterranean Sea. 601 


by Sir Roderick Murchison, in his work on ‘ Russia and the Ural — 
Mountains’ In like manner, in my opinion, the grad: pee ee 


agit Tr an of at Pash. vn th ropean 


various physical in 
To sum up the — 
What is now the Mediterranean area, in old times consisted of 
@ wide land surface formed 
2. The Alps, the ees, the Atlas, and other mountain ehains, 


tell cual seed dealings, ~~ 
Pliocene epoc! 








s 


on the Native Races of the Pacific Ocoan, 
afford certain indications, 


1878] 


only 


ai 
in 


valuable as far as they go, 


nal. or 8 


§ 


may bo built up. 


alae 
i 


fHE 
F 
i 

2 


into 
of 


which it has fallen, on account of the failure of tentative 





| PEISANT 1 ali 
38 


nee 


8 ar Halal 


A New Voyage rownd the Worll, 
sation Mea 





‘ 


i" 


5 
Fete 

a 
i 


F?e 
yf 
Ms 

F 
fe 
iE 
g 


£ 
F 
f 
i 
f 
i 
f 
a 


iE 
Fr 
#e 
iH 
4; 
af 
gE 
i 
Pe 
E 


i 


fF 
# 
i 
ef E 
iy 
i 
ra 
eile 


i but the 
air, without an, ing ; earth being their bed, and 
Hees thee canopy ‘Hit only food ina anal sit of 
wi 10) 
satin Boge 
oe iwincles,” de. ie Gea igh ae 

E a 


F 
i 


‘The next visit of an Englishman to Australia was ono which led 
to far more memorable consequences. It was that of Captain Cook, 
who, on his first voyage round the world, after sailing westward from 


and his first landing, on the following day, at 492 of the great 
Real by 


races engaged, as that which took re in Botany Bay on April 28th, 


1878.] on the Native Races of the Pacific Ocean. 


afterwards saw moro of the natives of tho northern part of 
Anatralia (now Queensland) during his enforced stay in “ Endeavour 
Bay,” and left us a detailed account of their physical characters, 
condition, and customs,* which, as in tho ease of all other doscrip- 
tions given by the illustrious navigator, subsequent observation has 
fully corroborated, and which will be incorporated with what I shall 

have to sa; Sopa ee ey: 
The wl Kddheyacieer st «SA the great land tract, 2400 miles 
from cast to west, and nearly from north to south, when first 
{J 


eo of the country has isolated them in a 
remarkable manner, 1 hist rca Et 


existing at preeent any large of human the inhabitants 
in meee whole pe best lita De mentor ack what we call 
Civilization, as wore the Australians when first discovered; as the 
following short su of their condition will show — 

Of clothing the majority had none, being like those described by 


* Op cit, p. 681, et seq. 


vf 


- 


He 
if 
i 
u 
E 
i 
| 


i 
ety 
i 
I 
i 


E 
B 
! 
i 


i 
u 
3: 
i 


boomerang stick. Wi 
tho latter in propelling their “at yards,” 
says, “ they were more sure of their mark thi 
bullet." They had no metals no kind of pottery 
The only vessels that they had for holding wate: 
of bark, or, in some districts, the skulls of their deceased relatives. 
Thoy know, however, how to manufacture knives i 

axes of stone, and cord and nets out of native grass. Ceevaciane 
was of the rudest kind, as they had no i 

boil water. Thoir food consisted of the of kangaroos and other 


i 
i 
T 


ground, 
half wild dingo, or native dog. Cannibalism, though o 
not so universal a custom as with many other races er in 
social acale, as the New Zealanders and Fiji islanders, 

They were divided into numerous small sclhes/aeali ae eaaaae ofa 
yarying number of individuals (from fifteen to three or more), 
which were constantly at war with each other. They acknowledged 
no hereditary or formally elected chiefs, but had several curious and 
complicated social customs, of which those relating to the initiation 
into manhood, and others designed to prevent the intermarrying of 
near relations, are the beat known. They nothing resemblii 
writing, but native drawings have been discovered, which (as in the 
case of many others of the least clevated of mankind) show some 
es of representing graphically the forms of men and animals, 

‘hough: every tribe spoke its own dialect, all the 
the continent are said to have possessed closely affined common 
characters, 

It will be seen from this summary that the Australian of the 
present day ig on an immeasurably lower level of civilization than the 


z 


& 


vas ese (age 
Hae ute Hi he ‘ sll 
Hea Ug 

Tee Hina HE Wed B 
[aaa tata a tt 
eT aaa a Gif 
ane a He Ha a ii jel b 

2 Ha ae plea Hall fib 





males. 

College of Surgeons, and one 

6 fect 2 inches, 4 feet 11 inches, and 4 feet 11 inches. These numbers 
are of course quite insufficient to give the true 

I think that wo may infer from them, that the general height is 
somewhat less than thet of Englishmen, whose average, as ascertained 


The colour of the skin its various shades of darkness, never 


cases, 
by Dampier, indicating mixture of other races) the frizzly or 
“woolly” character of the or Melanosian ; but is fine, silky, and 
“When allowed to grow long it commonly 
E in 


many Europeans. 
The figure of the Australian is varionsly described by different 
travellers ; but the limbs, especially the legs, are gonorally said to be 





* “On the Stature and Bulk of Man in the British Isles," ‘Mem, Anthrop. 
Soc, Lond," vol. iii, 1870, 


4 bk 








1878.) on the Native Races of the Pacific Occan, 609 
slender, and the head i large. In fact, as 
ill be sho seh ie aed: bral cavity is small, the out- 
th Tiny Saree et Sets lenge al, Sen 


: 
i 
i 
3 
: 
i 
: 
H 


a 
| 











= full ho cred a ith ee nomber 
Tania more fi ive COIN] with a 
and have taken Italians as the only nation of which a 
ener a is coring ts he OOMLeaR NG obtain re fair average of both 
sexes, is is owing to the a few: i 
the valuable collection of ancient wie a iaea’ Tales on oe Grock 
crania, formed by Professor Nicolucci, From these I haye selected 
forty male and twenty female crania from various of Italy, 
taken at hazard from the modern collection, regard only having been 
id to their being adult and of no abnormal form. ‘These were pro- 
Jubly all from le of the least cultivated and whose aver- 


Australian, Ttallan, 
Avorage length * ees 6 
» Ith 4 55 
» height oy 50 





* This is measured by a tape passed round the skull, just above the giabella, 
and over the most prominent part of the occiput—tho line Op O in Fig. 1. 

