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THE 



PROCEEDINGS AND TRANSACTIONS 



OF THE 



Institute of -Science 



HALIFAX, NOVA SCOTIA 



VOLUME XIII 

(BEING VOLUME vi OF THE SECOND SERIES) 

191O-1914 




* 




HALIFAX 

PRINTED FOR THE INSTITUTE BY THE ROYAL PRINT AND LITHO, LIMITED 

1915 



/a 






CONTENTS 



PROCEEDINGS. 

SESSION OF 1910-1911: PAGE 

ANNUAL MEETING i 

Presidential address: (1) Progress of the Institute; (2) some 

achievements of chemical synthesis. By Professor E. Mackay ii 

Treasurer's Report xviii 

Librarian's Report xviii 

Officers elected for 1910-1911 '. xix 

ORDINARY MEETINGS xx 

Mineral occurrences in granite at New Ross, Lunenburg County, 

N. S By A. L. McCallum (Title only) xxi 

On the effect of gravity on the concentration of a solute. By 

Harold S. Davis. (See Transactions p. 291) xxi 

Rare fish in Nova Scotia. By Harry Piers. (Title only) xxii 

SESSION OF 1911-1912: 

Annual Meeting xxiii 

Presidential address: (1) Review of the Institute's Work; (2) 

Death of R. W. Ells. By Watson L. Bishop xxiii 

Treasurer's Report xxvi 

Librarian's Report xxvi 

Officers elected for 1911-1912 xxvii 

Ordinary Meetings xxvii 

Sacred plants of India. By Captain J. H. Barbour xxviii 

SESSION OF 1912-1913: 

Annual Meeting and Reports xlv 

Commemoration Meeting Fiftieth Anniversary xlviii 

Historical Papers, 1862-1912. By Harry Piers / liii 

Pioneer Naturalists ten liii 

Halifax Mechanic's Institute lix 

Nova Scotian Institute of Natural Science Ixi 

Library of the Institute Ixxv 

Provincial Museum Ixxvii 

Biographical Sketches Ixxx 

Deceased Presidents eight Ixxxi 

Other Prominent Deceased members twenty-one Ixxxix 

List of Officers, 1872 to 1912 ox 



iv CONTENTS. 

SESSION OF 1913-1914: PAGE 

Annual Meeting cxiii 

Presidential Address Fergusson xciii 

Deceased Members during the year cxiv 

Biological Chemistry cxvi 

Present trend and suggestions cxxi 

Treasurer's Report cxxii 

Librarian's Report cxxiii 

Election of Officers cxxiii 

First Ordinary Meeting cxxiv 

Second and Third Ordinary Meeting cxxv 

Fourth and Fifth Ordinary Meeting cxxvi 

Sixth Ordinary Meeting cxxvii 

TRANSACTIONS. 
SESSION OF 1910-1911 : 

The optical activation of racemic brom-camphor carboxylic 
acid by means of catalysts: The specificity of catalysts. 

By Henry Jermain Maude Creighton 1 

A suggestion for anthropological work in Nova Scotia. By 

Walter H. Prest 35 

The conductivity of rosaniline hydro-chloride in water and 

certain organic solvents. By Harold S. Davis 40 

Comparison of monthly mean temperatures, Halifax, N. S., 

and Plymouth, G. B. By Henry S. Poole 52 

^ Recent meteorological notes. By F. W. W. Doane 53 

SESSION OF 1911-1912: 

On the behaviour of iron salts, in the presence of albumens 

and other organic substances, towards certain reagents, 

By Henry Jermain Maude Creighton 61 

On the intimate associations of inorganic ions with native and 

derived proteins. By David Fraser Harris 76 

Report on cave examination in Hants County, N. S. By Walter 

Henry Prest 87 

Rearrangement of procedure for the removal of phosphate ions 

from the iron and alkaline earth groups. By Carle ton 

Bell Nickerson 95 

Brief account of the Micmac Indians of Nova Scotia and their 

remains. By Harry Piers 99 

The electrical resistance and temperature coefficient of ice. 

By H. J. L. Johnstone 126 

The geological age of Prince Edward Island. By Lawrence 

W. Watson '. 145 

The Canada grouse (Dendragapus canadensis) in captivity; 

its food, habits, etc. By Watson L. Bishop 150 



CONTENTS . V 

SESSION OF 1911-1912 Continued: PAGE 

A few measurements on the electrical conductivity of aceto- 

phenone solutions of certain organic bases and acidx. 

By Henry Jermain Maude Creighton 154 

Mastodon remains in Nova Scotia. By Harry Piers 163 

Phenological observations in Nova Scotia, 1911. By A. H. 

MacKay 175 

Climate of Halifax (Meteorological Statistics) 188 

Errata 190 

SESSION OF 1912-1913: 

On the electrical resistance of acetic acid in the solid and liquid 

phases. By J. H. L. Johnstone 191 

Notes on the analysis of iron"-stone." By Hubert Bradford 

Vickery ." 209 

Integral atomic weights, Part 1. By Frank William Dodd 216 

Integral atomic weights, Part 2. By Frank William Dodd 223 

Occurrence of European birds in Nova Scotia. By Harry Piers . . 228 

Curious Lightning freak. By Watson L. Bishop 240 

Note on a gastrolith found in a moose. By D. Fraser Harris .... 242 
Notes on a granite contact zone near Halifax, N. S. By E). S. 

Mclntosh 244 

Phenological observations in Nova Scotia, 1912. By A. H. 

MacKay 250 

SESSION OF 1913-1914: 

On the existence of a reducing endo-enzyme in animal tissue. 

By D. Fraser Harris 259 

Senetio Jacobaea and Callimorpha Jacobaea. By Henry S. Poole . . 279 

Remarks. By A. H. MacKay 284 

The'Geology of a portion of Shelburne Co., South Western Nova 

Scotia. By Sidney Powers 289 

Coloured thinking and allied conditions. By D. Fraser Harris . . . 308 

Analyses of Nova Scotian soils. By L. C. Harlow 332 

The Phenology of Nova Scotia, 1913. By A. H. MacKay 347 

APPENDICES: 
APPENDIX I: 

List of members, 1910-1911 i 

List of presidents of the Institute since its foundation in 
* 1862 iv 

APPENDIX II: 

List of members, 1911-1912 

List, presidents of Institute since foundation in 1862 viii 

APPENDIX III: 

List" of members, 1913-1914 ix 

List of Presidents since foundation, 31st December, 1862. ... xii 

INDEX . . xiii 



PROCEEDINGS 



OF THE 



Scotian Institute of dence 



SESSION OF 1910-11 



ANNUAL BUSINESS MEETING. 

Assembly Room, N. S. Technical College, Halifax; 
14th November, 1910. 

THE PRESIDENT, DR. EBENEZER MACKAY, in the chair. 

The Institute had been called together for the annual business 
meeting, but as the greater part of the evening had been occupied 
with a meeting of the Nova Scotia Society of Engineers, to which 
the Institute's members had been invited, on motion it was resolved 
that the annual meeting be adjourned to a future date. 

ADJOURNED ANNUAL BUSINESS MEETING. 

Civil Engineering Lecture Room, N. S. Technical College, Halifax; 
12th December, 1910. 

THE PRESIDENT, DR. EBENEZER MACKAY, in the chair. 

Other members present : WATSON L. BISHOP, MAYNARD BOW- 
MAN, F. W. W. DOANE, DONALD M. FERGUSSON DR. JOHN 
STEWART, GEORGE B. BANCROFT, S. A. MORTON, PHILIP A. FREE- 
MAX, and HARRY PIERS. 

PROG. & TRANS, N. S. INST. Sci. VOL XIII. PROC. A. 



ji PROCEEDINGS. 

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS : (1) Progress of the Institute; (2) Some 
Achievements of Chemical Synthesis. By PROFESSOR E. 
MACKAY, PH. D., Dalhousie University, Halifax. 

PROGRESS OF THE INSTITUTE. 

We enter this evening upon the forty-ninth session of the work 
of the Institute of Science. Owing to the postponement of the 
annual meeting, in order to meet in joint session with the Engineer- 
ing Society, our formal opening is exceptionally late, and the 
session in consequence will be comparatively short. Let me express 
the hope that it will nevertheless prove to be the most prosperous 
and productive in the history of the Society. 

The year closed has been happily free from any losses to our 
membership through death. Another gratifying feature has been an 
increase in the average attendance at the monthly meetings. 
Eleven papers were presented, including two in the department 
of Biology, three in Geology and Mineralogy, two in Physics and 
three in Chemistry. The attention of the Society was thus about 
equally divided between the natural and physical sciences. The 
Treasurer's report, which will be submitted to you, will show that 
the financial condition of the Society is more favourable than for 
either of the two preceding years. A special effort was made 
during the year to collect membership fees, with the gratifying 
result that the revenue from this source has been seventy-five per 
cent greater than that for last year and a hundred per cent greater 
than that received two years ago. 

The outstanding feature of the year has been the installation 
of the Institute and its property in its present convenient and 
commodious quarters. In the Autumn, through the courtesy of 
the Nova Scotia Technical College, we found a permanent place 
of meeting in the College building: and in May and June the 
Provincial Science Library, of which the library of the Institute 
forms nearly eighty per cent, was removed to the : .ew library room 
in the west wing of the College building, where, at the present rate 
of growth, the librarian estimates there will be accommodation, for 
seventeen or eighteen years to come. The increased space has made 
the complete classification and arrangement of the library possible 
and owing to the untiring efforts of the librarian, Mr. H. Piers, 



PRESIDENT'S ADDRESS. iii 

all books are now readily accessible. The Provincial Museum also, 
as soon as it is practicable to move it, is to find a new and more 
commodious home in the Technical College. These changes mark 
an important advance. When they are completed the whole of the 
large and valuable equipment in museum and library will be for 
the first time readily accessible to every scientific worker who wishes 
ta use it. 

We enter upon the new session of the Institutes' work with a 
membership of 93 including 74 ordinary and associate and 19 
corresponding members. Ten years ago we had 100 ordinary and 
associate and 25 corresponding members, a total of 125 members. 
Judged by these statistics,, we should have to admit that instead 
of growing we had declined twenty- five per cent. It is only fair 
to remember, however, that on account of the successive primings 
to which our Ifsts have been subjected in recent years, the decline 
shown has been nominal rather than real and that our effective 
membership has probably been maintained. We must also recall 
that within a few years a flourishing sister society, the Engineering 
Society, has been organized, and that it appeals in considerable 
measure to the same constituency as the Institute does. Making 
due allowance for these considerations, the fact remains that while 
there has probably been no real decline, we have not grown as we 
ought. It would be too hasty to draw the conclusion that our 
younger men are not furnishing their due proportion of investi- 
gators. To go no further back than ten years, I can recall at least 
ten young men who while here contributed one or more papers to 
the Institute, and of whom few or none are now in the Province. 
If we could have diverted to our own Transactions the researches 
which these young men have published since leaving us and which 
have gone to enlarge the stock of knowledge under other auspices 
than ours, we should have much less reason to complain of lack of 
scientific activity. We are, in fact, in this as in some other respects, 
paying the tribute to larger communities which, it would seem, 
comparatively small communities are obliged to pay. 

Within the last decade the people of Xova Scotia have come to 
a higher appreciation of the value of scientific education, and the 
facilities for scientific work have niuch increased. For evi- 



iv PROCEEDINGS. 

dence of this we have only to look around us at the present 
moment. The building in which we are meeting and its 
equipment prove that the public is realizing how indispensable 
is the service which science renders the community. The 
Technical College will add considerably to the facilities for 
scientific instruction and research; and we may look to it 
with confidence to make large additions to our knowledge 
more especially in applied science. In the older provincial colleges, 
also, the most noteworthy progress in recent years has been in the 
expansion of the scientific departments, shown in the opening of 
new laboratories or in important additions to staff and equipment. 
All this implies that scientific work is receiving more serious 
attention in our Province now than at any previous time, and the 
conditions for the growth of a Society devoted to the promotion of 
scientific research should not at least be less favourable than they 
have hitherto been. This consideration should stimulate us to 
energetic efforts in order to realize more fully than we now do the 
purpose for which the Society exists. 

As the purpose of the Institute is to promote research, the 
true index of its prosperity is not the length of its membership list, 
but the quality and quantity of its contributions to knowledge. 
Progress here is more difficult to estimate, but a careful survey of 
our yearly Transactions leads to the conclusion that we are doing 
little, if any, more than maintaining the position of ten or twenty 
years ago. Can we do anything to stimulate progress? 

The Institute has in the past endeavoured to promote investi- 
gation principally in four ways : ( 1 ) by undertaking the publication 
of scientific investigations; (2) by accumulating a library and 
making it accessible to all who desire to use it ; ( 3 ) by associating 
together those interested in scientific investigation with a view to 
stimulating individual effort; and (-i) by attempting to arouse 
general interest in scientific work. 

It will be admitted that we have not been equally successful in 
these various directions. We have, in the first place, succeeded 
in publishing with fair regularity the papers presented to the 
Society. In regard to our library we can point with satisfaction 
to our considerable and growing collection of publications of 



PRESIDENT S ADDRESS. . V 

scientific societies, conveniently arranged, within ready access of 
our place of monthly meeting, and accessible daily not only to our 
own members but to the general public and especially to students 
of pure and applied science. The material in our library is, as far 
as it goes, just the kind which the scientific investigator needs. 
No library of text-books could take its place, and as it is the kind 
of library which would not have been collected in this Province 
but for the efforts of this Society, we have here an achievement in 
which it may be permitted us to glory. At the same time, as an 
antidote to excessive pride, we may remember that there are many 
serious gaps on our shelves and that in particular the most 
important journals of Physics and Chemistry are conspicuously 
absent, as these cannot be obtained by exchange but only by 
purchase. 

When we turn to the other two directions specified in which 
an effort has been made to promote research we do not find the 
record so successful. The Institute has not yet succeeded in 
organizing and associating the scientific interests in its territory; 
and little direct effort has been made to awaken general interest 
in scientific work. 

Now let us consider briefly what it is desirable for us to 
accomplish in these two directions. 

Enthusiasm in advancing science like religious or political 
enthusiasm, or indeed any other kind, is powerfully promoted by 
close association and frequent meetings of those of similar ways of 
thinking. The exhortation of the Apostle .to the early Christians 
not to forsake the assembling of themselves together, was founded 
upon a knowledge of the needs of human nature. The scientific 
investigator is cheered and stimulated by frequent association with 
fellow-woTkers, and his zeal tends to languish if he finds himself 
cut off from them. Hence a disproportionately large amount of 
research work is done in the centres where men meet each other 
frequently. In this Province we have no large communities; 'and 
we can only very imperfectly at best overcome the isolation of 
individual workers. In order to do what we can in this direction 
the first step is to have all actual or potential workers so far as 
possible become members of the Institute. We should carefully 



vi PROCEEDINGS. 

survey our territory, district by district, and see that the claims of 
the Society are placed before every man believed to be interested 
in scientific work. Every teacher of Science, more especially every 
teacher of the natural sciences, should be on our membership list. 
The professional and business men who have become interested in 
some department of science, the more progressive of our farmers, 
fruit-growers and fishermen, all these should have an opportunity 
of identifying themselves with the Institute's work. Men com- 
petent to make reliable observations of natural phenomena, who 
have at the same time both the inclination and opportunity to make 
them, are not very numerous. The services of all such are needed 
in the Society. An ideal to be realized would be to have a com- 
petent observer in every important district of our territory who 
would report upon any natural occurrence of scientific interest 
in his district, for example, on the appearance of any insect 
pest or other agency destructive to vegetation, or the occur- 
rence of local earthquakes, or of unusual meteorological or 
celestial phenomena. There is nothing new in the attempt to 
realize something of this sort. The Education department of Nova 
Scotia inaugurated a system for the purpose of making phenolo- 
gical observations many years ago and the experience gained by 
the department w*ould be invaluable in any atteniDt to organize a 
corps of observers among associate members of the Institute. 
Accordingly, I wish to be understood as speaking with diffidence 
of what the possibilities in this direction may be. But whether it 
is practicable to stimulate observation by organization of this kind 
or not it is certain that we must make a systematic effort of some 
kind in order to retain the interest and support of non-resident 
members. It would probably not be difficult to largely increase 
our membership. Our entrance fee is not formidable, and initia- 
tion ceremonies are simple. The real problem is how to maintain 
an interested and, in consequence, effective membership ; and this, it 
seems to me, can only be done by keeping in frequent communica- 
tion with members in one way or another. If we were a large and 
wealthy society, able to issue a monthly or fortnightly journal to 
all members, the problem would be solved. But our transactions 
are issued much too seldom to have the desired effect. Hence some 



PRESIDENTS ADDRESS. Vll 

other means must be adopted; and to bring the discussion to a 
practical issue, I would make the following suggestions : 

(1) That reports of our monthly meetings, or of lectures or 
other functions under the auspices of the Society be sent every 
member regularly. This might perhaps be done with least trouble 
and without much expense by making suitable arrangements with 
the city newspapers. 

(2) That if possible there should be held annually a special 
meeting of the Institute, preferably at some time when there are 
excursion railway rates to the city; that the programme of this 
meeting, should be made of as great general interest as possible; 
and that there should be opportunity at it for the discussion of 
matters specially affecting non-resident members. 

(3) That as many competent observers as possible should be 
organized in observational work, mapped out by and under the 
direction of the Institute. 

That part of the Institutes work designed to awaken public 
interest in science has not hitherto received much direct attention 
from the Society. All are agreed, however, that it is important, 
both as an end in itself, and as a means to the end for which the 
Society exists. 

There are occasions when arousing public interest in. scientific 
matters becomes an imperative duty which a scientific society must 
not shirk. The advent of the brown tail moth is an example of 
such an occasion. And other occasions frequently occur offering 
opportunities to a Scientific Society to be of public service. I am 
reminded in this connection that not many months ago I heard a 
city official give an address in which he scoffed at the idea that the 
common house fly could be a carrier of disease. This example 
illustrates a dangerous sort of ignorance which a popular scientific 
lecture on the; habits of the house fly might perhaps remove. And 
if the Institute could occasionally provide such lectures on timely 
topics it would earn public gratitude, and incidentally do much- 
to educate the public to appreciate the value of scientific work and 
to become interested in it. 

It would be easy to suggest numerous ways of promoting 
investigation and interest in investigation, which could be made 



Vlii PROCEEDINGS. 

effective if we had unlimited resources .to draw upon. But what 
concerns us most at present is, not what we might do if we had 
the means but what we can do with the means we have. The 
Institute is able to look back upon a past of solid achievement; it 
finds itself at present in a more favourable condition as regards 
material appliances than it has ever before been. May it not, 
therefore, look forward with confidence to a future that will be 
worthy not merely of the achievements,, but of the hopes and 
aspirations of the past? 

SOME ACHIEVEMENTS OF CHEMICAL SYNTHESIS. 

In addressing you a year ago, I attempted to- trace the develop- 
ment of the atomic theory, and to show how its fundamental 
conception had received striking and unexpected confirmation from 
recent physical research. This evening I propose inviting your 
attention to a few achievements of Chemistry in the synthesis of 
organic compounds. It is a subject which opens up a vast, almost 
illimitable, field, in which one might wander indefinitely. But in 
the time at my disposal it will only be possible to glance briefly 
at a few out of very many notable results obtained; and if, in 
addition, I succeed in presenting such a general conception of the 
nature of synthetic -problems as may be possible without introducing 
technicalities, my object will have been attained. 

Numerous as the different kinds of substances we meet in 
Nature may seem to us, they form but a small portion of the vast 
array of substances known to Chemistry. In other words, by far 
the greater proportion of existing substances are manufactured. 
Some of these, like phosphorus or sodium, are elementary sub- 
stances, 'and hence their preparation involves the splitting, up of 
the compounds used as raw material. Others, like sulphuric acid, 
or white lead, or rosaniline are compounds, and so have to be built 
up from the constituents of the raw materials used in their manu- 
facture. This building up process is chemical synthesis, and it is 
in this direction that Chemistry has achieved some of its most 
notable triumphs. 

The Chemical elements vary greatly in their capacity for form- 
ing compounds. Argon and helium, which cannot combine with 



IX 



anything, illustrate one extreme of this capacity; while carbon, 
whose compounds number considerably more than a hundred 
thousand, illustrates the other. The overwhelming superiority of 
carbon in respect of its compound-forming capacity is one of the 
cardinal facts of Chemistry. Its compounds include all substances 
of vegetable and animal origin; thus starch, sugars, fats, and that 
exceedingly complex group of substances, the proteins, which make 
up the chief part of the white of egg or the protoplasm of cells, 
are all compounds of carbon. This great group of substances 
known as organic compounds, formed the dark continent of early 
chemical exploration. Until about a century ago only a very few 
of the most venturesome had dared to enter the territory at all. 
There was a mysterious something about organic substances which 
distinguished them from inorganic or mineral compounds, a some- 
thing which, as a leading chemist of the time said, was easier felt 
than defined. One distinction between the two came to be univer- 
sally accepted, namely, that only inorganic compounds could be 
built up in the laboratory from their elements. Organic com- 
pounds, on the other hand, could only be formed in organisms, 
under the influence of vital force. 

This belief received a shock in 1828 when Wohler, a 
distinguished German chemist, accidentally discovered that 
ammonium cyanate, commonly classed as an inorganic compound, 
could be readily converted into urea, a typical organic substance. 
It is not easy for us now to realize how startling this discovery 
seemed to the chemists of that time. If a modern chemist were 
to discover that living cells could be developed from ammonium 
salts, the discovery would .scarcely produce a greater sensation. 
Wohler's discovery showed that the synthesis of organic compounds 
was possible in the laboratory and that therefore the mysterious 
influence called vital force was not a necessary factor in their 
formation. Why, then, would it not be possible to make, starch, 
sugar, the fats, even muscular fibre from their elementary consti- 
tuents ? And so this first organic synthesis opened up to the vision 
of chemists a vista of possibilities hitherto undreamt of and 
pointed the way to an illimitable field for investigation and 
discovery. 



X PROCEEDINGS. 

It was long, however, before the next organic synthesis was 
effected. This was the synthesis of acetic acid, the acid of vinegar, 
and was carried out by Kolbe in 1845. Two relatively simple 
organic compounds had thus been synthesized in somewhat less 
than twenty years. This was slow progress. And in learning 
why advance had not been more rapid we shall learn something of 
the nature of the problem presented by organic synthesis. 

Let us suppose that a clever workman who had never seen a 
watch finds one some day and, observing its usefulness, wishes to 
construct one for himself. Let us further suppose that he is 
permitted to experiment with the watch and to observe its exterior 
but that he cannot open it and that, therefore, the internal mechan- 
ism is invisible to him. Having learned everything possible from 
observation, his next step would be to make an hypothesis about 
the structure of the watch that would satisfactorily explain its 
observed behaviour. Then, having purchased the necessary parts 
from a dealer, he would proceed to put them together in accord- 
ance with his hypothesis. If the latter were well-founded the result 
would be a watch, the counterpart of that studied. 

Now the problem which our amateur w r atch-maker had to solve 
is crudely analogous to the much more complex problem which 
confronts the chemist who attempts to synthesize an organic 
compound. First he has to determine the composition of the given 
compound ; then to observe its behaviour under various conditions ; 
then to make an hypothesis about its structure that satisfactorily 
explains the observed behaviour ; finally, he has to cause the proper 
kinds of matter to unite in such a way as to give a compound of 
the assumed structure. If the assumed structure were correct, the 
result will now be the desired compound. 

In the time of Wohler, to determine the composition of a 
substance was in general much the easiest part of this problem; 
for methods of analysis had already been perfected. It was only 
necessary to obtain a pure specimen of the substance to be analyzed. 
This, indeed, sometimes was, and still is, a very difficult task. But 
as a rule, the nature and proportions of the constituents of a com- 
pound could be accurately ascertained without great difficulty. 

It was far otherwise with the structure. Dalton's atomic 
hypothesis was already nearly quarter of a century old when Wohler 



PRESIDENT'S ADDRESS. xi 

synthesized urea. According to this hypthesis when a compound 
of, say, carbon, hydrogen and oxygen is formed, the smallest particle 
of the compound capable of existing is some sort of little group 
or association of definite numbers of atoms of carbon, hydrogen 
and oxygen ; and any given portion of the compound, say a pound 
of it, is simply an exceedingly large number of such little groups, 
massed together. These little groups of atoms are now called 
molecules. This picture of what we may call the invisible 
mechanism of matter may or may not be a true one; but the true 
mechanism, whatever it is, produces exactly the same visible effects 
as would result from the atomic hypthesis. This hypthesis, there- 
fore, as far as it goes, serves the same practical purposes as a 
knowledge of the actual constitution of matter. It will be noticed, 
however, that it only provides us with a skeleton mechanism, leaving 
details to be filled in; and chemists soon felt the need of supple- 
menting it with additional hyptheses. Wohler's discovery, already 
cited, furnishes an illustration of facts which made this need 
apparent. Ammonium cyanate and urea have exactly the same 
composition, which is expressed in terms of the atomic hypothesis 
by the formula CH 4 N 2 O ; that is, in every smallest particle or 
molecule we may suppose that one atom of carbon is associated 
with four of hydrogen, two of nitrogen and one of oxygen. It 
cannot be that these different atoms are associated in haphazard 
fashion, like so many different coloured marbles thrown into a bag. 
On the contrary, there must be one definite arrangement of them 
that gives ammonium cyanate and another that gives urea. So 
much is evident; but how is the arrangement in each case to be 
determined ? And until the arrangement of atoms in the molecule 
of a given compound is known, or whatever it is that corresponds 
to this in the true mechanism of matter, how is the synthesis of 
the compound to be anything more than a lucky chance? 

It is now clear why progress in the synthesis of organic com- 
pounds had been slow. The problem of constitution had first to 
be solved or at least some working hypothesis had to be formulated 
which would be a sufficient approximation to the truth to serve 
practical purposes. The history of Chemistry from 1820 to 1860 
is characterized by successive attempts to attain this end. Berzelius' 
electro-chemical theory, the radical theory, the substitution theory, 



xii PRESIDENT'S ADDRESS. 

the newer type theory, and finally the theory of valence,, mark 
notable steps in the progress. Each successive theory explained a 
wider range of facts than its predecessor, and gave place in turn 
to a theory capable of interpreting a yet wider range. We are 
here concerned only with the last-named, the theory of valence. 
This theory attributes to each atom a strictly limited capacity for 
combining with other atoms, as measured by the number of atoms 
with whi'ch, it can combine. Accordingly, an atom cannot combine 
with or, figuratively speaking, become linked to, an indefinitely 
large number of other atoms, but only with a small number, the 
atoms of different elements having different capacities in this 
respect. For example, an atom of hydrogen, or of chlorine can 
never combine directly with more than one other atom and these 
elements are therefore called univalent. The capacity of an 
oxygen atom for combination is exhausted by combining with two 
atoms of hydrogen or any other univalent element; and hence 
oxygen is called bivalent. An atom of carbon can combine 
with a maximum of four hydrogen or four chlorine or two 
oxygen atoms, that is, carbon is tetravalent. With the aid 
of this hypothesis it was now possible to interpret experi- 
mental results by the formulation of relationships between 
the atoms of a molecule. An example will make this clear. 
The composition of alcohol is expressed by the formula 
C 2 H 6 0. Now one-sixth of the hydrogen and all the oxygen 
are removable from alcohol, and re-appear together again in 
one of the reaction products. These experimental results can be 
interpreted by attributing to one of the hydrogen atoms a different 
relation to the compound from that of the other five, and by 
supposing that this hydrogen atom is directly combined with the 
oxygen atom. But as hydrogen is univalent and oxygen bivalent, 
these relations would have to be expressed by the formula 
C 2 H 5 -0-H. Interpreting in similar fashion other reactions of 
alcohol, and assuming the tetravalence of carbon, we finally arrive 
at the formula CH 3 -CH 2 -O-H which expresses relationships 
between the atoms. Now formulae of this kind known as 
structural or constitutional formulae not only suggest new 
properties, but also methods of synthesis. For example, the 
iibove formula suggests a method of making alcohol from J .he 



PRESIDENT'S ADDRESS. xiii 

hydrocarbon, ethane. The latter is a gaseous compound whose 
structure is represented by the formula CH 3 -CH 3 By the action 
of bromine upon it we obtain brome thane, CH 3 -CH 2 -Br, a 
pleasant smelling, volatile liquid. Acting on this with a suitable 
metallic hydroxide should replace the bromine by an oxygen and 
hydrogen atom and hence should yield alcohol if our constitutional 
formula is correct, 

CH 3 -CH 2 -Br + MOH=CH 3 -CH,-OH + MBr. 
This result has been experimentally verified. 

In the constitutional formula of alcohol just given, the assump- 
tion is made that one atom of carbon can combine with, another. 
An extension of this assumption explains the remarkable com- 
pound-forming capacity of carbon already mentioned. By 
supposing that one atom of carbon can combine with another, one 
of these with a third, this in turn with a fourth, and so on, we 
should obtain a structure analogous to a chain, of which carbon 
atoms are the links. No other element seems to have any appreci- 
able power of forming such atomic chains, and on the other hand 
there appears to be practically no limit to the number of carbon 
atoms that can enter into the carbon chain. Hence the multipli- 
city and complexity of carbon compounds, and the variety and 
difficulty of the problems presented by the synthesis of them. 

We owe the theory of valency to the labours of Frankland, 
Couper, and Kekule. AYith its development, progress in the 
formulation of the constitution of carbon compounds became 
exceedingly rapid; and no less rapid was the advance of organic 
synthesis, for the determination of the constitution of a compound 
usually implied that either immediately, or at all events in no 
long time, methods would be devised for the synthesis of it. In 
this way, one by one, many of the organic compounds found in 
Nature were artificially prepared. But numerous as these 
preparations were they formed but a small fraction of the stream 
of carbon compounds entirely new to the world which now began 
to pour from chemical laboratories. The stream became a flood 
when a few years later, Kekule, in a memoir regarded as the most 
brilliant piece of reasoning in the literature of organic chemistry, 
showed how the theory of valency could be applied to explain the 



XIV PROCEEDINGS. 

peculiarities of a class of substances known as the aromatic 
compounds, which until then had presented a hopeless jumble of 
unintelligible reactions. This explanation constitutes what is 
called the benzene theory. Its effect in stimulating activity in 
organic chemistry, and more especially in organic synthesis was 
immediate and unexampled. The. aniline colur industry, which 
it found small and helpless, forthwith became great and powerful. 
Even now, although forty-five years have passed since the benzene 
theory was published, it's fertility remains undiminished. To 
quote from Professor Japp: "Kekule's work stands pre-eminent 
"as an example of the power of ideas. A formula, consisting of 
"a few chemical symbols jotted down on paper and joined together 
"by lines, has . . . supplied work and inspiration for scien- 
tific organic chemists during an entire generation, and affords 
"guidance to the most complex industry the world has yet seen." 

It remains to cite a few examples of the achievements of 
organic synthesis. I shall have to pass by the almost innumerable 
essences, perfumes, colurs, anaesthetics, antispetics, and substances 
of therapeutic value, which we owe to this branch of Chemistry : 
and I can only linger long enough to merely mention the synthesis 
of camphor, and of the natural alkaloids, nicotine, atropine, conine, 
and cocaine, to mention some of the better known. But I shall 
venture to dwell a few moments on what has been accomplished 
in the synthesis of three important groups of .substances produced 
in living organisms : ( 1 ) the sugars, ( 2 ) the proteins and ( 3 ) the 
vegetable dyes. As I have undertaken to avoid technicalities, the 
merest glance at these different fields must suffice. 

The sugars, as is well known, form a very important natural 
group of substances closely related to starch, cellulose and the gums. 
The best known sugars belong to either one of two groups. Cane, 
malt and milk sugar, all having the composition expressed by the 
formula CjoH^On are called disaccharoses. Glucose or grape 
sugar and fructose or fruit sugar, having the formula CeH^O,-, 
are monosaccharoses. Until a little over twenty years ago, in 
spite of the importance of the sugars, little was known of their 
chemistry. This was not because they had not been studied but 
because of the hopeless character of the problem they presented. 



PRESIDENT'S ADDRESS. xv 

It is to the work of Kiliani and especially to that of Emil Fischer 
that Chemistry is indebted for the solution of these problems. 
In 1866 Kiliani succeeded in determining the constitution of both 
glucose and fructose; and within the following four years Fischer 
not only synthesized both glucose and fructose, but also a large 
number of other related sugars previously unknown, and succeeded 
in completely clearing up the Chemistry of the whole group of 
saccharoses. Fischer's brilliant work was made possible by his 
discovery of a means of effecting what had baffled earlier chemists, 
the isolation of a sugar in pure condition from a mixture. The 
key to this problem he found in the reagent, phenylhydrazine, 
which he discovered would convert a sugar into an easily purified, 
easily identified, insoluble compound. But it requires a magician 
to wield a magician's wand : and phenylhydrazine in the hands 
of any less gifted worker would not have accomplished what it did 
in the hands of Emil Fischer. When after a few years work he- 
finished his investigation of the monosaccharoses, that chapter of 
Chemistry was left practically complete. 

The syntheses in the group of disiccharoses have been much 
less numerous. The most notable has been that of cane sugar, 
and with a passing reference to the way in which this has been 
accomplished we shall leave the sugar <rroup. 

When cane sugar undergoes inversion it takes up the elements 
of water and yields equal quantities of glucose and fructose. 
This and other reactions indicate that cane sugar is some sort of 
compound of glucose and fructose with water eliminated. The 
glo.ry of first succeeding in producing such a compound is due to 
Marchlewski, who obtained cane sugar by the reaction of aceto- 
chloroglucose on potassium fructosate in 1899. 

When we turn to the protein group we have to deal with the 
most complex substances known to Chemistry. At the same time 
their relation to the living organism makes them physiologically 
the most important of all substances. 

The difficulty of research in this branch of organic chemistry 
are enormous. Many members of the group are non-crystalline 
substances, and hence excessively difficult, or impossible, to 
obtain in pure condition. Again they are, as a rule, very sensitive 



XVI PROCEEDINGS 

to changes of temperature and to the action of reagents, which of 
course greatly increases the difficulty of unravelling the nature of 

reactions. Finally they are substance of prodigious complexity 

egg albumen having a molecular weight not less than 12 or 
15,000. that is to say, there must be several hundred atoms of 
carbon in the molecule. In spite of these difficulties, however, 
much progress has been made in the chemistry of the proteins in 
recent years; and the chief progress has been due to the applica- 
tion of synthetic methods. The magician under whose direction 
these methods have been carried out is Emil Fischer. Let us 
glance at the results. 

When the huge protein molecule is broken up by the action of 
chemical reagents, such as acids and alkalies, the fragments con- 
sist of substances which can be analyzed and identified. They are 
found to belong for the most part to a class of substances known 
as amino-acids, of which ammo-acetic acid (glycocoll) is a simple 
example : 

CH 2 NH 2 CO 2 H. 

Now the manner of breaking up of the protein molecule is of 
such a kind that it is practically certain the parts represent verit- 
able fragments or are closely related to veritable fragments of the 
original molecule. The work of Emil Fischer and his students 
has been devoted to piecing together these fragments in the way in 
which it seems most probable they ought to be combined. To show 
the nature of this piercing together let us begin with amino-acetic 
acid. It contains a group NH 2 CH 2 CO, which Fischer calls 
glycyl. Now this may be made to combine with amino-acetic- 
acid so as to yield the following : 

glycyl, -glycine, NH 2 CH 2 CO- NHCILCO 2 H. 
In the same way we obtain : 

diglycyl-glycine, NH 2 CH 2 CO-NHCH 2 CO-NHCH 2 CO 2 H. 
And this chain may be lengthened indefinitely. Now by substi- 
tuting in a similar way other amino-acid groups as leucyl, 
C 4 H 9 -CH(NH 2 ^CO, other similar compounds are obtained. 
These compounds are named by Fischer the polypeptides. One 
of these has been synthesized which contains eighteen amino-acid 
groups like the above joined together, giving the enormous mole- 



PRESIDENTS ADDRESS. XV11 

cular weight of 1213 truly a masterpiece of synthetic skill. Now 
a remarkable fact is that these polypeptides have properties which 
are quite different from those of the amino-acids of which they 
are made up and approach closely the properties of proteins. They 
give, for example, some of the characteristic reactions of the 
proteins, and when they are fed to animals the products are the 
same as in the case of albumens. These results indicate that the 
advances now being made so rapidly are in the right direction and 
that the goal of the strenuous efforts being made, the synthesis of 
a veritable protein, is not beyond the powder of organic chemistry. 

In turning now to the group of vegetable dyes we leave pure 
science behind and deal with science in partnership with com- 
merce and industry. For unlike the monosaccharoses and poly- 
peptides with which we have been dealing, alizarin and synthetic 
indigo are articles of commerce which have competed with, and 
displaced, the vegetable dyes madder and indigo. Alizarin was 
the first but indigo is the greatest achievement of synthetic 
chemistry in this field. Many syntheses of it have been long known, 
the first having been effected in 1870. The problem of the com- 
mercial synthesis of indigo, however, involved other factors 
besides the purely scientific ones; and its solution is a magnificent 
tribute not only to the synthetic skill and the perseverance, but 
also to the business sagacity, of those workers who for twenty 
years never faltered in their determination 'to reach the desired goal. 

The first attempts to place the synthesis of indigo on a com- 
mercial basis started from toluene, one of the constituents of coal 
tar, as raw material. From this substance there are numerous 
paths leading to indigo. Some of these perpetually lured the 
investigator on with the hope, so often elusive, that means could 
be devised of reducing the cost of production to such an extent 
as fto make the route a commercial one. One of these routes led 
to indigo through a substance called authranilic acid. Then forth- 
with the dominant factor in the problem became the production 
of this acid at a sufficiently reduced cost. A method of making it 
from napthalene instead of from toluene was discovered, and 
this discovery was the turning-point of the struggle. "At one 
stroke" says one of the investigators 1 "the commercial manu- 

1 H. Brunk, Chem News (1902), 89, 212. 
PROC. & TRANS, N. S. IN T ST. Sci. VOL. XIII. PROC. B. 



xviii PROCEEDINGS. 

"facture of indigo was placed on a solid. basis. From that moment 
"I had the firm conviction that the method on which we were 
"engaged would hring us to the desired end." The reason of this- 
confidence lay in the fact that napthalene as raw material had the 
great advantage over toluene of being very much cheaper and more 
abundant-; so much so that nearly 30,000 tons of napthalene 
annually were being converted into lamp black, or left unisolated, 
for lack of more profitable use. 

Success, however, was not yet won. Besides the solution of 
numerous minor difficulties, it involved the devising of a cheaper 
method of producing concentrated sulphuric acid; and thus it 
has happened that it is to the struggle for synthetic indigo we 
owe the introduction of the contact process of manufacturing^ 
sulphuric acid which has already revolutionized this, the greatest 
of chemical industries. 

It is now nearly a decade since the goal so long striven for 
was at length gained, and synthetic indigo was able to compete 
successfully both in quality and cost with the natural product. 
In 1901 the whole of the indigo imported into Great Britain was 
the product of the indigo plant. In 1 908 i synthetic indigo to the 
value of $670,000 was imported, or about one half of the total 
importation. It requires no prophet to foretell the conclusion of 
the story : the industry of indigo production will pass from the 
banks of the Ganges to those of the Rhine. . And the moral is 
equally plain. It is the country that is most successful in making 
science not merely the occasional adviser of the industries, but their 
ally and confidant, that will be victor in the contest for industrial 
supremacy. 

The Treasurer, M. BOWMAN, presented his annual report, 
showing that the receipts for the year 1909-10 were $849.19, the 
expenditures $609.45, and the balance in current account on 31st 
October, 1910, was $236.74; while the permanent endowment fund 
is $859.81, and the reserve fund, $190.68. The report having been 
audited, was received and adopted. 

The Librarian's report was presented by H. PIERS, showing 
that 1754 books and pamphlets had been received by the Institute 
through its exchange-list during the year 1909: and 1456 had been 



OFFICERS ELECTED. XIX 

received during the first ten months of the present year (1910), 
viz., January to October, inclusive. The total number of books 
and pamphlets received by the Provincial Science Library (with 
which those of the Institute are incorporated) during the year 
1909, was 2204. The total number in the Science Library on 31st 
December, 1909, was 38,988. Of these, 30,587 belong to the 
Institute, and 8,401 to the Science Library proper. That is, about 
78 per cent, are the property of the former, and about 22 per cent, 
belong to the latter. 431 books were borrowed, besides the many 
that were consulted in the library. No binding was done during 
the year, there being no grant available for the purpose. From 
13th May to 17th June, 1910, the whole Science Library was 
moved from No. 201 Hollis Street, where it had been located since 
its foundation in 1900, to the large new stack-room provided for 
it in the Nova 'Scotia Technical College, Spring Garden Road, 
and since then 'it had been entirely 'checked over, book by book, and 
rearranged. The report was adopted. 

The following were elected officers for the ensuing year 
(1910-11) : 

President, WATSON L. BISHOP, ex-officio F. R. M. S. 
1st V ice-President, DONALD M. FERGUSSON. 
2nd Vice-President, PHILIP A. FREEMAN. 
Treasurer, MAYNARD BOWMAN, B. A. 

Corresponding Secretary, ALEXANDER H. MACKAY, LL. D., 
F. R. S. C. 

Recording Secretary and Librarian, HARRY PIERS. 

Councillor* without office, ALEXANDER McKAY; PROFESSOR 
FREDERIC H. SEXTON, B. So.; FRANCIS W. W. DOANE, 
C. R: A. L. McCALLUM, B. Sc. ; PARKER R. COLPITT; 
GEORGE R. BANCROFT, B. A.; and PROFESSOR EBENEZER 

M.\rK.\Y, : Pir. D. 

. 

On motion, a vote of thanks. was presented to the retiring 
President, I)i?. F, MACKAY, for the unusually able and satisfactory 
manner in whicli lie had filled the chair during his three years 
term of offiee, the* limit of time allowed bv the by-laws. 



PROCEEDINGS. 



FIRST ORDINARY MEETING. 

Civil Engineering Lecture Room, N. 8. Technical College, Halifax; 

13th May, 1911. 

THE PRESIDENT, WATSON L. BISHOP, in the chair. 

A paper by WALTER HENRY PREST, of Bedford, N. S., entitled, 
*'A Suggestion for Anthropological Work in Nova Scotia," was 
read by DR. A. H. MACKAY. (See Transactions, p. 35.) The 
subject was discussed by DR. MACKAY, H. PIERS, Dr. E. MACKAY, 
G-. W. T. IRVING, and the author. The consideration of what, if 
any, exploratory work might be undertaken, along the line sug- 
gested by the paper, was referred to the council. (For the results 
of such work, see W. H. Prest's "Keport on Cave Examination in 
Hants County, N. S.", in Transactions, vol. xiii, pt. 2, p. 87.) 



SECOND ORDINARY MEETING. 

Reading Room, N. S. Technical College, Halifax; 
81st May, 1911. 

THE PRESIDENT, WATSON L. BISHOP, in the chair. 

It was announced that the following had been duly elected 
ordinary members by the council: C. B. NICKERSON, M. A., 
demonstrator in chemistry; CLARENCE D. HOWE, B. So., professor 
of civil engineering; HOWARD L. BRONSON, professor of physics; 
D. S. MACINTOSH, B. So., lecturer on geology; and HAROLD S. 
DAVIS, B. A. ; all of Dalhousie University, Halifax. 

On motion of H. PIERS and A. L. McCALLUM, it was resolved 
thai the Nova Scotian Institute of Science learns with deep regret 
of the death of its corresponding member, DR. EGBERT WHEELOCK 
ELLS, F. B. S. C., and desires to express its high appreciation of 
him and of the very valuable work he had done for Canadian 
geology, particularly in the Maritime Provinces. 



ORDINARY MEETINGS. XXI 

The following papers were read by title: 

1. "Recent Meteorological Notes." By F. W. W. DOANE, 
eity engineer, Halifax. (See Transactions, p. 53.) 

2. "Monthly Mean Temperatures, Halifax, 1ST. S., and 
Plymouth, G. B., compared." By HENRY S. POOLE, D. So., 
F. R. S. C. (See Transactions, p. 52.) 

3. "Mineral Occurrences in Granite at New Ross, Lunenburg 
county, N. S." By A. L. MCCALLUM, B. Sc v Halifax. 

4. "On the Effect of Gravity on the Concentration of a 
iSolute." By HAROLD S. DAVIS, B. A., Dalhousie University, 
Halifax. (See Transactions, p. 291.) 

5. "Rare Fishes in Nova Scotia," By HARRY PIERS, curator 
of the Provincial Museum, Halifax. 

HARRY PIERS, 

Recording Secretary. 




PROCEEDINGS 



OF THE 



a &cotian Institute of (Science 



SESSION OF 1911-12 



ANNUAL BUSINESS MEETING. 

Electrical Engineering Lecture Room, Technical College, 
Halifax; 13th November, 1911. 

THE PRESIDENT, WATSON L. BISHOP, in the chair. 
Other members present: PROF. E. MACK AY, M. BOWMAN, F. W. 

W. DOANE, P. R. COLPITT, W. McKERRON, PROF. C. L. MOORE, 

DR. H. JERMAIN CREIGHTON, PROF. D. S. MACKINTOSH, 
PROF. C. D. HOWE, H. S. DAVIS, and H.. PIERS. 

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS: (1) Review of the Institute's Work, 
(2) Death of Dr. R. W. Ells. By WATSON L. BISHOP. 

Gentlemen, As we are entering upon another year it gives 
me the opportunity to call your attention to the work of the year 
which is gone, in order to stimuate further improvement. 

We have at last, as an Institute, found an ideal home in the 
Technical College the provincial centre of Science applied. We 
have not only comfortable but aesthetic rooms for meeting large 
or small to suit the size of the audience. We have at hand 
facilities for illustrating papers, popular or scientific, to which for 
nearly half a century the Institute has been a total stranger. We 
have a large staff of scientific professors at home in the same 
building and an increased staff of scientific men at Dalhousie 
University. But all this wealth of facilities failed during the past 

PKOC. & TKANS. N. S. INST. Sci., VOL. XIII. PROG. c. 

(xxiii) 



XXIV PROCEEDINGS. 

Dalhousie. But all this wealth of facilities failed during the past 
year to produce the output of the old strenuous days when we met 
in the poorly lighted, badly seated, and primitively warmed and 
ventilated museum on Cheapside. 

It is true, the Institute of 1863 has lost heavily by emigration. 
The medical doctors formed an association of their own. Those 
developing mining industries branched out into the Mining 
Society, of Nova Scotia; and later the engineers swarmed 
out to form their own hive. But while making allowance for all 
this, there should surely be better conditions for the development 
of the scientific cult to-day than ever before. It is therefore with 
some disappointment I refer to the work of last year. It has not 
come up to our improved opportunities. Our men of science have 
been too completely engrossed in the increasingly exacting duties 
of their various routine public services. We must not forget, 
however, to keep the vestal fire of scientific research alive in this 
focus of the community. That is a duty incumbent on everyone 
engaged in scientific labor, and on every one seeing hope in the 
scientific cult; 

We had three meetings during the past year. The retiring 
President in the Annual address gave an able sketch of late pro- 
gress in the production of organic compounds, and made sugges- 
tions for our future work which we have not yet attempted to 
energetically develop. 

At our February meeting Mr. Walter H. Prest advocated a 
preliminary survey of Xova Scotians caves for possible natural 
history or anthropological remains. Your Council supplied him 
with some aid for such exploration, an account of the results of 
which will be presented by Mr. Prest himself at this meeting. 

The May meeting brought out some valuable meteorological 
notes by Mr. F. W. W. Doane,, C. E. ; a comparison of the monthly 
mean temperaturs of Halifax and Plymouth on opposite sides of 
the Atlantic by our ex-President, Dr. Henry S. Poole, F. R. S. 0., 
who does not forget the Institute, although, absent from the 
Province; a sketch of Mineral Occurrences in the Granites at New 
Koss, Lunenburg County by Mr. A. L. McCallum, B. Sc. ; a paper 
on the effect of gravity on the cencentration of solutions, by Mr. 



PRESIDENTS ADDRESS. XXV 

Harold S. Davis, B. A. ; and notes on fishes in Xova Scotia by our 
Secretary Mr. Harry Piers. 

This is good work so far as a few members of the Institute 
are concerned. But more of us should have put new work on its: 
records. Our publication funds and our magnificent exchange list,, 
put us within the reach of privileges and advantages which 1 
trust we may fully exploit during the present year. 

Perhaps we should annually attempt at least one or two 
popular demonstrations of science applied to industries, the con- 
servation of health, or the development of public utilities some- 
thing to interest the general public or to inspire the young student. 

DEATH OF DR. R. W. ELLS. 

We have to record with profound regret the loss during the 
year of one of our most useful and eminent members. By the 
passing away of the late Dr. Robert Wheelock Ells, LL. D., 
F. R. S. C., who died at the late residence on O'Connor street, 
Ottawa, early Tuesday morning, 23rd May, Canada loses one of 
her ablest scientists. Dr. Ells had been a member of the Geologi- 
cal Survey of Canada for nearly forty years, having joined the 
staff under Sir Wm. Logan, the founder of the survey. 

The late Dr. Ells was descended from U. E. L. ancestors 
who came to Xova Scotia in 1761. He was born at Cornwallis, 
X. S., in 1845 and was educated at Horton Academy, at Acadia 
University and at McGill University from which he graduated 
in 1872 with first class honors and the Logan gold medal in geo- 
logy, and natural history. He married in 1873, Miss Harriett X. 
Stevens of Onslow, X. S. Joining the staff oi the Canadian 
Geological Survey in 1872, he has since been constantly engaged 
in geological work in that branch of the service. 

He was also a prominent Fellow of the, Royal Society of 
Canada, a Fellow of the American Geological Society, and a 
member of the Canadian Mining Institute. Besides being a past 
.president of the Ottawa Literary and Scientific Society, Dr. Ells 
had also been president of the Ottawa Valley Graduates' Society 
of McGill University, and for a number of years past had held 
the position of representative Fellow for the province of Ontario 



XXVI PROCEEDINGS. 

on the Corporation of McGill University. He had published 
numerous reports on the geology and mineral resources of the 
provinces of Nova Scotia, Prince Edward Island, New Brunswick 
and Quebec, as well as of the Northwest Territories and British 
Columbia. In addition he had written various papers for the 
Boyal Society of Canada, the Geological Society of America, the 
American Institute of Mining Engineers, the Ottawa Field 
Naturalists Club, the Canadian Mining Institute and the Nova 
Scotia Mining Institute. 

Dr. Ells was perhaps best known in recent years for his work 
in connection with the problem of the utilization of the oil shales 
of Eastern Canada. It was indeed largely through his efforts that 
attention was first called to the great value of these deposits and 
his memoir published in 1910 is the standard work on this subject. 

From the year 1894 he has contributed many valuable geolo- 
gical papers to our Institute, which will be found in its Trans- 
actions. 

Our duty is to endeavor to fill up our ranks with new men who 
will carry on, down the current of time, the good work which 
makes the past history of our Institute one of the most illustrious 
in Canada. 

The Treasurer, MR. BOWMAN, presented his annual report, 
showing that the receipts for the year 1910-11 were $781.74, the 
expenditure $540.83, and the balance in current account on 1st 
November, 1911, was $240.91; while the reserve fund was $696.38, 
and the permanent endowment fund was $885.58. The report 
having been audited, was received and adopted. 

The Librarian's report was presented by H. PIERS, showing 
that 1,810 books and pamphlets had been received by the Institute 
through its exchange-list during the year 1910; and 1,357 have 
been received during the first ten months of the present year 
(1911), viz. January to October, inclusive. The total number of 
books and pamphlets received by the Provincial Science Library 
(with which those of the Institute are incorporated) during the 
year 1910, was 3,421. The total number in the Science Library 
on 31st December, 1910, was 42,409. Of these, 32,397 belong to 
the Institute, and 10,012 to the Science Library proper. That is, 



ELECTION OF OFFICERS ORDINARY MEETINGS. XXvii 

about 76 per cent, are the property of the former, and about 24 
per cent, belong to the latter. 626 books were borrowed besides 
those consulted in the library. No binding or purchasing was 
done during the year, there being no grant available for the pur- 
pose. The report was received and adopted. 

The following were elected officers for the ensuing year 
(1911-12) : 

President, WATSON L. BISHOP, ex officio, F. E. M. S. 

1st Vice-President, ALEXANDER HOWARD MACKAY, L^. D., 

F. B. S. C. 

2nd V ice-President, DONALD M. FERGUSON. 
Treasurer, MAYNARD BOWMAN, B. A. 

Corresponding Secretary, PROF. EBENEZER MACKAY, PH. D. 
Recording Secretary and Librarian, HARRY PIERS. 
Councillors without office, PHILIP A. FREEMAN; PROFESSOR 
FREDERIC H. SEXTON, B. So.; FRANCIS W. W. DOANE, 
C. E.; A. L. MCCALLUM, B. So.; PARKER E. COLPITT; 
H. JERMAIN MAUDE CREIGHTON, M. A., M. So., DR. So., 
F. C. S. ; and PROFESSOR CLARENCE L. MOORE, M. A. 
Auditors, DONALD S. MACINTOSH, M. So., and ALEXANDER 

MCKAY, M. A. 

The celebration of the fiftieth anniversary of the foundation 
of the Institute was discussed and referred to the council to take 
such action as it might think fit. 

PROFESSOR MOORE suggested that some method be devised for 
cooperation work in obtaining data on biological questions in the 
province. The matter was referred to the council. 



FIRST ORDINARY MEETING. 

N. 8. Technical College, Halifax; 13th November, 1911. 

THE PRESIDENT, WATSON L. BISHOP, in the chair. 

The ordinary meeting was held on the conclusion of the 
annual business meeting. 

In the absence of the author, MR. PIERS read a "Eeport on Cave 
Exploration in Hants County, Nova Scotia," by WALTER HENRY 



XXviii PROCEEDINGS. 

PREST, of Bedford, N. S., being the result of investigations under- 
taken by MR. PREST at the request of the council of the Institute. 
(See Transactions,, p. 87). The subject was discussed by PROF. 
C. L. MOORE, PROF. E. A. HOLBROOKE, PROF. D. S. MACINTOSH, 
H. PIERS, and others. 



SECOND ORDINARY MEETING. 

N. S. Technical College, Halifax; llth December, 1911. 

THE FIRST VICE-PRESIDENT, DR. A. H. MACKAY, in the chair. 

It was announced that PROFESSOR C. J. CONNOLLY, PH. D., 
department of biology, University of St. Francis Xavier, Anti- 
gonish, N. S., had been duly elected an associate member by the 
council on 5th November. 

MR. PIERS drew attention to the desirability of collecting 
information regarding the economic and medicinal use of Nova 
Scotia plants among our Micmic Indians. 

In the absence of the author the following paper was read by 
PROF. C. L. MOORE: 

SACRED PLANTS OF INDIA. BY CAPTAIN J. H. BARBOUR, E. A. 

M. C., F. L. S., Nowgong, Central India, 

In view of the supreme interest which will centre round India 
during this present year and culminating in December . when His 
Majesty, the King, will visit the country to hold the great Delhi 
Durbar, there is certain to be a desire on the part of the many 
people who will visit the country, some for the first time, to learn 
before they come, as much about India, her history, customs and 
manners as they can in order to appreciate the magnificence and 
significance of this important event in her national life and also 
to create for themselves an interest in what they may see generally 
over the country. 

There will be much travelling up and down the vast peninsula, 
and guide books, histories and other literature will be greatly in 
evidence to elucidate and explain points. There is, however, one 
subject which may appear insignificant compared with the others 
and yet it is one which will be very much to the fore wherever the 
traveller goes, I mean the plants of the country. He will see new 



SACKED PLANTS OF INDIA. BARBOUB. XXIX 

.and strange varieties of plants from the time he lands in Bombay 
till the time he leaves India again, and he will see many which 
are sacred and associated with Indian religious thought to a very 
large degree, and hence I have endeavoured to try and write this 
article in the hopes that it may be a help and pleasure to many 
who may care to look upon them during their stay in the country, 
which in many cases will only be for a few weeks or so. 

I often wonder how many think about the trees and plants 
they see when either on their railway journey or when visiting 
the shrines and temples of ancient India, about which are usually 
planted trees or plants of a certain kind; and yet the lives of the 
Hindus are intimtely woven both now and in the past with some 
of these plants; and the plants themselves, could they but speak, 
could tell wonderful tales of yore, when the Pantheon of Hindu 
deities was perhaps more in evidence than it is to-day. Yet to-day 
it is not by any means obliterated. The old is still with us 
in India and the native has remained unchanged, except perhaps 
in the large cities for centuries. Civilization and Western 
influences have, it is true, prevaded the large centres of the 
community; but away in the jungle villages, the villager still 
preserves his reverence for his ancestors' deities and his hopes in 
the sacredness of his faith, and the associations which surround 
it, and amongst these the trees which form the subject of my 
article. For these reasons I have thought that it may prove 
interesting to your readers to tell them something about these 
plants, what they are like, their uses either economically or 
medicinally, and their associations, so far as can be found out at 
the present day. The writer has practically seen all the trees or 
plants to which he refers and so can speak from experience, both 
as to their uses and also their interesting points to a great extent. 
The object of this article being, however, not only to prove 
interesting, but useful to all who may be thinking of visiting 
India and wishing to know the native names of the trees, the 
names of the trees will be given, not only in the Latin form, but 
in the vernacular and English in each case. 

Before proceeding to speak about these plants a word or two 
must be said on one or two of the chief deities to which these 



XXX PROCEEDINGS. 

plants are sacred, and the remainder will be grouped together and 
referred to as the plants are spoken of. 

Let us take Vishnu first as he is the most popular of all 
Hindu deities in his various incarnations. He is the personifica- 
tion of nature's preserving powers. When the whole earth was 
covered with water he lay sleeping on a serpent, and while he 
slept, a lotus sprang from his navel and from, it the great Brahma 
sprang the Hindu god existant. His heaven is on Mount Meru 
and his incarnations are ten. 

Siva, the second and only other great deity I shall here refer 
to, represents the destructive power of nature, or perhaps I ought 
to say its transforming and reproducting power, and hence is of 
both terrible and pleasing dispositions. He is usually represented 
as a white man with five heads and a third eye in each head, and 
the heads are surmounted by a crescent moon, and the river Ganges 
flows, as it were, from his fifth head. His most usual image is, 
however, the "Linga" which is the sign of reproduction and which 
is exceedingly common on many temple steps. His heaven is 
Mount Kackasa. 

These are the two chief deities to which most of these trees 
are sacred, but there are many more ; and to these, trees and plants 
are also sacred. I shall first of all point out the plants sacred to 
these two deities and then grouping the others, refer to them 
together. I shall also say a few words about sacred trees which 
are sacred, as it were, for themselves alone and yet have no doubt 
a deeper idea beneath. 

The following plants are sacred to Vishnu alone: Ocymum 
sanctum. 

To Siva: Aegle marmelos, Crataeva religiosa, Poinciana 
regia, Zizyphus jujuba, Jasmimum sambac, Gardenia lucida, 
Michelia Cliampaca, Ficus religiosa and Ficus Bengaliensis. 

To Siva and Vishnu together: Jasmimum sambac, Artemisia 
vulgaris, Nerium odorum, Ixora coccinea, Origanum Marjoram. 

Ocymum sanctum, Vern. "Kalatulsi." Holy Basil. The 
only plant dedicated to Vishnu, and a most important one it is, 
though only an herb, erect, softly hairy, with ovate toothed leaves, 



SACRED PLANTS OF INDIA. BARBOUK. XXXi 

small corolla purple in colour. The fruit is reddish, brown. 
Sometimes the plant is purple all over. It is cultivated very much 
round temples and in Brahmins' gardens, and is highly reverenced. 
"Xothing on earth can equal the virtues of a Tulasi" has been 
quoted often. Puja (that is invocations) is offered to it daily. 
When a Brahmin is dying, one of the plants is brought and put 
on a pedestal and puja is offered to it. A bit of the root is put 
into- the mouth of the dying man, and its leaves are sprinkled over 
face, eyes, ears and chest. He is also sprinkled with a twig of it, 
dipped in water, from hand to foot. At the same time his friends 
say aloud "Tulasi, Tulasi, Tulasi" ! and the man dies hapiyy and 
goes straightway and certainly to Swarga. To obtain uardon for 
all one's sins, it is enough to look at this sacred plant. By 
touching it a man is purified of all his defects. Salvation is 
assured to any one who waters and tends it daily. A branch 
offered to Vishnu in milk will be more pleasing to the god than 
a thousand cows. A sprig of it dipped in saffron and offered to 
the god at any time ensures the person's enjoyment of Vishnu's 
happiness. To give a twig of it to anyone suffering cares and 
anxieties, ensures a certain means of securing for him a satisfactory 
ending to all his difficulties. It is much used in native medicine 
with a supposed excellent results. Its leaves have a sweet aromatic 
scent and the Brahmins use the plant as an aid to digestion after 
meals, and after ablutions to prevent getting chills, as it is supposed 
to have cordial-like effects. 

Aegle marmelos, Vern. "Bel." Ball Fruit. A fairly large 
tree found every where in India and as common in some parts of 
the jungle as near villages and temples. Its thorns and its 
flowers are in panicles. The fruit is about the size of an orange, 
round and smooth with a pulpy interior; and when dried, the 
appearance is rather honey-combed. The fruit is a well known 
remedy for dysentery, and it is used a good deal. It is bitter, 
however. This tree is sacred to Siva. 

Crataeva religiosa, Vern. "Warwan." Is found near many 
temples in Central India and Bengal. A tree with long petioled 
leaves and ovate leaflets. Flowers in racemes, white or buff with 
long purple filaments. Fruit large and round or oval. The leaves 



XXXli " PROCEEDINGS. 

are armomatic and are used in rheumatism, while the roots and 
bark are used in calculi. 

Poinciana regia, Vern. "Sandesra." Gold Mohur tree. The 
most beautiful tree in India in my opinion,, and its various names 
well become it, for it is indeed a queen of trees in its beautiful and 
graceful green symmetrical fan-like arrangement of branches and 
leaves which towards the end of the summer take the place of its 
golden flowers. The flowers are of old gold or striped with red, 
and the English name is the name of the only gold coin in India. 
Covered with flowers two or three inches in size across, the tree is 
indeed in May and June a veritable flame of gold and no descrip- 
tion "on paper can equal the gorgeous look of one -of these trees in 
full bloom. Siva is highly honored in this tree. 

