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No
Boston
Medical Library
Association,
19 BOYLSTON PLACE.
r
t
\
PROCEEDINGS
OF
TBE AMERICAN ASSOCIATION
VOB THB
A.IDVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE.
TWENTT-SECOND MEETING,
HELD AT
PORTLAND, MAINE,
AUGUBT, 1878.
PUBLISHED B;r THE FEKMANENT 8ECBETART.
1874.
ICDITED BT
F. W. PUTNAM,
Fermanent Secretary.
FBIKTBD AT
THE SALEM PRESS,
SALBtf, MASS.
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
PAGE
QflBeen of the Portland Meeting, ix
Officers of the Sections, Portland Meeting, x
Local Committee of Portland Meeting, zi
Special Committees of the Association, zii
Offioen of the Hartford Meeting ziv
Local Committee of Hartford Meeting, xv
Meetings of the Association, xri
Constitotion of the Association, xvii
Beeohitions of a Permanent and Prospective Cluuraoter, xxiii
List of Members, xxy
Persons elected at Portland bat who have not jet accepted member^p, . xli
Deceased Members^ xUi
ADDBES8 OP THE BBTIBINQ PBESIDENT, j/LAWBENCE SMITH,
COMMUNICATIONS.
A. MATHEMATICS, PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY.
«
I. MATHEMATICS.
Kote on William Watson's Coordinates in a Plane. By Thomas Hill, 27
ANewCnrve. By Thomas Hnx, . . ^ 80
Poor Equations Partially Discossed. By Thomas Hill, 81
On the Introduction of the Metric System into Medicine and the Unlfloation of
Doses. By Habyet W. Wilbt, 94
A Chord of Spheral Mnsio. By Pukt Eablb Chasb, 105
An Attachment to the WhhrUng Table for Projecting Liss^joa's dures. By A.
t
(Ill)
106
IT GOinrENTS.
n. ASTBONOMY.
On the Relation of Internal Fluidity to the precession of the Equinoxes. By
J. O. Barnard. 85
Determination of Transatlantio Longitudes. By J. E. Hilqabd, .... 144
The Solar Photosphere. By S. P. I«aiiqlbt, 161
ni. PHYSICS.
Musical Flow of Water. By H. F. Waluvo, 45
The Relation of the Dissipation of Sneigy to Cosmloal Evolution. By H. F.
Waluno, 46
On the ConyertibUity of Sound into Electricity. By A. E. Dolbbas, ... 110
IV. PHYSICS OF THE GLOBE.
Dtarection of Wind in Local Thunder Storms. By Hibam A. Curmro, . . 60
Cyclonism and Anticydonism. By PLnrr Earlb Chasb, 108
A Stroke of Lightning, with Hints as to Immuhity. By Jaicbs Htatt, • 106
TheToniadoesof niinois. By M. L. Comstogx, 112
New Theory of Geyser-action as Illustrated by an Artillcial Geyser. By Edmumd
Andrews 115
The Arctic Regions. By Wiluam W. Whed:jx>n IIB
V. CHEIIISTRY.
On the Silt Analysis of Soils and Clays. By Euo. W. Hiloabd, .... 54
Silt Analysis of Mississippi Soils and Subsoils. By EuQ. W. Hiloabd, . 71
On the Distribution of Soil Ingredients among the Sediments obtained in Snt
Analysis. By B. H. Louohbidob, 80
On the Influence of Strength of Acid and Time of Digestion in the Extraction of
Soils. By R. H. LouGHBiDaB, 88
Remarks on Glass-maUng. By Lbwis Fbuchtwakobb, 88
The Chemical Composition of a Copper Matte. By T. Stebrt Hunt, ... 148
YI. MECHANICS.
Description of a Printing Thermometer. By G. W. Houoh, 90
Description of an Automatic Registering and Printing Eraporator and Rain
Gauge. By G.W. Hough '. . . 83
A Modiflcation of the Vacuum or Filter Pump, that can be used with teom three
to Are fbet fiUl of water and does not easily get out of repair. By A. E.
FOOTB, 141
Apparatus for ninstrating the Yariatfon of Wave Lengths by the Motion of its
Origin. ByE. S. M0B8B, 150
TITLES
Of Papers read but not printed, 175
COliTBNTS.
B. NATUBAL mSTOBT.
I. GEOLOGY.
On Staorollte Crystals and Gieen Mountain Gneisses of the Silnrlan Age. By J.
D.Dana, %S
Tbe Slates of tlie Taeonic Mountains of the Age of the Hudson River or Cincin-
nati Group. ByJ.D. Daka, 27
The Qnartzite of Williamstown and Vicinity, and the Stmoture of the Graylock
Bange. By Sanbobn Tenket, 87
On the Cause of the Transient Fluctnations of Level hi Lake Superior. By
CHAS. WHITTLE8ET, 49
Descent of Bivers in the Mississippi Valley. Area of Drainage 1,000,000 Square
Miles. By Chab. Whittlbset, 47
On the Origin of Mountain Chains. By ChA8. Whittlbsbt, .... 51
The Devonian Lhnestones hi Ohio. By N. H. Wikchell, 100
Origin and Properties of the Diamond. ^yA. C. Hamuk, ... .104
Notes on the Geology and Economic Mineralogy of the Southeastern Appalach-
ians. By T. Stebkt Httrt, IIB
The Metamorphlsm of Bocks. By T. Stebbt Hunt, 115
Geology ofSonthem New Brunswick. By T. Sterbt Hunt, .... 116
Breaks in the American Palsozoic Series. By T. Sterbt Hunt, ... 117
Geological History of Winnipiseogee Lake. By C. H. Hnx:!HCO0K, . . * 120
Note upon the Cretaceous Strata of Long Island. By C. H. Hitchcock, • 131
On the Geological Halations of the Iron Ores of Nova Scotia. By J. W. Dawson, 188
Tbe Proximate Future of Niagara, in Beview of Prof. Tyndall's Lecture thereon.
By Gboboe W. Hollbt, 147
On some Expansions, Movements, and Fractures of Bocks, observed atMonson,
Mass. ByW. H.NILB8, 156
The Geology of PortUnd. By C. H. Hitchoogk, 168
Circles of Deposition in American Sedimentary Bocks. By J. S. Newbebbt, . 186
Bemarks on Prof. Newberry's Paper on " Circles of Deposition,'' etc. By T.
StbbbtHunt, 1396
Geology of the Northwest Part of Maine. By C. H. Hitchoock, and J. H.
Huntinoton, « . . 206
On the Belations of the Niagara and Lower Helderberg Formations, and their
Geographical Distribution in the United States and Canada. By Jaicbs
Haix, 821
n. PALEONTOLOGY.
Note on a New Sigillaria Showing Scars of Fructification. By J. W. Dawson, . 75
On Some Extinct Types of Homed Perissodactyles. By Edwabd D. Cope, . 108
The Largest Fossil Elephant Tooth yet described. By Edmund O. Hovet, 112
Ti CONTENTS.
in. BOTANY.
OnHoTementintheStigmaHoLobesofCatalpa. By Thomas Meehan, 73
On Hermaphroditiflm in Bhas Cotinas (the Mist Tree) and in Bbua Glab^ (Com-
mon Somac). By Thomas Mebhan, 78
IV. ZOOLOGY.
Note on Bnfo Americanns. By Thomas Hill, 28
Farther Observations on tlie Embryology of Llmnlna with Notes on its Afllnl*
ties. By A. S. Packabd, Jr., 80
On a Bemarkable Wasp's Nest Fonnd in a Stump in Maryland. By Pi B. Uhlbr, SS
On Becent Additions to the Fish Fanna of Massachusetts. By Thboimbb Gill, 84
On the Species of the Genus Micropterus (Lao.) or Grystes ( Aoet.) By Theo-
dore Gill, • . . 65
On the Origin of Insects and Bemarks on the Antennal Charaoter in the Butter-
flies and Moths. By Aug. B. Gbotb, 110
On the Question*' Do Snakes Swallow their young?'' By G. Bbown Goode, . 179
On the Effects of Certain Poisons on MoUusks. By William Nobtb Biob, . 901
The Outer Cerebral Fissures of Mammalia (especially the Camiyora) and the
Limits of their Homology. By B. G. WIldeb, 2U
Cerebral Variation in Domestic Dogs, and its Bearing upon Scientific Phrenol-
ogy. By B. G. WiLDEB, 284
Lateral Asymmetry In the Brains of a Double Human Monster. By B. G.
Wilder, 280
The Papillary BepresentatiTe of Two Arms of a Double Human Monster, with a
Note on a Mummied Double Monster Arom Peru. By B. G. Wildeb, . . 251 .
The Habits and Parasites of Epeira Biparia, with a Note on the Moulting of
Nephila Plumipes. By B. G. Wildeb, 257
The Nets of Epeira, Nephila and Hyptiotes (Mithras). By Bubt G. WIldbb, . 264
The Need of a Uniibnoii Position for Anatomical Figures. By B. G. WIldeb, • 274
Lateral Position of the Vent in Amphioxus and in the Larva of Bana Piplens.
By B.G. Wildeb 276
On the Composition of the Carpus in Dogs. By B. G. WIldbb, .... 801
Variation in the Condition of the External Sense Organs In Foetal Pigs of the
same litter. By B. G. WIldeb, 809
Present Aspect of the Question of Intermembral Homologies. By B. G. WIldbb, SOS
The Pectoral Muscles of Mammalia. By B. G. WIldeb, 806
Variation in the Pectoral Muscles of Domestic Dogs. By B. G. Wildeb, . • 808
On the Embryology of Terebratnlina. By Edw. S. Mobse, . . . . . 806
On the Genitalia of Brachiopoda. By E. S. Mobse, 810
Notes on Liparis, Cyclopterus and their Allies. By F. W. Putnam, . .885
Explorations of Casco Bay by the U. S. Fish Commission, in 1978. By A. B.
Vebbill, 840
On the Origin of Species. By 6. C Swallow, 899
CONTENTS. Vll
V. ANTHBOPOLOGY.
On an Ancient Bnrial-gromid in Swanton, Yt. By Gsosac H. PXBKnvSy . 76
Artificial Shell-heaps of Fresh-water HollaBks. ByC. A»Whitb, ... 138
On the Bate of Increaae of the Human Race. By Chas. Whtttlbsxt, 811
Calvert's Supposed Belies of Man in the Miocene of the Dardanelles. By
GborgeWabhbubn (CkmmmnioaUd bp C. ff, SUtheoek.) . , . . 908
YI. PRACTICAL SCIENCE.
On the Duty of Goyemments in the Preserration of Forests. By Fsamklin B.
HOUQH, 1
Hints Ibr the Promotion of Economic Entomology. By John L. LsContBi 10
Somestion for Facilitation of Museum Administration. By Thbodobb Gnx, 37
The American Museum of Natural History in Central Park, New York. By
A£BBBT 8. BiGKMOBS, 196
TITLES
or Papers Bead but not printed, 406
EXECUTIVE PROCEEDINGS.
HISTORY OF THE MEETING.
Address by President LOTEBINO, 412
Notices of Deceased Members, 414
Beeeptioii by the Citizois of Portland, - . «. 414
Address of Welcome by Honorable BssjAWOf Einobbdbt, Jr., . . * . 414
Beplyl>y President LOYXRINO, 417
BoBation by Mrs. Thompson, 422
Letter from Ex President Smith, 423
Sections and Subsections, 428
Petition of the Entomologists, 424
Entertainments and Excursions, . • . • 426
Inyltation to Hartford, 427
Officers elected, 427
Closing Bemarks of the President, 427
Resolutions adopted, 428
Votes of Thanks, 480
Beport of the Betiring Permanent Secretary, 432
Cash Account of Permanent Secretary, 434
Stock Account of Permanent Secretary, . . 436
Appendix to History of the Meeting, by W. W. Whebldon, 437
Index, . .'...., 445
OFFIOEES
ov
THE PORTLAND MEETING.
FBBSIDiiLN'i'.
Joseph Loybrino, of Cambridge.
V ICJil-FBBSID JiLN T.
A. H. WORTHiEN,* of Springfield, Dl.
TEBMAJSnSSNT 8X0BJDTAB7. ^
F. W. Putnam, of Salem.
GSNlBBAIi SE0BXTAB7.
C. A. White, of Brunswick, Me.
W. S. Vaux, of Philadelphia.
STANDING GOMMrmni.
EX-OFFICIO.
JOBKPH IiOVBRINa, A. H. WORTHBN,* P. W. PUTNAM,
C. A. Whttb, W. S. Vaux,
J. Lawrence Smith,* Alexander Winchell,* E. S. Morse,
AS CHAIRMEN OF THE SECTIONAL COMMTITEES.
Alexis Caswell, . John L. LeContb.
vrom the association at large.
8. JF. Baibd, Of Washington,
James Hall, of Albany,
J« B. HiLOABD, of Washington,
Thomas Hill, of Portland,
T. Sterrt Hunt, of Boston,
C. A. ToxTNG, of Hanover.
* Not present.
X OFFICERS OF POBTLAKD MEETING.
OTFIOEBS OF THB BEOTIONB.
SECTION A.
Alexis Caswell, of Proyidence, and Thos. Hill, of Portland, Cfhairmen.*
G. W. Hough, of Albany, Secretary.
SBOnONAL COMMITTBE.
C. A. TouNG, of Hanoyer, N. H., E. B. Eluott, of Washington,
W. W. Wheildon, of Concord, Mass.
SUB-SECTION OF SECTION A.
Oilganized on the 6th day.
H. F. Walung, of Boston, Chairman.
B. B. Warder, of Cleyes, Ohio, Secretary.
SECTION B.
John L. LbConte,. of Philadelphia, Chairman.
Samuel H. Scudder, of Cambridge, Secretary.
SECTIONAL COMMITTEE.
F. B. Hough, of Lowyille*, N. Y. A. E. Vsrrill, of New Hayen.
Theodore Gill, of Washington.
SUB-SECTION 1 OF SECTION B.
Organised on the 4th day.
J. G. Morris, of Baltimore, Chairman.
A. R. Grote, of BufllsLlo, Secretary.
SUB-SECnON 2 OF SECTION B.
Organized on the 4th day.
T. Sterrt Hunt, of Boston, Chairman.
W. H. Nhjbs, of Cambridge, Secretary.
• Prof. Caswell was chairman until Saturday, and Dr. Hill held the ofloe for the rest
of the meeting.
LOCAL COiaOTTEB OF POBTLAIIB MEETING. XL
iiOOAii ooioomai.
Chairman :—Uom Benjamin EmasBXTRTy Jr.
Treasurer: — Geo. E. B. Jackson, Esq.
Secretary :~-ReY. Cables W. Hates.
local sub-oommittees.
On Beeeption :— The' ChBirman and Secretary of the Local Committee
ex officio; Gko. T. Davis, Nathan Cleayes, Geo. F. Emery, William Deer-
ing, I. Washbomy Jr., Francis Fessenden, Wm. L. Putnam, H. N. Jose,
Bev. W. B. Hayden, Geo. E. B. Jackson, Geo. F. Shepley, Qyms H.
Farley, Bt Bey. H. A. Neely.
On Booms and Microscopists :—A. H. Waite, Nathan Webb, Dr. Wm.
Wood, J. P. Thompson, C. B. Foller, J. M. Gould, W N. Gould, Dr. Fred
H. Gerilsh.
On Finance :— Geo. E. B. Jackson, Treasurer of Local Committee ex
officio; T. C. Hersey, Chairman; J. B. Brown, A. E. Shurtleff, BuAis E.
Wood.
On Subscriptions:— "S. N. Dow, Chairman; S. E. Spring, James H.
Smith, Thos. A. Boberts, John M. Gould, H. H. Burgess, W. F. Milliken,
Francis E. Swan, W. S. Jordan, Geo. S. Hunt, Frank Noyes, M. N. Blch,
Charles B. Jose, J. S. Marrett, WiUiam Senter, Wm. W. Thomas, Jr.,
Franklin Fox, John Marshall Brown, William Alien.