+ The bag inatiee: sexes, where the number of skulls of each has not 
been equal, is ol pnaldey ne together the average procured for each sex 
8a aly, and dividiny result by two; otherwise a oy number 
eithor of males or females in the series would have « disturbing offect opon the 
general average. 


sta Ateh 
dTubit iia saa i 
any Ei ley 4 slat ih 
a ae edi i me tute 
jena Heal Wal teaee 
oe ah 
leet all ly 
el cinta HeTeney 
date ue He at | 
Hie fal LHe 
Bet tae 
ee 


Mie 





Fig 1. Side view of shall of male Australian®: WV. Tor 
with visual axis. A. Alveolar point. «ah point, 


a 
fui 


eacecneeacties 
‘uriowlar polnt, or centre of ¢xte: meatus, 
ier ata eae 


‘whore the frvatal 
(Er), parietal (P), squamosal Dt —" ali-sphenoid (A ie 


It is interesting to find that othor collections of Australian crania 
ces simile results, Thus I found the a latitudinal 
lex of ten male Australian skulls in the Army Museum 
at Netley, to be 72. Broca gives 71:93 as the average of seventeen 
of both sexes at Paris, and Dr, Barnard Davis 72 as the of 
twenty-three in his collection, From all these various data, 
em be no doubt that it is a well-established fact, that the 
ayernge cranial index of the skull of the Australians is 72, or slightly 





* The figures are all from speeimens in the a of the College of 
Surgeons 0 of England, a. They i se gvotnetrically by ee orice eee ae 


graph, and 


se 








277i HUET HIST GEL 
ih Hua rt ae He eal ae 
pT eae aig id Ga 
eee i Hall 
i fet tease eeu falit gaepelf Sail 
te iti Hin a Pad ae 
HGe pean Ru ieaue Haale 
ae Hee gua et He ane 
7 - ai be ic 


both sexes 


pale 


ili sl 


oa Professor Flower , [May 81, 
4) not oceur in 

heap ial! (see Fig. poesia os M panene 

metopic, which nearly agrecs ‘the statement of ‘that in 


as of higher or lower races. Many modifications of per’s 
angle have been p both as to the horizontal and the vertical 
line, and many methods of measurement have been adopted, none, 
however, 40 commodious as Broca’s “median goniometer,” Measured 
by this instrument, the angle having its apex at the “ alveolar Bit, 


fomales ; in 60 Italians the av of both sexes is 68-0°, or 67-9° 
for the males and 68*2° for the females. Tho size of this angle, it 
will be observed, depends upon several distinct conditions of the skull, 
which are not directly related to each other; the chief of which are— 
(1) the prominence of the forehead, (2) the projection forwards of the 
upper jaw, and (3) the length of the face from above downwards. The 
difference of the angle in the two races is chiefly due to the second, 
for the Australian forehead, though considerably narrower than the 
European, is very nearly, if not quite, as prominent; the a dis- 
tance between the basion and contre of the frontal bone (the tal 


cs ac a 


rd, 


‘ 





ma 


cf 


plats 


aerate 2 GET 

Abe ae ub Pe 

eel 1 Hie 
ea 7 lise ae 
ballin ane Ny 
Hale ie iad aor 
ECP Arg ie eid Erelete 
Pt 
bela i eL r u a Lk ES a 
egiaginane eat 





* Recherches sur "Indice Nasal,” * Revue d'Anthropologie’ Tome i 1872. 


4 ay 
heir 
(anhbt,, 
Jka 


Fig. 2.—Front view of skull of Australian, PP. Parletal eminences. ZZ. Zygo- 
matic arches, be toe N. Nasion. 5, point. mm, Width of sasal 
aperture, OO, of orbit, 0 Height of orbit. 

which the index is lower than 48, are 

those in which the index is 58 or , are 

nosed, Tho Australians come deci undor 


the average index 
56°5.* Out of the whole number, 84 are platyrhine 
have an index between 54 and 58, the t index 
mesorhine, and thes all on the platyrhine side, in 
does the index fall below 50, and not ono in loptorhino, 
Joptorhine Australian cranium would be as great a phenomenon 


deme ono, and would require strong proof of its 
ticity.+ ‘he females, on the whole ase rathae are leanne 
tho malos, their avorago being 57°6, that of 
The w nasal index of ten malo Australian 
Medical Museum at Netley, is 54-8. 

* Thi ith the other general averages, is not the mean of the 
indioos, bat. what is more novurate, tho index of tho means of tho dimensloos 
Le, moan width x 100 
Therein Mores; ovo fn tha cclioeton of th “Anthropodentoal Theta 
whieh apponrs to be gocuine, ‘The tndx ia ouly 48. 


Fn \ 2 





Betas 
iat 

We 
HH 


: 
Eas 
fe 


AD 


if 








1878.) om the Native Races of the Pacific Ocean. 617 
In the p 
lant Marcelo average nasal index is 47, thero 


ant 
pl 
il 
iil 


i 
By 


zF 
ul 
E 
é 


; 
i 
Bree 


: 


: 
i 
i 
i 
: 
aa 
ize 
: 
j 


open orbit. There is 
pont the Ushio ive useful differentinting characters. As 
Tace ; but the ay give 

withthe othor indicos itis convenient to group thea into threo —ihe 
high (megaseme), intermediate (mesoseme), K 

limits of which are set by Broca at 89 and 83 c f 


mean index being 86°0 for the males and 


a Lplicsmrpe nde a Mere tee? 
lope nny frum the modi Mine of the et ie tie mare 
as is 























the mandible or lower jaw varies in form in different 
individ) when « considerable series is examined and. 


ess 
os in many of those of the cranium men! ee 

cially the relative smallness of the cranial cavity, the smallness of 
riobal the form of the lower margin of tho nasal aperture, and 

© pro; . the Australian presents some approximation towards 

ant ape. 

The teeth of tho Australian differ considerably, as has often been 
pointed out, from those of the Buropens) cud tadoed Sosa ae 
races, in their superior size, and in 


Mate Mato Female 
Hnropean. | Australian, | Australian, 
8:5: 











Width of canine 7°50 it 8:33 
Length of three upper molars .. | 41°58 46°67 416-00 
Length of three lower molars... | 45°85 51-43 49-67 
Breadth of second upper molar 11-05 12:67 12°21 


Tho third molars, or wisdom teeth, aro more constant, earlier in 
appearance, and better developed, both as to crown and root, than in 
the European. There are very few instances in which these teeth are 
very small and single-rooted among the Australians, and fower still 
in which they are absent, 

The teeth generally, as with all savages, are remarkably free from 
decay, though a3 life advances they wear down from the attrition 


Jess in the females, In the males the a in sixty-threo 
measured by Verneau,” was 80 which a oer with an 
eleven measured ed 


and relative proportions of the bones of the limbs by which the Aus- 
ee eee European ; but I will pass 
them by for the present, as the number of individuals examined is really 
not ient to draw general conclusions from with safety, merely in- 
dicatin, Bias Bee eis es eas saensbo cha es ee 

“hee sa aN peep Leap ae in the relative 
superior second com; with roximal sogmont 
CP arate ta oe Sacked a amtitiacen wees 
with the humerus and femur, are relatively longer in the black races. 
I must now bring to @ conclusion this brief summary of tho 


race, absolutely unknown from documents or traditions of any historic 
value, is a most i subject for ion. Whe thoy 
hnvo, as some suppose, fallon from a highor stato of civilization and 
structure, and have, by whatever cause, into their present 





* ‘Lo Bassin dans les Sexes ot dans les Races.’ Paris, 1875. 





H iit i [EG Faad4 
Hi ul Li EE He yey 
Z ge 3558: 3 
iE diner Hl 
+ ' 1 Hey ality bagei2s: 
eRdny aaa 
a rere me cH it pe 

seat Waele eauy 
Bop ran ney 

Hut Er gh auiieg es: 
i TG bere Peer ee ee 
Peaeladl ° ide reeigtit sits 


k 





‘Tasmanians, so fatal to tho latter, 
commenced. Cook thie describes hes Thay were ui 


a 
i 


it! 


i 
Ha 
fe 
Fi 
FEE 
HH 
Hie 
Ht 
Ee 


ife 
i 
2 
ees 
Pl 
3 
E 
H 
FE 


iH 
Fy 
: 
133 
u 
ee 
i 
ei 
ae 


beards 
painted with the samo ition.” * 

The next uemman Sets to Tusmania wero tho 
Admirals D'Entrecasteux and Baudin, in 1792 and 1802; the 


Fl 


People, These, however, are little better than caricatures. 