Zizyphus jujuba, Vern. "Bhor." Jujube tree. Not a very 
large tree, but a thorny one with small ovate leaves, dark green on 
the upper surface and downy brown underneath. Flowers in 
cymes, strong smelling and small; fruit the size and colour of a 
yellow cherry. It is very common everywhere in the jungles, and 
it is thought to be, as well as being sacred to Siva, the Siora of 
the Koran, a tree which Mohammed in his miraculous night 
journey found growing at the further limit of the seventh heaven. 
The wood of the tree is poor, but the fruit is eaten raw, although 
it is bitter. Many a time have I seen the natives collecting them 
in abundance. It has mild medicinal properties as a blood purifier, 
but otherwise there is nothing striking about it, end one might 
easily pass the tree without noticing it. 

Jasmimum sanibac, Vern. "Mogri." Arabian Jasmine. A 
shrub with oval leaves and racemes of opposite white flowers. 
Fruit rather small, round, and black. One would always recognize 
this as a variety of jasmine, and it is appropriately associated with 
Siva in his reproductive energy, for the leaves are used as a 
lactifuge ; the bruised leaves being applied to the breasts. It stops 
the secretion of milk in cases of threatened abscesses and hence 
women must bless Siva for having associated with him such a 
remedy. 

Gardenia lucida, Vern. "Dekamali." English is Dikamali or 
Gardenia. A large shrub or small tree with smooth shiny oval 



SACKED PLANTS OF INDIA. BARBOUK. XXX111 

smooth leaves. Flowers white and it is often seen as an ornamental 
shrub in gardens. A strong smelling yellow gum exudes from its 
shoots and from this an ointment is made which is called by its 
Hindu name. This ointment I may add is used for foul ulcers 
and to keep flies off sores. The flower is rather a pretty -one and 
is a valuable addition to the ornamental shrubs of the country. 

Michela cliampaca, Vern. "Champaka." No English equiva- 
lent. A fair sized tree, more or less evergreen with long ovate 
pointed waved leaves. Flowers a delicate pale yellow and very 
fragrant. Fruit is a spike of carpels. It is a rather curious 
looking tree and gives, when the leaves are fully expanded, a good 
deal of shade. The wood is very soft and easily broken. The 
flowers are used by the native women as ornaments in their hair 
and are much offered in their temples to Siva. Shelley speaks of 
the tree thus : 

"The champak odours fall 

Like sweet thoughts in a dream." 

The pale yellow flowers have a sweet oppressive odour which is 
celebrated in Hindu poetry, and from the wood images are made 
of Buddha for temple uses. 

Ficus religiosa, Vern. "Pipal." The Peepul tree or sacred 
fig. A large, smooth handsome tree, spreading somewhat, with 
leaves long and pointed much. It looks rather like a wide graceful 
poplar tree. Fruit is size of a black cherry. It is common over 
India, in the jungle and near temples and places of habitation. 
It lias been known to live for 2000 years. It is found often near 
where Brahmins perform the ablutions, and the rustle, of the leaves 
in a breeze has been compared to the sounds of a cithara. Under 
this tree Vishnu is supposed to have been born by some. No one 
is allowed to cut it down or lop off branches. Leaf-pulling is 
only allowed for acts of worship. Each tree springing from an 
unpreceived source is emblematical of the body which really springs 
from, and is one with the godhead. It is also said to typify the 
universe. Sometimes this tree is invested like a Brahmin with 
that great honor the "triple cord" which only Brahmins among 
the castes of India can aspire to. Sometimes it is solemnly 
married, as other trees and plants are to each other in India. In 



XXXIV PROCEEDINGS. 

the case of the Peepul tree, a Margosa tree (Melia Azadirachia) 
is usually chosen as its mate, or occasionally a plantain (Musa) 
Here and there one may on roadsides see a Peepul tree and a 
Margosa tree side by side in little mounds. This union is not 
accidental, but a true marriage union. They are wedded by actual 
ceremonies used for Brahmins and after a time it has been seen 
the branches of the two trees actually intertwine and their trunks 
are incorporated with each other. 

Ficus Bengaliensis, Vern. "Wad." Banyan tree. A fine tree 
possession aeria roots, smooth bark, light greenish leaves, ovate 
and downy beneath, smooth and shining when old. Fruit, deep- 
red in colour, size of a cherry. Common in the plains and jungles 
and may grow to an immense size as the famous one in the 
Nerbudda Valley, Central Provinces of which Arnold speaks: 

"Its ample shade 

Cloistered with columned drooping and roofed 
With vaults of glistering green/' 

With this tree also marriages are celebrated. A Palmyra palm may 
be seen apparently growing out of the trunk of a Banyan, but it 
is really the other way on, the palm being the older, the seeds of 
tho Banyan being dropped in its fronds and throwing its roots to 
the ground. (Roxburgh). 

We now come to the trees sacred to Vishnu and Siva together. 
I have already described the Jasmine and I pass on to the others. 

Artemesia vulgaris, Vern. "Daona." Wormwood. A tall 
strong herbaceous plant, leaves pinnated or lobbed deeply, toothed 
and cut. Flowers in panicles, very small and florets yellowish. 
Bract, leafy or dry. An uninteresting plaint in my opinion from 
a purely botanical point of view. It is curious, however, to note 
that in Old Testament history it is associated with distress and 
calamity and possibly this association may also be seen in its 
association with the Hindu Siva, in his terrible embodiment. It 
is worthy of note that absinthe is made from some species of 
Arthemesia. 

Nedium odorum, Vern. "Kanher." Oleander. A plant or 
shrub rather known in European conservatories and considered to 



SACRED PLANTS OF TNDIA. BARBOUR. XXXV 

be very poisonous, even out here. It has beautiful red flowers and 
long linear lanceolate leaves. 

Hooker thinks, "the willow of the brook" in Scripture to be 
the Oleander; and he states that wood, flowers and leaves are all 
very poisonous, but I have heard of its being used out in India, 
and I have read of fatal results. The resim is considered by 
natives to be useful in easing colic and stomachic pains and 
warming if taken internally; and externally, it is reputed to be 
antiseptic, but I have not yet been able to find out why! It is, 
however, mostly used internally in hysteria. It makes a very 
bright sho-w when in full flower, its rosy red bloom being both 
delicate and graceful. 

Ixora cocdnea, Vern. "Bakora," Torch tree. A shrub with 
smooth obovate leaves, flowers bright scarlet in close umbels or 
corymbs, calyx minute, corolla lobes, broad pointed. It is rather 
like a geranium and is called also the "jungle ^cranium," and it 
is probably the Bandhuka of Sanskrit poetry. 

Origanum Marjoram, Vern. "Marva." Majoram. A plant 
with no particular beauty, it contains a volatile oil which is used 
for different purposes and being aromatic in character is or has 
been used in temples because it gave fore a sweet smelling savor 
for the deities ; and its medicinal properties also make it acceptable 
as a plant for the deities and for the native as well. Now besides 
the plants that are sacred to the deities already given, there are 
a number more which are sacred to other deities or groups of 
deities and the first of these is Kama or Kama Devi, the Hindu 
cupid or god of love. He is the son of Lakshmi and is repre- 
sented similarly to the way cupid is at the present day, but he may 
ride on a red parrot or lory. 

The plants sacred to him are: Mesua Ferrea, Pandamus 
fascicularis, Mangifem Indica, and Michelia cliampaca (already 
described). 

Mesu Ferrea, Vern. "Nag Champa." Mesua. A beautiful 
tree sometimes growing sixty or seventy feet high with oblong 
lanceolate leaves, shining above and whitish beneath. Flowers, 
solitary or in pairs, large silvery white with bright yellow anthers. 
Fruit, oval and pointed. A tree which has been considered by 



XX Xvi PROCEEDINGS. 

some as the most beautiful on earth and with blossoms of a 
delicately fragant odour, and fit indeed for Kamr-Devis quiver. 
In Ceylon it is near every Buddhist temple and the flowers have 
been said to resemble white roses,, while the shorts and buds of the 
tree are of deep crimson. The flowers also have been described as 
camellia-like in character and its foliage a mass of glossy green. 
Its timber is splendid, and "Wordsworth's quotation matches it well : 
"A silver shield with boss of gold 
That spreads itself some fairy bold 

In fight to cover." 

It yields an aromatic oleo-resim and the dead flowers are used as 
a fragrant adjunct for decoctions and oils. 

Pandamus fascicularis, Yern. "Kevri." Screw-pine. A 
cactus-like shrub (there are no true indigmous cactuses in India) 
with long sword-shaped sharply toothed spinous leaves. The 
flowers look like innumerable filaments and grow on a spadix 3 or 
4 inches long, inclosed in leaf -like bracts. Fruit nearly round, 
something like a pineapple. The tender white leaves of the 
flowers have a delightful fragrance. Roots are sent out from 
many parts of the stem and give the idea of the tree being propped 
up by them. It is the Kevada or Sanskrit poetry, and a perfumed 
oil is extracted from the flowers which is called 'Kevde.' 

Mangifera Indica, Vern. "Amb." Mango tree. Smooth, 
leaves oblong and lanceolate. Flowers, small in greenish yellow 
panicles, fruit large and greenish and yellow, and varying some- 
what in shape from oval to irregularly round. A fine tree which 
grows all over 'India and has been planted everywhere. The 
fruit is easily the finest Indian fruit and possesses a subtle and 
delicate flavour, its only disadvantage being its immense stone. 
It has the reputation that it must be eaten in one's bath on 
account of its difficulty to handle, but I have not found it necessary 
to go to such length to enjoy it. The tree when in full bloom 
and many together, is rather pretty, though individually the flowers 
are modest. The smell of the flowers by night when out driving 
along the jungle roads is rather strong and some think them 
oppressive. The best ones are the Bombay Mangoes, famous all the 
world over. Every village temple or shrine is well planted with 



SACRED PLANTS OF INDIA. BARBOUR. XXXV11 

them., for they afford good shade as well as a most nourishing 
fruit. The unripe fruits are made into sherbets, pickles, chutnies. 
The stone or kernel contains tannic acid and turpentine and the 
pulp of the ripe' fruit gallic acid, and gum in traces. The 
Am Chur which is very popular amongst Indian native troops is 
a valuable anti-scorbutic. This form of the fruit is that of the 
green mangoes dried, skinned and stoned, cut into pieces. Half 
an ounce of this is said to be equal to an ounce of good lime juice. 
Mango food is a favorite diet with Europeans, just as gooseberry 
food is at home, and in my opinion it has a very strong resemblance 
in flavour. 

I now come to the plants sacred to the Hosts of Heaven, by 
which we mean the nine regents of the planets and eclipses, and 
these give their names to the days of the week, and I give them 
as they may prove interesting to readers of the article generally. 
Bair, the sun regent, Sunday. Soma, the regent of the moon, 
Monday. Mangala, Tuesday. Buda, regent of Mercury, the author 
of a hymn in the Kig-veda, Wednesday. Brihapati, Thursday. 
Sukra, Friday. Sani, Saturday. Eahu and Ketu, eclipses. 

To these Hosts of Heaven are sacred the : 

Hibiscus Rosa-Sinensis, Butea frondosa, Acacia Catechu, 
Ficus religiosa (already described), Ficus glomera^as, Poa 
cynosuroides. 

Hibiscus Rosa-Sinensis, Vern. "Jasud." Shoe flower. The 
different varieties of Hibiscus are numerous in India and form 
beautiful shrubs and useful vegetables, and all are more or less 
formed on one type, that of a variety of mallow, to which natural 
order they belong. The above is probably better known as the 
China rose and is common in gardens in India and I believe is to 
bo found in different' parts of America and elsewhere, and so will 
be more or less generally known to your readers It is a rather 
pretty plant and. the flowers are used in various disorders But I 
wonder if anyone of your readers know that an oil is made by 
mixing the juice of the fresh petals with olive oil in equal parts 
and boiling till the water is evaporated is useful as a stimulating 
application to the hair. Possibly some ladies may care to know of 
a new hair wash or a hair producer. Anyhow the natives out 



XXXV111 PROCEEDINGS. 

here believe it to be useful and it seems to me to be a very simple 
preparation. 

Butea frondosa, Yern. "Pallas/ The bastard teak. The 
vernacular name of this tree is taken from the famous field of 
Plassy on which our fortunes in India so much depended. It is 
a common jungle tree in early spring and when in flower is covered 
with beautiful scarlet-orange flowers which make a wondrous 
colour effect. Hence its fancy names "flame of the forest/ 7 and 
"pride of the jungle," which nearly all Anglo-Indians know it by. 
Seen closely the individual flowers are much the same colour, but 
the calyces which are of a very deep greenish-brown, and exactly 
like velvet, throws the scarlet into showy relief, and as the flowers 
are in panicles the effect is more striking still. 

The bark of the tree contains a gum, which is full of tannic and 
gallic acids. The gum and flower juice is used for making dyes. 
The bark is used for snake-bites. 

It is indeed a flower which 

"With a scarlet gleam 
Cover a hundred leagues, and seem 
To set the hills on fire." 

Acacia Suma, Vern. "Khair." Catechu. A small tree with 
white bark, thorny, leaves compound, leflets 30 to 50 pairs, flowers 
white, pod strap-like. A well known rather delicate tree, but not 
a particularly interesting one to look upon. Catechu, its English 
name, is an extract from this tree, and is so well known that no 
cements are necessary on it. Its chief use in India is that it is one 
of the ingredients of the packet of Betel leaves chewed by the 
natives, which I suppose is one of the common things one notices 
'travelling through the country any where. Be it remembered, 
however, that this packet, however objectionable it may be to us 
and however discolouring to the mouth and lips, contains several 
useful ingredients which probably make life more agreeable to the 
native and certainly in some cases staves off sickness, colic, etc. 

Kath-Bol is a mixture of catechu and myrrh given to women 
after confinement as a tonic and to induce a flow of milk. 



SACRED PLANTS OF INDIA. BARBOUR. XXXIX 

Ficus glomerata, Vern. "Gular." The Gular fig. A large 
tree with leaves oblong or broadly lanceolate, fruit in clusters on 
the trunk or branches, small, red downy. The wood is a fair timber, 
and the fruit is edible. A bath made of the fruit and bark with 
water is regarded as a cure for leprosy. The liquid extract from 
the root is used as a tonic from the Vaidvans. It is a fairly 
common tree over the country and may often be recognized quickly 
by the growth of galls on its leaves. 

Poa cynosuroides, Vern. "Kust." Dharba- grass. This is not 
a grass as its name suggests, but belongs to the natural order. 
Boraginaceae, and grows on damp marshy swamps. 

Brahmins always keep it in their houses and it is used in all 
ceremonies, including sacrifices. 

It grows to a height of two feet and has a finely pointed top 
and is rough to the touch. 

There are several legends regarding the origin of this sacred 
plant. One, that it was produced at a time when gods and giants 
were all busy churning with the mountains of Mandara, the 
Sea of Milk in order to extract from it Amrita or nectar which 
would render them all immortal. The story goes on to say that 
while the mountain was rolling about on Vishnu's back, who in the 
form of a turtle was supporting it, it rubbed off a great many 
hairs from the god, and that these hairs cast ashore by the waves, 
tcok root there and became Dharba grass. One wonders where the 
hairs on a turtle's back are, but this is a legend. Another legend 
is that while the gods were greedily drinking the nectar which 
they had extracted from the Sea of Milk, let fall some drops on 
the ground among ordinary grass which thus became sacred and 
grew up as Dharba grass . 

Dharba grass although sacred to the hosts of Heaven is also 
considered to be part of Vishnu himself, and Brahmins worship 
it, and in their ceremonies use it, believing that it has the virtue 
of purifying everything. An annual feast is instituted in honor 
of it on 8th day of the Moon in the month of Badra (September), 
and is called Dharba-ashtami. By offering the grass as a sacrifice 
on that day immortality and blessedness for ten ancestors may be 
assurred. Another result is that one's posterity is increased and 
PROC. & TRANS. N. S. INST. Sci., VOL. XIII. PROC.-D. 



xl PROCEEDINGS. 

multiplied like Dharba grass which is one of the most prolific 
plants in the vegetable kingdom. 

We have still another set of sacred trees which are sacred to 
the nine forms of Kali. The Kali represented in India in ancient 
days the same as the old Eoman patricians and refer to the ghosts 
or shades of ancestors. It will be noticed that some of those plants 
which are referable to deities are also to these spirits, such as 
Aegle marmelos, Ocymum, etc. But there are certain of special 
ones also, Musa sapientium, Curcuma longa, Saraca Indica. 
Punica granatum. 

Musa sapientium, Vern. "Khela." The cultivated plantain. 
Its appearance is now probably well known all the world over 
now-a-days, and need hardly be described. Its specific name 
conveys an allusion to one of Theopharastus' statements concerning 
a fruit which served as food for the wise men of India, supposed 
to have been the plaintain. 

It is worshipped by .the Hindu woman on the 4th of Kartik 
Shudh in order that their husbands may survive them. Bunches 
the fruit are used in festivals and ceremonies, and are placed at 
the entrances to their houses on such occasions, especially at 
marriages, as appropriate emblems of plenty and fertility. 

Some people consider it to have been the forbidden fruit of 
Eden and again that it was the grape of the Promised Land. 

Curcuma longa, Vern. "Haldi." Twemerie. Herbaceous. 
The leaves are long, broad and lanceolate, the leafy stem is four 
to five, feet high. The flowering bracts pale green and the corna 
a beautiful pink. The plant is known in Bombay by its Hebrew 
name "Karkam," and it was evidently known in England as early 
1710 or earlier. The uses of twemerie are well known, and I 
only intend to say that the oil is used by the natives in small-pox 
and chicken-pox. The rubbing of the oil is an essential part of 
Hindu wedding ceremonies and the root enters into many religious 
ones. By the root, I mean tuber underground. Mixed with lime, 
it forms the liquid used' in the Arati ceremony of warding off the 
"evil eye." With lime juice, the Hindus of the sect of Vishnu 
prepare their yellow Tiruchurnum, with which they make the 



SACRED PLANTS OF INDIA. BARBOUR. xll 

peculiar mark on their forehead. Visitors to India must often 
have seen the numerous marks of different sects and castes. 

Punica granatum, Vern. "Anar." The Pomegranate. It is 
sufficiently well known with its scarlet orange flowers and avidu- 
lated fruit to need no description. It grows well in other parts 
of Asia and Greece as well as India, where it was and is held 
sacred and symbolic of fructification and procreation and also 
death and resurrection. 

Giotto placed a pomegranite in the hands of Dante, and 
Raphael crowned Theology with blossoms of its flowers. 

In the old testament it is referred to, and it is seen in 
Assyrian and Egyption sculpture. In India it has often been 
referred to by Sanskrit writers, and has been seen in its sculpture. 
Several alkaloids are obtained from various parts of the plant 
and also organic acids and mannite. 

Saraca Indica, Vern. "Ashoka." The Asoka tree. A small 
tree belonging to the Leguminoseae, but unlike the usual type, 
it hardly looks like a flower of this order. The flowers are orange, 
changing to red in large round heads with long stamen?. The 
pod is broad, flat or scimitar shaped. It is a beautiful sight to 
see when in full bloom, and its soft Hindu name occurs frequently 
in old Indian poems. The flowers are used in temple decorations 
and as a symbol of love is also dedicated to Kama. It possesses 
a certain charm in preserving chastity and it is also a tree of 
refuge, as in the legend of Buddha, when Maya is consciou of 
having conceived the Buddis-Attya, she retires to a wood of 
Asoka and sends to her husband. 

The tree is also held sacred by the Burmans as under it 
Gaudama was supposed to have been born. 

It is much used by native physicians in womb affections, the 
bark being mixed with milk and made into the form of a decoction. 
Asoka Grita is made from the bark and clarified butter to which 
some aromatic herbs are added. 

. There are a few other plants which are held sacred, but which 
I must omit from this article if I am to endeavour to keep it 
within reasonable limits. The ones I have told something 
about are important and fairly common ones, and the writer 



xlii PROCEEDINGS. 

trusts they may prove interesting, both to those who have had a 
tour through India and to those who intend coming, and serve 
as a sort of bri^f popular botanical and folk-lore appendix to 
guide-books which may not touch upon this part of sight-seeing 
in detail. 

The foregoing paper was discussed by H PIERS, F. "W. W. 
DOANE, DR. A. H. MACKAY, PROF. MOORE, and D. M. FERGUSON; 
and a vote of thanks was passed to DR. BARBOUR for his interesting 
paper, on motion of Messrs. Piers and McCallum. 



THIRD ORDINARY MEETING. 

N. 8. Technical College, Halifax; 8th January, 1912. 

THE PRESIDENT, WATSON L. BISHOP, in the chair. 

It was announced that CAPTAIN J. H. BARBOUR, Royal Army 
Medical Corps, F. L. S., of Jabalpur, C. P., India, had been duly 
elected a corresponding member by the council on 28th December. 

HARRY PIERS, curator of the Provincial Museum, Halifax, 
read a paper entitled "Brief Account of the Micmic Indians of 
jova Scotia, and their Kemains," the subject being illustrated by 
a typical set of specimens of their ancient and modern implements, 
customs, etc. (See Transactions, p. 99). The paper was dis- 
cussed by the PRESIDENT, DR. A. H. MACKAY, DR. E. MACKAY, 
DR. A. STANLEY MACKENZIE, D. M. FERGUSON and WILLIAM 

McKERRON. 

FOURTH ORDINARY MEETING. 

THE FIRST VICE-PRESIDENT, DR. A. H. MACKAY, in the chair. 

H. JERMAIN MAUDE CREIGHTON, M. A., M. Sc. DR. Sc., F. 
C. S., lecturer on physical chemistry, Dalhousie University, 
Halifax, read a paper on "The Optical Activation of Racemic 
Bromcamphor Carboxylic Acid by means of Catalysts: the Speci- 
ficity of Catalysts." (See Transactions, p. 1). The subject was 
discussed by PROF. E. MACKAY, DR. A. H. MACKAY, D. M. 
FERGUSON, and PROFESSORS BRONSON, MACINTOSH and HARRIS. 



ORDINARY MEETINGS. xliii 

FIFTH ORDINARY MEETING. 

N. 8. Technical College, Halifax; llth March, 1912. 

THE PRESIDENT, WATSON L. BISHOP, in the chair. 

It was announced that DAVID FRASER HARRIS, M. D. C. M., 
D. Sc., B. Sc. (Lond.), E. E. S. E., Professor of physiology and 
[histology, Dalhousie University, had been elected an ordinary 
member by the council on 29th February. 

HAROLD S. DAVIS, B. A., Instructor in physics, Dalhousie 
University, Halifax, read a paper on "The Conductivity of an 
Aromatic Base in Water and certain Organic Solvents." (See 
Transactions, p. 40). The subject was discussed by DR. H. J. M. 
CREIGHTON and PROF. E. MACKAY. 

H. JERMAIN MAUDE CREIGHTON, M. A., M. Sc., DR. So., F. 
C. S., lecturer on physical chemistry, Dalhousie University, 
Halifax, read a paper on "The Behavior of Iron Salts, in the 
presence of Egg Albumen and other Organic Substances, towards 
certain Beagents." (See Transactions, p. 61). The subject was 
discussed by C. B. NICKERSON, PROF. E. MACKAY, DR. A. H. 
MACKAY, and D. M. FERGUSON. 



SIXTH ORDINARY MEETING. 

N. S. Technical College, Halifax; 9th April, 1912. 

THE SECOND VICE-PRESIDENT, D. M. FERGUSON, in the chair. 

In the absence of the author, MR. PIERS read a paper by 
LAWRENCE W. WATSON, M. A., Charlottetown, P. E. I., on "The 
Geological Age of Prince Edward Island." (See Transactions, 
p. 145). The paper was discussed by B. H. BROWN, H. PIERS, 
and others; and a vote of thanks was passed to MR. WATSON. 

C. B. NICKERSON, M. A., Demonstrator in chemistry, Dalhousie 
University, Halifax, read a paper on "The Qualitative Separation 
of Metals of the Iron Group ; a New Method for the Bemoval of 
PO/" Ions." (See Transactions, p. 95). The subject was dis- 
cussed by DK. H. J. M. CREIGHTON. 

DAVID FRASER HARRIS, M. D., D. Sc., B. Sc. (Lond.), F. B. 
S. E., Professor of physiology and histology, Dalhousie University, 
Halifax, read a paper entitled, "On the Intimate Associations of 



Xliv PROCEEDINGS. 

Inorganic Ions with Native and Derived Proteins." (See Trans- 
actions,, p. 76). The paper was discussed b.y DR. CREIGHTON, 
L. C. HARLOW, and D. M. FERGUSON. 

SEVENTH ORDINARY MEETING. . 

THE PRESIDENT, WATSON L. BISHOP, in the chair. 

MR. PIERS reported that the council had under consideration 
the celebration of the fiftieth anniversary of the foundation of the 
Institute in December, 1862., the celebration to take place in 
December of this year, and that a committee had been appointed 
to deal with the matter and to report to the council, and that 
this committee would be glad to consider any suggestions from 
the members in general. 

The SECOND VICE-PRESIDENT, D. M. FERGUSON, took the chair, 
while the PRESIDENT, WATSON L. BISHOP, read a paper on "The 
Canada Grouse (Dendragapus canadensis) in Captivity : its food, 
habits, etc." (See Transactions, p. 150). The subject was dis- 
cussed by H. PIERS. 

J. H. L. JOHNSTONS, B. Sc., Demonstrator in phvsics, Dal- 
housie University, Halifax, read a paper on "The Electrical 
Resistance and Temperature Coefficient of Ice." (See Trans- 
actions, p. 126). The paper was discussed by DR. CREIGHTON, 
and a vote of thanks was presented to Mr. Johnstone. 

A paper by A. H. MAC!VAY, LL. D., F. R. S. C., superintendent 
of education, on "Phenological Observations in Nova Scotia, 
1911," was read by title. (See Transactions, p. 175). 

HARRY PIERS, curator of the Provincial Museum, read a paper 
on "Mastodon Remains in Nova Scotia." (See Transactions, 
p. 163). The subject was discussed by D. M. FERGUSON. 

A paper by H. JERMAIN MAUDE CREIGHTON, M. A., M. Sc., DR. 
Sc., F. C. S., lecturer on physical chemistry, Dalhousie University, 
Halifax, "On the Electrical Conductivity of Acetophenone Solu- 
tions of certain Alkaloids and other Organic Bases," was read by 
title. (See Transactions, p. 154). 

HARRY PIERS, 

Recording Secretary. 



PROCEEDINGS 

OF THE 

floua rScotmn Institute of Science. 



SESSION OF 1912-13. 



ANNUAL BUSINESS MEETING. 

Civil Engineering Lecture Room, Technical College, 

Halifax, llth November, 1912. 

The President, Watson L. Bishop, in the chair. 

Active members present: Dr. A. H. MacKay, Donald M. 
Fergusson, M. Bowman, Prof. E. Mackay, A. L. McCallum, 
Prof. C. L. Moore, D. S. Mclntosh, Prof. A. S. MacKenzie, 
Prof. H. L. Bronson, Prof. D. Fraser Harris, C. B. Nickerson, 
R. H. Brown, W. McKerron, A. J. Barnes and H. Piers. 

In the absence of a presidential address, the Corresponding 
Secretary (Prof. E. Mackay) presented a report on the work 
of the Institute during the past year, and suggesting lines of 
work that might be taken up in the future. 

The Treasurer, M. BOWMAN, presented his annual report, 
showing that the receipts for the year ending 31st October, 
1912, were $809.91, the expenditures $241.48, and the balance 
in current account was $568.43; while the reserve fund was 
$708.51, and the permanent endowment fund, $912.13. 
The report, having been audited, was received and adopted. 

The Librarian's report was presented by H. PIERS, show- 
ing that 1,688 books and pamphlets had been received by 

PROC. & TRANS. N. S. INST. Sci , VOL. XIII. PROC' D. 

(xlv) 



Xlvi PROCEEDINGS. 

the Institute through its exchange list during the year 1911; 
and 1,298 have been received during the first ten months of 
the present year, 1912, viz. January to October inclusive. 
The total number of books and pamphlets received by the 
Provincial Science Library (with which those of the Institute 
are incorporated) during the year 1911, was 3,088. The 
total number in the Science Library on 31st December, 1911, 
was 45,497. Of these, 34,085 (about 75 per cent.) belong to 
the Institute, and 11,412 to the Science Library proper. 
Six hundred and forty-two books were borrowed, besides 
those consulted in the library. It was again reported that 
no binding or purchasing was done during the year, there 
being no grant for the library's support. The report was 
received and adopted. 

DR. A. S. MACKENZIE and others spoke of the great 
need of having the volumes bound in the library, and it was 
agreed that some action should be taken in the matter. 

The following question was then discussed: Whether the 
Institute shall offer money grants, when needed, to scientific 
research students, to assist in furnishing necessary apparatus, 
etc.; it having been suggested that two grants might be 
offered of $50.00 each and four of $25.00 each. 

The subject was discussed by DR. FRASER HARRIS, DR. 
MACKENZIE, DR. A. H. MACKAY, DR. E. MACKAY, and 
MR. PIERS. 

On motion of DR. E. MACKAY and PROF. BRONSON, it was 
resolved that the Council of the Institute be empowered to 
expend, at its discretion, a sum not to exceed fifty dollars to 
aid scientific research. 

The consideration of the celebration of the Fiftieth 
Anniversary of the Foundation of the Institute, was referred 
back to the Council. 

It was announced that ALBERT JOHNSTONE BARNES, 
service inspector, Maritime Telegraph' and Telephone Co., 



ELECTION OF OFFICERS. xlvli 

Halifax, had been duly elected an ordinary member on 4th 
October last. 

FRANK- WILLIAM DODD, Assoc. Mem. I. C. E., of Brook- 
lyn, N. Y., and Weymouth, England, gave an address on 
"Integral Atomic Weights," in which he advanced a new 
theory on the subject. (See Transactions, page 216.) 
The subject was discussed by PROF. E. MACKAY, PROF. 
BRONSON, DR. A. H. MACKAY, and PROF. A. S. MACKENZIE, 
and a vote of thanks was presented to the lecturer. 

The following were elected officers for the ensuing year 
(1912-13): 

President, DONALD MACEACHERN FERGUSSON, F. C. S., 

ex officio F. R. M. S. 
1st Vice President, ALEXANDER HOWARD MACKAY, 

LL. D., F. R. S. C. 

2nd Vice President, PROFESSOR HOWARD LOGAN BRON- 
SON, PH. D. 

Treasurer, MAYNARD BOWMAN, B. A. 
Corresponding Secretary, PROFESSOR EBENEZER MACKAY, 

PH. D. 

Recording Secretary and Librarian, HARRY PIERS. 
Councillors without office, PARKER R. COLPITT; PRO- 
FESSOR CLARENCE L. MOORE, M. A.; ALEXANDER 
McKAY, M. A.; PROFESSOR DAVID FRASER HARRIS, 
M. D., C. M., D. Sc., B. Sc. (Lond.), F. R. S. E.; 
DONALD SUTHERLAND MC!NTOSH, B. A., M. Sc.; 
CARLETON BELL NICKERSON, M. A.; and WATSON 
LENLEY BISHOP. 
Auditors GEORGE B. BANCROFT, B. A., and WILLIAM 

McKERRON. 

On motion of MR. PIERS and PROF. MACKAY a vote of 
thanks was presented to the retiring president, MR. BISHOP. 

The Proceedings and Transactions, vol. xiii, part 2, were 
distributed. 



Xlviii PROCEEDINGS. 

FIRST ORDINARY MEETING. 

Civil Engineering Lecture Room, N. S. Technical College, 

Halifax; 9th December, 1912. 

THE FIRST VICE PRESIDENT, DR. A. H. MACKAY, in the 
chair. 

It was announced that J. H. L. JOHNSTONE, demonstrator 
of physics, Dalhousie University, Halifax, had been duly 
elected an ordinary member. 

HARRY PIERS, curator of the Provincial Museum, Halifax, 
read a paper on "The Occurrence of European Birds in Nova 
Scotia/' and exhibited a specimen of the European Widgeon 
recently taken here. (See Transactions, page 228.) 

WATSON L. BISHOP read a paper entitled "A Curious 
Lightning Freak." (See page 240.) The subject was dis- 
cussed by the CHAIRMAN, MR. PIERS, MR. COLPITT, PROF. 
BRONSON, MR. BARNES, and PROF. FRASER HARRIS, some 
of whom gave accounts of remarkable lightning effects as 
observed by themselves. 

On motion of PROF. MACKAY an/i MR. NICKERSON it 
was resolved that the RECORDING SECRETARY be requested 
to prepare for the Transactions a sketch of the history of the 
Institute during the past fifty years, with biographical notes 
on those who had assisted materially in its work. 



SECOND ORDINARY MEETING. 
[COMMEMORATION MEETING, 1862-1912.] 

Civil Engineering Lecture Room, N. S. Technical College, 
Halifax; Monday, 20th January, 1913. 

The Nova Scotian Institute of Science met at 8 p. m. to 
commemorate the completion of half a century's work of 
the society, which had been organized at Halifax on the 31st 



ORDINARY MEETINGS. xlix 

of December, 1862, as the successor of the Nova Scotian 
Literary and Scientific Society and the older Halifax Mechan- 
ics' Institute (1831). 

The chair was occupied by the PRESIDENT, DONALD M. 
FERGUSSON, F. C. S., ex officio F. R. M. S. Other members 
present were: A. H. MACKAY, LL. D., F. R. S. C., first 
vice-president; PROF. EBENEZER MACKAY, PH. D., corres- 
ponding secretary; HARRY PIERS, recording secretary; and 
PROF. D. FRASER HARRIS, M. D., C. M., D. Sc., F. R. S. E.; 
DONALD S. MC!NTOSH, M. Sc.; CARLETON B. NICKERSON, 
M. A.; and WATSON L. BISHOP, members of council; WILLIAM 
MCKERRON, auditor; and W. C. STAPLETON and J. H. L. 
JOHNSTONE, ordinary members. 

The President announced the special purpose for which 
the meeting had been called. 

There was read a paper by PROF. DAVID FRASER HARRIS, 
M. D., C. M., D. Sc., F. R. S. E., of Dalhousie University, 
entitled " A Note on a Gastrolith found in a Moose." (See 
Transactions, page 242.) The subject was discussed by 
DR. A. H. MACKAY, H. PIERS, and others. 

The RECORDING SECRETARY, HARRY PIERS, read a paper 
which he had prepared at the request of the society, entitled 
"A Brief Historical Account of the .Nova Scotian Institute 
of Science, and the events leading up to its establishment; 
with Biographical Notes on some of those who have been 
prominent in its affairs." (See page liii.) Owing to lack 
of time, the presention of the biographical section of the 
paper was deferred to the next meeting. Remarks on the 
subject of the paper were made by the PRESIDENT, DR. A. H. 
MACKAY, DR. E. MACKAY, and others; and on motion of 
DRS. A. H. and E. MACKAY a vote of thanks was presented 
to MR. PIERS. 

Attention was drawn to the fact that GENERAL CAMPBELL 
HARDY was the sole-surviving original member of the society, 



1 PROCEEDINGS. 

and on motion of H. PIERS and DR. A. H. MACKAY, it was 
unanimously 

" Resolved that the Nova Scotian Institute of Science, 
on the occasion of its meeting to commemorate the com- 
pletion of half a century's work in the field of science in 
Nova Scotia, extends its hearty congratulations to its sole- 
surviving original member and former vice-president, MAJOR- 
GENERAL CAMPBELL HARDY, R. A., of Dover, England, the 
talented author of 'Forest Life in Acadie/ and that it further- 
more expresses its high appreciation of his work for it in the 
past, and of his continued interest in all of its affairs; and 
that a copy of this resolution be forwarded to General Hardy. " 



THIRD ORDINARY MEETING. 

Civil Engineering Lecture Room, N. S. Technical College, 

Halifax; 10th Febrdury, 1913. 

THE PRESIDENT, D. M. FERGUSSON, in the chair. 

The following telegram from the HONORARY SECRETARY 
OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA, dated at Ottawa, 20th 
January, 1913, and received the day after the commemora- 
tion meeting, was read by the Recording Secretary: 

" Harry Piers, Nova Scotian Institute of Science, Halifax. 
The Royal Society of Canada congratulates the Nova Scotian 
Institute of Science upon the completion of a half century 
of endeavour. Most hearty wishes for continued usefulness 
and success. DUNCAN SCOTT." 

THE RECORDING SECRETARY stated that he had forwarded 
a due acknowledgment of the message to Mr. Scott. 

An interesting letter from GENERAL CAMPBELL HARDY, 
our sole-surviving original member, dated at Dover, 20th 
January, was read, thanking the Institute for the cablegram 
sent to him on the occasion of the commemoration meeting, 
and giving reminiscences of the establishment of the society, 
etc. 



ORDINARY MEETINGS. H 

The RECORDING SECRETARY, HARRY PIERS, presented a 
series of " Biographical Sketches of the Deceased Presidents 
and other Prominent Members of the N. S. Institute of 
Science since 1862," being the concluding section of an 
historical account of the society, the first portion of which 
had been read at the last meeting. (See page Ixxxii.) 

Discussion took place as to the ways in which more 
interest in natural history and science in general might be 
aroused among the people of the province. 

FOURTH ORDINARY MEETING. 

Assembly Room, N. S. Technical College, 
Halifax; 4th April, 1913. 

THE PRESIDENT, D. M. FERGUSSON, in the chair. 

DAVID FRASER HARRIS, M. D., C. M., D. Sc., B. Sc. 
(Lond.), F. R. S. E., professor of physiology, Dalhousie 
University, Halifax, read a paper entitled, "Ventilation: its 
Discovery and Discoverer, and its bearing upon Tubercu- 
losis," with lantern illustrations. The lecture dealt with the 
life and work of the Rev. Stephen Hales, D. D., F. R. S., 
1677-1761, the inventor of ventilators (first described in 
1743) which have had a most remarkable effect in lessening 
diseases. On motion of H. N. PAINT and M. THEAKSTON, a 
vote of thanks was presented to Dr. Harris for his lecture. 



FIFTH ORDINARY MEETING. 

Civil Engineering Lecture Room, N. S. Technical College f 

Halifax, 12th May, 1913. 

THE PRESIDENT, D. M. FERGUSSON, in the chair. 

DR. A. H. MACKAY was appointed delegate to represent 
the Institute at the forthcoming meeting of the Royal Society 
of Canada. 



Hi PROCEEDINGS. 

The appointment of a representative to attend the fiftieth 
annual meeting of the Entomological Society of Ontario, to 
be held at Guelph, Ontario, on 27th to 29th August next, 
was left to the President and the Secretary. 

DONALD SUTHERLAND MC!NTOSH, M. Sc., instructor in 
geology and mineralogy, Dalhousie University, Halifax, read 
a paper entitled, " Notes on a Granite Contact Zone near 
Halifax, N. S." (See Transactions, page 244.) The subject 
was discussed by W. H. PREST, H. PIERS, and others. 

A paper by FRANK HENRY REID, M. D., C. M., SS. 
"Crispin," China Mutual Navigation Co., Liverpool, England, 
entitled "The Irregularity in the Occurrence of Secondary 
Sexual Colours, and deductions therefrom," was read by 
title, owing to the lateness of the hour; as was also one by 
A. H. MACKAY, LL. D., F. R. S. C., on " Phenological Obser- 
vations in Nova Scotia, 1912." (See Transactions, page 250.) 

HARRY PIERS, 

Recording Secretary. 



HISTORICAL ACCOUNT OF INSTITUTE. PIERS. 1111 

A BRIEF HISTORICAL ACCOUNT OF THE NOVA SCOTIAN 
INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE, AND THE EVENTS LEADING UP TO 
ITS FORMATION; WITH BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES OF ITS 
DECEASED PRESIDENTS AND OTHER PROMINENT MEMBERS. 
BY HARRY PIERS, Curator of the Provincial Museum, 
Halifax. 

(Read at Commemoration Meeting, 20th January, 1913.) 

PIONEER NATURALISTS. 

No backward glance at the progress of scientific affairs 
in Nova Scotia would be at all complete without some refer- 
ence to the pioneer workers in the field, the men who collected 
and observed, and thought and wrote, or otherwise laboured 
without the inspiring presence in their midst of institutions 
of learning and research, and companions of similar tastes. 

The names we meet in this period are not many; but, 
ipso facto, something akin to a halo must surround them 
because these men were the Fathers of Science in this 
province. 

Passing by the early voyagers and settlers, whose occasional 
hap-hazard observations on natural history are mostly 
of mere historic interest, we find that the close study of that 
subject seems to have begun about 1800 with Titus Smith, 
a man who was remarkable in many ways. He was followed 
by MacCulloch, Gesner, Webster, Brown and others, of 
whom I will give a few particulars. 

TITUS SMITH, botanist, etc., was born at Granby, Mass., 
4th September, 1768, and died at the Dutch Village, near 
Halifax, 4th January, 1850. He came to Nova Scotia with 
his father, a Yale graduate, in 1785, and settled at Preston, 
near Dartmouth, removing to the Dutch Village about 1800. 
He was remarkably well read and most accurate in his know- 
ledge of many subjects, and became well known to all of his 
day as "The Dutch Village Philosopher.''' He was a most 



Hv PROCEEDINGS. 

enthusiastic student of botany, collected and observed all 
over the province, and conveyed the information he gained 
to the prominent botanists of the time in England, Scotland, 
France and elsewhere. He was also interested in geology, 
and in fact in natural history in general, as well as in the 
most improved methods of agriculture. As a general natural- 
ist he was in advance of any others of his time in Nova Scotia, 
and his ability to read readily in various languages, placed 
scientific literature within his easy reach. In local history 
he was an acknowledged authority. About 1801-2 he was 
employed by the government to make a general tour or 
survey of the unsettled regions of the province, on which he 
left a voluminous manuscript report, including an account 
of our trees. Land surveying he took up as a profession. 
Unfortunately he published almost nothing over his own 
name, being of an exceedingly modest and retiring disposition; 
but he gave most liberally of his information to others and 
often wrote anonymously for the local press. The descrip- 
tive text of the first issues of Miss Maria Morris's superb 
"Wild Flowers of Nova Scotia" (about 1840) was written by 
him, and he collected the plants which that talented artist 
portrayed. His evidence before the Durham Commission of 
1843 shows his extensive knowledge of the province. He 
contributed articles to the local press on the subjects of 
agriculture, rural economy, education, chemistry, geology 
and botany, and occasionally lectured before the Mechanics' 
Institute. For many years he was secretary of the Central 
Board of Agriculture and for a time conducted an agricultural 
periodical. Murdoch says of him that he was remarkable 
for the vast and varied information he acquired in botany, 
natural history, etc., and that with a knowledge of most that 
nature and books can teach, he united an unfeigned simplicity 
and kindness to the lowest as well as to the highest in the 
land, recognizing no distinction of rank whatever. On one 
occasion this Institute made a pilgrimage to his grave in the 



HISTORICAL ACCOUNT OF INSTITUTE. PIERS. v 

woods near the Three-mile House, which will be found 
described in our Transactions. (See Lawson, M. J. K., 
History of Dartmouth, pp. 205-218; Trans. N. S. I. N. S., 
vol. i, pt. 4, pp. 149-152). 

REV. THOMAS MACCULLOCH, D. D., ornithologist, was 
born at Neilston, Scotland, in 1776, and died at Halifax, 
N. S., 10th September, 1843. He was educated at the 
University of Glasgow and at Whiteburn, came to Nova 
Scotia in November, 1803, and was appointed first minister 
of Prince St. Church, Pictou, 6th June, 1804. From 1817 
to 1824 he was the first principal of Pictou Academy, and in 
1838 was appointed principal of Dalhousie College, Halifax. 
He made a study of our natural history, being particularly 
interested in birds, but also gave attention to mineralogy 
and left a manuscript list of Nova Scotian mineral localities 
which has since been published by this Institute. Audubon 
has left an account of meeting him in August, 1833 (See 
Audubon's Journal). MacCulloch's collection of birds is now 
the property of Dalhousie University, and, although badly 
mounted, contains some rare specimens, such as that of the 
Labrador Duck. Regarding the MacCulloch collection, it 
may be noted that Audubon says, "I am much surprised that 
his valuable collection had not been purchased by the govern- 
or of the province, to whom he offered it for five hundred 
pounds. I think it worth a thousand pounds." I can only 
add my own deep regret that the province did not obtain 
it for the price asked. About 500 has since been refused 
for one of its specimens alone! 

ABRAHAM GESNER, M. D.,'F. G. S., mineralogist and 
geologist, was born at Cornwallis, N. S., of New York (loyal- 
ist) stock, on 2nd May, 1797, and died at Halifax, 29th 
April, 1864. He studied surgery and medicine in London 
under Sir Astley Cooper and Dr. Abernethy, and then 
returned to Nova Scotia, settling at Parrsborough. That 
district was rich in interesting minerals and he soon became 



Ivi PROCEEDINGS. 

an industrious collector. In 1836 he published his well-known 
" Remarks on the Geology and Mineralogy of Nova Scotia" 
which immediately brought him into notice. It was par- 
ticularly full in its observations on the trap district of the 
Bay of Fundy. From about 1838 till about 1843-4 he was 
provincial geologist of New Brunswick, and established at 
St. John the Gesner Museum, afterwards purchased by the 
Natural History Society of New Brunswick. Returning to 
Cornwallis, he wrote "New Brunswick, with notes for Emi- 
grants" and " Industrial Resources of Nova Scotia". In 
1850 he removed to Sackville, N. B., and in 1852 to Halifax. 
Two years later he patented a process for extracting an 
illuminating oil from coal and other bituminous substances, 
which he at first called 'keroselene,' a name subsequently 
shortened to kerosene. After 1855 he devoted much of his 
time to the production of kerosene oil, lived in the United 
States, and published in 1861 his 'Coal, Petroleum and other 
Distilled Oils'. He finally returned to Halifax in 1863. 
He was a fellow of the Geological Society of London (1840), 
corresponding member of the Royal Geographical Society of 
Cornwell and of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Phila- 
delphia, and member of the Georgraphical Society of New 
York. He and Webster were the first students of science who 
had been born in the province. [See Gesner, A. T. : Gesner 
Family of New York and Nova Scotia, Middletown, Conn., 
1912, pp. 11-13; Gesner, G. W.: Dr. Abraham Gesner, a 
biographical sketch: Bulletin of the Nat. Hist. Soc. of 
New Brunswick, vol. xiv, (1896), pp. 1-11, with portrait; 
Matthew, G. F. : Abraham Gesner, a review of his scientific 
work: Bull. Nat. Hist. Soc. New Brunswick, vol. xv (1897) 
pp. 3-48.] 

WILLIAM BENNET WEBSTER, M. D., M. P. P., mineral- 
ogist, a man of lesser scientific note, was born at Kentville, 
N. S., 18th January, 1798, and died at Halifax, 4th April, 
1861. Like Gesner he gave his spare moments to col- 



HISTORICAL ACCOUNT OF INSTITUTE. PIERS. 

lecting and studying our minerals, particularly those of the 
trap district, of which he formed a large collection of choice 
specimens which his widow presented to the Provincial 
Museum. He was the discoverer of the interesting fossil 
which Dawson named Dictyonema websteri in compliment to 
him. He was member of Assembly for Kings County, and 
is reported to have been a Fellow of the Geological Society, 
but this I doubt.* 

RICHARD BROWN, geologist and mining engineer, was 
born at Lowther, Westmorland, England, on 2nd May, 1805, 
and died at London, 30th October, 1882. After experience 
in the coal-mines of his native country, he came to Nova 
Scotia in 1826 to report on and open up collieries in Cape 
Breton for Messrs. Rundell, Bridge and Co., and the newly 
organized General Mining Association, having been recom- 
mended for the work by the then Earl of Lonsdale. He 
began operating the Association's mines on 1st January, 1827. 
Subsequently he went to England, and then was stationed at 
Halifax till about 1839 when he returned to Cape Breton 
and was agent and general manager of this Association at 
Sydney Mines, with jurisdiction extending also to the Albion 
Mines in Pictou County, till his final departure for England 
on 1st July, 1864. He wrote much on the subject of the 
geology of the Cape Breton coal formations, and his elabor- 
ate work on the 'Coal Fields and Coal Trade of Cape 
Breton' (1871) is still a standard authority, has been reprinted, 
and the first edition sells for a large sum. In conjunction 
with Mr. Smith he contributed in 1829 a chapter on the 
geology of Nova Scotia (chiefly the eastern part) to Hali- 
burton's 'Nova Scotia'. Many of his papers appeared in 
the earlier volumes of the Journal of the Geological Society 

* Moses Henry Perley should be referred to here. He was a native of New Brunswick 
and was born in 1804, and died in 1862. His writings mostly refer to his own province, 
but in 1851 he published at Fredericton, N. B., a " Catalogue of the Fishes of New 
Brunswick and Nova Scotia," which more directly connects him with natural history work 
here. (See Diet. Nat. Biog., vol. 45, p. 9.) 



Ivili PROCEEDINGS. 

of London. He also published at London in 1880, an inter- 
esting volume of 142 pages, entitled "Notes on the Northern 
Atlantic for the use of Travellers", which contains many 
natural history observations. He likewise is the author 
of a well-known 'History of Cape Breton' (1869). He was 
a fellow of the Geological Society of London, as well as of 
the Royal Geographical Society. 

SIR JOHN WILLIAM DAWSON, geologist and palaeonto- 
logist, born at Pictou, 1820, and died at Montreal, 1899, has 
become so famous in the world of science, that I will barely 
mention him here; and he furthermore belongs to a later 
period than would rightly place him among the pioneers. 
It will merely be noted that the visit of Sir Charles Lyall 
in 1842 filled him with enthusiasm and thereafter he began 
a long series of geological and paleeontological works, chief 
of which, to us at least, was his 'Acadian Geology'. In 
1848 he prepared a little 'Hand Book of the Geography and 
Natural History of Nova Scotia,' third edition in 1852, 
which is of interest as being one of the first works to give 
anything like a general scientific list of our fauna. It had 
been preceded in this respect, by the lists in the second 
volume of Haliburton's "Nova Scotia," 1829, which were 
supplied by various persons. 

There are four others, who although but visitors to the 
province, gave a most marked impetus to the study of local 
geology and mineralogy. In May, 1826, FRANCIS ALGER of 
Boston visited Nova Scotia and in the next year published 
his "Notes on the Mineralogy of Nova Scotia" (Silliman's 
Journal of Science and Arts, vol. 12, June, 1827, p. 227); and 
in 1828 and 1829 appeared CHARLES T. JACKSON and Francis 
Alger's elaborate "Description of the Mineralogy and Geo- 
logy of a part of Nova Scotia" (Silliman's Journal, vol. 14 
[July, 18281, pp. 305-330, with geological map; vol. 15 [Jan. 
1829], pp. 132-160, 201-217). This coloured geological map 
is the first we had. Their work profoundly affected the in- 



HISTORICAL ACCOUNT OF INSTITUTE. PIERS. x 

vestigation of our formations and was undoubtedly the 
incentive which induced Gesner and Webster to devote their 
leisure to such studies. 

In 1841, SIR WILLIAM E. LOGAN made a tour of Nova 
Scotia, which he described in a paper, and two years later he 
measured the fine South Joggins section. In 1842, SIR C 
CHARLES LYALL came here, and one thing he did was to 
place our local observers in touch with other workers. He 
and Logan were the men who encouraged Dawson to take 
up his life's work.. 

THE HALIFAX MECHANICS' INSTITUTE. 

In tracing what led up to the foundation of the Nova 
Scotian Institute of Natural Science, we must go back to 
the time when mechanics' institutes became popular and 
held their sway for a quarter of a century or more. 

The first Mechanics' Institute, properly so called, was 
organized in Glasgow by George Birkbeck in 1823, being 
followed in 1824 by that at London. From them soon 
sprang many others, on a wider basis, the original idea having 
been merely to teach mechanics the principles of their trades. 
From these institutes have arisen various technical and 
other organizations. 

The Halifax Mechanics' Institute was established on 
-27th December, 1831, at a meeting of the shareholders of the 
Halifax Mechanics' Library. It was affiliated with that 
organization, which had been established on 17th October 
of the same year, and all Institute members had to financially 
support the Library. The Institute's objects were the 
cultivation and diffusion of knowledge in the arts, sciences, 
and general literature, and the collection of models, drafts, 
specimens, books of reference and other materials tending to 
instruction and improvement*. The original officers were: 
Dr. William Grigor, president; John Leander Starr and 

* The annual meeting for the election of officers, etc., was held on the last Wednesday of 
December, until February, 1838, when the date was changed to the first Wednesday in May. 



Ix PROCEEDINGS. 

Joseph Howe, vice-presidents; William M. DeBlois, treasurer; 
John Sparrow Thompson, secretary; and Robert Lawsori, 
procurer of models, etc. (curator). Dr. Grigor held office 
till 23rd December, 1833. The subsequent presidents were, 
Joseph Howe (Dec. 1833 to Dec. 1834), John Leander Starr 
(Dec. 1834 to Dec. 1835), George Rennie Young (Dec. 1835 
to Dec. 1837 or May 1838), Andrew McKinlay (from Dec. 
1837 or May 1838 to May 1849), Dr. Daniel McNeil Parker 
(May 1849 to May 1852), Rev. Dr. Alexander Forrester 
(May 1852 to May 1855), Andrew McKinlay (May 1855 
until his death, 29th Sept. 1867), after which the presidency 
was vacant, but James Thomson continued as vice-president 
until about the autumn of 1868.* 

Meetings for lectures were held once a week during the 
session, and a museum was immediately established and 
gradually grew. The museum was at first in the same room 
as the library, namely the lower part of the premises occupied 
by Mrs. Grover as a boarding house, in Hollis Street. Sub- 
sequently gatherings were held, and the collections accomo- 
dated, in two rooms in the west end of Dalhousie College 
on the Parade. 

The Institute became very popular and a most interesting 
series of lectures was given, by prominent local men, on 
scientific subjects, the fine arts, literature, etc., and art 
exhibitions were held, all of which were well attended, f 
Gradually, however, doubtless in the '50s, the interest in 
it began to wane, and about 1860 it had become more o'r less 
dormant and finally became defunct as far as active work 
was concerned, leaving its museum, with old Errol Boyd, 
the curator since 1847, as the only tangible remains of its 
former glory. From that time the old officers appear to 
have just continued nominally in office, their places not being 
filled up as death took one after another, until in 1868 there 

* The presidential dates I believe will be found accurate, but absolute verification has 
not been made in all cases by reference to newspaper files. The record books of the Mechanics" 
Institute are not known to be in existence. 

f In 1845 a Mechanics' Institufe building was erected Tn Dartmouth, N.S. 



HISTORICAL ACCOUNT OF INSTITUTE. PIERS. 1x1 

remained only a vice-president, a treasurer, a curator, and 
five committeemen. In that year the trustees handed over 
the collection to the Provincial Museum, which action 
finally closed the history of the society. 

It may be mentioned that about 1839 a society known as 
the Halifax Literary and Scientific Association was in exist- 
ence, with W. C. Silver as president, and it at least survived 
till the next year, but I know nothing further of its history. 
(See Belcher's Almanac for 1840). 

THE NOVA SCOTIAN INSTITUTE OF NATURAL SCIENCE. 

In 1859 the Nova Scotian Literary and Scientific Society 
was doing some active work, no doubt formed, about then, 
from the salvaged wreckage of the Mechanics' Institute, and 
with objects intended to save the new association from running 
on the rocks which had caused its predecessor to founder. 
It published its Transactions for the period from 4th January 
to 3rd December, 1859, (Halifax, 1859), probably not more. 
In the next year Dr. Charles Cogswell was its president, being 
followed by Robert Morrow; and in April 1862, I believe, 
J. R. Willis read before it a paper on our shells. 

There seems to have been various interests working in this 
society, which possibly did not harmonize, and the scientific 
men proposed to form an organization that would be all their 
own. 

In February. 1861, the second International Exhibition of 
London received its charter and was opened on 1st May of the 
following year. Nova Scotia had been rapidly coming into 
notice. Coal was being largely produced, iron was being 
mined, and gold had lately been discovered, and it was 
considered to be a favourable opportunity to bring our 
natural resources before the eyes of the world. Specimens 
for the purpose were collected with much enthusiasm and 
were forwarded to London. Those who had been engaged 

PROC. & TRANS. N. S. INST. Set ., VOL. XIII. PROG' E. 



Ixii PROCEEDINGS. 

in this work, felt the need of more scientific help and fuller 
information regarding our animal, vegetable and mineral 
resources. Thus was suggested the necessity of a permanent 
organization that might foster the scientific spirit among us. 
In other words, a few men of scientific tastes had individually 
devoted energy to studying our fauna, flora .and geology, but 
it was felt that they should have a technical society of their 
own to publish the results of their observations. The Mech- 
anics' Institute was dead in all but name, and had not been 
exactly on the lines now required. The recently formed 
Literary and Scientific Society formed a basis for a new 
structure. The scientific members were more energetic for the 
time being, and dropping the purely literary element, decided 
to form a society which would confine its activities to science 
alone. 

General Hardy, the only survivor of those present at our 
inaugural meeting, writing on 20th January, 1913, says, 
"I remember well the friendliness and hearty co-operation 
of our efforts to set forward the development of local know- 
ledge of the natural history and resources of the province- 
We were a band of enthusiastic lovers of nature: hunters 
and woodsmen, zoologists and geologists, botanists and 
fishermen, historians and antiquarians, each zealous of 
improvement in his own particular sphere of knowledge or 
science."* 

Several preliminary meetings were held in the office of 
Robert G. Haliburton, Barrington Street, and a roster of 
prospective members was made out on 26th December. 1862, 
at one of these meetings held to talk over the matter. Finally 
on the 31st of that month (1862), at a general meeting held 

* W. Gossip says "The Institute originated with a Tew gentlemen who believed, that in a 
province which contained vast mineral resources, and further was an untrodden field in other 
branches of natural science, there would be found men of culture and experience who would 
gladly lend their aid to develop them into successful activity." (Trans., vi, p. 157; see also 
Lawson, Trans., ix., p. viii). 



HISTORICAL ACCOUNT OF INSTITUTE. PIERS. Ixiii 

in the hall of the Medical Society at Halifax,* there was 
organized the NOVA SCOTIAN INSTITUTE OF NATURAL SCIENCE. 

At this meeting John Matthew Jones was in the chair, 
and there were also present Thomas Belt, Samuel Gray, 
Dr. John Bernard Gilpin, William Gossip, Robert Grant 
Haliburton, Captain Westcote Whitechurch Lyttleton, Henry 
Poole, Captain Campbell Hardy, R. A., John Robert Willis, 
and Philip Carteret Hill. 

What took place is told in the manuscript minutes: 

"The chairman read a draft of the bye-laws that had 
been prepared by the council, and intimated the desire of 
the council and officers that there should be a fresh election, 
and the resignation of the present office-holders and members 
of council should be accepted.** 

"Capt. Lyttleton and Mr. Haliburton reported that they 
had waited on His Excellency, the Lieutenant Governor, who 
had consented to act as patron of the society. 

"It was moved by Mr. J. M. Jones, seconded by Dr. Gilpin, 
that P. C. Hill, Esq., be president for the ensuing year; which 
passed unanimously. 

"Moved by T. Belt, seconded by Capt. Lyttleton, that 
J. M. Jones and R. G. Haliburton be vice presidents for the 
ensuing year; which passed unanimously. 

"Resolved on motion of Capt. Lyttleton, seconded by 
J. M. Jones, that the following gentlemen compose the 
council for the next ensuing year: Dr. Gilpin, Rev. J. 
Ambrose, Henry Poole, Captain Hardy, T. Belt. 

"Also resolved on the motion of Dr. Gilpin, seconded by 
J. M. Jones, that J. R. Willis and J. B. Young be secretaries of 
the Institute. 

"Resolved on motion of J. M. Jones, seconded by Dr. 
Gilpin, that Capt. Lyttleton be treasurer for the ensuing year. 

*The Medical Society of Halifax originated in 1854. 

**Th ; .s doubtless refers to the officers and council of the N. S. Literary and Scientific Society. 



PROCEEDINGS. 

"Resolved that the next monthly meeting be held on 
the 19th January and afterwards at the regular time on the 
first Monday of each month; also that the secretaries make 
enquiries as to procuring the Mechanics' Institute room at 
Dalhousie College for monthly meetings, or some other 
suitable place. 

"Resolved that at the next meeting each member be 
entitled to bring a friend. 

"The bye-laws, with some slight modifications, were 
unanimously adopted." 

According to the bye-laws, monthly meetings were to 
be held for the reading and discussion of papers relating to 
natural science, and four field meetings were to take place 
annually. The Institute was to "undertake the publication 
of lists of the various natural productions of the province, 
with such observations as their respective authors may deem 
necessary. That, as far as the funds of the Institute will 
permit, the president's address, the list of native productions, 
and a selection of the papers read at the meetings by members 
t?e published as the 'Transactions of the Nova Scotian- In- 
stitute of Natural Science' and distributed gratuitously to 
the members." 

The admission fee was 20 shillings (afterwards $4.00)- 
and the annual subscription 10 shillings (afterwards $2.00), 
The election of associate members was authorized in October, 
1863, with an admission fee of 10 shillings and an annual 
subscription of 5 shillings. 

Those whose names appear on the original roll as elected 
"26th December, 1862," and who must be taken as the 
original members, with three exceptions afterwards referred 
to, are as follows: Rev. John Ambrose, M. A. (St. Mar- 
garet's Bay); J. Bernard Gilpin, M. D.; J. R. Willis, 
(name scratched out and marked "retired Dec. 1863"); 
Thomas Belt; Capt. C. Hardy, R. A.; Andw. Downs; R. G. 



HISTORICAL ACCOUNT OF INSTITUTE. PIERS. 

Haliburton; Capt. Westcote Lyttleton; J. Matthew Jones; 
Samuel Gray; Colonel [W. J.] Myers; Wm. Gossip; Lieut. 
[Francis] Duncan, R. A., (Canada); J. Young; Rev. Alex. 
Forrester, D. D., (Truro, marked " erased for non-payt. 
adm. fee"); H. G. Flint (Yarmouth); W. Lyttleton; P. C. 
Hill; Dr. Gesner (New York); Prof.' How, D. C. L. (Kings 
College, Windsor); Rev. D. Honeyman (Antigonish, name 
erased); Henry Poole; J. Hunter Duvar; and Rev. Dr. 
Cramp (Wolfville). All were of Halifax or its vicinity, 
except those otherwise mentioned. There are columns for 
"date of election" and "date of admission" (the latter not 
being filled in). I think the "date of admission" was the 
time when a man qualified by the actual payment of the 
admission fee. The dates given in the earlier printed lists 
seem to have been the latter ones, and therefore do not 
indicate the date of election, which has produced some 
confusion in our ideas of when a man joined the Institute. 
If these dates were accepted, we would be in the peculiar 
position of believing that the society had no members when 
it was organized. As the first council minute-book is 
missing, we find it impossible after 1864 to say exactly when 
a member was elected and sometimes have to take the time 
when the fee was paid. There can be no doubt whatever 
that of those mentioned in the preceding list, the following 
did not pay admission fees, and cannot therefore be con- 
sidered as original members: Lt. Duncan, Rev. Dr. Forres- 
ter, and Rev. D. Honeyman, the latter coming up again for 
election and being admitted on 3rd December, 1867. We 
also find that Dr. Gesner was re-proposed on 2nd November, 
1863. 