On Excursions :—ll. F. Furbish, Lewis B. Smith, James E. Carter,
William A. Winship, Prentiss Lpring, William B. Wood, Charles H. Has-
kell, Wm. E. Wood, W. S. Dana, Prof. Hitchcock.
On Printing :SecretaTy of the Local Committee, ex officio;- A, P.
Stone, Geo. F. Talbot, James E. Prindle.
On BaUroad and Steamboat FaciliHes :—BtLmael J. Anderson, Francis *
Chase, Payson Tucker, John Porteous, T. C. Hersey, Geo. P. Wescott,
J. B. Coyle, John Lynch, Josiah H. Drummond, J. S. Winslow, W. W.
Harris.
On Mail and Telegraph :'-C. W. Goddard, Stephen Beny, J. S. Bedlow,
and the Secretary of the Local Committee, ex officio.
LOCAL committee OF SUPERVISION.
CAalrnMrn:— Hon. Gbobge P. Wescott, Mayor of Portland.
Vice Chairman ;— Hon. Benjamin KiNOSBiaRT, Jr.
Treasurer: — Geo. E. B. Jackson, Esq.
Secretary :—lReY. Chas. W. Hates.
Members :— The Chairmeki of the several sub-committees.
SPECIAL COMMITTEES.
A. COMMITTEES CONTINUED FROM TOBMER MEETINOS.
1. Ckmmittee to Beport in BelaUon to Uniform Standards in Weights^
Measures and Coinage.
F. A. P. Babnabd, of New York,
Walcott Gibbs,
B. A. GouiiD, of Cambridge,
Joseph Henry, of Washington,
J. E. HiLGABD, of Washington,
John LeContb,
H. A. Newton, of New Haven,
Benjamin Peircb, of Cambridge,
W. B. Rogers, of Boston,
J. Lawrence Smith, LoniSTille.
E. B. Elliott, of Washington.
2. CommiUee to Memorialize the Legislature of New York for a New Survey
of Niagara Falls,
F. A. P. Barnard, of New York,
Charles P. Dalt,
James Hall, of Albany,
William E. Logan, of Montreal,
G. W. HOLLET, of Niagara Falls.
8. CimmiUee to B^^oH on the Best Methods of Organizing and Conducting
State Geological Surveys.
G. C. Swallow, of Colnmbia, Mo.,
James Hall, of Albany,
J. S. Newberry, of aeveland.
Alexander Winchell, Syracuse,
T. Sterry Hunt, of Boston,
Benjamin Peirce, of Cambridge.
4. Committee to Memorialize Congress in relation to a Geological Map
of the United States.
This committee consists of such of <lie State Geologists as will Join In the memoxial.
Alex. Winchell, of Syracuse, Chairman.
C. H. Hitchcock, of Hanover, Secretary.
B. NEW COBiMTTTEES.
1. Committee to act with the Standing Committee in Nomination of
Officers for the Meeting of 1874.
SBOnOH A. BBCnOH B.
W. A. Rogers, of Cambridge,
J. G. Barnard, of New York,
G. W. Hough, of Albany,
H. P. Walling, of Boston,
(xU)
A. C. Hamun, of Bangor,
S. H. ScxTDDER^ of Boston,
N. S.TowNSHEND,of Colnmbos.
G. C. Swallow, of Columbia.
SPECIAL COMMITTEBS. XIU
2. CommUUe on the EHzaheth Thompson Donation.
Asa Grat, of Cambridge,
J. L. LbCoittb, of Philadelphia,
P. H. Van i>kb Wbyde, of N. Y.,
Thomas Hill, of Portland,
James Hall, of Albany,
T. Sterby Hunt, of Boston,
F. W. Putnam, of Salem,
8. CommUUe to BepoH on the Principles of Nomenclature.
J. L. LeContb, of Philadelphia,
JiMiffl Hall, of Albany,
J. S. NswBERBT, of Cleveland,
Alexander Agassiz, Cambridge,
Theodore Qnx, of Washington.
4. Committee to Beport on tJie most desirable methods of Studying
Science in the Common Schools.
J. W. Dawson, of Montreal, S. W. JoHNSONf of New Haven,
J. P. Lbblet, of Philadelphia.
5. Committee to Memorialize Congress and State Legislatures regarding
the CtdtivaHon of THniber, and t?ie Preservation of Forests.
F. B. HouoH, of Lowville,
Asa Grat, of Cambridge,
G. B. Emerson, of Boston,
J. D. Whttney, of San Francisco,
J. S. Newbekry, of Cleveland,
L. H. Morgan, of Rochester,
Chas. Whtttlesby, of Cleveland,
W. H. Brewer, of New Haven,
E. W. HiLGARD, of Ann Arbor.
6. Committee to B^port on the Constitution of the Association.
J. L. LbConte, of Philadelphia,
C. S. Lyman, of New Haven,
J. £. HHiOARD, of Washington,
G. C. Swallow, of Columbia,
Joseph Lovbring, of Cambridge,
F. W. Putnam, of Salem.
7. Committee to obtain an Act of Incorporation of the Association.
George S. Boutwell,
F. A. P. Barnard, of New York,
Joseph Lovbring, of Cambridge,
Asa Gray, of Cambridge,
J. S. Newberry, of Cleveland,
F. W. Putnam, of Salem,
W. W. Whbildon, of Concord.
S. CoTiimittee to Audit the Accounts of the Permanent Secretary and
Treasurer.
H. L. EuBm, of Cambridge, Henry Wheatland, of Salem.
OFFICERS OF THE ASSOCIATION
Ain>
LOCAL COMMITTEE ELECTED
FOR
THE HARTFOBD MEETING.
John L. LbContb, of Philadelphia.
V lOJO-FHBSiDBNT.
C. S. Lyman, of New Haven.
FEBMANIBNT BSOBETABT.
F. W. Putnam, of Salem.
>.'
QUJOnfiBAIi ODGBIBTABT.
A. C. Hamlin, of Bangor.
W. S. Vaux, of Philadelphia.
STAJIDINO OOMMITTJOJU.
J. L. LbContb,
C. S. Ltman,
P. W. Putnam,
A. C. Hamun,
(xlY)
-ovnao.
W. S. Vaux,
JOSIEFH LOTERING,
A. H. WORTHBN,
C. A. Wbitb.
LOCAL COMHITTEE 'OF HABTFOBD MEETIKQ.
IiOCAIi OOMMTFTSD.
Hon. H. C. RoBiysoN, Chairman.
Prof. John Bbocklksbt,
J. M. Allbn.
Rev. W. L. Gage, Secretary.
Geo. p. Bissell, Treasurer.
Vice-cJiairmen.
TnoiHT ir. AlXTN,
jamed a. Atxes,
HESBT BABH ASD,
F-F.BASROW0,
Gso. M. Bastboix>]iew,
J. 6. BATTEB80N,
Chixlu M. Beach,
H. B. Beach,
Caia. Mp BiruNOSt
B. T, Blakbslbb,
.JoB3r W. Buss,
LSTESETT BRADTARD,
Chablbs H. Bbaivabd,
GxoBGB BsmusT,
J. H. Bbockubsbt,
Isaac H. Bbomlkt,
Charles H. Buncb,
Jo3rATHAir B. BuircE,
AlVBED E. BURR,
Ber. Dr. Horace Bush-
XBLL,,
Hon. Eubha Carpekter,
FRAXK W. CBESCET,
Samuel L. CifHEsrs,
Charles J. Cole,
Rev. Dr. C. B. Crabe,
Hon. Caltin DAT, .
Acsnir DnvHAX,
AUSnSC C. DUIVHAM,
Hon. W. W. Satov,
Dr. W. Edgboomb,
Tbeodokb G. Ellis,
BiCHABD S. KLT,
BeT. Mr. Eherson,
Gbo. a. Fairfield,
Gen. W. B. FRANKLnr,
B. J. Gatuno,
Hon. Francis Gilletib,
. F. L. Gleason,
W. H. Goodrich,
BcT. Francis Goodwin,
James Goodwin,
Jacob L. Greens,
Ezra Hall,
Joseph Hall,
Wm. J. Hamerslet,
Bev. Prof. Samuel Habt,
Wm. a. Healy,
Charles J. Hoodlt,
Prof. Geo. O. Holbrooke
J. L. Howard,
Hon. B. D. Hubbard,
W. M. Hudson, M. D.,
E. K. Hunt, M. D.,
Bev. President A. Jack*
SON,
B. W. H. Jartis,
Punt Jewell,
Hon. Marshall Jewbll,
Henrt.Kenet,
Bev. C. F. Knight,
James Laurie,
Horace Lord,
Bt. Bev. F. P. McFab-
LAND,
Thomas McManus,
L. W. Meecr,
BeT.Dr.M. Meier-Smith,
Edward J. Murpht,
C. H. Northam,
Samuel Nott,
Hon. D. W. Pardee,
Bey. E. P. Parker,
John C. Parsons,
J. B. Pierce,
Albert P. Pitkin,
Hon..C. M. Pond,
Bev. Prof. T. B. Ptnchok,
Charles E. Bichards,
Bev. Prof. M. B. Biddlb,
Frederick W. Bussbix,
g. w. bussell, m. d.,
Hon.NATHANIELSHIFMAN,
Hon. Gborqb G. Sill,
W. E. Sdionds,
Bev. C. A. Skinner,
H. T. Sperrt,
J. H. Sfraoue, *
J. W. Stancuft,
Henrt p. Stearns, M. D.
B. S. Storrs,
Bev. Prof. C. E. Slows,
Hon. G. G. Sumner,
Hon. J. H. Trumbull,
Bev. W. W. Turner,
Edwin S. Tyler,
J. C. Walklet,
Charles D. Warner,
Henrt Wilson,
J. G. Woodward,
And tb^ following from Mlddletown,
Bev. Prof. F. Oabdiner, Bev. Prof. W. N. BiCB, Prof. J. M. Van Ylecx.
A. ▲. A. 8. VOL. XZn. B
XVI
MEETINGS.
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CONSTITUTION OF THE ASSOCIATION.
OBJECTS.
The Association shall be called The American Association
Foa THE Abvancement of Science.
The objects of the Association are, by periodical and migratory
meetings, to promote intercourse between those who are culti-
vating science in different parts of the United States ; to give
a stronger and more general impulse and a more systematic
direction to scientific research in our country ; and to procure for
the labors of scientific men increased facilities and a wider use-
fulness.
■
members.
Rule 1. Any person may become a member of the Association
upon recommendation in writing by two members, n^omination
by the Standing Committee, and election by a majority of the
members present.
OFFICERS.
Rule 2. The ofiScer^ of the Association shall be a President,
Vice President, General Secretary, Permanent Secretary, and
Treasurer. The President, Vice-President, General Secretary, and
Treasurer shall be elected at each meeting for the following one ;
— the three first named ofi^cers not to be reeligible for the next
two meetings, and the Treasurer to be reeligible as long as the
Association may desire. The Permanent Secretary shall be elected
at each second meeting, and also be reeligible as long as the Asso-
ciation may desire.
* Adopted Aiigaat25, 1856, and ordered to go into effect at the opening of the Mon-
treal Meeting. Amended at Burlington, August, 1867, and at Chicago, August, 1868.
XVlll CONSTITUTION
MEETINGS.
Rule 3. The Association shall meet, at such intervals as it may
determine, for one week, or longer ; and the arrangements for it
shall be intrusted to the officers and the Local Committee. The
Standing Committee shall have power to determine the time
and place of each meeting, and shall give due notice of it to the
Association.
STANDING committee.
Rule 4. There shall be a Standing Committee, to consist of
the President, Vice President, Secretaries, and Treasurer of the
Association, the officers of the preceding year, the Permanent
Chairmen of the Sectional Committees, after these shall have been
organized, and six members, present from the Association at large,
who shall have attended any of the previous meetings, to be
elected upon open nomination by ballot on the first assembling of
the Association. A majority of the whole number of votes cast,
to elect. The General Secretary shall be Secretary of the Stand-
ing Committee.
The duties of the Standing Committed shall be, —
1 . To assign papers to the respective Sections.
2. To arrange the scientific business of the general meetings,
to suggest topics, and arrange the programmes for the evening
meetings.
3. To suggest to the Association the place and time of the next
meeting.
4. To examine, and, if necessary, to exclude papers.
5. To suggest to the Association subjects for scientific reports
and researches.
6. To appoint the Local Committee.
7. To have the general direction of publications.
8. To manage any other general business of the Association
during the session, and during the interval between it and the next
meeting.
9. Li conjunction with four from each Section, to be elected
by the Sections for the purpose, to make nominations of officers of
the Association for the following meeting.
10. To nominate persons for admission to membership.
11. Before adjourning, to decide which papers, discussions, or
other proceedings shall be published.
OF THE ASSOCIATION. XIX
SECTIONS.
Rule 5. The Association shall be divided into two Sections,
and as many sub-sections as may be necessary for the scientific
business. When not otherwise ordered the sub-sections shall be
as follows: Section A. — (1) Mathematics and Astronomy; (2)
Physics and Chemistry; (3) Microscopy. Section B. — (1) Zo-
ology and Botany ; (2) Geology and PalsBontology ; (8) Ethnology
and Archffiology. The two sections may meet as one.
SECTIONAL OFFIOEBS AND COMMITTEES.
Rule 6. On. the first assembling of the Section, the members
shall elect upon open nomination a permanent Chairman and Sec-
retary, also three other members, to constitute, with these ofi^cers,
a Sectional Committee.
ifThe SeStion shall appoint, from day to day, a Chairman to pre-
side oyer its meetings.
Rule 7. It shall be the duty of the Sectional Committee of
each Section to arrange and direct the proceedings in their Sec-
tion ; to ascertain what communications are offered ; to assign the
order in which these communications shall appear, and the amount
of time which each shall occupy.
The Sectional Committees may likewise recommend subjects
for systematic investigation by -members willing to undertake the
researches, and to present their results at the next meeting.
Tlie Sectional Committee may likewise recommend reports on
particular topics and departments of science, to be drawn up as
occasion permits, by competent persons, and presented at subse-
quent meetings.
BEPORTS OF PROCEEBINGS.
Rule 8. Whenever practicable, the proceedings shall be reported
by professional reporters, or stenographers, whose reports are to
be revised by the Secretaries before they appear in print.
PAPERS AND COMMUNICATIONS.
Rule 9. No paper shall be placed in the programme, unless
admitted by the Sectional Committee; nor shall any be read,
unless an abstract of it has been previously presented to the Secre-
tary of the Section, who shall furnish to the Chairman the titles of
papers, of which abstracts have been received.
CONSTITUTION
Rule 10. The author of any paper or communication shall
be at liberty to retain his right of property therein^ provided he
declare such to be his wish before presenting it to the Associa-
tion.
Rule 11. Copies of all communications, made either to the
General Association or to the Sections, must be furnished by the
authors; otherwise, only the titles,' or abstracts, shall appear in
the published proceedings.
Rule 12. All papers, either at the general or in the sectional
meetings, shall be read, as far as practicable, in the order in which
they are entered upon the books of the Association ; except that
those which may be entered by a member of the Standing Com-
mittee of the Association shall be liable to postponement by the
proper Sectional Committee.
Rule 13. If any communication be not ready at the assigned
time, it shall be dropped to the bottom of the list,* and slmll
not be entitled to take precedence of any subsequent commu-
nication.
Rule 14. No exchanges shall be made between members with-
out authority of the respective Sectional Committees.
general and evening meetings.
Rule 15. The Standing Committee shall appoint any general
meeting which the objects and interests of the Association may
m
call for, and the evenings shall, as a rule, be reserved for general
meetings of the Association.
These general meetings may, when convened for that purpose,
give their attention to any topics of science which would other-
wise come before Sections.
It shall be a part of the business of these general meetings
to receive the Address of the President of the last meeting ; to
hear such reports on scientific subjects as, from their general im-
portance and interest, the Standing Committee shall select ; also
to receive from the Chairmen of the Sections abstracts of the pro-
ceedings of their respective Sections ; and to listen to communi-
cations and lectures explanatory of new and important discoveries
and researches in science, and new inventions and processes in the
arts.