1803, Van Dicman’s Land was taken ion of by the English, 
vg NG geet palermo 

‘ort mple on no: 

on the Derwent, noar the futuro Hobart Town, The latter settle~ 
ment was formed by a military party and convict labourers, and hero 
took in May, 1804, the first serious conflict between the natives 
aud European invaders. A party of several hundred blacks—men 
women, and children- as it subsequently ina 


of tho last natives from the island in 1895.f Tho usual difiicultios 
which attend the colonization of a country ulready inhabited by a 
different from the wated in the case of 
settloments, took to chee 

juropean a 
paioee LCE karst sa basieehie seca eerie 


F) 








heath (neg minameear Alemany ree eo 

imagined they had a right to wander at their froe will through the 

land which was once their own, it led to no result. More severe 
i erence ies Pam ee 
it 


i 
FS 
58 
E 
2 
i 
J4 
E 
iy 
i 
By 


HeHeit 
rs ad 
: é 
Hie 
i = 
Te 
eA 
5 ee f 
ed a 
adel 
fish i 
BEae 


their accustomed hunting-grounds, had eluded the vigilance of thei 
would-be captors. The original number of the natives fe ee by 
this time to have been greatly diminished. Those that become ~ 
peeely Stolesieaas had sane bee ain as labourers and 
indents uy) © Kuropean farms and families, were ay out, © 
era: ferrisaleayy do, under the influence of the Ban of 
life, and the habits (especially spirit drinking) and diseases acquired 
by contact with whites; and thore that retained their original wild 
condition, were hunted from place to place, and harassed by 
skirmishes, not only with the English, but with each other; for when 
one tribe found its land occupied by the English it was driven into the 





* “Some necount of the Wars of Extirpation and Habits of the Native 
‘Tribes of Tasmanis,” ‘Journ, Anthrop, Inet,” vol. iii, 1872, p. 7 


ae ee ae 


or 


aL unten ny 
ins ie Pa eae 
HABE gigzetags ee gee 83 x2 sui 
ves Hauler 
ie eed ea 
stan eu aH aT eee 
allen eae nn 
z ali Henn al Hat 
sis qs 
eee aE a 


on Flinders Island 
cre 
jome-sickness, told rapidly on 
one after the other, until, in October, 1847, 
ly tamed and not likely to 
colonists, were once more 


English 


thorou, 


to forty-four in all—twelve mon, twenty-two women, 


chase 
ie hv f 
ten children—thia remnant, 
occasion any further alarm to the 





‘Tasmania 
land could be crossed, and they show no indications of ever 
i by, or receiving any extrancous culture from, natives 
any of the Pacifie Islands. 


i 


cach ep 
recogni: 
kind, did not cultivate the 

Fore aes eine inferior 
ustralians in not Ty er the boomerang 
oe aro so Sei ade 
how to procure fire as occasion cat carried 
them burning torchos of vogetable fibre, which it the 
duty of the women to tend and keep alive, 


- 


ae 


l 





it is difficult, indeed, to imagine human beings living in a 
social condition than that of the aboriginal Tasmanian, and gee 
partial oducation which some of the race underwent before th 


a 


Bel 


bed oh 


on the Native Racea of tho Pacific Qcoan. 


aeat 





HE 


a 
ie 





PE aie 
ae 


ii 
3 ie a 


ibe 


i 


wee 


i :H 










zi & 


z 
as 
ii 






Haueaai 
a <a 
He 
if age 
HE u 
it 
baere pees 
lft pie 


* “On the Osteology ond Peculinrities of the Tasmanians.” ‘Three Plates. 
* Nat, Verhand, der jandsche Maatach, der Mirnres (ert 1874, 
t “Btude sur les Tasmaniens,” * Mem, de In Soo, d’Anthrop. t. Gi. p. 807. 





See eee 


1878] 


ie mali 


Hes Aine 


Sianl 


the 
and 
= of 
‘Vel tl 
cali inches 
“8 cubic it 
4°6 inches. 
to be 
besser: : 
may 
clearly 
which 


by Baran 
Da' 
‘ho Acatrallen, 
lusion, TI 
‘9° 
or 
or 
ae 
somewhat 
though 
it is 
in the estimation of 


not entirely so, as 
there is no difficult 


inferior to theirs, Thus the av. 
six males is 20-2 


the Ai 


orizontal ci 


while the skull at 


#53 


and 


collection 20- 


also 20-6. 


6 pment of the 
eee 
=e 


series it varies between 


of the develo; 
curious that this is 


As mentioned aboyo, in consequence 
erminence, the latitudinal index is 
tho Australian. PES 


aa 


It 


a 


ae 


ial 


Hae 


ae 


fie 


3 


ia 


He 


He 


i 





at i 


nie i 


a 
s 


ae 


Hite 
ee 


3 
ee 


i 


eontury, 


to the Malay Archipelago was well 


E 


RUE 


ay a2: 


B S)]fe[eqsagarapiegaqyegigezaissaiany sange7e ge 
ee ame vi 
i Heng auaeteupa Glad 
Se etic? ie Eee mee Yes 43444 yj g 
A ea febuipl 
d dasiey peat iu liieesyeattena ile 
dale il RHE j HG cla BEG aio 
& al Biot eek 4, faieteeta il PPL Pr 
z SE AM 
me Le ere et fe CPE EE EPC ee tat # | 22 
2 aT HERB E HeHuaIG Ee 





; 
i 
3 
: 
é 
8 
E 
é 
! 
F 


Captain Goodenough himself wrote, “It is remarkable that just in 
proportion to the amount of people who have beon taken away as 
Jabourers, so are the natives inclined to assault Where 
white men are least known, the people are most friendly,” + 





* One of these men, alter ho had taken in his cargo, was known fo fire in- 
discriminately among the natives, in order to spoil the trade to those who should 
come to the island after him, and so ae the ee of the article.—Krakino’s 
‘Journal of a Craise among the Ialands of the Western Pacific,’ 1833, pp, 330 
and 393, 

+ In historical justice, it should, however, be recollected, that Gook on his 
first visit to several of tho islands of the Pacific was attacked by the natives, and 
only avaided bloodshed by abandoning the attempt to land, 


a E 







1878.] on the Native Races of the Pacific Ocean. 
‘The social condition of all the natives of these various 
first discovered ads 


saw none. Some roots were 
jar, which would have held six or eight 
ing their own manufacture. * * * * 


It is probable that the range of the 
time more extensive than at present, and that 
islands where they at presont dwoll, and al 
occupied by Polynesians, before the arrival of 
in many cases belt erie them. 
Aron, QOOgra| ly speaking, 
jan influence, apparent it 





frequent occurrence of such @ case, should convince collectors of the 
necessity of obtaining larger series from each locality than we are 
now at present contented with. Kiet intr series, the more 
chance is there of obtaining average chi of the predominatin, 
race, and of eliminating the influence of individual variations an 
accidental mixtures. 


of 
peoplo of the various islands of tho New Hebrides and Santa Orux 
rep is still most imperfect, and that of the Salomon Islands 
and New Ireland and New Britain even more so. It will be better, 