At the first ordinary meeting, held at Dalhousie College, 
on 19th January, 1863, Dr. J. B. Gilpin had the honour of 
reading the first paper, viz., on "The Common Herring of 
Nova Scotia," followed by one by Captain (now Major- 
General) Hardy, R. A., on the "Nocturnal Life of Animals 



PROCEEDINGS. 

in the Forest". General Hardy, I am greatly pleased to say r 
is still living, at 3 Victoria Park, Dover, and has reached 
the age of eighty-one years. He takes a deep interest in 
all our affairs and is our sole surviving original member.* 

At the February meeting, at which the patron, the Earl 
of Mulgrave, was present, and spoke at some length, the 
president, P. C. Hill, D. C. L., read an address. Hill, who 
was then mayor of Halifax and a prominent gentlemen of the 
time, attended only this one meeting and was probably 
merely a figure-head, being succeeded in October, 1863, 
by J. Matthew Jones, since when the society has had, as its 
presiding officer, men who have been directly interested in 
scientific work. 

In April, 1863, the place of meeting was changed to the 
"Institute Room" in the Province Building, the use of which 
was given by the government, where it assembled till May> 
1871. From October 1871 till April 1887, it met in the 
Provincial Museum; then for a short while in the Provincial 
Engineer's office, Provincial Building; from December 1888 
to April 1890 in the Art School; and thereafter mostly in 
the Legislative Council Chamber and Assembly Room, and 



* Major General Campbell Hardy, late R.A., was born at Norwich, England, on 10th 
October, 1831, son of the Rev. Charles Hardy, M.A. He was educated at the Royal Military 
Academy, Woolwich. He entered the Royal Artillery as ensign on 19th December, 1849; 
became lieutenant on llth August, 1851; and captain on 23rd February, 1856. He served in 
Nova Scotia from February, 1852, to August, 1867, five and a half years of which period he 
was Inspector of Warlike Stores and Firemaster. In 1866-7 he was also Inspecting Field 
Officer of the Nova Scotia Militia Artillery. While in Halifax he lived on Robie Street 
(Camp Hill). In 1869 he published in London his "Forest Life in Acadie", a work which is 
very highly valued for its accurate and delightfully written accounts of forest life and sport- 
ing adventures, he being a most ardent sportsman and lover of nature, as well as a skilful 
artist. He was commissioned major on 5th July, 1872; lieutenant-colonel, 16th Jan., 1875; 
colonel, 16th Jan., 1880; and was retired on full pay on 29th May, 1880, with the honorary 
rank of major-general, and now resides at Dover, England. Outside of his period of service 
in Nova Scotia, his life has been somewhat uneventful, but he has given much of his time to 
his favorite studies and sport. He looks back upon his Acadian forest experiences as the 
most delightful phase of his past. He published in our transactions six papers, viz., on Noc- 
turnal Life of Animals in the Forest, The Capelin, Provincial Acclimatization, The Beaver in 
Nova Scotia, Nova Scotian Conifers, and a Nova Scotian Naturalist (Andrew Downs). To 
illustrate his paper on the beaver, he prepared a most carefully constructed model of a beaver 
house in 1866, which was shown at the Industrial Exhibition, Paris, 1867, and is now in the 
Provincial Museum. 



HISTORICAL ACCOUNT OF INSTITUTE. PIERS. Ixvii 

finally on 13th December, 1909, it began to meet in the Tech- 
nical College. 

One of the pleasant features of the early years of the 
Institute were the field-days which were held in the summer. 
Although the bye-laws called for four annually, it was not 
found possible to have so many. The first was held on llth 
June, 1864, at French Village, St. Margaret's Bay, to investi- 
gate some Indian shell-heaps, and on 21st of the following 
September one took place at Cole Harbour for the same 
purpose. In 1865 the members drove to the Waverley gold 
mines on 1st July; and on 26th June of the next year, a pil- 
grimage was made to the grave of Titus Smith in the woods 
near Dutch Village, where an interesting paper was read on 
that naturalist's life and work, and the president's museum 
at "Ashburn" was also inspected. From then till 1870 no 
excursions took place, although it was announced that one 
would be held on 28th June of the last-mentioned year in 
the vicinity of St. Margaret's Bay to explore shell-mounds 
there. On 21st June, 1871, a field-day took place at the 
Montagu gold mines, and another on 24th August, 1876, at 
Grand Lake. The last ones took place on 3rd and 24th 
August, 1878, at Point Pleasant and York Redoubt respective- 
ly. Since then they have been often proposed, but never 
carried out. They were enjoyed at the time, and 
gave members an opportunity of becoming acquainted with 
natural history in the field, under the guidance of competent 
leaders. They are now, at least, unpopular, perhaps be- 
cause of the greater stress of present-day business life. Other 
societies are meeting with similar troubles in Nova Scotia; 
although in Ottawa and Montreal, field excursions are still 
kept up, as well as in England. 

William Gossip, writing thirty-six years ago (October, 
1876), says, "At the formation of the Institute it was sup- 
posed that these excursions would be generally taken ad- 
vantage of, as pleasing and popular features of our proceedings. 



PROCEEDINGS. 

In no one year, however, since that time, has there been 
found much enthusiasm in their behalf or willingness to 
engage in them. This may be attributed to the fact that 
each member of the Institute considers his public or private 
business of paramount interest, and the pursuit of science 
in this way quite a secondary object. I often think it a 
pity that it should be so at all times, and that we lose a 
large amount of knowledge and profitable recreation by not 
attending to these pleasant meetings." 

The first part of the society's " Proceedings and Trans- 
actions", for the session of 1862-3, was published about 
November, 1863; and the first volume (for 4 years) was 
completed and its title-page issued in 1867. It contained 
articles on zoology by Gilpin, Jones, Ambrose, Willis, Belt, 
Downs, Duvar, and Sinclair; on anthropology by Halibur- 
ton and Gossip; on botany by Lawson and Hardy; on geology 
and mineralogy by Belt, How, Gossip, Honeyman, Jones, 
Hamilton, and Morton; on palaeontology by Poole; on 
metallurgy by Gesner; and on meteorology, by Myers. 

The earlier volumes were edited by its secretary and 
president, William Gossip, whose long experience in pub- 
lishing assured good proof-reading and typographical style. 
In this work he was succeeded by Dr. Honeyman from 
about 1887 till 1889, whose eye for such work was not so 
well trained; then by Dr. MacGregor till 1901; by Piers 
till October 1908; and then by Dr. Creighton and Dr. MacKay. 
In looking over the earlier lists of members, a noticeable 
feature is the number of army men who joined and often 
assisted in the active work of the society and by contributing 
papers. Pre-eminent among these was our vice-president, 
Captain (now Major-General) Hardy of the gunners, the 
author of that delightful work, " Forest Life in Acadie'' 
(Lond., 1869), a book which now brings a large price. He 
was a charming writer, a keen sportsman, a good zoologist 
and woodsman, and a skilful artist. 



HISTORICAL ACCOUNT OF INSTITUTE. PIERS. Ixix 

Among other service-men were Capt. W. W. Lyttleton; 
Col. W. J. Myers; Lieut. F. Duncan, R. A.; Capt. C. L'Es- 
trange, R. A. (who served on the council); Lt. Col. M. 
Clifford, R. A.; Capt. J. R. King, R. A., (on council); Major 
D. L. Colthurst, 17th Regt., (on council); Capt. W. D. 
Thompson, 17th Regt., (on council); Lieuts. H. C. Deane, 
(member of council), and L. F. W. Dwyer, 17th Regt.; Lieut. 
H. H. Webber, R. A.; Lt. Archibald Anderson, R. A.; Capt. 
Tulloch; Lt. C. Morley, R. A.; Lt. H. J. Hope Edwards, 
60th Regt.; Lieut. Hon. A. H. Fulke Greville, 60th Regt.; 
and others, most of whom belonged to the artillery and 
were probably brought in largely by Capt. Hardy. With 
the exception of Surgeon Capt. Barbour, we have lately had 
no recruits from this source, although invitation cards have 
been sent to the army departments for a number of years. 
As a matter of fact, the army man has changed in more 
senses than one since the first years of the society, and 
strange though it may seem, the abolition in 1871 of the 
old purchase system seems to have had something to do with 
it. 

We have referred to the field-meetings of the Institute, 
but there was another style of entertainment that was in- 
dulged in on two occasions, and on each was successful and 
well attended. On 6th July, 1865, a conversazione was held 
in the hall of the Horticultural Gardens, at which about 
two hundred persons were present. Popular scientific ad- 
dresses were given and refreshments served. Another of 
like character was held on 20th January, 1873, in the Provin- 
cial Museum and appartments of the Post Office, with His 
Excellency Sir Hastings Doyle in the chair, and about the 
same attendance. It was the last that took place. 

The Provincial Museum had been established about 
October, 1868, through the strenuous exertions of some of 
the prominent members of the Institute, and it became the 
repository of all specimens that were donated to the society, 



1XX PROCEEDINGS. 

including many which illustrated papers read before it. 
Further reference will be made to this later on. 

About 1867 a grant of $200.00 was first received by the 
Institute from the Provincial legislature, and $100.00 was 
granted in each of the two succeeding years at least. The. 
Legislature for many years financially aided the, society, 
and in 1890 this grant was raised from $400.00 to $500.00 
to meet the cost of printing a thousand copies of the Trans- 
actions. 

It should be noted in passing, that in the winter of 1872-3 
the sessions of a so-called School of Science were held in 
connection with the Provincial Museum, Dr. Honeyman 
lecturing on zoology; and that on 1st March, 1878, there 
was established at Halifax a Technological Institute, for 
instruction in technical subjects, of which Prof. Lawson was 
president; Dr. Somers, vice-president, and Dr. Honeyman, 
secretary and treasurer, with a competent corps of instructors, 
nearly all of whom were members of the Institute of Science. 
It had a class-room in the Stairs building, 74 Bedford Row, 
but some classes were held in the Museum and elsewhere. 
After three sessions, it passed out after May, 1880, for lack of 
funds. It was the unsuccessful forerunner of the present 
Technical College, and yet I never heard its name mentioned 
during all the agitation leading up to the foundation of the 
latter institution. 

The visit to Halifax in May, 1873, of H. M. S. Challenger 
with Prof. Wyville Thomson on board, gave our members 
an opportunity of becoming acquainted with the most 
modern and improved methods of marine research, and 
stimulated such as were interested in that subject, as did also 
the sojourn here, from August to October, 1877, of the 
U. S. Fish Commission's ships with their corps of specialists. 

The year 1874-5, unfortunately, is spoken of as our year 
of greatest intellectual dearth, judging by the small number 
of papers submitted, -namely eight, (vide MacGregor's 



HISTORICAL ACCOUNT OF INSTITUTE. PIERS. 

address, 12th November, 1888). The average yearly number 
since 1862, has been between ten and eleven; and the average 
length of each paper, eleven pages. For the first twenty-five 
years, the average number of papers was about twelve, and 
the average length, nine pages. 

On '2nd April, 1879, the Institute of Science was honoured 
by having its then and subsequent presidents made ex-officio 
Fellows of the Royal Microscopical Society, a distinction 
which our presiding officer still enjoys. 

In the year just mentioned, the Institute deliberated on 
a collection of supposed rude, prehistoric pottery discovered 
in the water of Grand Lake. The few who had their doubts, 
were afterwards proved to be right when more careful investi- 
gation showed that they were merely disk-like concretions 
of iron and manganese oxides about a nucleus of quartzite! 
It is one of the very few little episodes of a semi-laughable 
kind we have to look back to. 

On 5th and 15th October, 1884, a revised constitution 
and bye-laws were adopted. With the exception of the 
addition of a curator or librarian to the list of officers, the 
changes from the older bye-laws and unwritten laws were 
not material. 

The session of 1888-9 was an epoch-making one in the 
annals of the society. Dr. James Gordon MacGregor was 
elected president on 10th October, 1888, and held office till 
November, 1891. It was a period of regeneration. A month 
after taking the chair, he gave a masterly address on the 
Institute's affairs the first of the regular series of annual 
presidential addresses which we have since had, the older 
contributions of the kind having been at rare intervals. He 
carefully analysed the society's history, found that the period 
of greatest activity was the first few years of its existence, 
and that since 1867 it had kept oscillating with an average 
of about eleven papers a year. The lowest ebb, as has been 
remarked, was in 1875. About 304 papers had been pub- 



Ixxii PROCEEDINGS. 

lished down to 1888, a period of twenty-six years, mostly on 
the natural history and geology of Nova Scotia, and averaging 
about nine pages each. 

It was felt that the society's activity had reached a 
critical point. Progress was not being made, activity was 
decreasing; some of the most energetic members had died and 
few young men were ready to take their places. He admitted 
that in the early history of a country it is comparatively 
easy to make additions to the knowledge of its natural 
history and geology. He thought, however, that scientific 
education in the province had not kept pace with scientific 
investigation. 

He attacked the whole problem with all the energy and 
extreme keeness of intellect for which he was noted, and 
placed the Institute on a higher plane than it had been. 
Perhaps we may have to wait for another MacGregor to 
tackle the problems that now face us! 

One result of MacGregor's exertions was the phenomenal 
growth of the library, which will soon receive notice. In 
1890 he increased the edition of the Transactions to 1000 
copies, which were sent in exchange to learned institutions 
and libraries over the whole world, thus making our volume 
a more acceptable means of gaining a hearing for our 
most-known workers who had begun to think that publi- 
cation of their papers in more-widely circulated journals, 
which welcomed them, was an advantage. This enlarged 
edition was of great benefit to us in another way, as it was 
the means of rapidly building up our library by the much 
larger number of exchanges which were thereby received. 

Another result of MacGregor's ideas of the needs of the 
case, was that on 24th March, 1890, at a general meeting, 
the name of the society was changed to the NOVA SCOTIAN 
INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE, an action which was opposed by 
ex-president Somers and a few of the old members*. The 



*The Society was incorporated by act of the N. S. Legislature in the same year, 1890. 



HISTORICAL ACCOUNT OF INSTITUTE. PIERS. Ixxiil 

dropping of a single word is but a little matter in itself, but 
it widened the scope of the society to a large exjbent. It was 
felt that while " natural science " was retained in the name, 
others would consider it -to be merely a natural history 
association, and it was found difficult to get general scientific 
organizations to exchange with it. It was also thought that 
no limitations should be be placed on what the society should 
consider its field. As a result of this change, we have since 
had a number of papers on physical and chemical subjects, etc* 
I am aware that one of the most learned biologists of the 
United States regrets very much that we have departed 
from our old tradition of admitting only papers which have 
a manifest local bearing, leaving such purely technical 
papers as have been mentioned for the special journals 
which are devoted to such subjects. 

Down to the time now under consideration, the Institute 
had had the field of science in Nova Scotia all to itself, for 
the Gold Miners' Association of about 1884 published little 
or nothing. On 30th March, 1892, however, the Mining 
Society of Nova Scotia was organized, absorbed the Gold 
Miners' Association, and began to publish its yearly " Journal." 
Although all of the papers which appear in the latter might 
not, possibly, be suitable for the Institute, yet there is no 
doubt it has deflected to itself a number of contributions 
which we would be glad to have had. 

In December, 1906, the engineers formed an organization 
of their own, known as the Nova Scotia Society of Engineers; 
but publication so far does not seem to have been adequately 
taken up by them. It is to be hoped, perhaps, that some 
sort of affiliation may be possible among these various societies. 

The foundation of the Royal Society of Canada in 1882 
has also had a marked effect on the production of our Insti- 
tute, as many papers on Nova Scotian subjects have appeared 
in the more notable society's publications, which otherwise 
would have been given to our own. 



Ixxiv PROCEEDINGS. 

All of these influences have undoubtedly worked to the 
detriment of the Nova Scotian Institute. 

A condition of affairs arose in 1901 which it was thought 
might bring good results. Members of the Institute in the 
university town of Wolfville, under the enthusiastic leader- 
ship of Prof. Haycock and other members of the college staff, 
expressed a desire to form a sub-organization. It was 
thought to be a good time to form affiliated branches through- 
out the province which would be of mutual benefit to all 
concerned. 

Accordingly on 28th May, 1901, the KING'S COUNTY 
BRANCH OF THE INSTITUTE was organized at Wolfville, with 
Prof. Haycock as president. Associate members were per- 
mitted to join the branch for a nominal fee of twenty-five 
cents a year. It was very successful at first, held four 
annual sessions and read or discussed papers of interest, but 
ceased to exist after the session of 1903-4. 

The summer of 1901 saw the departure of Dr. MacGregor 
for Edinburgh University to take the chair of natural philo- 
sophy there, and the Institute joined with others in a farewell 
dinner to the man who had done more than yeoman service 
for our society. While appreciating and delighting in the 
well-deserved honour that had thus come to one of the pro- 
vince's most talented sons and one of our fellow members, 
the whole society could not but deeply feel his loss. Possibly 
I may be pardoned for expressing my own humble opinion 
that his is the keenest intellect that Nova Scotia has pro- 
duced.* 

I shall not proceed further with a general narrative, as 
the past decade is clear in all of our minds, but will give a few 
particulars of the growth of the library and of the museum, 
and then concise sketches of the presidents and other men 
foremost in the society's affairs. In respect to the biograph- 
ical notes, Sidney Lee, editor of the " Dictionary of National 

*The sudden death of Prof. J. G. MacGregor. D. Sc . LL D.: F. R. S.; F.R.S.E., F.R.S.C., 
at the age of sixty-one, took place at Edinburgh in May, 1913, a few months after the prepara- 
tion of this paper. 



HISTORICAL ACCOUNT OF INSTITUTE. IxXV 

Biography/' says (and he should know) that no biography 
can or should be written until the culminating point, death, 
has closed the record. There are also other self-evident 
reasons why I will confine myself, in the biographical section, 
to merely remarks on those worthy labourers who have 
passed to rest. 

THE LIBRARY OF THE INSTITUTE. 

Although the acquisition of a library was no doubt in the 
minds of the original members in 1862, yet the earliest 
mention of a collection of books being formed is in March, 
1864, when was announced the receipt of the first book 
donations to the institution, viz., the Second Report of the 
Scientific Survey of the State of Maine, and the Report of 
the Natural History Society of Newcastle-upon-Tyne. Such 
was the modest beginning of a library which now contains 
nearly 36,000 books and pamphlets. For some twenty-five 
years, society journals were very slowly added by exchange. 
It was not until the revision of the bye-laws in 1884, that a 
librarian was considered at all necessary, to which office 
A. J. Denton was elected on 21st October, 1885, which 
position he held for four years. When I first remember the 
library about 1887, it was contained in about three small 
book-cases in the hall outside the Provincial Museum, which 
was then situated on the top floor of the Post Office. I 
know, however, that even the few scientific journals it then 
had, gave me as a lad the keenest pleasure in perusing them. 
In 1888 the books were put in order and binding to a larger 
extent was begun. 

Feeling that the possession of a good library of society 
periodicals was one of the principal requirements of a scien- 
tific institution for research, if its members hoped to keep 
abreast with progress elsewhere, Dr. MacGregor, during 
his energetic presidency, with the assistance of Mr. Bowman, 
the librarian, devoted much attention in 1889 and 1890 to 



IxXVl PROCEEDINGS. 

increasing the exchange-list, and with this end in view the 
edition of our " Transactions" was in 1890 increased to one 
thousand copies, and the question of dealing adequately 
with the binding of exchanges was actively taken up. (See 
MacGregor's Address, 8th October, 1890.). In November, 
1889, the Institute exchanged with only about one hundred 
institutions, but steps were being taken to increase this num- 
ber to three or four hundred, and this was ultimately brought 
up to seven or eight hundred. 

The library then began to grow by leaps and bounds. 
Very soon it could not be accommodated in the Post Office 
hall, and in 1894 the foreign section of it was removed to 
Dalhousie College and eventually all of it, where Mac- 
Gregor had it constantly under his eye, sharing with Mr. 
Bowman the great labour connected with its management, 
labour which was given willingly and gratuitously by these 
otherwise busy gentlemen. 

Still it grew till it soon was beyond the capabilities of a 
small society with limited means, to look after it properly. 
Seeing that such publications, from every quarter of the 
world, and containing the very latest results in science, were 
of use to the whole province and not only to a limited few, 
the Institute by letter to the Provincial Secretary, dated 
21st December, 1899, stated its willingness to intrust its 
library to the custody of the government (the right of pro- 
perty remaining with the society) on condition that it "should 
be made the nucleus of a public library to be maintained by 
the government in connection with the Provincial Museum, 
and to be open to all who may wish to use it, under such 
restrictions only as might be necessary for the safe-keeping 
of the books," and also on condition that the government 
appoint "a competent librarian to take the library in charge." 
The government saw the wisdom of acquiring these books 
under the conditions laid down, and the result was the 
foundation of the PROVINCIAL SCIENCE LIBRARY OF NOVA 



HISTORICAL ACCOUNT OF THE INSTITUTE. PIERS. Ixxvii 

SCOTIA in the summer of 1900, under control of the Depart-^ 
ment of Public Works and Mines. The scientific works of 
the Legislative Library were passed to it in July and the 
transfer of the Institute's books from Dalhousie College was 
begun on 17th November, while manuals, textbooks, etc., 
were added by the government by purchase, and the whole 
was thrown open, free, to the public of the Province, soon 
after, thus becoming the first public library for the whole 
of Nova Scotia. The Mining Society also deposited its books v 
there till February, 1907, when it fitted up a room of its own. 
A government grant of $500 a year for the support of the 
Science Library was given up to 1904; but after that, was 
withdrawn, and I regret to say that it is now without direct 
financial support. 

Having utterly outgrown its quarters in the so-called 
Burns and Murray building on Hollis Street, the library was 
removed in May-June, 1910, to a new and larger stack-room 
in the Technical College. 

On 31st December, 1911, it contained 45,497 books and 
pamphlets, of which 34,085 (about 75 per cent.) belong to the 
Institute. The average yearly increase to the society's library 
is 1,841; and to the Science Library proper, 1,099; a total 
average yearly increase of 2,940. 

THE PROVINCIAL MUSEUM. 

Dr. A. H. MacKay has aptly spoken of the Provincial 
Museum as "the ward of the government, but the child of 
the Institute." The society has always taken a very vital 
interest in it, for it was formed at the solicitation of its mem- 
bers, and it has always deposited in it such specimens as were 
donated to it, so that in one way it is the Institute's museum 
in part, although under control of the government. 

The origin of the collections it contains goes back to 1831 
when the old Mechanics' Institute began to form a general 

Paoc. & TRANS. N. S. IXST. Sc i., VOL. XIII. PROG. F. 



Ixxvili PROCEEDINGS. 

museum, which grew until 1860 when it came to a standstill 
owing to the dormant state into which that society had passed. 
Its curators were: (1) Robert Lawson, 1831; (2) John Fair- 
banks, about 1833; (3) John McDonald, 1835-46; (4) Andrew 
Downs, 1846-47; and its last and best remembered curator, 
Errol Boyd, (elected in May, 1847), a man, however, not 
well fitted for the position by education or native talent- 
The museum remained in Dalhousie College, but was going 
to pieces from lack of care. 

The establishment of a provincial museum was first 
proposed in 1862, when collections were being made for the 
London International Exhibition. The Rev. J. Ambrose 
and J. M. Jones had (about 1861) suggested to J. R. Willis 
the propriety of taking some steps in the matter, and the 
first-named gentleman had written a communication upon the 
subject, to "tune" the newspapers, as he termed it. (Trans., 
vii, 409, foot-note). Nothing resulted immediately from 
this agitation. In 1865 Rev. D. Honeyman and J. R. Willis 
presented a memorial to the government strongly advocating 
the establishment of such an institution, and Willis appeared 
before a committee which was to report upon the matter. 
At the time of the preparation for an exhibit at the Paris 
International Exhibition which opened in April 1867, Honey 
man being secretary of the Nova Scotia Commission, the 
project was vigorously pushed, with a successful issue. 
In the beginning of 1866 Dr. Honeyman had proposed to 
A. MacKinlay, trustee of the Mechanics' Institute, to take the 
museum of that defunct institution, whose collections were 
becoming ruinous, and to make it the beginning of a pro- 
vincial museum. MacKinlay and the other trustee, James 
Forman, agreed to the proposal. Honeyman then applied 
to the Provincial Government for accommodation for a 
museum in the new building (now the post office) which 
was then in course of erection, and the government agreed to 
set side a rou^n there for the purpose. The foundation of 



HISTORICAL ACCOUNT OF THE INSTITUTE. PIERS. Ixxix 

a museum being now assured, the Nova Scotia Commission 
purchased natural history collections with the understanding 
that they were to be brought back from Paris and deposited 
in the proposed museum. How, writing in January, 1867, 
says that a space, 70 by 30 feet, had been set apart for a 
provincial museum in the province building (post office) 
then being built. 

The Provincial Museum was finally founded in October, 
1868, when Honeyman was authorized by the government to 
take possession of the room, where the Halifax Mechanics' 
Institute museum (thirty-seven years after its formation) was 
formally transferred by its sole surviving trustee, James 
Forman, to the Nova Scotian government and placed in the 
large room prepared for it in the post-office building. These 
specimens were incorporated with those which had been at 
the Paris Exhibition and which had been returned after its 
close on 3rd November, 1867. The latter included How's 
minerals and herbarium, Downs's birds, and Barnes's carboni- 
ferous fossils. The late Dr. Honeyman was appointed curator 
and remained so until his death on 17th October, 1889, and 
the extent of the then collection was largely the result of his 
zeal. It should be mentioned that to the Hon. William 
Garvie was due much credit for lending his support to the 
institution on its formation. 

For thirty-one years the museum was of a general charac- 
ter, and after Honeyman's death remained in statu quo, but 
in 1899 the government at the strong solicitation of the 
Institute of Science, decided to give it more attention and 
wisely determined to cut it down to a representation of 
Nova Scotian products only, placing the foreign specimens in 
storage. In October, 1899, arrangements were begun to 
remove the collections to the Burns and Murray building, 
where they soon outgrew their quarters, and in October, 1910, 
they were finally removed to the Technical College. 



1XXX PROCEEDINGS. 

When the museum was revised in 1899 there were retained 
10,099 of the old specimens. From then till December, 1911. 
there were added 14,814 specimens, making a total of 24,913, 
or about 25,000 at the present time. Since 1900 it has 
received an average of 1,235 specimens each year. Allow- 
ing for specimens that had been discarded in 1899 because 
of lack of data, there can be little doubt that for the twelve 
years since then, the number of accessions exceeds the 
total number obtained from 1831 to 1899, a period of sixty- 
eight years. 



In closing these ragged and brief annals of our society, we 
find that, like those of Miss Mitford's Village, they are some- 
what uneventful. I only regret that we have not had a 
Mitford to lend to our simple story the charm with which 
her genius invested the daily happenings of her little com 
munity. 

BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES. 

One of my chief aims in bringing together these notes, haa 
been, not only to give a few particulars and dates, but es- 
pecially to present a little about the men, now gone from 
among us, who laboured for the Institute, for science, and for 
the country generally, to the very best of their abilities, 
humble or otherwise, without pay and I fear with but scant 
recognition of the value of their work. I distinctly feel that 
at such a time as this, instead of singing too much the praises 
of the society itself, of which we are more or less a part, we 
should give a few retrospective glances at the men whose 
shares first cut the virgin sod, and through whose success we 
cannot selfishly add one cubit to our height. 

With this end in view I have prepared short biographical 
notes on our deceased presidents and other prominent mem- 
bers, which are appended hereto. 



SKETCHES OF DECEASED PRESIDENTS. PIERS. Ixxxi 

DECEASED PRESIDENTS. 

HON. PHILIP CARTERET HILL, K. C., D. C. L. Born at 
Halifax, 13th August, 1821, son of Capt. Nicholas Thomas 
Hill, late Royal Staff Corps; died at Tunbridge Wells, England, 
14th September, 1894. He was educated at King's College, 
Windsor, entered the legal profession, and received the 
degree of D. C. L. from King's College in 1858. Was mayor 
of Halifax for three years, October 1861 to October 1864; 
became provincial secretary of Nova Scotia in 1867 and 
again in 1874; and was premier in 1875, retiring in 1878. 
He was one of the original members of the Nova Scotian 
Institute of Natural Science, and its first president, holding 
office from 31st December, 1862 to 26th October, 1863. 
He attended only one meeting, and his connection with the 
society was in all respects slight, his position as mayor at 
the time doubtless making him a desirable nominal head at 
the inception of the institute. He was a man of education 
and literary, but not scientific, tastes, and possessed culti- 
vated manners and financial means. 

JOHN MATTHEW JONES, F. L. S., F. R. S. C., zoologist. 
Born at Frontfaith Hall, Montgomery, Wales, 7th October, 
1828, son of Admiral Sir Charles T. Jones; died at Halifax, 
7th October, 1888. He was educated at the Middle Temple, 
London, for a barrister, but being possessed of independent 
means, did not practice. About 1854 he went to New York 
and soon after came to Halifax, where he decided to reside, 
his relative, the Earl of Mulgrave, being then governor of 
the province. He spent sometime in Bermuda where his 
researches into natural history resulted in the publication, at 
London, 1859, of "The Naturalist in Bermuda".* At Halifax 
he resided from October, 1860, for a number of years, at 
<0 Ashbourne," Dutch Village, (which he purchased from his 
father-in-law, Col. W. J. Myers), and there he had a large 

*G (inter named Sygnathus jonesi and Gerres jmesi ( = Eucinostomus pseudogula) in his 
honour; and Goode similarly named Belont joneti ( = Tylosurus acus). These are 
Bermudian fishes. 



PROCEEDINGS. 

private museum which, in 1866, contained seven or eight 
thousand specimens. He was an enthusiastic collector 
and gave generously to various museums. The Nova Scotian 
fisheries exhibit of the International Exhibition at London, 
1862, was brought together under his management. He 
was an original member of the Institute of Natural Science 
and one of those who took the most active part in its estab- 
lishment in December, 1862; he presided at the inaugural 
meeting, and the society owes a vast debt of gratitude to 
him for his enthusiastic labours in its behalf. He was its 
first vice-president, and its second president, serving in the 
latter capacity for ten years, 26th October, 1863, to 8th 
October, 1873, the longest presidential term we have had. 
His studies related chiefly to zoology, more particularly 
fishes, reptiles, and mollusca, of all of which he left lists, as 
well as birds, lepidoptera, and marine invertebrates, and the 
name by which he was jocosely referred to, "Bug Jones," 
was well known to the last generation. A pretty conceit 
on his gravestone represents a butterfly above a caterpillar 
crawling on a twig. His publications number about twenty- 
three items, 15 of which appeared in our Transactions; and 
next to Dr. J. B. Gilpin (24 items) he was the most prolific 
writer the Institute has had on zoological subjects. He was 
a Fellow of the Linnean Society of London (1st December, 
1859 till about 1878), and an original Fellow of the Royal 
Society of Canada, as well as a member of the Entomological 
Society of Canada, and corresponding-member of the Natural 
History Society of New Brunswick, of the New Orleans 
Academy of Science, and of the Frankfurt Senckenbergische 
Naturforschende Gesellschaft. (See sketch of life, by H. 
Piers, Trans., x, p. Ixxx, with portrait; List of Fellows of 
Linnean Society.) 

JOHN BERNARD GILPIN, M. A., M. D., M. R. S. C., 
F. R. S. C., zoologist and ethnologist. Born at Newport, 
Rhode Island, 4th September, 1810, son of J. B. Gilpin, 



SKETCHES OF DECEASED PRESIDENTS. PIERS. Ixxxiii 

formerly of Vicar's Hill, Hants, England, who afterwards 
retired to Annapolis, N. S.; died at Annapolis, 12th March, 
1892. He graduated from Trinity College, Providence, 
R. I., and took a course of medicine in England, afterwards 
practising at Annapolis, and spending his leisure in the study 
of the animal life of the western part of the province. In 
1846 he moved to Halifax where he resided for forty years, 
and then returned to Annapolis where after a period passed 
in retirement from all mental activities he passed away in 
1892. He was an original member of the Institute of Natural 
Science, and with his friend Jones was one of those who 
took the most active part in its organization, and his paper 
on the herring was the first read before it and published in 
its Transactions. He served as vice-president, and suc- 
ceeded as the third president on 8th October, 1873, holding 
office for five years, till 9th October, 1878. He was the 
society's most prolific writer of the period, his papers, 
which were long, numbering 24; but some of them being in 
several parts, 34 would convey a more correct idea of the 
number of his writings. Dr. Honeyman was the only one 
who surpassed him in the number of his contributions. 
Gilpin was a zoologist primarily,* and his papers deal with 
the mammals, food fishes, wild fowl, the eagles, and our 
Indians and their remains, and his article on Sable Island 
is still much referred to. His monographs on our mammals, 
with full descriptions of their habits, are still, although 
somewhat out of date, the chief source of information on 
the subject. Altogether he was probably the best student 
of the higher animals we have had. He possessed a racey, 
picturesque and attractive literary style, coupled with close 
accuracy in his statements and determinations. Further- 
more he was a good draughtsman, wielding a ready pencil 
and brush, which assisted in illustrating his lectures. In 

*William Gossip says he was well known in British America and the United States as the 
Nova Scotian Zoologist (Trans, vi,, p. 158). 



, PROCEEDINGS. 

1882 he was nominated a foundation Fellow of the Royal 
Society of Canada. (See obituary notice, Trans., viii, 
p. xlvii; portrait in x, pt. 2.) 

WILLIAM GOSSIP. Born at Plymouth, England, in 1809; 
died at Halifax, 5th April, 1889. He came to Halifax at 
the age of thirteen, and in 1831 went to Pictou where he 
published the "Pictou Observer" newspaper. He returned 
to Halifax in 1834, and established a bookselling and pub- 
lishing business which was continued till his death. For 
some years he edited and published "The Times" newspaper 
of Halifax. He was one of the original members of the 
Institute and on 26th October, 1863, was elected secretary, 
holding office till llth October, 1871, when he was succeeded 
by Honeyman. The minutes during his secretaryship are 
very full and interesting and contain items of scientific 
value which never went into the printed Transactions. 
From 1871 to 1874 he was a member of the council; from 
1874 to 1878, vice-president; from 9th October, 1878 to 13th 
October, 1880, the fourth president; and from then till 1889 
again a member of the council or vice-president. From 
the establishment of the society, therefore, he took a deep 
interest in its affairs, and his services were specially acceptable 
as editor of the Transactions, a duty which he assumed from 
the first, his knowledge of printing and publishing being 
valuable for this purpose. He contributed five papers to 
the Transactions (four anthropological and one geological), 
besides some addresses and miscellaneous notes. Not being 
a scientific man by profession, he felt a diffidence in writing 
on such subjects. The Institute, however, owes him much 
for long and faithful service. (See obituary by Prof. Mac- 
Gregor, Trans., vii, 319.) 

JOHN SOMERS, M. D., botanist. Born in St. John's, 
Nfld., in 1840; died at Halifax, 13 March, 1898. He came 
to Halifax in infancy and was educated at St. Mary's College. 
In 1866 he graduated from Bellevue Medical College, New 



SKETCHES OF DECEASED PRESIDENTS. PIEES. 1XXXV 

York, and spent a year in active service as an assistant 
army surgeon during the American Civil War, after which 
he returned to Halifax where he practised till his death. 
He took an active part in the establishment of the 
Halifax Medical College in which he was professor of phys- 
iology. On the organization of the Technological Institute, 
Halifax, on 1st March, 1878, he became its vice-president; 
and in 1883 he was president of the Medical Society of Nova 
Scotia; besides which he was chairman of the Commission 
of Public Charities, a school commissioner, and occupied 
some other positions during his very active life. In January, 
1875, he became a member of this Institute, and served for 
two periods as president, 13th October, 1880, to 10th October, 
1883, and 21st October 1885, to 10th October, 1888 the 
first non foundation member to be elected to that office. 
He contributed many papers on his favourite study, botany, 
including articles on the mosses and fungi, in the latter of 
which, I think, he was our first investigator. Of his eighteen 
published papers, 14 relate to botany, 3 to zoology, and 1 to 
microscopy. His determinations were, perhaps, sometimes 
too hastily made. He formed a large herbarium, which was, 
unfortunately, destroyed after his death, which makes a 
revision of his identifications impossible. (See obituary 
by Prof. Lawson, Trans., x, p. iii., with portrait; Dr. D. A. 
Campbell, Mar. Med. News, June, 1910, p. 186.) 

ROBERT MORROW, comparative anatomist and zoologist. 
Born at Halifax, 26th July, 1827, son of -John and Mary Anne 
(Duffus) Morrow; died at Halifax, 5th August, 1885. His 
father came of mining stock from Co. Durham, England, 
and about 1835 was appointed United States Consul at 
Halifax, N. S., and later secretary of the N .S. railway. 
He was fond of studying, in an amateurish way, geology 
and conchology; and possessed collections of specimens 
relating thereto. In early life Robert entered the employ 
of the General Mining Association at the Albion coal mine, 



IxXXvi PROCEEDINGS. 

Stellarton, where on the retirement of the manager he was 
offered that position, but declined it. He then came to 
Halifax and in 1853 entered the firm of Wm. Stairs, Son and 
Morrow, which connection he retained till his death, becom- 
ing a son-in-law of Wm. Stairs the founder of the firm. He 
became a man of considerable wealth, was philanthropic, 
built "Bircham," North West Arm, about 1869, and died 
there after an illness of several years. Much of his life 
was given to the study of natural history. He had been, 
about 1861, a president of the old Nova Scotian Literary and 
Scientific Society, but for some reason did not join the Insti- 
tute of Natural Science until February, 1872, but then took 
an active part in all its affairs, was a member of its council 
from October 1873 to October 1880, and first vice-president 
from the latter date till 10th October, 1883, when he was 
elected president, which office he occupied up to his death. 
In the basement of his residence he had a small aquarium for 
studying the habits of fish,- speciments of which he regularly 
received from fishermen. He also had a laboratory or work- 
room, and to the consternation of his household, he not 
infrequently kept fish until they were very unpleasant, in order 
to separate the skeleton, which he and J. M. Jones would study 
together. He received a prize for his carefully prepared 
skeleton of an Angler (Lophius piscatorius) and of a cod head, 
which with his collection of West Indian shells are now in the 
Provincial Museum. His papers on the osteology of Salmo 
solar and Lophius piscatorius were masterly productions. 
He published nine papers in our Transactions, all but one 
being on the anatomy of vertebrates; but also was interested 
in general zoology and Indians, and made a special study 
of Icelandic literature and Norse history.. He read two 
papers relating to Greenland and Vinland before the N. S. 
Literary and Scientific Society of Halifax in 1865, which 
secured his election as a member of the Royal Society of 
Northern Antiquaries (Copenhagen), and one, "Transla- 
tion from the French relating to the Religious Beliefs of 
the Indians prior to the Discovery by Cabot," before the 



SKETCHES OF DECEASED PRESIDENTS. PIERS. 

N. S. Historical Society in June, 1879. He was a corres- 
ponding member of the Society of Americanists. (See Morn- 
ing Chronicle, Halifax, 6th August, 1885; Regan, Sketches 
and Traditions of North West Arm, 1908, p. 31; Stairs- 
Morrow Family History, Halifax, 1906.)* 

PROF. GEORGE LAWSON, Ph. D., LL. D., F. I. C., F. R. S. 
C., botanist and chemist. Born at Newport, Fifeshire, 
Scotland, 12th October, 1827; died at Halifax, 10th November 
1895. Educated at Edinburgh University, and for a time was 
demonstrator of botany under Prof. J. H. Balfour and curator 
of the university herbarium, and prepared a catalogue of 
the Royal Society of Edinburgh's .library. In 1858 he was 
appointed professor of chemistry and natural history in 
Queen's University, Kingston, Ont., and thereupon came 
to Canada. In 1863 left Queen's and took the professorship 
of chemistry and mineralogy in Dalhousie College, Halifax, 
a position which he held till his death. He added lectures on 
botany to those on his other subjects. He had made a study of 
agriculture before coming to Canada, and was secretary of 
the Board of Agriculture of N. S. from 1864 to 1885 when the 
government assumed the functions of the board, and was then 
appointed secretary for agriculture, remaining such till his 
decease. He conducted a Journal of Agriculture for twelve 
years, and published official crop and other reports. Some of 
the local exhibitions were under his management. He joined 
this Institute on 7th March, 1864, and in October became a 
member of council, served as second or first vice-president in 
1869-73, 1878-82, and 1891-93, and filled the presidental chair 
from November, 1893, till his death on 10th November, 1895, 
being the second president to die in office. 

His favorite study was botany, and he was one of the most 
accomplished students of that subject we have ever had in the 
province. Of his contributions to scientific societies, etc., from 

*Since this paper was prepared, death has suddenly removed one of our most 
distinguished and most energetic past-presidents, Prof. J. G MacGregor of Edinburgh 
University, who at this period was the eighth president, serving as such from Oct., 1888, to 
Nov. 1891. To no other man's endeavours does the society owe more. 



IxXXVlii PROCEEDINGS. 

the year 1846 when his first paper appeared, 93 were in 
botany, 5 in chemistry, 4 in zoology, and 5 were miscellaneous. 
Besides this he wrote many official reports, a few treatises, etc. 
To the Transactions of the Institute he contributed some 24 
articles, mostly on botanical subjects, some of which were not 
published. A full bibliography of his writings to the end of 
1894, will be found in the Trans. Royal Soc. of Canada, vol. 
xii. From the University of Giessen he received the degree 
of Ph. D., and LL. D. from McGill. He was a Fellow of the 
Botanical Society and of the Royal Physical Society of 
Edinburgh, and of the Institute of Chemistry of G. B., and 
original Fellow and president (1887-8) of the Royal Society of 
Canada,honorary member of the Edinburgh Geological and of 
the Scottish Arborcultural Societies, a corresponding member 
of the Royal Horticultural Society (Lond.) and of the Society 
of Natural Sciences of Cherbourg. (See obituary by Prof. 
MacGregor, Trans., ix., p. xxiv., with portrait; and by Dr. 
MacKay in App. B, Proc. Royal Society of Canada, 1896.) 

EDWIN GILPIN, Jr., M. A., LL. D., D. Sc., F. G. S., F. R. 
S. C., I. S. O., economic geologist. Born at Halifax, 28th 
October, 1850, son of Very Rev. Dean Gilpin and nephew of 
Dr. J. B. Gilpin; died at Gilpinville, North West Arm, Halifax, 
10th July, 1907. Educated at Halifax Grammar School and 
King's College, Windsor, graduating in 1871; after which he 
took a special course in mining, geology and chemistry (M. A., 
1874). Won the Welsford (1868), General Williams (1869), 
and Alumni prizes. After leaving college he practised as a 
mining engineer, being connected with the Albion colliery of 
the General Mining Association, in Pictou county. On 
21st April, 1879, he became inspector of mines for Nova 
Scotia, in 1881 a member and secretary of the board of 
examiners of colliery officials, and in October, 1886, deputy 
commissioner of public works and mines, holding these 
various appointments up to his death. Was also lecturer on 
coal mining in Dalhousie College. On 9th November, 1903, 
he was granted the imperial service order for long and valuable 



SKETCHES OF DECEASED MEMBERS. PIERS. 

t 

service, the investment taking place on 23rd March, 1904. He 
was an extensive writer on his favorite subjects of economic 
geology and mineralogy; and besides his official reports, pub- 
lished a work on the "Mines and Mineral Lands of Nova 
Scotia" (1883), and various pamphlets on the minerals of the 
province, while the Transactions of the North of England 
Institute of Mining Engineers and of the Royal Society of 
Canada, and various other societies, contain articles from his 
pen, all of which did much to make known the mineral 
resources of his native land. (See bibliography to 1894, in 
Trans Roy. Soc. Can., xii.). In April, 1873, he joined this 
Institute, having read before it in the previous month the first 
paper he ever prepared, and in 1881 became a member of its 
council and remained in it, either with or without office, till 
his death. He served as president for two years, 18th Nov- 
ember, 1895, to 8th November, 1897. He published in our 
Transactions 30 papers and addresses, almost entirely on 
geology and mineralogy. He received the degree of D. Sc. 
from his Alma Mater, and LL. D. from Dalhousie (1892). He 
was a fellow of the Geological Society of London (1874), an 
original fellow of the Royal Society of Canada (1882), member 
of the American Institute of Mining Engineers and of the 
Canadian Society of Civil Engineers. (See obituary by Doane, 
Trans., xii, pt. 2, p. xxxi.; also Journal Mining Soc. of N. S., 
xiv., p. 103, with portrait.) 



OTHER PROMINENT DECEASED MEMBERS.* 
REV. JOHN AMBROSE, M. A., D. C. L., zoologist. Born 
at St. John, N. B., 25th September 1823; son of Richard and 
Katherine (Phillips) Ambrose; died at Sackville, N. S., 12th 
September, 1898. He was born one month after the arrival 
of his parents from Cove of Cork (Queenstown), Ireland. 
Although originally from England, his ancestors had resided 
in Ireland for generations. Was educated at Truro and at 

*These sketches are arranged chronologically according to the years in which their 
subjects became connected with the Institute. 



XC PROCEEDINGS. 

King's College, Windsor, (B. A., 1852; M. A., 1856; D. C. L., 
1888). For over forty-four years laboured successfully as a 
clergyman of the Church of England at St. Margaret's Bay, 
Digby, etc., and was editor of ' Church Work' and 'The Hali- 
fax Church Chronicle'; and also was a governor of King's 
College. Married, 30th June 1853, at Liverpool, N. S., 
Charlotte Ann Barss (U. E. Loyalist descent). During a 
busy life as a country parson, he found in natural history a 
recreation, although not claiming to be an authority on the 
subject. He was an original member of the Institute and was 
proposed as a member of the first council, but as he lived at a 
distance from Halifax he could take but little active part in 
its work; and in 1890 was elected a corresponding member. 
He published six papers in its Transactions, all relating to 
either the fishes or birds of St. Margaret's Bay, where he was 
stationed for thirteen years and so had ample opportunity 
of gathering from the fishermen much information regarding 
the inhabitants of the deep. (See obituary, Trans. N. S. I. S., 
x., p. iv.) 

ROBERT GRANT HALIBURTON, M. A., D. C. L., Q. C., F. 
R. G. S., ethnologist. Born at Windsor, N. S., 3 June, 1831, 
son of Judge T. C. Haliburton ('Sam Slick') ; died at London (?) , 
March, 1901. Was educated at King's College, Windsor 
(matriculted 1845; B. A., 1849; M. A., 1852; D. C. L., 1877), 
and then studied law, becoming a barrister in July 1853, and 
practised in Halifax. Was secretary of the N. S. Commission 
for the London exhibition of 1862. From 1871 to 1876 he was 
in England in connection with some Nova Scotian coal areas 
in which he was interested; and in 1877 moved to Ottawa. 
Ill health compelled him in 1881 to give up his practice in 
Canada, and to spend the winters in tropical or sub-tropical 
climates, his movements during these times being often not 
known to his friends for long periods. Since then he devoted 
his attention chiefly to ethnological investigations, the study 
of the pigmy races being particularly attractive to him. He 



SKETCHES OF DECEASED MEMBERS. PIERS. XC1 

was an original member of the Institute and active in its 
organization, the preliminary meetings having been held in his 
office; served as its second vice-president (1862-3), but 
severed his connection with the society about 1880. He 
contributed to its early Transactions four papers on ethnolog- 
ical subjects and on the geology and economics of coal. His 
elaborate paper on 'The Fesitval of the Dead' attracted rather 
wide attention at the time of its publication. His writings 
elsewhere were extremely numerous, and a list of them will be 
found in Morgan's 'Canadian Men and Women of the Time,' 
1898, p. 423. He was a fellow of the Royal Geographical 
Society and of the Royal Society of Northern Antiquaries 
(Copenhagen), a member of the American Association for the 
Advancement of Science, etc., and about 1875 was the first 
colonist by birth to be elected to the council of the Royal 
Colonial Institute. 

COLONEL WILLIAM JAMES MYERS, F. R. Met. Soc., meteor- 
ologist. Born, doubtless in Scotland, about 1807; died at 
Halifax, 15 April, 1867. Myers had been major of the 71st 
Regiment of Highland Light Infantry which had served in 
Canada, Bermuda and the West Indies from 1824 to 1846. 
He received his captaincy on 29th December, 1835; his major- 
ity on 22nd November, 1842; and on 19th March, 1847, re- 
tired on the half-pay of the Royal Staff Corps, being subse- 
quently commissioned lieut. -colonel on 20th June, 1854, and 
colonel on 26th October, 1858, (vide Army Lists). He came 
to Nova Scotia from Quebec and settled in Windsor, where he 
lived for a while, marrying Jean Gordon, daughter of Rev. 
Archibald Gray of St. Matthew's Church, Halifax. Their 
daughter became the wife of pur late president, J. Matthew 
Jones. Col. Myers left Windsor and came to Halifax about 
1856, living at 'Ashbourne,' Dutch Village, afterwards well- 
known as the residence of his son-in-law, Mr. Jones. The past 
generation had pleasant recollections of him as a fine gentleman. 
He died suddenly while preparing to leave his house to attend 



XC11 PROCEEDINGS. 

church, and is buried at St. John's cemetery. The very sad 
death of his son in January, 1870. will be recalled by many. 
Col. Myers was one of the original members of the Institute, 
and afterwards served on its council. He was a most 
enthusiastic student of meteorology, kept a very careful 
record of the weather at Halifax, as Henry Poole was doing 
elsewhere in the province, and I think his papers in our 
Transactions are the earliest full and systematic ones pub- 
lished here, although Poole, and possibly Hensley of Windsor, 
were in the field before him. This led to his election as a fellow 
of the Royal Meteorological Society. He published in our 
journal, notes on the weather at Halifax for four years, from 
1863 to 1866. His work was then taken up by Frederick 
Allison in 1867, and the Dominion meteorological service was 
ultimately established in 1871. 

THOMAS BELT, geologist and naturalist. Born in England. 
1832; died at Denver, Colorado, 1878. Made geological 
investigations in the Australian gold-diggings from 1852 to 
1862; came to Nova Scotia as superintendent of the N. S. 
Gold Company's mines in 1862, and returned to England 
(Newcastle-on-Tyne) in 1863 or 1864; conducted the gold- 
mining operations of the Chontales company, Nicaragua, 
from 1868 to 1872. Elected a fellow of the Geological Society 
in 1866. He published works which chiefly relate to the 
glacial period (for which some of his observations were made 
in this province), and also his popular classic, 'The Naturalist 
in Nicaragua' (1874), a work which contains much informa- 
tion on protective mimicry, plant fertilization, sexual selec- 
tion, etc., and written in a fine style. He was one of the 
original members of the Institute, was elected to the first and 
second council, and was a member until his death. He con- 
tributed four papers to the Transactions, his list of butter- 
flies observed about Halifax, being the first such catalogue to 
be published. (See Diet, of Nat. Biog., iv., p. 204; also Trans 
N. S. I. N. S., v., p. 4.) 



SKETCHES OF DECEASED MEMBERS. PIERS. XC111 

JOHN ROBERT WILLIS, conchologist. Born at Philadelphia, 
U. S. A., 14th February, 1825, son of John and Elizabeth 
Willis, of Irish extraction; died at Halifax, 31st March, 1876. 
He came to Halifax when a child and was educated there at 
the National School of which in 1846 he became a teacher. 
In 1863 was appointed superintendent of an industrial school 
on its establishment at Halifax, and resigned from the National 
School. In 1865 he took an active part in the efforts to 
establish a Provincial Museum at Halifax and was a candidate 
for the position of curator, but in the same year became secre- 
tary of the Board of School Commissioners, Halifax, and in 
1875 retired, being thereafter in poor circumstances. About 
1850 he began to study our mollusca, thus becoming the first 
Nova Scotian conchologist, and in 1857 his first known list of 
our shells appeared in an obscure publication, supposed to 
have been "The Church Record', followed by two other lists, 
all of which are very rare. He made a large and very fine col- 
lection of shells, both native and foreign, said to have consisted 
of over 8000 specimens,but the location of the local part is un- 
known,and the foreign portion is in ruins. Corresponded largely 
with noted conchologists of the time, and large numbers of his 
Nova Scotian specimens are in the great museums of the 
United States and elsewhere, and a small collection is in the 
museum of King's College, Windsor, but in a dilapidated 
state. In 1862 he was elected a corresponding member of 
the Liverpool (Eng.) Natural History and Microscopical 
Society, and in the next year a corresponding member of the 
Boston Society of Natural History. Though he possessed 
his weaknesses, yet he was a man who was much liked for his 
good qualities. He had been connected with the old N. S. 
Literary and Scientific Society of Halifax; and was one of the 
original members of the Institute of Natural Science, and was 
elected one of its first joint-secretaries, but seems not to have 
acted, and must have resigned the position before 4th May ; 

PROC. & TRANS. N. S. INST. Sci., VOL. fXIU-1 PROC. G. 



XCiv PROCEEDINGS. 

1863, as he then signed the only minutes he wrote, as secretary 
pro tempore, and was succeeded by W. Gossip. He finally with- 
drew from the society about 1869. The Transactions contain 
but one paper by him, on the occurrence of Littorina littorea 
on the coast of Nova Scotia (1863), and I fear that for some 
reason entire harmony could not have existed between him 
and the society. Vol. VII however contains a full account of 
his life, his writings, and a reprint of his rare list of Nova 
Scotian shells, a memorial to which I think he was justly 
entitled. (See Trans, vii., pp. 404-428.) 

HENKY How, D. C. L., chemist, mineralogist and botanist. 
Born at London, Eng., llth July 1828, (son of Thomas 
How, whose wife was a Molyneux, whose ancestors had served 
in the old fort at Annapolis, N. S.); died at Windsor, N. S., 
Sunday, 28th September, 1879. He attended a private 
school in Beaconsfield and then studied chemistry at the 
Royal College of Chemistry, obtaining therefrom a certificate 
of proficiency. Prof. Hoffman, of that college, recommended 
him as assistant to the late Rt. Hon. Lord Playfair, F. R. S., 
then professor of chemistry at the College for Civil Engineers 
at Putney. His first paper, an analytical one, was read 
before the Chemical Society of London, and published in its 
Journal in 1846. He held his assistant professorship at 
Putney until he was appointed analytical chemist to the 
British Admiralty Steam Coal Enquiry, and in 1848-49 were 
published, as a British blue-book, his 'Analyses of Coals of 
Great Britain' with reports by Sir H. De la Beche and Dr. 
Lyon Playfair. Then he became assistant to Prof. Thomas 
Anderson of Edinburgh University, whom he accompanied 
in 1852 to Glasgow on the latter's appointment as Regius 
Professor of Chemistry in the University there, and was there 
for two years. 

He came to Nova Scotia in 1854, being appointed fellow 
and professor of chemistry and natural history at King's 
College, Windsor, and about 1876, also vice-president of the 



SKETCHES OF DECEASED MEMBERS. PIERS. XCV 

University and librarian. He filled the chair with untiring 
zeal and the most distinguished ability until his death, a 
period of some twenty-four years. His first paper on a Nova 
Scotian subject (natro-boro-calcite in gypsum) appeared in 
1857 and was rapidly followed by very many others. In 1861 
he was employed by the Provincial Commissioners of the 
Industrial Exhibition to make a collection of the minerals 
of the province for the Nova Scotian court at the London 
exhibition of the next year. This collection was awarded two 
medals, one in the class of mining and one in that of educa- 
tional works and appliances. He prepared a report on the 
minerals, which however was not then published, but it 
subsequently appeared as a series of articles, entitled 'Notes 
on the Economic Geology of Nova Scotia/ in our Transactions 
(1864-69), and with a similar title in the 'London, Edinburgh 
and Dublin Philosophical Magazine' (1866-76). He also 
prepared for the Provincial Commissioners a second collection 
of our minerals for the Dublin Exhibition of 1865, which was 
awarded a medal; and another (of 240 specimens to which were 
added 84 specimens from the late Dr. Webster's collection), for 
the Paris International Exhibition of 1867, for which honor- 
able mention was awarded. The latter fine collection was 
purchased by our government and incorporated in the Prov- 
incial Museum in 1868. To accompany and illustrate this 
set, he prepared a 'Sketch of the Mineralogy of Nova Scotia 
as illustrated by the Specimens sent to the Paris Exhibition/ 
for the official catalogue (1867). This was so much apprecia- 
ted that it was decided to have him prepare a further report 
on the subject. Thereupon he published, by authority of the 
government, his chief work, 'The Mineralogy of Nova Scotia' 
(Halifax, 1869), a book which is still much used and relied 
upon for its fullness and accuracy. He discovered and named 
several new minerals found in this province, for example, 
mordenite. cryptomorphite, silicoborocalcite (which was 
superseded by Dana's name Howlite, in honor of him), and 



XCV1 PROCEEDINGS. 

winkworthite. The total number of new minerals found by him 
was said to have been fourteen. He was also a good botanist 
and prepared an herbarium of Nova Scotian plants for the 
Paris exhibition of 1867, which is now in the Provincial 
Museum. 'Every one who had come in contact with Dr. How,' 
says the King's College Record (Oct. 1879), had been struck 
with his honesty of purpose, his great love of science, his varied 
literary taste. From the moment he landed in this country, 
fresh from the wonderful laboratories of Europe and glowing 
with enthusiasm for the prosecution of his favorite studies, he 
had lived a life of obscurity, almost of seculsion. A few there 
were, and only a few, who had come to appreciate his talent 
as an analyst, his great learning as a chemist, his industry in 
fields of original research. 7 I may add that the last sentence is 
true as regards this province alone, for abroad his great 
ability was recognized fully. I think I am right in saying 
that he was the first notable chemist we had; he was most 
likely the best analytical chemist we have had. He was a 
successful experimenter and his researches, I understand, 
resulted in the discovery of certain acids, etc. Billings 
named in his honor, Phillipsia howi, one of the last represen- 
tatives of the trilobites, discovered by How at Kennetcook. 
N. S., (Can. Naturalist, viii., 209); and f)awson in the pre- 
face to his Acadian Geology, and Dana in that to his Miner- 
ology, acknowledge indebtedness to him for valuable contrib- 
utions. Furthermore he was a fine German, French and Latin 
scholar. 

He was an original member of our Institute and contributed 
to its Transactions 10 papers (14 if we count the separate 
parts of one of them), almost entirely on mineralogy 
and botany. Had he lived in Halifax, he would certainly 
have become a president of the society which he assisted so 
much by his labours otherwise. He was an honorary D. C. L. 
of King's College (1861), corresponding member of the New 
York Lyceum of Natural History and of the Natural History 



SKETCHES OF DECEASED MEMBERS. PIERS. XCV11 

Society of Montreal, etc. He possessed testimonials from 
some of the most distinguished chemists of England and 
France, and he had been heard to say, and no doubt rightly, 
that he could have become a fellow of the Royal Society 
because of his original research work, if he had had the money 
to waste on such an honour. How's principal papers and 
books, in general chemistry, analytical chemistry, mineralogy 
and botany, number over 44 items, and appeared in the 
Journal of the Chemical Society (London), Transactions of the 
Royal Society of Edinburgh, the Edinburgh New Philosophical 
Journal, Silliman's Journal, the London, Edinburgh and 
Dublin Philosophical Magazine, the Canadian Naturalist, 
Chemical News, our own Transactions, and elsewhere. (See 
King's College Record, Windsor, October, 1879, with list of 
44 of his writings; introduction to his mineralogy of N. S.; 
also private sources.) 

ANDREW DOWNS, C. M. Z. S., ornithologist. Born in 
New Brunswick, New Jersey, 27th September, 1811, son of 
Robert and Elizabeth Downs, of Scotch parentage; died at 
Halifax .26th August, 1892. Settled at Halifax in 1825 and 
engaged in the plumbing business, but became deeply interest- 
ed in birds and other animals, and their preservation and 
propagation, to which he finally devoted all his attention. 
He remembered seeing Audubon at Halifax on 27th August, 
1833, and afterwards corresponded with him and other 
notable naturalists. From about May 1844 to May 1846, he 
was assistant curator of the Halifax Mechanics' Institute; and 
from then till about May 1847, was its curator. In 1847 he 
established at Dutch Village, near Halifax, the first zoological 
garden in America, sixteen years before the Central Park 
collection at New York was opened. This soon became very 
popular and was visited by persons of note who cams to 
Halifax. In 1864 he vis ; ted Europe with specimens, alive and 
mounted, which he presented to the Zoological Gardens at 
London. In 1867 he was proposed as superintendent of the 



XCVlii PROCEEDINGS. 