OF THE ASSOCIATION. XXI
ORDER OF PROCEEDINGS IK ORGANIZING A MEETING.
Rule 16. The Association shall be called to order by the
President of the preceding meeting ; and this officer having re-
signed the chair to the President elect, the General Secretary
shall then report the number of papers relating to each depart-
ment which have been regis tei^ed, and the Association consider the
most eligible distribution into Sections, when it shall proceed to
the election of the additional members of the Standing Committee
in the manner before described ; the meeting shall then adjourn,
and the Standing Committee, having divided the Association into
Sections as directed, shall allot to each its place of meeting for
the Session. The Sections shall then organize by electing their
officers and their representatives in the Nominating Committee,
and shall proceed to business.
PERMANENT SECRETARY.
Rule 17. It shall be the duty of the Permanent Secretary
to notify members who are in arrears, to provide the necessary
stationery and suitable books for the list of members and titles of
papers, minutes of the general and sectional meetings, and for
other purposes indicated in the rules, and to execute such other
duties as may be directed by the Standing Committee or by the
Association.
The Permanent Secretary shall make a report, annilally, to the
Standing Committee, at its first meeting, to be laid before the
Association, of the business of which he has had charge since its
last meeting.
«
All members are particularly desired to forward to the Perma-
nent Secretary, so as to be received before the day appointed for
the Association to convene, complete titles of all the papers which
they expect to present during its meeting, with an estimate of the
time requir^ for reading eacli, and such abstracts of their contents
as may give a general idea of their nature.
Whenever the Permanent Secretary notices any error of fact
or unnecessary repetition, or any other important defect in the
papers communicated for publication in the *^ Proceedings" of the
Association, he is authorized to commit the same to the author,
or to the proper sub-committee' of the Standing Committee for
correction.
XXU CONSTTTUnOK OF THE ASSOCIATION.
LOCAL COliHITTEE.
Rule 18. The Local Committee shall be appointed from among
members residing at, or near, the place of meeting for the ensuing
year ; and it shall be the duty of the Local Committee, assisted by
the officers, to make arrangements and the necessary announce- *
ments for the meeting.
The Secretary of the Local Committee shall issue a circular in
regard to the time and place of meetings, and other particulars, at
least one month before each meeting.
SUBSCRIPTIONS.
Bulb 19. The amount of the subscription, at each meeting, of
each member of the Association, shall be two dollars, and one
dollar in addition shall entitle him to a copy of the *' Proceedings"
of the annual meeting. These subscriptions shall be received by
the Permanent Secretary, who shall pay them over, after the meet-
ing, to the Treasurer.
The admission fee of new members shall be five dollars*, in
addition to the annual subscription ; and no person shall be con-
sidered a member of the Association until this admission fee and
the subscription for the meeting at which he is elected have been
paid.
Rule 20. The names of all persons two years in arrears for
annual dues shall be erased from the list of members ; provided
that two notices of indebtedness, at an interval of at least three
months, shall have been previ<^sly given.
ACCOUNTS.
Rule 21. The accounts of the Association shall be audited,
annually, by auditors appointed at each meeting.
ALTERATIONS OF THE CONSTITUTION.
Rule 22. No article of this Constitution shall be altered, or
amended, or set aside, without the concurrence of three-fourths of
the members present, and unless notice of the proposed change
shall have been given at the preceding annual meeting.
RESOLUTIONS
OF A PERMANENT AND PROSPECTIVE CHARACTER, ADOPTED
AUGUST 19, 1857.
1. No appointment may be made in behalf of the Association,
and no invitation given or accepted, except by vote of the Asso-
ciation or its Standing Committee.
2. The General Secretary shall transmit to the Permanent
Secretary for the files, within two weeks after the adjournment of
every meeting, a record of the proceedings of the Association and
the votes of the Standing Committee. He shall also, daily,* during
the meetings, provide the Chairman of the two Sectional Com-
mittees with lists of the papers assigned to their Sections by the
Standing Committee.
8. All printing for the Association shall be superintended by
the Permanent Secretary, who is authorized to employ a clerk for
-that especial purpose.
4. The Permanent Secretary is authorized to put the " Proceed-
ings*' of the meeting to press one month after the adjournment of
the Association. Papers which have not been received at that
time may be published only by title. No notice of articles not
approved shall be taken in the published '^ Proceedings.''
5. The Permanent Chairmen of the Sections are to be con-
sidered their organs of communication with the Standing com-
mittee.
6. It shall be the duty of the Secretaries of the two Sections to
receive copies of the papers read in their Sections, all sub-sections
included, und to furnish them to the Permanent Secretar}' at the
close of the meeting.
7. The Sectional Committees shall meet not later than nine, a.m.,
daily, during the meetings of the Association, to arrange the pro-
grammes of their respective Sections, including all sub-sections,
(xxlU)
Xxiy FEBUAKENT BESOLUTIOKS.
for the following day. No paper shall be placed upon these pro-
grammes which shall not have been assigned to the Section by
the Standing Committee. The programmes are to be flimished
to the Permanent Secretary not later than eleven, a.m.
8. During the meetings of the Association, the Standing Com-
mittee shall meet daily, Sunday excepted, at nine, a.m., and the
Sections be called to order at ten, a.m., unless otherwise ordered.
The Standing Committee shall also meet on the evening preceding
the first assembling of the Association at each annual meeting, to
arrange for the business of the first day ; and on this occasion three
shall form a quorum.
9. Associate members may be admitted for one, two, or three
years, as they shall choose at the time of admission, — to be elected
in the same way as permanent members, and to pay the same dues.
They shall have all the social and scientific privileges of members,
without taking part in the business.
10. No member may take part in the organization and business
arrangement of both the Sections.
MEMBERS
OT THE
AMERICAN ASSOCIATION
FOB THE
ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE/
A.
Abbe, Prof. Cleveland, Cincinnati, Ohio (16).
Abbot, Miss Elizabeth O., No. 10 Thomas St., Providence, R. I. (20).
Adams, Samuel, Jacksonville, 111. (18).
Adcock, Prof. Robert J., Monmouth, Warren Co., HI. (21).
Addams, Miss S. Alice, CedarviUe, 111. (21).
Agassiz, Alexander, Cnrator Mas. Comp. Zoology, Cambridge, Mass. (18).
Aiken, Prof. W. B. A., Baltimore, Md. (12).
Ainsworth, Frank B., Sapt. Ind. House of lleflige, Plainfleld, Ind. (20).
Albert, Augustus J., Baltimore, Md. (12).
Alexander, John S., 1935 Arch St., Philadelphia, Penn. (20).
Alexander, Prof. Stephen, Princeton, N. J. (1).
Allen, Joel A., Mus. Comp. Zool., Cambridge, Mass. (18).
Allen, J. M., Hartford, Conn. (22).
Allen, Zachariah, Providence, R. I. (1).
Allyn, Mrs. Clarence, Nyack on the Hudson, N. T. (22).
Alvord, Benjamin, U.S.A., Paymaster Gen. Office, Washington, D. C. (17).
Andrews, Prof. £. B., Lancaster, Ohio (7).
Andrews, Dr. Edmund, Chicago, 111. (22).
Appleton, Prof. John H., Brown University, Providence, B. I. (22).
Arthur, J. C, Charles City, lowtl (21).
Atkinson, Prof. Wm. K., 41 East Ninth St., New York (22).
Atwater, Samuel T., 166 Washington St., Chicago, III. (17).
Atwater, Mrs. Samuel T., 166 Washington St., Chicago, 111. <17).
Austin, E. P., Box 484, North Cambridge, Mass. (18).
•Avery, Alida C, Poughkeepsle, N. Y. (20).
*The niunbers in parentheses indicate the meeting at which the member was elected.
When no address is given, It signifies that the Hartford Circular has been returned'
through the mall as uncalled for, haying been addressed by the list given in the pre-
eedhig rolume.
(xw)
XXYl MEMBEBS OF
B.
Babcock, George, Sup't Rensselaer Iron Works, Troy, N. Y. (19).
Babcock, Henry H., Principal Clilcago Acad. 11 ISth St., Chicago, 111. (17;.
Bacon, Dr. John, jr., Boston, Mass. (1).
Bailey, Prof. Loring W., University of Frederickton, N. B. (18).
Balrd, Lyman, 90 La Salle St., Chicago, III. (17).
Baird, Prof. S. F., Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D. C. (1).
Baker, Prof. T. R., Mlllersyille, Penn. (22).
Balch, David M., Salem, Mass. (22).
Bannister, Henry M., Washington, D. C. (17).
Bardwell, Prof. F. W., University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kan. (13).
Barker, Prof. G. F., 408 South 41st St., Philadelphia, Pa. (13).
Barnard, F. A. P., President Columbia College, New York (7).
Barnard, Gen. J. G., U.S.A., Army Building, New York (14).
Barrett, Moses, Milwaukee, Wis. ^21).
Bartlett, Frank L., Hanover, Me. (22).
Basnett, Thomas, Ottawa, III. (8).
Bass, George F., 336 North Noble St., Indianapolis, Ind. (21).
Bassett, George W., Yandalia, III. (20).
Batchelder, Dr. J. H., Salem, Mass. (18).
Batchelder, John M., No. 16 Pemberton Sq., Boston, Mass. (8).
Beach, Myron H., Dubuque, Iowa (21).
Beach, W. H., Dubuque, Iowa (21).
Bebb, Michael G., Fountalndale, Iowa (21).
Becker, Dr. Alexander R., Providence, R. I. (22).
Bell, James D., Office of Dally Graphic, New York (20).
Bell, John J., Exeter, N. U. (22).
Bell, Samuel N., Manchester, N. H. (7).
Beijamin, E. B., 10 Barclay St., New York (17).
Bessey, Prof. C. E., Agricultural College, Ames, Iowa (21).
Bethune, Rev. Charles J. S., Port Hope, Canada (18).
Bickmore, Prof. Albert S., Arsenal Building, 6 Central Park, N. Y. (17).
Blcknell, Edwin, Cambridge, Mass. (18).
Bill, Charles, Springfield, Mass. (17).
Blake, Ell W., New Haven, Conn. (1).
Blake, Prof. Ell W., jr., Providence, R. \. (16).
Blatchford, Ellphalet W., Chicago, HI. (17).
Blodgett, James H., Rockford, 111. (21).
Boadle, John, Haddonfleld, N. J. (20).
BoUes, Rev. E. C, Salem, Mass. (17).
Bolton, Dr. H. C, 49 West 61st St., New York (17).
Bontecon, Dr. R. B., Troy, N. Y. (19).
Bouv6, Thomas T., Preset Boston Soc. Nat. History, Boston, Mass. (1).
Bowdltch, Dr. Henry I., 113 Boylston St., Boston, Mass. (2).
Bowen, Silas T., Indianapolis, Ind. (20).
THB ASSOCIATION. ZZVii
Boynton, Miss Sasan P., Box 150, Lynn, Mass. (19).
Brackett, Prof. C. F., College of New Jersey, Princeton, N. J. (19).
Bradley, L., 9 Exchange Place, Jersey City, N. J. (15).
Breneman, A. A., Agricultural College, Lancaster, Penn. (20).
Brevoort, J. Carson, Brooklyn, N. Y. (1).
Brewer, Prof. W. H., New Haven, Conn. (20).
Briggs, Albert D., Springfield, Mass. (13).
Briggs, S. A., Box 545, Chicago, 111. (17).
Brigham, Charles H., Ann Arbor, Mich. (17).
Bross, William, Chicago, 111. (7).
Brown, Robert, jr., Office Cincinnati Gas Light Co., Cincinnati, Ohio (11),
Brown, Mrs. Robert, jr., Cincinnati, Ohio (17).
Brnsh, Prof. George J., Yale College, New Haven, Conn. (11).
Bryan, Oliver N., Accokeek P. O., Prince George's Co., Md. (18).
Bryant, Wm. M., Snp't City Schools, Burlington, Iowa (21).
Bnckhout, W. A. (20).
Burbank, L. S., Wobnrn, Mass. (18).
Burgess, Miss Abbie L., Western Female Sem., Oxford, Ohio (20).
Burgess, Edward, Sec'y Nat. Hist. Society, Boston, Mass. (22).
Burton, H. J., jr., Boston, Mass. (22).
Bush, Rev. Alva, Cedar Valley Sem., Osage, Iowa (21).
Bush, Stephen, Waterford, N. Y. (19).
Bushee, Prof. James, Worcester, Mass. (9).
C.
Campbell, Mrs. Mary, Crawfordsville, Ind. (22).
Carmichael, Prof. Henry, Bowdoln College, Brunswick, Me. (21).
Carpenter, Prof. G. C, Simpson Centenary College, Indlanola, Iowa (22).
Carrier, Joseph C, Notre Dame, Ind. (20).
Carrington, Henry B., Crawfordsville, Ind. (20).
Case, Leonard, Cleveland, Ohio (15).
Caswell, Prof. Alexis, Providence, R. I. (2).
Cattell, William C, President Lafayette College, Easton, Penn. (15).
Cbadbourne, Prof. P. A., Pres't Williams Coll., Wllliamstown, Mass. (10).
Cbadeayne, Miss E., Jersey City, N. J. (22).
Chamberlain, T. C, Whitewater, Wis. (21).
Chandler, WUliam H. (19).
Chanute, O., Chief Engineer Erie Railway Co., New York (17),
Cbapman, F. M., 90 La Salle St., Chicago, 111. (17).
Chase, Prof. Pliny E., Haverford College, Haverford, Penn, (18).
Chase, R. Stnart, 16 Merrimack St., Haverhill, Mass. (18).
Chesbrongh, £. S., Chicago, 111. (2).
Chickerlng, Prof. J. W., jr.. Deaf Mute College, Washington, D. C. (22).
Clark, John E., 45 Clark St., New Haven, Conn. (17).
Clarke, Prof. F. W., Howard University, Washington, D. C. (18).
Coffin, Prof. John H. C, U.S.N., Washington, D. C. (1).
XXViii HEHBSBS OF /
Cofflo, Prof. Selden J., Lafayette College, Easton, Fenn. (22).
Cofflnberry, W. L., Grand Rapids, Mich. (20).
Cogswell, Dr. George, Bradford, Mass. (18).
Colbert, E., Chicago, 111. (17).
CoUett, Hon. John, Newport, Ind. (17).
Collins, Pfof. Alonzo, Cornell College, Mount Vernon, Iowa (21).
Colton, G. Wool worth, (22).
Corns tock. Prof. M. L., GalQsburg, in. (21).
Conser, Prof. £. P., Sand Spring, Iowa (21).
Cook, Prof. George H., Lock Box 5, New Brunswick, N. J. (18).
Cooke, Caleb, Peabodj Academy of Science, Salem, Mass. (18).
Cooley, Prof. Le Roy C, N. Y. State Normal School, Albany, N. Y. (19).
Cope, Prof. Edward D., Haddonfield, N. J. (17).
Copes, Dr. Joseph S., care Copes & Ogden, New Orleans, La. (11).
Cornwall, Prof. Henry B., College of New Jersey, Princeton, N. J. (22).
Cox, Prof. Edward T., Indianapolis, Ind. (19).
Cramp, Dr. J. M., Wolfville, N. S. (11).
Crawford, Dr. John S., Galena, 111. (21).
Crocker, Charles F., Lawrence, Mass. (22).
Crocker, Mrs. Charles F., Lawrence, Mass. (21).
Cummings, John, Woburn, Mass. (18).
Cummings, Rev. Dr. Joseph, Pres't Wesleyan Univ., Mlddletown, Ct. (18).
Curtis, Dr. Joslah, Ebbitt House, Washington, D. C. (18).
Curtis, Rev. Dr. W. S., Rockford, 111. (21).
Cutting, Dr. Hiram A., Lunenburgh, Yt. (17).
D,
Dall, Mrs. Caroline H., 141 Warren Ave., Boston, Mass. (18).