* Bourgnrcl * Des Races de VOcdunlo Frangaie,” ‘Bfém. do la Boe. 'Anthro- 
ogie de Paris," vol, §, 1860, 
# “The South Sea Islands,” *Jonrn, Anthrop, Inst.’ 1877. 








tells us, “the ni: 


pared to those of Mallicollo, 
but we have no accurate measurements 


Se = Se 


"and by t 
aeareee 
ae 


i 
ik 
ib 
EY 


SE 


ioe 
Saito axe P 


2a 


tn 


He 


cunt 
fae 


et 


and by 


iat cr 


eat : 
enero pope 


of the 


developed 


A. Corrio, Assistant Surgeon 





to tho ‘Pearl’; two 
two from the Saloons. Crania from N 


bi 


"Hoh 





hy 

known race; if tho result of custom, it will be very singular, as 
‘ing peculiar to one out of hundreds of islands 
‘he average capacity of the cighteon Melancsian skulls in the 
collection which can be measured is 1320 cubic centimetres, or 80-5 
eubic inches, This includes somo females; butas there is some 
Soh So Sig gaining the secon tn Aevoral eae L bas eet ees 

all it will 


& 
E 
i 


together, observed that this is higher than the average 
Australian male by about 2 cubic inches; showing, if so 





* J.B. Forster, ‘Observations mado during a Voyage Round the Word, 
1778, p. 267. 

t Fiattening of the occiput fa not uncommon among the South Sea Islanders, 
as ainoug many other races; but it is probably undesigned, and arises from the 
practice of keeping the infant lying on ite back upon a hard board or pillow. 

7 Ibis singular that the Kekimo, though so widely different in Gate! 
Oe approaches nearcet to the Mclancslan in the lowness of the latitudinol 
cranial index. 


1878.) on the Native Races of the Pacific Ocean. 635 


o 





Fig. 3.—The upper surface of the skull of a Melanesian, from the istand of Vanikoro, as 
an example of a dolichocephalic cranium, the relation of the greatest breadth 
(P P) to the length (Op to 0) being as 70 to 100. 








Fig. 4.—The upper surface of the skull of a Polynesian, from the island of Lifuka 
(Tongan group), a brachycephalic cranium, the relation of the greatest breadth 
(PP) to the length (Op O) being as 84 to 100. It also shows metopism, or 


Persistence of the frontal suture, 


au 


Hi 


HARE 


hae 


igi 
4 


qyesaait 
rene ni 


da 


aati 
ane 
ik faa 





igher than 
of the 


from this island rises as high aa 


islands it is not hi 


inferiority of character 


Tho lower jaw, 





Groups of Islands in 
van de Hollandache, Maatachappij 


Natuurk, Verhand. 
xxiv. Deel. 


1966, 
der Wetenschappen te Haarlem, 


* *On the Peculiar Crania of the Inhabitants of certain 


the Western 





on the Native Races of the Pacifie Ocean. 


i 


BH ered af 1auiistgiaht BG 
aligned aeesiac | 
ae ai i ener 
Partie ea eRe eee eee 
Hite ‘ano v flail BipH: 
Pa eter Ferri Een gE 
HCH HE nd eee 
fi ey ae fy ah alle il 
dati aidan tlie 
ete =f ne esate i] i 


in 
iB 


3a 


i 
u 





y Talands,” * Journal of the Authropo- 


* “On the Inhabitants of the Admiral! 


logical Instituto,’ May, 1877. 


ie 


ae el Haier ii 


; 


i 


at 


BEE 


Pot 


He 


ale 


ey 


blishment of the 


references to 
tore recent information 


containin, 


African negroes, which appears to strike everyone who sees them 








1872, 


53. 


* vol. iv. p. 457, 


inti; 


” ‘Revue d"Authropologie,’ tome i. p. 87, 


Bengal,’ June, 
* Journal of the Anthropological 


* “Binde sur les Min 


t * Proc, Asiat. Soo. 


t 





il 


e. 


E 


ig apenas 


Hl cant! 
Pa rr 33 * 
ee Bal 
Ti 4 


HiME: 14g) Hee Hie ft 
355 


HES se i] inp 


acl 7 


: ay Wedel 


;, in ‘Trans. Ethnol, Soe.’ June, 1865, 


* These wore deveribed ly Mr. 


einai’ in 

HE il atl 

al 

te 

EP: bate 

se fat 
eae 
edeauean(iiae ve 
i Hil ed waa All 





- 


is often difficult to prevails most in 
Ee cia este Par uke eatse ct ins Geom aaiaty Be 
ench. mention that there is some evidence of the 


given the graphic description of them :—t 
“The true Taco, a6 distinguished from others who have 
merely a Malay clement in their language, present a considerable 
uniformity of physical and mental characteristics, while there aro 
Se oe They consist 
of ea a haalpe peor eg and a number of 
1 sane ie inhabi ‘hs Malay Peninsula, and almost 
. Proper, iting tho y 
all the coast regions of Borneo and 


rather delicate. The face is a little broad, and inclinod to be flat ; the 
forehead js rather rounded, the brows low, the eyes black, and very 
oblique; the nose is rather small, not prominent, bat straight 








H 
: iui 


i 
: 
i 
j 


in greater 
of Melanesians, of Chinese, §; 


3 
BFE 





spective races. On the other hand, their 


alah il 


ae aarage ae 





digeel: 
Pe iearaa ie Hi aa F 
Eby eee i (ui aE 
e diane! Ede atalti 
i au au bined Pa ee 
i fhveatit dalita eeedbeu 
iadiaiaa qiieg Ue 
: ; aH Hl ile foe puis mali 
| alnanlili HWE He au et HEE i 


— a 


- | 
1878) on the Native Races of the Pacific Ocean. 


al 


i 
fl 


social 
most 
their 





3 a anysingd Tse ote 
He daa ei 
ta 


j Bage, 
i 





ee ee 


init eee 








i 
Bett 
rite 
hf 
Hy 


ge 

re 
i. 
ii 
Ma 


i 
E 
t 
eB 
Ba 
a 
& 


: 
z 
z 
‘l 
f 
if 
ile 


E 
| 
i 
i 
a 


English brig, 
habited by a called Mori 
but who having long lived on a small 
were inferior in ique and i 
Tho invaders therefore, little 
the islands, and in a few years had 
the original inhabitants, and reduced 
Mea time, according to Mr, EB, 
bited by as varied and an 
well be imagined :—Morioris, f 
Spaniards, Portuguese, Danes, Eng 


renee 


zi 


+ “Mnoria and Kimnakag” «Portnightly 


L 


1878.] on the Native Races of the Pacific Ocean. 649 


Yankees, natives of South America, a Manilla native, a Laplander, o 
Rossian Finn, a hemyicknccag? Holland, &e.* 


Marq, were described 
Peeper ye ae eee 
fine and regular features, surpass 
natives.” fae pea eae 
- formation from actual observation, which would corroborate or 


Islands, and gives their latitudinal indox in is oleable" Thoseaea” 
at 80, which nearly corresponds with that of the Central op 
eT as eee pre. 


y i 
rar rep ho spok oP ee wane 
tion, some mcktopelogtale a spnly the tra speci” Altho 


se At ee use 


attempt to form @ precise and harmonious scheme of claasifica- 
tion is here, as elsewhere, with insurmountable difficulties, Tho 
endless mehr peepee aye eyes ey 
in our artificial systems. Wo may 
sal Wench nea basin cy err 
pak reentit and rp emphenisin fees ne ot 
in ate ous, one to 
‘The first and lowest iat coe 
eon in nenial tun siecbe eee 


tribe; the next in the moro strongly marked and more nent 
Soe eee 
aeraniyrerycd ale pepper characteristics of the different 