Central Park menagerie, New York, under a recommendation 
from Prof. S. F. Baird, and the next year went there to 
assume the position, but displeased by what he considered 
to be an over-abrupt reception, declined the appointment 
and returned to Halifax. He then started a new zoological 
garden near his earlier one, which he maintained for about 
three years. A couple of years before his death, although of 
venerable age, he built a museum annex to his house in Hali- 
fax where he was surrounded by a large collection of native 
birds. Ornithology was his chief study, and his knowledge of 
our local birds was extensive, and would have been much 
greater had he made .a practice of keeping notes. He gave 
freely of his information to others, and delighted in encourag- 
ing in young people the outdoor study of nature. As an 
taxidermist he possessed rare skill, being the best workman of 
this kind we have ever had in Nova Scotia, and receiving 
bronze medals at the London exhibitions of 1851 and 1862 
and the Dublin exhibition of 1865, and a silver one at Paris 
in 1867. His Paris exhibit was praised by Sir Wyville Thom- 
son in the Illustrated London News. He mounted some 
800 moose-heads, and specimens of his work were supplied to 
various European sovereigns, and large quantities went to 
various museums. He was an original member of this In- 
stitute, although not taking up his membership till a year later, 
and served on the council. In 1862 .he was elected a corres- 
ponding member of the Zoological Society of London. Owing 
to his great lack of literary training, he wrote very little, but 
his store of self-acquired knowledge was disseminated verbally 
or by letters, and others profited by it. Had he possessed more 
education and scientific training, I have no doubt the native 
genius of the man would have caused him to make a more 
notable record among our naturalists. Three papers by him 
appeared in our Transactions his only published work. His 
'Land Birds of Nova Scotia' (Trans., I, 1865-66), was the first 
full list of the kind we have, 'with the exception of Lt. Blakis- 



SKETCHES OF DECEASED MEMBERS. PIERS. XC1X 

.ton and Lt. Eland's shorter ' List of Birds of N. S.' (compiled 
by J. R. Willis) which appeared in the Smithsonian Report for 
1858 (Wash., 1859, pp. 280-286), and which I suspect con- 
tained many of Downs's observations. (See sketch of his life 
by H. Piers, Trans, x., p. xii., with portrait; Chas. Hallock, 
'First American Zoo', Nature, N. Y., vol. 1(1891?), pp, 
130-131; Chas. Hallock, 'Andrew Downs, naturalist,' Forest 
and Stream, N. Y., vol. 53(1899), p. 184, with portrait, p. 182; 
Gen. Campbell Hardy, 'Reminiscences of a Nova Scotian 
Naturalist, Andrew Downs,' Trans, xii. p. xi.) 

JOHN HUNTER DUVAR. Born 29th August, 1830, of 
Scottish-English parentage; died in Prince Edward Island, (?) 
January, 1899. Educated in Scotland. It is as a litterateur 
and poet that Duvar has left a name in Canada. He con- 
tributed many papers on history, literature and art to various 
periodicals. As a poet he displayed good song quality in his 
briefer lyrics, and in 1879 published 'The Enamoranda' and 
'De Roberval,' a Canadian drama, in 1888. In the latter 
years of his life he resided in Prince Edward Island, and was 
connected with the Dominion Department of Fisheries. He 
was one of the original members of the Institute and was for a 
time a member of its council until he left Halifax for Prince 
Edward Island about 1868, and published a couple of papers 
in the first volume of Transactions, but had no standing as a 
scientist. (Biographical notes, 'Songs of the Great Dominion'). 

JOHN BROOKIN YOUNG. Born at Halifax, about 1835, 
eldest son of George Rennie Young and grandson of John 
Young (' Agricola') ; lost in the 'City of Boston' which left 
Halifax on 25 Jan. 1870. Was a civil engineer and practised 
in Halifax where he lived all his life. He was an original 
member of the Institute and was its assistant, or joint sec- 
retary, from December, 1862 to October, 1864, but contributed 
nothing to its Transactions, and withdrew from the society 
sometime before 1865. 



C PROCEEDINGS. 

REV. JOHN MOCKET CRAMP, D. D. Born at St. Peter's, 
England, 25th, July, 1796, son of Rev. Thomas Cramp, pastor 
of St. Peter's Baptist Church; died at Wolfville, N. S., 6th 
December, 1881. Was ordained in 1818, and from that year 
to 1825 was pastor of Dean St. Baptist Church, Southward; 
from 1827 to 1842 co-pastor with his father at St. Peter's; and 
from 1842 to 1844 was pastor at Hastings. In 1844 he came 
to Canada as principal of the Montreal Baptist College, 
Montreal, holding that position until 1851 when he was 
appointed president of Acadia College, Wolfville, N. S. From 
1853 to 1855 he was principal of the Theological Institute, 
Acadia College, and from the latter year until 1869 was again 
president of Acadia. He was one of our original members, 
but contributed nothing to its Transactions although re- 
taining his interest in its welfare. 

COLONEL FRANCIS DUNCAN, R. A., C. B., M. P., LL. D., 
D. C. L. Born 4th April, 1836; died, 1888. Graduated M. A. 
from Marischal College, Aberdeen and commissioned lieut- 
enant in Royal Artillery, 24th September, 1855; served at 
Halifax and in Canada, 1857 to 1862; commis ioned captain 
in 1864 and major in 1874 Was instructor in gunnery, 
School of Gunnery, Shoeburyness, 1877 to 1882. Became 
lieutenant-colonel in 1881, and was emp oyed with the 
Egyptian Army from January, 1883, to November, 1885, 
taking an active part in the Soudan Expedition of 1884-5, 
commanded the artillery of the Egyptian army and employed 
on lines of communication and as commandant of Wady 
Haifa. Was mentioned in despatches, became a colonel in 
June 1885, received the Egyptian medal with clasp and made 
C. B. (1885). Was conservative member of parliament for 
Holborn division of Finsbury, 1885-6. Received the degree 
of LL.D from Aberdeen, and D. C. L. from Durham. Dun- 
can, who was stationed at Halifax from 1857 to 1862 with 
Hardy, was among the names of the original members of the 
Institute of Natural Science, and deserves mention here only 



SKETCHES OF DECEASED MEMBERS. PIERS. Cl 

on that account, as he seems to have then gone to Canada and 
could not take an active part in its proceedings, and most 
likely never took up his membership. (See. Diet, of Nat. 
Biog., Suppl. vol. ii., p. 166). 

PIERCE STEVENS HAMILTON. Born at Truro, N. S., 1826; 
died at Halifax, 22nd February, 1893. He matriculated at 
Acadia College, but did not graduate. Admitted an attorney 
in 1851 and a barrister in 1852, and practised at first at Truro, 
and afterwards at Halifax. Abandoned his profession to take 
up journalism, and edited the Acadian Recorder from 1853 to 
1861. In 1863 was appointed the first Go d Commissioner of 
Nova Scotia and the next year his duties were extended and 
he became Chief Commissioner of Mines, holding office till 
about 1867. About 1871 he went to western Canada and 
re-entered journalism, but finally returned to Halifax where he 
died under somewhat distressing circumstances. He was 
elected a member of the Institute on 2nd March, 1863, served 
for a time in its council, and contributed three papers to its 
Transactions on geology and physical geography. He also 
published several pamphlets on other subjects. (See Morgan's 
Bibliotheca Canadensis; also Acadian Recorder, 22 Feb., 1893.) 

WILLIAM CHAMBERLAIN SILVER. Born at Preston, Hali- 
fax Co., Dec., 1814, son of William Nyan Silver, of Kentish 
extraction, who came to Nova Scotia in 1804; died at 
Halifax, 23rd February, 1903. Mr. Silver was a well known 
and philanthropic merchant of Halifax, the memory of whom 
is still fresh in our minds. While not at all an active worker 
in the field of science, he took an interest in it, and joined 
the Institute on 7th May, 1864. It is as a faithful officer of the 
society for the very long period of over thirty-five years, that he 
deserves notice here. He was elected its second treasurer, 
succeeding Capt. W. Lyttleton, on 9th October, 1867, and 
nominally retained the office (although in latter years de- 
puting the work) till his death the longest office term we 



Cll PROCEEDINGS. 

have had in the society. (See Acadian Recorder, Hfx., 24th 
February, 1903). 

REV. DAVID HONEYMAN, D. C. L., F. G. S., F. R. S. C., 
geologist. Born at Corbie Hill, Fifeshire, Scotland, in 1817; 
died at Halifax, 17th October, 1889. Educated at Dundee 
High School and the University of St. Andrews, where he 
devoted himself to the study of oriental languages and 
natural science. In 1836 he entered the United Secession 
Theological Hall, was licensed in 1841, and about 1846 came 
to Nova Scotia where he became professor of Hebrew in the 
Free Church College, Halifax, but resigned not long after. He 
subsequently took charge of the Presbyterian church at 
Antigonish, but as a preacher was not successful. All his 
spare time was given to the study of the geology of that 
district, the complicated formations of Arisaig having his 
special attention. After being a few years pastor at Antigon- 
ish, he resigned, although continuing to reside there until 
about 1868, and thereafter devoted himself to scientific work. 
He published his first paper, on the fossiliferous rocks of 
Arisaig, in the Transactions of the N. S. Literary and Scien- 
tific Society for 1859. He had charge of the Nova Scotian 
exhibits at the London International Exhibition of 1882, at 
the Dublin Exhibition of 1865, the Paris Exhibition of 1867, 
the Philadelphia Exhibition of 1876, and the London Fisheries 
Exhibition of 1883. For a short while in 1869 he was 
employed in Nova Scotia by the Geological Survey of Canada, 
for which he was fitted as a geologist, but had had no training 
as a topographer and draughtsman. J. R. Willis and he had, 
in 1865, presented a memorial to the government strongly 
advocating the establishment of a provincial museum, a 
matter which had come up four years previously, and the two 
memorialists became candidates for the position of curator. 
As a result of the agitation in various quarters, the Provincial 
Museum of Nova Scotia was founded about October, 1868, 
and Honeyman was placed in charge (at first, I believe, with- 



SKETCHES OF DECEASED MEMBERS. PIERS. Clll 

out a salary), and he laboured at building up that institution 
until his sudden death in 1889. Honeyman joined the 
Institute of Natural Science on 3rd December, 1866, and in 
1870 became a member of its council, and on llth October, 
1871, was elected honorary secretary (afterwards known as 
corresponding secretary), which position he held till his 
death, a period of eighteen years. He gave very much time and 
energy to the affairs of the society, which for a long period 
met in the museum, and succeeded Gossip as editor of the 
Transactions. His chief service to us, however, was the 
contribution to the Transactions of a very long series of 
papers, mostly on geological subjects, but latterly interspersed 
with some on marine zoology. Their number, no less than 
fifty-eight, makes him the most voluminous writer we have 
had. He also published a few papers elsewhere, and a small 
geological work called "Giants and Pigmies" (Halifax, 1887). 
He was a good geologist, probably the best the society has had 
among its ordinary members, although some of his conclusions 
came in for considerable criticism from certain quarters. His 
little tilts with Sir William Dawson will be recalled by our 
older members. It must be admitted, however, that his 
literary style lacked perspicuity and scientific precision and 
orderliness, which unfortunately has caused his reputation to 
suffer somewhat with those who only know him and his work 
by his writings. I have always felt that his writings do not 
do him the justice he deserves. His genial character we all 
remember well. He was a D. C. L. of King's College, Windsor, 
(1864), a fellow of the Geological Society of London (1862), an 
original fellow of the Royal Society of Canada (1882), a 
member of the Geological Society of France, honorary mem- 
ber of the Geologists' Association of London and of the 
Society of Science, Letters and Art (London), a corresponding 
member of the Society of Arts (London) and of the Horti- 
cultural Society (London), as well <as an original member of 
the Geological Society of America, etc. He received the 



CIV . PROCEEDINGS. 

Mantuan medal for scientific eminence, and various medals 
from the great exhibitions. (See Trans., vii., p. 313; obituary 
by MacGregor, Trans., vii., p. 320, with portrait.) 

FREDERICK ALLISON, meteorologist. Born at Halifax, 
1835, son of Hon. Joseph Allison, (of north of Ireland descent) ; 
died at Halifax, 29th April, 1879. His family having moved 
to Windsor about 1845 or 1846, he entered King's College, 
in 1848, and received the degree of B. A. in 1851, and M. A. in 
1865, later in life becoming one of the board of governors. He 
spent some years in the West Indies in a mercantile capacity, 
but afterwards returned to Halifax and later entered into the 
life insurance business and also became agent for the Collins 
estate. He married a daughter of Harry King of Windsor. 
In 1848 he began making observations on temperature at 
Windsor and on the death of Col. W. J. Myers, a private 
observer, in 1867, Allison took up the recording and publishing 
in the Institute's Transactions of careful meteorological 
observations made at his residence, South Park Street, Halifax, 
work which had previously been done by Myers. Later he 
joined with G. T. Kingston of the Toronto observatory, in 
urging upon the people and the government the need of a 
general meteorological service for the Dominion. This led to 
the establishment of such a department in 1871, and he was 
then appointed the first chief-meteorological agent for Nova 
Scotia, a position which he filled with ability and enthusiasm 
until his death, taking an interest in the progress of the 
service as he had in its inception. He was succeeded by his 
cousin and assistant, Augustus Allison. F. Allison joined the 
Institute in Feb., 1869, was Second Vice-President from 
October, 1874, to October 1878, and First Vice-President from 
then till his death. He was the chief contributor of meteor- 
ological papers to our Transactions (11 articles), and his 
carefully prepared annual summaries of our weather were 
looked forward to with interest. It is much to be regretted 
that these papers were not continued in our publications by 



SKETCHES OF DECEASED MEMBERS. PIERS. CV 

his successors. (See Trans., v., p. 5; Ann. Report. Meteor. 
Service of Canada, for 1879, p. v.) 

AUGUSTUS ALLISON, meteorologist. Born at Halifax, 
19 April, 1837, son of Jonathan Crane Allison of the firm of 
Fairbanks and Allison; died at Halifax, llth January, 1904. 
He had been assistant to his second cousin, Frederick Allison, 
and on the latter 's death in April, 1879, continued the meteor- 
ological observations until he was regularly appointed chief 
meteorologcal agent for Nova Scotia in August following, 
retaining that position till his death when he was succeeded by 
F. P. Ronnan. In business Mr. Allison was connected with 
the Confederation Life Association. He married Miss Cevilla 
Hill. He joined the Institute on the same date as his cousin, 
15th February, 1869, but contributed but one paper to its 
Transactions (Meteorological Register for 1880), and lacked 
the enthusiasm in the work which characterized his relative. 

HENRY YOULE HIND, M. A., D. C. L., F. R. G. S., geol- 
ogist and explorer. Born at Nottingham, England, 1st 
June, 1823; died at Windsor, N. S., 9th August, 1908. Dr. 
Hind was a geologist with a large and well-deserved reputation, 
but as his connection with this Institute was but very slight, 
the present notice will be brief. He was educated at Leipsic 
and Cambridge, came to Canada in 1846, and two years 
later became a master in the Provincial Normal School, 
Toronto, and subsequently professor of chemistry and geol- 
ogy in Trinity College in the same place until 1864. In 1857 he 
became geologist to the first Red River expedition, and next 
year director of the Assiniboine and Saskatchewan exploring 
expedition, and in 1861 made explorations in the regions 
about Labrador, while in 1864 he made a preliminary geolo- 
gical survey of New Brunswick. In 1866 he took up his 
residence in Windsor, where he died. His reports on the 
gold districts of Nova Scotia are well-known and valuable, 
and he contributed to the publications of the Royal Geograph- 
ical Society, the Geological Society, Society of Arts, and many 



Cvi PROCEEDINGS. 

other scientific journals; his writings altogether being most 
voluminous.* He was also a keen student of history, and in 
other respects a remarkable man. He joined the Institute in 
February, 1869, and read three geological papers before it, only 
one of which was published. The non-publication of his paper 
of January 1870, 'On the Laurentian Rocks', seems to have 
been about contemporary with his early withdrawal from the 
society, and may have had something to do with it. His third 
paper, presented in March, 1904, was withdrawn. (See 
Morgan's Canadian Men and Women of the Time, 1898). 

REV. GEORGE PATTERSON, D. D., LL. D., F. R. S. C., 
archaeologist. Born at Pictou, N. S., 30th April, 1824, son of 
Abram Patterson; died at New Glasgow, 26th October, 1897. 
Was educated at Pictou Academy, Dalhousie College, and 
the United Presbyterian Theological Hall, Edinburgh, being 
ordained in 1849. Labored for twenty-seven years as a minis- 
ter at Greenhill, Pictou Co., till 1879, when he went to New 
Glasgow. In 1843, at age of nineteen, he is said to have 
established and edited the 'Eastern Chronicle' newspaper, 
and in 1850 he began to publish and edit the 'Missionary 
Register of the Presbyterian Church of N. S.,' afterwards 
superseded by the 'Missionary Record'. Was chiefly notable 
as a historian and theological biographer, being an industrious 
and painstaking compiler of facts, and wrote a well-known 
'History of Pictou County' (1877), 'Memoir of Rev. Dr. 

MacGregor' (1859), 'Life of Dr. Keir' ( ), 'Memorials of 

Johnston and Mattheson' (1864), and 'Life of Rev. John 
Geddie' (1882). His scientific work was subsidiary to that 
relating to history. A full list of his papers down to 1894, 
will be found in the Transactions of the Royal Society of 
Canada for that year. He was not elected a member of this 
Institute until 12th March, 1878, and published in its Trans- 
actions three papers, one describing the collection of Indian 
stone implements which he presented to Dalhousie College, 
one of a geological character, and the last descriptive of the 

*Hind's "Effect of Fishery Clauses of Treaty of Washington on Fisheries and Fishermen 
of B. N. A.", prepared for the Fishery Commission, Halifax, 1877, contains much compiled 
information regarding our fisheries. 



SKETCHES OF DECEASED MEMBERS. PIERS. CV11 

Newfoundland dialect. Princeton conferred on him the 
degree of D. D. (about 1870), and Dalhousie that of L L. D. 
(1896). In 1889 he was elected a fellow of the Royal Society 
of Canada. (See obituary by E. Gilpin, Trans, ix., p. xcv., 
with portrait; Morgan's Canadian Men and Women of the 
Time, 1898). 

JOHN JAMES Fox. Born at Salisbury, England, 1818; 
died at Montreal, September, 1899. He studied medicme, 
but preferring a sea-faring life, spent many adventurous years 
in Egypt, Greece, the West Indies and South America. In 
1852 he was appointed by the British Government comptroller 
of customs and navigation laws at the Magdalen Islands, a 
position which he held for thirty years, and became familiarly 
known as the 'governor' of those islands. For services to 
ship-wrecked mariners, the United States President presented 
to him a watch valued at $ 1,000. His great knowledge of the 
fisheries made him a valuable witness before the Halifax 
fisheries commission of 1877. After retiring about 1882 he 
moved to Halifax, where he resided for some years, and finally 
went to Montreal in about 1890. He was characterized by 
modesty, bravery and humanity. An anecdote is told of how 
he amputated a man's leg, when proper surgical aid wa& 
absent. He joined the Institute in May, 1882, was for six 
years a member of its council (October, 1884 to October 1890), 
seldom missed a meeting, and continued his membership till 
his death. One paper from his pen appeared in the Trans- 
actions, dealing with the currents of the Gulf of St. Lawrence 
and their danger to navigation (vol.vi., p. 302.) (See obituaries, 
Trans., x., p. xxxvi., [A. McKay], and in Halifax Herald, 
15th September. 1899). 

ARTHUR PETERS SILVER, sportsman-naturalist. Born 
at Halifax, 9th January, 1851, son of Wm. C. Silver (q. v.); 
died at same place, 14th February, 1908. Was educated at 
the Halifax Grammar School, Dalhousie College, and King's 



CV111 PROCEEDINGS. 

College, Windsor, but did not, I believe, proceed to a degree. 
Became a partner in his father's dry-goods business in 1872, 
but retired in 1898, since when he devoted himself to farming 
at 'Riverbank', Preston, near Dartmouth, to sports, and 
literary pursuits. Was a keen lover of the rod and gun 
and became vice-president of the Game and Inland Fisheries 
Protection Society of N. S. Contributed many sporting 
sketches to 'The Badmington', 'Country Life', 'The Empire 
Review', 'World Wide', 'Chambers's Journal', etc. Also author 
of an interesting work entitled 'Farm. Cottage, Camp and 
Canoe in Maritime Canada' (1908) which appeared about 
the time of his death, and which should be read along with 
Hardy's 'Forest Life in Acadie'. He took a great interest in 
all that related to wild animal life, and was elected a member 
of the Institute in December, 1887, but retired about 1902. 
He published but one paper in our Transactions, a list of 
Nova Scotian Butterflies, a subject to which he had given 
considerable attention. (See Morgan's 'Canadian Men and 
Women of the Time,' 1912). 

HUGH FLETCHER, B. A., geologist, Born at London, 
England, 9th December, 1848, son of Hugh Rose Fletcher, 
a mining engineer of Scotch birth; died at Lower Cove, N. S., 
23rd September, 1909. About 1858 he came to Montreal, a 
year after his father. In 1860 the family moved to the Bruce 
Mines in Lake Huron, and the fall of 1862, to Toronto. 
Educated at Toronto University, where he was a silver 
medallist in natural science, and otherwise distinguished 
himself. Became connected with the gold mines at Tangier, 
where his father was in charge. Joined the Geological Survey 
of Canada on 1st September, 1872, and took up work in the 
Sydney coal-fie d, and up to the time of his death, was em- 
ployed in mapping and writing reports on the geology of Nova 
Scotia, having worked out in detail the structure of the Island 
of Cape Breton, and the counties of Guysborough, Antigonish, 
Pictou, Cumberland, Colchester, Hants, Kings and Annapolis. 



SKETCHES OF DECEASED MEMBERS. PIERS. 



C1X. 



He was the leading authority on our coal and iron deposits, 
and in fact knew more about our geology and mineral 
resource (excepting probably gold) than possibly any other 
man. His genial, kindly and extremely modest character 
was marked by every one who came in contact with him. His 
many maps and reports as well as other papers are a monu- 
ment to his energy and display his great knowledge of a 
subject of which he had made a life-long study. He passed 
away in the midst of active work. He was elected a corres- 
ponding member of this Institute on 3rd March, 1891, and 
published three- valuable papers in its later Transactions. 
(See The Nova Scotian, Mining Number, October, 1903, p. 59, 
with portrait; Journal of Mining Soc. of N. S.. vol. xv., 1910, 
p. 131, with excellent portrait.) 

The curious may be interested in considering the foregoing 
list in the light of origin, as indicated by birth-place: 





Presidents. 


Other Members. 


Total. 


Nova Scotian 


3 


8 


11 


English 


1 


5 


6 


Scotch 


1 


2 


3 


Canadian and Newfoundland. . 
United States of America 
Welsh 


1 
1* 
1 


2 

2f 



3 

3t 
1 


Irbh 



















Total 


8 


19 


27 



* English parentage, f 1 Irish parentage. t 1 Scotch parentage. 



PBOC. & TRJLN*. N. S. INST. Sci., VOL. XIII. 



PBOC. 



LIST OF OFFICERS, 1862 TO 1912. 



Presidents. 



Term of Office. 



Names. From 

1. Hon. Philip Carteret Hill, D. c. L., Q. c 31 Dec. 1862 

2. John Matthew Jones, F. L. s., F. R. s. c 26 Oct. 1863 

3. John Bernard Gilpin, M. A., M. D., M. R. c. s 8 Oct. 



1873 
1878 
1880 
1883 
1885 



To 
26 Oct. 

8 Oct. 

9 Oct. 
13 Oct. 
10 Oct. 

5 Aug. 
10 Oct. 



1863 
1873 
1878 
1880 
1883 
1885 
1888 



4. William Gossip .9 Oct. 

5 John Somers, M. D 13 Oct. 

6. Robert Morrow 10 Oct. 

7. John Somers, M. D 21 Oct. 

8. Prof. James Gordon MacGregor, D. sc., p. R. s., 

F. R. s. c 10 Oct. 1888 9 Nov. 1891 

9 Martin Murphy, c. E., D. sc., i. s. o 9 Nov. 1891 8 Nov. 1893 

10. Prof. George Lawson, PH. D., F. I. c., F. R. s. c 8 Nov. 1893 10 Nov. 1895 

11. Edwin Gilpin, Jr., LL., D., D. sc., F. G. s., F. R. s. c., 

i. s. o 18 Nov. 1895 8 Nov. 1897 

12. Alexander McKay, M. A 8 Nov. 1897 20 Nov. 1899 

13. Alexander Howard MacKay, B. sc., LL. D., F. R. s. c. 20 Nov. 1899 24 Nov. 1902 

14. Henry Skeffington Poole, D. sc., A. R. s. M., F. G. s., 

F. R. s. c 24 Nov. 1902 18 Oct. 1905 

15. Francis William Whitney Doane, c. E 18 Oct. 1905 11 Nov. 1907 

16. Prof. Ebenezer MacKay, PH. D 11 Nov. 1907 14 Nov. 1910 

17. Watson Lenley Bishop 14 Nov. 1910 11 Nov. 1912 

18. Donald MacEachern Fergusson, F. c. s 11 Nov. 1912 

NOTE Since 1879 the presidents of the Institute have been ex-officio Fellows of the 
Microscopical Society. 

First Vice-Presidents. 

Names. Term of Office. 

From 

1. John Matthew Jones, F. L. s., F. R. s. c 31 Dec. 1862 

2. John Bernard Gilpin, M. D 26 Oct. 1863 

3. Capt. (now Maj. Gen.) Campbell Hardy, R. A. 12 Oct. 1864 

4. John Bernard Gilpin, M. D 9 Oct. 1867 

5. George Lawson, PH. D., LL. D 12 Oct. 1870 

6. John Bernard Gilpin, M. D 9 Oct. 1872 

7. John Matthew Jones, F. L. s., F. R. s. c 8 Oct. 1873 

8. William Gossip 14 Oct. 1874 

9. Frederick Allison 9 Oct. 1878 

10. John Somers, M. D. 11 Oct. 1879 

11. Robert Morrow 13 Oct. 1880 

12. John Somers, M. D 10 Oct. 1883 

j3. William Gossip 21 Oct. 1885 

14. Prof. James Gordon MacGregor, D. sc., F. R. s 12 Oct. 1887 

15. Martin Murphy, c. E., D. sc., i. s. o 10 Oct. 1888 

16. Henry Skeffington Poole, D. sc., F. G. s 9 Nov. 1891 

17. Prof. George Lawson, PH. D., LL. D 21 Nov. 1892 

18. Alexander Howard MacKay, LL. D., F. R. s. c 8 Nov. 1893 

19. Alexander McKay, M. A 12 Nov. 1894 



No. of 

years, 

1 

10 
5 
2 
3 



20. Alexander Howard MacKay, LL. D., F. R. s. c 8 Nov. 1897 

21. Francis William Whitney Doane, c. E 20 Nov. 1899 

22. Prof. Ebenezer MacKay, PH. D 18 Oct. 1905 

23. Prof. Joseph Edmond Woodman, D. sc 11 Nov. 1907 

24. Watson Lenley Bishop 8 Nov. 1909 

25. Donald MacEachern Fergusson, F. c. s 12 Dec. . 1910 

26. Alexander Howard MacKay, LL. D., F. R. s. c 13 Nov. 1911 

27 Arthur Stanley MacKenzie, PH. D., F. R. s. c 8 Oct. 1913 

(ex) 



To 

26 Oct. 
12 Oct. 
9 Oct. 

12 Oct. 
9 Oct. 

8 Oct. 1873 
14 Oct. 1874 

9 Oct. .1878 
29 Apr! . 1879 

13 Oct. 1880 
10 Oct. 

21 Oct. 
12 Oct. 

10 Oct. 
9 Nov. 

21 Nov. 1892 
8 Nov. 1893 

12 Nov. 1894 
8 Nov. 1897 

20 Nov. 1899 
18 Oct. 1905 

11 Nov. 1907 
8 Nov. 1909 

12 Dec. 1910 

13 Nov. 1911 
8 Oct. 1913 

21 Oct. 1914 



1863 
1864 
1867 
1870 
1872 



1883 
1885 
1887 
1888 
1891 



Royal 



No. of 
Years. 
1 
1 
3 
3 
2 
1 
1 
4 



LIST OF OFFICERS, 1862 TO 1912. 



CXI 



Second Vice-Presidents . 
Name From 

Robert Grant Haliburton, F. 8. A 31 Dec. 

Capt. Campbell Hardy, K. A 26 Oct. 

John Bernard Gilpin, M. D 12 Oct. 

James Ratchford DeWolf 9 Oct. 

Prof. George Lawson, PH. D., LL. D 8 Nov. 

John Bernard Gilpin, M. D 12 Oct. 

Prof. George Lawson, PH. D , LL. D 9 Oct. 

James Ratchford DeWolf, M. D 8 Oct. 

Frederick Allison 14 Oct. 

Prof. George Lawson, PH. D., LL. D 9 Oct. 

Augustus Allison 12 Oct. 

Martin Murphy 11 Oct. 

William Gossip 10 Oct. 

Prof. James Gordon MacGregor.D. sc... 8 Oct. 

Alexander Howard MacKay, B. A 12 Oct. 

John Somers, M. D 8 Oct. 

Prof. George Lawson 9 Nov. 1891 

Henry Skeffington Poole, F. G. s 21 

John Somers, M. D 8 

Edwin Gilpin, Jr. LL. D 12 Nov. 1894 

Alexander Howard MacKay, LL. D 18 

Francis William Whitney Doane 8 Nov. 1897 

Henry Skeffington Poole, A. R. s. M., F. G. s 20 Nov. 1899 

Prof. Ebenezer MacKay, PH. D 24 Nov 

Prof. Joseph Edmond Woodman, D. sc 18 Oct. 

Watson Lenley Bishop 11 Nov 

Prof. Arthur Stanley MacKenzie, PH. D 8 Nov 

Philip Albert Freeman 12 Dec. 1910 

Donald MacEachern Fcrgusson 13 Nov. 1911 

Prof. Howard Logan Bronson, PH. D 11 

Note First and Second Vice-Presidents first so called in Oct., 1881. 



m of Office. 


No. of 




To 


Years. 


1862 


26 Oct. 


1863 


1 


1863 


12 Oct. 


1864 


1 


1864 


9 Oct. 


1867 


3 


1867 


8 Nov. 


1869 


2 


1869 


12 Oct. 


1870 


1 


1870 


9 Oct. 1872 


2 


1872 


8 Oct. 


1873 


1 


1873 


14 Oct. 


1874 


1 


1874 


9 Oct. 


1878 


4 


1878 


12 Oct. 


1881 


3 


1881 


11 Oct. 


1882 


1 


1882 


10 Oct. 


1883 


1 


1883 


8 Oct. 


1884 


1 


1884 


12 Oct. 


1887 


3 


1887 


8 Oct. 


1890 


3 


1890 


9 Nov. 


1891 


1 


1891 


21 Nov. 


1892 


1 


1892 


8 Nov. 


1893 


1 


1893 


12 Nov. 


1894 


1 


1894 


18 Nov. 


1895 


1 


1895 


8 Nov. 


1897 


2 


1897 


20 Nov. 


1899 


2 


1899 


24 Nov. 


1902 


3 


1902 


18 Oct. 


1905 


3 


1905 


11 Nov. 


1907 


2 


1907 


8 Nov. 


1909 


2 


1909 


12 Dec. 


1910 


1 


1910 


13 Nov. 


1911 


1 


1911 


11 Nov. 


1912 


1 


1912 


8 Oct. 


1913 


1 



Name 



Treasurers. 



Term of Office 



From 

1. Captain Westcote Whitchurch Lyttleton 31 Dec. 1862 

John Matthew Jones, acting Treasurer. Sum. 1866 

2. William Chamberlain Silver 9 Oct. 1867 

3. William McKerron (Appointed by Council) 9 Mar 1903 

4. Joseph Baker McCarthy, B. A., M. sc 12 Nov. 1906 

5. Maynard Bowman, B. A . . 11 Nov. 1907 



No. of 
Years 



To 

9 Oct. 1867 5 

9 Oct. 1867 

23 Feb. 1903 35* /u 

12 Nov. 1906 3/n 

11 Nov. 1907 1 



Term of Office 

To 

26 Oct. 
11 Oct. 
17 Oct. 



Corresponding Secretaries. 
Name 

From 

1. John Robert Willis 31 Dec. 1862 

2. William Gossip 26 Oct. 1863 

3. Rev. David Honeyman, D. c. L., F. G. s., F. R. s. c. .11 Oct. 1871 

4. Alexander Howard MacKay, LL. D., F. R. s. c 8 Oct. 1890 

5. Prof. James Gordon MacGregor, D. sc., F. R. s 8 Nov. 1892 

6. Prof. Ebenezer MacKay, PH. D 9 Dec. 1901 

7. Alexander Howard MacKay, LL. D., F. R. s. c 24 Nov. 1902 

8. Prof. Ebenezer MacKay, PH. D 13 Nov. 1911 

Note The official terms, Corresponding and Recording Secretaries, were first used in the 
By-Laws passed in Oct. 1884. Prior to that, these officers were called the First and Second 
Secretaries. Willis seems not to have acted, for the only minutes that are found of his, are those 
of 4 May, 1863, which are signed as "secretary pro tern". 



1863 
1871 
1889 

8 Nov. 1892 

9 Dec. 1901 
24 Nov. 1902 
13 Nov. 1911 



No. of 
Years. 
1 
8 
18 
2 
9 
1 



CX11 PROCEEDINGS. 



Recording Secretaries. 

Names Term of Office No. of 

From To Years. 

1. John Brookin Young 31 Dec. 1862 12 Oct. 1864 2 

2. Alexander S. Finnic 12 Oct. 1864 9 Oct. 1865 1 

(No Second Secretary) 9 Oct. 1865 9 Oct. 1872 S 

3. Angus Ross 9 Oct. 1872 13 Oct. 1875 3 

4. John Thomas Mellish, M. A., D. c. L 13 Oct. 1875 12 Oct. 1881 6 

5. Alexander MacKay, M. A 12 Oct. 1881 21 Oct. 1885 4 

6. Simon Donald Macdonald, D. D. s 21 Oct. 1885 13 Oct. 1886 1 

7. Alexander McKay, M. A 13 Oct. 1886 12 Nov. 1894 8 

8. Harry Piers 12 Nov. 1894 

Note The term Recording Secretary was first used in the By-Laws passed in Oct. 1884. 
Prior to that, this officer was called the Second Secretary. From Oct. 1865 to Oct. 1872, the 
duties of the Second Secretary were performed evidently by the First Secretary. 

Librarians. 

Name Term of Office. No. of 

From To Yeart. 

1. Adoniram Judson Denton 21 Oct. 1885 9 Oct. 1889 4 

Harry Piers, Asst. Librarian 2 Nov. 1888 Jan. 1890 

2. Maynard Bowman, B. A 9 Oct. 1889 24 Nov. 1902 13 

3. Harry Piers 24 Nov. 1902 

Note A "Curator of the Museum and Library" was first constituted by the By-Law 
adopted in Oct. 1885. 



PROCEEDINGS 



OF THE 



Jloba gcotian Institute of deme, 



SESSION OF 1913-1914. 



ANNUAL BUSINESS MEETING. 

Civil Engineering Lecture Room, Technical College, Halifax; 
8th October, 1913. 

THE PRESIDENT, DONALD M. FERGUSSON, in the chair. 

Others members present: Dr. A. H. MacKay, Dr. H. L. 
Bronson, Maynard Bowman, Dr. E. Mackay, Alexander 
McKay, Dr. D. Fraser Harris, Donald S. Mclntosh, Carleton 
B. Nickerson, W. McKerron, J. H. L. Johnstone, and Harry 
Piers. 



PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS: (1) Deceased Members; (2) Prob- 
lems in Biochemistry .-By DONALD M. FERGUSSON, F.C.S., 
Halifax. 

I take this opportunity of thanking the members of this 
Society for the honor conferred in electing me as President, 
an honor the more appreciated as during this term we have 
reached our jubilee as a society. 

PROC & TRANS. N. S. INST. Sci., VOL. XIII. PROC. I. 

(cxiii) 



PROCEEDINGS. 

Deceased Members. 

During the past year we suffered the loss of two members 
who have passed from this life. 

GEORGE UFHAM HAY, Ph. B., M. A., D. Sc., F. R. S. C., 
corresponding member of this society, was born at Norton, 
N. B., June 18th, 1843. Starting as a journalist he became 
an educationist and was a power for advancement in our 
sister province. With Dr. A. H. MacKay, he established the 
Educational Review, which he managed and edited; and 
latterly he published several historical works. It was as a 
botanist that we knew him. He was a president of the Natural 
History Society, St. John, president of the Botanical Club of 
Canada, and member of the New England Botanical Club: 
In 1904 he was president of Section IV of the Royal Society of 
Canada. In 1902 he was elected a corresponding member of this 
Institute. His contributions to botany were many and varied 
and are found in the Transactions of the Royal Society of 
Canada, Bulletin of the Natural History Society, N. B., and 
Educational Review. He also contributed papers on educa- 
tion and natural science to the Proceedings of the Dominion 
Education Association, Educational Institute of N. B., and 
Educational Review. 

JAMES GORDON MACGREGOR, M. A., D. Sc., LL. D., F. R. 
S., F. R. S. C., F. R. S. E., was a native of Halifax, N. S., 
being born March 31st, 1852. Educated here he obtained his 
B. A. at Dalhousie University in 1871 and M. A. in 1874. 
From hence he proceeded to Edinburgh University and to 
Leipzic and obtained the D. Sc. degree from London Uni- 
versity in 1876. In the same year he became lecturer on phy- 
sics at Dalhousie, changing to a. like position at Clifton College, 
England, a year later. Coming back to Dalhousie University 
to take the Munro professorship of physics in 1879, he re- 
mained there until 1901 when he left to become professor of 
natural philosophy in Edinburgh University, succeeding his 



PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS FERGUSSON. CXV 

old teacher Prof. P. G. Tait, and occupying that post until 
his death. 

As a student at Dalhousie University he had a career 
unsurpassed in the history of that institution, the calendar 
of 1871 showing his name opposite every prize open to him, 
and his subsequent life was but a continuance of that appetite 
and capactiy for work which distinguished his early days. 

While holding the position of Munro Professor of Physics 
at Dalhousie, he for several summers during his vacations, 
returned to Edinburgh to work in the larger laboratories there, 
and thus when Edinburgh University called him, he was no 
stranger, but one whose worth and value were known. 

At Dalhousie University he acted as Secretary of the 
Faculty of Arts, and later as Secretary to the Senate, and there 
as in his laboratory and class rooms he was a source of inspir- 
ation to those with whom he came in contact. The same may 
be said of him in relation to our society which he joined in 
January, 1887. He was our President 1888-91, and for the 
work he did in this connection I must refer you to the paper 
on Past Presidents given at the beginning of this last session 
by our able Secretary, Mr. Piers. 

At Edinburgh, he, during the twelve years there, developed 
and extended the Department of Natural Philosophy, chang- 
ing the old Infirmary in Drummond Street into a well equipped 
physical laboratory, and his energies in that direction were 
only limited by lack of funds. 

A foundation F. R. S. C., he was President of the mathe- 
matical and physical section of that body in 1892, was a 
Fellow and Councillor of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, and 
in 1900 was elected a F. R. S. 

He contributed papers to our Society, to the Trans. Roy. 
Soc'y, Canada, Philosophical Magazine and the Physical 
Review, and was author of "Kinematics and Dynamics" 
(1887-1902) and "Physical Laws and Observations." 



CXV1 PROCEEDINGS. 

Taken suddenly ill on the morning of May 21st, 1913, he 
had time to call his son and died almost immediately after- 
wards. We deeply feel his loss, for to many of us he was a 
true friend. A man of unselfsh character and lovable, he 
devoted himself entirely to those around him, to his students, 
his fellow scientists and his family. Cognizant of our own loss, 
we can extend our sympathies to those bound by family ties> 
whose loss is not only that of the man but of husband and 
father. 

Biological Chemistry. 

The chief event, this session, in our society, has been the 
passing of the fiftieth milestone, and although a review would 
naturally suggest itself, yet any fair summary of our work 
would exceed the usual limit of the annual address. I have 
chosen rather to speak of a branch of chemistry that is now 
beginning, or rather has well begun, and that bids fair to be 
foremost in the field during the next half century. 

Fifty years ago in 1863 Duvaine first established a connec- 
tion between bacteria and disease, identifying a bacillus as 
the cause of anthrax. Down through the years intervening 
has research continued; bacteriology has grown to be one 
of the most important of the biological sciences, and one 
whose applications have immensely benefited humanity. 
One by one the bacteria, pathogenic and nonpathogenic, were 
isolated, and there followed methods of growing, staining and 
identification. From inoculations of filtrates from culture 
growths of pathogenic bacteria, physiological disturbances 
identical with those in the disease were observed. Immunity 
in varying degree had been known as a result of disease, and it 
was found that immunity could be obtained by inoculation 
of the artificial growth filtrate. Thus arrived the ideas of 
toxins and antitoxins which form the basis of the modern 
immunity theory. 

Other bodies formed by bacterial infection were noted, 
such as lysins and agglutinins, the formation of the latter 



PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS FERGUSSON. CXV11 

being taken advantage of in the Widal test for typhoid in- 
fection. A vast amount of work was done on the effect of 
introducing into the blood stream foreign elements such as 
blood corpuscles of other species, albuminous bodies, e.g., 
serums, extract of muscle, etc. These developed antibodies, 
and we have now the biological blood test, precipitin test 
for flesh, and many others. Here we have evidence of a large 
number of reactions chemical reactions between bodies 
of whose composition and properties little is known. To 
investigate such is the work of a new individual, the biolog- 
ical chemist. There lies open to him a new and immense field 
in the chemistry and physics of life, in the science of the cell, 
with its protoplasmic contents and their activities. 

The biochemist is a new specialist who must have a long 
and varied training, for so co-related are the sciences that he 
who would interpret aright the phenomena he observes must 
have the broadest foundation on which to build. 

With some point of kinship to the toxins we have as cell 
products the Enzymes. The enzmyes of digestion and fer- 
mentation have long been known and investigated, and a host 
of enzymes are classed as catalysers, and much work has been 
done on the dynamics of reaction and the effect of activating 
and inhibiting agents. 

Being catalysers, accelerators of reaction, they need only 
be, and are, present in small quantities, but they have a most 
important part in synthesis and degradation of organic matter 
in the life cycle. Up to the present it cannot be said that 
any enzyme has been obtained in a state of purity. Methods 
of purification employed destroy activity for some reason or 
other, so that little is known of their constitution beyond a 
general analysis. 

Work is being done on the physics of the cell, on surface 
tension, osmotic pressure, etc. About two years ago Prof. 
MacCallum by means of a microchemical stain was able under 
the microscope to show the distribution of Potassium in cells, 



CXV111 PROCEEDINGS. 

and connecting the distribution of electrolyte with surface 
tension gave an explanation of muscle contraction and the 
associated nerve impulse. He also showed that a concentra- 
tion of electrolyte, or ions, at one point in the living cell would 
explain why is was that cellular membranes acted differently 
in the organism from the way in which they act as dead 
membranes in the laboratory during osmotic experiments. 

Last year Czapek published results on higher plant cells, 
which have a bearing on secretion and excretion. He found 
that these cells did not part with their soluble constituents 
in osmosis until the surrounding media had its tension lowered 
to .65 (water air surface-1). Red blood corpuscles and yeast 
cells did not give up haemoglobins and invertase respectively 
until the surface tension was reduced to .5. 

One line of biological research that is going on at the pre- 
sent time, one on which much time and money has been spent, 
and the research which appeals most to the world at large, is 
the endeavor to find the cause and cure of cancer. The cell 
of abnormal growth presents a difficult biological problem. 
Here is a cell which breaks away from the mechanism controll- 
ing growth, and starts on a career of its own, like a semi- 
independent organism. Proliferating with increased rapidity 
it departs from its type also in division, showing varying ab- 
normality in karyokinesis. After the physical chemistry of 
the normal cell is known, the abnormal cell will still present 
itself. Two new and important methods of technique have 
recently been announced which may aid in the solution of the 
problem. One is Dr Carrel's method of tissue growing in 
vitro, and the other is the method of intra vitam staining 
as shown by Prof. Goldmann before the Royal Society last 
year. 

Let us hope the cure will be discovered long before the 
biochemist arrives at the scientific explanation of the cell of 
abnormal growth. 



PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS FERGUSSON. CX1X 

The rediscovery of Mendel's work in 1900 gave an impetus 
to scientific breeding experiments with animals and with plants 
Results of economic importance and scientific value have 
followed. Cambridge has given the English farmer cereals 
increased in strength and yield and immune to rust, heredi- 
tary qualities capable of being transmitted in accordance with 
Mendel's law of segregation. As the chemist now looks to the 
physicist for the constitution of his unit, the atom; so the 
biologist appeals for the exploration of his unit, the cell, to the 
biochemist. With the union of gametes we have the cell in 
which the problem of heredity is wrapped up; and as Dr. 
Schafer has said, we must not be blind to the possibility that' 
these transmitted qualities may be connected with specific 
chemical characters of the transmitted elements: in other 
words, that heredity is one of the questions the eventual 
solution of which we must look to the chemist to provide. 

Miss Wheldale has recently done work on the coloring 
of flowers, finding chromogens supposedly derived from gluc- 
osides by hydrolysis, in which the color is developed by 
enzyme oxidases and peroxidases. White flowers may be of 
two kinds, one in which chromogens are absent and the other 
in which they are present, but unacted on by the enzymes. 
Prof. Keeble and Dr. Armstrong have investigated this subject 
and developed chemical tests to distinguish the two kinds of 
white flowers, to do which previously, breeding experiments 
would have been required. The significance of this is, that 
here we have the beginning of the chemists' work on heredity, 
color being a Mendelian unit-character. 

Examination of the bacterial content of soils has shown 
their intimate connection with plant growth, and the parts 
played by some of these organisms have been worked out. Re- 
cent work on partial sterilisation of soils, after which the 
bacterial growth is much enlarged with consequent increase 
in crops suggests the destruction of protozoan enemies of the 
bacteria as the cause of increased bacterial content. 



CXX PROCEEDINGS. 

The term catalytic fertilizers has been applied to com- 
pounds of manganese, boron, zinc, etc., which when added to 
the soil in small doses have in cerain cases caused remarkable 
yields of crops. 

The U. S. Dept. of Agriculture has given us a soil poison- 
ing theory, finding di-hydroxystearic acid present in impover- 
ished soils. Experiments at Rothampstead, England, have 
failed to confirm this. All these problems are still under 
investigation as are those of soil solutions, capillarity of soils, 
water level, etc., in relation to plant growth. 

I have mentioned only a few of the subjects which the 
biological chemist is investigating, for the field of research is 
large indeed. 

To show the growth of this new science, I may mention 
that Chemical Abstracts (published by American Chem. 
Society) for August 1908 contained 52 references to articles 
on biological chemistry whilst the August numbers for this 
year contained over 600 abstracts. 

In the future the biochemist must simplify the language of 
immunity, replacing the present word-pictures by definite 
molecular formulae and equations. We look to him to isolate, 
find the composition of and eventually synthesize the enzy- 
mes, secretins, hormones, antitoxins and a host of other 
bodies. He must find out nature's secret when she manu- 
factures in her laboratory by means of enzyme and chloroph- 
yll the countless substances found in plant life, and must 
give us the enzyme or other catalyst to work at ordinary 
temperatures and utilise the sun's radiations going to waste 
around us. In short, he must solve the problem of photosyn- 
thesis. Ciamician, in his address before the International 
Congress of Applied Science last year, has given us a picture 
of the future, thus: "On the arid lands there will spring up 
industrial colonies without smoke and without smoke-stacks; 
forests of glass tubes will extend over the plains and glass 
buildings will rise every- where; inside of these will take place 



PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS FERGUSSON. CXX1 

the photo-chemical processes that hitherto have been the 
guarded secrets of the plants, but that will have been mastered 
by human industry which will know how to make them bear 
even more abundant fruit than nature, for nature is not in a 
hurry and mankind is." 

After the physics and chemistry of the life processes are laid 
bare, after metabolism and its derangements are understood, 
then may come some idea of life and its origin. Present ideas 
of origin may be summed: (1) that life is originating even 
now around us, but beyond our powers of observation, (2) that 
life had its origin in finite time, and (3), the view of Arrhenius, 
that life had no origin in finite time but was coeval with matter 
and energy at infinite time. If the physicist destroy our notion 
of matter there will remain but life and energy; and it may 
be that that dualism is more apparent than real, for we only 
know life by energy change. 

The Present Trend and Suggestions. 

The solution of these problems necessitates long and con- 
tinued research and that means time and money. I should 
like to see our provincial colleges so endowed as to give much 
more opportunity for research than at present. Sir .J. J. 
Thompson, regarding students, has said: "I have always been 
struck by the quite remarkable improvement in judgment, 
independence of thought and maturity produced by a year's 
research. Research develops qualities that are apt to atrophy 
when the student is preparing for examination and quite 
apart from the addition of new knowledge to our store it is of 
the greatest importance as a means of education." 

Not only could we have more research for our students but 
our professors should be so situated as to be able to engage in 
research, and not be tied down attending to all the small 
details of college work. 

A feature of our day has been the appointment of national 
commissions on Conservation of National Resources. The 



CXX11 PROCEEDINGS. 

powers of these bodies could be vastly extended to providing 
endowment for research and founding establishments like the 
Kaiser Whilhelm Institut in Germany. If civilised nations 
could see the absurdity of settling ethical issues by destruc- 
tion of cellular tissues, large sums of money would be 
available for research into conserving the national resources 
which we use at present, and tapping those going to waste 
around us. We might then feel less ashamed of what future 
generations will think of the manner in which we squander 
their birthright of mine, field and forest. We have passed our 
fiftieth year and some of our younger members may see the 
centenary of our society. Then many present researches will 
have been finished but we can assure ourselves that the field 
ahead will be more expanded than we dream of. 

Tonight we have reports fromMuseum and Science Library. 
Fifty years after this, I hope that commensurate with the large 
increase of population we see looming ahead the reports will 
show that each of these institutions will occupy as much 
space as the whole of the buildings in part of which they are 
now housed. The growth of such institutions but reflects the vi- 
tality of that phase of intellectual development which it is our 
pleasure and duty as a society, to advance, and which must be 
carefully fostered if we in this Province would keep pace with 
other peoples in deriving pleasure and profit from the search 
into Nature's secrets. 

The Treasurer, M. BOWMAN, presented his annual report, 
showing that the receipts for the year ending 31st September, 
1913, were $1,042.43; the expenditures, $914.17; and the 
balance in current account, $128.26; while the reserve fund 
was $300.00, and the permanent endowment fund, $939.49. 
The report was received and adopted. Attention was drawn 
to the desirability of raising the permanent endowment 
fund to one thousand dollars, and then investing it in suitable 
bonds. This was referred to the Council for consideration. 



REPORTS ELECTION OF OFFICERS. CXX111 

The Librarian's report was presented by H. PIERS, 
showing that 1,763 books and pamphlets had been received 
by the Institute through its exchange list during the year 
1912; and 1,298 have been received during the first eight 
months of the present year (1913). The total number of 
books and pamphlets received by the Provincial Science 
Library (with which those of the Institute are incorporated) 
during the year 1912, was 3,385. The total number in the 
Science Library on 31st December, 1912, was 48,882. Of 
these, 35,848 (about 73 per cent.) belong to the Institute, 
and 13,034 to the Science Library proper. The number of 
books borrowed was 440, besides those consulted in the 
library. No binding or purchasing was done by the library, 
directly, during the year, there being no regular grant for 
the library's support. The report was received and adopted. 

D. S. MclNTOSH, M. Sc., instructor in geology, Dalhousie 
University, delegate appointed , to represent the Institute, 
read a report on the work of the Twelfth Session of the 
International Geological Congress, which was held at Toronto, 
Canada, from 7th to 14th August, 1913, there being 950 
members enrolled and 433 in attendance. The Nova Scotian 
excursion, 20th to 29th July, was one of the most interesting 
of those held. The report was received and adopted. 

It was reported that HORACE GREELEY PERRY, M. A., 
professor of biology, Acadia University, Wolfville, N. S., 
had been elected an associate member on 12th May last. 

The following were elected officers for the ensuing year 
(1913-14): 

President, DONALD MACEACHERN FERGUSSON, F. C. S., 
ex officio F. R. M. S. 

First Vice-President, PRESIDENT ARTHUR STANLEY MAC- 
KENZIE, Ph. D., F. R. S. C. 

Second Vice-President, ALEXANDER HOWARD MACKAY, 
LL. D., F. R. S. C. 



PROCEEDINGS. 

Treasurer, MAYNAKD BOWMAN, B. A. 

Corresponding Secretary, PROFESSOR EBENEZER MACKAY, 
Ph. D. 

Recording Secretary and Librarian, HARRY PIERS. 

Councillors without office, PROFESSOR CLARENCE LEANDER 
MOORE, M. A., F. R. S. C.; ALEXANDER McKAY, 
M. A.; PROFESSOR DAVID FRASER HARRIS, M. D., 
C. M., D. Sc., F. R. S. E.; DONALD SUTHERLAND 
MclNTOSH, B. A., M. Sc.; CARLETON BELL NICKER- 
SON, M. A.; PROFESSOR HOWARD LOGAN BRONSON, 
Ph. D.; and WILLIAM HARROP HATTIE, M. D. 

Auditors, WATSON LENLEY BISHOP and WILLIAM Me- 
KERRON. 

FIRST ORDINARY MEETING. 

'Civil Engineering Lecture Room, Technical College, Halifax; 
10th November, 191%. 

THE PRESIDENT, D. M. FERGUSSON, in the chair. 

DAVID FRASER HARRIS, M. B., C. M., M. D., D. Sc., 
F. R- S. E., professor of physiology and histology, Dalhousie 
University, Halifax, read a paper "On the Existence of a 
Reducing Endo-Enzyme in Animal Tissues". (See Trans- 
actions, p. 259). The subject was discussed by the PRESI- 
DENT, Dr. A. H. MACKAY, PROF. MOORE, C. B. NICKERSON, 
and PROF. E. MACKAY. 

A paper by HENRY S. POOLE, D. Sc., F. R. S. C., Guild- 
ford, Surrey, Eng., on ll Senecio jacobcea and its parasite, 
Callimorpha jacobcea: the Ragwort and the Cinnabar Moth," 
with additional remarks thereon by the reader, was read 
by DR. A. H. MACKAY. (See Transactions, p. 279). The 
subject was discussed by DR. E. MACKAY, C. B. NICKERSON, 
W. MACKERRON, and others; and it was agreed that some 
steps should be taken to suppress such a noxious weed as 
-the Ragwort. The matter was referred to the Council. 



ORDINARY MEETINGS. CXXV 

SECOND ORDINARY MEETING. 

Civil Engineering Lecture Room, Technical College, Halifax; 
19th January, 1914- 

THE PRESIDENT, D. M. FERGUSSON, in the chair. 

It was reported that on 28th November, STANLEY NEW- 
LANDS GRAHAM, B. Sc., professor of mining, N. S. Technical 
College, Halifax, had been elected an ordinary member, 
and E. CHESLEY ALLEN, Yarmouth, N. S., an associate 
member. 

HERBERT BRADFORD VICKERY, Dalhousie University, 
read a paper entitled "Notes on the Analysis of 'Ironstone' 
from the King's Quarry, North West Arm, Halifax". (See 
Transactions, p. 209). The subject was discussed by the 
PRESIDENT, DR. E. MACKAY, C. B. NICKERSON, DR. BRON- 
SON, DR. A. H. MACKAY, and H. PIERS; and a vote of thanks 
was presented to Mr. Vickery. 



THIRD ORDINARY MEETING. 

Civil Engineering Lecture Room, Technical College, Halifax; 
16th February, 1914. 

THE PRESIDENT, D. M. FERGUSSON, in the chair. 

A paper by SIDNEY POWERS, Geological Museum, Harvard 
University, Cambridge, Mass., on "The Geology of a Portion 
of Shelburne County, Southwestern Nova Scotia," was 
read by PROF. MC!NTOSH. (See Transactions, p. 289). 
The subject was discussed by PROF. MC!NTOSH, the PRESI- 
DENT, H. PIERS, and others. 

A paper by FRANK W. DODD, C. E., of the Whitehead 
Torpedo Works, Weymouth, Eng., entitled, "Additional 
Notes on 'Integral Atomic Weights/ " was read by PROF. E. 
MACKAY, (See Transactions, p. 223). The discussion which 



CXXV1 PROCEEDINGS. 

followed, was taken part in by the PRESIDENT, DR. A. H. 
MACKAY, PROF. E. MACKAY, and C. B.NICKERSON. 

Votes of thanks were passed to the authors of these 
two papers, MESSRS. POWERS and DODD. 



FOURTH ORDINARY MEETING. 

Civil Engineering Lecture Room, Technical College, Halifax; 
9th March, 1914. 

THE PRESIDENT, D. M. FERGUSSON, in the chair. 

JOHN H. L. JOHNSTONE, B. Sc., demonstrator of physics, 
Dalhousie University, Halifax, read a paper, "On the Elec- 
trical Properties of Acetic Acid in the Solid and Liquid 
( Phases". (See Transactions, p. 191). The subject was 
discussed by DR. BRONSON and PRESIDENT A. S. MAC- 
KENZIE. 

PROFESSOR DAVID FRASER HARRIS, M. D., D. Sc., 
F. R. S. E., Dalhousie University, read a paper on "Coloured 
Thinking". (See Transactions, p. 308). The subject was 
discussed by the PRESIDENT, DR. E. MACKAY, PRESIDENT 
MACKENZIE, H. PIERS, DR. A. H. MACKAY, and others. 



FIFTH ORDINARY MEETING. 

Civil Engineering Lecture Room, Technical College, Halifax; 
20th April, 1914. 

THE VICE-PRESIDENT, DR. A. H. MACKAY, in the chair. 

PROFESSOR L. C. HARLOW, B. Sc., Provincial Normal 
College, Truro, read a paper on "Analyses of Nova Scotian 
Soils". (See Transactions, p. 322). The subject was dis- 
cussed by the CHAIRMAN, G. F. MURPHY, PROF. D. S. Mc- 
INTOSH, W. MCKERRON, and H. PIERS. 



ORDINARY MEETINGS. CXXVH 

SIXTH ORDINARY MEETING. 
Provincial Museum, Technical College, Halifax; 18th May, 1914. 

THE PRESIDENT, D. M. FERGUSSON, in the chair. 
A paper by A. H. MACKAY, LL. D., F. R. S. C., on "PhenO- 
logical Observations in Nova Scotia, 1913", was read by title. 
(See Transactions, page 347). 

HARRY PIERS, 

Recording Secretary. 



TRANSACTIONS 



OF THE 



cotian Institute of rienct 



SESSION OF 1910-1911 



THE OPTICAL ACTIVATION OF RACEMIC BROMCAMPHOR 
CARBOXYLIC ACID BY MEANS OF CATALYSTS': THE 
SPECIFICITY OF CATALYSTS. BY HENRY JERMAIN MAUDE 
CREIGHTON, M. A., M. Sc., DR. Sc., Lecturer on Physical 
Chemistry, Dalhousie University, Halifax, N. S. 



* 



Read February 19th, 1912. 

INTRODUCTION. 

Methods for the resolution of racemic bodies into their 
optically active components date back to the time of Pasteur. 
In an investigation on the salt formed by racemic tartaric acid 
with cinchonicine, he found that at first almost pure cinchoni- 
cine 1- tartrate cyrstallised out from solutions of the racemate, 
while most of the cinchonicine d- tartrate remained behind in 
the mother liquid. Pasteur also found, when yeast was added 
to a solution of ammonium racemate, that the inactive solution 
became laevo-rotatary after a time, and that finally it was 
possible to separate 1- tartaric acid from the liquid. In this 
case the d- component is consumed by the ferment. By 
means of yeast and other ferments, LeBel 1 was able to obtain 
amyl- and several other alcohols in an active condition ; 

Published in this part by permission of the council. 
1. Le Bel, J. A.; Compt. rend., 87, 213, (1878); 89, 312. (1879); Bull. 
soc. chim., 7, (3), 551. 

PROC. & TRANS. N. S. INST. Sci,, VOL. XIII. TRANS. 1. 



2 OPTICAL ACTIVATION 

Brenwr 1 has split up inactive malic acid into its active com- 
ponents by means of cinchoiiine ; and Lewkowitsch 2 has decom- 
posed mandelic acid into its active isomers by different methods. 
The reverse of the method used Pasteur was employed by 
Ladenburg* in the synthesis of conine. Here a racemic base 
a- normal propyl piperidine, prepared by the reduction of 
a- allyl piperidine, was split up into its antipodes by means 
of an active acid. E. Fischer 4 in his researches in the sugar 
group has split up many compounds by the foregoing methods 
of Pasteur. 

It is well known that the majority of the properties of 
antipodes are the same; for example, both generally react at 
the same rate. When, however, antipodes unite with another 
optically active body, they lose their antipode character and 
acquire 'different solubilities, rates of reaction, etc. Much use 
has been made of this in separating a racemic body into its opti- 
cally active components. Eor instance, on account of the different 
rates at whi'-h an active body reacts with a racemate, it is 
possible to obtain a product which shows optical activity, by 
stopping the reaction before completion. In this manner 
Markwotd and Meth 5 effected a partial separation of r- maii- 
delic acid by 1- meiitliylamme, the amicle being formed by 
the reaction. The converse of this method has been used 
successfully by McKenzie and Thompson, who prepared 
optically active products by submittinr the partially racemic 
esters, formed by the complete esterification of different acids 
externally compensated by optically active alcohols, to fractional 
hydrolysis with an inactive base. 

An asymmetric synthesis of an active compound from a 
symmetric substance, whereby an .optically active solvent should 

1. Bremer, G. J. W.: Ber. d. deutsch. chem. Ges., 13, 351, (1880). 

2. Lewkowitsch, J.: Ber. d. deutsch. chem Ges., 16, 1573, (1883). 

3. Ladenburgr, A.: Ber. d. deutsch. chem. Ges., 19, 429, and 2518. 

(9881) 

4. Fischer, E.: ibid. 23, 2114. (1890). 

5. Markwald. W., and Meth, R.: ibid., 38, 801. (1905). 

6. McKenzie, A., and Thompson, H. B.: Trans. Chem. Soc., 91, 789, 
(1907). 



BY MEANS OF CATALYSTS. CHEIGHTON. 

play the part of a catalyst, was first suggested by van't II off 1 . 
This was an important suggestion for, in the plant and animal 
organisims, asymmetric bodies are being built continually from 
symmetric substances, the synthesis probably being brought 
about l)y the actions of enzymes or other catalysts. 

It is well known that different substances are only acted 
on by particular enzymes, it being supposed that the enzyme 
associates itself with a particular molecular grouping of the 
substrate. This ''specificity" of the enzymes is \vell seen in 
the action of various yeasts on disacchrides, an investigation 
carried out by E. Fischei^, and one which led him to formulate 
his simile of the "lock and key" relationship. As this implies 
a close relationship between enzyme and substrate, such as is 
found in optically active opposites, it has been suggested that 
enzymes themselves are optically active bodies. Dal'in',? 1 
investigation on the hydrolysis of optically active esters by the 
lipase of the liver affords support to this suggestion. He 
found that when an optically inactive mixture of the t\vo 
esters of mandelic acid was acted on by lipase, the dextro 
component hydrolysed more rapidly than the laevo component ; 
and further, that if the hydrolysis were incomplete, the 
residual mixture w r as laevo rotatary. The unequal rates of 
reaction of the two components can only be explained // the 
enzyme is assumed to be optically active. The work of Fischer 
and Ahflcrlifi/dcn 4 on the relation of trypsin to the polypeptides, 
shows that trypsin, too, exhibits a marked affinity for certain 
optically active groups. 