Dall, William H., Box 1869, San Francisco, Cal. (18).
Dalrymple, Rev. Dr. E. A., Baltimore, Md. (1*).
Dana, I*rof. James D., New Haven, Conn. (1).
Danforth, Edward, Department of Public Instruction, Albany, N. Y. (11).
Darby, Prof. John, Wesleyan University, Mlllersburg, Ky. (21).
Davenport, Mrs. M. G., Oskaloosa, Iowa (21).
Davis, James, 117 State, corner of Broad St., Boston, Mass. (1).
Dawson, Dr. J. W., Principal McGlll College, Montreal, Can. (10).
Day, Dr. F. H., Wauwatosa, Wis. (20).
Dean, George W., Fall River, Mass. (15).
DeCamp, Dr. WUliam H., Grand Rapids, Mich. (21).
Delano, Joseph C, New Bedford, Mass. (5).
DeLaskl, Dr. John, Carver's Harbor, Me. (18).
Devereux, J. H., Mich. Southern Railway, Cleveland, Ohio (18).
Dimmock, George, Springfield, Mass. (22).
Dinwiddle, Robert, 118 Water St., New York (1).
Dlxwell, Epes S., Cambridge, Mass. (1).
Dodd, C. M., Wllllamstown, Mass. (19).
THE ASSOCIATION. XSIX
Dodge, Charles B., Washin^on, D. C. (22).
Doggett, Wm. E., Chicago, III. (17).
Boggett, Mrs. Wm. E., Chicago, III. (17).
Bolbear, A. Emerson, Bethany, West Va. (20).
Doughty, John W., Newburgh, N. Y. (19).
Downer, Henry £., Detroit, Mich. (21).
Drowne, Charles, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, N. Y. (6).
Dmmmond, Josiah H., Portland, Me. (22l.
Doncan, Dr. T. C, 287 West Randolph St., Chicago, 111. (17).
Dyer, Clarence, Lawrence, Mass. (22).
Dyer, Ellsha, 87 Westminster St., Providence, R. I. (9).
E.
Eaton, Prof. D. G., Packer Institute, Brooklyn, N. Y, (19).
Eaton, Prof. James H., Beloit College, Beloit, Wis. (17).
Edgar, George M., Pres't Franklin Female College, Franklin, Ey. (20).
Edwards, Dr. A. M., 241 Broad St., Newark, N. J. (18).
Edwards, Thomas C, Yineland, N. J. (21).
Eimbeck, Wm., P. O. Box 1600, San Francisco, Cal. (17).
Elliott, Ezekiel B., Statistical Bureau, Washington, D. C. (10).
Eiwyn, Alft-edL., Philadelphia, Penn. (1).
Emerson, Prof. Bei^jamin K., Amherst, Mass. (19).
Emerson, Prof. Charles F., Dartmouth College, Hanover, N. H. (22).
Emerson, George B., LL.D., 8 Pemberton Sq., Boston, Mass. (1).
Emerton, James H., Salem, Mass. (18).
Endlech, Frederic N., Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D. C. (22).
Engelmann, Dr. George, St. Louis, Mo. (1).
Engstrom, A. B., Burlington, N. J. (1).
Ennis, Jacob, Principal Scientific Inst., Philadelphia, Penn. (19).
Eustis, Prof. Henry L., Cambridge, Mass. (2).
Erans, Asher B., Principal Union School, Lockport, N. Y. (19).
Everett, Dr. Oliver, Dixo^, 111. (21).
Everts, Miss M. M. (22).
F.
Fairbanks, Henry, St. Johnsbnry, Vt. (14).
Faries, R. J., Wanwatosa, Wis. (21),
Farmer, Moses G., Salem, Mass. (9).
Famham, Thomas, Buifalo, N. Y. (15).
Fellowes, R. S., New Haven, Conn. (18).
Fenton, William, Milwaukee, Wis. (18).
Femald, Prof. Charles H., State Agricultural College, Orono, Me. (22).
Femald, Prof. M. C, State Agricultural College, Orono, Me. (22).
Ferrell, William, Cambridge, Mass. (11).
Feuchtwanger, Dr. Lewis, 180 Fulton St., New York (11).
Ficklin, Prof. Joseph, University of Missouri, Columbia, Mo. (20).
Fishback, W. P., St. Louis, Mo. (20).
TXX 1CEUBBB8 OF
Fisher, Prof. Davenport, ttom Jane 1 to Oct. 1, 642 Marshall St., Milwau-
kee, Wis. ; rest of the year, Annapolifl, Md. (17).
Fisk, Rev. Dr. Richmond, jr., Grand Rapids, Mich. (19).
Fitch, Edward H., Ashtabula, Ohio (11).
Fitch, O. H., Ashtabula, Ohio (7).
Fletcher, Ingram, care Fletcher & Sharpe, Indianapolis, Ind. (20).
Fletcher, Dr. Wm. B., Indianapolis, Ind. (20).
Fluegel, Maurice (21).
Foote, Dr. A. E., Agricultaral College, Ames, Iowa (21).
Ford, Silas W., 24 7th St., Troy, N. Y. (19).
Forshey, Col. C. G., New Orleans, La. (21).
Foster, Henry, Clifton, N. Y. (17).
Freeman, H. C, La Salle, III. (17).
French, Dr. Geo. F., Portland, Me. (22).
Frothingham, Rer. Frederick, Buffalo, N. Y. (11).
Fuller, Charles B., Portland, Me. (22).
Fulton, Prof. Robert B., University of Miss., Oxford, Miss. (21).
G.
Garbett, Wm. A., 22 Guild Row, Boston Highlands, Mass. (22).
Garmann, S. W., Mus. Comp. Zool., Cambridge, Mass. (20).
Garrett, Ell wood, Wilmington, Newcastle County, Del. (22).
Gaskill, Joshua, Lockport, N. Y. (22).
Gavlt, John E., 142 Broadway, N. Y. (1).
Gill, Prof. Theodore, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D. C. (17).
Oilman, Prof. Daniel C, Pres*t University of California, Oakland, Cal. (10).
Glazier, Sarah M., Chelsea, Mass. (19).
Goessman, Prof. C. A., State Agricultural College, Amherst, Mass. (18).
Gold, Theodore S., West Cornwall, Conn. (4),
Goodale, Prof. G. L., Botanic Gardens, Cambridge, Mass. ( ).
Goode, Prof. George Brown, Middletown, Conn. (22).
Goodell, Abner C, Jr., Salem, Mass. (18).
Goold, W. N., Sec'y Portland Society Natural History, Portland, Me. (22).
Gould, Prof. B. A., Cambridge, Mass. (2).
Gould, Sylvester C, Manchester, N. H. (22).
Graves, G. A., Ackley, Iowa (21).
Gray, Prof. Asa, Botanical Gardens, Cambridge, Mass. (1).
Green, Dr. Samuel E., Blalrsville, Penn. (22).
Green, Dr. Traill, Easton, Penn. (1).
Greene, Dascom, Troy, N. Y. (17).
Greene, David M., Troy, N. Y. (19).
Greene, Francis C, Easthampton, Mass. (11).
Greer, James, Dayton, Ohio (20).
Gregory, Prof. J. J. H., Marblehead, Mass. (18).
Griffith, Miss E. A., Mt. Pleasant, Iowa (21).
Grimes, J. Stanley, Evanston, III. (17). .
Grinnan, A. G., Orange Court House, Va. (7).
Grote, Aug. R., Sec'y Buffalo Soc. Nat. History, Buflklo, N. T. (22).
THB ASSOCIATION. ZZZi
Gonnlng, William D., Waltham, Mass. (^2).
Gnyot, Prof. Arnold, Princeton, N. J. (1).
H.
Hadley, George, Buflklo, N. Y. (6).
Hagen, Dr. Hermann A., Mus. Comp. ZooL, Cambridge Mass. (17).
Haldeman, Prof. S. S., Colombia, Penn. (1).
Hale, Dr. William H., Albany, N. Y. (19).
HaU, Benjamin H., Troy, N. Y. (19).
Hall, George E., Cleveland, Ohio (19).
Hall, Prof. James, Albany, N. Y. (1).
Hall, L. B., Windsor, Vt. (18),
Hall, Hon.'Nathan K. (7).
Hambly, J. B., Portsmouth, B. I. (18).
Hamel, Thomas E., Qaebec, Canada (18).
Hamlin, Dr. A. C, Bangor, Me. (10).
Hanaman, C. E., Troy, N. Y. (19).
Hance, Ebenezer, Fallslngton P. O., Bucks County, Penn. (7).
Harrington, Prof. Mark W., Ann Arbor, Mich. (22).
Harrison, Dr. B. F. Walllngford, Conn. (11).
Hart, Bey. Samuel, Hartford, Conn. (22).
Hartshome, Prof. Henry, Haverford College, Montgomery Co., Penn. (12).
Harvey, Charles W-, Sup't Public Schools, Greensburg, Ind. (20).
Harvey, Dr. Leon F., Buffalo, N. Y. (22).
Harwood, Miss Grace, CouncU Hill, HI. (21).
Hawkins, Dr. B. W., 9 Beacon St., Boston, Mass. (17).
Hayes, George E., BuilUo, N. Y. (15).
Hedrick, B. S., Washington, D. C. (19).
Henderson, Geoige L., LeBoy, Minn. (21).
Henry, Prof. Joseph, Sec'y Smithsonian Institation, Washington, D.C. (1).
Hervey, Kev. A. B., 10 North 2d St, Troy, N. Y. (22).
Hilgard, Prof. Eugene W., Ann Arbor, Mich. (1).
Hilgard, Prot Julius E., U. S. Coast Survey, Washington, D. C. (4).
Hilgard, Dr. Theodore C, care Dr. Tyndale, 121 Bivington St, N. Y. (17).
Hill, 8. W., Hancock, Lake Superior (6).
Hill, Rev. Dr. Thomas, 58 State St., Portland, Me. (8).
Hinrichs, Prof. Gustavus, State University, Iowa City, Iowa (17).
Hitchcock, Prof. Charles H., Hanover, N. H. (1).
Hoadley, £. S., Springfield, Mass. (18).
HoUey, Miss B. P., Niagara Falls, N. Y. (20).
Honey, George W., Niagara Falls, N. Y. (19).
Holmes, Thomas, Merom, Ind. (20).
Homes, Henry A., Librarian State Library, Albany, N. Y. (11).
Horr, Dr. Asa, Dubuque, Iowa (21).
Horribin, WUliam T., Cohoes, N. Y. (19).
Horsford, Prof. E. N., Cambridge, Mass. (1).
Hosford, Charles St, Terre Haute, Ind. (20).
A. A. A. S. VOL. XZn. C.
XZXU MEMBERS OF
Hoagh, Franklin B., Lowville, N. Y. (4).
Hough, G. W., Albany, N. Y. (16).
Honk, Mrs. George W., Dayton, Ohio (22).
House, John C, Union Gas Works, Waterford, N. Y. (19).
Hovey, Prof. Edmand O., Wabash College, CrawfordsYllle, Ind. (20).
Hovey, Mrs. Edmiyid 0., Crawfordsville, Ind. (21).
Hovey, Miss Mary F., Crfiwrordsville, Ind. (20).
Howe, E. C, Yonkers, N. Y. (19).
Hoy, Dr. Phllo R., Racine^ Wis. (17).
Hubbard, Prof. Oliver P., New Haven, Conn. (1).
Hubbard, Mrs. Sara A., No. 81 Thirty-third St., Chicago, HI. (17).
Humphrey, D., Lawrence, Mass. (18).
Humphreys, A. W., Box, 1384, N. Y. (20).
Hunt, George; Providence, R. I. (9).
Hunt, Miss Sarah £., Salem, Mass. (20).
Hunt, Dr. T. Sterry, St. James Hotel, Boston, Mass. (1).
Huntington, Prof. J. H., Hanover, N. H. (19).
Hyatt, Prof. Alpheus, Natural History Society, Boston, Mass. (18).
Hyatt, James, Stanfordville, Dutchess Co., N. Y. (10).
Hyatt, Jonathan S., Morrisiana, N. Y. (19).
I.
Irish, Thomas M., Box 2127, Dubuque, Iowa (21).
J.
Jackson, Prof. C. L., care P. T. Jackson, Boston, Mass. (20).
Jackson, Lewis McL., Middletown, Conn. (22).
James, Thomas Potts, Cambridge, Mass. (22).
Jasper, Gustavus A., 12 Central St., Boston, Mass. (18).
Jenks, Ellsha T., Middleboro, Mass. (22).
Jenks, Prof. J. W. P., Middleboro, Mass. (2).
JiUson, Dr. B. C, Pittsburgh, Penn. (14).
Johnson, Prof. Hosmer A., Academy of Sciences, Chicago, HI. (22).
Johnson, Prof. S. W., Yale College, New Haven, Conn. (22).
Johnston, Prof. John, Middletown, Conn. (1).
Jones, William P., Ravens wood. 111. (21).
Joy, Prof. C. A., Columbia College, New York (8).
Joyce, Rev. J. J., jr., 83 North 17th St., PhUadelphia, Penn. (22).
K.
Keely, Prof. G. W., WaterviUe, Me. (1).
Kellogg, Justin, 269 River St., Troy, N. Y. (19).
Kennedy, Mrs. Mary R., St. Louis, Gratiot Co., Mich. (19).
Kerr, Prof. W. C, Raleigh, N. C. (10).
Kimball, Dr. Frank B., Reading, Mass. (22).
Kimball, Dr. J. P., New York (16).
Kinder, Miss Sarah, 27 Lockerbie St., Indianapolis, Ind. (20).
THE ASSOCIATION. XXXIU
King, MiS8 Mary B. A., Rochester, N. T. (15).
King, Robert, Kalamazoo, Mich. (21).
King, V. O., New Orleans, La. (21).
King, William F., President Cornell College, Mt. Vernon, Iowa (21).
Khmer, Dr. Hago, 1517 South Seventh St., St. Louis, Mo. (21).
Kirkpatrick, James A., 19 South Fifth St. Philadelphia, Penn. (7).
Kirkwood, Daniel, Bloomington, Ind. (7).
Klippart, John H., Cor. Sec^ State Board of Agriculture, Box 1453,
Columbus, Ohio (17).
Knapp, Frederick N., Plymouth, Mass. (19).
Knapp, Dr. Herman, 26 West Twenty-fourth St., N. Y. (22).
Kneeland, Dr. Samuel, Mass. Institute of Technology, Boston, Mass. (20).
Knepper, C. O., Waverly, Iowa (21).
Knight, J. B., No. 80 North Fifth St., Philadelphia, Penn. (21).
Knox, Otho S., Waterloo, Iowa (21).
L.
Lambert, Thomas R., Charlestown, Mass. (18).
Lambert, T. S., New York (21).
Langley, S. P., Director Observatory, Allegheny, Penn. (18).
Lapham, Dr. Increase A., Chief of Geological Corps, Milwaukee, Wis. (3).
Lattimore, Prof. S. A., University of Rochester, Rochester, N. Y.(16).
Lawrence, Hon. £dw., Pres*t Bunker Hill N. Bk., Charlestown, Mass. (18).
Lawrence, George N., 172 Pearl St., New York (7).
Lea, Dr. Isaac, 1622 Locust St., Philadelphia, Penn. (1).
Leakin, Rev. George^ A., Baltimore, Md. (17).
Leboorveau, Alonzo, Watertown, Wis. (22).
Leckie, Robert G., Actonvale, Quebec, Canada (19).
LeCo'nte, Dr. John L., 1625 Spruce St., Philadelphia, Penn. (1).
Lennon, W. H., Normal School, Brockport, N. Y. (19).
Leonard, N. R., State University, Iowa City, Iowa (21).
Lesley, Joseph, Jr., 233 South Fourth St., Philadelphia, Penn. (8).
Lesley, Prof. J. P., Philadelphia, Pa. (2).
Lindsley, Dr. J. B., Nashville, Tenn. (1).
Lintner, J. A., Albany, N. Y. (22).