* B.A. Weleh and Barnard Davis,“ The Morioris or Native Race of the 
‘Chatham Islands,” «Journ. Anthrop. Boe,” Nov, 1869, p. 97. 


ad 


iil Hi 


1 


with facts, is cients 


trates (ie abana ad than 





nen 
ie 


appears 


a 


JF ga3 


i 


whieh 
vice , 5 
Siamairto tha 


do St. Vincent, a view 


aa Theie 
them 60 


consistent | 


3 


a 
a al Ag 


mally 4 


Fe 
z 


this great 


aor 
vo much weight, This 


aay 
it for our classification. But 


i of 


inclined to 


poin' 
take the ease of the Australians. 


some of which scem eq 
and skeletal characters ally 


on the Native Races of the Pacific Ocean. 651 


1878.] 





















































































































































| { 
omososaTy “qdookt | (aog.red 
somal 88 lyri ez | woo | 6 Lele rere | cums | umpoy eo 
ws 98% 08 Weg RVIIVIy 
oupojday| omeseZazq | snoiyeadosyy -qdeofqoug T amoig | umpoyy 
oF 862 86 Bt zs ta | Mag favtiens: guary | x0 trey, | SE 
| omoresazg | enon euso90,y “qdoosqowig {aoeqn uMoIs{ i 
omTTHOnR 062 986 OL 18 28 | fro (78898) yqayey | Ts AVIVIG 
oH | enoysenSos0 Fy -qdoosyoerg femug Treug 
euyquos9 yy 88 oot SL 28 ¥L é Hot | wd | oe | 7 ONIN 
¢ 16d 98% tora 
quia! 1Buy, ydooo1yon Nl 1 1 
ouasquid! omaroryyy | snoqyendurq doaor 110g ‘ 
ng 8? ie sb a 08 | oma | Serva neseea amma KviIXVTaTC 
oumaROUO1F . i j 
ouudiea| 1g somyensorg |g, | WEN | og | oma | senza jeoME MEP] XVISVRETS, 
Lg &8 O13 sot 9L 
oR \ 
ommae0ro1 doo yous, 
ourqacgitg 28 snoqyenforg | 2, Ay Pedorouop Lachey Ipaiaberd“tanipepg:avinvaueay. 
|e wo ae TPA | yysyeyg 
PH Ser 
Tey Ta rar a | seronuy mn 9 ta 
ts Aypedeo| 29 ‘preg | ar | ~mojeg | -amms ory 
“wa, TWIN “RBIS 




















SWALLOW] SIAL NI 40 GILVAGL GAOVY TUL JO SURLOVUVAD TVOISLHY TIVIONIGY ARL 40 SXITILAQ BVTIEVI, 


F 
t 
: 


homes, isolated 
probably little or 


F 
i 
j 


pie 
ai 

FB 

ioe 

if Fil 

ae ged 

HL 


landmarks, 
rm tho 
ustralians, 


will have 
well I 





that nation, above all others, which by ite 
maritime dominion has done, and is doing, far more than 
any other in effecting this destructive revolution. WLP] 








1878.) 





GENERAL MONTHLY MEETING, 
Monday, June 8, 1878. 
Wiitiam Bowman, Esq. F.R.S. Manager, in the Chair. 


‘Tho Lord Viscount Kileoursio, 
E, Paireloth, Bog, PROS. 


wwrence-Hamilton, M.D, 
William Ford Stanley, Esq. 

were elected Membera of the Royal Institution. 

Tho Presexts received since the last Mooting were laid on the 
table, and the thanks of the Membors returned for the same, viz.:— 

FnoM 
Aceatenta dik Lancet, Rome —Aitl, Sete TH. Trenaunt; Vol. TIE: Fuso. 6: Ato. 
Aariabra Sey, nyal—Soul, Socond Sai, Val XIV. Part 1. 8vo, 
Bei So eS eee eee yo. 


Pantie fe Journal, New Series, Val. X. No. 2. vo, 1878, 
Tustitete ‘Papers, 1878, No. 13. dite, 







654 General Monthly Meeting. [Juno 3, 


Pharmaceutical Soctety of Great Britain—Journal for May, 1878. 8vo. 
Photographic Society—Journul, New Series, Vol. II. No.7. 8vo. 1878. 
Plateau, M. J. Hon. M.R.I. (the Author)—Bibliographic Analytique des Principaux 
Phénomines do la Vision. Sections 2,3. 4to. 1877. 
ische Akademie der W issenschaften—Monataberichte: Feb. 1878. 8vo. 
Royal Society of London—Philovophical Transections for 1877, Part 2. 4to, 1878. 
Royal Society of Tarmania— Papers and Proceedings for 1876. ro. 1877. 
Stutistical Society—Journal, Vol. XL. Part 1. 8vo. 1878. 
Bt. Peteraburg, Académie des Sciencea—Bulletin, Tome XXIV. No. 4. 4to. 
Trinity House Corporation—Fog Signals, Part 2. (P12) ful. 1878. 
Tuson, Professor R. (the Editor)—Cooley’s Cyclopedia of Practical Receipts, 
Part 3. 8v0. 1878. 
United Service Institution, Royal—Journal, No. 94. Svo. 1878. 
University of London—Calendar for 1378. ' 12mo. 1878. 
Vereins sur Tef@rderung dea Gewerhfleiscs in Proussen—Verbandlungen, 1878, 
. Sto. 


Victoria Inslitute—Journal, No. 46. 8vo._ 1878, 
Vincent, Charles W. F.RS.E. F.C, (the Editor)—Chemistry Applied to the Arts 
and Manufactures. Part VI. 8vv. 1878, 











inl iat lh cia 


Friday, June 7, 1878. 
Wituam Bowsas, Esq. F-RS. in the Chair, 


| 
: 


WEEKLY EVENING MEETING, 





1878.) 








i 


i 


Bye 


: 


i! 


idl 
Pilger 





1378] Professor Dewar on Liquefaction of Gases. 657 


WEEKLY EVENING MEETING, 
Friday, Juno M4, 1878, 
Gzorce Busx, Esq. F.R.S. Troasurer and Vice-President, 
in the Chair. 
Paoresson James Dewan, M.A. F.RS. 
The Liquefaction of Gases. 
ta gooey sonteener Ms auny “On Go Pee of Sead we nome 


from Water and various other Liquids, both in a Vacuum and in Air,’ 
Uitlars oa mecceiy bos anche ieivelonl vem rosearch ; 


which appeared in 1808, yet no definite his 
ideas the relation of the gaseous and liquid states of matter 
were ig until 1823. 

Tho first information the liquefaction of a gas is found 
in @ lotter sent by Faraday to Dr. Paris, of Sir 
Humphry Davy. 