Attention was first called to the marked similiarity between 
enzymes and inorganic catalysts by BerzeliusF* . in 1837. He 
pointed out that: "We have reasons, well founded on fact, to 
ir.ake the assertion, that in living plants and animals there take 

1 van't Hoff, J. H.: "Die Lagerung- der Atome im Raum." 

2 Fischer. E.: Ber. d. deutsch. chem. Ges., 27, 29 and 92, (1894). 

3. Dakin H D. : Journ. of Physiol.. 30, 253. (1904). 

4. Fischer. E.. and Abderhalden. E.: Zeit. f. physiol. Chem.. 46, 52, 
(1905) 

5. Berzelius, J. J.: Lehrb. d. Chem.. 3. Aufl., 20-25 (1837). 



4 OPTICAL ACTIVATION 

place thousands of catalytic processes between tissues and 
fluids" ; and ako, "when compared with known phenomena in 
the inorganic world, it resembles nothing else so much as the 
decomposition of hydrogen peroxide under the influence of 
platinum, silver, or fibrin." In recent times, Bredig 1 has shown 
many striking resemblances between the enzymes and certain 
inorganic catalysts, such as colloidal solutions of the metals. 
Indeed, all recent investigations point to the action of enzymes 
being catalytic. 

The asymmetric division of an inactive mixture by means 
of enzymes, which we may look on as catalysts, suggests the 
possibility of such a division being brought about with the help 
of a catalyst of known chemical structure. 

Several attempts have already been made to accomplish 
an asymmetric division by means of a catalyst. F. jS. Kipping 2 
carried out the synthesis of -benzion from benzaldehyde (with 
potassium cyanide), and of mandelic acid nitrile from benz- 
aldehyde and potassium cyanide in concentrated alcoholic 
camphor solutions ; but in these and other cases the compounds 
obtained were inactive. E. and O. Wedekind 3 allowed menthyl 
- benzly- aniline to unite with allyl- iodide in optically 
active solvents such as d- limonene, 1- menthol, and 
1- chlor- methyl- menthyl- ether, but in every case the 
products were inactive. At Bredig s suggestion, the rate of 
decomposition of d- and 1- camphorcarboxylic acid in d- 
and 1- limonene was investigated by Balcom* who found that 
the isomers decomposed at the same rate. 

It remained for Professor Gr. Bredig to find a stereo chemical 
specific catalyst. At his suggestion Fajans* measured the rate 
of decomposition of the isomeric camphorcarboxylic acids in 

1. Bredig- G.: Biochem. Zeit, 6, 283, (1907). 

2. Kipping, F. S.: Proc. Chem. Soc., 16, 283, (1901). 

3. Wedekind, E and O.: Ber. d. deutsch. chem. Ges., 41, 456, (1908). 

4. Balcolm, R. W.: Diss. Heidelberg 1905. Bredig and Balcolm: 
Ber. d. deutsch. chem. Ges., 41, 740, (1908). 

5 Fajans K.: Diss Heidelberg- 1910. Zeit. f. phys. Chem., 73, 25. 
(1910). 



BY MEANS OF CATALYSTS. CREIGHTON. 5 

the presence of optically active bases, such as certain alkaloids. 
It was found that not only was the rate of decomposition of the 
acid greatly accelerated by the different alkaloids, but that the 
d- and 1- acids decomposed at different rates. By acting 
011 the racemic acid with quinine, and quinidine, and bj 
stopping the reaction at the point where the excess of one 
component over the other was greatest, Fajans was able to 
prepare optically active solutions of the isomeric camphors and 
the camphor carl> oxylic acids. This result is similar to that 
obtained by DaJciri 1 through the catalytic enzyme action of 
lipase (a catalyst of unknown structure) on mandelic acid 
ester, and constitutes the first example of an asymmetric 
division by means of a catalyst of definite structure. 

Recently, in the physical chemical institute of this place, 
Bredig and Fiske 2 have further brought about an asymmetric 
synthesis of a nitrile by the use of optically active catalysts. 
The reaction 

C 6 H 5 CHO + HCN - C 6 H 5 CH OH CN 

is catalysed by bases, and when alkaloids (in this case quinine 
and quinidine) are used as catalysts the resulting nitrile is 
optically active (that is the d- and 1- nitrile are formed in 
unequal amount), and the mandelic acid produced by the 
saponification of the nitrile is also active. This asymmetric 
synthesis is analogous to that of L. Rosen-thaler's? with the help 
of emulsin. 

When solutions of bromcamphor-carboxylic acid are heated 
it is found that the acid decomposes much more rapidly than 
similar solutions of camphor-carboxylic acid. The decomposi- 
tion takes place according to the equation : 

CBrCOOH OBH 

C 8 H 14 <| =C a H u <] +C0 2 

CO CO 

It was suggested by Professor Bredig that I should study 
the catalytic influence of alkaloids on the above reaction, and 

~T Dakin, H. D.: loc. cit. 

2 Bredig- G.: Chem. Zeitung-, xxxv, 36, 324, (1911). 
3. Rosenthaler, L.: Biochem. Zeit., 14, 238, (1908). 



6 OPTICAL ACTIVATION 

prepared by catalysis, if possible, the oDtically active isomeric 
bromcamphors and broincaniphor-carboxylic acids, from the 
racemic bromcamphor-carboxylic acid. This acid is found to 
be much better suited for catalytic asymmetric division than 
camphor-carboxylic acid, for which the former ucid the quantity 
of catalyst, calculated in equivalents, can be very much smaller 
than that of the decomposed substrate. 

PREPARATIONS. 

Inactive solvent: Acetophenone was obtained from G. F. 
Kahlbaum, and before being used it was- dried over anhydrous 
sodium sulphate and redistilled. 

Acids: d-, 1-, and iii-bromcamphor-carboxylic acids. 
These acids were prepared from the corresponding oamphor- 
carboxylic acids. As difficulties had been experienced in 
obtaining perfectly pure bromcamphor-carboxylic acids, it was 
thought best to start with absolutely pure camphor-carboxylic 
acids. These were prepared according to the sodium amide 1 
method of Bruhl 2 . The inactive acid was prepared from 
synthetic camphor, (very kindly presented by the chemischen 
Fabrik auf Aktien vorni. E. Schering, Berlin), after its slight 
dextro rotation had been compensated by the addition of the 
requisite amount of 1- camphor. The best yields of camphor 
carboxylic acid were obtained when the sodium amide was 
finely divided, the temperature high (110 -140), and the 
stirring as rapid as possible. It was found that the sodium 
amide could be conveniently ground up in an ordinary mortar 
under toluene. By using toluene or xylene for the reaction 
liquid, a favourable temperature was obtained. In order to 
stir the mixture rapidly, and also to lessen the chance of 
breakage, owing .to the tendency of the sodium amide to adhere 
to the sides of the glass flask, the use of an iron vessel was tried. 
It was found, howover, that the amide acted on the iron to a 
certain extent, a substance resembling Prussian Blue being 
formed, and that it required several crystallisations to obtain 

1. For the fresh sodium amide I am indebted to the Deutschen Gold- 
und Silberscheideanstalt, Frankfort, a/M. 

2. Bruhl, J. W.: Ber. d. deutsch. chem. Ges., 36, 1305, (1903). 



BY MEANS OF CATALYSTS CHEIGHTON. 7 

a pure acid. The impure acids were twice recrystallised from 
water at 60. In agreement with Fajans, the melting points of 
the d- and 1- acids were 127 -128; while that of the 
inactive acid was higher, 136 - 137 , from which it may be 
concluded that the acid, prepared as above, is a racemic acid. 
Analysis by titration with barium hydroxide solution and 
phenolphthaleiii gave the following degrees of puritv: 
d-acid 1 - acid in acid 

I 100,070 I 100,120 I 100,070 

II 100,110 II 99,880 II 100,100 

III 99,780 III 99,980 III 



Mean: 99,990 99,990 100,090 

The optical rotation of these camphor-carboxylic acids was 
determined a.t 25 : 

3.7743 g. d- acid, dissolved to 25 ccm. in absolute alcohol, 
gave a rotation of + 2 3. 02 in a 2.5 clem. tube. 

0.4302 g. 1- acid, dissolved to 10 cc. in absolute alcohol, 
gave a rotation of -2. 6 3 in a 1 idem. tube. 

These rotations correspond to a specific rotation of 61. 1. 

The acid prepared from the inactive camphor was com- 
pletely inactive. 

Besides -these tests of purity the affinity constant of the 
d- and 1- acid was measured, and the results obtained at 
25 are given below 1 : 

d- Camphor carboxylic 1 Caniphor-carboxylic 

acid. acid. 

Mol. Degree A o> = 374 Mol. Degree 

v lit. Cond. Diss. Cond. Diss. 

Ji 100}' 100k vlit. 100 Y. 100k 

31,32 26,56 7,10 0,0173 31,32 26,60 7,11 0,0174 

62,64 36,96 9,88 0,0173 62,64 37,65 10,07 0,0180 

93,97 44,92 12,01 0,0175 156,64 57,65 15,41 0,0174 

1 :>(,,(>! 57,63 15,41 0,0179 250,49 70,24 18,78 0,0173 

250,58 70,91 18,96 0,0177 814,35 117,21 31,34 0,0176 

Mean: 0,0175 Mean: 0,0175 



1 One half of the specific conductivity of the water was subtracted 
from that obtained for the solution. In the case of the d- acid J.4X1 
and in the case of the 1- acid \. 2.7 X 10-*. 



8 OPTICAL ACTIVATION 

The value 0.0174 x 10~ 2 was obtained by Ostwald for the 
affinity constant of d- camphor-carboxylic acid at 25. 

The bromcamphor-carboxylic acids were prepared accord- 
ing to Aschan s 1 method of 'brominating the corresponding 
camphor-carboxylic acids, in acetic acid solution at room 
temperature. Aschan obtained a pure acid by crystallising once 
from ligroin. In spite of a large number of experiments, in 
which a variety of solvents were employed, I have been unable 
to obtain a perfectly pure bromcamphor-carboxylic acid. In 
ligroin the acid appeared to be almost insoluble. The purest 
preparations were obtained by recrystallisation from a mixture 
containing a large quantity of ether to a small quantity of 
.alcohol. About 25 grams of acid were shaken up with almost 
sufficient ether to dissolve it, and then alcohol was added, a few 
drops at a time, until ;the acid (dissolved. The acid was then 
allowed to slowly crystallise out from this solution. Especially 
good crystals were obtained with one of the preparations of 
1- acid. These were examined and found to consist of a 
combination of the following three forms of the monoclinic 
system : 

(i) Vertical Prisms. a : nib : a c 

(ii) Klinodonm oc a : b : me 

(iii) Orthopinakoid a : ocb : oc c 

The orthopinakoid was very well developed. 

Two different preparations A and B of the d- and 1- 
acids were made and 'in the kinetic experiments which follow, 
measurements were, as a rule, made with both these prepara- 
tions. Only one inactive preparation was prepared. The 
melting points and optical rotation of the different acids were 
determined; also analyses were made of the acids, both by 
titration with barium hydroxide solution and by estimation 

1. Aschan, O.: Ber. d. deutsch. Chem. Ges., 27, 1445, (1894). 



BY MEANS OF CATALYSTS. CREIGHTON. 9 

of the bromine content. The results obtained are given in the 
following table: 

(1 acid 1 acid in acid 

Preparations : A B A B 

MeltingPoint: 11 1,5 111,0 111,0 110,5 122 

[a]* : + 77,78+ 78,00 - 77,80 - 77,79 0,00 



97 ' 41 % 96 ' 62 % 97 ' 36 % 96 > 89 % 96 >"% 

Amlvsis by 

Bromine : 97,56% 96,90% 96,94% 97,42% 96.97% 
Estimation 

Bases: Quinine and quinidine were obtained from C. F. 
Kahlbaum, and were identified by their melting points. Before 
being used they were dried at 110 120 l . 

APPARATUS. 

In order to determine the velocity of decomposition of the 
bromcamphor-carboxylic acids in solution, both with and without 
catalysts, the progress of the reaction with time was followed 
by weighing the amount of carbon dioxide that was liberated 
from the acid. The apparatus for this consisted essentially of 
a small glass flask, with a capacity of about 30 ccm., which was 
connected to two sets of soda-lime tubes by means of a three 
way tap. The small reaction flask was closed with a ground 
glass stopper through which passed two tubes, the one going 
within 2 mm. of the bottom of the flask ; attached to the second 
tube was a small cooler through which tap water flowed. 
During the reaction the small reaction flask was immersed in 
a thermostat, the temperature of which was kept constant within 
0.05. The liberated C(X was carried off by a stream of 
nitrogen which bubbled through the solution. The complete 
apparatus is shown in fig. 1. The nitrogen was contained in 
the gas-holder G and in the bomb B, from either of which it 
passed to the purifying apparatus through the three-way tap 
T,. The gas was freed from traces of oxygen by means of 
alkaline sodium hydrosulphite in the wash bottles W\ and W 2 ; 
then washed with potassium hydroxide solution in the wash 

1. Lenz, W.: Zeit. f. anal. Chemie, 87, 551, (1888). 



10 OPTICAL ACTIVATION 

bottles W;-, and W 4 ; and dried with concentrated sulphuric 
acid in W. v The last traces of carbon dioxide were removed 
with soda-lime in the tube U r From this the nitrogen passed 
into the reaction flask R, where it mixed with the carbon dioxide 
liberated from the acid. On passing out of the reaction flask 
most of the solvent vapour that was carried along with the 
nitrogen condensed in the cooler Kj and ran back again into 
the flask ; the last traces of solvent vapour condensed in the 
three small condensors K 2 , which were immersed in a freezing 
mixture of ice and salt. After leaving K 2 the gas passed 
through the three way tap T\ to either of the sets of soda-lime 
tubes U,IL and U 4 U 5 , where the carbon dioxide was 
absorbed. Each of these sets of tubes was connected with a 
soda-lime tube Rj or R 2 and a bubble counter bj or b 2 . The 
reaction flask, the coolers, and the soda-lime tubes were all 
attached to a small wooden frame. To immerse the reaction 
flask in the thermostat it was simply necessary to lower the 
wooden frame. At fixed times the current of gas was cut off from 
one set of U-tubes and passed through the second set by means 
of the three way tap ; during the interval the first set of tubes 
was weighed. This operation was repeated as often as was 
necessary. The influence of the rate of the nitrogen stream 
on the velocity of decomposition of the bromcamphor-carboxylic 
acid was investigated, and it was found that the velocity of 
evolution of CO 2 apparently increased slightly with increase 
in the velocity of the nitrogen stream up to four liters per 
hour, probably owing to small traces of carbon dioxide remain- 
ing in supersaturated solution; but when the nitrogen stream 
was over four liters per hour, however, no further increase in 
the velocity of CO 2 evolution, with increase in the velocity of 
the nitrogen steam, was observed to occur. In the experiments 
which follow the current of nitrogen was usually 6-8 liters 
per hour. A more rapid current of gas was not used on account 
of the evaporation of the solvent, With a nitrogen stream of 
8 liters per hour traces of acetophenone vapour were usually 
carried over into the first two tubes of the cooler K 2 ; but 
seldom was a trace of acetophenone ever found in the third 



BY MEANS OF CATALYSTS. CKEIGHTON, 



11 








z 

ul 
O 

o g 

t- 

Z 





M3OOUJJN 



J 



FIG 1 



12 OPTICAL ACTIVATION 

tube of the cooler. Owing to the fact that carbondioxide 
results from the oxidation of acetophenone, it was necessary 
to remove every trace of oxygen from the nitrogen. Oxidation 
of acetophenone was found to -take place with small traces of 
oxygen at as low a temperature as 40. I assured .' myself that 
the apparatus worked properly by means of a blank experi- 
ment made every few days. This consisted in passing a current 
of purified nitrogen through some solvent contained in the re- 
action flask, and then through the soda-lime tubes. At the end of 
1/2 1 hour the tubes were weighed and it was seen whether 
they had increased in weight. 

The efficiency of the apparatus was tested by decomposing 
a known weight of Na 2 CO, with pure dilute sulphuric acid, 
and the evolved CO,, carried off with a current of dry pure 
nitrogen into -the soda-lime tubes, after having been dried with 
concentrated sulphuric acid. The results obtained were: 

0.3428 g. Na 2 CO s liberated 0.1419 g. CO*; calculated 
0.1423 g. Error: -0.3%. 

As a further test of the efficiency of the apparatus the 
velocity constant of decomposition of d- and 1- camphor- 
carboxylic acids was measured. As Fajans has found, the 
reaction follows the first order. /; has been calculated from 
the formula : 

k _1 ](r A 

f 0,4343 g A^' 

\vhere t is the time in minutes, A the original amount of acid 
calculated as CO 2 and A x the amount present at the time 
t, both expressed in milligrams. 



BY MEANS OF CATALYSTS. CRE1GHTON. 



13 



TABLE I. 
Each gram of acid in 10 ccm 1 . acetopheiione. Temperature 80 ' 



d acid 


1 acid 


t 


A x 


k 


* 


A x 


k 





225,1 







225,1 




60 


210,3 


0,00113 


58 


211,2 


0,00114 


154 


189,5 


0,00112 


180 


183,7 


0,00113 


268 


166,8 


0,00112 


268 


166,6 


0,00112 


455 


136,9 


0,00112 


420 


139,1 


0,00114 


620 


112,8 


0,00111 


1320 


50,7 


0,00113 


1335 


50,9 


0,00111 


1620 


36,1 


0,00113 


1890 


27,6 


0,00111 









Mean 0,00112 



Mean 0,00113 



For the cl- acid Fajans 2 found k = 0.00114, and for the 
1-acid k = 0.00115. 

On account of the relatively high rate of decomposition of 
bromcamphor-carboxylic acid in the presence of bases, solutions 
of the acid and the base were prepared saparately ; on starting 
an experiment the solution of the acid was placed in the 
reaction flask, nitrogen bubbled through so as to remove any 
carbon-dioxide and air from the apparatus, and then 1 ccm. of 
the solution of base, containing the required amount of the 
substance, was added to the acid solution in the reaction flask. 
The two solutions were thoroughly mixed by shaking and the 
flask immediately lowered into the thermostat. 



The liquid was measured at room temperature. 
Fajans, K.: loc. cit. 



14 



OPTICAL ACTIVATION 



DECOMPOSITION OF BROMCAMPHOII-CARBOXYLIC ACID. 

1. Experiment^ Without Catalysts and Temperature Co- 
efficient. 

The decomposition of bromcamphor-carboxylic acid in 
acetophenone, in the absence of alkaloids, was found to follow 
the first order of reaction, -the velocity constant being calculated 
from the equation 



k = 



1 



A 



t '0,4843 A-x' 



The symbols here have the same meaning as previously 
indicated. 

The values obtained for It at 80, 70, and 60 are as 
follows : 

TABLE II. 

Each gram of acid in 10 ccm. acetophenone. Temperature 80. 



d acid 



1 acid 



t A x 


k 


t 


A x 


k 





155,8 







144,0 




10 


138,2 


0,0120 


10 


127,5 


0,0122 


20 


122,2 


0,0121 


20 


112,9 


0,0122 


30 108,2 


0,0122 


30 100,1 


0,0121 


40 


95,8 


0,0122 


40 88,9 


0,0121 


50 


84,8 


0,0122 


60 


70,3 


0,0120 


GO 


75,2 


0,0121 


85 


52,7 


0,0118 


75 


62,7 


0,0121 


115 


35.8 


0,0121 








140 


27,1 


0,0119 


Mean 0,0121 


Mean 0,0121 



BY MEANS OF CATALYSTS. CHEIGHTON. 



15 



TABLE III. 
Each gram of acid in 10 ccm. acetophenone. Temperature 70. 



d - acid 



<:cid 



t 


A x 


k 


t 


A x 


k 





160,0 







160,0 




10 


152,0 


0,00513 


30 


137,1 


0,00515 


30 


137,3 


0,00510 


60 


118,6 


0,00499 


50 


124,2 


0,00506 


90 


102,0 


0,00500 


80 


107,1 


0,00502 


120 


. 87,9 


0,00499 


120 


88,2 


0,00496 


170 


68,1 


0,00503 


240 


48,5 


0,00497 


240 


48,0 


0,00502 


300 


35,8 


0,00499 










Mean 0,00503 




-Mean" 0,00503 



TABLE IV. 
Each gram of acid in 10 ccm. acetophenone. Temperature 60 C 



d acid 


1 acid 


t 


A x 


k 


t 


A -x 


k 





160,0 







80,0 





10 


156,7 


0,00207 


30 


75,1 


0,00211 


20 


153,4 


0,00208 


60 


70,3 0,00215 


30 


150,3 


0,00208 


90 65,9 0,00215 


40 


147,3 


0,00207 


150 57,7 0,00218 


85 


133,8 0,00210 


210 


50,5 


0,00219 


110 


128,2 0,00201 


380 


34,9 


0,00218 


180 


109,5 0,00211 








Mean 0,00207 


Mean 0,00216 



16 OPTICAL ACTIVATION 

The mean value for Tc is 0.0121 at 80, 0.00503 at 70, and 
0.00212 at 60. From these numbers the -temperature co- 
efficient for two intervals of ten degrees each may be calculated. 
Between 60 and 70 it is 2.37 and between 70. and 80 it is 
2.40. 

From the van't Hoff-Arrhenius equation 
dink A 
~dT~ ~T" 
we obtain by integration the equation 



0,4343 k 2 T,T 2 

and from -this the value for A may be calculated. By substi- 
tuting the value of the ratio . - in the foregoing equation, A 

K 70 o 

is found to be 10600. while with the ratio-r A is found to 

"60 

be 9854. The mean difference between these two values is 
3.5 per cent. 

i 

I 

2. Decomposition of Bromcamphor-carboxylic Acid at 40 in 
the Presence of Quinine and Quinidine. 

a. Quinine. 

Pure quinine was obtained from C. F. Khalbaum. After 
being dried for two hours its melting point was taken and found 
to be 171. 5 172. 

dx 

In the following tables =- represents the rate of decomposi- 
tion of the acid, and C m the mean concentration of the acid ; 
the other symbols have the same meaning previously indicated. 



15 Y MEANS OF CATALYSTS. 



3RE1GHTON. 



17 



TABLE Y. 

1 g. 1- acid and 0.0200 g. quinine in llccm. acetophenone. 
(0.3305 mole acid and 0.0056 mole quinine per liter). 

Experiment 1L 



t 


A dx X 2 x l 

dt - t 2 -t z 


p , Xl + X 2 


dx 

^.ro 

Cm 


0' 

Decoin 
position 


L m A 





160,0 










10 


147,9 


1,21 


154,0 


0,79 


7,6 


20 


134,2 


1,37 


141,1 


0,97 


16,1 


30 


118,9 


1,53 


126,6 


1.21 


25,5 


40 


101,8 


1,71 


110,3 


1,55 


36,4 


50 


82,1 


1,97 


92,0 


2,14 


48,7 


60 


60,6 


2,15 


71,3 


;;,0l 


62,1 


70 


32,5 


2,81 


46,6 


6,03 


79,7 


80 


27,4 


0,51 


30,0 


1,70 


82,9 


100 


24,3 


0,15 


25,9 


0,51 


84,8 


140 


21,6 


0,07 


22,9 


0,30 


86,6 


Experiment 1. 





160,0 














5 


154,9 


1,02 


157.5 


0,64 


3,2 


15 


142,9 


1,20 


148,9 


0.80 


10,7 


25 


128,3 


1,46 


135,6 


1,08 


19,8 


35 


112,0 


1,63 


120,1 


1,35 


30,0 


45 


93,8 


1,82 


102,9 


1,77 


41,1 


55 


72,2 


2,16 


83,0 


2,60 


54,9 


65 


47,7 


2,45 


60,0 


4,08 


70,2 


75 


24,6 


2,31 


36,2 


6,38 


84,6 


85 


22,7 


0,19 


23,6 


0.80 


85,8 


115 


21,8 


0,03 


22,2 


0,14 


86,4 



PROC. & TKANS. X. S. IXST. Sci., VOL. XIII. 



TRANS. -2. 



18 



OPTICAL ACTIVATION 



TABLE VI. 

1. g. d-acid and 0.0200 g. quinine in 11 ccm. acetophenone. 
(0.3305 mole aeid and 0.0056 mole quinine per liter). 

Experiment 31. 



* VIA. 

A - x - = 



dx - x 2 x x 
dt 



dx 



Cm = A-^_ a 






160,0 










10 


151,6 


0,84 


155,8 


0,54 


5,3 


20 


138,4 


1,32 


145,0 


0,92 


18,5 


30 


124,9 


],35 


131,6 


1,02 


22,2 


40 


111,5 


1,34 


118,2 


1,13 


30,3 


50 


97,6 


1,39 


104,5 


L33 


39,0 


60 


83,9 


1,37 


90,7 


1,50 


47,6 


70 


68,0 


1,59 


75,9 


2,08 


57,5 


80 


49,6 


1,84 


58.8 3,13 


69,0 


90 


82,8 


1,68 


41,2 4,08 


79,5 


100 


27,2 


0,56 


30,0 1,87 


83,0 


110 


24,7 


0,25 


26,0 0,96 


84,6 


140 


21,0 


0,10 


23,2 0,43 


86,5 


170 


19,1 


0,08 


20,4 0,39 


88,1 



Here it is observed that the velocitv of the reaction increases 
with .time, reaches a maxium, and then falls off rapidly to 
nothing ; also that the ratio of the velocity of decomposition to 
the mean concentration C m of the undecomposed acid behaves 
in the same way. As should be expected, since quinine is a 
laevo-rotatary substance, the rate of decomposition of the two 
isomers is different. At the end of 70 .minutes, when the 
difference between the percentage decomposition of the two 
acids is greatest (almost 25 per cent), the velocity of decom- 
position of the 1- acid is almost double that of the d- acid. 
The progress of the reaction with time is shown in fig. 2. 



BY MEANS OF CATALYSTS. CREIGHTON. 



19 



b. Quinidine. 

The quini'dine used in the following experiments was 
obtained from C. F. Kahlbaum. After heating for -two hours 
at 110 120 it melted at 170. 

TABLE VII. 

1 g. d- acid and 0.0200 g. quinidine in 11 ccm. acetophenone. 

(0.3305 mole acid and 0.0056 mole quinidine per liter). 

Experiment >b. 















dx 


7 


t A ^7- . 


dx X2 X x 


f\,. A ** r\t 


/o 




dt t 2 -t! 


c^' 102 


'position. 





160,0 




__ 


_ 


1 


5 


1550 1,00 


157,5 


0,63 


3,1 


15 


141,7 1,33 


148,4 


0,89 


11,4 


25 


128,9 


1,28 


135,4 


0,94 


19,4 


35 


111,9 


1,70 120,4 


1,42 


30,1 


45 


94,2 


1,77 103,1 


1,71 


41,1 


55 


74,8 


1,94 84.5 


2,29 


53,3 


65 


54,4 


2,04 


64,6 


3,16 


66,0 


75 


30,6 2,38 


42,5 


5,60 


80,9 


85 


18,5 1,21 


24,6 


4,92 


88,5 


115 


12,4 0,20 


15,5 


1,29 


92,3 



Experiment 3b. 






160,0 














9 


149,6 


1,14 


154,8 


0,73 


6,5 


20 


134,2 


1,.54 


141,9 


1,08 


16,1 


30 


119,2 


1,50 


126,7 


1,18 


25,9 


40 


103,1 


1,61 


111,1 


1,45 


35,6 


50 


85,1 


1,80 


94,1 


1,91 


46,8 


60 


66,1 


1,90 


75,6 


2,51 


58,7 


70 


43,2 


2,29 


54,7 


4,19 


73 ; 


80 


21,4 


2,18 


32,3 


6,75 


86,5 


90 


16,6 


0,48 


19,0 


2,52 


89,6 


100 


12,1 


0,45 


14,4 


3,12 


92,5 


130 


8,9 


0,11 


10,5 


1,05 


94,5 



20 



OPTICAL ACTIVATION 



FIG. 2. 

Quinine as Catalyst. 



too 



to 



40 




d- Acids*.. 
Acids.. 



to so 100 

Time in minutes. 



BY MEANS OF CATALYSTS. CREIGHTON. 



21 



FIG. 3. 
Quinidine as Catalyst. 



d-Ac.ds. 
in- Acids 
^ Acids 




80 100 

Time in minutes. 



22 



OPTICAL ACTIVATION 



TABLE VIII. 

1 g. 1-aci'd and 0.0200 g. quinidine in 11 ccm. acetophenone. 
(0.3305 mole acid and 0.0056 mole quinidine per liter). 

Experiment $>. 



t 


A x 


dx x 2 xi 


X X + X 2 


dx o/ 

in* De 9? m - 

Cm position. 


dt t 2 t t 


v^m ^i- o 





160,0 










10 


148,9 


1,11 


155,4 


0,72 


6,9 


20 


137,9 


1,10 


143,4 


0,76 


13,8 


30 


125,7 


1,22 


131,8 


0,92 


21,5 


10 


112,7 


1,29 


119,2 1,08 


29,5 


50 


99,5 


1,33 


106,1 1,21 


37,8 


50 


86,4 


1,31 


93,0 1,41 


46,0 


70 


723 


1,41 


79,4 1,78 


54,8 


SO 


57.7 


1,46 


65,0 2,24 


63,9 


50 


40,6 


1,71 


49,2 3,48 


74,6 


30 


24,0 


1,66 


32,3 5,14 


85,0 


10 


9,9 


1,41 


17,0 8,29 


93,8 


20 


6,6 


0,33 


8,3 4,00 


95,9 


30 


5,2 


0,14 


5,9 2,37 


96,8 


75 


3,7 


0,03 4,4 0,68 


97,8 



Experiment 






160,0 











5 


154,3 


1,14 


157,1 


0,73 


3,6 


15 


144,5 


0,98 


149,4 


0,66 


9,7 


25 


132,5 


1,20 


138,5 


0,87 


17,2 


35 119,6 


1,29 


126,1 


1,02 


25,2 


45 


104,1 


1,55 111,9 


1,39 


34,9 


55 


91,1 


1,30 


97,6 


1,32 


43,1 


65 


78,1 


1,430 


84,6 


1,54 


51,2 


75 i 63,7 


1,44 


70,9 


2,03 


60,2 


85 


46,5 


1,72 


55,1 


3,12 


71,1 


95 


30,4 


1,61 


38,4 


4,19 


81,0 


105 


14,7 


1,57 


20,5 


7,66 


90,8 


125 


6,8 


0,40 


10,8 


3,70 


95,8 



BY MEANS OF CATALYSTS. CREIGHTON. 



23 



TABLE' IX. 

1 g. in- acid and 0.0200 g. quinidine in 11 ccm. acetophenone. 
(0.3305 mole and 0.0056 mole quinidine per liter). 

Experiment 6b. 



t 


A x 


dx x 2 Xj 


! 
r \ Xl + X2 


dx 
dt 

T^'10 2 
Cm 


Decom- 
position. 


(It t a -t T 


Cm A 2 





160,0 




_ 


__ 


10 


148,3 


1,17 


154,2 


0,75 


7,3 


20 


136,2 


1,21 


142,2 


0,84 


14,9 


30 


123,0 1,32 


129,6 


1,02 


23,1 


40 


107,7 


1,53 


115,3 


1,34 


32,7 


50 


92,3 1,54 


99,0 


1,55 


42,3 


60 


75,8 


1,65 


84,1 


1,99 


52,6 


79 


57,3 


1,85 


66,6 


2,77 


64,2 


80 


39,5 


1,78 


48,4 


3,69 


75,3 


90 


28,2 


1,13 


33,9 


3,33 


82,4 


100 


19,4 


0.88 


23,8 


3,70 


87,9 


110 


9,0 


1,04 


14,5 


7,32 


94,4 


120 


3,5 


0,55 


6,2 


8,87 


97,8 


130 


3,0 


0,05 


3,3 


1,51 


98,1 


Experiment 7b. 





160,0 


- 1 i -- 





5 


153,9 


1,21 


157,0 0,77 


3,8 


15 


143,5 


1,04 


148,7 0,70 


10,3 


25 


130,8 


1,27 


137,2 


0,93 


18,3 


35 


116,5 


1,43 


123,7 


1,15 


27,2 


45 


100,1 


1,64 


108,3 


1,51 


37,4 


55 


84,6 


1,55 


92,3 


1,68 


47,1 


65 


67,0 


1,76 


78.8 


2,32 


58,1 


75 


48,2 


1,88 


57,6 


3,27 


69,9 


85 


33,1 


1,51 


40,7 


3,70 


79,3 


95 


23,7 


0,94 


28,4 3,33 85,2 


115 


6,7 


0,90 


14,7 6,12 96,3 



24 0pri<-Af, A<-nv 



Ajjcxamirj:: 

that th<^ iiiUtu-iK-*- of fjiiiiiMliiif on h< i|<><'ofnjx/*iUon of '1 . 

Ufattaieftmpbo]*6*?taiyti6 am*! i* }tn 0,. 

by iito i ieeompoi 

.|/lior-;.rlK,xylic ft' 'I li- rMti' of 

" ( "if midway t^wfii 

;.t' for tb<* <l 0ml l-*'il>. I < r, li veioeky of 

r-;-fi,,n ;n<l lb- ralio i/ivn, in <-oldinn fivi* of tb^ t*t- 

ib* iiia.xium to wbic-b 1.;.- ;.l .-. 

I 1 vitb firm' i* *hown ^rj>bklly in 



In UM* for- (f^i pyiMJmn m^n^ on th 

HCAmpbo^CftftM] i in f|)' pr< 'jiiitiitif 

;UM! <jmni lin<-. if ||.> IM-CII foiincl that //"" " " '/<//""# 

fatween the mte$ vj mutton <>/ ft" two optical \*omer$ t It 

4kmW lm4JK^t^l lhc'r'fori' t wln-n ii- ,,,,!,> nil,, >ii^tim 'il 

it deeompo9&d wd$r u,, .//////////. ,nfi, ,,,,>, ,,i ,,u.ni.,i<t <i 
the r&Mlion d<>w<i i><(>,>< // <,,, //,/ //,, /,/ ,, /l / // ,, l ,/. - 

w^ ?M pre$t>itt in $quMh^ amow&i :ni that 

formed ImmummpliMr, w-ll 

i .i,,,, ,,!,, , ,,t //,/ 

In imler 'o b ! opii-;.i mld l^ 

bfmt by tin nn.,., yuinim m 
quinidine in m>fi' - . i , 

A> the cmw* (%, 2 Hii'l ;{> illiMtrMtiii^ M< i^'r 1 '*-^ '^ 
with ii m* *how, t<- diA ; }< dfi 

(or *vfil| radaeompotei 

for ; inn' - m*iinuni. ;n,.l 

l, win u lh- :,!! i> ;ill .|. . -nn\*W*l 9 |l 

t tb* IK -I iii n in ord tain 

iitiiit rotaHmi if 

...//^/ / /^r? w^;/<' /// " //'///- .-/< / I 

i- M ;.'hl-. '|^ill^l from il. ' 



in MI.AXS or \IALYSTS riM-:n;n i<>\. 

Sxnlhelic camphor. i| h . weak dexl r.:i ml ;il ion ,,f which vvils 
cmnpeii-atr.l with Hie aeee \ATj aiiimiiil nf I camplmr. wa 

used i" prepare ;i bromcamphowarboxylic '""/ which was 

rom/y/r/r/// uuirlin-. ThU acid wa- n^-d I'm- tin- t'nl lowing 
act ivaliiiM experiments. 

1. \Villi <inininr. Since with tin- alkaloid ||,,. | ;i,-i(l 
decompose! in ire rapi-lly limn ihr .1 ftcid, OHe -li"iil.| 
lliiil. (In- tmdeOOXnpOeed :i-il u the ..nc li;m I \vdiihl he 
rotatary, :MI.| OB lln i >llu-r the lii-nin,-;iiii|.li..i-. whi.-h is foniinl 
liv (lie read i'ii. \\"ii| ( | !< .|c\lrn rii:ihir_\ . 

lln- deOOmp08iti<Hl OUnre il L r-'iiii.l lluil tin- IIK.S- 
in^mcnl I'm- >ln||.in;.- the reach ii i- iii tin- mil .f 

IS miiiiitrs. T\VM |,;u-;il|(.| (-XJ)cri UU'll t S \\<T<- !n;n|.-. ... 1)000 

gram >f Inactive bromoamphor-oarbo^ic ;i-i.l were 

ill '<> mil. nf iircln|i||i'||nin> ;ni,| m i\<-| \\ilh ., ,-,-|il. ,!' 

i>h<'ii"nr \\hich c.,ni;iinc.| (). 1000 n TJ , m ,,i' quinine. 'l'h- mixture 

was place,! in a .ihcrniM iai a,,,| krpl at |o fa 88 iniinit.rs, nt 
'lu- end "I" \\hidi time il Wat mixed \\ilh 10 OOm, "I" a dilute 

-"luii'Mi <d' livdruchlni-ic acid and l.uricd in ; , freezing mixture 

Of :ill and icc. The h vdrnclilm-ic a<-id u'as previously sat.nriiled 

\\iih cnninmn salt HO as in eauee the layer of the acid wlution 
111 eparate i'r the aoetophenone eoluption tno^e oui<jkly, The 

'!' the |.\dn.c|il..ric acid snllltion se|'\ed the donl.le 
Of -toppino- || M - react inn and remOTing I he .pnntiie 
'I In- nptical rntalinu nf I he hyd mdilnr ic a.'M olutiOQ, af-li-r 

eparation from the aci-inphenmie layer, crai meji-un-d is- a 
l <!cm. tnhe a. 1. 1 fniind to be: -li:i. Tin- aoteophenoae 

.'ollltinn \\a hakeii up l\Mr,. ;u ..,,,, with |O .-em. nf the 

hydrochloric acid. The < cond H ( 'I extract '\li-n p..]an ed 
in M i donu tube wa< fmind in give ; rotation of vhih? 

the third extract ;-.i\c a rotation of; O .OO. O. |OOO u,-ain of 
wa-, di^.^olveil in |O ccm. .!' the a!>.\< ||('| snluiinn 

wu toed for extracting the quinine from the 
reaction mixture; ihi when p.,lan-.-d in a I d<-m. 

liihe and wa- fniiml tn oj\e a mi:iii >f - I .'.M;. thn 

-Imuii,.. thin one h.-ikin- with 10 com, d' the Ih'i olution 



26 OPTICAL ACTIVATION" 

was sufficient to remove the 0.1000 ~ram of ehinin used for 
the activation. As further proof of the complete removal of 
the quinine, no green colouration was obtained on shaking the 
last HC1 extract with bromine water and ammonia (a very 
delicate test for quinine). The undecomposed acid was then 
removed from the acetophenone by shaking with dilu-te 
potassium hydroxide solution. As water solutions separate 
only very slowly from acetophenone (the sp. g. is almost the 
same for the two), in most cases they were separated by means 
of a centrifugal machine. After removal of -the acid the 
aceophenone solution was dried with anhydrous sodium sul- 
phate. Its volume was 50 ccm., 5 ccm. having been lost in the 
separation operations. 16 ccm. of this solution were placed 
in a 2 dcm. tube and its rotation was found to be: 
= 0.71*. In order to calculate -the amount of active 
bromcamphor in the acetophenone solution, the specific 
rotation of bromcamphor in acetophenone was measured. 
0.5000 gram of d- bromcamphor, dissolved to 10 ccm. in 
acetophenone. gave, in a 1 dcm. tube, a rotation of: + 6. 94, 
corresponding therefore to [] D - 138. 8. The weight of 
bromcamphor contained in v = 55 ccm. of the above aceto- 
phenone is 

a 0,71 

S= v Hl = 55 138^2 = 

From the kinetic data it is found that, at the end of 68 
minutes from the commencement of the reaction, 1.569 g. 
of 1- bromcamphor and 1.176 g. of d- bromcamphor should 
be found. The excess of 1- bromcamphor over d- brom- 
camphor being, therefore 0.420 g. Perhaps the difference 
between the amount of active bromcamphor calculated from 
the kinetic data and that actually found, may be due to the 
occurrence of racemization. 



*The mean error in reading: the polariscope was 0.01 0.02. 



BY MEANS OF CATALYSTS. CREIGHTOX. 27 

The undecomposed bromcamphor-carboxylic acid was pre- 
cipitated from the potassium hydroxide solution with dilute 
hydrochloric acid, and -then purified by recrystallising from 
ether. 1.485 grams of the acid were obtained. This amount, 
dissolved to 16 ccm. in absolute alcohol, gave a rotation of: 
a == 1.29, corresponding to [ajjf = + 6. 9 2 when measured 
in a 2 dcm. tube. The specific rotation of the pure active acid 
in absolute alcohol is + 77. 8, so therefore this preparation 
contains 9$ active acid, whereas -*t should contain 27$ active 
acid. This difference is probably due to loss during the 
crystallisation, or possibly to racemizatioii. It would have 
been better to have polarised the potassium hydroxide solution 
of the acid. 

2. With quiniSine. In this case the undecomposed acid 
should rotate to the left and the bromcamphor, formed by the 
reaction, to the right. The most favourable point for stopping 
the reaction is found from the curve (fi>. 3) to be at the end of 
75 minutes, at which moment 80.9$ of the d- acid and 60.2$ 
of the 1- acid has decomposed. As before two parallel 
experiments with 5.0000 grams of inactive acid and 0.1000 
gram of quinidine, dissolved in 55 ccm. of acetophenone, were 
carried out at 40. The method and procedure were the same 
as in the foregoing experiments. 

52 ccm. of the acetophenone solution of bromcamphor were 
obtained, and 16 ccm. of this solution when polarised in a 2 
dcm. tube gave a rotation of + 0.99, corresponding therefore 
to 0.196 g. of active bromcamphor in the initial 55 ccm. 
Calculations from the kinetic data show that 0.44 g. should 
have been formed. In case of no other experimental error, this 
difference between the experimental and theoretical quantities 
of bromcamphor may be regarded as caused by racemization. 

The undecomposed bromcamphor-carboxylic acid was 
removed from the potassium hydroxide solution with dilute 
hydrochloric acid, and then purified. The acid obtained 
weighed 1.535 grams. This was dissolved to 16 ccm. in 



28 OPTICAL ACTIVATION 

absolute alcohol and polarised in a 2 dcm. tube. This solution 

1 oo 

gave a rotation of --1.59 corresponding to [O-] D = 8. 2, 

18 

whereas from kinetic calculations it should have been [a] p 

-23. 2. The excess of active acid is therefore 0.180 
gram or 0.00066 mole, whereas it should be 0.513 gram 
or 0.00150 mole. In this experiment 0.00066 equivalent of 
acid has been made active by the catalytic influence of 0.00060 
equivalent or 0.00030 mole of quinidine. 

In order to make certain that the optical activi-ty obtained 
was due to a specific catalytic action of the base and not to any 
error in the method employed, a controll experiment was carried 
out in the same manner as the activation experiment. In this 
experiment the quantity of materials used were the same as in 
the activation experiment, except that here no base was used. 
It was found that neither the potassium hydroxide or aceto- 
phenone solutions showed the slightest optical activity on being 
polarised. 

We see then from these experiments that, by means of an 
optically active base, it is possible to produce catalytically both 
active bromcamphor and bromcamphor-carboxylic acid from the 
inactive acid, for 4 equivalents or 4 moles of acid have been 
made optically active by the help of 4 equivalents or 2 moles 
of base. According to the kinetic curves 2 moles of base should 
activate about 10 equivalents or moles, of acid. But for a lack 
of a sufficient quantity of the inactive acid, further activation 
experiments would have been carried out with the object of 
obtaining a quantitative yield of the active bromcamphor and 
bromcamphor-carboxylic acid. 

Is THE ACTION OF THE BASE CATALYTIC ? 

The question of whether the acceleration of the decomposi- 
tion of bromcamphor-carboxylic acid by optically active bases 
is due to a catalytic influence or not, is of interest, and has been 



BY MEANS OF CATALYSTS. CREIGHTOX. 29 

discussed at length by Fajans 1 . In order to answer this ques- 
tion the exact definition of catalysis and catalyst must be 
considered. Ostwald, who has done so much work in this 
region, has defined 2 catalysis as follows: "Katalyse ist die 
Beschleunigung eines langsam verlaufeiiden. chemischen Vor- 
gangs durch die Gegenwart eines fremden Stoffes." This defini- 
tion is independent of what the cause of what catalysis may be. 
A catalyst he defines 3 as "jedeii Stoff, der ohne im Endproducte 
einer chemischen Reaktion zu erscheinen, ihre Geschwiiidigkeit 
verandert." This definition has been broadened by Bredig 4 : 
"Die Katalysatoreii sind Stoffe, welche die Gesehwindiffkeit 
einer Reaktion verandern, ohne stets eine stochiometrische 
aquivalente Beziehung der eventuell umgewandelten Menge des 
sogenannteii Katalysators zu der Menge der aiidereii umge- 
wandelten Substanzen, der sog. Substrate, besteht." This last 
definition, which includes the former, is accepted to-day by 
most investigators in the field of catalysis. 

There has been s.ome doubt expressed as to whether the 
decomposition of camphor-carboxylic acid as carried out by 
Fajans is a catalytic process. Objections have been made to 
the use of equivalent quantities of acid and base on the one 
hand, and to the mechanism of the reaction on the other. 
These criticisms have been fully answered by Fajans 5 . 

In our reaction it has been found that the decomposition 
of bromcamphor-carboxylic acid is greatly accelerated by the 
presence of very small quantities of base. It has further been 
shown , that the base used to catalyse the decomposition of the 
acid is in the same condition and Dresent in the same amount 
at the end of the reaction as at the beginning; and also that 
it is capable of decomposing a new quantity of acid ivith the 
same velocity as at first. 

1. Fajans, K.: loc. cit. p. 59-65. 

2. Ostwald, W.: Zeit. f. phys. Chemie, 15, 705, (1894); Lehrb. d. 
allgem. Chemie, 2. Aufl. (1), 2, 515, (1893). 

3. Ostwald, W.: Zeit. f. Elektrochem, 7, 998, (1901). 

4. Bredig-, G.: ibid., 9, 735, (1903). 

5. Fajans, K.: loc. cit. 

6. Creig-hton, H. J. M.: Dissertation, Zurich, 1911, p. 30 und 74. 



30 OPTICAL ACTIVATION 

In the reaction under investigation, we have good reasons 1 
for supposing that the acceleration in the presence of a base 
depends on the formation of a salt, which is much less stable 
than the acid itself, and which readily breaks up again into 
CO 2 , bromcamphor, and free base, the latter being free to 
unite with more acid. With regard to any objections that may 
be raised to the theory of a catalytic action by the base, on the 
grounds of the mechanism of the reaction, it may be emphasized 
that an intermediate reaction between the acid and catalyst 
constitutes .one of the oldest and commonest types of catalytic 
processes. With truth it may be held that our reaction is just 
as much a catalytic process as, for example, the accelerating 
influence of molybdic acid on the velocity of oxidation of 
hydriodic acid by hydrogen peroxide 2 , in which reaction there 
takes place the following steps: 



r)H 
I MoO, < + HA - MoO, < Q _ + H. 2 



^ 

II. MoO, + 2 HI = H 2 + J,, + H 2 MoO 4 

O OH 

We see then that the action of quinine and quinidine 
conforms in every way to the above definitions of catalysis, and 
that therefore we are justified in claiming that our reaction is a 
catalytic process; and further, that the optical activation of the 
inactive bromcamphor-carboxylic acid has been accomplished 
by means of optically active catalysts. 

SPECIFICITY OF CATALYSTS. 

The analogies between enzyme action and the action of 
ordinary catalysts are so numerous that the former bodies also 
are now generally looked on as a type of catalyst 3 . One of the 
most interesting of recently discovered analogies between these 
substances is to be found in their behavior towards certain 

1. Creighton. H. J. M.: Dissertation, Zurich, 1911, p. 58 et seq. 

2. Brodie, J.: Zeit. f. phys. Chemie, 37, 257, (1901). 

3. Creig-hton, H. J. M.: Dissertation, Zurich, 1911, p. 88 et seq. 



BY MEANS OF CATALYSTS. CKE1GHTON. 



31 



poisons. The poisonous influence of many substances- towards 
inorganic catalysts has been thoroughly investigated by Bredig 
and his pupils in the last few years. The effect of a number of 
different poisons on inorganic catalysts and enzymes is illus- 
trated in the accompaning table, in which is shown the con- 
centration of the different poisons that is necessary to entirely 
destroy the catalytic influence of colloidal platinum 1 and of 
catalase 2 011 hydrogen peroxide: 



Poison 


Colloidal Platinum 






Catalase 


H,S . 


1 : 300 000 molar 


1 




I 000 000 molar 


HCN 


1 20 000 000 " 






1 000 000 " 


HO-CL . 


1 : 2 000 000 " 






2 000 000 " 


A - l & v ^ 1 2 

HP; CCN N /o 


1 200 000 " 






300 " 


\vy-L^ /2 

I in KI 


1 : 5 000 000 " 






50 000 " 


NH 8 (OH)HC1 ... 
Aniline 


1 : 25 000 " 
] 5 000 " 






80 000 " 
40 000 " 


As,,O, .... 


1 50 " 






2 000 " 


CO 


very poisonous 






no paralysis 


HC1 


1 3 000 molar 






100 000 " 


NH Cl 


1 2 000 " 






1 000 " 


HNO., , 


no oaralvsia 


- 




250 000 " 



That enzymes exhibit a stereocJiemical specificity has long- 
been known. The principle here involved is that one of the 
antipodes 1 of the substrate is changed much quicker by the 
enzyme than the other, which very often remains practically 
unchanged. Pasteur 3 observed, for instance, that with racemic 
ammonium tartrate only the dextro antipode was attacked by 
mould enzyme (penicillium glaucum), the solution becoming 
laevo-rotatary. Our fundamental knowledge in this field, how- 
ever, is due to the researches of E. Fischer. He has shown 
that a particular enzyme is able to attack certain stereochemical 

1. Bredig, G., and Muller v. Berneck: Zeit. f phys. Chem., 31, 258, 
(1899). 

2. Senter, G.: Zeit. f. phys. Chem., 44, 257, (1903). 

3. Pasteur: Compt. rend., 51, 298, (1860). 



OPTICAL ACTIVATION 



isomers which, mi account of their /configuration, belong i<> one 
group. Thus, for example, he has found 1 that d- glucose, 
d- mannose, d- galactose, and d- fructose all undergo 
fermentation with yeast, while the laevo isonier- of these sul>- 
stances do not. Xot only, however, are the micro-organisms 
ahle to distinguish between isomers of entirely opposed activity, 
but the transposition of two groups, attached to a single one of 
a number of asymmetric carbon atoms, is of importance to them. 
Fischer and Thierf elder 2 have shown that although the above 
mentioned sugars are fermentable by various yeasts, d- talose, 
Avhich differs from d- mannose and d- galactose only by the 
transposition of the groups attached to a single asymmetric 
carbon atom, is not attacked by the same yeast species. To 
insure enzyme action, then, the substrate and enzyme must have 
their configurations adjusted to one another like lock and key: 
and it may be possible that they may act m one another to their 
mutual distraction if the keys turn opposite ways. However, 
experiments made by Eiloart showed 110 such destruction in tin- 
case of human and pig pepsins. 

The relation between the substrate molecule and that of the 
enzyme is illustrated 3 by the splitting ,of a - and ft - - methyl 



H C OCH 




H CO C H 

o 



H C OH \ 


H C OH 


1 x 


l ^ 


HO C H 


HO C H 


1 


1 ^ 


H C 


H-Cx 


I 


l 


H C OH 


H C OH 


I 


l 


CH 2 OH 


CH, OH 



1. Fischer, E.: Zeit. f. physiol. Chem.. 26, 60. (1898). 

2. Fischer. E.. and Thierfelder: Ber. d. deutsch .chem Ges., 27, 2031 
(1894); see also Fischer, ibid. 27, 2985, 3228, 3479. 

3. Fischer, E.: ibid. 32, 3617, (1899). 



BY MEANS OF CATALYSTS. CREIGHTON. 33 

glucoside into their antipodes by means of emulsin. Of these 
two isomers only the /3- form is attacked by emulsin, which 
conversely this form is not changed by yeast and the a- anti- 
pode is split up into grape sugar and methyl alcohol. This 
"lock and key" relationship between enzyme and substrate has 
been confirmed by Pottevin 1 and others 2 . 

This stereochemical specificity of enzymes has been held to 
be a fundamental difference between the ordinary catalysts and 
the enzymes, and an important reason why the latter should 
not be looked on as catalysts. Very recently, however, this 
argument has been broken down by the investigations of Bredig 
and Fajans-' 5 whose results show that ordinary catalysts of 
asymmetric structure may, like enzymes, also possess a stereo- 
chemical specificity. The results, which I have obtained in 
the present investigation, confirm and strengthen this new and 
important relationship between enzymes and ordinary satalysts. 

SUMMARY. 

1. The decomposition of bromcamphor-carboxylic acid in 
acetophenone solution has been investigated kinetically, and it 
has been found that the presence of small quantities of alkaloids 
accelerate this decomposition enormously. 

2. Optically active bases catalyse the decomposition of the 
antipodes of the acid in different degrees. The difference 
between the velocities of decomposition of the two optical- 
isomeric acids is as much as 30^ in some cases (Tables V and 
VI). 

3. This catalytic behaviour of optical active bases suggests 
an analogy to the st&reo chemical specificity of the enzymes. 



1. Pottevin, H.: Compt. rend., 136, 169, (1903). 

2. For an account of the numerous investigations in this field, 
Fajans, K., loc. cit. 

3. Fajans, K. : loc. cit. 

I 'HOC. & TKANS. X. S. I. VST. Sri.; Vol.. XIII. TKANS. 3. 



34 OPTICAL ACTIVATION BY MEANS OF CATALYSTS. CREIGHTON 

4. By means of the stereochemical specific catalytic 
influence of optically active bases, optically active brom- 
camphors, as well as optically active bromcamphor-carboxylic 
acids, have been prepared from inactive bromcamphor-car- 
boxylic acid. 

5. In conclusion the specificity of catalysts has been 
discussed. 



Laboratorium fur electro und physikalische Chemie, 
Eidg-enossisches Technischen Hochschule, 
Zurich, Switzerland, July, 1911. 



A SUGGESTION FOR ANTHROPOLOGICAL WORK ix NOVA SCOTIA. 
-By WALTER H. PREST, Bedford, N. S. 

Read 13th February, 1911. 

A a lover, rather than a student, of anthropology, I take 
upon myself the task of laying this appeal before the members 
of this society. The absence of a real anthropological society 
has been filled to a slight extent by our Nova Scotian Institute of 
Science, and also by a recently formed branch of the Archaeolo- 
gical Society of America. Something has been done in ethnologi- 
cal research, especially by Mr. Piers who, a few years ago, read 
a couple of long papers before the Institute on the Indian relics 
now in the Provincial Museum at Halifax. At one or two 
county museums some Indian relics are stored which may also 
reveal to a critical mind their yet hidden import. 

But the osteological remains of our Nova Scotia Indian are 
noticeable by their absence; and his physical characteristics, 
his relations, anthropologically speaking, with his neighbors, 
are confined to generalizations. Micmac anthropometry as a 
local study is a thing of the future. The language, customs, 
history, and origin of the Micmas alone is to some an interest- 
ing theme ; but back of the Micmacs and their ancestry stretches 
a vista of possibilities in anthropology that only patient and 
persevering labor can open up. There on the borderland of 
geology lies the secret of the earliest peopling of America : and 
why should not the caves and clays of Nova Scotia rival the 
gravels of Trenton, the lavas of Idaho, or the loess of Lansing, 
in carrying back the antiquity of man. 

There are yet many questions to answer regarding the 
peopling of America; pre-glacial or inter-glacial man being, 
I suppose, the most important and most warmly debated. Yet 

(35) 



36 A SUGGESTION FOR ANTHROPOLOGICAL WORK 

Dr. Abbott's discoveries in the gravel pits of Trenton, N. J., and 
the image of Nampa, Idaho, as well as the skull of Lansing, 
seem to bring strong, if not decisive, evidence to bear on the 
knotty problem. Very important evidence has also been derived 
from the exploration of the burial caves and mounds of Ameri- 
ca, and much otherwise curious information gathered from 
them. While the mounds contain almost exclusively round 
heads, many of the caves as well as the outlaying islands con- 
tain long heads; and yet far back of this many of the earliest 
men are round-headed. 

There seems to have been in America, at different times, at 
least four or five distinct types of men among the ever moving 
and mingling waves of immigration: some of them including 
many linguistic families. 

The following table, though not at all up to date, will give 
an approximate idea of these types. The form of the skull is 
indicated by the proportion of length to breadth, by length to 
height, and by breadth to height: called respectively, (a) the 
cranial index, (6) the vertical index, and (c) the parietal 
index. The measurements for these indices are taken as fol- 
lows : For the cranial index, distance from the glabella to the 
occipital point compared with the greatest parietal width. For 
the vertical index, the greatest length (as in the cranial 
index) compared with the height from the basion to the 
bregma, which is the highest point in the coronal suture. For 
the parietal index, the greatest parietal width compared with 
the basion-bregma measurement. By these and numerous other 
proportions is the human skull and skeleton measured and racial 
differences determined. In cranial indices a proportion of 74 and 
Mow compared to 100 is called dolicho-cephalic or longheaded; 
from 75 to 79 compared to 100 is called meso-cephalic ; while 
from 80 and upward to 100 is called brachy-cephalic or round- 
headed. This list could be made more reliable by taking into 
consideration the discoveries of recent years, not now available; 



IN NOVA SCOTIA. I'KEST. 



kit l>eing approximately correct it will show some of the points 
mi which new evidence from Nova Scotia would be welcomed. 



Tribes 


Habitat 


Number 

of skull - 


Cranial 
Index 


Verti- 
cal 
Index 




Very ancient graven.. 


SaugUH, Mass 


2 


71.8 


70.5 h 


Pre-historic cemeteries 


S.Catalinald., Mexico 


38 


71.8 


69 1 Long- heads. 












V V. I. leaf 


" " 


S. Barbara, Cal 


49 


71.8 


71 | than C. I. 


i. 


S. Clemente, Cal 


15 


74.2 


70.3 


/ 


Eskimos 


Greenland 




70.5 
71 8 


745 D V.I. greater 
75 | f than C. I. 




Labrador. 




Hurons 


Canada 


74 


73 6 


73 3 


\V. I. equal 






Iroquois 


New York 




74 


74 


1 to C. I. 


Shell heaps 


Deer Id Me 


2 

'22 


75.:* 
75 6 


73.4 
73.5 


}M e d i u m- 
heads. 
V. I. less 
than C. I. 


Cave burials .... 


Coahuilla, Mexico.... 




Pre-Columbian graves 


Trenton, N. J 


17 


75.8 


77.4 


] 


Modern Indians 


Mexico 


Many 


76 to 78 


77 to 78 


! Many varied 
f indices. 




" " 


United States 


Many 


77 to 82 


76 to 82 


) 


Mound builders 


United States.... 


Abt. 100 


86 


82 




Very ancient 


( Burlington and ) 
( Trenton, N. J. f 


2 


80.6 


64 


\Bushman- 
/ like skulls 



It will be seen from the foregoing table that the mound- 
builders and the Eskimo occupy extreme positions, the first 
being pronounced round-heads, while the last are just as pro- 
nounced long-heads. Xext to the mound builders come the 
present Indians of the United States ami Mexico; then follow 
the historic Iroquois and Kurons and the prehistoric inhabitants 
of the New England coast and Mexico, who seem to have some 
affinities with the Iroquois. There is in fact much evidence to 
show that the Algonkin invasion overran a former Long-headed 
population somewhat closely related to the Huron-Iroquois 
race, and to which the Cherokees also belonged. Then on the 
islands off the south coast of California we find prehistoric 
cemeteries full of skulls of a race fully as long-headed as the 
Eskimo. At Sangns, Mass., as well as in the Florida shell- 
heaps, skulls have been found resembling those of California. 



38 A SUGGESTION FOR ANTHROPOLOGICAL WORK 

But though the California, Saugus, and Eskimo skulls are all 
long-headed, relationship is not probable because while the 
Eskimo skulls show a vertical index greater than the cranial 
index the other skulls show the reverse. 

The mound builders are so extremely round-headed as to 
sanction the idea that artificial distortion of the skull may have 
increased the average indices in the table here given. And now 
we come to skulls of a shape so peculiar that Prof. Hedlicka 
has pronounced them (at least as strong evidence of), the type 
of a race new to America anthropologists. I refer to the two 
skulls found at Trenton and Burlington, 1ST. J., the average 
cranial and vertical indices of which are 80.6 and 64. While 
round-headed, the vertical indices are far below that of any 
skulls yet found in America, even among the long-heads, and 
thus closely resemble the Bushmen of South Africa. Their cranial 
capacity, however, averages a little higher than that of the 
Bushmen, viz. 1310 to 1270 cubic centimeters. Whether a race 
as low as the Bushmen ever lived in America in post-glacial 
times is a question yet to be answered, perhaps from Nova 
Scotia. 

But back of this lies the presumed pre-glacial or inter-glacial 
man whose skulls are said to be of the long-headed type. Among 
the problems yet to be solved are the following: 

1st. Anthropometrical study of the earliest Micmac re- 
mains. 

2nd. Possible extension of long-headed races to Nova 
Scotia in pre-Micmac times. 

3rd. The former existence in Nova Scotia of savages of 
the Bushmen type. 

4th. The existence in Nova Scotia of a long-headed race 
of inter-glacial or pre-glacial age. 

Grouped around these are many questions of affinity and 
pre-historic intercourse that we could aid in throwing light on. 