Little, Prof. George, Oxford, Miss. (15).
Little, W. C, Albany, N. Y. (22).
Locke, Brie (20).
Lockwood, Rev. Samuel, Freehold, N. J. (18).
Logan, Sir William E., 15 St. Lambert St., Montreal, Canada (1).
LoomiSy Prof. Ellas, New Haven, Conn. (1).
Loughridge, Albert, Sup't Public Schools, Newton, Iowa (21).
Loughridge, Prof. R. H., Oxford, Miss. (21).
Lovering, Prof. Joseph, Cambridge, Mass. (2).
Lupton, Prof. N. T., University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, Ala. (17).
Lyford, Prof. Moses, Watervllle, Me. (22).
Lyman, B. S., care of Smith, Archer & Co., Yokohama, Japan (15).
XXZiy MEMBERS OF
Lyman, Prof. Chester S., New Haven, Conn. (14).
Lyon, Dr. Henry, 34 Monament Sq., Charlestown, Mass. (18),
M.
MacArthur, Charles L., Troy, N. Y. (19).
Maclntire, Thomas, Indianapolis, Ind. (20).
Mack, Dr. William, Salem, Mass. (21).
Malone, David R., Edlnbarg, Ind. (20).
Mann, B. Flckman, Cambridge, Mass. (22).
Marcy, Prof. Oliver, Evanston, 111. (10).
Marden, George H., 7 Parker St., Charlestown, Mass. (18).
Mark, Edward L., Fredonia, N. Y. (21).
Mauran, Dr. J., 68 West 19th St., New York (2).
Mayer, Prof. Albert M., Stevens Inst. Technology, Hoboken, N. J. (19).
McClintock, Frank, West Union, Iowa (22).
McColIister, Bev. S. H., Pres't Bucktel College, Akron, Ohio (22).
McCreery, J. L., Dabnqne, Iowa (21).
Mclsaac, P., Waterloo, Iowa (21).
McMurtrie, Horace, Boston, Mass. (17).
McMurtrie, William, Dep't Agriculture, Washington, D. C. (22).
McRae, Hamilton S., Muncie, Ind. (20.)
McRae, John, Camden, S. C. (8). .
McWhorter, Tyler, Aledo, 111. (20).
Means, Kev. A., Oxford, Ga. (5).
Meehan, Thomas, Germantown, Penn. (17).
Meek, F. B., Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D. C. (6).
Meigs, Dr. James Aitken, 423 South Broad St., Philadelphia, Penn. (12).
Mendenhall, Prof. T. C, Agri. and Mechanical Coll., Columbus, Ohio (20).
Merrill, Prof. George C, Washburn College, Topeka, Kansas (22).
Merritt, George, Indianapolis, Ind. (20).
Metcalf, Caleb B., Worcester, Mass. (20). ^
Miller, John A., Paducah, Ey. (22).
Milner, James W., Waukegan, U\, (22).
Mtnifle, William, 114 Baltimore St., Baltimore, Md. (12).
Mitchell, AClss Maria, Vassar College, Poughkeepsie, N. Y. (4).
Moore, Prof. James W., Easton, Penn. (22).
Moore, Joseph, Pres't Earlham Coll., Richmond, Ind. (20).
Morgan, Hon. L. H., Rochester, N. Y. (11).
Morison, Dr. N. H., Provost of ^eabody Institute, "Baltimore, Md. (17).
Morley, Edward W., Hudson, Ohio (18).
Morris, Rev. John O., Baltimore, Md. (12).
Morris, Oran W., 242 West Twenty-sixth St., New York (19).
Morse, Prof. Edward S., Salem, Mass. (18).
Morton, Henry, Hoboken, N. J. (18).
Munroe, Charles £., Cambridge, Mass. (22).
Munroe, John C, Lexington, Mass. (22).
Munroe, William, 106 Boylston St., Boston, Mass. (18).
THB A8S0CIATIQN. XXXY
N.
Nason, Almond F., 15 State St., Boston, Mass. (22).
Nason, Prof. Henry B., Troy, N. Y. (18).
Newberry, Prof. J. S., Cleveland, Ohio, and Colambia Coll., New York (6).
Newcomb, Prof. Simon, U. S. Naval Observatory, Washington, D. C. (13).
Newman, John S., 48 East Washington St., Indianapolis, Ind. (20).
Newman, Mrs. John S., 48 East Washington St., Indianapolis, Ind. (21).
Newton, Hnbert A., New Haven, Conn. '(6).
Newton, Be v. John, Mary Esther, West Fla. (7).
Nichols, Charles A., Providence, B. I. (17).
Nichols, Prof. W. B., Mass. Inst. Technology, Boston, Mass. (18).
Nicholson, Dr. /Thomas, 490 Magazine St., New Orleans, La. (21).
Nickel, George D., ConnellsvUle, Penn. (19).
Niles, Prof. W. H., Cambridge, Mass. (16).
Norton, Miss Mary E. B., Bockford Seminary, Bockford, 111. (21).
Norton, Prof. W. A., New Haven, Conn. (6).
Nntt, Cyras, Bloomington, Ind. (20).
O.
Ogden, Mahlon D., Chicago, HI. (17).
Ogden,llobert W., 44 Carondelet St., New Orleans, La. (21).
Ogden, W. B., High Bridge, Westchester County, N. Y. (17).
Oliver, Prof. James E., Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y. (7).
Olmstead, F. L., Commissioner of Pnblic Parks, New York (22).
Ordway, John M., Boston, Mass. (9).
Orton, Prof. Edward, President Ohio'Agricoltural and Mechanical College,
Colombns, Ohio (19).
Osborne, Amos O., Waterville, N. Y. (19),
Osborne, John W., Washington, D. C. (22).
Ostrander, L. A., Dubnqne, Iowa (21).
Owen, Dr. Bichard, Ind. State University, Bloomington, Ind. (20).
P.
Packard, Dr. A. S., jr., Peabody Academy of Science, Salem, Mass. (16).
Page, Peter, Chicago, 111. (17).
Paine, Charles, 163 Prospect St., Cleveland, Ohio (22).
Paine, Cyms F., Bochester, N. Y. (12).
Paine, Nathaniel, Worcester, Mass. (18).
Painter, Minshall, Lima, Penn. (7).
Palfrey, Hon. C. W., Salem, Mass. (21).
Palmer, Dr. A. B., Ann Arbor, Mich. (21).
Palmer, Mrs. A. B., Ann Arbor, Mich. (21).
Palmer, Bev. BenJ. M., Box 1762, New Orleans, La. (21).
Palmer, Dr. Edward, care Smithsonian Inst., Washington, D. C. (22).
Palmer, Bev. James M., Portland, Me. (22).
Parker, J. B., Grand Bapids, Mich. (21).
XXXVi MElfBERS OF
Parry, Dr. Charles C, Davenport, Iowa (6).
Parvin, Theodore S., Iowa City, Iowa (7).
Patton, WUlIam W., Chicago, 111. (18).
Peck, W. A., care Peck and Hillman, Troy, N. Y. (19).
Peckham, 8. P., Bnchtel College, Akron, Ohio (18).
Pedrick, Wm. R., Lawrence, Mass. (22).
Peirce, Prof. Bei^amin, Cambridge, Mass. (1).
Pelrce, B. O., Beverly, Mass. (18).
Percival, Rev. Chester S., Rector of Emmanuel Church, Rockford, 111. (21).
Perkins, Prof. George H., Burlington, Vt. (17).
Perkins, Prof. George R., Utlca, N. Y. (7).
Perkins, Maurice, Schenectady, N. Y. (16).
Perkins, S. E., jr., Indianapolis, Ind. (20).
Perkins, T. Lyman, Salem, Mass. (22).
Phelps, Gen. Charles E., Baltimore, Md. (13).
Phelps, Mrs. Lincoln, Baltimore, Md. (18).
Phlppen, George D., Salem, Mass. (18)'.
Pickering, Prof. Edward C, Boston, Mass. (18).
Pierce, Henry D., Indianapolis, Ind. (20).
Pond, Erasmus A., Rutland, Yt. (22).
Porteous, John, Agent Grand Trunk Railway, Portland, Me. (22).
Pourtales, L. F., Keeper Museum Comp. Zoology, Cambridge, Majss. (l).
Pratt, William H., Davenport, Iowa (17).
Prince, Gen. Henry, Paymaster General of Coast Survey, New York (22).
Preston, W. C, Iowa City, Iowa (21).
Pruyn, John V. L., Chancellor University of N. Y., 13 Elk St., Albany,
N. Y. (1).
Pulsifer, Sidney, Peoria, 111. (21).
Pumpelly, Prof. Raphael, Newburgh, Orange County, N. Y. (17).
Putnam, F. W., Director Peabody Academy Science, Salem, Mass. (10).
Putnam, Mrs. F. W., Salem, Mass. (19).
Qulmby, Prof. E. T., Hanover, N. H. (22).
Qulnche, Prof. A. J., Oxford, Miss. (20).
Qulncy, Edmund, jr., 3 Mt. Vernon St., Boston, Mass. (11).
R.
Ranch, Dr. J. H., Chicago, 111. (11).
Raymond, R. W., Box 4404, New York, N. Y. (16).
Read, Ezra, Terre Haute, Ind. (20).
Redfleld, John H., care of- A. Whitney & Sons, Philadelphia, Penn. (1).
Remsen, Prof. Ira, Williams College, Willlamstown, Mass. (22).
Rice, Prof. William N., Mlddletown, Conn. (18).
Richards, Prof. Robert H., Mass. Inst, of Technology, Boston, Mass. (22).
Richardson, F. C. A., Corner Garrison and Wash. Av., St. Louis, Mo. (20).
Riley, Prof. Charles V., St. Louis, Mo. (17).
• •
THE ASSOCIATION. XXXVU
•
'Ritchie, E. S., Boston, Mass. (10).
Bobertson, Col. Robert S., Fort Wayne, Ind. (20).
Bobertson, Thomas D., Rockford, 111. (10).
Rockwell, Altred P., Office Board Fire Commissioners, Boston, Mass. (10).
Rockwell, Joseph P., Burlington, Iowa (17).
Rockwood, Prof. Charles 6., jr., Brunswick, Me. (20).
Rogers, Fairman, 202 West Ritteuhouse Sq., Philadelphia, Penn. (II).
Rogers, Prof. Robert E., Philadelphia, Penn. (18).
Rogers, W. A., Cambridge, Mass. (15).
Rogers, Prof. William B., Hotel Berkeley, Boston, Mass. (1).
Rominger, Br. Carl, Ajin Arbor, Mich. (21).
Rood, Prof. O. N., New York (U).
Roosevelt, Clinton, No. 15 Centre St., New York (11).
Ross, Dr. Alexander M., Toronto, Canada (21).
Ross, Angus, Morris Street School, Halifax, Canada (22).
Rosseter, 6. R., Marietta, Ohio (18).
Ramsey, Bronson C, Buflklo, N. Y. (15).
Rankle, Prof. J. D., Pres. Institute of Technology, Boston, Mass. (2).
Russell, L. W., Providence, R. I. (20).
Rutherford, Louis M., New York (18).
S.
Sadtler, Prof. Samuel D., Gettysburg, Penn. (22).
SafTord, James M.» Nashville, Tenn. (6).
SalTord, Dr. Mary J., 4 Boylston Place, Boston, Mass. (21).
Sanders, Benjamin D., Wellsburg, Brooke County, W. V. (19).
Saunders, William, London, Canada (17).
Saonderson, Robert, Sup't of Public Schools, Burlington, Iowa (21).
Saville, Dr John J., Sioux City, Iowa (22).
Scammon, J. Young, Chicago, 111. (17).
Schanck, Prof. J. Stillwell, Princeton College, Princeton, N. J. (4).
Schott, Charles A., Coast Survey Office, Washington, D. C. (8).
Scndder, Samuel H., Cambridge, Mass. (IS)!
Seaman, Ezra C, Ann Arbor, Mich. (20).
Seely, Charles A., 26 Pine St., New York (18).
Senter, Harvey S., Aledo, Mercer Co., III. (20).
Seymour, Prof. William P., 105 Third St., Troy, N. Y. (19).
Shaler, Prof. N. S., Newport, Ky., and Cambridge, Mass. (19).
Sheafer, P. W., Pottsville, Penn. (4).
Sheldon, Edwin H., Chicago, HI. (17).
Slas, Solomon, Charlottesville, Schoharie Co., N. Y. (10).
Sin, Hon. Elisha N., Cuyahoga Falls, Ohio (6).
SiUiman, Prof. Benjamin, New Haven, Conn. (1).
Sniiman, Prof. Justus M., Easton, Penn. (19).
Sloan, Dr. John, New Albany, Ind. (20).
Smith, Prof. Eugene A., University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, Ala. (20).
Smith, Prof. J. L., Louisville, Ky. (14).
XXZVlll MEMBEBS OV
i
Smith, Dr. J. W., Charles City, Iowa (21).
Smith, James Y., 66 Westminster St., Proyidence, B. I. (9).
Smith, S. I., New Haven, Conn. (18).
Snell, Prof. Ebenezer S., Amherst, Mass. (2).
Spencer, John W., Paxton, Ind. (20).
Squier, Hon. B. G., 4 West Twenty-seventh St., New York (18).
Stanard, Benjamin A., Cleveland, Ohio (6).
Starr, William, Blpon, Wis. (21).
Steams, B. £. C, San Francisco, Cal. (18).
Steiner, Dr. Lewis H., Frederick City, Md. (7).
Stephens, W. Hudson, Lowville, N. Y. (18).
Stevens, Jalius, Humboldt, Iowa (21).
Stevens, B. P., 26 Pine St., New York (18).
Stevens, Dr. Thaddeus M., Indianapolis, Ind. (20).
Steward, A., 631 York St., Chicago, Hi. (21).
Stimpson, Thomas M., Peabody, Mass. (18).
Stockwell, John N., 679 Case Av., Cleveland, Ohio (18).
Stone, Mrs. Lander, Chicago, 111. (22).
Stone, Col. Samuel, Box 203, Chicago, 111. (17).
Storer, Dr. D. H., Boston, Mass. (1).
Storer, Dr. Frank H., Boston, Mass. (13).
Storke, Helen L., Auburn, N. Y. (19).
Storrs, Henry £., Jacksonville, 111. (20).
Stowell, John, 48 Main Street, Charlestown, Mass. (21).
Stuart, Prof. A. P. S., III. Industrial University, Champaign, 111. (21).
Sutton, George, Aurora, Ind. (20).
Swain, James, Fort Dodge, Iowa (21).
Swain, Mrs. James, Fort Dodge, Iowa (21).
Swallow, Prof. G. C, Columbia, Mo. (10).
Swan, Prof. Blchard W., Iowa College, Grlnnell, Iowa (21).
Swan, S. £., Brooklyn, N. Y. (22).
Swasey, Oscar F., Beverly, Mass. (17).
T.
Taft, Prof. S. H., President Humboldt College, Humboldt, Iowa (21).
Taft, Mrs. S. H., Humboldt, Iowa (21).
Talbot, Hon. George F., Portland, Me. (22).
Tappan, Eli T., Pres't of Kenyon College, Gambler, Ohio (20).
Taylor, Edward B., Cleveland, Ohio (20).
Tenney, Prof. Sanborn, Willlamstown, Mass. (17).
Tewksbury, Samuel H., Portland, Me. (22).
Thompson, Aaron B.*, 36 Pine St., New York (1).
Thompson, Mrs. Elizabeth, 46 West Tenth St., New York (22).
Thompson, Harvey M., Box 149, Chicago, 111. (17).
Thompson, Joseph P., Portland, Me. (22).
Thompson, Bobert H., Troy, N. Y. (19).
Thomson, A., Iowa City, Iowa (21).
THE ASSOCIATION. XXXIX
Thrasher, William M., Indianapolis, Ind. (21).
Thurber, Miss EUzabeth, Plymonth, Mass. (22).
Tillman, Prof. 8. D., Jersey City, N. J. (15).