“Daan Sin, 
“The oil you noticed yesterday turns out to be liquid chlorine, 


* Yours faithfully, 
*Mionann Faxapar,” 


‘Tho letter is not dated, but wo know from Dr. Paris that it must 
have been the 6th of March, 1823. 


aceboy gat mae ite 

‘a closed vessel, as pull wuld cpa Tho iter licen 

win jdeaie of abiartae on toing keniad taco oleuad tered Nepal 
* “Liternry and Philosophical Society of Manchester,’ vol. v, 1802, 





ae 








f Ppp emit arenas 
tn ded (ed ay Hat 
He PEPE Hite eh 
e132¢ AE ai Higlid fall Be Ea UE HE 

He anna net ea EE 
Bi esrreri etree | HEHE el 

i; Higitig sqdcgieyes: Le di eS 

Hee oe a 
7 Eaten pe seeing 

_ fale ia aaa bate 

zi ee eaeuene TER Gale 


“jj 






S cant 

"Tho {allowing extracta from the Sestgnton of 10a worthy 

of grave of = 
into nature's secrets — 

On the Ligation end Soliton of Bic generally existing on 


which may be according to the indications 
zits nee s given by 
into their liquid state, and also the } . 


interest for the 3 more as tho 
sailetcas i oP tee ee may be saa fate! thea as yet 
have had an opportunity of applying them. 


lepen i the pressure 
which I could capt ra tees talon endeavoured to obtain a still 
greater of ‘There are, in fact, some results producible by 
cold, which no may be able to effect. 

“Thus solidification has not as yet been conferred on the fluid 





* ‘Phil, Trans,” 1845, 


1878.) on Liquefaction of Gases. 661 


according as the liquid is li, and more by lestewiae 
vapour heavier; hence indeed the great reason for its faci 


ether, 
Ls “But though with ether, alcohol, and water, that substance which is 
most volatile takes up this state with the lowest pressure, it docs not 


takes up this state at a preasure thirty-seven and thirty-cight 

whereas murintic acid, nitrous oxi ic acid, and 
olefiant which are far more volatile, sustain 9 higher pressuro 
than without that peculiar state, and whilst their 


above. 
“Tho law already suggested gives great encouragement to the 
pontinnance of thave eflocis which ero disooted to the cadaowadion a 


oxygen, hydrogen, Lipa) by the attainment and application of 


ral from this N in 1854, condensed hydrogen, oxygon, 
result ww. Natterer, 
Vou VILL, (No, 69.) ; a 











Andrews, in 1861, six gases that resisted the efforts of 
Faraday when ooolod to tho temperature of the carbonic ncid othor bath 
fon preseure of al lonst BO | without producing any change 


Recent iments resulting in the liquefaction of the 
Tare boon made tinltnonly by MET Catlett, of Paria and 
. R. Pictet, of Geneva. Each large ii resources 


beniarsed fa carina Ware Rapes Gn, Sh 
Andrews in his great research on the continuity of the gaseous 
liquid states of matter, and will be readily understood on seeing it in 
operation.’ 

Pictet’s experiments were conducted on a manufacturing scale. 
A sulphurons acid ice machine cooled carbonic acid or nitrous oxide 
to  tomperature of minus 65°, so that a pressure of from four to 
atmospheres is all that is required to canso liquefaction. A 
Somepeneelng en existunsie, Dimi, wacked SY SE ea undred 
ariguil ee rears steam Cpe about 16 Ibe. 

uid car! per hour. Vaporized perfect vacua 
he can command, a temperature of minus 130° may Telett eiitericy. 

Ards in cycle that the 


length of time. The operations are so 
* Handsomel: itod to the Royal Institution, by Dr, Warren Do La Rue, 
for the purpose of illustrating this lecture, 





1878.] om Liquefaction of Gases. 663 
same carbonic acid or nitrous oxide be msed again and 

[This Sooner phlei gyre ee 
ratory, Sai spi tah id to compress the orygen or 
Hosiiy's thee sSiy us erties the gas bye nen et ck SeRieE 
counoaio with largo iva bomb in whieh by the application of 


pressure y 
within the tube due to partial liquefaction. 

‘This tube contains the first gas Cailletet sastesed elie, 
the hydro-carbon called acotylonc, which was discovered by an 
Assistant of the Royal Institution, and is one of the most important 
bodies in the whole range of organic chemistry. After it is com- 


GENERAL MONTHLY MEETING, 


Monday, July 1, 1878. 
Guoncs Boss, Esq. F.R.S, Treasurer and Vice-President, in the 
Chair, 


The following Alterations in the Byo-Laws of the Royal Institue 
ti aving wn Sy pops a th rvs Msg ors fae 


In Cuarran VI. (Of the Duties of the Committee of Managers.) 
In Art. 4, line 3, for “one o'clock P.M.” substitute “four o'clock P.M.” 
In Onarren X. (Of the General Meetings of the Members.) 
In Art, 4, line 5, for “te o’elock P.M.” substitute “ fire o'clock P.M." 
222 








* GENERAL MONTHLY MEETING, 
Monday, Nov, 4, 1878, 


wero elected Members of the Royal Institution, 


The Managers reported, That at their this day, 
appointed Me Bo Oca ee ae Poles Paes oe, 
Physiology for threo 

ha Pnusce sesnoed alnon: he Sink Skeding re A 
table, and the thanks of the Members returned for the same, viz.:— 


YROM 
she iaaie CaO. Meck bans Benois of Se lets Betas! ‘2nd odition, 
ee anes 2 vols. dto and fol, 
British Muscum Trustece—Catalogue of Greck Coins: The Selewid Kings of 


Syria. 8yo, 1878, 
(Memon sheng erp tae hee pins Eo l Ato, 1878, 


Monde; mit Erlkuterangsband. fol and Ate. 1878, 
‘States Naral Ob We : 
‘otni Solar Eclipse, 20th July, 1878, (M8) 4t0, 1878, 
Trutitate Nos 111,112 8v0, a 
detwerien, of —Searal, Now 


Ol Series, 
Bye. 1873. Bepterd Geel Oli Series, Ve V.) Syo. 187% 
American Gatalsgus of of Library, Port Fat d. Bro. 1878, 


Eig not mr YY 


eet Journal, Vol. XLVI. Part [Noa 4 
oko neeye A VIL. Part L No. 1; pas Toad = 
Now, 7-10. 1878, Now 1-6, P 


journal Ni 
2 2nd edition, 


ie oe 

Gladstone, Dr. ea “RS. Ml. 
30th 1878. (Journal of 
Proceedings, 


Vol. XL No, 1 
Ben Sciences — Archives Néerlandaises. Tomo XII. 


Ser 
von ios. Sees SVIL Colide Lik 


Litenuture, ito, 
+ Vol. I, No, 12; Vol. IL. No. 7; VoL Nal, ave, 
sett nd ache Seonidiang No.1. 8vo. 1878. 





<a 


1878,] General Monthly Meeting. 687 


"“Framocine Sood Be Bola 8yo, 1878. 
Botany, Vol. L Part 5; Zoology, Vol. I. Part 7. 


Liston? Asadonie Royale dee Seiencer—-Memorian: Seiencias Momes, &e, Tomo ! 
TV. Parte 2. dtm. 1877. 