When we look back on the surprising revelations given t<> 
the world by cave excavation alone, there is good reason for 



IN NOVA SCOTIA. PREST. 39 

the prosecution of such work in Nova Scotia. The exploration 
of Kents Cavern in England of the Cave of Spy, the Caverne 
de PHomme, Mort, in France; the Cave of Neanderthal in 
Belgium ; and the gravels of the Somme, was among the chief 
incentives to the study of the antiquity of man a generation 
ago, the result of which was the placing of the study of anthro- 
pology on an entirely new footing. In the caves, kitchen- 
middens, and ancient burial places of Nova Scotia, many like 
secrets are waiting to be unveiled. Among the kitchen-middens 
of Nova Scotia worthy of exploration are those of Chester 
Basin and Musquodoboit Harbor, in which many Indian relics 
have been found. There are many ancient burial places, 
especially at Indian Gardens and Fairy Lake. Caves are 
known at Five-Mile River, Gay's River, and in Cape Breton, 
and probably other places. We have seen the advantage to 
anthropological science derived from the exploration of the 
kjokken-moddings or shell mounds of Denmark, and while those 
of Nova Scotia may not yield such valuable results they will 
amply repay investigation. The desultory digging now being 
carried on in these kitchen-middens, prompted by the curiosity 
of idle men and boys, is lessening the chances for systematic 
and scientific excavation as the years go by. Cave excavation 
though more difficult is usually more productive of results, as 
the contents are not so much subject to disturbance and injury 
by the elements. When this work is carefully carried on by 
experienced and conscientious explorers, by the removal, layer 
by layer, of the successive deposits, and the information and 
relics so obtained are tabulated, we should have before us a 
history of that particular cave or deposit, a book of nature in 
fact, more unimpeachable than any human literary production. 
I feel strongly the lack of the latest facts on this subject, 
but I trust that these remarks will be taken as an evidence of 
my earnest wishes for the future. I shall be well satisfied if 
my suggestions encourage others to open up a new field of 
scientific research in Nova Scotia. 



THE CONDUCTIVITY OF ROSANILINE HYDROCHLORIDE IN WATER 
AND CERTAIN ORGANIC SOLVENTS. By HAROLD S. DAVIS, 
B. A., Dalhonsie College.* 

Read March llth, 191-2. 

Within the last fifteen years, the knowledge of the con- 
ductivity of electrolytes in solvents, other than water, has been 
greatly increased. An historical summary of the work done 
in this field up to 1903 is given by Walden. 1 

When a solute dissolves in a solvent to form a conducting 
solution, the magnitude of the conductivity under given con- 
ditions of temperature and concentration depends upon (1) the 
solute, and (2) the solvent. But while investigation h s 
hitherto extended to a wide range of solvents, only a very 
limited number of solutes have been studied. Walden, for 
example, who has been the principal worker on this subject, 
confines his attention to tetra methyl ammonium iodide and 
one or two of its homologues. As regards these salts, he has 
shown 2 that the dissociation decreases as we advance in 
homologous series, that is, is greater for tetra methyl ammonium 
iodide than for the corresponding ethyl compound. 

He has further shown empirical relations 

(1) Between the dissociating power of a solvent and 

its dielectric constant. ^ 

(2) Between the temperature coefficient of conductivity 

of a solvent and the conductivity at infinite 
dilution. 

(3) Between the dielectric constant of the solvents and 

the molecular dilution at which they show equal 
dissociation of the same salt. 

,~irr*Contribntions from the Science Laboratories of Dalhousie University- [Chemistry 
Printed in advance in th^ present part by permission of the Council of the Institute. 

1. Walden, P. : Zeitschr. f. phys. Chem., 46, 103, (1903). 

2. Walden, P. : Zeitschr. f phys. Chem , 54, 129, (1^06). 

(40) 



CONDUCTIVITY OF ROSANILINE HYDROCHLORIDE. DAVIS. 41 

These laws having been, derived from measurements of the 
conductivity of 'certain salts of the aliphatic series, the present 
work was undertaken in order to extend investigation to solutes 
containing the benzene nucleus. 

The solute chosen was fuchsine. The solvents used were 
water, methyl alcohol, ethyl alcohol, and acetic acid. 

Some Properties of Fuchsine. Fuchsine CJEL^jOl is the 
hydrochloric acid salt of rosaniline (triamido di-phenyl 
tolyl carbinol). It crystallizes in very small rhombic plates 
which are sparingly soluble in water and dissolve readly in 
ethyl alcohol. 1 

Like all the salts of rosaniline it is very hygroscopic, a 
fact which must be remembered in quantitative work. 2 

It is a powerful dye and colours the hands and dishes 
strongly red. From these, however, it is easily removed by 
dipping in a weak solution of sodium nitrite which has been 
slightly acidified. The dye is thus diazotized and may be 
removed by washing. 

!N"o data can be found about the melting point in 
Beilstein, in Thorpe's or Carnelley's tables or in any standard 
work of reference. The melting point was, therefore, deter- 
mined as described in this paper and found to be 216. 8C. 

The dye was also found to be readily soluble in methyl 
alcohol and acetic acid and fairly soluble in acetyl chloride 
and acetone. It is insoluble in acetic ester. 

Purification of Fuchsine. Merck's C. P. fuchsine was 
recrystalized three times from water. A sample from each 
was dried at 120 and a solution made, (in order to obtain com- 
plete solution of the salt, in this and all subsequent measure- 
ments, it was found necessary to warm the solution). It was 
found that the conductivity decreased about ten per cent, for 
the first recrystallization, three for the second, and that the 
change for the third was inappreciable. 

1. Allen, A. H. : " Commercial Organic Analysis," Vol. 3, Part I, p. 276. 

2. Hoffman : Proc. Roy. Soc. 12 2, 



42 CONDUCTIVITY OF ROSANILINE HYDROCHLOR1DE 

The final recrystallization. was made from the so-called 
conductivity water and the sample was dried at 120 C to con- 
stant weight and preserved in a weighing tube in a desiccator. 

Determination of the Melting Point of Fuchsine. The 
final sample was tested for its melting point. An ordinary 
melting point flask with sulphuric acid was used, but it was 
found difficult to observe the exact temperature of fusion with 
a capillary tube made as ordinarily described in the text books. 
The trouble disappeared, however, when the capillary tube, 
containing the fuchsine, was drawn so as to terminate in a 
point. Into this tube a little column of fuchsine, about 2 mm. 
in height was tightly packed. It was then easy to observe when 
the substance in the very point of the tube began to fuse. The 
fuchsine melted fairly sharply at 216.8C. 

The thermometer used was an ordinary one, graduated 
only to degrees. It was standardized by placing it in a dis- 
tilling flask, containing boiling naphthalene, according to the 
method outlined by Gattermami in his "Laboratory Manual of 
Organic. Chemistry/ 7 page 66. 

The B. P. of naphthalene is about 217C, the M. P. of 
fuchsine is about 216.8C. 

An attempt was also made to find the melting point by 
having the substance in a capillary tube complete an electric 
circuit according to the method outlined by Beilstein. 1 ~No 
change in the resistance could be detected, however, even 
when the substance became fused. It seems, therefore, even 
when fused to be a nonconductor. 

Conductivity Measurements. All resistances were measured 
by means of the Wheatstone bridge. The bridge used was 
manufactured by Queen & Co. and the coils were originally 
(1895) guaranteed to sV of one per cent, and the bridge 
wire to i^rs of one per cent. 



Beilstein : " Organischc Cheniie," vol. I, page 37. 



IN WATER AND CERTAIN ORGANIC SOLVENTS. DAVIS. 43 

Conductivity measurements were made at three tempera- 
tures, 25 C, 18 C, and 0C. The first two were obtained in 
a bath ; stirred by an electric motor, and with gas supply 
regulated by a thermostadt. The temperature of this bath 
remained steady to a tenth of a degree. 

The bath consisted of two dishes. The outside one was 
filled with cracked ice, moistened with distilled water and the 
inner one was filled with about equal volumes of ice and water. 
The temperature of the cell immersed in the ice in the inner 
vessel remained steady at 0C. 

The cell used was about three inches in height and two in 
diameter. The electrodes were platinized. The constant of 
this cell was checked every two or three days by a standard 
potasium chloride solution. This solution was made from 
a sample prepared from Merck's C. P. chloride "for 
analytical purposes" by recrystallization four times from water. 
It was then dried in a desiccator for four or five weeks. For 
this sample I am indebted to Mr. C. B. Nickerson of the 
Chemical Department at Dalhousie College. 

Preparation of Solutions. A weighed amount of fuchsine 
was placed in a calibrated (400 cc. or 100 cc.) flask and dis- 
solved, and liquid added to the 400 cc. mark. It was then 
diluted, by the addition of pure water, to make a T ^ N. solution. 
In most cases the dilution required was from 2-4 cc. per 400. 
Some trouble and inaccuracy is caused by froth on the surface 
of the liquid. 

20 cc. of this solution was placed by a pipette in the cell 
and further dilution carried out in the cell itself by two 10 cc. 
pipettes, one for withdrawal and one for delivery. All these 
pipettes were standardized. 

Notation. 

V = No. of liters which contain 1 mol. of dissolved solute 
(C M H M N 3 C1 = 337.4 gr.) 

T= Temperature in Centigrade degrees. 



44 CONDUCTIVITY OF ROSANILINE HYDROCHL01UDE 

K & K 25 = Specific conductivity of solvent (in reciprocal 
Siemen's units) at r = 25 C. 

K & K 25 = Specific conductivity of solution (in reciprocal 
Siemen's units) at T = 25C. 

Xj; = Molecular conductivity of the solution at dilution 
V with correction for K the conductivity of the pure solvent. 

\, X 2 , etc. = corrected, values of the conductivity of inde- 
pendent experiments. 

C = temperature coefficient of the electrical conductivity 
for the interval 25 0C. 

e = dielectric constant at 20 C. 

Conductivity of Fuchsine in Water. All the water used in 
these experiments was prepared in the usual way, either by 
the method of Jones and Mackay 1 or the modification of that 
method used by Jones and Lindsay 2 . 

Quite a little difficulty was experienced with either method 
even when the distillation was fairly slow. This difficulty 
was overcome by a drop catcher, so simple that it seems worth 
description. A four litre flask contained the original distilled 
water with a little sulphuric acid and potassium permangan- 
ate. From this a tube passed into a retort, containing distilled 
water, a little sodium hydroxide, and some permanganate. So 
far it is identical with the apparatus of Jones and Mackay. 
Into the neck of this retort was thrust that of a smaller one and 
the steam had finally to pass out the top of this through a 
tube with an expanded bulb into a block tin condenser. All 
the joints in the two retorts were made fairly tight with asbestos 
paper. Without any trouble this apparatus gave witer of con- 
ductivity 1.4 1.6 x 10" 6 (reciprocal Siemen's units). 

In the case of water I have given the actual measurements 
and corrections in some detail. 

The same methods are of course used throughout in all 
the measurements. 

1. Jones, H. C. and E. Mackay : Araer. Chem., 19, 283, (1897). 

2. Jones, H. C. and C. Lindsay : Amer. Chem., 28, 329, (1902). 



IN WATER AND CERTAIN ORGANIC SOLVENTS. DAVIS. 45 



Experiment 1. 

* for water = 1.1G1 x 10~ 6 
fc- for water = 1.07 x 10~ 6 



* 


100 


200 


400 


800 


1600 


3200 


tc 25 

1 


8.340 x 10~* 4.316 


2.191 


1.109 


.5627 


.2899 


1 corr. 


8.324x10-* 4.320 


2.175 


1.093 


0.5466 


0.2738 


X* 5 


83.24 86.00 


87.00 


87.44 


87.46 


87.62 


V 












0.107 x 10 4 


, 1 corr. 












0.159 xlO 4 


x 












50.90 



Experiment :?. 


A,- = 1.161xlO~ 6 


K o := 1.07 Xl0~ 6 


V 


100 2( 


)0 400 800 


1600 3200 



r=25 Q 

K \ 


8.267 x 10-* 


4.324 


2.191 


1.098 


0.548 0.281 


.-25 
1 corr. 


8.251x10-* 


4.308 


2.175 


1.082 


0.532 0.265 


X* 


82.51 


86.16 


87.00 


86.56 


85.10 


84.70 


T=0C. 














*1 






1.202 x 10-* 


0.607 


0.308 


0.157 


-^u. 






1.181x10-* 


0.596 


0.287 


0.146 


x 






47.24 


47.68 


45.90 


46.07 



46 



CONDUCTIVITY OF ROSANILIXE HYDROCHLORIDE 

Experiment 3. 



V , 


100 


200 


400 


8CO 1600 


3:200 


r=25 


8.267x10-* 


4.292 


2.182 


1.102 


0.556 


0.290 


^ 1 corr 


8.247xlO- 4 


4.272 


2.162 


1.082 


0.536 


0.270 


1C 25 

* 1 corr 


82.47 


85.44 


85.48 


86.56 


85.79 

\ 


86.40 


*, 








0.592 


0.300 


0.152 




1 corr 








0.580 


0.288 


0.140 


corr 








46.40 


46.10 


44.80 



Collection of results for C 



, and Water at 25c. and 0c. 



V 


100 


200 


400 


800 


1600 


3200 


OC 


r = 25 

\ 25 

A l 


83.2 


86.0 


87.0 


87.4 


87.5 


87.6 




2 


82.5 


86.1 


87.0 


86.5 


85.1 


84.7 




\ 25 


82.4 


85.4 


85.4 


86.5 


85.8 


86.4 




Mean 


82.7 


85.8 


86.5 


86.8 


86.] 


86.2 


87.0 


x% 












[50.9] 




x% 








47.6 


45.9 


46.7 




x% 






47.2 


46.4 


49.1 


44.8 




Mean X 






47.2 


47.0 


46.0 


48.1 




a_ 






.0375 


O.S39 


.0348 


.0318 





Mean Co_25=.0345. 



IN WATER AND CERTAIN ORGAYIC SOLVENTS. DAVIS. 47 



Methyl Alcohol and Fuchsine. 
The methyl alcohol used was Kahlbaum's purest. 



V 


100 


200 


400 


800 


J600 


oc 


r = 25 
(1) 


5.417x10-* 


2.938 


1.573 


0.825 


0.435 




(2) , 


5.417x10-* 


2.953 


1.561 


0.83* 


0.445 




Mean 

K 25 


5.417x10-* 


2.945 


1.667 


. 830 


0.440 




K l eon-. 


5.362x10-* 


2.890 


1.512 


0.775 


0.385 




X 


53.6 


57.8 


60.5 


62.0 


61.6 


63.5 


(1) ,- 


3.861 xlO * 


2.073 


1.150 


0.579 


0.306 




(2) *, 


3.861x10-* 


2.100 


1.114 


0.590 


0.309 




Mean 


3.861x10-* 


2.086 


1.132 


0.584 


0.308 





1 COIT 


3.822x10-* 


2.047 


1.093 


0.545 


0.269 




x- 


38.22 


40.9 


43.7 


43.6 


43.0 




c^ s 


0.0161 


0.0164 


0.0154 


0.0168 


0.0172 





Mean Co-25= 0.0164. 



48 



CONDUCTIVITY OF ROSANILINE HYDROCHLORIDE 



Ethyl Alcohol and Fuchsine. 

The alcohol used was ordinary market product. It was 
allowed to stand with digestion over burnt lime and distilled 
from the same. It was then allowed to stand over dehydrated 
copper sulphate and distilled from this. 

25 for alcohol = . 25 x 10 ' 6 
/c (calculated) = 20 x 10' 6 



V 


100 


200 


400 


800 


1600 


r=25 25 

(1) K* 

(2) < 25 


2.141 x 10-* 
2.118 xlO- 4 


1.175 
1.156 


0.6261 
0.6266 


0.3260 
0.3222 


0.1662 
0.1641 


Mean 

K 25 

*i 


2.129 xlO- 4 


1.165 


0.6263 


0.3241 


0.1651 


Mean 

t 25 

*1 r,,rr 

X 25 


2.127 x 10- 4 
2.127 


1.163 
23.26 


0.6138 
,24.54 


0.3216 
25.72 


01.626 
26.03 


T=0 

(1) "i 

(2) < 


1.324 xlO- 4 
t.323 x 10- 4 


0.734 
0.720 


0.380 
0.382 


0.2016 
0.2010 


X* = 26.0 
0.1032 
0.1016 


Mean /Cj 


1.323 xlO- J 


0.727 


0.381 


0.2013 


0.1023 


Mean ^ on . 


1.321 xlO- 4 0.725 


0.379 


01993 


0.1003 


\ 


13.21 14.50 


15.15 


15.94 


16.04 


C -25 


0.0244 


0.0241 


0.0241 


0.0244 


0.0255 


Mean 


Co- 25 = 


0.0245 









IN WATER AND CERTAIN ORGANIC SOLVENTS. DAVIS. 49 



Acetic Acid and Fuchsine. 

The acetic acid used was Baker's C. P. It was purified by 
freezing and washing the crystals obtained thoroughly with 
pure acid. * 25 = 0.53 x 10~ 6 . 

In part of one experiment No. 2 at 25, the original acid 
used was /c 25 = 1.05 x 



V 


100 


200 


400 


800 


1600 


oc 


r = 25 














A 25 

*1 co rr 


6.75 


7.36 


8.25 


9.36 


10.99 




^-2 corr 


6.80 


9.38 


10.88 








Mean X 


6.77 


8.37 


9.60 


9.30 


10.99 


12.5 


r=ia 














X icon- 


5.94 


6.16 


6.88 


[9.28] 


8.64 




V 
* 2 corr 


5.73 


6.14 


7.04 


8.00 






Mean X 


5.83 


6.15 


6.96 


8.04 8.64 




1 
1 











Conclusions. 

The main conclusion drawn from the preceding work, is 
that the presence of the benzene nucleus in the solute does not 
make any marked difference in its behaviour as an electrolyte 
from that of a solute which does not contain the nucleus. 

With reference to the first of the three laws enumerated 
by Walden, that is the well known Nernst-Thompson hypo- 
thesis, the following table shows that the amount of dissocia- 
tion of fuchsine, an aromatic solute, in a solvent stands in 
some marked relation to the dielectric constant of the solvent. 
This is exactly what Walden found in the case of tetra methyl 

PROC. & TRANS. N. S. INST. Sci., VOL. XIII. TRANS. 4. 



50 CONDUCTIVITY OF ROSANILINE HYDROCHLORIDE 

ammonium iodide an aliphatic solute, as the following com- 
parative table shows: 

Dielectric Constant Dissociation at v 100 
Solvent Fuchsine N (C H \ I 

o 4 

Water 81.7 95^ 

Methyl Alcohol 32.5 34.8 84< 

Ethyl Alcohol 21.7 27.4 810 

Acetic Acid 6.46 53$ 

The other empirical relations which Walden himself has 
worked out are those: 

(2) Between the temperature coefficient of conductivity 

and the conductivity of infinite dilution. 1 

(3) Between the dielectric constants of the solvents and 
the molecular dilutions at which they show equal 

dissociation of the same solute. 

I have been unable to find these relations for the con- 
ductivity of rosaniline hydrochloride in the four solvents used, 
and indeed it would not be permissible to draw any conclusion 
with such a limited number of solvents. 

The following table shows the general similarity in the con- 
ductivity of solutions of the aliphatic and aromatic solutes. 

Solvent Fuchsine N (C H 3 ) 4 I Fuchsine N(C H g > 4 I 

A 2? Co-ss 



Water 


87 




0.036 




Methyl Alcohol . 


63.5 


124 


0.016 


0.015 


Ethyl Alcohol . . 


26.2 


60 


0.024 


0.023 


Acetic Acid . . . . 


12.5 


5.6 

















1. It is worthy of note that in calculating the temperature coefficient between 15 
and 85 Walden does not use the temperature coefficient c as he has previously defined it 



c = 




This, of course, does not amount to the same thing. If the temperature coefficient of 
his acetic-acid solutions is calculated as first defined, it is found to be above .36 instead 
of .056 and this value when multiplied by the conductivity at infinite dilution 5.6 give* 
a constant 2.0 which is near the value of 1.3 required according to his empirical law. 



IN WATER AND CERTAIN ORGANIC SOLVENTS. DAVIS. 51 

Ostw aid's dilution law holds fairly well for the more con- 
centrated solutions of fuchsine in methyl and ethyl alcohols, 
and acetic acid. 

The following table gives the value of a for these three 
solvents where a is denned as 



a = 



('- 



V 

100 


Methyl Alcohol Ethyl Alcohol Acetic Acid 

a a a 

4.60 3.48 0.615 


200 


4.79 3.56 0.680 


400 , 


4.83 3.42 0.635 


800 . 


. 4.75 (6.00) (0.270) 



It does not hold for the solutions in water, nor should we 
expect it to since at even the greatest concentration used, the 
salt was about 95$ dissociated. 



This investigation was suggested and carried out under 
the direction of Prof. E. Mackay, and I wish to take this 
opportunity of gratefully acknowledging his advice and kindly 
criticism. 

DAI.HOUSIR UNIVERSITY, 
March 8th, 1911. 



COMPARISON OF MONTHLY MEAN TEMPERATURES, HALIFAX, N. S 
AND PLYMOUTH, G. B. BY HENRY S. POOLE, D. Sc., 
F. R. S. C., Guildford, England. 



Temperature. 




(52) 



RECENT METEOROLOGICAL NOTES. BY F. W. W. DOANE, 
M. CAN. Soc. C. E., City Engineer, Halifax, N. S. 

Read May 31st, 1911. 

Dr. H. S. Poolers comparison of the monthly mean tem- 
peratures of Halifax, Nova Scotia, and Plymouth, England, 
tempts the writer to add a few comparatively unimportant notes. 

Although the latitude of Plymouth is six degrees further 
north than that of Halifax, the mean temperature of Plymouth 
for the month of January is 42 deg. F., while that of Halifax 
is only 20 deg. F., a difference in favor of the higher latitude 
of 22 deg. During the month of June, the mean temperature 
in the two cities is about the same, 59 deg. F. During July 
and August, the mean temperature at Plymouth is between 61 
deg. and 62 deg. F., while at Halifax it has risen above 64 
deg. F., as it should. For the month of September the records 
show again about the same mean temperature for the two places, 
58 deg. F. During October, November and December, however, 
while the mean temperature at Plymouth drops 16 deg. F., at 
Halifax it drops 38 deg. F. 

The diagram prepared by Dr. Poole illustrates clearly the 
great advantage that the English city receives from the Gulf 
Stream, and the great disadvantage that the Nova Scotia capital, 
labors under in consequence of its location in the path of the, 
Arctic current. The yearly mean temperature for Plymouth is 
51 deg. F., that for Halifax, 42 deg. F. 

The mean temperature in Halifax for March as shown by 
Dr. Poole, is about 27 deg. F. For March, 1911, it was 28.85. 
Rain was recorded on eight days. The total precipitation was 
4.086 inches, while the mean is 5.325. The weather during 
the first part of the month was generally cold and cloudy. The 
wind movement was greater than usual, with prevailing direc- 
tions of northeast, southwest, northwest, west and north in the 

(53) 



54 RECENT METEOROLOGICAL NOTES. DOANE. 

order named. During the last days of the month, southeast 
gales prevailed. 

Robins were reported on the 26th and wild geese on the 
18th. On the 1st and 7th the temperature dropped to 1 deg. 
F., on the 4th 7 deg. was registered, 6th, 6 deg., and 8th, 5 
deg. F. 

On the 9th of April, 1911, a snow storm, unprecendented in 
Halifax, fell upon the city. It began early in the forenoon and 
continued all day and the greater part of the night. The wind 
was northeasterly and the storm seems to have extended over 
the whole province. The depth of snow was 9.2 inches. 

During January, 1911, there were six cold nights in suc- 
cession, during which the thermometer registered a minimum 
temperature as follows : 

16th 2.2 

17th 9.0 below zero 

18th 10.8 " " 

19th 4.8 " " 

20th 3.6 

21st ,. 1.3 

This record was unrivalled by the cold weather of February, 
1911, when the temperature recorded during one week was: 

12th 4.8 below zero 

13th 0.2 " " 

14th 2.0 " " 

15th 2.2 " " 

16th 0.8 

17th 8.4 

The record for January, 1912, was: 

24th 4.6 

25th 2.2 below zero 

26th 6.7 " " 

27th 6.0 " " 

28th 1.2 

29th . 0.0 



RECENT METEOROLOGICAL NOTES. DOANE. 



55 



From the diary of the late George Seymour Crichton, the 
following notes are copied : 

February 7, 1855 "Thermometer 20 degrees below zero, the 

lowest I ever saw. At Citadel 25 deg. 
below zero." 

" 5, 1863 "Thermometer 14 deg. below zero." 

" 7, 1865 "Thermometer 10 deg. below zero at 8 
a. m. Harbour frozen over. - Hundreds 
crossing on the ice." 

" 8, 1865 "Crossed the harbour on the ice." 

" 11, 1865 "(Sunday) Hundreds crossing the harbour 

on the ice." 
" 12, 1865 "Steamer made passage through the ice 

from Dartmouth to Halifax." 

" 6, 1866 "Thermometer 13 deg. below zero." 
" 7, 1866 "Thermometer 12 deg. below zero." 
" 8, 1866 "Thermometer 14 deg. below zero." 

Since the last meteorological notes were presented to the 
Institute, the highest and lowest monthly records have been 
altered as follows: 



Month 


Year 


Maximum 
(Inches) 


Former 
Year 


Record 
(Inches) 


Year 


Minimum 
(Inches) 


Former 
Year 


Record 

(Inches) 


April 


1906 


8 381 


1889 


7.403 










June. . 










1909 


1 066 


1879 


1.191 


August 


1908 


10 658 


1887 


8.351 


1906 


1.509 


1899 


1 542 



56 



RECENT METEOROLOGICAL NOTES. DOANE. 



The following tables give records corrected to December 
31st, 1911: 

MAXIMUM, MINIMUM AND MEAN PRECIPITATION 



MONTH 


Year 


Maximum 
(inches) 


Minimum 
(inches) 


Mean 
1869-1911 
(inches) 




1895 


10.131 




5.766 





1896 




1 720 




February ..... 


1870 


9 780 




5 829 




1901 




966 




March 


1878 


10 284 




5 325 




1889 




2 046 




April .... 


1906 


8 381 




4 312 


" 


1886 




820 




May 


1886 


8 819 




4.087 


it 


1903 




676 




June 


1874 


7 920 




3 709 





1909 




1 ^66 




July 


1896 


8 729 




3 811 


M 


1894 




1 059 




August 


1908 


10 658 




4 303 




1906 




1 509 




September 


1896 


12 092 




3 824 




1878 




800 




October 


1896 


15 039 




5.463 





1897 




746 




November 


1898 


10 248 




5 741 





1882 




1 392 




December 



1893 
1875 


10.167 


1 614 


5 304 












Totals 1896 . 




69 862 




56 . 523 


" 1894 






45 808 















RECENT METEOROLOGICAL NOTES. DOANE. 



57 



5 



MOUg JO 



'o- a a 

:ss -s I 
:~ie s 



II 



;W(M<NOCCt^CO>O-*iOO5OOS''i-HC> t- * 

;2ooio~Sggf:^2:Sls:fSli I 2 85 



5? 



09 (M v^ eo co r^ 



(M Ki SC <* 00 



CC ' 5<l ^1 -5Ci-l 



45 



_ 
H5 



2" |S 



2 2 

n 



58 



RECENT METEOROLOGICAL NOTES. DOANE. 



PRECIPITATION AT HALIFAX, N. S. 

Table showing the monthly and annual depth of rain and melted snoiv, expressed 
in inches ; also the amount that has fallen from January 1st to the tnd of each 
month, inclusive, during each year. 









4 




h 




1 




os 




o> 
c 

p 








^o 




o| 


s> 




B> 




3 2 




. 


C 


!>.'<*> 

Ca 




>>; 


>> 




b'p 




>** 


pj 

H 


o3 

d 


p 


l| 


|' 


1 = 


1 11 


c? 


P C 

c 


o 

C 


ll 




03 


1 


5 

"-5 






1 


03 
"-5 


p 


"" 


1869. 


4.530 


4.380 8.910 


7.950 


16.860 2.570 


19.430 


5.570 


25.000 3.92028.290 


1870.. 


6.670 


9.780! 16.450 


3.080 


19.530 


3.860 


23.390 


3.190 


26.578 1.690,28.270 


1871.. 


3.730 


5.880 


9.610 


6.160 


15.770 


4.880 


20.650 


2.590 


23.240 2.960 26.200 


1872.. 


3.880 


4.490 


8.370 


5.370 


13.740 2.850 


16.590 


4.440 


21.030 4.23025.260 


1873.. 


7.830 


1.610 


9.440 


4.090 


13.530 2.860 


16.390 


2.340 


18.730 2.960 21.690 


1874.. 


5.420 


5.310 


10.730 


3.980 


14.710 


4.550 


19.260 


4.770 


24.0301 7.920 31.950 


1875.. 


3.481 


5.877 


9.378 


2.113 


11.491 


3.378 


14.869 


3.977 


18.846 


6.06722.913 


1876.. 


3.451 


6.456 


9.907 


6.334 


16.241 


3.125 


19.366 


4.664 


24.030 


3.384 27.414 


1877.. 


4.200 


1.809 


6.009 


8.666 


14.675 


3.801 


18.476 


4.024 


22.500 


3.84126.341 


1878.. 


7.522 


2.697 


10.219 


10,284 


20.503 


3.502 


24.005 


5.759 


29.764 


4.47734.241 


1879.. 


4.400 


3.001 


7.401 


6.202 


13.603 


3.481 


17.084 


4.687 


21.771 


1.19122.962 


1880. 


7.733 


5.122 


12.855 


3.365 


16.220 


4.797 


21.717 4.088 


25.105 


1.34326.448 


1881. 


3.607 


5.329 


8.936 


6.556 


15.492 


3.-J98 


18.990 2.460 


21.450 


5.308' 26.751 


1882. 


6.840 


5.949 


12.789 


7.068 


19.857 


4.824 


24.681 


4.677 




5.507 34.865 


1883. 


4.930 


3.860 


8.790 


4.941 


13.731 


3.703 


17.434 8.613 


26^047 


3.32229.369 


1884. 


4.406 


6.161 


10.567 


7.034 


17.601 


7.213 


24.814 3.629 


28.443 


3.77332.216 


1885. 


6.388 


5.090 


11.478 


3.889 


15.367 


3.520 


18.887 3.282 


22.169 


2.74924.918 


1886.. 


8.670 


3.842 


12.512 


4.027 


16.539 


0.823 


17.362' 8.819 


26.181 


2.70828.889 


1887.. 


7.706 


6.735 


14.441 


4.449 


18.890 


6.396 


25.286 2.126 


27.412 2.12129.533 


1888.. 


5.442 


6.284 


11.726 


4.310 


16.036 


3.675 


19.711 2.877 


22.588 4.939 27.527 


1889.. 


4.391 


6.181 


10.572 


2.046 


12.618 


7.403 


20.021 3.871 


23.892 


3.75527.647 


1890.. 


3.963 


4.645 


8.608 


9.889 


18.497 


2.958 


21.455 3.970 


25.425 


3.44028.865 


1891.. 


8.383 


8.740 


17.123 


2.685 19.808 


4.010 


23.818 4.195 


28.013 


4.13132.144 


1892.. 


6.321 


2.605 


8.926 


5.986 


14.912 


2.653 


17.565] 5.459 


23.024 


3.63826.662 


1893.. 


4.781 


5.979 


10.760 


2.303 


13.063 


4.209 


17.272 5.054 


22.326 


1.753S24.079 


1894.. 


7.122 


3.571 


10.693 


3.623 14.316 


5.648 


19.964 1.769 


21.733 


3.80325.536 


1895.. 


10.131 


4.605 


14.736 


5.931 


20.667 


3.956 


24.623 4.089 


28.712 1.827130.539 


1896 . 


1.720 


4.199 


5.919 


8.786 


14.705 


1.413 


16.118' 2.532 


13.650 4.671,23.321 


1897.. 


5.896 


2.898 


8.794 


5.470 


14.264 


6.211 


20.475, 4.613 


25.088 6.07031.158 


1898.. 


4.060 


4.422 


8.482 


4.068 


12.550 


7.346 


19.896 2.366 


22.262 5.598 27.860 


1899.. 


5.083 


3.613 


8.696 


7.178 


15.874 


3.278 


19.152 3.677 


22.829 


3.875 26.704 


1900.. 


8.532 


5.277 


13.809 


6.577 


20.386 


3.949 


24.335i 4.254 


28.589! 2.656 31.245 


1901.. 


6.043 


0.96d 


7.009 


4.102 


11.111 


6.318 


17.429: 5.556 


22.985 


6.959 29.944 


1902.. 


3,289 


2.735 


6.024 


7.757 


13.781 


3.067 


16.848 3.725 


20.573 


4.908 25.481 


1903.. 


5.082 


3.712 


8.794 


7.294 


16.088 


5.515 


21.603 0.676 


22.279 


3.493 25.772 


1904.. 


6.318 


5.328 


11.646 


5.590 


17.236 


5.912 


23.148 3.315 


26.463 


2.66829.131 


1905.. 


8290 


5.326 


13.616 


2.804 


16.420 


1.260 


17.680 3.217 


20.897 


4.97025.867 


1906.. 


4.624 


5.208 


9.832 


7.142 


16.974 


8.381 


25.355 6.208 


31.563 


1.704 


33.267 


1907.. 


6.186 


4.481 


10.667 


3.364 


14.031 


3.218 


17.249 3.344 


20.503 


3.723 


24.316 


1908.. 


6.172 


6.112 


12.284 


3.129 


15.413 


6.373 


21.786 6.248 


28.034 


4.320 


32.354 


1909.. 


5.174 


4.815 


9.989 


5.056 


15.045 


3.987 


19.032 6.329 


25.361 


1066 


26.427 


1910.. 


9.147 


6.966 


4.250 




8.202 


3.312 





5.091 





1911.. 


6.406 


4 798 


4086 




2.898 




1.392 




2.942 




Totals 














****** 










247.950 


250.636 


228.984 




185 401 


175.753 




159.471 





Means \ 






















for 43 I 5.766 


5.829... 


5.325 





4.312 


4.087 




3.709 





years 5 ' 







RECENT METEOROLOGICAL NOTES. DOANE. 



59 



PRECIPITATION AT HALIFAX, N. S. 

Table, showing the monthly and annual depth of rain and melted mow, expressed 
in inches ; also the amount that has fallen from January 1st to the end of each 
month, inclusive, during each year. 







,fe 




| 




| 




| 




o 




0) 






1-5 P 







b 

O 


II 




3| 


b 


sl 


c* 


1 






| 




b'i 


JS 


>i * 


b 


>> * 


M 


&*> -3 


I 




H 

H 


1 


P 


Ml 


t* 


I 

P- 


3 c 


0> 


li 


1 


il 


| 


-. i 
















i-s 


<! ^ 


<J8 


hi 


o 


* 


% 


t-s 


Q 


H 


1869.... 


2.920 


31.840 


2.580 


34.420 


1.570 


35.990 


7.300 43.290 


5.470 48.760] 5.770 


54.530 


1870.... 


3.210 


31.480 


2.200 


33.680 


3.330 


37.010 


6.830 


43.840 


6.44050.280 5.880 


56.160 


1871.... 
1872.... 


3.380 

2.880 


29.580 
28.140 


3.690 33.270 
6.820134.960 


4.810 
1.410 


38.080 
36.370 


4.490 

4.880 


42.570 
41.250 


4.18046.750 4.390 
6.65047.900 6.160 


51.140 
54.060 


1873.... 


3.900 


25.590 


4.450 


30.040 


4.480 


34.520 


8630 


43.150 


7.98051.130 4.310 


55.440 


1874.... 


2.290 


34.240 


3.370 


37.610 


5.040 


42.650 


2!460 


45.110 


3.580148.690 5.490 


54.180 


1875.... 


5.812 


28.525 


3.555 


32.080 


2.060 


34.140 


9976 


44.116 


5.544 49.660 1.614 


51.274 


1876.... 


3.914 


31.328 


1.909 


33.237 


6.094 


39.331 


4!068 


43.397 


7.39750.796 


3.176 


53.972 


1877.... 


4.468 


30.809 


3.539 


34.348 


3.164 


37.512 


6.857 


44.369 


8.678 53.047 


4.493 


57.540 


1878 .. 


1.483 


35.724 


3.127 


38.851 


0.800 


39.651 


5.061 


44.712 


6.98951.621 


5.119 


56.740 


1879.... 


3.843 


26.805 


4.827 


31.632 


2.596 


34.223 


4.755 


38.983 


4.82343.806 


4.029 


47.835 


1880.... 


3.086 


29.534 


3.920 


33.454 


5.712 


39.166 


4.590 


43.' 7 56 


4.704 '48.460 


4.393 52.853 


1881 ... 


3.177 


29.935 


3.062 


32.990 


3.105 


36.095 


4.206 


40.301 


4.42044.721 


7.034 


51.755 


1882.... 


5.071 


39.936 


3.925 


43861 


5.914 


29.775 


7.403 


57.178 


1.39258.570 


3.452 


62.022 


1883.... 


3.540 


32.909 


5.342 


38.251 


3.864 


42.115 


5.841 


44.956 


3.478| 51.434 


6.678 


58.112 


1884.... 


8.294 


40.510 


2.771 


43.281 


1.788 


45.069 


3.093 


48.162 


5.99254.154 


9.124 


63.078 


1885.... 


5.817 


30.735 


3.001 


33.736 


2.497 


36.233 


6.280 


42.513 


5.*23i 47.936 


8.693 


50.629 


1886.... 


6.525 35.414 


4.526 


39.940 


4.459 


44.399 


2.136 


46.534 


5.284 ! 51.818 


5.469 


57.287 


1887.... 


2.04531.578 


8.351 


39.929 


3.308 


43.237 


3.058 


46.295 


6.718i53.013 


4.120 


57.133 


1888 ... 


5.00132.528 


7.000 


39.528 


5.331 


44.859 


6.359 


51.718 


6.80258.520 


7.774 


66.294 


1889.... 


2.668,30.315 


2.633 


32.948 


1.399 


34.347 


4.179 


38.526 


7.145' 45.671 


2.988 


48.059 


1890.... 


2.14131.006 


7.042 


38.048 


4.534 


42.582 


6.603 


49.185 


3.716 


52.901 


7.202 


60.103 


1891 .... 


4.003 36.147 


3.385 


39.532 


3.052 


42.584 


9.621 


52.205 


2.388 


54.593 


4.076 


58.669 


1892.... 


2.710 29.372 


6.809 


36.181 


1.744 


37.925 


3.472 


41.397 


9.240 


50.637 


3.053 


53.690 


1893.... 


4.757 28.836 


5.954 


34.790 


4.391 


39.181 


5.640 


44.821 


3.760 


48.581 


10.167 


58.748 


1894.... 


1.059 26.595 


3.993 


30.588 


1.010 


31.589 


3.863 


35.461 


5.785 


41.246 


4.562 


45.808 


1895... 


3.924 34.463 


5.502 39.965 


2.491 


42.456 


5.627 


48.083 


8.223 


56.306 5.846 


62.152 


1896.... 


8.729 


32.050 


3.037:35.087 


12.092 


47.179 


15.039 


62.218 4.396 66.614 


3.248 


69.862 


1897.... 


3.661 


34.819 


5.185i40.004 


1.169 


41.173 


0.346 


41.919 6.05147.970 


3.552 


51.522 


1898.... 


3.652 


31.512 


5.651:37.163 


4.153 


41.321 


4.845 


40.166 10.24856.414 


4.066 


60.480 


1899.... 


5.747 


32.451 


1.54233.993 


3201 


37.194 


6.191 


42.385, 4.59047.975 


5.038 


53.013 


1900.... 


1.872 


33.117 


3.993i37.110 


5.043 


42.153 


7.365 


49.518 6.858156.376 


3,321 


59.697 


1901.... 


1.585 


31-529 


3.656 35.185 


6.872 


42.057 


4.906 


46.963, 2.560 49.523 


8.573 


58.096 


1902.... 


1.651 


27.132 


4.767 31.899 


4.657 


36.556 


4.252 


40.808, 3.813 44.621 


7.295 


51.916 


1903.... 


4.313 


30.085 


4.24734.332 


4.237 


38.569 


6.368 


44.937 


9.59854.535 


4.90 


59.125 


1904... 


2.323 


31.454 


6.51137.965 


4.502 


42.467 


5.031 


47.498 


5.107;52.605 


4.589 


57.194 


1905 ... 


1.927 


27-794 


2.73330.527 


2.753 


33.280 


1.539 


34.819 


6.348 41.167 


6.268 


47.435 


1906 ... 


6.125 


39.392 


1.50940.901 


3.374 


44.275 


3.986 


48.261 


5.920 


54.181 


9.958 


<, $4.139 


1907.... 


3.381 


27.697 


4.86532.562 


4.260 


36.822 


5.340 


42.162 


6.039 


48.201 


6.715 


54.916 


1908.... 


5.700 


38.054 


10.658:48.712 


1.413 


50.125 


3.704 


53.829 


3.272 


53.101 


7.769 


64.870 


1909.... 


3.644 


30.071 


3.388 33.459 


5.938 


39.397 


7.165 


46.562 


4.998 


51560 


2.762 


54.322 


1910.... 


5.366 





2.686 





3.947 




8.622 




5.202 




4.590 


67.381 


1911.... 


2.493 




3.336 





6.854 





2.024 





9.822 





3.398 


50.449 


Totals.. 


163.887 





185.047 





164.423 





234.900 




246843 





228.064 


2430.482 


Means ^ 


























for 43 < 3.811 
Years $ 





4.303 





3.824 





5.463 




5.741 





5.304 


56.523 



TRANSACTIONS 

OF THE 

Jloba gcotian Institute of denct 



SESSION OF 1911-1912 



ON THE BEHAVIOUR OF IRON SALTS, IN THE PRESENCE OF 
ALBUMENS AND OTHER ORGANIC SUBSTANCES, TOWARDS 
CERTAIN KEAGENTS. BY HENRY JERMAIN MAUDE CREIGH- 
TON, M. A., M. Sc., DR. Sc., Lecturer on Physical Chemis- 
try, Dalhousie University, Halifax, N. S.* 

I. INTRODUCTION. 

In the course of another investigation, it was observed by 
the writer that, under certain conditions, solutions of soluble 
Prussian blue were decolorized by white of egg. As the 
writer was unable to obtain any satisfactory information regard- 
ing this behaviour, the present investigation was carried out 
with a view of throwing new light on the associations of iron 
with native and derived proteins. 

The prevention of many reactions by the presence of certain 
organic substances is well known. For example, the precipita- 
tion of ferric and aluminium hydroxides is prevented by the 
presence of small quantities of non-volatile organic acids, nota- 
bly tartaric acid 1 , of sugar, of glycerine, and of other organic 
substances. The cause of this is to be found in the. formation 

* Contributions from the Science Laboratories of Dalhousie University 
[Chemistry]. 

1. Staedeler and Krause : Jahresb., 746, (1854). 

PROC. & TRANS. N. S. INST. Sci., VOL. XIII. TRANS. 5. 

(61) 



62 BEHAVIOUR OF IRON SALTS, IN THE PRESENCE OF 

of a soluble complex ion brought about by the entrance of the 
metal into the hydroxyl group of these substances. 

It has long been known that albumen manifests a marked 
tendency to hinder many chemical reactions. The cause of this 
may be either physical or chemical, von Meyer and Lotter- 
moser 1 have shown, for instance, that small quantities of egg 
albumen prevent the precipitation of silver hydrosol by salts. 
The effect of albumen on the ionization of silver nitrate has 
been investigated by Galeotti 2 who found, that small quantities 
greatly diminish the concentration of the silver ions. It is 
possible that albumen may, in some cases, diminish the ioniza- 
tion of a substance to such an extent as to prevent its recogni- 
tion by the usual tests. Albumen readily forms complexes with 
salts of both the alkali and the heavy meitals, as well as with 
many bases and all the mineral acids except ortho- and 
pyro-phosphoric acid. These albumen compounds may be 
divided into two classes : those in the which the metal is present 
as a simple cation ; and those in which it forms part of a com- 
plex anion, and in which, for this reason, its presence cannot 
be demonstrated by ordinary reagents. Complexes formed by 
albumen with HC1, HNO 8 . H 2 SO 4 , NaOH, KOH, NaCl, KC1, 
MgCL, CaCl 2 , (Ntt 4 ) 2 S0 4 , McrS0 4 , Na 2 S0 4 , and K 2 S0 4 have 
recently been studied by Mayer 3 . The existence of the complex 
can often be readily shown. For example, when hydrochloric 
acid is added to a solution of white of egg and the mixture 
filtered so as to remove the precipitate which forms, it is found 
that no silved chloride is thrown down on the addition of silver 
nitrate to the filtrate. With salts of most of the heavy metals 
albumen forms compounds of the type 4 

MO. G^N^SO*; 
but with iron salts the compound is more complex 5 . These 

1. von Meyer, E..and A. Lottermoser : J pr. Chem., 56, (2)214, (1897). 

2. Galeotti, G. : Zeitschr. physiol. Chem. 42, 330, (1904). 

3. Mayer, A. : Compt. rend.. 143, 515, (1906). 

4. Piotrow&ki : Jahsesber. uber die Fortschritt der Chemie, 534, (1857). 

5. BrQoker : Zeitchr. ftr Chemie, 61 (1871). 



ALBUMENS AND OTHER ORGANIC SUBSTANCES. CREIGHTON. 68 

compounds are unstable and the albumen may be recovered by 
treatment with acids, when it is precipitated and the metal 
goes into solution. 

Physiologists have long divided iron compounds into two 
classes; those which contain "organic" iron, and those which 
contain "inorganic" iron. Macallum 1 has shown that haem- 
atoyxlin may be used to distinguish between these two classes 
of compounds; and in the experiments which follow I have 
employed this reagent to demonstrate the condition of the iron. 

The terms "bound" and "unbound", as used by Prof. Eraser 
Harris are, I think, to be preferred to the more ambiguous 
"organic" and "inorganic". As even better than "bound" and 
"unbound", however, I would suggest the use of the terms 
"non-ionic" and "ionic" ; for inorganic or unbound denotes the 
simple ionic state, while organic or bound denotes a condition 
which is not elementary, but often quite complex. A compound 
containing "ionic" iron would be one in which the iron exists 
as a cation ; and in a compound containing "non-ionic" iron the 
iron would not be present as a simple ion, but would exist as 
part of a complex ion, usually as part of the anion. This classi- 
fication is justified by experiment, for compounds such as ferric 
chloride, ferrous sulphate, ferric acetate, and potassium ferri- 
ferrocyanide (soluble Prussian blue), all of which contain a 
simple iron cation, give a deep blue black or violet black 
colouration with haematoxylin ; while, on the other hand, com- 
pounds such as potassium ferricyanide or potassium ferro- 
cyanide, in which the iron is not present as a simple ion, but 
as part of a complex anion, give no reaction with haematoxylin. 

II. EXPERIMENTAL. 

Albumen: A 15$ white of egg solution, a 10$ solution of 
Merck's "Egg Albumen granular", and a 10$ solution of 
Merck's "Serum Albumen" were used in the following experi- 
ments. The egg and serum albumen were dissolved in very 

1. Macallum, A. B. : J. Physiol, 22, 92, (1897-1898). 



64 BEHAVIOUR OF IRO.V SALTS, I.V THE PRESENCE OF 

dilute sodium chloride solution. These solutions were filtered 
before using. 

Haematoxylin: A 0.5$ solution of haematoxylin was used in 
the following experiments. 

(a) Experiments ivith ferric cliloride. 
To 10 c. c. of 1.0$ ferric chloride solution 10 c, c. of the 
white of egg solution were added and the mixture divided into 
two parts. One portion was allowed to stand at room tempera- 
ture for a few minutes, and the other kept at 60 for the same 
length of time. The two portions were divided into several 
parts and treated with different reagents. The following 
results were obtained : 

With NaOH no precipitate formed. 
" r NH 4 OH no precipitate formed. 
" K 8 Fe(CN) 6 no change. 
" K 3 Fe(CN) 6 slight blue precipitate formed. 
" KCNS deep red colouration. 
" (NH 4 ) 2 S black precipitate formed. 
" Haematoxylin violet black colouration appeared. 
Similar results were obtained when 10 c. c. of either the 
serum albumen or the egg albumen solutions were employed 
instead of the white of egg solution. It was found with these 
substances that some of the reagents caused albumen to 
separate from the solution. Control experiments, in which 
the albumen .solution was replaced by an equal volume of dis- 
tilled water, were carried out. In these it was found that 
sodium hydroxide, ammonium hydroxide, potassium ferri- 
cyanide, and potassium ferrocyanide all threw down the usual 
precipitates. 

On addition of the albumen solutions to the ferric chloride, 
it was observed that the brownish colour of the mixtures 
gradually deepened on standing, thus suggesting that albumen 
increased the degree of hydroysis of the iron salt. This result 
was also observed when a mixture of white of egg and ferric 



ALBUMENS AND OTHER ORGANIC SUBSTANCES. CREIGHTON. 65 

chloride was warmed. To 5 c. c. of 1.0$ ferric chloride solu- 
tion 5 c. c. of the white of egg were added in one case^ and in 
another the chloride was diluted with 5 c. c. of distilled water. 
These solutions were kept at 65 for ten minutes. At the end 
of this time the solution containing the albumen was found to 
be of a deeper colour than the other. To determine whether 
the non-formation of a precipitate of ferric hydroxide or of 
Turnbull's blue, in the foregoing experiments, was due to the 
conversion of the iron into colloidal ferric hydroxide by 
hydrolysis, sodium acetate was added drop by drop to a solution 
of ferric chloride, until its colour was somewhat deeper than 
that of the mixture of white of egg and ferric chloride that 
had been warmed ; on adding ammonia to the acetate solution a 
heavy precipitate of ferric hydroxide was thrown down, thus 
proving that only a small quantity of the iron in the egg solu- 
tion was in the form of colloidal hydroxide. 

Hydrochloric acid was found to produce a precipitate when 
added to a solution of ferric chloride and albumen. To a 
mixture of 5 c. c. of 1$ ferric chloride and 10 c. c, of the white 
of egg solution a few drops of dilute hydrochloric acid were 
added. At the end of some minutes no precipitate was observed 
to have formed. With several c. c. of the acid, however, a 
precipitate was slowly thrown down. The precipitate was 
filtered off, and to different portions of the light yellow filtrate 
ammonia, haematoxylin, potassium ferrocyanide, and potassium 
sulphocyanide were added. In each case the usual reaction for 
ferric iron took place. Further addition of hydrochloric acid 
precipitated no more alubumen from the filtrate. On boiling 
some of the filtrate, albumen coagulated and was thrown out of 
solution. This was filtered off and potassium ferrocyanide 
added to the almost colourless filtrate. The dark blue precipitate 
was removed by filtration. On boiling the colourless filtrate a 
light blue flocculent precipitate separated from the solution. 
The results obtained in this experiment point to the existence of 
a complex of the iron salt with the albumen. This complex is 



66 BEHAVIOUR OF IRON SALTS, IN THE PRESENCE OF 

stable towards heat. When potassium ferrocyanide is present, 
however, the complex is precipitated by boiling the solution. 
A mixture consisting of equal parts of the white of egg and 
1.0$ ferric chloride solution, was found to be more stable 
towards heat than a pure albumen solution of the same con- 
centration; whereas the mixture did not commence to coagulate 
until the temperature was raised to 65, the pure albumen 
solution became cloudy at 61.5. 

(b) Experiments with potassium ferricyamde. 
White of egg solution, egg albumen, and serum albumen 
were all found to prevent the precipitation of potassium ferri- 
cyanide, in dilute solution, by ferrous salts. On the addition of 
a few drops of ammonium ferrous sulphate to a mixture con- 
sisting of 2 c. c. of 0.1$ potassium ferricyanide and 5 c. c. of 
the white of egg solution only a very faint blue colouration was 
produced. When the concentration of the potassium ferricyanide 
was smaller than this, a blue colouration did not occur on the 
addition of the ammonium ferrous sulphate. 5.0 c. c. of 0.1$ 
potassium ferricyanide were mixed with 25 c. c. of the white 
of egg solution. Ammonium ferrous sulphate solution was then 
added drop by drop to the pale yellow mixture until it became 
colourless. This disappearance of the yellow colour points to 
the occurrence of chemical change on the addition of the 
ammonium ferrous sulphate, and is probably due to the dis- 
appearance of the ion to which the colour of the solution is 
due. A blue black colouration appeared when a few drops 
of haematoxylin were added to part of the decolourised solution. 
The decolourised solution turned blue on the addition of a drop 
of dilute hydrochloric acid. Excess of hydrochloric acid caused 
a blue precipitate to separate slowly from the solution. 

With solutions containing no albumen and the above con- 
centrations of potassium ferricyanide, ammonium ferrous sul- 
phate gave deep blue precipitates. 

To a mixture of 5 c. c. of 0.1$ potassium ferricyanide and 
25 c. c of the white of egg solution, sufficient dilute hydro- 



ALBUMENS AND OTHER ORGANIC SUBSTANCES. CRE1GHTON. 67 

chloric acid was added to throw down a white precipitate. The 
precipitate was filtered off and small portions of the filtrate were 
tested with ammonium, ferrous sulphate, and haematoxylin. The 
former gave a deep blue precipitate, but no reaction occurred 
with the latter reagent. To the remainder of the filtrate more 
hydrochloric acid was. added, but no further precipitation took 
place; on boiling, however, a white precipitate separated from 
the solution. It was found that the light yellow filtrate from 
this precipitate could be boiled without further precipitation 
taking place. To the cooled filtrate a few drops of ammonium 
ferrous sulphate were then added. The solution turned blue, and 
on standing a deep blue precipitate separated out ; on boiling the 
solution the precipitate became flocculent, resembling a precipi- 
tate of aluminium hydroxide. The precipitate when heated on 
a platinum foil charred at a low temperature. This precipitate 
could not have consisted of simply TurnbulPs blue; for when 
ammonium ferrous sulphate was added to a hydrochloric acid 
solution of potassium ferricyanide having the same degree of 
yellow colour as the above filtrate, and the mixture boiled, the 
precipitate which separated out was not flocculent, but finely 
divided. Moreover, on allowing it to settle and pouring off the 
supernatant liquid the blue precipitate was found to dissolve 
in water. The results of this experiment suggest the formation 
of a complex by the iron salt and albumen, which is stable 
towards heat, and which is precipitated by ammonium ferrous 
sulphate. 

Like ferric chloride, potassium ferricyanide increases the 
coagulation temperature of albumen. A solution of potassium 
ferricyanide and white of egg, of one half the concentration 
previously employed, first became turbid at 64.5 ; while a pure 
white of egg solution, of the same concentration, became cloudy 
at 61.5. When, besides the potassium ferricyanide and white 
of egg, a very small quantity of ammonium ferrous sulphate 
was present in the solution, coagulation did not take place 
below 75. 



68 BEHAVIOUR OF IR<>N SALTS, IN THE PRESENCE OF 

(c) Experiments ivith potassium f&rric-ferrocyanide (soluble 

Prussian blue). 

It has already been mentioned in the introuacuon that, 
under certain conditions, white of egg solution is capable 
of decolourizing a solution of soluble Prussian blue. Neither 
the egg albumen nor the serum albumen were found to decolour- 
ize soluble Prussian blue >as readily as the white of egg solution. 

10 c. c. of 0.05$ soluble Prussian blue were mixed with 
10 c. c. of the white of egg solution and the mixture kept at 
60 for an hour. At the end of this time the deep blue solution 
had become practically colourless. The fading of the blue colour 
took place gradually. With pure white of egg, or at a higher 
temperature, the decolonization of the soluble Prussian blue 
was found to proceed with greater rapidity. When a mixture 
of equal volumes of 0.05$ soluble Prussian blue and the white 
of egg solution were kept at room temperature, no apparent 
change in the intensity of the blue colour of the solution was 
observed at the end of six hours. To some of the decolourized 
solution haematoxylin was added; no precipitation occurred, 
thus proving that the Fe m ion of soluble Prussian blue was no 
longer present as such. The addition of dilute hydrochloric 
acid or concentrated salt solutions to some of the decolourized 
solution caused the precipitation of a white substance, which 
gradually turned to a deep green blue colour on standing or on 
treatment with hydrogen peroxide. ISTo change was observed 
on the addition of hydrogen peroxide to some of the decolour- 
ized soluble Prussian blue mixture. 

Like the foregoing mixtures of iron salts with albumen, a 
solution of 0.05$ soluble Prussian blue and an equal volume 
of the white of egg, which had been decolourized by heating 
at 60-70, was stable to heat and could be boiled without the 
albumen coagulating. Indeed, it was found that the substances 
could be rapidly brought to boiling immediately after mixing 
without precipitation taking place. At this temperature the 
mixture became colourless in two or three minutes. 



ALBUMENS AND OTHER ORGANIC SUBSTANCES. CREIGHTON. 69 

(d) Experiments with gelatine. 

On account of the close relationship between the albumens 
and the albuminoids, the following experiments were carried 
out to determine the influence of the presence of the latter 
substances on reactions of certain iron salts. As a typical 
albuminoid gelatine was employed. A 10$ solution was found 
to be quite fluid at 20. 

~No precipitation of ferric hydroxide occurred on the addi- 
tion of ammonia to a mixture consisting of equal volumes of 
1.0$ ferric chloride, 6$ gelatine solution, and distilled water; 
haematoxylin, however, gave a violet black colouration. In a 
control experiment ferric hydroxide was precipitated^ by 
ammonia. 

1 c. c. of 0.1$ potassium ferricyanide and 5 c, c. of 6$ 
gelatine solution were added to 5 c. c. of distilled water. 
Although the mixture turned blue on the addition of ammonium 
ferrous sulphate, no precipitate formed. The blue colour dis- 
appeared from this solution on boiling. With 8 c. c. of 10$ 
gelatine solution no blue colouration appeared on the* addition 
of ammonium ferrous sulphate to the mixture; if however, 
besides the ammonium ferrous sulphate, a few drops of hydro- 
chloric acid were added,, the solution turned blue and a precipi- 
tate of TurnbulPs blue slowly formed. In the control experi- 
ments, in which the gelatine solution was replaced by an equal 
volume of distilled water, a deep blue precipitate was obtained 
on the addition of the ammonium ferrous sulphate, 

It was found that a mixture containing 5 c. c. of 0.05$ 
soluble Prussian blue and 5 c. c. 6$ gelatine could be kept at 
95-100 for one and a half hours without the blue colour of 
the solution appreciably decreasing in intensity. With 7 c. c. of 
10$ gelatine, however, the colour of the Prussian blue faded 
completely under these conditions. The blue colour of the 
mixture returned on the addition of a few drops of either dilute 
hydrochloric acid or hydrogen peroxide. With hydrochloric 



70 BEHAVIOUR OF IRON SALTS, IN THE PRESENCE OF 

acid the blue colour was deeper than with hydrogen peroxide. 
When a decolourized solution was allowed to stand for twenty- 
four hours, the jelly, which formed* on cooling, was found to 
be deep blue at the surface. The blue colour gradually 
decreased until, at a depth of three inches, the jelly was 
colourless. 

(e) Experiments with ferrous salts. 

Dilute solutions of ammonium ferrous sulphate and 
potassium ferrocyanide were separately mixed with varying 
quantities of the white of egg solution, and allowed to stand 
some minutes. On adding ammonia or sodium hydroxide to 
the ferrous ammonium sulphate mixtures ferrous hydroxide 
was invariably precipitated. When the concentration of the 
white of egg was relatively large, the ferrous hydroxide pre- 
cipitated somewhat slowly. The potassium ferrocyanide 
mixtures were tested with solutions of iron alum and copper 
sulphate. On the addition of a few drops of the alum solution 
to the mixture a deep blue precipitate was always produced, 
while with the copper sulphate solution a brick red precipitate 
of copper ferrocyanide was immediately formed. The same 
results were obtained when gelatine was used instead of white 
of egg. 

(f) Experiments with other organic substances. 
Dilute solutions of all the iron salt previously used were 
separately mixed with varying quantities of cane sugar, of 
tartaric acid, and of glycerine. The mixtures containing 
soluble Prussian blue were kept at 60 for an hour, while the 
others were allowed to stand at room temperature for some 
minutes. Apart from the prevention of the precipitation of 
ferric hydroxide on the addition of ammonia or sodium 
hydroxide to the mixtures containing ferric chloride, it was 
found that neither sugar, tartaric acid, nor glycerine apparently 
hindered the different iron salts from reacting with the various 
reagents previously used for their denomstration. 



ALBUMENS AND OTHER ORGANIC SUBSTANCES. CREIGHTON. 71 

III. DISCUSSION OF RESULTS. 

From the experiments described, it will be seen that 
albumens, as well as the closely related albuminoid gelatine, 
tend to prevent certain reactions of ferric chloride, potassium 
ferricyanide, and soluble Prussian blue; while on the other 
hand, the presence of albumen or gelatine does not appear to 
hinder reactions with ferrous ammonium sulphate or potassium 
ferrocyanide. The prevention of reactions of iron salts by 
albumen or derived proteins, such as gelatine, seems to be closely 
associated with the state of oxidation of the iron; for ferric 
chloride, potassium ferricyanide 

K 



Til 




and soluble Prussian blue 




each contain at atom of trivalent iron. In potassium ferri- 
cyanide the trivalent iron forms part of the anion Fe (CN) 6 HI . 



72 BEHAVIOUR OF IR )N SALTS, IN THE PRESENCE OF 

As to just how reactions of compounds containing trivalent 
iron are hindered or prevented by the presence of native or 
derived proteins, three possibilities present themselves : either 
the protein may decrease the dissociation of the iron compound 
to such an extent that ionic reactions are no longer possible ; or 
it may exert a so called "protective action" on the iron salt, 
similar to that of gelatine on colloidal gold, which is due to 
the gelatine forming a very thin coating over each of the gold 
particles 1 ; or, lastly, the protein may be intimately associated 
with the iron salt. Intimate association of the protein and the 
iron salt may be brought about through the formation of a 
chemical compound, or by adsorption, giving rise to what may 
be looked upon as a physical compound. 

If the phenomenon were to be ascribed to either decrease 
in dissociation or to protective action, we should expect proteins 
to hinder reactions of salts containing bivalent iron as well as 
those of salts containing trivalent iron. On the other hand the 
specificity of the proteins employed, points to their intimate 
association with trivalent iron. 

It is well known that many colloids have a tendency to adsorb 
certain substances, which are t in true solution, with the forma- 
tion of so called adsorption compounds. Since such compounds 
do not possess a constant composition they cannot be looked 
upon as chemical. The formation of such compounds! depends 
on several factors of which the following are the more import- 
ant : the nature and structure of the colloid, the nature of the 
solvent, the nature of the dissolved substance, the condition of 
the molecule of the dissolved substance, and lastly, the tem- 
oerature. 

In the foregoing experiments the nature and structure of 
the colloidal albumen and gelatine are not very dissimilar, 
while those of the ferric and ferrous salts employed are greatly 
so. In view of what has been said we should expect to find 

1. Mines, G. R. : Proc. Physiol. Soc., November 18th, 1911. 



ALBUMENS AND OTHER ORGANIC SUBSTANCES. CREIGHTON. 73 

ferrous, as well as ferric salts, adsorbed by albumen and 
gelatine. That this is not the case at once suggests that the 
selective adsorption of trivalent iron may be due to some 
electrical effect. In support of this it may be mentioned it has 
recently 1 been pointed out, that while the adsorption of non- 
electrolytes is probably due to surface tension phenomena, that 
of electrolytes is probably of electrical origin. 