Tillman, Mrs. S. D., Jersey City, N. J. (20).
Todd, Prof. James E., Tabor, Fremont Co., Iowa (22).
Tolles, Bobert B., 40 Hanover St., Boston, Mass. (16).
Tomlinson, Dr. J. M., 28 East Ohio St., Indianapolis, Ind. (20). ^
Townsend, Hon. Franklin, Albany, N. Y. (4).
Townshend, Prof. N. S., Columbus, Ohio (17).
Tracy, 0. M., Lynn, Mass. (19).
Trembly, Dr. J. B., San Jose, Santa Clara Co., Cal. (17).
Trowbridge, Mrs*. L. H., 158 Jefferson Ave., Detroit, Mich. (21).
Trowbridge, Prof. W. P., New Haven, Conn. (10).
Tumbull, Dr. Lawrence, 1208 Spruce St., Philadelphia, Penn. (10).
Turner, Dr. Bobert S., box 7121, Minneapolis, Minn. (18).
TuUle. Prof Albert H., Columbus, Ohio (17).
Twining, A. C, New Haven, Conn. (18).
Tyson, Prof. Philip T., Baltimore, Md. (12).
U.
Uhler, Philip B., Baltimore, Md. (19).
Upham, Dr. J. Baxter, 81 Chestnut St., Boston, Mass. (14).
V.
Vail, Prof Hugh D., 1927 Mt. Vernon St., Philadelphia, Penn. (18).
Van der Weyde, Dr. P. H., New York (17).
Vasey, George, Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. (20).
Vaux, William S., 1702 Arch St., Philadelphia, Penn. (1).
Verrill, Prof A. E., Yale College, New Haven, Conn. (16).
Vose, Prof George L., Bowdoin College, Brunswick, Me. (15).
W.
Waddel, John N., Oxford, Miss. (17).
Walker, Charles A., 42 Court St., Boston, Mass. (18).
Walker, George C, 274 Michigan Ave., Chicago, 111. (17).
Walker, Prof Joseph B., care Bank of Kentucky, Louisville, Ey. (20).
Walker, Prof. J. B., Napoleon Ave., comer Coliseum St., New Orleans,
Walker, N. B., Arlington, Mass. (20). [La. (19).
Walling, H. F., 102 Chauncy St., Boston, Mass. (16).
Wanzer, Ira, Lanesville, Litchfield Co., Conn. (18).
Ward, Prof Henry A., Bochester, N. Y. (13).
Ward, Dr. R. H., No. 63 Fourth St., Troy, N. Y. (17).
Warder, Bobert B., Cleves, Hamilton Co., Ohio (19).
Wardwell, George J., Butland, Vt. (20).
Warner, H. C, Clermont, Iowa (21).
Warner, James D., 4 Hanover St., New York (18).
Warner, Mrs. J. D., 4 Hanover St., New York (21).
Warren, Gen. G. K., U.S.A., Engineer's Office, Newport, B. I. (12).
Zl MEMBEBS OF THE ASSOCIATION.
Warren, G. W., 42 Court St., Boston, Mass. (18).
Warren, 8. Edward, Institute of Technology, Boston, Mass. (17).
Watson, Sereno, Botanic Gardens, Cambridge, Mass. (22).
Waugh, J. W., Lucknow, India (21).
Webb, Benjamin, Salem, Mass. (18).
Webster, Prof. Nathan B., Prin. of Webster Institute, Norfolk, Va. (7).
Welch, Mrs. G. O., Lynn, Mass. (21).
Wells, Daniel H., New Haven, Conn. (18).
Wells, George A., Troy, N. Y. (19).
Westcott, 0. S., High School, Chicago, 111. (21).
Wheatland, Dr. Henry, President Essex Institute, Salem, Mass. (1).
Wheatley, Charles M., Phoenixyille, Penn. (1).
Wheeler, C. G., Chicago, El. (18).
Wheeler, Dr. T. B., Box 88i, Montreal, Canada (11).
Wheelock, G. A., Keene, N. H. (22).
Wheildon, W. W., Concord, Mass. (18).
White, Prof. C. A., Bowdoin College, Brunswick, Me. (17).
Whitfield, R. P., Albany, N. Y. (18).
Whitney, Asa, care of A. Whitney & Sons, Philadelphia, Penn. (1).
Whitney, Prof. J. D., Cambridge, Mass. (1).
Whitney, Maiy W., Waltham, Mass. (19).
Whitney, Solon F., Watertown, Mass. (20).
Whittlesey, Col. Charles, Cleveland, Ohio. (1).
Wilber, G. M., Pine Plains, N. Y. (19).
Wilder, Dr. Burt G., Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y. (22).
Wiley, Dr. Harvey W., Indianapolis, Ind. (21).
Williams, Charles H., 15 Arlington St., Boston, Mass. (22).
Williams, Mrs. B. B., Strawberry Point, Iowa (21).
Williams, H. S., Williams Brothers, Phenix Iron Works, Ithaca, N. Y. (18).
Williams, Prof. Henry W., Boston, Mass. (11).
Winchell, Prof. Alexander, Syracuse, N. Y. (8).
Winchell, Prof. N. H., St. Anthony, Minn. (19).
Witter, F. M., Muscatine, Iowa (21).
Woodman, H. T., Dubuque, Iowa (20).
Woodworth, Dr. John M., U. S. Marine Hospital Service, Washington,
Wormley, Thomas G., Columbus, Ohio (20). [D. C. (17).
Worster, Joseph, 115 East Thirtieth St., New York (22).
Worthen, A. H., Springfield, 111. (6).
Wright, Prof. A. W., Yale College, New Haven, Conn. (14).
Wurtele, Rev. Louis C, Acton Vale, Province of Quebec, Canada East (11) .
Wurtz, Henry, 12 Hudson Terrace, Hoboken, N. J. (10).
Wyckoff. William C, Tribune Office, New York (20).
Wylle, Prof. Theophilus A., Ind. State University, Bloomlngton, Ind. (20)*
Y.
Youmans, Prof. B. L., New York (6).
Young, Prof. Charles A., Dartmouth College, Hanover, N. H. (18).
Young, William H., 8 and 9 First St., Troy, N. Y. (19).
MEMBEES ELECTED
AT
PORTLAND MEETING.
One hundred and ten members were elected at the Portland meeting.
Of. these ninety-seven have paid the admission fee and assessment for the
meeting and their names have been incorporated Into the List of Members.
One has declined, and the following have not yet replied to the notifica-
tions sent to them.
Barton, Charles H., Superintendent Schools, Plymouth, Mass.
Chace, Arnold B., Valley Falls, R. I.
Bayis, William T., Plymouth, Mass.
Hayes, Bey. Charles W., Portland, Me.
Kingsbury, Hon. Benjamin; Jr., Portland, Me.
Muir, John, Yosemite, Cal.
JSeeljf Rt. Rev. Henry A., Portland, Me.
Schwarz, Rev. Loais B., Boston, Mass.
Smith, Louis B., Portland, Me.
Snyder, Dr. John F., Virginia, Cass Co., HI.
Whitaker, Nelson Bowen, Providence, R. I.
Wildes, Rev. Dr. George D., New York, N. Y.
(xli)
!
DECEASED MEMBERS.
Adams, C. B., Amherst, Mass. (1).
Adams, Edwin F., CharlestowD, Mass. (18).
Agasslz, LoQls, Cambridge, Mass. (1).
Ames, M. P., Springfield, Mass. (1).
Appleton, Nathan, Boston, Mass. (1).
Bache, Alexander D., Washington, D. C. (1).
Bailey, J. W., West Point, N. Y. (1).
Beck, C. F., Philadelphia, Penn. (1).
Beck, Lewis C, New Brunswick, N. J. (1).
Beck, T. Romeyn, Albany, N. Y. (1).
Blnney, Amos, Boston, Mass. (1).
Binney, John, Boston, Mass. (8).
Blanding, William, R. I. (1).
Blatchley, Miss S. L., New Haven, Conn. (19).
Bomford, George, Washington, D. C. (1).
Bumap, G. W., Baltimore, Md. (12).
Burnett, Waldo I., Boston, Mass. (1).
Butler, Thomas B., Norwalk, Conn. (10).
Carpenter, Thornton, Camden, 8. C. (7).
Carpenter, William M., New Orleans, La. (1).
Case, William, Cleveland, Ohio (6).
Chapman, N., Philadelphia, Pa. (1).
Chase, S., Dartmouth, N. H. (2).
Chauvenet, William, St. Louis, Mo. (1).
Clapp, Asahel, New Albany, Ind. (1).
Clark, Joseph, Cincinnati, Ohio (5).
Cleveland, A. B., Cambridge, Mass. (2).
CoiBn, Prof. James H., Easton, Penn. (1).
Cole, Thomas, Salem, Mass. (1).
Coleman, Henry, Boston, Mass. (1).
Coming, Erastus, Albany, N. Y. (6).
Crosby, Thomas R., Hanover, N. H. (18).
Dean, Amos, Albany, N. Y. (6).
Dearborn, George H. A. S., Rozbury, Mass. (1).
Dekay, James £., New York (1).
Dewey, Chester, Rochester, N. Y. (1).
(xlU)
DECEASED HEMBEBS. xllii
Dexter, G. M., Boston, Mass. (11).
Docatel, J. T., Baltimore, Md. (1).
Damont, A. H., Newport, «. I. (lA^.
Duncan, Lucius C, New Orleans, La. (10).
Dunn, B. P., Providence, B. L (14).
Everett, Edward, Boston, Mass. (2).
Ewing, Hon. Thomas, Lancaster, Ohio (5).
Ferris, Bev. Dr. Isaac, New York (6).
Fisher, Mark, Trenton, N. J. (10).
Fitch, Alexander, Hartford, Conn. (1).
Forbnsh, £. B., BofEUo, N. T. (16).
Foster, Col. J. W., Hyde Park, Chicago, HI. (1).
Foucon, Felix, Madison, Wis. (18).
Fox, Charles, Grosse He, Mich. (7).
Gay, Martin, Boston, Mass. (1).
Gibbon, J. H., Charlotte, N. C. (3).
Gillespie, W. M., Schenectady, N. T. (10).
Gilmor, Robert, Baltimore, Md. (1).
GoQld, Augustus A., Boston, Mass. (11).
Gould, B. A., Boston, Mass. (2).
Graham» James D., Washington, D. C. (1).
Gray, James H. Springfield, Mass. (6).
Greene,* Benjamin D., Boston, Mass. (1).
Griffith, Robert £., Philadelphia, Penn. (1).
Hackley, Charles W., New York (4).
Hale, Enoch, Boston, Mass. (1).
Hare, Robert, Philadelphia, Penn. (11).
Harlan, Joseph G., Haverford, Penn. (8).
Harlan, Richard, Philadelphia, Penn. (1).
Harris, Thaddeus W., Cambridge, Mass. (1).
Hart, Simeon, Farmington, Conn. (1).
Hayden, H. H., Baltimore, Md. (1).
Hayward, James, Boston, Mass. (1).
Hitchcock, Edward, Amherst, Mass. (1).
Holbrook, J. £., Charleston, S. C. (1). •
Hopkins, Albert, Williams town, Mass. (19).
Horton, WUliam, Craigville, Orange Co., N. T. (1).
Houghton, Douglas, Detroit, Mich. (1).
Rowland, Theodore,. Buffalo, N. T. (15).
Hubbert, James, Richmond, Province of Quebec (16).
Hunt, E. B., Washington, D. C. (2).
Hunt, Freeman, New York (11).
Ives, Thomas P., Providence, R. I, (10).
ZliV DECEASED HEMBEBS.
Johnsoii, W. R., Washington, D. C. (!)•
Jones, Catesby A. B., Washington, D. C. (8).
Lasel, Edward, Williamstown, Mass. (1).
Lederer Baron von, Washington, D. C. (!)•
Lleber, Oscar M., Columbia, S. C. (8).
Lincklaen, Ledjard, Cazenovia, N. Y. (1).
Linsley, James H., Stafford, Conn. (1).
Loosey, Charles F., New York (12).
Lothrop, Joshua B., Buffalo, N. Y. (16).
Lyon, Sidney S., Jefferson vLUe, Ind. (20).
Maack, G. A., Cambridge, Mass. (18).
M'Conlhe, Isaac, Troy, N. Y. (4).
Marsh, Dexter, Greenfield, Mass. (1).
Mather, William W., Columbus, Ohio (1).
Meade, George G., Philadelphia, Pa. (16).
Morton, S. G., Philadelphia, Penn. (1).
Newton, E. H., Cambridge, N. Y. (1).
Nlcollett, J. N., Washington, D. C. (1).
Norton, J. P., New Haven, Conn. (1).
Noyes, J. O., New Orleans, La. (21).
Oakes, William, Ipswich, "Mass. (1).
Olmsted, Alexander F., New Haven, Conn. (4).
Olmsted, Denlson, New Haven, Conn. (1).
Olmsted, Denlson, Jr., New Haven, Conn. (1).
Parkman, Samuel, Boston, Mass. (1).
Perkins, Henry C, Newburyport, Mass. (18).
Perry, John B., Cambridge, Mass. (16).
Perry, M. C, New York (10).
Plumb, Ovid, Salisbury, Conn. (9).
Pope, Charles A., St. Louis, Mo. (12).
Porter, John A., New Haven, Conn. (14).
Pugh, Evan, Centre Co., Penn. (14).
Bedfleld, William C, New Yo'rk (1).
Bockwell, John A., Norwich, Conn. (10).
Bogers, James B., Philadelphia, Penn. (1).
Seward, William H., Auburn, N. Y. (1).
Sllllman, Bei^'amln, New Ha^en, Conn. (1).
Smith, J. v., Cincinnati, Ohio (6).
Smith, Lyndon A., Newark, N. J. (9).
Sparks, Jared, Cambridge, Mass. (2).
DECEASED MEMBEBS. xlv
Stimpson, Dr. Wllllam» Chicago, HI. (12).
SaUiyant, Prof. W. S., Colnmbos, Ohio (7).
Tallmadge, James, New York (1).
Taylor, Richard C, Philadelphia, Penn. (1).
Teschemacher, J. £., Boston, Mass. (1).
Thompson, Z., Burlington, Yt. (1).
Thurber, Isaac, Providence, R. I. (9).
Torrey, John, New York (1).
Totten, J. G., Washington, D. C. (1).
Townsend, John E., Philadelphia, Penn. (1).
Troost, Gerard, Nashville, Tenn. (1).
Tnomey, M., Tuscaloosa, Ala. (1).
Tyler, Edward R., New Haven, Conn. (1).
Vancleve, John W., Dayton, Ohio (1).
Yanuxem, Lardner, Bristol, Penn. (1).
Wadsworth, James S.,. Genesee, N. Y. (2).
Wagner, Tobias, Philadelphia, Penn. (9).
Walker, Joseph, Oxford, N. Y. (10).
Walker, Sears C, Washington, D. C. (1).
Walker, Timothy, Cincinnati, Ohio (4).
Warren, John C, Boston, Mass. (1).
Webster, H. B., Albany, N. Y. (1).
Webster, J. W., Cambridge, Mass. (1).
Webster, M. H., Albany, N. Y. (1).
Wheatland, Richard H., Salem, Mass. (13).
Willard, Emma, Troy, N. Y. (15).
Woodbury, L., Portsmouth, N. H. (1).
Wright, John, Troy, N. Y. (1).
Young, Ira, Hanover, N. H. (7).
ADDRESS
ov
DR. J. LAWRENCE SMITH,
THE BBTIRING PRESIDENT OF THE ASSOCIATION.
Fellow Associates: — We meet again, at a point far distant
from the one where we gathered last year, to interchange social
greetings and scientifie thoughts, and to form plans for fature
labor and usefulness. Fifteen hundred miles divide Dubuque from
Portland, as the bird flies, and yet that extent of country and
much more are all our own. Its living and its dead treasures, with
its rocks and its soil, Aimish our men of science abundant study
from which to draw rich stores of knowledge, and to direct the
capital of the country to new sources of wealth.