Sclencias Mathematicas, &¢. ‘Tomo V_ Parte 1. 4to. Re 
Jornal, Tomo V. and Nos, 21, 22, 23, Bro. lee 

Monumenia Historica, Vol. L beget saa Tee 
De F. De Costs Alvarongs: Lehre ag aT ‘Traduit 


Be Lene Svo, Lisl 
Manchester Geatopleal Bock. Trannctican Vol XIV. Pa Parts 20, 21, 22. 8yo, 


1878, 
Mechanical a Set Royal Prea i ar By0. 
Medical and Societ; o eer Part 47. Svo. 1978. 
Meteorological journal, No. 27. 1878. 

rie ars “f Sicebirglnn er 
Stents Werther Kop egies 3. Ato, Pea 
Nee Tot Sie, U4. ller : Uolaphgetin or tis Oclcnad ot  Parooption 
Norfolt and Norwich Naturist’ Sooiety—"Tranuactions, Vol. UL, Part 4. 8yo, 
Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain—Journal ae 

~ New Vol. IL, No. 1. tro eT 

Physical a ‘ol. TE. Part 4. S8yo. 1878 
Preussische ie der Wissenschaften—Monatsberichte: Mai, Juni, 1878 


‘ro, 
ye—Roll of the Royal Collogo of Physicians of London, 
ee by Wiliam MED, “Bod edieo."S vole" Bro. 1878 . 


‘ates MBI. ie ga} Bieta ep Experiments with Crystalline 
Seiestan’ (ba hae 7 
James (the Author)—Two Lectures on Ringworm and other Discases of 


878. 
Tome XXV. Nos, 1, 2. to, 


ate 
@. J-—Monthl Magazine, July-Oot. 1878. 8vo. 
Petre me 
Thomas, I—Cataloguo of Froo Public Library, Sydney, 
1 ar Mi ach 
Science Mado Easy, Parte, 6 stn 1878. 
Pete Earls Iain Journal No. 98 yo, 1878 
Vereins vor - sce in Prewssen—Verhandelangen, 1878, 
te trang ts Gowerbfleises in NEEM, 
Victoria Tustitte—Sournal, No. 47. Sv. 1878, 


Wieconsia Academy of Seiences—Trananctions, eure i. Ls Sv. 1878, 
Yorkshire 


(Rete tant ht 
Lostopical Stein} Lowen Teansnctions Wel. Parl, %9. Alo, 1878. 
Proscadings iets Panted, 3 ee S78. 











1878.) General Monthly Meeting. 
fap ep (Ch. Ch. Oxford) — Four Lectures on Lassixa; 
en ene ee 
phy et ae ae RccnteMcchagnsEINSS 


‘The Puxsxsts received since the Inst Mecting were laid on tho 
ee 
Lords of te Adearalty—Noxtical Almanso for 1882. Svo. 1878. 

AAAS Oe, BAG $8 STORE, POP IPMN SERIE RE to, 
Mais pte par Dive Savants. Tomes XXL XXIL XXII. 4to, 
1875-7. Deuxitme Série, Tomes 


.XXV. dito, 1 
do ote., relntifa & 1 tion du Passage de Venus eur le 
Soleil. Tome T. et Suy + Partie 1. 4ta. 1877-8, 
Tusdilute fournal, No. 113. S¥o, 1878, 
Author, Free Notes on * First Principles,’ with Suggestions 
regarding Spaco, and Fores. (K 102) 8vo. 1878, 
British Architects, Institute 1878-9; precoodlag 1,2, 
Tranmetions, No. 1. 4to, eS Sec te 
Lemay Heed sonnel cao VoL LIV, 8vo. 1878. 
Clinical Seoiety—Transactions, Vol. XI, 


oa ae Se Literature, Science, and Art—Roport 


Sete Ata, 
Heralogical Journal for Nov. 1878. 8v0. 
Tron for Nov. 1878. 


Journal for Applied Sclenee for Nov. 1878. fol. 
Nuture for Nov. 1878. Ato, 
fournal for Nov. 1878. 


Bila, Tn atom, Fear Boy M MBL Ilstory of Tula on ted by ila own Hatoclann,” 


Fraakiin Institule—Journal, No, 635. Bro. 1878. 
Coated ‘Mcmotres, Tome XXV. Partie 1; Tome XXVI, 


Gaslogtcal Boclaly-- Quarterly Journal, No. 136. 80. Loe 
ee The Filler of Witness; 


Geslegical Ssciety—Travsactiona, Vol, XIII. Parts 1, 2; Vol. XIV, 
Part 17. S8vo, 1873-8. 
mae es Royol—Tranmotions, Vol. LXI, bia 1878, 
eee en Minky Engincere—Transactions, V« 


Pharmaceutical Soviety fournal for Nov. 
Pet Ser rit. 





670 General Monthly Meeting. [Dec. 2, 1878. 


Ereussiaohe Akademie der Winenschafton—Monstaberichte: Juli, Aug. 1878. 8ro. 
Robertson, Rev. W. A. Scott, M.A. (the Author)—British Contributions to Foreign 
Missions. (0.17) 12mo. 1878. 
Royal Bociety of Literature—Transactions, Vol. XI. Part 8. 8vo. 1878. 
Society of London—Philosophioal’ Trunseetions for 1878, Part 1. Ato, 


gel Bost of New Boat Walee—Journal of Proceedings, Vol. XI. 8vo. 1878. 
v. W. larke: Remarks on the Sedimentary Formations of New South 
Wales. 4thed. 8vo. 1878. 
re Bae: Railways of New South Wales. fol. port 
on ren Hew South Moles, 1877. 8y0. an 
vet J. (the Author)—On the Present iy of Electric Light 
(K 108) 8vo. 1878. fing 
Symons, G. J.—Monthly Meteorological Magazine, Nov. 1878. 8vo. 
Keon Prafiner FA Editor)—Cooley’s Cyclopedia of Practical Receipts. 
v0. 
United Service Institution, Royal—Journal : Index, Vol. XIL-XX. 
Journal, No. 97. 80. 1878, 
Yerpine a Beforderung des Gewerbfleisses in Preuseen—Verbandelungen, 1878. 


INDEX TO VOLUME VIII. 


Dacedvw, a East, 40. 


Pr 
403, 
'y on Glon Roy, 
Distribution of Plants, 568. 


Ections in Free Air, 586. 
Edlison's Tolephono, 56. 


672 

Education, History of, 449. 

Bgerof, Hiectro-Chemical Actinometer, 
vt 3 


Ehrenberg on Life in the Atmosphere, 
23. 


Electricity : Applications to the Pro- 
tection of Life on Railways, 35. 

Electro-Photometry, 565. 

Elements, early notions of, 179. 

English Political Character affected by 

jeographical Circumstances, 530. 

Ernsistratus on the Heart, 486. 

Eskimos, Character and Life, 385. 

Ether and Matter, 835. 

Extinct Animals of North America, 103. 

Eye, Action of Light upon it, 137. 


Fasmicres on the Heart, 493. 

Faraday, M., Liquefaction of Gases, 657. 

Feudal "Property in England and 
France, 126. 

Flame-sounds, 539, 

Flinders Bar, 592. 

Flower, Professor W. H., Extinct 
‘Animals uf North America, 103. 

—— Native Races of the Pacific Ocean, 
602. 


Fluid Motion, 272. 

Fog-Signala, 543. 

Forster, on Polynesians, 629. 

Froude, W., Fundamental Principles 
of Resistance of Shipa, 188. 

Fullerian Professors appointed: Che- 
mistry, J. Dewar, 403; Physiology, 
E. A. Schiifer, 665. 


Gaten on the Heart, 487. 
Galton, F., Typical Laws of Heredity, 
282, 








Gamgee, A., on Physiological Effects 
of Vanadium, 224 

Gases, Liquefaction of, 657. 

Geographical Circumstances and Poli- 
tical Character, 529, 

Geological Measures of Time, 129, 

Germ Theory of Disease, 6, 15. 