Additional evidence of the adsorption of ferric compounds 
by native and derived proteins is afforded by the fact that the 
coagulation temperature of albumen is increased by these sub- 
stances. This behaviour is in accordance with that observed by 
Pauli and Handovsky? , who found that small concentrations of 
alkali salts retarded the coagulation of albumen, i. e. raised 
the coagulation temperature. 

The supposition of the formation of a chemical compound 
is supported by the raising of the coagulation temperature of 
albumen when trivalent iron is present; by the disappearance 
of the colour of soluble Prussian blue on the addition of 
albumen or gelatine to its solution; and by the fact that the 
rate of fading of the blue colour increases as the temperature 
of the solution is raised. This last is a further argument 
against the hindering of the reactions being brought about by 
the protein lessening the degree of dissociation of the iron com- 
pounds. The fact that hydrochloric acid when added to mix- 
tures of potassium ferricyanide and albumen or gelatine, such as 
used in the foregoing experiments, liberates the ferricyanide 
so that it is demonstrable by ammonium ferrous sulphate and, 
in the case of albumen mixtures, also precipitates the albumen ; 
the return of the blue colour to solutions of soluble Pritssian 
blue that have been decolorized with gelatine, on the addition 
of hydrochloric acid, hydrogen peroxide, or on exposure to 

1. Lachs, H. and L. Michaeli8 : Zeitechr. Elektrochem., 17, 1, (1911) ; ibid. 17, 917, 
(1911). 

2 Pa\ili, W. and H. Handovsky : Boitrage z. cbem. Physiol. u. Pathol 11 
415, (1908). 



74 BEHAVIOUR OF IRON SALTS, IN THE PRESENCE OF 

the air for some time ; the white or pale blue precipitates thrown 
down by hydrochloric acid from solutions of soluble Prussian 
blue decolorized by albumen; and the fact that this latter 
precipitate turns to a deeper blue on treatment with hydrogen 
peroxide or on exposure to the air, constitute additional evidence 
of the existence of a chemical complex. The return of the blue 
colour to colourless solutions of soluble Prussian blue and gela- 
tine, and to the substance precipitated by hydrochloric acid from 
colourless solutions of soluble Prussian blue and abumen, indi- 
cates that in the soluble Prussian blue protein complex the 
trivalent iron of the soluble Prussian blue has undergone reduc- 
tion and is present in the bivalent condition. 

The results obtained in this investigation indicate 'that 
native and derived proteins prevent the ordinary reactions of 
substances containing trivalent iron, owing to the formation of 
associations between the protein and the iron salt. There is 
reason to believe that this phenomenon is partly physical and 
partly chemical: physical in that the colloid attracts the iron 
salts and forms adsorption compounds ; and chemical in that the 
proteid actually combines with the iron salt. These physical 
and chemical complexes are readily broken down by hydrochloric 
acid. Complexes of soluble Prussian blue with gelatine are also 
decomposed in solution by hydrogen peroxide, but those with 
albumen are not. One the other hand, these complexes seem 
fairly stable towards heat, and in the case of those formed 
with soluble Prussian blue a temperature of 100 does uot 
effect decomposition. Through the formation of complexes of 
proteins with soluble Prussian blue, the trivalent iron of the 
latter is probably reduced to the bivalent condition. ~No 
indication that complexes are formed by proteins and salts 
containing bivalent iron has been obtained. Neither cane 
sugar, glycerine, nor tartaric acid appear to form chemical or 
adsorption compounds with either ferro- or ferri-salts. 

It is the intention of the writer to extend these experiments. 



ALBUMENS AND OTHER ORGANIC SUBSTANCES. CREIGHTON. 75 

In conclusion it may be pointed out that the results of this 
paper are not without physiological significance, for the ready 
formation of chemical or physical complexes between native 
and derived proteins and compounds containing trivalent iron, 
either as cation or as part of the anion, may possibly throw new 
light on the metabolism of iron 1 . 



Department of Chemistry, Dalhousie University, 
Halifax, Nova Scotia, 

March 2nd, 1912. 



1. See the following paper in this Journal, by Professor Fraser Harris. 



ON THE INTIMATE ASSOCIATIONS OF INORGANIC IONS WITH 
NATIVE "AND DERIVED PROTEINS. BY DAVID FRASER 
HARRIS, M. D., D. Sc., F. E. S. E., Professor of Physiology 
and Histology, Dalhousie University, Halifax.* 

Read 8th April, 1912. 

We must assume that unless united to the living molecules 
(biogens) no food would be assimilated, no drug benefit us, and 
no poison harm us. We must have some sort of union, incor- 
poration or molecular linking, and that cannot be outside the 
sphere of atomic affinities. Protoplasm must be chemically 
viewed as an unstable, molecular^ protein complex to which, 
probably as side-chains, adhere carbohydrate molecules and fat 
molecules and many inorganic ions both anions and cations. 
The unmasking of this fat is called in pathology "fatty degener- 
ation/' the unloosening of this sugar is called tissue-diabetes. 
We have fat necrosis after certain poisonings ; for instance, 
phosphorus and alcohol can unmask fat in many tissues of a 
persons the very opposite of obese, while after chloroform or an 
excessive percentage of carbon dioxide in the blood we have 
glycohaemia and the consequent glycosuria which means that 
the poison has displaced the sugar and sent it into the blood- 
stream. But further, a salt-free (ash-free) protoplasm, that is, 
salt-free living protein is only a conception of the chemists; 
protein is ash-free only in the laboratory. No doubt these ionic 
side-chains constitute mere traces, but as inorganic substances 
they play an exceedingly important part in the activities and 
existence of living matter. A salt-free diet will not support 
life. Dogs fed on ash-free fats, carbohydrates and proteins 
were moribund in twenty-six to thirty-six days. 



* Contributions from the Science Laboratories of Dalhouaie University 
[Physiology]. 

(76) 



INTIMATE ASSOCIATIONS OF INORGANIC IONS, ETC. HARRIS. 77 

But, further, the salts of the diet must be present in it in 
their natural unions and not merely in a solution added to the 
organic food. Whereas mice throve on a diet of dried cow's 
milk, they were moribund in twenty to thirty days on the sugar, 
fat and casein of milk to which a solution of the extracted salts 
of milk had been added. We know that a diminution in the 
amount of potassium absorbed will lead to scurvy. 

It used to be said that as the salts contribute no energy, 
they are not incorporated into the living matter; this is quite 
a mistake, for although they do not yield energy, they are incor- 
porated as truly as is the fat or carbohydrate or oxygen. It 
would appear that all the following must be present in the tissues 
and fluids, not necessarly all in all : sodium, potassium, calcium, 
magnesium, iron, phosphorus, chlorine, iodine, fluorine and 
arsenic. Without these, the living matter is not functionally 
intact : there is a metabolism of the inorganic as truly as there 
is of the organic. 

Take the case of the beating heart; if perfused with dis- 
tilled water, even containing oxygen and dextrose, it will shortly 
stop beating, and a loss of salts from it can be proved to have 
occurred. Now give it a perf us ion-fluid with sodium chloride 
whose osmotic pressure is equal to that of the sodium chloride 
in the heart, and still it stops. This is found to be because we 
have left out the potassium and the calcium ; the addition of 
these, the potassium chloride as dilute as 1 in 10,000 is enough, 
will cause the heart to beat rhythmically. Apparently the cardiac 
myoplasm establishes an equilibrium between certain organic 
ions within itself and others in the lymph of its spaces, the 
point of equilibrium being dependent upon the osmotic pressure 
of these substances in the surrounding fluids and on the affini- 
ties of the protoplasm for these substances. If any one ^u 
predominates somewhat over the others, that is, is present in 
higher concentration than exists in normal lymph, effects which 
have been called "toxic" will supervene; thus if potassium is 
too abundant we have the heart stopping in potassium diastole, 

PROC. & TRANS. N. S. INST. Sci., VOL. XIII. TRANS. 6. 



78 INTIMATE ASSOCIATIONS OF INORGANIC IONS 

if calcium be too abundant we have the heart stopping in 
the systole of calcium rigor. 

Now the affinities of certain kinds of protoplasm for certain 
ions are quite different from those of other kinds of protoplasm 
for them. Thus the red corpuscles fix potassium and iron, the 
brain, phosphorus ; the muscles, potassium ; the bones and teeth, 
calcium and fluorine ; the thyroid gland, iodine ; and the fluids 
of the body chiefly sodium. The thyroid gland can, moreover, 
fix more iodine per unit of tissue than can any other tissue. 
Chemically speaking, therefore, protoplasm in different situa- 
tions is chemically different; the protoplasm of the brain has 
not the same atomic affinities as that of muscle or bone or 
thyroid gland. The tissues are, however, supplied by lymph 
of practically uniform composition, so that these chemical 
differences have been said to be due to "selective affinity." Now 
these differences must be very slight. Dr. Jermain Creighton 1 
has shown that egg-albumin, a native protein and a very direct 
product of living matter, can distinguish in its selective affinity 
between iron in the trivalent and iron in the divalent state. 
Dr. Creighton has found that egg-albumin apparently forms 
a union with the ferri-ion whether that be as in ferric chloride 
or in soluble Prussian Blue, (pottassium ferri-ferro-cyanide), 
both of which have trivalent iron as a cation ; or in potassium 
ferricyanide in which trivalent iron is part of a complex anion. 
Some late work has shown the iron in haemoglobin to be 
the ferri-ion: so that it would appear that the point is not 
whether iron is cation or anion but whether it is tri- or di-valenL 
The difference is physico-chemically very slight, and yet the 
albumin takes cognizance of it. In accordance with these views 
some pharmacologists assert that simple anaemia is cured only 
by ferric salts. Dr. Creighton has further shown that even 
gelatine exhibits analogous selective -affinities. Here, I think, 
we are in presence of some very important facts as indicating- 

1. Creighton, H. J. M. : Trans. N. S. Inst. Science xiii, (2), 6175, (1911-1912). 



NATIVE AND DERIVED PROTEINS. HARRIS. 79 

the delicate nature of these unions of colloids with metallic ions, 
unions, which in some cases have been labelled "adsorptions." 
!N"ow if this sort of thing can go on in non-living albumin what 
may not be chemically possible in the living bioplasm itself? 
Dr. Creighton speaks guardedly of "a complex" between the 
protein and the iron ; but we may at least hold a salt-like union 
is effected and that the tri-valent iron is chemically bound. In 
accordance with this we have to remember Professor Macallum's 
test 1 for inorganic versus bound iron: a dilute (0.5$) solution of 
pure haemotoxylin gives with inorganic iron a blue black 
coloration, but with -bound iron no reaction. Under the latter 
heading come haemogobin and both the potassium ferricyanide 
and the potassium ferrocyanide. In these the iron atom is 
bound in some fashion so as not to affect the haemotoxylin in 
the manner in which it can do when in the unbound condition 
of inorganic salts presumably ionised. 

It used to be said that inorganic salts given as drugs have 
a tendency to be deposited in the liver; in more modern 
terminology it would be said that the hepatic protein has the 
power of binding the inorganic ions mercury, arsenic, 
manganese, etc. and therefore retaining them in the liver and 
so preventing them reaching the circulation in anything like 
the concentration in which they were absorbed. This capacity 
of the liver is but one expression of its detoxicating power in 
virtue of which it fixes many poisons, pathogenic toxins and 
others, and so prevents their entrance into the circulating 
blood. 

There must therefore be constant interchanges between 
the living matter and the inorganic constituents of the 
lymph, for inorganic salts are being constantly absorbed 
and constantly execreted and so, on the whole, the per- 
centage of inorganic constituents in the tissues does not vary. 
Now the amount of any one constituent iron, calcium, sodium, 

i. Macallum. A. B: J. Physiol., 22, 92, (1897-1898). 



80 INTIMATE ASSOCIATIONS OF INORGANIC IONS 

potassium, etc. depends on its ionic pressure in the lymph as 
well as on the affinity for it possessed by the particular tissue 
in question. Certain forms of malnutrition may depend not 
so much on the malabsorption of an inorganic ion as on the 
diminished affinity for that substance as the result of some 
intoxication or devitalisation of the living tissues. 

But even when an ion is present in the lymph in a concentra- 
tion greatly above its concentration in the cell, that substance is 
not absorbed in anything like the degree which one would expect 
of it, if one had regard only to its concentration over iso-tonicity. 
The living tissues have a "power of refusal." 

This explains what is so well recognized, that it is impossible 
to over saturate the tissues with any of the mineral substances 
iron, arsenic, calcium, or even oxygen. This fixedness of limit 
for saturation of protoplasm by chemical substances explains 
the impossibility of indefinite increase in bulk of tissues by 
overfeeding with nitrogenous food, of increasing the intensity 
of tissue-changes to any notable extent by the breathing of pure 
oxygen by healthy persons or of increasing, for instance, the 
iron or phosphorus content of the healthy red marrow or brain. 
After being satisfied, the tissues have a power of refusal one 
of the expressions of "functional inertia." 1 

The same line of reasoning applies to the gases concerned 
in metabolism. Thus oxygen must be under a certain pressure 
in order to enter properly into union with the living matter. 
Whereas oxygen at the partial pressure of one-fifth of an atmos- 
phere suffices for the perfusion fluid for a frog-heart, it must 
be under the pressure of one atmosphere in the fluid 2 necessary 
for the mammalian heart. In the actual blood, which could 
not take up anything like this quantity of oxygen in solution, 
this high pressure is functionally represented by the loose 

1. Harris, D. Fraser : The functional inertia of living matter. London, Churchill 
1908. 

2. Ringer-Locke solution consists of 

NaCl, 0.9% NaH CO 3 0.01 to 0.0 37, 
Ca Cb, 0.024% Dextrose, 0.1% 
K Cl, 0.042% 
Solution fed to the heart under the pressure of one atmosphere of oxygen. 



WITH NATIVE AND DERIVED PROTEINS. HARRIS. 81 

chemical union of oxygen with the haemoglobin which dissoci- 
ates in the neighbourhood of the living cells owing to the partial 
pressure of oxygen in them being always zero. In the lung- 
alveoli, oxygen is not present to more than 15 to 16$ of an 
atmosphere (that is 104 mm of mercury), and this pressure of 
itself would be inadequate to drive the oxygen into solution in 
blood-plasma to an amount sufficient for the respiratory needs 
of the tissues, hence the blood possesses in its red corpuscles a 
substance capable of uniting with the inorganic oxygen in such 
a way that it can carry far more oxygen to the tissues than could 
ever possibly reach them in solution in a colloidal protein sub- 
stance like the plasma. It is of advantage to the body that there 
be formed, therefore, complexes between proteins or protein- 
derivatives and certain inorganic ions; and Dr. Creigh- 
ton, 1 by having studied some of these in detail, has thrown a 
good deal of light on their probable nature. 

The whole of modern medicine is permeated by the notion 
that bioplasm is affectable, that is, is capable of responding to 
stimuli, a large number of which are chemical. Thus the 
formation of an an^-body is only possible because there is a 
reaction on the part of the affectable living matter to the 
chemical stimulus of the foreign substance: if toxin be the 
chemical stimulus, then antitoxin is the chemical response. 
But the toxin . must first come into chemical union with the 
protoplasm else no antitoxin can result, just as the food mole- 
cule must come into chemical relationship with the protoplasm 
else no food could be absorbed. 

The power of the proteins of blood-serum to absorb or take 
up either acids or alkalies is of fairly high importance to the 
bodily health. Thus, confining ourselves to the absorption of 
acids only, if we add normal acid to blood-serum and use methyl 
orange as an indicator, we shall have to add 0.18 c. c. of normal 

(N\ 
-r-j hydrochloric acid to turn the indicator pink. If now we 

titrate, similarly, the saline dialysate from the serum, the acid- 

1. Creighton, H. J M. : loc. cit. 



82 INTIMATE ASSOCIATIONS OF INORGANIC IONS 

holding power is now only 0.04, so that (0.18 0.04) 0.14^ 
is the figure representing the acid fixed by the proteins alone. 
This represents 0.51$ of hydrochloric acid itself. Now this is 
rather a considerable amount; and its physiological significance 
is that, within pretty wide chemical limits, no free acid 
can reach the living tissues, for the circulating proteins 
can combine with them and so constitute a protective mechanism 
against acidosis or an excessively acid condition of blood. These 
native or serum-proteins, therefore, behave in an amphoteric 
fashion, for they can fix alkalies like acids and acids like 
alkalies. This explains how serum is acid to phenolphthalein, 
and alkaline to methyl-orange, while it is physico-chemically 
neutral. This double power proteins possess is now believed to 
be due to their polypeptide composition. This means that after 
any number of amino-acids have united together in chain 
fashion, there will be left an amidogen group at one end and a 
carboxyl group at the other, thus conferring a chemical polarity 
or what is otherwise called "residual affinity." 

Thus the dipeptide glycyl-glycin is formed, 

NH 2 CH 2 COOH + H NH CH 2 COOH, 

which gives us NH 2 CH 2 .CO-NH-CH 2 -COOH + H 2 0, a com- 
pound is basic on account of NH 2 and acidic on account of the 
COOH. 

Hence owing to its acidity, glycin can form the copper 
salt thus 

CH 2 NH 2 CO 0-^ 

rrr f-(r\ r\ J^ Cu J anc * owing to its basicity it can unite 
IN ri GO O^-^ 



with an acid like benzoic and form hippuric acid thus ; 

C 6 H 5 CO 'OH + H 1 NH CH, COOH C 6 H 5 CO NH CH 2 COOH 

+ H 2 0. 

The union of oxygen with haemoglobin is, however, not 
merely an adsorption due to residual affinities, for it is strictly 
mono-molecular, and the reduced form of the pigment is differ- 
ent from the oxidised in colour and therefore in spectrum. 

But not merely are acids and inorganic substances united 



WITH NATIVE AND DERIVED PROTEINS. HARRIS. 80 

to the native proteins of blood, for 1$ of fat is probably held in 
a quite invisible form in blood-plasma. This is exceeded by 
the liver which can hold as much as 5$ of fat in a perfectly 
transparent and invisible form; the fat, for the time being, is 
chemically united to the tissue-proteins. Some physiologists 
hold that during the time that carbohydrate is in the liver, it 
is present in a protein-complex and they say that glycogen . can 
be demonstrated chemically in liver cells before it can be 
histologically. 

One of the latest views as regards the early fatigue of 
muscle is that potassium salts are detatched and sent into the 
circulation depressing the motor nerve-endings. What unloosens 
the potassium is not yet obvious, but it appears that potassium 
is set free. Lactic acid is similarly free in the circulation in 
the later stages of muscular fatigue. 

That the union is ionic as regards certain inorganic sub- 
stances is interestingly shown in the part played by calcium 
salts in the clotting of the milk. It is known that when the 
rennin has transformed the caseinogen into soluble procasein 
there is no precipitation of the latter until it has formed a union 
with calcium: a drop or two of calcium chloride now causes an 
abundant precipitation of casein. In 1895 I showed 1 that 
barium chloride and strontium chloride were equally efficaci- 
ous. Here the action must be due to the divalent ions and to the 
different ions indifferently, for certainly the anion chlorine is 
not the causal substance. Now while this is so as regards 
the clotting of milk, barium cannot supplant calcium medicin- 
ally. In particular, barium chloride cannot replace calcium 
chloride as regards efficiency in maintaining the heart's rhythm. 
Barium is absorbed very slowly from the intestine, and when 
so absorbed is found to be a direct stimulant of muscle-fibre as 
distinct from nerve-fibre. J ust as barium can replace calcium 
in the clotting of milk so it can replace it in the clotting of 
blood. Magnesium sulphate injected into rabbits gives rise to 

1 Harris, D. Fraser : Some points in the physiological chemistry and coagula- 
tions of milk. Pro. Roy. Soc. Edin., Session 1895-1896. 



84 INTIMATE ASSOCIATIONS OF INORGANIC IONS 

paralysis and anaesthesia and a low blood-pressure; it can be 
rapidly antagonised by either the chloride or the acetate of 
calcium, which revives the respiration in a surprisingly short 
time, but not by barium. It would seem as though in a non- 
vital union, barium and calcium were interchangeable, but not 
so in vital chemical complexes. Thus, the influence of mag- 
nesium is the same as that of calcium in inhibiting the 
spontaneous twitching of muscles immersed in solutions of 
sodium or lithium and in antagonising the contraction of 
skeletal muscle brought about by potassium salts ; but in regard 
to its action on the heart, magnesium stands quite apart from 
calcium, barium and strontium, and is totally unable to replace 
these in the cardio-inhibitory mechanism or at the skeletal 
neuro-muscular junction. 

And this is to a large extent comprehensible, for chem- 
ically, such substances as caseinogen, blood-germent, albumin, 
etc., and not to be taken as the equivalents of living matter, com- 
plicated as they are. The metabolism of calcium is full of 
lessons for us ; one result of its presence in blood is to confer a 
certain degree of viscosity on that fluid. If there is too little 
viscosity, there is a tendency for the blood-plasma to exude too 
freely through the capillary wall so that an oedema or urticaria 
may be produced which is rapidly removed by the administra- 
tion of a soluble salt of calcium the chloride or lactate. It 
is possible that the tissues of haemophiles may suffer from a 
congenital inability to absorb or incorporate calcium. But 
indeed the whole doctrine of ionisation has been of great service 
in biology: for this may be taken to be the converse 01 the 
chemical condition of union of ions or atoms with the protein 
or living matter. Thus in the simple case of action of acids 
on living tissues, it is found that e. g. HC1 is far more destruc- 
tive to enzymes (except pepsin) than is acetic, the only satis- 
factory explanation of this being that HOI is far more per- 
fectly ionised that acetic, not more than 3$ of which is ionised. 
Since in regard to the effects of different acids, it is highly 



WITH NATIVE AND DERIVED PROTEINS. HARRIS. 85 

unlikely that all the various anions (Cl, N0 3 , P0 4 , S0 4 , CH 3 COO) 
are the active substances, it is customary to attribute 
the physiological activity of the acids to the ionised H. 
Similary the alkalies, (K OH, NaOH, NII 4 OH) have only the 
OH iori in common, so that their common influence inactivating 
enzymes is to he attributed to the anion hydroxyl. Hence, too, 
the "free" alkalies are physiologically more active than the 
carbonates, because they are more perfectly ionized. In some 
recent work of mine 1 on the presumed endo-enzyme, tissue reduc- 
tion, any inhibitory action I found as the result of the presence 
of protoplasmic poisons was to be attributed rather to their 
acidity than to their so called toxicity; this is but one more 
verification of the statement that acids H ions destroy 
enzymes. Of course in all these problems we are dealing with 
very small quantities: the maximum concentration for the 
activating effect of alkalies is not greater than To th molecular. 
May the activity of certain dilutions not explain some of the 
results obtained in homoeopathy ? 

So much, then, for the sign of the ionic charge; we have 
still to reckon with the valency of the ion or the potential of 
the charge or the ionic potential. 

Now the physiological activity of inorganic ions increases 
with their valency thus ^a 1 , Ca 11 , Fe 111 ; sodium being more 
bland than calcium and calcium than iron or conversely, iron 
is more active (toxic) than calcium, and calcium than sodium. 

Much interesting work on the physiological activity varying 
with the valency has been done by my friend Mr. Mines, 
Fellow of Sydney Sussex College, Cambridge. Speaking of the 
H ion Mr. Mines writes : 

"Concentration of H ions from .005 normal upwards, cause 
strong tonic contraction in skeletal muscle and a primary rise 
in electrical irritability, while the trivalent cations produce 
neither of these effects. On the other hand, the H ion shows 
striking resemblances in its action to that of the K ion. The 

1. Harris^ D. Fraser : Bio-Chem. Journ., Vol. VI, 200 (1911). 



86 INTIMATE ASSOCIATIONS OF INORGANIC IONS, ETC HARRIS. 

relative concentrations of H and K needed to produce similar 
effects on frog's skeletal muscle are in the ratio of 1 to 5, i. e. 
inversely as their ionic velocities." 

And again he writes: 

"So far from it being possible to ascribe the physiological 
action of various ions to some one factor such as solution tension, 
valency or ionic velocity, it must be recognized that one and 
the same ion may exert its influence on different tissues by 
virtue of different characters or groups of characters. Further, 
two ions, which from the point of view of one tissue exhibit 
constellations of properties which are much alike, may present 
wholly dissimilar aspects towards another tissue." 

Mr. Mines adopts the view that tissues are to be regarded 
as "emulsoid (hydrophile) colloids." 

These and similar researches a^e of the utmost value in 
bringing us towards the biologist's great desideratum greater 
definiteness of conception regarding the living matter itself. 

Our present point of view is that not alone in terms of pure 
organic chemistry are conceptions of the constitution of proto- 
plasm to be framed. We are finding we must include in these the 
non-organic, the non-vital substances whose presence does not 
indeed constitute life, but in whose absence life cannot be con- 
stituted. As we have had in the past full demonstation of the 
importance of the structurally "infinitely little," so at the 
present time we are having, each day, fresh demonstration of 
the importance of the chemically infinitely little. 



Dalhousie University, Halifax, Nova Scotia. 
April 6th, 1912. 



KEPORT ON CAVE EXAMINATION IN HANTS COUNTY, N. S. 
BY WALTER HENRY PREST, Bedford, N S. 

Read 13th November, 1911. 

Having been asked by the council of the N. S. Institute of 
Science to make some investigations into the anthropological 
possibilities of the caves in Nova Scotia, I submit the following 
PS the result of a few days' work. A visit to three of the caves 
cf Hants County gave information that may be worth recording, 
though it does not bear very strongly on the purpose of my 
visit. These caves were: Miller's Creek Cave, Frenchman's 
Cave, and Fivermile River Cave, all within easy reach of town 
and railway 

Miller's Creek Cave. This cave is about 4^ miles north- 
eastward of the town of Windsor, Hants County, and about 1^ 
miles north of the Midland railway. It is buried among steep 
hills near the headwaters of Miller's Creek, which here becomes 
only a dribble. A branch of the Miller's Creek road reaches 
the home of a man by the name of Connors, just back of whose 
house in the gulch in which is the cave. The original entrance 
is now nearly blocked by fallen rock, and the visitor is obliged 
to squeeze through a corkscrew-like hole in what was once the 
roof. Securing a guide, a lantern, and tools for use if the 
passage should be blocked, I entered an old quarry, at the end of 
which I climbed an immense pile of debris at the mouth of 
the cave. After sliding through the entrance backward, I 
found myself in a passage which had apparently once been 
about 30 feet wide and 15 feet high, but w r hich is now choked 
almost to the roof by fallen rock. Descending to the level of 
the main cave the floor became more even and less littered with 
rubbish, and the roof higher. Then suddenly the cave 
expanded and a pond showed itself in the faint light of the 

(87) 



88 



CAVE EXAMINATION IN HANTS CO., N. S. PREST. 





CAVE EXAMINATION IN HANTS CO., N. S. PKEST. 89 

lantern. The rest of the floor of the cave was covered with 
soft mud so deep and sticky that it was almost impossible to 
travel through it. It had evidenly been often overflowed, cover- 
ing the sloping surfaces as well, with a coating of mud which 
made walking very difficult and insecure. The only dry ledges 
were on the southwest and northwest sides penetrated by small 
branches of the main cave. 

The cave continued to the north, but was blocked to 
the roof in this direction by fallen rock. To the northwest 
was a smaller branch which probably penetrated farther than 
the others as it contained the main watercourse. I did not 
enter it as the ascent thereto was almost vertical and I was 
encumbered with the lantern. My guide refused to follow me 
farther than the entrance and I could not climb it alone. His 
conversation had been solely on ghosts and buried treasure and 
his absence was acceptable until this point was reached. The 
overflow from the pond, which was only 3 or 4 feet deep, was 
through a small slanting passage on the we&t side which 
descended to a lower level. The southern end of the cave, like 
the northern, was piled high with debris from the roof. Most 
of the branch passages were but from two to five feet high. 
The main cave is nearly 200 feet long, 80 feet wide, 
and probably 35 feet high in the centre. The annual freezing 
and thawing continually adds to the obstructions at the mouth 
of the cave and will in time doubtless make the entrance 
impassable. The inhabitants of the locality tell me that within 
their memory the passage was large enough to walk through 
upright. 

I was convinced that the cave in its present condition never 
was a human habitation, though it may have been a refuge 
from storm or a hiding place from an enemy. However, when 
the land was higher the torrents may have kept the place 
cleaner, but just now the only places in the interior of the cave 



90 CAVE EXAMINATION IN HANTS CO., N. S. PREST. 

that could furnish spots dry enough for habitation are the 
branch passages to the northwest and southwest. The extremely 
thin deposit on these ledges may perhaps yield human relics. 
The original entrance, now buried beneath from 20 to 30 feet of 
debris, would probably yield something of interest, though the 
cost of removal would be great. 

Frenchman's Cave. This cave is situated J mile northeast 
from the village of St. Croix, Hants County, in the rough 
gypsum land to the east of the river.* This tract of land is full 
of sink-holes, some of which are now being formed to the 
detriment of the farms. One man spent much time trying to 
fill a newly formed hole with stones, but gave up the attempt 
after much labor. In the neighborhood of the cave it is hard to 
find a path among the numerous sink-holes, evidence of course 
of caves beneath. In one of these sink-holes is the entrance 
to the Frenchman's Cave, where it is claimed that the Acadian 
French hid their wives and children and buried their treasure 
in the days of Evangeline. Many other tales are connected 
with it, some based on fact but grossly exaggerated, some 
uncanny with superstition, and others simply ridiculous. 

After travelling through a tract of very rough land, my guide 
led me down one of the numerous sink-holes, where at a depth 
of 35 feet we found the entrance to the cave. This was about 
20 feet wide and 7 or 8 feet high and ran in a westerly direc- 
tion. Its easterly extension was blocked by the fall of rock 
when the roof gave way. A large number of sink-holes farther 
east indicated its course. A small stream ran through the cave, 
which in rainy weather became a torrent, preventing entrance. 
I followed the cave about 150 feet, where it became only 2 feet 
high, becoming still less farther on. The bottom was small 
pebbles and mud. I was told afterward that one could pene- 
trate several hundred feet to some larger rooms by crawling 
through on his stomach in dry weather. 

* This cave is situated on the north bank of Wier Brook, a branch of the St. Croix 
River. 



CAVE EXAMINATION IN HANTS CO., N. S. PREST. 91 

As a human habitation, even for the lowest savages, it seems 
to be out of consideration, owing to its susceptibility to floods, 
and the limited floor space above the water or mud level. It 
might, however, have furnished a refuge for a limited number of 
people for a short time. I therefore dismissed the idea that 
it had any archaeological value in spite of the entertaining 
stories told about it. 

Five-mile River Cave. This cave is situated in Hants 
County on the south bank of the Five-mile River, a western 
tributary of the Shubenacadie. It is ^th mile south of the 
Midland railway, the nearest stations being South Maitland 
(2f miles) and Burton's (2-J miles). The river, green hills, and 
toAvering white gypsum cliffs give a wildness and beauty to the 
surroundings not often seen outside ISTova Scotia. Nearly half 
way up the pure white cliffs, is the mouth of the cavern. The 
mouth is wide and easy of access, being reached by an inclined 
plane of debris fallen from the cliff. It is, however, being 
slowly blocked up by rock as the fall of the friable and frost- 
riven gypsum is yearly adding to the obstruction. The entrance 
is probably 20 feet wide and 7 or 8 feet high, but the oldest 
inhabitants tell me that it once was over 20 feet high. The 
river, which once kept the face of the cliff clear, has long since 
been diverted to the opposite side of the narrow valley. 

Procuring a guide and a couple of lanterns, I descended 
the pile of fallen rock at the entrance, and penetrated about 250 
or 300 feet before lighting the lanterns. Here I stood beneath 
a vast dome over 150 feet wide and 60 feet high. On the left 
were several ponds and water-holes, deep and transparent, 
reaching to the wall. On the right was a slope of broken rock 
reaching to the right wall and almost to the roof. Proceeding, 
the lower part of the cave became muddy while the roof became 
higher and the cave wider. Near the first sink-hole it must 
have been nearly, if not quite 200 feet wide, and the white 
gypsum roof stretched almost flat, without a support, from one 



92 CAVE EXAMINATION IN HANTS CO./ N. S. PREST; 

side to the other. Great blocks of gypsum littered the floor 
and finally compelled us to climb over them or squeeze through, 
between, or beneath them. In climbing over the boulders, the 
guide fell and put one of our lanterns out of commission. In 
so large a cave this was a great inconvenience, as the narrow 
circle of light from the remaining lantern did not reach to either 
wall. The wide and slightly arched roof continued for over 
1000 feet. Spreading from wall to wall without a single 
support it seemed to me a marvel of natural architecture. 
About 1300 feet from the entrance, the cave became so 
obstructed by enormous blocks of gypsum that a passage was 
hard to find. Many apertures were entered, followed a few 
yards, and retraced. Then others were followed up, down, or 
laterally. Some ended in diverging fissures, too small to be 
followed. The last, only 15 inches wide, ascended at an angle 
of 60 and became impassable. Even here the cave was large, 
but blocked from bottom to top by a jumble of fallen rock that 
prevented all further progress. The extreme length, as far as 
passable, is about 1600 feet. 

The archaeological value of this cave is much reduced by 
the enormous quantity of rock continually falling from the roof 
and cliff outside. In its original condition it was doubtless 
an ideal place for shelter, and was probably so used by the 
aborigines. Now there is probably 30 or 40 feet of debris over 
the original floor at the mouth of the cave. Probably nearly 
all the caves in the gypsum region are in the same condition, 
this friable rock rapidly crumbling under the influences of frost 
and heat. 

Geological Conditions. That the origin of these caves 
reached back to a time when this province was much higher 
than now, there is no doubt. Some evidence for this view is 
furnished by the springs that come up from the bottoms of 
rivers at tide-level, such as are seen in the River St Croix 
above the bridge on the road leading from St. Croix to Brook- 



CAVE EXAMINATION IN HANTS CO., N. S. PREST. 



93 





~ Section at 



PROC. & TRANS. N. S. INST. Sci., VOL. XIII. 



TRANS. 7. 



94 CAVE EXAMINATION IN HANTS CO., N. S. PREST. 

lyn. In some places the gypsum is honeycombed with caves 
below the tide-level. Springs sometimes burst out in estuaries 
and tidal-flats as at Shubenacadie. 

If we place the gypseous origin of the rock in question in 
the Triassic age, a time of great seismic disturbance, we have 
the whole of the long period since that time for the various 
phases of cave formation and destruction. There has been 
elevation, excavation, denudation (aerial and sub-aerial), and 
finally subsidence. A former covering of gypsum has been 
removed from a large tract of country, and former caves 
obliterated, now traceable only by narrow valleys or preciptuous 
gulches. Existing caves are located by strings of sink-holes, 
which latter are growing larger and more numerous as years 
go by. The gradual subsidence of the province has placed many 
of these caves beyond reach, and, according to the best 
evidence, this subsidence is still going on, unless it has very 
recently reached its lowest point. It may be mentioned that 
the three caves I have described, are located in formations of 
carboniferous limestone (the Windsor series). 



A REARRANGEMENT OF PROCEDURE FOR THE REMOVAL OF PHOS- 
PHATE IONS FROM THE IRON AND ALKALINE EARTH 

GROUPS. By CARLETON BELL NICKERSON, M. A., 
Instructor in Chemistry, Dalhousie University, Halifax, 

N. S.* 

Read 8th April, 1912. 

The following procedure is the result of several attempts to 
simplify the various methods in common use for the removal 
of phosphate ions during the qualitative separation of the 
nietals of the iron and alkaline earth groups. It has been the 
author's experience that, for the usual college class in qualita- 
tive analysis, the methods commonly used require rather too 
much nicety in manipulation to be altogether practicable. The 
procedure given below has been used by the class in qualitative 
analysis at Dalhousie University this year with very favorable 
results. 

1. Procedure. Treat the solution (after the removal 
of all the metals precipitated by H., S in acid solution) 
with a few drops of cone. HN0 3 and boil until all H 2 S 
is expelled ; filter if necessary. Add at once about % volume 
of strong NH 4 C1 solution and a slight excess of NH 4 OH. 
Filter : 

Notes. 1. The HN O 3 is added to oxidize any iron that mnv 
be present, which after the H 2 S treatment is always in the ferrous 
condition. 

2. The treatment with HN O 3 may also cause a slight precipitati?n 
of culphur from the H 2 S. 

3. Care must be taken to avoid adding more than a slight excess 
of N H 4 O H, since the precipitate of Al(0 H) 3 is somewhat soluble 
in an excess. 

Contributions from the Science Laboratories of Dalhousie University [Chemistry.] 

(95) 



96 REMOVAL OF PHOSPHATE IONS FROM THE 

3. The precipitate with NH 4 OH under ordinary conditions 
would consist only of hydroxides of Fe, Al and Or. If however PO 4 '" 
ions are present, it may also contain phosphates of the above metals 
and also of Ca, Ba, Sr and Mg. 

2. Procedure. Dissolve a small portion of the NH 4 OH 
precipitate in HNO 3 (Sp. g. 1.2) and test for P 4 '" ion* 
with (NH 4 ) 2 Mo 4 . If a yellow precipitate forms, dissolve 
the remaining portion of the precipitate in dilute HC1 (Sp. g. 
1.12). Test a small portion of the solution for Fe with 
K 4 Fe(CN) 6 . To the remaining solution add Fe C1 3 solution, 
drop by drop, until (after careful stirring) , a drop of the solu- 
tion removed by means of a stirring rod gives a brown precipi- 
tate of Fe(0 H) 3 with N H 4 OH on a porcelain plate. 

Notes. 1. The test for Fe must be made at this point since Fe C! 3 
is added to the solution later on. 

2. The addition of Fe C1 3 causes a precipitation of Fe P O 4 (white) 
when the solution is made alkaline by NH 4 OH. When a sufficient 
amount of Fe ions has been added to combine with aiL 
PO 4 '" ions, an excess of FeCl 3 causes a precipitation of the brown 
Fe(OH) 3 

3. Procedure. To the HC1 solution containing an excess- 
of Fe C1 3 add NH 4 C1 solution and a slight excess of 
NH 4 OH. Filter. Save the filtrate. 

Notes. 1. After the addition of NH 4 OH, the precipitate will 
contain, Fe P O 4 . and hydroxides of Fe, Cr, and Al, all the P O 4 '" ions 
remaining in the precipitate. The filtrate may contain ions of Mn, Ni, 
Co, Ba, Sr, Ca, and Mg. 

4. Procedure. Dissolve the above precipitate in dilute 
HC1 (Sp. g. 1.12) and add an excess of NaO H and H,O 2 
Filter. 

Notes. 1. By the addition of Na O H and H,O 2 the A1(O H) 3 . 
is converted into the soluble Na 3 AlO 3 , and the Cr(O H), is oxidized 
to Na 9 CrO 4 , the iron precipitate remaining behind on the filter. 



IRON AND ALKALINE EARTH GROUPS NICKERSON. 97 

5. Procedure. Divide the above solution into two parts, 
and to one add an excess of HC 2 H 3 2 and a few cc. of 
Pb(C 2 H 3 O. ; ) J j solution. A yellow precipitate indicates Cr. 
To the other portion add an excess of dilute H Cl, and then a 
slight excess of NH 4 OH. Warm and set aside. A white 
flocculent precipitate is A1(OH) 3 . 



6. Treatment of filtrate from 1. Acidify a small por- 
tion of the solution with dilute HN0 3 and test for P 4 7// ions 
with (N H 4 ) 2 Mo0 4 If a yellow precipitate is formed, treat 
the remainder of the solution with H 2 S. A white precipitate 
is ZnS. If no P0 4 7// ions are found, see 7. 



Notes. 1. The addition of even a slight excess of NH4OH in 
1, is sufficient to convert the Zn into the soluble complex compound 
Zn(NH 3 ) 4 (OH) 2 , which passes through into the nitrate and is 
removed by H 2 S. 

2. If the addition of (NH 4 ) 2 MoO 4 shows the presence of PO/" 
ions, then the solution after the removal of Zn contains only the 
metals of the alkali group. 



7. Procedure. If P 4 /7/ ions are not found in 6, add 
solution to nitrate from 3, warm, and to the warm solution 
add an excess of H 2 S. Filter : 



Notes. 1. If P O 4 '" ions are not found in 6, the solution will 
contain only those ions in excess of what was necessary to combine 
with the PO 4 '" ions precipitated in 1. They may consist of: Zn, 
Mn, Ni, Co, Ba, Sr, Ca, Mg, K and Na. 



8. Procedure. Treat precipitate with a small amount of 
dilute H Cl (1 part H Cl 1.12 to 5 parts water) . Kesidue may 
be Ni S and Co S. Separate in usual way. Treatment of 



98 . BEMOVAL OF PHOSPHATE IONS, ETC. 

H Cl solution : Add an. excess of Na H. Filter and fuse the 
precipitate with Na 2 CO 3 on platinum foil. Green color indi^ 
cates Mn. To nitrate add H 2 S. White precipitate is Zn S. 



Notes. 1. An excess of NaOH forms a soluble compound with the 
Zn, Na 2 Zn O 2 , which passes into the nitrate. The Mn is at the same 
time precipitated as Mn (OH) 2 and converted by fusion with Na 2 C O 3] 
to the compound Na., Mn O 4 , which is green in color. 



9. Procedure. The filtrate from 7 now contains only 
the ions of the alkaline earth and alkali groups. These are 
separated and identified in the usual manner. 



BRIEF ACCOUNT OF THE MICMAC INDIANS OF NOVA SCOTIA AND 
THEIR EEMAINS. BY HARRY PIERS, Curator of the 
Provincial Museum of Nova Scotia, Halifax, N. S. 

Read 8th January, 1912. 

The following paper has been prepared for the purpose of 
presenting in a concise and systematic form some general 
information regarding the native tribe of Nova Scotia, and it 
is hoped it may be useful at least for ready references, as the 
writer does not know of anything dealing with the whole sub- 
ject in just this way. He hopes at some future time to expand 
these brief notes into a paper which will deal with the subject 
more in retail. The bibliography which is appended, although 
not exhaustive, will assist in placing students in touch with 
most of the available sources of information. 

Location. The Indians of Nova Scotia belong to the 
Micmac tribe which is an important branch of the Algonquian 
family. Besides this province they inhabited Prince Edward 
Island, the northern part of New Brunswick and probably 
parti of southern and western Newfoundland. In New Bruns- 
wick they came in contact with the Malecite tribe, another 
branch of the same family, and in Newfoundland they occupy 
a region once inhabited by the extinct tribe of Beothuks, which 
latter is now regarded as a distinct family by itself. 

Name. The Micmacs call themselves Megumawaach, and 
the name Micmac evidently is a corruption of this.* J. N. B. 
Hewitt gives the meaning of Migmak to be 'allies'. The Micmac 
name for an Indian is Ulnoo. The French called the tribe 
Souricois or Souriquois* (Champlain, 1603; Lescarbot, 1609) ; 

* Vccording to my notes made from the pronunciation of Chief Noel, the Micmac 
name for the tribe is Meegamauk and for any Indian, irrespective of tribe, Ilanoo or 
Ilanoo(k). Ilanoo or Ulnoo originally meant " a man " generally . 

(99) 



100 MICMAC INDIANS OF NOVA SCOTIA 

but among the English they have mostly been called Micmacs, 
and we find the name in use in 1696 (N. Y. Doc. Col. Hist., 
ix., 643). Gatchet speaks of Mikemak (singular Mikema) as 
their Penobscot name. Malecites seem to have called them 
Matu-es-wi skitchi-nu-uk, meaning 'porcupine Indians', on 
account of their using porcupine quills in ornamental work 
(Chamberlain, Malecite MS., Bur. Am. Eth., 1882). 

History. The Micmacs seem to have been a fierce and 
warlike tribe, subsisting chiefly on the products of the chase. 
They soon became the loyal allies of the French who settled 
in Nova Scotia in the beginning of the seventeenth century, and 
there was more or less intermarriage between these settlers and 
the tribe, which more firmly cemented the bonds between them. 
When the English began to occupy Nova Scotia after the 
capture of Port Royal (Annapolis) in 1710 they found the 
Micmacs a great source of annoyance, as they naturally took 
the part of their old allies and lost no opportunity of harassing 
the British, and it was largely owing to their inroads that 
settlement of the country did not progress more rapidly. After 
the deportation of the Acadians and the fall of Quebec the 
English succeeded in making treaties with the tribe in 1760 
and 1761, which permitted the clearing and settlement of the 
land to go on more peaceably than formerly, but it was not until 
1779 that the disputes finally ceased, and from that time they 
could be spoken of as loyal to their new masters. Since then 
their history has been uneventful. Early in the nineteenth 
century a chief Indian commissioner (Monk) was appointed, 
and in 1842 an Indian commissioner (Howe) again held 

*I am not quite certain of the derivation of the French name Souriquois. 
Des Brisay, (History of Lunenburg, 1st ed., p. 150), says the Micmacs were 
called by the French, "Souriquois, or salt-water men." The Century Cyclopedia 
of Names says the tribal name Souriquois, was one imitating words meaning 
"good canoe-men" (the derivation of which I fail to see, if from the Micmac 
language) ; and the same work, on what authority is not mentioned, states that 
Micmac is translated as "secrets-practicing men," alluding to Shamanistic 
jugglery. Surenne (French Dictionary) says souriquois is a term used to 
describe "a mixed tribe" ; and in Spiers and Surenne the definition is given of 
mice, micy ("peuple souriquois," micy tribe), but this probably has no connection 
with the use of the word to denote the Micmac tribe. The Beothuks called the 
Micmacs Shanock, "bad Indians," (Journ. Anfhrop. Inst., iv, 29, 1875.) 



AND THEIR REMAINS. PIERS. 101 

office in Xova Scotia, and was followed later by Col. 
Chearnley, but soon after confederation supervision was trans- 
ferred to the Department of Indian Affairs at Ottawa. 

Early Conditions. In prehistoric times the Micmacs had 
made but slight advancement towards civilization, in this 
respect being behind some of the Indians -of Ontario. They 
apparently did not cultivate Indian corn, but lived almost 
entirely by the chase and fishing, and delighted in war. In 
summer-time they djwelt mostly on the coasts and in winter 
retired to the more sheltered interior. They made various stone 
implements, canoes, snowshoes, a very few small copper imple- 
ments, rough pottery (poorly burnt, with occasional attempts 
at rude ornamentation), and they produced some rude picto- 
graphs upon rocks. A few implements of unmistakable 
southern workmanship indicate that they traded somewhat with 
other tribes, although they may have been obtained by conquest. 

Marc Lescarbot, who met with the Micmacs during his 
residence at Port Royal (Annapolis Royal) subsequent 
to 1606, gives in his Nova Fraud JL (first published 
in 1609) an excellent^ account of the Souriquois as 
he found them in his day, and this description is 
one of the best of the earliest ones we have of their 
manners, customs, etc., at a period when iron implements were 
only just beginning to supplant those of stone. He says they 
wore a skin breech-cloth attached to a leather girdle, and a 
cloak of otter, beaver, moose or stag, bear or lynx, tied up with 
a 1* ather thong, and one arm was usually thrust out. In their 
wigwams this cloak was laid aside, unless it was cold. The 
women wore a girdle about the cloak. In winter they wore 
"good brave sleeves, tied behind, which keep them very warm." 
In winter, going to sea, or hunting, they wore long leggings, 
cut into a great number of points on the side of the leg, and 
tied to the belt. On their feet they wore moccasins of moose- 
skin. Thev had no head-dress, but men and women wore their 



102 MICMAC INDIANS OF NOVA SCOTIA 

hair loose over their shoulders, the men trussing it upon the 
crown of the head, some four fingers length, with a leather 
lace, which they let hang down behind. Lescarbot says, "All 
those I have seen have black hair, some excepted which have 
Abraham [auburn] color hair." They greased their bodies and 
anointed their shoulders with oil, to defend them from trouble- 
some flies. They wore matachias hanging at their ears, and 
about their necks, bodies, arms, and legs. These the women 
made of porcupine quills dyed black, white and red. They 
more esteemed matachias made of shells by the Armouchiquois 
(Indians of New England), which were difficult to get owing 
to the continued wars between the tribes. Matachias of quills 
of glass, interspersed with tin or lead, were traded with them 
by the French. They passed their time in war or hunting, or 
making implements therefor, or in play. Their bows were 
strong and without fineness. Lescarbot marvels at how long 
and straight they could make their arrows with a stone when 
they had no metal knives, and these they feathered with 
feathers from the eagle's tail. Such as had traffic with the 
French headed the shaft with iron. They had quivers, and their 
bow-strings were made of intestines, and snowshoes or racquets 
were strung with the same material (Denys says with thongs 
of moose-hide). They also had wooden clubs "in the fashion 
of an abbot's staff" and shields which covered all their body. 
They bartered with the French for fishing lines and hooks. 
Canoes were made of birch-bark, and they "also make some of 
willows very properly which they cover with gum of the fir- 
tree." The French writer tells us that anciently they made 
earthen pots and also did" till tl.e ground, "but since that 
Frenchmen do bring with them kettles, beans, pease, bisket 
and other food, they are become slothful, and make no more 
account of these exercises." It was found by experiment that 
they had rather go without bread than have the trouble of 
grinding corn. The women peeled birch-trees for bark for their 



AND THEIR REMAINS. PIERS. 103 

wigwams, and labored at making canoes, etc., while the men 
"do play the gentleman, and have no care but in hunting, or 
of wars" ; yet the women commonly love "their husbands more 
than the women of these our parts." Lescarbot once saw an 
Indian boil meat in a trough formed of a tree-trunk, into 
which he placed red-hot stones; and I may say that they also 
cooked thus in birch-bark receptacles. (See Relics of Stone 
Age, Trans. N. 8. Inst. Sc., ix, pp. 27-31). The missionary 
Biard, in his Relation of 1616, also gives an account of the Mic- 
macs of his time, and states that they did not till the soil. 
The fullest account of their dress, manners and customs is to 
be found in Denys' Description des Costes de I'Amerique 
septentrionale of later date, 1672. (See Ganong's translation, 
1908). 

It is sometimes asked if Nova Scotian caves contain any 
evidence of having been occupied by prehistoric Micmacs or 
their predecessors. In order to investigate this question to 
some extent, an exploration was recently made of three gypsum 
caves in Hants county, but so far with negative results, 
although the large amount of rock debris in these caves would 
probably have hidden or obscured such evidence if it were there. 
(See Prest, Trans. N. S. Inst. Sc., xiii, pp. 87-94). 

Xo data is available regarding measurements of Micmac 
skulls, etc., whereby we might compare them with those of 
other tribes*. There are ancient burial-places at Indian Gar- 
dens, Fairy Lake, etc., that would furnish material for such 
work. (See Prest, ib. f pp. 35-39). 

Present Condition. The Micmacs now live by acting as 
guides for sportsmen, and by making axe-handles, baskets, tubs, 
porcupine quill-work, and various odds and ends, and some of 
them cultivate a little land, having small houses on reservations 
but mostly going into conical birch-bark wigwams or "camps" 
as they are called, in the summer. Most of them have to eke out 
their slender means by asking alms. Birch-bark canoes are 



104 MICMAC INDIANS OF NOVA SCOTIA 

now less frequently seen. They still occasionally make their 
own snowshoes. In the past they have been much decimated 
by smallpox, and consumption is prevalent among them, while 
drunkenness has been a great curse to them, but less so than 
formerly. The children when infants are strapped in a 
peculiarly shaped cradle, which is slung on the mother's back, 
or suspended from a tree. The children are taught obedience 
and respect to their parents. Women are accounted inferiors 
to the men. 

Recent Dress. Up to within comparatively recent years 
the men clothed themselves in a dark blue broadcloth coat 
ornamented with scarlet or other brightly-colored silk borders, 
scarlet cloth pipings in the seams, and elaborate coloured- 
beadwork extending across the upper part of the shoulders and 
on "wing"-like shoulder pieces, as well as on the cuffs and front 
boarder, and the coat was girded in by a red sash. With this 
were worn trousers of the same kind of cloth, with a row of 
narrow-cut tags up the outside seams. A high silk hat and low 
moose-hide moccasins completed the men's costume in those 
days. The chief and other officials still appear in such clothes 
(omitting the silk hat) on formal occasions, and the chief also 
at times of great ceremony wears a headdress of eagle-feathers. 
I am informed that the chief at Shubenacadie ( ?) has the equi- 
valent of a "wampum" belt, which is hereditary in the office. 
I have not seen it, but it is described as being composed of vari- 
ous dark-coloured pierced stones strung on sinews or a leathern 
thong, and it is said to have some symbolic meaning, or tells 
some story, although there are few if any of the Indians who 
can now interpret it although some have an obscure idea of its 
signification.* Other heirlooms or insignia descending to each 

*Reference to this belt is made rn the authority rf one Indian, and I have had 
no opportunity of verifying the statement which must be take with some doubt. 
Chief Noel never referred to the belt, although he showed me his other insignia 
of office. It was not among th^ rhief's official effects which were forwarded to 
the Archbishop of Halifax on Noel's death in 1911. Dr. Rand, however, refers 
to a wampum belt on page 81 of his Reading Boole, saying "as marked on the 
'wampum belt,' [the chief's district of] Cape Breton is at the head." It is 
possible that the belt is in Cape Breton. 



AND THEIR REMAINS. PIERS. 105 

of the Shubenacadie chiefs, are a silver medal of 1814, pre- 
sented by George III. to the then chief, and a large gilt 
medallion presented by a former Pope. The women formerly 
wore pointed cloth caps (abedowargosen) elaborately orna- 
mented with coloured beadwork; loosely-fitting, brightly 
coloured satin jackets (mardelit) with red or other coloured 
borders bedecked with beads ; and skirts of dark blue broadcloth 
prettily embellished on the lower parts with numerous broad 
horizontal bands of silk of various colours, in parts cut into 
pointed forms, and more sparingly ornamented with beads and 
spangles. Ornamental broadcloth leggings were also worn with 
the skirt. The older women are still sometimes seen in this 
characteristic costume, but it was once the regular dress of the 
women of the tribe. It may be observed that the pointed head- 
dress is depicted on old petroglyphs at Fairy Lake. (See 
Report on Provincial Museum for 1910). 

Chiefs. The province is divided into five districts, each of 
which has a*chief, the one with which Halifax comes most in 
contact with being he at Shubenacadie. Rand (Reading-book 
in Micmac, 1875, p. 81) says the Indian name for the A /hole 
country, is Megumaage (Micmac-land), and he says it was 
divided into seven districts (including two in New Brunswick), 
each district having its own chief, but that the chief in Cape 
Breton, which comprehended one district, was* looked upon as 
head of the whole. The seven districts as given by him were 
as follows: Cape Breton, Pictou, Memramcook (in New 
Brunswick), Restigouche (in New Brunswick), Eskegawaage 
(from Canso to Halifax), Shubenacadie, and Annapolis district 
reaching to Yarmouth. Chief John Noel of Shubenacadie 
informed me that the jurisdictions of the several chiefs in Nova 
Scotia are as follows: (1) The chief at Shubenacadie has 
jurisdiction over Halifax, Lunenburg, King's, Hants, Colches- 
ter and. Cumberland counties, and he claimed that he was con- 
sidered to be the head chief, perhaps the result of his having 



106 MICMAC INDIANS OF NOVA SCOTIA 

been located nearest to the seat of the provincial government; 
(2) the chief at Bear River has jurisdiction over Annapolis, 
Digby, Yarmouth, Shelburne and Queens counties; (3) the 
chief at Pictou has control of Pictou county: (4) the chief at 
Pomquet presides over Antigonish and Guysborough counties; 
and (5) the chief at Eskasoni governs the whole of Cape Breton 
Island. Besides these there are chiefs in Prince Edward 
Island and in parts of 'New Brunswick. The chief has the 
settling of such disputes as may arise among the members of 
the tribe, and I do not know of an instance of an Indian 
bringing his case to one of our own courts. The chief is elected 
at a gathering of the tribe, much discrimination being exercised 
in the choice ; and he receives a ratification of his appointment 
from the Governor, pledges allegiance to the Sovereign, and 
goes through a certain religious ceremony performed by the 
Roman Catholic Archbishop. Under the chiefs are captains 
and majors. 

Reserves. Throughout the province are certain areas of 
land reserved for Indian occupation. Some of these are so 
used for that purpose, others are not. Schools are located in 
some of the reserves. 

Numbers. Biard in 1611 places the number of Micmacs 
at from 3,000 to 3,500. In 1760 they were estimated at nearly 
3,000, having dwindled by sickness. In 1766 we find them 
enumerated at 3,500. It may be noted that New Brunswick 
and Prince Edward Island then formed part of Nova Scotia. 
In 1842 Howe reported their number to be 1425. In 1851 
they were returned as 1,056., which was probably an under- 
estimate. The Nova Scotian census of 1861 (the first accurate 
one) gives the number as 1407. In 1871 they numbered 1,666 
in this province; in 1881, 3,892, of which 2,125 lived in Nova 
Scotia; in 1884, 4,037, of which 2,197 lived in Nova Scotia; 
in 1892, 2,151 lived in Nova Scotia; in 1901, 1,542 were in 
Nova Scotia; and in 1904 (Indian Report) they numbered 
3,861, of which 1,998 were in Nova Scotia, 992 in New Bruns- 



AND THEIR REMAINS PIERS. 107 

wick, 579 in Quebec Province, and 292 in Prince Edward 
Island. In 1905, 1,993 were in Nova Scotia; in 1906, 2,148, 
and in 1911, 2,026. 

Language. The language of the Micmacs is a branch of 
that of the Algonquian tribe. William Jones of the Field 
Museum of Natural History, says that while their neighbours, 
the Abnaki, have close linguistic relations with the Algonquain 
tribes of the great lakes, the Micmacs seem to have almost as 
distant a relation to the group as the Algonquains of the plains. 
The Micmac, like many, if not all, of the native American 
languages, is remarkable for its copiousness, its regularity of 
declension and conjunction, its expressiveness, its simplicity 
of vocables, and its mellifluence. In all these particulars and 
others, it is said not to suffer from a comparison with the 
learned and polished languages of the world. One pecularity 
is that it is what philologists term holophrastic, a whole sentence 
being sometimes condensed into a single word. This, while it 
wonderfully shortens speech, greatly multiplies words. For 
example, Rand instances the sentence, "I am walking about, 
carrying a beautiful black umbrella over my head," comprising 
twelve words and twenty-one syllables, all of which can be 
expressed in a single Micmac word of ten syllables, yale-oole- 
maktawe-pokose. (See preface to Rand's Dictionary). The 
usual place for the accent is on the penultimate syllable, while 
a prolongued vowel is of course accented. Micmac words are 
extremely soft and melodious when pronounced by the Indian, 
being entirely without the harshness which results when a white 
man attempts to reproduce them, and even a dictionary tends 
to harshen them when they are represented by letters of our 
alphabet. It is this that has often made people think the 
language an uncouth one. The Micmac names of places are 
beautifully soft in sound and poetic in idea, and it is the 
greatest pity that we have not retained more of them instead 
of the meaningless European names we have too frequently 
scattered throughout the province. In such Micmac place- 



108 MICMAC INDIANS OF NOVA SCOTIA 

names as we have kept, we have unfortunately greatly 
harshened the sounds, through our ears failing to appreciate 
the soft illusive sounds of the native's syllables. The late Dr. 
Silas T. Rand was the foremost student of the Micmac language, 
and he published a reading-book and a dictionary, as well as 
many biblical translations. 

Religion. We know practically nothing of assurance 
regarding their pre-historic religious beliefs, except that through 
legend we find that they paid high respect to and almost 
worshipped a superhuman being, in the form of an Indian, 
called Glooscap. He was benevolent, exercised a care over the 
Indians, was supposed to live in a wigwam, where an old woman 
kept house for him, and a small boy fairy was his servant. It 
was believed he could transform mortals and that he possessed 
other wonderful powers. He and his attributes are frequently 
mentioned in their legends, and the Indians suppose he is still 
in existence. (See Rand, Legends of Micmacs, p. xiv et seq.) 
Father LeClercq in the seventeenth century invented a series of 
hieroglyphs for use among the Micmacs, and these characters 
were employed in the printing of Micmac religious works by 
the Rev. C. Kauder. A page of LeClercq's Lord's Prayer in 
these characters is reproduced in Filling's Bibliography of the 
Algonquian Language, opp. p. 305. In 1846 the Rev. S. T. 
Rand, a Baptist clergyman, took up the life of a missionary 
among the Indians, and as a result a Micmac Missionary 
Society was established, and Rand translated into the native 
language the greater part of the Bible. The official returns now 
give all the Micmacs as belonging to the Roman Catholic 
Church, the one with which they first came in contact about 
1604, and to which they have since been firmly attached. They 
have an annual religious festival on St. Ann's day, which is 
perhaps less fully observed than in former years. 

Legends. They have a large amount of legendary lore 
relating to Glooscap, his followers, and various personified 



AND THEIR REMAINS. PIERS. 109 

animals, etc., all of great interest, which has been collected in 
Rev. S. T. Rand's Legends of the Micmacs (New York and 
Lond., 1894), to which I must refer those interested in this 
very attractive subject. 

Mortuary Customs. Since the advent of Europeans, at 
least, the Micmacs have buried their dead in the ground, 
although I was told by Chief Noel* and other Indians, that in 
prehistoric times (perhaps under certain circumstances) they 
placed the corpse, wrapped up, in a tree or on a staging, and I 
find that Denys (page 438 of Ganong's edition) confirms this 
tradition and describes in detail their old burial customs. 
Unfortunately, no proper scientific examination has yet been 
made of pre-historic burials, to ascertain exactly the manner 
of burial, although Dr. Patterson has a few words to say 
regarding this subject (Trans. N. S. Ins. Nat. Sc., vii, p. 231 
et seq.). There is no doubt, however, from such old graves 
as have been opened, that various implements and utensils w T ere 
placed along with the dead. 