As the members of the American Association for the Advance-
ment of Science hold their session for a few days only, and
occupj a portion of their time in interchange of social greetings
among themselves and with the inhabitants of the city where they
meet, that critical examination of papers communicated to the
Association cannot be entered upon that otherwise would be, nor
can the length of the communications and discussions be easily
limited. In fact, while it would be desirable to supervise these
matters more fully, such supervision is surrounded with so many
difficulties that those whose business it is are forced to content
themselves with an imperfect discharge of their duty.
A. A. A. S., VOL. XXU. I •
2 president's addbbss.
This too often gives rise to unjast criticisms on the part of the
press, whose reporters attend the meetings with the same views as
those with which they woald enter a learned body of scientific
men, who meet at stated periods, with short intervals, and where
both time and sound criticism are bestowed upon such investiga-
tions as are communicated.
The meeting of this Association is, in some sense, to be regarded
as an annual scientific fete^ where the interchange of ideas outside
the audience-room suggests as much, if not more, stem matter
for refiection as the communications which may be read ; minds
that have been on the stretch during the year are relaxed, and
iVesh pabulum and new vigor are furnished for the coming year.
It sometimes happens that many persons who attend our meetings
gather from them erroneous impressions as to what the scientific
«
men of the country are doing, and go away questioning themselves
whether or not scientific societies and associations have, after all,
done much for science ; and conclude that while the men forming
them have made many important investigations, and published them
for the benefit of succeeding ages, it is to practical and obscure per-
sons that the world is indebted for its great discoveries.
I allude to this here, as it is but recently that I have seen this
assertion made in an article calculated to attract the attention of
the masses, and the author of that article illustrates the fact by
citing Clarke, Fulton and Morse. Now, while all honor is due to
those men of skill and genius, I would ask — What gave them the
ftilcrums on which they placed their levers, by which they have
wrought so much in practical science and the arts of life? It was
pure science. Without its aid Clarke's practical skill would have
failed him in constructing his huge astronomical lenses ; it is to
the experiments on latent heat in the laboratory of Black that we
owe the present steam-engine, and without which Fulton would
never have ruffled the water of our rivers nor stemmed the, winds
, of the ocean ; and without the scientific thought and the grand,
though inconspicuous, experiments of Galvani, Volta, Oersted,
Faraday, Henry and others, no one would have ever dreamed of
making a swift messenger of the lightning.
My thoughts on this subject have led me to refiect much upon
scientific training in this country, for those wishing to pursue
science as a profession as well as for those desiring it only for
general education.
pbesident's address. 8
There are, no doubt, serious errors in the scientific training
that students undergo at our various universities and schools,
which are too much in the habit of making short cuts in going
over the fields of science. We are in fact a fast people, as it is
commonly expressed, and are not content to devote patient and
laborious study to pursuits that can be mastered only in that way.
A short time ago a physician writing on this same error in rela-
tion to his profession justly said that, while we have shortened
distance by the railroad and the telegraph, the road to learning is
the same as it was in the days of Socrates and Plato.
The student is restless to become instructor, the lecture-room
enticing him from his studies before they are half mastered ; con-
sequently his instruction to others is both meagre and imperfect.
Our vast material interests draw the students from their labora^
tones to undertake the conducting of mines and other important
works. The consequence is, bad economy reigns in most of
them ; and if it were not for the patient submission of the people
of this country to high prices, many an enterprise would have to
suspend operations.
But it is at the door of the educational institutions themselves
that the greatest blame is to be placed.* First of all, our univer-
sities (or rather our so-called universities) are too numerous.
Nowadays every college must have a scientific school attached,
else it is not thought complete; and the number of professors
competent to fill the scientific chairs in all these institutions could
not be easily supplied in this country. Were it possible, it would
be far better to have fewer scientific schools ; to establish them
on the broadest basis, with most liberal endowments, so that in-
struction could be imparted at some mere nominal cost' to the
student; to make their examinations of such a standard that
the indorsement of these several schools would be a passport to
the bearer of it wherever he might seek for employment in pure
science or in its applications ; and, fbrthermore, by a system of
well-endowed scholarships, to retain those specially gifted with
taste and talent for pure science to devote their first years to
labor in that direction. Owing to these defects in our system of
scientific education, American science is frequently reproached as
being very deficient in pure and patient research.
Now, while admitting that our scientists have fallen short qf
m
what might have been expected of them, no one can deny that a
4 fbesident's address. •
■
vast amount of scientific labor has been accomplished in this
country from the time of Franklin to the present day ; and in the
application of science to the arts we are not far behind the most
advanced nation of our own time.
I know that American scientists are looked upon by their Eu-
ropean colleagues as in some sense piratical in their nature, sim-
ply capturing the hard-earned labors of others, applying the great
truths and discoveries in science that others have brought to light,
and not evolving them by hard and laborious study and experi.
ment. This is to some extent true, for the labors required of our
professors, who have educated and trained minds, in the countless
colleges that dot the land, are so onerous that no time is given
them for the exercise of original thought and investigation.
What can a physicist, a chemist or a naturalist, do who has three
or four classes to teach, usually in the most elementary part of
their studies? This very labor unfits him for that fVee exercise of
the mind which leads to new ideas and discoveries. He becomes an
educational, drudge instead of an intellectual scientist ; and what-
ever his intrinsic merits may be, he is in most cases sustained,
pecuniarily, no better than those engaged in the commonest pur-
suits of life, being at the*same time restricted in intellectual re-
sources— such as books, scientific transactions, apparatus, etc.
I will, however. Just here make one other plea for our men of
science against any unjust comparison with those across the At-
lantic. It is this. Our country is a new one, of most peculiar and
wonderful features of surface, of soil and of climate, and of un-
told and fabulous wealth within its bowels ; it beckons every man
'to fortune ; and with such ease are wealth and honors snatched
from its overflowing lap that even men who love and honor
science are drawn oflT their direct paths into by-ways and other
pursuits, and too often leave behind them the scientific toga, which
is never again assumed. In Europe it is otherwise ; no tempta-
tions of this kind beset the scientist,' and he delves into scientific
lore, acquiring great ideas and telling them to the world, exciting
their wonder ; and even then the honors they acquire only bind
them faster to their closets, for they are not tempted as we are.
In later years the liberality of wealthy patrons of learning and
science has done much to advance pure science in this country by
enabling the young and enthusiastic pursuers after natui*e's secrets
to give full scope to their tastes, and thus has opened to them new
president's address. 5
fields of research so enticing that their entire lives may J[)ecome
absorbed in them. This is increasing every day in our country,
and before very long there will be such inducements offered to
her greater minds to devote their lives to pure science that
America will become as prolific as Europe in new scientific ideas
and discoveries.
Let us ever bear in mind that it is abstract scientific ideas which
underlie^ in these modem days^ aU discoveries conducive to man's
progress^ from the making of a pen to the construction of a tele-
scope ; or, as Herbert Spencer well expresses it, '^ each machine
is a theory before it becomes a concrete fact." The man of pure
science paves the way, erects the mile-stones, and puts up the
guide-post for the practical man. The worlA, long dormant to
this great truth, is fast waking up to its acknowledgment; as
those words Qui bono? (the touch-stone used by the so-call^
practical men) are only heard now in faint whispers, where they
were formerly sounded most clamorously whenever any scientific
discovery was announced.
This does not arise firom any change in men ; they are the same
now as they were in the days of Galvani, who was doubtless re-
garded as a frivolous fellow, engaged in his daily experiments over
the convulsions of the muscles in a frog's leg when brought in con-
tact with two metals ; but, while mankind has not changed. Gal-
vani's experiment has, and instead of a frog, it is now a world
that is convulsed by the electric force then discovered, as this
same electricity fiashes through those nerves of metal that stretch
across land and river and bury themselves deep beneath the oceans
of our globe ; battles are fought, victories announced, commerce
controlled, and, I am sorry to ssy, tyranny abetted, by that won-
derful agent whose phenomena in their incipiency invited the ridi-
cule of the ordinary observer.
Science at the present day commands the respect of the world ;
nations, looking up to it, seek its advice at all times, and move
in no material enterprises without consulting its oracles ; yellow-
covered literature is beginning to find a rival io well-conducted
popular scientific journals and popular treatises on the various
branches of science.
As an association of American scientists, we are looked upon
as men representing science in all its bearings upon the physical
and mental world, and some even go so far as to suppose that we
6 fbebidsnt's address.
woald arrogate to represent its bearings equally upon the spiritual
world. This being the case, it behooves us to guard well our
thoughts, words and acts, lest thej do science and ourselves injus-
tice, and misrepresent both nature and natui*e's God.
We are all searchers after truth : but let us be careAil that we
do not mistake what truth is, and be beguiled into following some
fatal error which has simply borrowed the garb of truth, and com-
pletely enveloped itself in it, so as to hide its own deformity.
Error has pften glimmer enough to dazzle the sickly eye of the
enthusiast ; truth itself shines with sufficient brightness to be seen
by the most jealous among scientists.
While it would not be out of place to review the activity of
American science ibr the benefit of the general public, yet it
would occupy too much time, and I will merely refer to it to shoi^
that our Government is ftiUy alive to the value of well-directed
scientific labors. The Government never hesitates to encourage
the most thorough investigations by scientific men into all matters
that are likely to benefit the people or advance those great scientific
investigations which are of a more abstract character. Witness
the care and liberality with which it encourages that corps of scien-
tists engaged in the gigantic enterprise of the coast survey in all
its various departments ; its liberal appropriation of money and
means for the observation of those great astronomical phenom-
ena, such as solar eclipses, the transit of Venus, etc., which, while
they may not be attended with any immediate material advantage
to the Government, yet serve to instruct our people in those
higher and nobler aspirations after great natural truths which
must inevitably result in unfolding to us the riches of our land,
teeming with every diversified beauty of mountain, valley, and
plain, seas, lakes, and rivers, and, beneath her surface, with all the
variety of wealth that nature se.ems to have been able to produce.
While the older portions of the world are making serious calcula-
tions, and even looking forward with gloomy forebodings to the
time when their soil and rocks will cease to give wealth to toil, our
soil and our rocks are but- just being turned up to reveal wealth
tenfold greater than the world ever knew before. But in the midst
of all this abundance let us feel assured of one thing ; it is so placed
that no sluggard can stretch forth his hand and partake of it.
The wealth of America means toil. And perhaps in this we
are even more blessed than we sometimes are disposed to think ;
prbbidsmt's address. 7
for from the rich soil which covers such a vast proportion of oar
country, some of the states of which, like Illinois, with 55,000
square miles of surface, have hardly a barren acre, yet we can
pluck nothing ;. it is not like the tropical forest, from which the
indolent natives may gather their food, and live a life of inertia
almost akin to that of the l)easts that wander through its rich
foliage. In this country the arm must be stretched forth, the
forest felled, the ground ploughed, provision made against the
inclemency of varying seasons, but when this is done what a
glorious return! — rich and luxuriant crops, abundant harvests.
Then, by the numerous navigable streams and favorable surface
for roads, a ready market is afforded for the farmer's surplus. And
when we go beneath the soil and mine the rock it is not only
the uncertain gold and silver, but the sure coal and iron that
reward toil, and from the very nature of the labor improve those
engaged in it.
As followers and patrons of science we must keep in view the
wants and wishes of the people. Sometimes the people them-
selves, as well as their representatives, are slow to appreciate
our labors ; but experience has proved that they give way at last
to the patient and judicious perseverance of men of science, who
in some way or other show that they are not mere abstractionists,
bat that what they do has practical bearings, and therefore renders
the people more powerfril both at home and abroad. Science fur-
nishes, so to speak, the raw material out of which all the progress
of modem nations is constructed. To use the words of one of our
Nestors of science : '^ It is only in recent times that the value of
scientific research began to be felt ; and I hope to live, old as I
am, long enough to see the community, the enlightened commu-
•nity which has become my second fatherland, appreciate what
science is doing for the general prosperity, and then contribute to
the necessities of science with that generous liberality which char-
acterizes the acts of American people."
Thus much has been said in reference to science in America,
acknowledging our shortcomings and attempting to correct cer-
tain erroneous impressions, both in America and abroad, in regard
to the labor of scientists in this country. It may appear an at-
tempt on my part to urge undue excuses ; such certainly is far
from my intention, which is to do simple justice to those prose-
cuting science under more or less disadvantageous circumstances.
8 fbesident's addbess.
I now pass to the second part of my discourse — the methods
of modern science — the caution to be observed in pursuing it,
if we do not wish to pervert its end by too confident assertions
and deductions.
It is a very common attempt nowadays for scientists to tran-
scend the limits of their legitimate studies ; and in doing this they
ran into speculations apparently the most unphilosophical, wild
and absurd ; quitting the true basis of inductive philosophy, and
building up the most curious theories on little else than assertion ;
speculating upon the merest analogy ; adopting the curious views
of some metaphysicians, like Edward Von Hartmann ; striving to
work out speculative results by the inductive method of natural
science. To me this appears a perversion of Bacon's philosophy,
and we cannot wonder that one adopting such views, whatever his
claim to genius may be, soon cuts loose from all physical reason-
ing and becomes involved in the most transcendental and to all
appearances absurd opinions, which, however clear to the author,
are strange and unintelligible to others ; and if at any one time
we believe we have caught the conception of the author, this
impression is only momentary, and we give up in despair, realiz-
ing that- we cannot follow his intellectual ecstasies ; for, in the
language of Tyndall, they are even *' unthinkable. " Those en-
gaged in such . speculations are very commonly found in bitter
conflict with each other, forcing on us the belief of the saying of
D'Alembert, that ^^when absurd opinions become inveterate it
sometimes becomes necessary to replace them by other errors, if
nothing better can be done."
This extreme metaphysical philosophy is referred to for the rea-
son that many scientists, ranking as sober, earnest laborers after
truth, are caught dealing in such philosophy in their method of»
investigation, and sometimes, quite unconsciously to themselves,
forgetting that '' science is only an accurate record of the proc-
esses of nature; that its laws are only generalizations of its
observations, and not a declaration of an inherent necessity;
and that one of its observations is the uniformity of natural
sequence."
I am one of those who believe that everything must give way
to the laws of nature ; but then we must master these laws, and be
sure that we have done this before either interpreting phenomena
by them or venturing into the realm of speculation.
PBESIDEKT's ADDBES8. 9
As has been already remarked, men are to-day Jast what they
have ever been. As bright intellects and as great philosophers
lived two or three thousand years ago as do now ; their minds
sought oat the same great truths that we are searching for in
these days, and they sought for them by the lights with which
they were surrounded. In those earlier ages poetry, sculpture,
architecture, and even some facts belonging to natural history
(things that belonged either to the imagination or to the eye)
arrived at as high a degree of perfection as perhaps they ever
will ; for the two senses which appreciate the ideal and the real
were as perfect then as now.
But when man was called upon to labor in fields where the im-
agination and the eye aided him but little or not at all« then the
discoveries in these fields and their interpretations called for other
means for arriving at results. In modern days we attempt to be
guided by the clear light of inductive reasoning which we may
think we are employing, when too often it is the very smoky torch
of analogy that is being used ; and this fact serves to explain why
it is that some of the most brilliant philosophers of compara-
tively modem days are only remembered by their names — as, for
example the great French philosopher Descartes, whom Dugald
Stewart says ^' is much better known to the learned of our day by
the boldness of his exploded errors than by the profound and im-
portant truths contained in his works."
And such an example as this is of great value to the refiective
mind, teaching caution, and demonstrating the fact that, while the
rules by which we are guided in scientific research are far in ad-
vance of those of ancient days, we must not conclude that they
are perfect by any means. In our modem method of investigation
how many conspicuous examples of deception we have had in pur-
suing even the best method of investigation I Take, for instance,
the science of geology from the time of Werner to the present
day. While we always thought we had the true interpretation of
the stractural phenomena of the globe as we progressed from year
to year, yet how vastly different are our interpretations of the
present day fh>m what they were in the time of Werner! In
chemistry the same thing is true. How clearly were all things
explained to the chemist of the last century by the doctrine of
Phlogiston which in the present century receives no credence, while
chemical phenomena are now viewed in an entirely different light !