Gibraltar, Geology of, 594. 

Gladstone, J, H., Methods of Chemical 
Decomposition ss illustrated by 
Water, 179. 

— Influence of Chemical Constitu- 
tion upon Refmetion of Light, 351. 
Glen Roy, Parallel Roads, 283; Litera- 

ture, 245, 
Goethe, on Light, 69. 


Goodenough, Commodore, murdered, | 


630; on Molanesians, 631. 
Gray, Dr. A., on North American 
Flora, 573, &e. 





Gny, E., Telephone, 503, 
Greenland Flora, 575. 

Sir W. R.. Donation, 4; Electric 
G mee ai ders, Acoustic 
‘un-cotton and Gunpow: ie 

Powers of, 516, AP 
Guthrie, Profemor F., Solid Water, 802. 


Hanver, William, and his Disooveri 
485-404. raga ace 


ing, 485. 
rity of Heat by 





Hodmadods (Hottentots), 604. 

Hooke, R., on Conduetion of Sound, 501. 

Hooker, Sir J. D., on Distribution of 

North American Flora, 568, 
unter’s Theory respecting Rainfall 
and Sunspots, 424. 
tsman’s Cast Stecl, 319. 

Husley, Professor, Tlie Border Territory 
between the Animal and the Vege 
table Kingdoms, 28. 

—— History of Birds, 347. 

Hydrocarbons in general, 86. 





Inpran Famines: Physical Causes, 407. 
Indian Vegetable Food, 421. m7 
Induction Coll Experiments, 859. 

Iron: Cast, or Pig, 315; Wrought, 316, 


Samtesox, T. F., on Glen Roy, 244. 
Teauit Education, 456. 
Jetoline, Marking Ink, 229 


Kerocaten Expedition, 81. 

Kilburn, E,, presents Thermopile, &c., 
Knightly Education, 464, 

Krupp’s Steel, 320. 


Lawyer W., last Tasmanian Male, 624, 
Lecture Arrangements :— (1876), 4, 
130; (1877), 252, 397; 1878), 484, 


Licbreich, R., on Deterioration of Oil 
Paintings, 514. 
Life-history of a Monad, 396, 
Light, Mechanical Action, 44, 
Action on Sclenium, 68, 

iological Action, 137. 
— and Chemical Constitution, 351. 
— and Chemical Action, 565, 
Lightfoot’s Experiments with Aniline, 


Linton, B., Death of, 186. 





INDEX. 678 
jaefaction of Gases, 657. New Zealanders, 646. 
rise Professor, on Respired Air,7. | Newton, C. T., Recent Discoveries at 
Locke on Education, 457. Olympia, 214. 


Logograph. 502, 
ibock, Sir J.,on Habitsof Ante, 253. 


Muacwerizatioy of Iron, Effects of 
Stress upon, 591. 

Maine, Sir H. 8., on State of Feudal 
Property in England and France on 
the Eve of the Firat French Bevo- 
Jution, 126, 

Malsyo-Polynesians, 643, 

Malays, 640. 


Maoris, 647. 3 

Marah, Professor O. C., Paleontological 
Discoveries, 108-125. 

Matter and Ether, 335. 

Mediterrancan Sca, Geological History, 
597. 


Meduse, Nervous System of, 166, 438. 

Melanesians, 629; Murders by, 630; 
Skull, 635. 

Mellor, '8., Experiments with Vans- 
dium, 229, 

Microsoupie Research, 893. 

Milne-Home, D., on Glen Roy, 287. 

Milton on Education, 457. 

Minute Lowly’ Forms of Life, 
Origin und Development, 391. 

Mitchell solidified Sulphuric Acid, 


Moneds, B1, 396. 

Monthly fectings :-— 

(1875) November, 1; December, 4. 
1876) February, 42; Murch, 10 
‘April, 150; May, 186; June, 23: 
July, 246; November, 248; Decem- 
ber, 251. 

(1877) February, 280; Murch, 81: 





z 










Bis) ‘Febraary 508; March, 527 
1878) Fel , 508; March, 527; 
¢ ‘Apa, 559; May, 589 ; June, 653 

July, 663; November, 663; Decem- 

ber, 668. 


Motion, Fluid and Vortex, 272. 

Moulton, J. F., Verification of Modern 
Scientific Theories, 216, 

— Matter and Ether, 

Mair, Mr., on Sequoius, 57 


Native Races of Pacific Ocean, 602. 














427, 
Now Caledonians. 629. 
New Hebrides, 630. 











North American Extinct Animals, 103; 
Flora, 568. 


Oartns, 156. 

Oceanin, 602. 

Oudling, Professor, Paraffins and their 
Alcohols, 86; on Gallium (no ab- 
stract), 518. 

Oil Paintings : Deterioration, 514. 

Olympia, Discoveries ut, 214. 

Ord 153, 


Paciric Ocean, Nutive Races, G12; 
Table, 651. | 

Papuans, 642. 

Parufling and their Alcohols, 86. 

Paraliel Roads of Glen Roy, 233, 

Perry, Rev. 8. J., ‘Transit of Venus, 79, 

Phonograph, 507. 

Physiological Action of Light, Part IL. 
137; of 


Vanadiury, 2: 





Poisuns, Effect on Medusm, 175, 

Polarised Light, 561, 582, 

Political Churacter und Geographical 
Circumstan 529, 

Pollock, F., Spinoza, 363. 

Pollock, W. H., on Romanticism, 655. 

Polynesians, 628, 644; Skull, 635, 

Preece, W. 'H., Applications of Elec+ 
tricity to the Protection of Lify on 
Rulways 35, 
the Telephone, 501. 

Pricstley, J., Experiments on Vanae 

















dium, 
Puddled Steel, 32) 
Putrefaetion and Infection: their rela 

tion tu Optics, 6; to Physics, 467. 


Qvapniviea, 453, 464. 
Quartz (Polariuution of Light), 561. 





Race, Professor Flower on, 619. 

Rauliometer, 56, 

Rac, Dr J.,Arcticand Sub-Arctio Life, 
378, 


Railway: Protection of Life by Elec- 
tricity, 35. 

Ramsay, Profossor A. C.,on the Geo 
logy of Gibraltar, SM, 

Rayleigh, Lord, Exphun 





of certain 


ion 
Acoustical Phenomena, 536, 
Redwood tre, 578, 











Poli , 529, 

‘Smith, Willough! pi ca eRe eae 
on 

Smoke 4. 

Sondl Acoustic Experiments Vaxantua: Rocont Discoveries ; 
ndvation of Sound by Heat, S88. | Physiological Effects, 224.0 


‘Unrytaruenrom described (with eut), 116. 


Pa 


INDEX. 675 
‘Van Dieman’s Land, 620. Wallace, D. M., Secret Societies in 
Verte oO, ‘Telephane, OG 508. Bussia, 405. 
a Kingdoms, ree oe Chemical Decomposition, 179 ; 
Venus, ime Physical Phono- | Wellington, 578. 
mens, 85. Ween, Be io Death, 1; his 
‘Villari, on Effects of Stress on Magne- Magic Lyre, 501 
tization, 592. Whitney, fessor, on Seq, 579, 
Vortex Motion, 272. Wilkes, modore, on Samoans, 646. 


Watzacs, A. B., on Malays, 641. Zooroaioat Distribution, 511. 


END OF VOL. VIII. 





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