Games.- Some games survive from pre-historic times. One 
of them, the most popular, is known as Indian dice (altestakun) 
and is played with six bone or walrus-ivory disks, flat on the 
upper side and slightly convex on the other, inscribed with 
characteristic curved lines, forming a figure resembling a star 
or Maltese cross, for ornamental or symbolic purposes. These 
are tossed on a shallow wooden platter, and according to the 
result the player gets little stick counters, of which there are 
55 in all, a few of which (of greater value than the rest) are of 
different shape from the remainder. A similar game 

*Since this paper was written, John Noel, the venerable chief of the 
Micmacs of Halifax, Lunenburg-, King's, Hants, Colchester and Cumber- 
land counties, died at the Indian reservation on Spring- Brook, near 
Shubenacadie, on 20th May, 1911. He had been born at Pictou on 3rd 
May, 1829. He was highly esteemed by the tribe over which he presided 
and by the white men with whom he came in contact. He had always 
taken interest in matters relating to his people's history, and the writer 
is indebted to him for valuable tribal tradition and other information and 
recalls with pleasure many hours spent in conversation with him on such 
topics. Noel had succeeded his stepfather Chief James Paul, who had 
probably succeeded his uncle Francis Paul, who had succeeded Chief 
Samuel Paul (also known as Benjamin Paul). 

PROC. & TRANS. N. S. TNST. Sci., VOL. XII F. TRANS 8. 



110 MICMAC INDIANS OF NOVA SCOTIA 

(wabanokank} is played with eight slightly larger disks oi like 
form and ornamentation, which are tossed by the hand upon a 
spread blanket or cloth. Still another game (comugesjokonk, 
i.e. "to play little sticks") is almost the counterpart of the 
European game of jack-straws, and may be of European origin, 
although the Indians themselves claim it as a native game. 

Pre-hist&ric Implements. There are only two important 
collections of Nova Scotian Indian relics of the stone age. The 
principal one is in the Provincial Museum of Nova Scotia, 
Halifax, and embraces (a) miscellaneous implements and other 
relics deposited therein since 1831; (&) the collection of the 
late Judge M. B. DesBrisay, of Bridgewater, N. S. ; (c) the 
collection of the late C. W. Fairbanks; and (d) the collection 
of the late Dr. W. Webster. The total number of specimens 
in these four collections is now 1287. The next largest 
collection is that of the late Rev. Dr. Geo. Patterson, of New 
Glasgow, N. S., presented by him to Dalhousie College, Halifax, 
and containing about 250 specimens. There are also several 
other specimens there, donated by the late Dr. Thomas 
McCulloch. All of these have been described except the Des- 
Brisay collection. 

Relics of the stone age are uncommon in Nova Scotia, in 
marked contrast to the large number that are found in Ontario 
and to the south, and this no doubt indicates that Nova Scotia 
had been occupied for a much shorter period than those parts, 
or that the inhabitants were much fewer for the area. 

Another point to which I desire to draw attention is the 
great probability that many of the implements found in this 
province are really remains of a period when the country was 
occupied by Eskimo. Tradition affirms that the Micmacs com- 
ing from the southward drove the Eskimo northward, and this 
is borne out by evidence obtained from the implements. 
Among the Algonquians, to which family the Micmacs belong, 
the axe-method of hafting was common, and to the south axes 



AXD THEIR REMAINS. PIERS. 11 J 

are frequently found and form a fair proportion of tlie imple- 
ments met with in collections. In this province, on the 
contrary, stone grooved-axes are rare; and in their places we 
find an unusual number of adze-shaped implements, intended 
to be hafted as adzes. Now, this latter method of hafting is 
very prevalent among the Eskimo, so much so that they have 
taken a modern steel hatchet, drawn the handle, and with much 
pains hafted it as an adze. I believe,, as pointed out in a paper 
printed in volume ix of the Transactions of the N. S. Institute 
of Science, that we have in this province, as indicated above, 
remains of a previous settlement by the Eskimo, and we must 
with great caution speak of the stone implements of Nova Scotia 
as Miemac.* In subsequent remarks, I will speak generally 
of these implements, without attempting to distinguish between 
those that may be truly Micmac in origin and those that may 
be Eskimo. When I use the expression "common" in regard 
to a certain form of implement, the expression is, a relative 
one in comparison with other aboriginal relics in this province, 
and does not compare with the abundance of an implement 
that might be termed common in :i region where such relics are 
far more numerous than here. It may be mentioned that so 
far no implements that can be fairly called palaeolithic have been 
found in Nova Scotia, nor under circumstances that would 
lead to their being so considered, and we must regard all 
remains here as belonging to the neolithic age. 

Arrow-heads are common and are nearlj always of some 
siliceous stone mostly jaspideous, such as are found in situ in 
the western parts of the province. They are of various sizes, 
from less than an inch to the larger size which grades into the 
so-called spear-head. They are of various forms: leaf-shaped, 
notched, and stemmed. Some of these were no doubt actually 
hafted and used as knives, particularly the larger leaf-shaped 
ones. The site of an arrow-maker's workplace was discovered 

*See also Patterson, Trans. lust. Nat. Sc.. vii, pp. 236-237. 



112 M1CMAC INDIANS OF NOVA SCOTIA 

a number of years ago at Bachmairs Beach, near Lunenburg, 
and furnished a large number of specimens, including many 
chips and some heads not completed. 

Of so-called spear-heads there are a much lesser number. 
Many of these were probably cutting implements or knives, as 
also some of the larger arrow-heads as before mentioned. Other- 
wise we fail to find the aborigine's stone knife, an implement 
that must have been common among them. Lescarbot makes 
no mention whatever of spears as in use in his day, although 
he describes their various other weapons (see previous pages). 
Denys, however, frequently mentions spears, headed with boiie > 
as in use among the tribe, and also knives of bone. There have 
been found at Milton, Queen's County, a few long, polished 
slate implements, like poniard blades, one of which is 18 inches 
long and tapers regularly from 1.75 inch in width at the base 
to about .75 of an inch near the end, where it suddenly 
diminishes to a point. These could only have been ceremonial 
implements, such as the long delicate blades found in Cali- 
fornia, as their fragile nature would forbid any rough usage, 
such as that of war or sport. 

While referring to the cutting implements of our Indians, 
it may be mentioned that the Micmacs at the present time and 
for as long as is in the memory of man, have exclusively used 
in woodworking, etc., a peculiarly-shaped knife (somewhat like 
that of a farrier), the blade of which is made by themselves 
from an old file, which they invariably use by drawing towards 
them. This strong preference for a drawing cut, instead of 
one directed away from the body as is the manner among 
Europeans, is without doubt of pre-historic origin, and is 
worthy of attention from anthropologists, as possibly having 
some connection with the similar preference for a drawing cut 
which is evidenced by some east Asiatic peoples. Reference will 
be also made to the prevalence here of draw-cut stone imple- 
ments such as the adze, which I think indicates the former 
presence or influence of the Eskimo. 



AND THEIR REMAINS. PIERS. llo 

Adzes or "celts" are common, in fact with the exception of 
arrow-heads are the most abundant relics found. They are 
nearly all unmistakable adzes, with one side more or less 
flattened, and intended for a drawing-cut with the edge at a 
right angle to the haft. It is this marked prevalence of the 
adze that leads me to believe that these are largely the remains 
of an earlier occupancy of the country by Eskimo, the more 
typical Algonquian (Micmac) implement, the true grooved-axe, 
being very rare, and indicating a briefer occupancy by the 
latter tribe. Fuller particulars on this subject will be found 
in my paper, "Kelics of the Stone Age in Nova Scotia," Trans. 
N. S. Inst. Sc., vol. ix, pp. 36 et seq. These adzes are mostly 
more or less slender, although some are only about twice as 
long as broad. Nearly all are neatly and systematically formed 
from pecked and polished stone, such as quartzite, hard slate, 
etc., while one is of sandstone. A few are very roughly chipped 
into form, somewhat palaeolithic in appearance, but may not 
have been completed. 

I can find nothing that I would care to strictly designate 
a chisel. 

Gouges are common, and are formed of similar material to 
that of the adzes, into which they somewhat intergrade. In 
some the groove is almost indistinguishable, and is confined 
to the vicinity of the cutting edge. Others have a well defined, 
deep groove extending about half the length, and others have 
a deep groove extending the whole length. The last seems to 
be a distinct implement from the others. Gouges are somewhat 
adze-like in side outline, and those with the groove extending 
half the length were undoubtedly hafted as adzes. 

Grooved axes, as before mentioned, are rare in Nova Scotia. 
The Patterson collection contains only one specimen, while 
there are ten in the Provincial Museum (namely, two in the 
general collection, six in the DesBrisay collection, and two in 
the Fairbanks collection). One of those in the Museum is 



114 MICMAC INDIANS OF NOVA SCOTIA 

double-grooved, and in this respect it is unique in this province. 
They are well formed from water-worn oval quartzite boulders 
with the groove and edge "pecked" into shape. The grooves 
completely encircle the implement. 

Hammer- (or club-) heads are very rare. I have only seem 
two one in the DesBrisay collection in the Provincial Museum 
and one in my own possession. The latter was dug up at 
Dartmouth, and is neatly formed from an egg-shaped quartzite 
boulder, 3.50 inches long, entirely encircled by a pecked groove 
for the purpose of lashing it to a handle. It was no doubt used 
as a weapon, and the present Indians have a tradition that 
such hammers on occasions were thrown at an enemy and I 
have heard them say that a man could be thus struck with them 
when he was sheltered by a tree, attributing this to some magic 
properties of the weapon. The experiment might be tried to 
see if when hurled they can be made to take a laterally curved 
tiajectory, somewhat after the manner of a boomerang, 
although the symmetry of the hammer would make it seemingly 
impossible for it to do so. 

Pendants or "sinkers" are rare. Two are in the Patterson 
collection, and nine are in the Provincial Museum (namely, 
seven in the DesBrisay collection and two in the Fairbanks 
collection). Dr. J. B. Gilpin figured one, and I have seen one 
belonging to the late W. C. Silver, of Halifax; a total of 
thirteen. All are carefully fashioned, of graceful outline, and 
while of the same general appearance, differ very much in detail 
of form. None have a hole for suspension, but they have a 
little knob on top. I do not believe they were used as sinkers, 
as they are far more elaborately wrought than would be 
necessary for such a purpose. More likely they were used in 
some way as charm-stones, or in some religious ceremony, and 
I think I have heard Chief Noel affirm that they were employed 
as a charm to bring fish to a fishing place, while there are 
Indians who believe they were used as "sling-shots." Perhaps 



AND THEIR REMAINS. PIERS. 115 

the best explanation, to my mind, of their use, was given me 
by an Indian who says that years ago a very old Micmac woman 
informed him that they were employed as whorls in spinning 
thread from beaver's fur to make cloth in which to encircle a 
couple at the conclusion of the marriage ceremony in pre-his- 
toric times. 

Pipes are somewhat rare. Sixteen are in the collections 
referred to; namely, three complete ones and one incomplete 
; n the Patterson collection; and twelve in the Provincial 
Museum (seven complete ones, one of which is probably of 
European manufacture for barter, and one in process of manu- 
facture, in the general collection; and three complete and one 
under construction in the DesBrisay collection). Besides these 
there is an old pewter pipe such as was used in barter by the 
early traders. , ; >ij 

What is considered as the typical Micmac pipe has a pear- 
or barrel-shaped bowl upon a keel-shaped base, the latter with 
one or more holes to suspend it about the neck to prevent loss. 
A remarkable example in the Provincial Museum has bowl and 
stem in one piece, the former with a boldly executed carving 
of a lizard with a tail lying along the lower surface of the stem. 
The whole pipe is about seven inches long, and it is formed of 
a light grey pipestone, finely polished. It was discovered near 
Upper Rawdon in 1870 with some iron implements, etc. In 
this part of the Dominion it is unique, and is doubtless not the 
work of Micmacs, but must have been secured by trade or con- 
quest.* A pipe almost identical in form has been found in 
Pennsylvania (Dr. Eau) and a similar one in Ontario (D. 
Boyle). Another remarkable pipe was found at Musquodoboit, 
Halifax County, and is of the typical mound-builder's form, 
with flattened base, and like the preceding pne must have been 

*I cannot agree with Dr. Ganong (Denys, p. 424, note) that this may be of Micmac 
manufacture. Dcny-^ (p. 424) mentions stone pipes with bowl and stem in one piece- 
and probably one from LaHave, N. S., in the DesBrisay collection, is such a one as the 
old writer refers to. 



116 MICMAO INDIANS OF NOVA SCOTIA 



brought into this country as it is entirely uii-Micmac in char- 
acter. More-modern Micmac stone pipes, formed with steel 
tools, are ornamented with incised circles and lines, a style of 
ornamentation still prevalent in Micmac work of various kinds. 

A few pierced tablets (flat, polished slate stones, with one 
or two small round holes in them) are in the Provincial 
Museum, and the Patterson collection contains one. They have 
been supposed by some to have been used in shaping bowstrings, 
but their use here, as elsewhere, is obscure. 

Two snake-shaped rings of white limestone, probably 
artificial, are in the Provincial Museum, and if of man's work- 
manship, must have been charm-stones, possibly connected with 
snake-worship. 

Portions of two long stone tubes (just such as have been 
described by Schoolcraft from the Ohio mounds) were found 
many years ago at Dartmouth and are now in our Museum. 
They are of similar stone to that of the lizard pipe previously 
described. They show very great skill in manufacture. One 
end is entirely open, while the other has but a small hole in it. 
Various theories have been advanced as to the use of such 
implements were found in America. The Micmac chief, 
John Koel,, told me that tradition says they were used, in the 
manner of a syringe, for administering a medicated solution 
per rectum. This is at least a novel explanation, and is noted 
for what it may be worth. 

Some pieces of worked copper have been found, consisting 
of hammered nuggets of native copper, rough knife-shaped 
implements ; and piercers ; all made from the native copper of 
the trap of the Bay of Fundy. 

Bone implements are uncommon, but there are several 
specimens in the Provincial Museum and the Patterson collec- 
tion, namely, piercers, fish-spears, ivory harpoon-points 
(similar to those used by the Eskimo) and pieces of walrus 
ivory. 



AND THEIR REMAINS. PIERS. 117 

Two strings of shell wampum are in the Provincial Museum, 
and were doubtless brought into the province by barter with 
the Indians of New England, as Lescarbot mentions. 

A considerable quantity of pottery has been found at various 
places throughout the province, some being ornamented by 
impressions of twisted cor<\, oblique dashes, crescent-shaped 
impressions, zig-zag rows of small square dots, etc. Some of the 
pots at least have been obtusely pointed on the bottom. 

Of relics of European manufacture obtained by the Indians 
by barter, we find iron or steel axes and tomahawks, spear- 
heads, knivec-, kettles, metal pipes, glass beads, etc. 

Kitchen-middens. Kitchen-middens have been met with in 
various parts of the Nova Scotian coast and on rivers and lakes, 
ouch as would be favorite camping grounds in the past. They 
furnish shells, bones, implements, pottery, and various camp 
refuse. Gossip described the opening of some (trans* N. 8. 
Inst, Nat. Sc. f i, pt. 2, 94-99), and Patterson also refers to a 
number of locations (ib., vii, 237 etseq.), but none seem to have 
been opened and examined with the thorough scientific care 
which is now usually devoted elsewhere to such investigations. 

Mounds Nothing resembling mounds has yet been dis- 
covered in the province. 

Petroglyphs. At Fairy Lake or Kojimkoojik ("swelled 
parts)", on the upper waters of the Liverpool River, are 
many very interesting incised drawings on slate, doubtless the 
work of Indians, in some parts with superimposed drawings of 
much later date, probably the work of woodsmen. Similar 
drawings arL found at George's Lake (near Kojimkoojik) and 
on Port Medway River, all in Queen's county. 331 sheets of 
tracings of the oldest of these drawings, made by the late Geo. 
Creed in 1887 and 1888, are preserved in the Provincial 
Museum. (See Creed's unpublished paper mentioned in the 
bibliography; also Report of Provincial Museum for 1910, as 
well as 10th Ann. Report of Bureau of Ethnology for 1888-89, 
Wash., pp. 37-42). 



118 MICMAC IN 7 DIAN'S OF NOVA SCOTIA 



BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

(The following is a fairly complete list of works treating of the 
Micmac tribe. Information on the subject may also be obtained in 
the Reports of the Indian Commissioner in the earlier volumes of the 
Journals of the N. S. Assembly, and also in the Reports of the Departr 
ment of Indian Affairs, Ottawa, since 1867.) 

1598. Cartier (Jacques). Disccurs du Voyage aux Terres neufves de 
Canada. Paris, 1598. Cartier's first voyage was made in 
1534, but he makes but a mere mention of our Indians. 

1609. Lescarbot (Marc). Nova Francia. Lond., 1609. Also later 
editions, and recently republished by the Champlain 
Society, Toronto, 1907, to be in three volumes. Also in the 
original French, Paris, 1609. Contains interesting account 
of the Micmacs of that early period. Lescarbot went to Port 
Royal (Annapolis) in July, 1606. 

1616. Biard (Pere Pierre). Relation de la Nouvelle France. Lyons, 
1616. See Thwaite's edition, Jesuit Relations, vols. iii 
and iv. 

1632. Champlain (Samuel de). Les Voyages de la Nouvelle France 
occidentale, 1603-1629. Paris, 1632. Also subsequent 
editions. Gives short account of hunting and burial 
customs. 

1672. Denys ([Nicholas]). Description geographique et historique des 
Costes de FAmerique septentrionale. Avec FHistoire 
naturelle du Pais. 2 vols. Paris, 1672. The second vol. 
('Histoire naturelle des peuples/ etc.), chap. 23-24, treats 
very fully of the Indians (Micmacs). See the very fine 
annotated translation by Dr. W. F. Ganong, with original 
text, published by the Champlain Society, Toronto, 1908. 
This work contains very much that is of the greatest interest 
to those studying the early customs, etc., of the Micmacs 
of Nova Scotia. 

1691. Le Clercq (Pere Christien). Novelle Relation de la Gaspesie. 
Paris, 1691. 572 pp. Contains much concerning the 
Micmacs of Gaspe Bay, Quebec Province, whom he calls 
Gaspesiens. Le Clercq invented the hieroglyphs, still in use 
among the Micmacs, some of whom write and read them, 
and in which Kauder printed his catechison at Vienna; 
see 1866. 



AND THEIR REMAINS. PIERS. 119 

1758. [Maillard (Abbe Anthony S.)]. Account of the Customs and 
Manners of the Micmakis and Maricheets, Savage Nations, 
now dependent on the Government of Cape Breton. By a 
French Abbott. Lond., 1758. 138 pp. 

1815. Bromley (Walter). Two addresses on the Deplorable State of 
the Indians; one delivered August 3, 1813, the other March 
8, 1814, at Halifax. (Published for the benefit of the 
Indians). London, 18l5. 71 pp. 

1820. Bromley (Walter). An appeal to the virtue and good sense of 
the inhabitants of Great Britain, in behalf of the Indians 
ot North America. Halifax, 1820. 57 pp. 

1823-25. [Bromley (Walter)]. A General Description of Nova Scotia. 
[Anon.] Halifax, 1823. New edition: Halifax, 1825. 
200 pp. Chapter v. (pp. 44-58) deals with "The Indians 
(two tribes), attacks on Canso, treaty, customs, manners, 
civilization, and specimens of their language." Bromley, 
who was on the half-pay of the 23rd Kegiment of Foot, 
established the Acadian School at Halifax on 31st July, 
1813, and took a deep interest in the Micmacs, their cus- 
toms, language, etc., he being apparently the first English- 
man to do so to any extent. 

1827. West (John). Journal of a Mission to the Indians of the British 
Provinces of New Brunswick and Nova Scotia, and the 
Mohawks on Grand Eiver, Upper Canada. Lond.. 1827. 

1829. Haliburton (Judge Thomas Chandler). Historical and Statis- 
tical Account of Nova Scotia. 2 vols. Halifax, 1829. 
Contains miscellaneous historical references to Micmacs. 

1836. Bromley (Walter). Vocabulary of the Micmacs. In Gallatin 
(A.), Synopsis of Indian Tribes, in Am. Ant. Soc. Trans., 
vol. ii, pp. 305-367. Cambridge, Mass., 1836. 

1850. Rand (Rev. Silas Tertius). A Short Statement of Facts relating 
to the History, Manners, Customs, Language, and Litera- 
ture of the Micmac Tribe of Indians in Nova Scotia -and 
P. E. Island. Halifax, N. S., 1850. 40 pp. This is a most 
valuable account of our modern Micmacs, written by one 
whose knowledge of them was very intimate. See also 1894. 



120 MICMAC INDIANS OF NOYA SCOTIA 

I860. [Rand (Kev. Silas Tertius)]. The History of Poor Sarah; a pious 
Indian woman. In Micmac. [Halifax (?), 1850.]. 12 pp. 

1853. [Rand (Rev. Silas Tertius)]. The Gospel according to St. 
Matthew in the Micmac Language. Charlottetown, 1853. 
118 pp. Also as Pela Kesagunoodumumkawa tan tula 
Uksakumamenos Westowoolkw Sasoogoole Clistawit ooten- 
iiik; Meguinoweesimk; Chebooktook [Halifax], 1871; 
sometimes with almost the entire New Testament. 
Rand subsequently published, anonymously, Micmac transla- 
tions of the Bible as follows, and later editions of the same, 
which will be found fully set forth in Filling's Biblio- 
graphy: St. John (Halifax, 1854, 95 pp.); St. Luke (Bath, 
1856, 148 pp.); Genesis (Bath, 1857, 213 pp.); Psalms (Bath, 
1859, 282 pp.); Acts (Bath, 1863, 140 pp.); Exodus (Halifax, 
1870, 166 pp.); St. Mark (Halifax, 1874, [39 pp.]); Epistles 
and Revelation (Halifax, 1874, [216 pp.]). "Also, with his 
name, The Gospels of St. Matthew, Mark, and Luke, with 
the Epistles and Revelation, translated from the Greek 
into Micmac; Halifax, 1875; 126 +[39] + [68] + [216] pp. 

1854. Rand (Rev. Silas Tertius). Ferst Reding Buk in Mikmak. 
London, 1854. 40 pp. For second edition, see 1875. 

1861. [Shea (John Gilmary)]. Micmac or Recollect Hieroglyphics. 
Historical Magazine, 1st series, vol. v, pp. 289-292; New 
York and London, 1861. A general account of the inven- 
tion of these symbols by LeClercq, and their use, also 
the Lord's Prayer in hieroglyphs. 

1864. Ambrose (Rev. John, M. A.). Some account of the Petral 
. . . with a few observations on a beach-mound or kitchen- 
midden, near French Village. Trans. N. S. Institute of 
.Natural Science, i, pt. 2, pp. 34-44. Read 4 Jan. 1864. 
Kitchen-middens described on pages 42-43. 

1864. G[ossip] (W[illiam]). On the occurrence of the Kjockken- 
moedding, on the shores of Nova Scotia [at French Village 
and Cole Harbour, Halifax Co.]. Trans. N. S, Inst. Nat. 
Sc., i, pt. 2, pp. 94-99. 

1864. Maillard (Abbe [Anthony S.]). Grammar of the Mikmaque 
Language of Nova Scotia, from the manuscripts of the 
Abbe Maillard. New York, 1864. 101 pp. (Vol. 9 of 
Shea's Library of American Linguistics.) 



AND THEIR REMAINS. PIERS. 121 

1865. Murdoch (Beamish). History of Nova Scotia. 3 vols. Halifax, 
1865-7. Contains miscellaneous historical references to the 
Micmacs. 

1865. Uniacke (Rev. Richard J[ohn]). Sketches of Cape Breton, 

originally addressed as letters to Archbishop Whately. 
Preface dated, Sydney, C. B., 12 Sept., 1865, but originally 
written about 1862. Unpublished (?) manuscript in files of 
N. S. Historical Society. Chapter 8 (20 pp.) is on the 
"Native Indians/' 

1866. [Kauder (Rev. Christian) of Tracadie, N. S.]. Buch des gut 

enthaltend den Katechismus, Betrachtung, Gesang. Wien, 
[Vienna], 1866. 146+110+210 pp. Catechism, meditations 
and hymns, printed in the Micmac hieroglyphics invented 
by Father Christien Leclercq, which had previously only 
been used in manuscripts. Each of the parts of this book 
were also published separately; same place and date. 

1868. Dawson ([Sir] John William). Acadian Geology. 2nd ed. Lon- 

don, 1868. Pp. 41-46 of chapter 4, contains remarks on 
prehistoric man in Nova Scotia; .and Micmac heads are 
figured opp. p. 41, and a few stone implements on p. 43. 
Appendix A, pp. 673-675, is on the Micmac language and 
superstitions. 

1869. Akins (Thomas B[eamish], D. C. L. ^Selections from Public 

Documents of Nova Scotia. Halifax, 1869. Miscellaneous 
historical references to Micmacs, text of treaties, etc. 

1870. DesBrisay (Mather B[yles], -M. P. P.). History of County of 

Lunenburg. [1st ed.] Halifax, 1870. The aborigines are 
dealt with on pp. 150-159. See also enlarged 2nd ed., 1895. 

1871. [Rand (Rev. Silas Tertius)]. [Terms of Relationship of the 

Micmacs, and Etchemins or Malisetes, collected by Rev. S. 
T. Rand, missionary, Hantsport, N. S.] In Morgan (Lewis 
Henry), Systems of Consanguinity and Affinity of the 
Human Family, (Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge, 
vol. 17, no. 218), pp. 293-382, lines 59-60; Washington, 1871. 

1873. Gilpin (J[ohn] Bernard, M. D.). On the Stone Age of Nova 
Scotia. Trans. N. S. Inst. Nat. Sc., iii, pp. 220-231. with 
plate illustrating 10 specimens. Read 10th Feb., 1873. 



122 MICMAC INDIANS OF NOVA SCOTIA 

1873. Rand (Rev. Silas Tertius). Short Account of the Lord's Work 
among the Micmac Indians. Halifax, 1873. 32 pp. 

1873. Campbell (Duncan). Nova Scotia. Montreal, 1873. Pp. 17-26 

treats of the Micmacs, the information having been evident- 
ly derived from Rand's Short Statement of Facts. 

1875. [Rand (Rev. Silas Tertius, D. D.)]. A First Reading Book in 
the Micmac Language. Halifax, 1875. iv, 5-108 pp. This 
is a most necessary book for anyone studying the Micmao 
language. See also 1854. 

1877. Gilpin (J[ohn] Bernard, M. D.). Indians of Nova Scotia. 
Trans. N. S. Inst. Nat. Sc., iv, pp. 260-231. Read 12 March, 
1877. Treats, in a most interesting manner, of the 
Micmacs in historic time. 

1877. Patterson (Rev. George, D. D.). History of County of Pictou, 
N. S. Montreal, 1877. Pp. 26-37 is devoted to an account 
of the Micmacs. 

J878. Dawson (Sir John William). Supplement to second edition of 
Acadian Geology. London, 1878. Additional matter on 
Micmac remains is given on pp. 18-19, with figure of a bone 
harpoon-head on p. 19. 

1883. Patterson (Rev. George, D. D.). Antiquities of Nova Scotia. 

Annual Report Smithsonian Inst. for 1881. Wash., 1883, 
pp. 673-677. 

1884. Leland (Charles G[odfrey]). Algonquin Legends. Bost., 1884. 

377 pp., illus. Founded chiefly on the legends collected 
by Rand. See 1894. 

1885. Rand (Rev. Silas Tertius). The Micmac Language. In Cana- 

dian Science Monthly, Nos. 10-11, pp. 142-146; Kentville, 
fi t N. .S., Oct.-Nov., 1885. A general discussion, including 
some poly synthetic words. 

1888. Rand (Rev. Silas Tertius, D. D., LL. D.). Dictionary of the 
Language of the Micmac Indians. Halifax, 1888. viii, 
286 pp. English-Micmac part only published, but the 
Micmac-English section is in manuscript. 

1888. Rand (Rev. Silas Tertius). The Micmac Indians. Our Forest 
Children, vol. ii, no. 4, pp. 10-12; Shingwauk Home, Sault 
'Ste. Marie, Ont., 1888. Grammatic remarks, p. 11; 
vocabulary of about 80 words and sentences, Micmac and 
English, pp. 11-12; etc. 



AND THEIR REMAINS. PIERS. 123 

1888. Creed (George). Pictographs at Fairy Lake, Queens Co., N. S. 
Read before Nova .Scotia Historical Society, 13th November, 
1888, but not published entire. A very full summary 
of it appears in the Morning Chronicle (newspaper), Hali- 
fax, of 14th November, 1888. 331 sheets of the copies of 
the petroglyphs made by Creed in 1887 and 1888 to illustrate 
this paper, are now preserved in the Provincial Museum 
at Halifax. 

1888. Brown (George Stay ley). Yarmouth, N. S. Boston, 1888. 

Chapter 7 (pp. 86-101) treats of the Micmacs. 

f889. Patterson (Rev. George, D. D.). The Stone Age in Nova Scotia, 
as illustrated by a collection of relics, presented to Dal- 
housie College. Trans. N. S. Iiist. Nat. Sc., vii, pp. 231- 
252. Read 11 Feb., 1889. 

1889. Piers (Harry). Aboriginal Remains of Nova Scotia, illustrated 

by the Provincial Museum Collections. Trans. N. S. last. 
Nat. Sc., vii, pp. 276-290, with 1 plate illustrating 6 
specimens. Read 13 May, 1889. 

1890. Rand (Rev. Silas Tertius). Legends of the Micmac Indians. 

American Antiquarian, vol. xii, p. 3; Chicago, 1890. 

1891. Pilling (James Constantine). Bibliography of the Algonquian 

Languages. Washington, Bureau of Ethnology, 1891. 614 
pp. An exhaustive work on the subject, giving full titles 
and biographical sketches of authors of works dealing with 
the language of the Micmacs, etc. 

1893. Mallary (Col. Garrick). Picture-writing of the American 

Indians. In 10th Annual Report of Bureau of Ethnology, 
1888-9; Washington, 1893 Describes petroglyphs on Fairy 
rocks, Queens Co., N. S., on pp. 37-42, and figures Nos. 1, 
2, 549, 550, 654 to 658, 717, 718, 739 to 741, 1254, 1255, and 
1262, illustrate Nova Scotian examples. 

1894. Rand (Rev. Silas Tertius, D. D., D.C.L., LL. D.). Legends of 

the Micmacs. New York & Lond., 1894. xlvi, 452 pp. 
Pp. xvii-xxix give bibliography of Rand's works and 
biblical translations in Micmac; and on pp. xxx-xlvi is 
an .account of the manners, customs, language, and litera- 
ture of the Micmacs from Rand's pamphlet, "A Short 
Statement of Facts" (1850). 



124 MICMAC INDIANS OF NOVA SCOTIA 

1895. Piers (Harry). Relics of the Stone Age in Nova Scotia. Trans. 
N. S. Inst. Nat. Sc., ix, pp. 26-58, with 3 plates illustrating 
98 specimens, nearly all in the Fairbanks collection. Read 
13 May, 1895. 

1895. DesBrisay (Judge Mather Byles). History of the County of 

Lunenburg. 2nd ed. Toronto, 1895. Chapter xxx (pp. 341- 
351) is devoted to the aborigines, murders and scalpings by 
them, burial places, and interesting incidents. 

1896. Hagar (Stansbury). Magic and Medicine of the Micmacs. 

Journal of Am. Folk-Lore, vol. ix, p. 170; Boston, 1896. 

1897. Hagar (Stansbury). Weather and the Seasons in Micmac 

Mythology. Journal of Am. Folk-Lore, vol. x, p. 101; 
Boston, 1897. 

1897. Calnek lW[illiam] A.) and Savary (Judge A W.). History of 

County of Annapolis. Toronto, 1897. Contains a few 
references to the Micmacs. 

1899. McLeod (Robert R[andall]). In the Acadian Land: Nature 

Studies. Boston, 1899. The Micmac Indians are 
described on pp. 140-155. 

1900. Gatschet (A[lbert] S[amuel]). Micmac Fans and Games, 

Bulletin of Free Museum of Science and Arts, Department 
of Archaeology and Palaeontology, Univ. of Penn., vol. ii, 
No. 3, May, 1900, pp. 1-5. Describes fans, and the game 
"altesta-an." 

1900. Wilson (Isaiah W.) Geography and History of .the County of 

Digby, N. S. Halifax, 1900. Pp. 21-26 treats briefly of 

the Micmacs. 
1903. McLeod (Robert R[andall]). Markland or Nova Scotia. 

[Chicago?], 1903. Chapter xi, pp. 166-175 is on the Indians 

of Nova Scotia. 

1907. Hodge (Frederick Webb). Handbook of American Indians. 

2 vols. Bulletin Bur. of Am. Eth., 30. Wash., 1907. 
Article 'Micmac/ vol. 1, pp. 858-859 (by Jas, Mooney & 
Cyrus Thomas). 

1908. Hewitt (Harry W.). Customs of the Micmac Indians. Unpub- 

lished manuscript of 33 pp., read before N. S. Historical 
Society, 21 April, 1908, and preserved in files of that 
Society. 



AND THEIR REMAINS. PIERS. 125 

1910. Eaton (Rev. Arthur Wentworth Hamilton, D. C. L.). History 
of King's County, N. S. Salem, Mass., 1910. Chapter 2, 
pp. 10-22, treats of the Micmacs. 

1910. Piers (Harry). [Anthropological Accessions to Provincial 

Museum.] Report on Prov. Museum for 1910, in Report of 
Department of Mines of N. S., for 1910, pp. 205-210. 
Describes Creed's copies of petroglyphs on Fairy rocks, etc., 
recent costumes, work and implements of Micmacs. 
Earlier reports contain short items on similar subjects. 

1911. Prest (Walter H.). Suggestion for Anthropological Work in 

Nova Scotia. Read before N. S. Inst. Sc., 13 Feb. 1911, and 
to be published in its Trans., vol. xiii, pp. 35-39. 

1911. Prest (Walter Henry). Report on Cave Examination in Hants 
Co., N. S. Trans. N. S. Inst. Sc., vol. xiii, pp. 87-94. Nega- 
tive results from a search for prehistoric remains in three 
caves selected for investigation. 

1911. Piers (Harry). [Anthropological Accessions to Provincial 
Museum.] Report on Provincial Museum, for 1911, in Report 
of Department of Mines of N. S., for 1911, pp. 239-241. 
Describes some implements and natural forms of rock which 
have been mistaken for the work of Indians, &c. 

The student is also referred to the following volumes of manu- 
script documents (among others) preserved in the Public Records of 
Nova Scotia: 

Vols. 430-431. Papers relating to Indians in Nova Scotia, from 
1751 to 1866. 

Vol. 432. Journal kept by Hon. Joseph Howe while Commis- 
sioner of Indian Affairs (appointed 1842), containing also plans of 
Indian reserved lands. 



-T*Roc. & TRANS. N, S. INST. Sci., Voi* XIII. TRANS. 9. 



THE ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE AND TEMPERATURE COEFFICIENT 
OF ICE. BY J. H. L. JOHNSTONE, B. Sc., Dalhousie 
University, Halifax, N. S.* 

Read 13th May, 1912. 

The following investigation was first begun in January, 
1911, with the object of determining the resist ence of ice. 

A great many difficulties were subsequently met with, 
which resulted, as will be seen, in a modification of the original 
methods, of experiment; and several other problems appeared, 
closely connected with the one treated of in this paper, the 
chief one of which is the effect of polarization, and its nature 
as related to ice. The latter problem is to be investigated fully 
at a later time. 

Dr. H. L. Bronson, when working in the Physical 
laboratory at McGill University, noticed the peculiarities 
connected with this problem and as a result this work wa& 
undertaken, with his guidance, by the writer. 

The only measurements of the resistance of ice, that could 
be found after a diligent search, were obtained from a paper 
by Ayrton and Perry. 1 As these measurements appear to be 
the only ones published, a brief summary, together with the 
results of their work, is given here. 

Aryton and Perry measured the resistance of ice as follows : 




FIG. 1. 



FIG. 2. 



* Contributions Irom the Science Laboratories of Dalhousie University [Physics]*, 
i Ayrton, M. E., and Perry : Proc. London Phys. Soc., Vol. II, 178, March, 1877. 



(126) 



THE ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE, ETC. OF ICE. JOtLVSTONE. 127 



Ice was frozen from distilled water in a copper vessel, like 
that shown in Fig. 1. Connections were then made as shown 
in Fig. 2, the current passing through the ice being measured 
by a galvanometer. Knowing the E. !\!". F. of the cells in the 

TABLE I. 

AYRTON AND PERRY'S 

VALUES 
FOR THE RESISTIVITY OF ICE AND H 2 G. 



TEMPERATURE C. 


RESISTIVITY. 


-12.4 


22.4xl0 8 


-6.2 


10.23x10" 


-5.02 


9.486xl0 8 


-3.5 


6.42 xlO 8 


-3.0 


5. 693 xlO 8 


-2.46 


4.844xl0 8 


-1.50 


3.876xl0 8 


-0.2 


2.84 xlO 8 


+ 0.75 


1.188xl0 8 


+ 2.2 


2.48 xlO 7 


+ 4.0 


9.10 xlO' 5 


+ 7.75 


5.4 x 10 3 


+ 11.02 


3.4 xlO 5 



Resistance in ohms. ("BA"). 



128 



THE ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE AND 



TABLE II. 

SPECIMEN. 

AYRTON AND PERRY'S 
RESULTS. 



VOLTAGE 


TIME 


GAL. DEFLECTION 








2.61 





30.1 


4.25 


1 


39.5 




3 


36.5 




41 


5-0.5 


8.7 


5J 


49.1 


17 4 


w 


72.7 




?J 


69.0 




124 


59 . 5 


28.7 


13J 


76.5 




l*i 


67.2 


Ice short 


circuited for 4 


minutes 


87. 


great swing 


off scale. 




23J 


212 




26J 


145 




83 


66.2 




129 


66.2 



TEMPERATURE COEFFICIENT OF ICE. JOHNSTONE. 



129 






FIG. 3. 

circuit, the resistance of the sample of ice was calculated from 
these data, and from this, the specific resistance of the ice. 
This was done for several temperatures. 

A great difficulty was encountered in determining the 
actual value of the current passing through the ice. Ayrton 
and Perry were troubled greatly by polarization effects which, 
at that time, they were unable to determine the nature of. As 
they could not eliminate this effect, which will be shown to be 



180 



THE ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE AND 



very considerable at times with the method of experimenting, 
their results do not appear to be very reliable. 

The method just outlined was first used and investigated, 
with results similar to those obtained by Ayrton and Perry 1 
and to those obtained by Dr. Bronson. 2 

A D'Arsonval galvanometer, manufactured by Leeds and 
Northrup, was used as a current measurer, its sensitivity and 
resistance being first determined. 

The resistance was determined by several methods, the 
mean of these several 
values being taken and 
found equal to 1930 
ohms, at 17 C. 

The sensitivity, or 
current which produces 
a deflection of one scale 
division was determined 
as follows: 

The galvanometer 
was connected in a cir- 
cuit as shown in Fig. 4. 

FIG. 4. 

E is a 10,000 ohm resistance coil, 
C is a standard one, (1), ohm coil, 
A is a storage cell, 
B is a 1000 ohm coil. 

The E. M. F. of the storage cell, as determined by a Weston 
voltmeter was 2.00 volts, so the current passing through the 

2 




ohrrrS 



galvanameter, i = 



1000 



10000 + 1930 



amperes. 



1. Loc. cit. 

2. Loo. oil. 



TEMPERATURE COEFFICIENT OF ICE. JOHXSTONE. 131 

It was observed that this current produced a deflection of 
51 scale divisions. Therefore the current necessary to produce 
a deflection of one scale division, will be 

2 
1000 = 3.29 x 1CT 9 amp. 



(10001 + 1930)51 

The specimen of ice was prepared as follows: Two brass 
electrodes, circular discs, were made; a copper rod was 
soldered to one of them and a copper wire was soldered to the 
edge of the other one. A cylinder of ice, 3 cm. in height, was 
cut from ice, obtained from the Dartmouth Lakes. The 
electrodes were then frozen to this cylinder of ice by warming 
them slightly and then pressing them to the upper and lower 
surfaces of the ice. This conductivity cell, so to speak, was 
placed on a plate of parafine wax, and the whole thing was 
placed in a box, which was kept in the open air, shaded from 
the sun. Of course experiments could only be performed when 
the air was below the temperature of 0C, which was quite 
frequent at this period of the year. Several sets of readings 
are given below, together with a set of readings from Ayrton 
and Perry's papers. 1 The apparatus was connected up as in 
Fig. 2. 

In the actual experiment, the current was made to pass 
through the ice for a considerable period of time, in some cases 
the circuit being unbroken for 48 hours. 

When the current was suddenly reversed after flowing for 
quite a length of time in one direction, a very much greater 
deflection of the galvanometer was obtained than at first. This 
deflection decreased somewhat with time. Thus for instance, 
the deflection changes from 9 divisions, on one side of the zero, 
to 13 divisions on the other side when the current is reversed 
through the ice. This is an increase of 40$ of the current, which 
passed through the ice in the initial case. If this is all due to' 

!. Loc cit. 



132 



THE ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE AND 



TABLE III. 



JAN. 24, 25, 26, 1911. 



TIME 


TEMP. 


SHUNT 


VOLTAGE 


DEFLECTION 


Right 


I<eft 


Jan. 24 4.15 




1 ohm. 


20.9 


9 


13 


4.45 




Cl 





6 


15 


4.50 




(1 


40.7 


27.5 


8.0 







20.9 


3.5 


10.00 




40 


1 " 


102.0 


106.0 


" 2510.45 
? " 12.00 


-.5C 

.' 


30 



( . 


140*-65 
73-23 


83-37 


" " 12.35 


u 


<( 





80.-29 




1.00 





u 


it 


16 




2.00 


+ 1 


(( 


(C 


175-158 




" 2610.25 


-6 


< 


(I 


17-15 


19-15 


10.30 


n 





20.1 cells 


25 




10.45 





K 


40.7 


102-23 




12.50 


-5 





10 cells 


I5-16J 





* The current took 10 seconds to fall from "140-65" in value, 
f The current took 3 seconds to fall from 73-23 in value. 
In the 2nd column we have the temp, of air beside the ire, recorded. 
In the last column the deflections of the gal., and the deflections when the cur- 
rent is reversed, are given. 

polarization, the phenomena we have here to treat of, are quite 
different from the so-called electrolytic polarization effects. 
Ayr ton and Perry 1 noticed similar effects on reversal, and on 
short-circuting their "cell," (see page 128). In one case, it will 
be seen that on short-circuiting their cell, the current increased 
about 17" 5$ of its original value. Similar results were con- 
sistently obtained by the writer. 

i. LOG. cit. 



TEMPERATURE COEFFICIENT OF ICE. JOHNSTONE. 133 

As resistances calculated from such values of the current as 
the above would have little or no value, "a method was then 
sought, whereby the effects just indicated could be eliminated. 

A great deal of time was spent in attempting to find out 
the nature of this polarization and measure its value. The 
"Tuning Fork' 71 method of measuring electrolytic polarization 
was used first of all, with water as the electrolyte, and correct 
values were obtained. But when the ice cell was substituted 
for the water cell, this method would give no results on account, 
principally, of capacity effects. A "commutator' 7 method was 
also tried with similar results. 

By using Kohlrausch's method for measuring the resistance 
of electrolytes, the polarization effect would probably be 
eliminated. However, the maximum resistance that can be 
measured by this method is of the order of 10 6 ohms. As ice 
has a specific resistance of more than 10 8 ohms', this method is 
not practicable. It might be possible however, by taking thin 
sections of a block of ice, to measure its resistance by means 
of Nernst's conductivity apparatus. 2 

!N~ow one of the methods of measuring the resistance of a 
solid conductor, is to determine the drop in potential between 
two sections of the substance, when a steady current is flowing 
through these sections. Knowing the values of i and e, the 
resistance can be calculated. 

A method very similar to the above was adopted, and as 
will be shown, the effects of polarization, etc., will be elimi- 
nated as far as the measurement of the resistance is concerned. 

The apparatus was set up, as shown in Fig. 5. B, is a "U" 
tube, 12 cm. in height, with a bore of about 2 cm. a and a\ are 
glass tubes of 2J mm. bore, with platinum points sealed at the 
ends c and (\. 1) and ~b l are glass tubes of 4 or 5 mm. bore, with 



1 Watson, M. : Text book of Physics, page 790. 

2 Nernst. W. : Zeitschr. f. phys. Chem., 14,- 622, (1894) ; also Maltby, M. E. : 
ibid. 18, 133, (1895). 



134 



THE ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE AND 




FIG. 5. 



TEMPERATURE COEFFICIENT OF ICE. JOHNSTONS 135 

platinum wires, d and d^ sealed in the end as shown in the 
iigure. Thesa four tubes are fitted carefully in corks, and 
then in the "U" tube as shown. 

Now suppose we fill the tube with an electrolyte and pass 
a current through it, by way of the electrodes b and b r There 
will result a polarization at these electrodes and the value of 
the current will vary somewhat with the time. If this current 
is measured by a sensitive galvanometer and if the difference 
in potential of the two electrodes is measured by a voltmeter, 
a value of the resistance of the electrolyte could be calculated 
.at any particular time; but this is a varying quantity, and not 
the true resistance of the electrolyte. 

Now if two other electrodes a and a (see Fig. 5), are placed 
in the position shown in the figure, their ends c and c x being 
lower somewhat than the extremities of the pjatinum wires 
d and d v and then a current is parsed through the electrolyte 
"by way of the electrodes d and d^ then if we measured the dif- 
ference of potential between the points c and c r by some electro- 
static instrument and knew, the value of current, we could 
calculate the value of the resistance of the electrolyte between 
the points c and c,, and the resistance so calculated would be 
constant in value and unaffected by polarization. This would 
be so, because when there is a variation in the current due to 
polarization or any other causes, there will be a proportional 
change in the potential difference between the two potential 
electrodes, so that the ratio of the potential difference to the 
current will be constant (with a const, temp.). Therefore the 
resistance determined in this way will have a constant value. 
Thus, polarization effects will be eliminated. 

The current passing through the electrolyte, (which was 
ice in this case), was measured by a Dolezalek electrometer, 
A, (see Fig. 5). The potential of ea?h potential electrode 
was measured by a Wilson Tilting electroscope, D, the plate 
of the electroscope being kept at a potential of 320 volts, from 
small storage cells. A caMbration curve for this instrument, 
as it was used in these experiments is shown in Fig. 0. It 



136 



THE ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE AND 



\ 



\ 






// />. 7} 



2. 






(/ /O 
'3.30 



\\ 



^ 



FIG. 6. 



TEMPERATURE COEFFICIENT OF ICE. JOHNSTON E. 137 

will be seen that this method of measuring high resistances of 
any kind, insulators for example, is very advantageous, for 
currents as small as 10~ 14 amperes, can he measured with ease 
by the Dolezalek electrometer, while the Wilton Tilting electro- 
scope can be made very sensitive. For electrolytes with low 
resistances, the current could be measured by a galvanometer 
and the potential by the electrometer, since the latter as a 
current measure would be too sensitive for use in this case. 

PKEPARATION OF THE ICE. 

Pure water was obtained with a resistivity of about 1x10 
ohms. 

After cleaning the U U" tube very carefully first, in a 
solution of potassium bichromate and sulphuric acid, then in 
an alcohol-ether solution and then washing several times in 
distilled water, both hot and cold the pure water was put in 
the tube, its resistance carefully determined and temperature 
noted. The specific resistance of a sample of this water was 
then determined by the KohlrauscJi method, the temperatures 
being the same in the two cases. From these results the a cell 
constant" of the apparatus can be calculated. 

The "U" tube was then placed inside a cylindrical glass 
vessel, about 15 cm. in diameter and 45 cm. in height. This 
was then placed in an earthenware- jar, which in turn was sur- 
rounded by an ice-salt mixture, contained in a bucket. The 
while apparatus was kept in a refrigerator. 

A thermo-couple (Fig 7) consisting of a German-silver- 
iron junction, was used to measure the temperature of the ice, 
which was formed in the "U" tube. The junction was enclosed 
in a capillary tube, which could be slipped in and out of one 
of the electrode tubes, "a ", (Fig. 5). For a diagram of 'the 
connections of the thermo-couple see Fig. 7. A very careful 
calibration of this instrument was made over the range of 



138 



THE ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE AND 




FIG. 7. 

temperatures through which it was to be used in the experi- 
ment, viz. from 5 to 12C. 

It was found very difficult to freeze the water in the "U" 
tube in the method described, without the tube being broken 
by the expansion of the ice. To obviate this difficulty a piece 
of rubber tubing, about .5 cm. in diameter and 15 cm. in length, 
and very carefully cleaned by boiling, etc., was closed at one 
end, by means of a glass stopper. The other end was also 
closed with the exception of a small hole, the size of a pin-head. 
This tubing was placed inside the "U" tube, care being 
taken to prevent any quantity of water entering through the 
opening in the one end. When the water expands on freezing, 
it can be seen that a certain amount of freedom is allowed it, 
by its being able to push in the lateral surface of the rubber 



TEMPERATURE COEFFICIENT OF ICE. JOHNSTONE. 139 

tubing, the air inside escaping through the pin-hole. It was 
found that the water could be frozen with ease in this way 
without the glass tube being broken. 

The electrometer was then calibrated. In this experiment, 
the needle was changed to a potential of about 200 volts. The 
electroscope was then calibrated over the range at which it was 
to be used. 1 

To obtain a set of readings at different temperatures, the 
"U" tube was connected up with the electrometer and electro- 
scope and source of current, (Fig. 5). In most of the 
experiments the current was obtained from 10 storage cells, 
which gave an E. M. F. of about 20 volts. The "U" tube was 
very carefully packed in the glass vessel with "felt" and so 
temperature changes were slow. The time, in seconds, for the 
electrometer needle to pass over 100 scale divisions, was 
recorded on a stop-watch. The temperature of the ice was then 
read from the thermo-couple. The potential difference of the 
two electrodes, c and C L (Fig. 5), was then determined from the 
electroscope readings at these points. 

If d Ez the scale divisions passed over per second by the 
electrometer needle; 

D E; the number of divisions per volt, and C HE the capacity 
of the system in microfarads, then the current, f, passing 
through the ice will be, 



If V El the potential diff^ence of the two electrodes c and c lf 
then R, the resistance of the electrolyte between c and Ci will 
be, 

V x 10 6 x D , 
p . - ohms. 

If A; denote the cell constant of the apparatus then the 
specific resistance of the ice will be, 

^r ohms - 



i. See Fig. 6. 



140 THE ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE AND 

In the following table column I gives the time at which the 
readings were taken; column II the readings of the electro- 
scope, when the gold leaf was connected with each one of the 
potential electrodes, c and c l ] column III, the time taken for 
the electrometer needle to pass over 100 scale divisions; 
column IV, the temperature of the water bath in Fig. 7, the 
reading of the galanometer, and the calculated temperature 
of the ice; column V, the electromotive force used in the 
experiment; column VI, the capacity of the system; column 
VII, the calculated resistance and column VIII, the specific 
resistance of the ice. In the experiments performed, readings 
were taken as the temperature of the ice decreased to the 
minimum temperature for the particular salt and ice mixture 
in the outer vessel, and then as the temperature rose up to zero. 



TEMPERATURE COEFFICIENT OF ICE. JOHNSTONE. 14] 

TABLE IV. 
RESISTANCE OF ICE 

CELL. CONSTANT = .315 April 2, 1912 



M 

s 


ELECTROSCOPE 


ELFCTRO- 

METER 


TEMPERATURE 


& . 

a 

H 


| 


SPECIFIC 
RES. 

(Ohms.) 


I. 


II 


I. 

Th Cp 


II. 
Th. Cp 


C*l. [Temp 


4.10 


15-83 


61.1-83 


1m. 24 s. 


126 


125 


16.9 


19.3 


41.2 


0.0.i 


3 86x1 


430 


" 


' 


1m. 25s. 


127.8 


125.5 


17.0 


19.7 





3.90xl0 9 


4.40 


" 


" 


1m. 28 s. 


128 


125.5 


16.9 


19.9 


( ( 1 41 


4.04x10* 


5.55 


" 


64.5-83 


1m. 30s 


127 


122 


16.9 


19.6 


It 


4.13xl0 9 


740 


14 5 80 


62.0-80 


1m. 17 s. 


121^ 


" 


16.3 


18.6 


14 


ii 


3.56x10* 


800 


82-15 


62 5-82 


1m. 13s. 


120.2 


118.8 


16.4 







K 


3.47xl0 9 


9.00 


15-81.5 


59.0-81 


1m. s. 


117.0 


117.0 


16.4 


17.2 


(1 


(( 


2.69xlO 


1000 


16-81 3 


58-81-5 


45 s 


112.6 


112.0 


< 


15 9 





tt 


1.98xlO 


10.04 


81 5-16 





46 " 


111.1 


111.0 










I . 




1015 


'< 


a 


44 ' 


112.1 


111.6 


" 


15.8 


< 


K 


1.94x10 


10.20 


81.3-16.5 


58-81.3 


45 ' 


111.0 




16.4 




(( 


(I 




10.40 





<i 


40 " 


109.5 


110.0 


' 




<i 


< . 




11.00 


14.5-81 


55.5-81 


22 ' 


95.0 


93 


M 


10.8 


(. 


( ( 




' 


" 


" 


89 





" 


(( 




( 


0.2 


947xl0 9 


11.10 


K 





90 ' 


94.5 


K 


4 


10 6 





tt 


0.958xl0 9 


11.17 


1581.5 


55-81.5 


88 ' 


93.0 


91.5 


16.3 


10.3 


i( 





().936xl0 9 


11.40 





(< 


88 ' 


90 




" 


9.4 


(( 





0.852x10 


12.00 


16-81.5 


53.8-81.5 


414' 


75 


73.5 


16.8 


4.5 


' 


t. 


0.457xl0 9 


12.15 


" 


11 


39 ' 


72.5 


72.0 


16.75 


3 85 


K 


X 


0.430xl0 9 


12.25 


15-81.5 


54.2-81.5 


38i ' 


71.5 


70.0 


16.8 


3.5 


" 


< 


0.410x10* 


A. 3. 






















10.15 


23-805 


67 80.5 


48 ' 


77.3 


76.0 


14.8 


7.1 





t < 


464xlO 


1025 


M 


it 


* 


77.1 


76.0 


.< 




C( 


(( 




11.10 


20-82.5 


64-82 5 


79 ' 


62.1 


61.0 


15.2 


2.3 


( i 


1.00 


0.169x109 


11.15 


14 


66-82.5 


85 ' 


63.0 


61.3 


15.2 


2.6 





t i 


O.lSlxlO 9 


1 1 .33 


" 


" 


36 ' 


77.5 


77.0 


15.3 


6.8 





0.20 


0.390xl0 9 


11.37 


tc 


ti 


39 ' 


81.0 


79.1 


' 


7.8 


" 


0.423x1 9 


11.47 


21.6-82.6 


62-82.6 


21 ' 


56.8 


55.6 


15.4 


0.6 


(( 


1.00 0.0386xl0 9 


11.55 


* 


>( 


19i 


55.0 




t . 


0.1 


'< 


' |0.o349xl0 9 


12.00 


ii 


M 


19 ' 


it 




<* 




i 




12.10 


20.0-82.4 


58-82.4 


21 ' 


55.1 


57.0 


'" 





" 


" JO. 0367xlO 



It was found that the rubber tubing in the "U" tube affected 
the conductivity of the contents to quite an extent, and in this 
particular experiment the water was frozen without the pre- 
sence of the rubber, and also in the suceeding experiments. 
However, the general shape of the temperature resistance curve 
was found to be the s>ame in every experiment performed. 

The water, which was put in the cell originally, had a 
specific resistance of about 1.4x 10 rt ohms at 17.9 C. 

In the measurement of the temperature of the ice between 
the "potential" terminals, by the thermo-couple, it .was found 
that there was a considerable temperature-gradient' in the - ( U" 



PROG. & TRANS. N. S. INST. Sci., VOL. XIII. 



TRANS. 10. 



142 



THE ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE AND 



tube in the direction of its length,, although the tube was 
enclosed in three separate vessels, in a refrigerator and closely 
packed with felt. The junction of the thermo-couple was 
enclosed in a capillary-tube, (see Fig. 7), so lihat it could be 
placed inside the "potential-terminal-tube/' c l (see Fig. 5). 
A reading of the galvanometer was taken when the end of the 
capillary tube reached the end -of the "potential-terminal-tube." 
The capillary tube was then drawn up about 3 centimeters or 
so and another galvanometer reading was made. The average 
of these two readings wag taken as the average temperature 
of the ice between the potential terminals. 

When the water was frozen, cracks were observed through 
the ice in the "IT" tube, and it was found impossible to obtain 
ice at low temperatures, by freezing in the tube, without the 
cracks 

These cracks may have a considerable effect on the 
resistance of the ice. So the accuracy of the values of the 
specific resistance as given in this paper, is limited by this 
uncertainty. 




F 




t- 

I?' 

1; 



7 



PIG. 8. 



TEMPERATURE COEFFICIENT OF ICE. JOHNSTONE. 143 



A temperature-resistance curve is shown in Fig. 8, and it 
will be observed that it is nearly expotential. This was found 
to be the case in every curve of six, plotted. * 

The specific resistance of the ice was found by multiplying 
the resistance of the ice between the "potential-terminals" by 
the "cell-constant" 1 of the tube. 

To determine the temperature co-efficient of the resistance 
at different temperatures, the cotangent of the temperature- 
resistance curve, (Fig. 9), was determined graphically at 
different temperatures, and this was divided by the resistance 
of the ice at this point, Thus if R t is the specific resistance 
at temperature t then the temperature co-efficient at this tem- 

perature will be -p- x . For the temperature co-efficient 



u t 



curve, see Fig. 9. 



f 



i- 

I"- 



C*r* 



-.! 



7~. > 7/sr/7V<? T "Csss*' C^'O CT*~r~sc 

FIG 0. 




i. Kjohlraufch, F., Phj-^ico-Chem. Men.ure.mcrt8. 



144 ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE, ETC. OF ICE. JOHNSTOXE. 

SUMMARY. 

1. The specific resistance of ice has been determined at 
temperatures ranging from to -- 19 C. 

2. The effects of electrolytic-polarization have bee'i 
eliminated by the method used. 

3. The value of the temperature-co-efficient of the resist- 
ance of ice has been determined at different temperatures and 
its value has been found to be very much higher than the tem- 
perature-co-efficient of ordinary electrolytes. It decreases in 
value as the temperature decreases from zero. 

The values obtained for the specific resistance of ice com- 
pare fairly well with those obtained by Ayrton and Perry, 
using a different method. 

In conclusion I wish to thank Dr. H. L. Bronson, who 
suggested this work, and without whose kind supervision and 
assistance, this research could not have beer undertaken. 



Dalhoueie University, Halifax, N. S. 
April 20th, 1912. 



THE GEOLOGICAL AGE OF PRINCE EDWARD ISLAND. BY 
LAWRENCE W. WATSON, M. A., Charlottetown, P. E. I. 

Read 8th April, 1912. 

The exact position of Prince Edward Island in geological 
time has long been a matter of uncertainty. That it was 
limited in one direction by the Upper Carboniferous and in 
the other by the Trias, was recognized by all the Canadian 
geologists who have examined the rocks of the island, notably 
Gesner, Sir William Dawson, Dr. Ells of the Geological Survey 
of Canada, and the native naturalist, Francis Bain; but the 
general similarity of the rocky constituents, the conform ability 
of the strata and the scarcity of fossils rendered the recognition 
of possible plurality of formations difficult, if at all possible. 

The lowest beds, with outcrop on St. Peter's and Governor's 
Islands in Hillsborough Bay, and on the still more easterly 
extension of the same anticline at Gallows or Gallas Point, vvere 
early recognized as similar in character and geological horizon 
with the Upper Carboniferous beds of the northern coast of 
Nova Scotia, and of parts of New Brunswick opposite to Prince 
Edward Island. 

Along the western shore of Prince Edward Island, from 
Cape Wolfe to Nail Pond, the lowest strata disclose rocks of an 
almost equally ancient origin as those of the Hillsborough Bay 
anticline above mentioned. 

In some places on the mainland, as about Cape Tormentine, 
these lowest beds of dark red or brown sandstones with con- 
glomerates and grey streaks (indicating the elimination of 
colouring matter by vegetable organisms), with plant fossils 
characteristic of the Upper Carboniferous formation, pass, with- 
out stratigraphical demarcation into the red sandstones, impure 
limestones, and shales which form the bulk of the rocks of 
Prince Edward Island. 

(145) 



116 GEOLOGICAL AGE OF PRINCE EDWARD ISLAND. WATSON. 

Because of the want of distinct demarcation between the 
Upper Carboniferous and the next succeeding Lower Permian 
systems, Sir William Dawson assigned the lowest and middle 
rocks to his "Permo-Carboniferous" system, but, from the find- 
ing at New London of the fossil jaw of an animal, named by 
Dr. Leidy Bathygnathtis borealis, which he (as now transpires, 
erroneously), concluded was a triassic dinosaur a conclusion 
accepted by the great palaeontologist Cope Sir William Daw- 
son assigned the district in which the fossil was found to the 
Trias, the age next succeeding to the Permian. 
i Sir William Dawson's latest expressed opinions as to the 
red sandstones of Prince Edward Island are contained in his 
Handbook of Canadian Geology (1889), pages 97 to 101, from 
which the following summary is compiled: 

The Permian System. The Permo-Carboniferous red sand- 
stones of Prince Edward Island and eastern Nova Scotia are 
typical of the Lower Permian. Their fossils are for the most 
part generioally similar to those of the Carboniferous. The 
Upper Permian is not represented in Canada. The Permian, or 
Permo-Carboniferous of Prince Edward Island does not yet 
admit of any division into distinct groups and it rests conform- 
ably on the upper coal formation without any stratigraphical 
break. It is characterized by a prevalence of sandstones and 
shales coloured by the red oride of iron. 

The Triassic System,. The Bunter sandstone (the lowest of 
the three divisions which gave its name Trias to the system) 
is represented in Canada by the lower new red sandstone of 
the Bay' of Fundy and Prince Edward Island, associated with 
trappean rocks. Its fossils are conifers and cycads, and the 
footprints of dinosaurs. The limestones of the Middle Trias 
of Germany and eastern France are not found in eastern 
America. To the Keuper sandstone (the uppermost of the 
triad series) belong the upper sandstones of Prince Edward 
Island and the Bay of Fundy, where its trappean beds form 



GEOLOGICAL AGE OF PRINCE EDWARD ISLAND. WATSON. 147 

the North Mountain of Cornwallis and Annapolis counties. In 
both Nova Scotia and New England the triassic age was remark- 
able for the deposition of red sandstone in shallow bays and 
straits, and for the ejection of great dykes of