10 president's ADDBES8.
Lavoisier, in the latter part of the last century, elucidated the
phenomenon of respiration and the production of animaU heat by
one of the most beautiful of theories, based, to all appearances,
upon well observed facts ; yet at the present day more delicate
observations, and the discovery of the want of balance between
the inhaled oxygen and exhaled carbonic acid subverted that
beautiftil theory, and we aoe left entirely without one. It is true
we have collated a number of facts in regard to respiration, molec-
ular changes in the tissues, etc., all of which are recognized as
having something to do with animal heat ; still it is acknowledged
that we ar^ incapable of giving any concrete expression to the
phenomenon of respiration and animal heat as Lavoisier did
eighty or, ninety years ago.
Electricity is the same now as it has ever been, yet it was once
spoken of as a fluid, then as a force, now as an energy readily
convertible into caloric or mechanical energy ; and in what light
it will be considered fifty years hence no one can predict.
Now what I desire to enforce here is that, amid all these changes
and revolutions of theories, so called, it is simply man, the inter-
preter, that has erred, and not nature ; her laws are the same ; we
simply have not been able to read them correctly, and perhaps
never shall be.
What, it may be asked, are we to do then ? Must we cease the-
orizing? Not at all. The lesson to be learned from this is, to be
more modest in our generalizations ; to generalize as far as our
carefhlly made out facts will permit us, and no farther ; to check
the imagination and not to let it run riot and shipwreck us upon
some metaphysical quicksand.
The fact is, it becomes a question whether there is such a thing
as a pure theory in science. No true scientific theory deserves
the name that is not based on verified hypotheses ; in fact, it is
but a concise interpretation of the deductions of scientific facts.
Dumas has well said that theories are like crutches, the strength
of them to be tested by attempting to walk with them. And I
might farther add that very often scientists, who f,re without sure-
footed facts to carry them along, take to these crutches.
It is conunon to speak of the theory of gravitation, when there
is nothing purely hypothetical in connection with the manner in
which it is studied ; in it we only see a clear generalization of ob-
served laws which govern the mutual attraction of bodies. If at
president's address. .11
any time Newton did assume an hypothesis, it was only for the
purpose Qf facilitating his calculations. '^ Newton's passage from
the falliiig of an apple to the falling of a moon was at the outset a
leap of the imagination ; " but it was this hypothesis, verified by
mathematics, which gave to the so-called theory of gravitation its
present status.
In regard to light, we are in the habit of connecting with it a
pure hypothesis ; viz., the impressions of light being produced by
emission from luminous bodies, or by the undulation of an all-
pervading attenuated medium; and these hypotheses are to be
regarded as probable so long as the phenomena of. light are
explained by them, and no longer. The failure to explain one
single well-observed fact is sufficient to cast doubt upon or subvert
any pure hypothesis, as has been the case with the emission theory
of light, and may be the fate of the undulatory theory, which,
however, up to the present time serves in all cases.
A theory or scientific speculation, to possess any great weight,
must receive universal assent by those minds capable of investi-
gating the subject. Thus the undulatory theory of light is univer-
sally accepted as representing the true nature of the operation of
light, so far as we are now able to interpret its phenomena.
Zoologists equally learned will agree perfectly as regards the
physical structure of an ape and a man, and thus far their results
are entitled to universal acceptance ; but some of the same zoolo-
gists, by the exercise of the imagination and ingenious analogical
reasoning, deduce the man from the ape, while the others cannot
see nor recognize any such transformation. In this way both
classes present themselves to the curious world, and gather around
them supporters ; and, like too many cases in our courts of law,
the greatest number are convinced not so much by the law or jus-
tice of the case, as by the ingenuity and special pleading of the
legal advocates.
It is not my object to criticise the speculations of any one or
more of the modem scientists who have carried their investiga-
tions into the world of the imagination ; in fact, it could not be
done in a discourse so limited in time as this, and only intended
as a prologue to our present meeting. But in order to illustrate
this subject of method more frilly I will refer to Darwin, whose
name has become synonymous with progressive development and
12 president's address.
natural selection, which, as we had thought, died out with Lamarck
fifty years ago.
In Darwin we have one of those philosophers whose great
knowledge of animal and vegetable life is transcended only by
his imagination. In fact, he is to be regarded more as a metaphy-
sician with a highly-wrought imagination than as a scientist, al-
though a man having a most wonderAil knowledge of the facts of
natural history.
In England and America we find scientific men of the profound-
est intellects differing completely in regard to his logic, analogies
and deductions ; in Germany and France the same thing — in the
former of these countries some speculators saying that ^' his theo-
ry is our starting-point" and in France many of her best scientific
men not ranking the labors of Darwin with those of pure science.
Darwin takes up the law of life and runs it into progressive
development. In doing this he seems to me to increase the embar-
rassment which surrounds us on looking into the mysteries of cre-
ation. He is not satisfied to leave the laws of life where he finds
them, or to pursue their study by logical and inductive reasoning.
His method of reasoning will not allow him to remain at rest ; he
must be moving onward in his unification of the universe. He
started with the lower orders of animals, and brought them through
their various stages of progressive development until he supposed
he had touched the confines of man ; he then seems to have re-
coiled, and hesitated to pass the boundary which separated man
fW>m the lower orders of animals ; but he saw that all hi^ previous
logic was bad if he stopped there, so man was made from the
ape (with which no one can find fault, if the descent be legiti-
mate). This stubborn logic pushes him still farther, and he must
find some connecting link with that most remarkable property
of the human face called expression ; so his ingenuity has given
us a very curious and readable treatise on that subject. Yet still
another step must be taken in this linking together man and the
lower orders of animals ; it is in connection with language ^ and
before long it is not unreasonable to expect another production
ttom that most wonderfhl and ingenious intellect on the connec-
tion between the language of man and the brute creation.
Let us see for a moment to what this reasoning from anal-
ogy would lead us, if applied to chemical science, which investi-
pbesident's address. 13
gates a great variety of componnds exhibitiog most carious an-
alogies in all their properties. Take for instance soda and
potash — how identical in almost all their properties, their com-
pounds also arraying themselves in identically the same form, de-
fying almost all the senses to detect their difference : if they be
brought into relation with other elements, they associate them-
selves with these elements in identically the same way. The
same is true in relation to baryta and strontia, or chlorine, bro-
mine and iodine ; the last three elements even show most carious
numerical relations in regard to their combining proportions.
And then when we pass to the mineral kingdom, what a wonder-
ful property is that isomorphism in the chemistry of nature's
operations !
The chemist, with all these facts before him, has as much right
to revel in the imaginary formation of sodium f^om potassium, or
iodine and bromine from chlorine, by a process of development,
and call it science, as the natm*alist has to revel in many of his
wild speculations, or the physicist who studies the stellar space
to imagine it permeated by mind as well as light — mind such as
has formed the poet, the statesman, or the philosopher.
Yet any chemist who would quit his method of investigation, of
marking every foot of his advance by some indelible imprint, and
go back to the speculations of Albertus Magnus, Roger Bacon,
and other alchemists of former ages, would soon be dropped from
the list of chemists and ranked with dreamers and speculators.
To prove the truth of my assertion, that this is the legitimate
result of this school of philosophy, I will quote from one of its
disciples, F. W. Clarke. He says : ^^ When one is fairly started
on a line of thought it is hard to come to an end. If we assume
an hypothesis to be true, a hundred others rush in upon the mind
and demand consideration. We do not know but that the evolu-
tion of one element from another may be possible. The demon-
strated unity of force leads us by analogy to expect a similar
unity of matter. Those elements which seem to-day so diverse in
character may be after all one in essence ; at present it can
neither be discarded as false nor accepted as true."
What is most remarkable m connection with the above opinion
is that the author of it is commenting on matter, in connection
with the spectroscope, an instrument whose very triumphs are
based on the grand distinguishing lines in the elements of matter.
14 president's addbess.
whether in the earth, sun, stars, or nebulse, all telling the same
dissimilarity and no coalescence.
Is this to be one of the methods of modem science, I would
ask? .While in our ignorance and short-sightedness we should be
careful in pronouncing any assumption as possible or impossible^
still there is no reason why these terms should have much or any
weight in the study of science ; for in the abstract all things in
nature are possible, not fh>m any demonstration, but simply
because no one can assert an impossibility. What a mass of con-
fhsion science would become if we studied its possibilities ! for
then every conceivable possibility would be entitled to equal con-
sideration. And we are not therefore surprised that the author
last quoted should say, ^^ So then we may proceed to theorize in
the most barefaced manner, without quitting the legitimate do-
main of science."
Are we to introduce into science a kind of purgatory in which
to place undemonstrable speculations, and keep them there in a
state of probation, and say that science cannot discard a theory
as false when it cannot be accepted as true? Science, which is
preeminently the pursuit of truth, has but one course to pursue :
it must either accept or reject what may be thrust upon it.
What I have said is, in my humble opinion, warranted by the
departure Darwin and others have made from true science in their
purely speculative studies ; and neither he nor any other searcher
after truth expects to hazard great and startling opinions without
at the same time courting and desiring criticism ; yet dissension
from his views in no way proves him wrong — it only shows how
his ideas impress the minds of other men. And just here let me
contrast the daring of Darwin with the position assumed by one
of the great French naturalists of the present day, Professor
Quatrefages, in a recent discourse on the physical character of
the human race. In referring to the question of the first origin
of man he says distinctly that in his opinion it is one that belongs
not to science; these questions are treated by theologians and
philosophers : ^' Neither here nor at the Museum am I, nor do I
wish to be, either a theologian or a philosopher. I am simply a
man of science ; and it is in the name of comparative physiology,
of botanical and zoological geography, of geology and palaeontol-
ogy, in the name of the laws which govern man as well as animals
and plants, that I have always spoken." And studying man as a
PRESIDEirr'S ADDRESS. 15'
scientist, he goes on to say : ''It is established that man has two
grand faculties of which we find not even a trace among animals.
He (done has the moral sentiment of good and evil; he alone
belieTes in a Ibtare existence aacceeding this actual life; he
olone believes in beings superior to himself, that he has never
seen, and that are capable of influencing his life for good or evil ;
in other words., man alone is endowed with morality and religion"
And it may be added that Hartmann, a philosopher of another
school, says, selection explains the progress in perfection of an
already existing type within its own degrees of organization, but
it cannot explain the passage from an inferior degree of organiza-
tion to a superior one.
If Prof. Quatrefages be right in regard to the moral sentiment
in man, then Darwin must be wrong in asserting the development
of man out* of that in which not a trace exists of what most
preeminently constitutes man ; or he must satisfy himself with
evolving the physical part of man out of the lower order of
animals, and then by some creative force implanting within him
these principles.
Oar own distinguished naturalist and associate. Prof. Agassiz,
reverts to this theory of evolution in the same positive manner,
and with such earnestness and warmth as to call forth severe
editorial criticisms, by speaking of it as a '' mere mine of asser.
tion," and of ''the danger of stretching inferences from a few
observations to a wide field," and he is called upon to collect
"real observations to disprove the evolution hypothesis." I
would here remark, in defence of my distinguished friend, that
scientific investigation will assume a curious phase when its vota-
ries are required to occupy time in looking up facts, and seriously
attempting to disprove any and every hypothesis based upon
proof, some of it not even rising to the dignity of circumstantial
evidence.
I have dwelt longer on this one point than I had intended ; bi}t
the very popular manner in which in recent years it has been pre-
sented to the public mind of all classes of society, and to persons
of all ages, warranted a full notice in speaking of the importance
of avoiding, as far as possible, undue speculation in connection
^th our method of scientific investigation.
' Let me not be understood to underrate the brilliant ideas and
great learning of those most distinguished men of the nineteenth
16 fresibent's address.
century, Darwin, Huxley and others. I am too great a respecter
of both science and the pursuit of science ever to encourage by
my example anything like dogmatism among scientific men.
While arraying methods of study in other branches of science to
combat those employed by the followers of the evolution hypothe-
sis, I most willingly indorse what Tyndall says concerning it, viz :
''I do not think the evolution hypothesis is to b^- -flouted away
contemptuously ; I do not think it is to be denounced as wicked.
Fear not the evolution hypothesis I it does not solve, it does not
profess to solve, the ultimate mystery of the universe. It leaves
in fact that mystery untouched." If it be grounded on truth, it
will survive all attempts to overthrow it ; if based on error, it will
disappear, as many so-called scientific facts have done before.
Science is a progressive study. It does not dogmatically pro-
nounce itself as infallible ; it is at all times ready to admit what
has been once rejected, if it return clothed with truthful demon-
stration which science properly calls for as a passport to admission
into its domain.
I would also caution my associates to avoid carefully what may
be called the pride of modem science ; for so rapid have been the
discoveries of science during the last century, crowding upon us
especially during the past twenty-five years, that we are apt to
become bewildered and dazzled, and cry out in unbounded enthur
siasm: Great is the god Science! it revealeth all things to us,
and we will consecrate our talent and our time to its worship. The
marvellous discoveries in chemistry, geology, electricity, light,
etc., have lifted the veil that concealed from us so many of
nature's secrets that we are almost baffled in our attempt to
systematize them. The wonderful organic compounds ; the disin-
terring of curious records of past ages; the obedient and sub-
missive lightning that carries our messages ; that wonderfUl light,
BO quiet in its operations, yet so powerful to reveal the chemistry
of the universe ; and the conservation offeree — all these, I say,
bewilder the mind so that we revel in building bright air-castles,
almost losing our mental equilibrium. Of all scientists of the
present day the chemists perhaps have kept a more stable equilib-
rium than any other class, starting out with a fixed law to govern
them in regard to what are considered elements, never in any in**
stance tolerating the development or transmutation of one element
out of another, however remarkable the analogy they may exhibit
president's address. 17
in the material constitation of all known sabstances, and recog-
nizing them as the same whether in the earth or in the sun.
I would, therefore, caution against too great enthusiasm, for we
are far more ignorant than we sometimes suppose. In fact, true
philosophy dictates to its followers humility, and that it is the
province of ignorance to believe that it knows everything, while
the philosopher is aware that he knows little or nothing. .
While we are prying into space, and studying the matter, size
and movements of the heavenly bodies far beyond our own uni-
verse, we leave behind us a vast number of things that have baffled
our scrutiny and defied both science and metaphysics. When we
look at our bodies, without reference to the consciousness that is
within, but merely studying what relates to our physical parts,
how many things concerning it we have not discovered !
While occupied, the early part of this year, in reflecting upon the
conservation of force and certain meteoric phenomena connected
with the sun, my attention was frequently drawn to the small-
pox that was then in the form of a \iolcnt epidemic around me.
Seeing persons being vaccinated who had in their childhood
been subjected to the same operation, and observing in the vast
majority of cases the failure of the production of any effect, I
asked myself the question : How are we to rank that mysterious
agent which, when brought to bear upon the system, in however
minute a quantitj^, not only permeates every fibre and cell in every
part of the body, but is never lost? for when through years every
particle of the body (with perhaps the exception of the teeth and
a part of the bones) has been renewed over and over again, yet,
as each particle gave place to a new one, this vaccine energy (if I
may so call it) was imparted to the new matter, and so on through
life. Here then was the conservation of a force as mysterious in
its course and operation, and as hard to be understood, as that of
motion, light, or any other of the recognized forms of the energies
of matter.
Yes ! after we have studied the heavens and all contained
therein that the aided eye can reach, we shall yet have to de-
scend to earth and study the every-day physical phenomena that
are in and around men, finding even greater mysteries to unravel
that meet our unaided senses every moment of our existence.
I come now to the last point to which I wish to call the atten-
tion of the members of the Association in the pursuit of their ija-
A. A. A. S., VOL. XXU. 2
18 president's address.
yestigations, and the speculations to which these give rise in their
minds.
Reference has already been made to the tendency of quitting
the physical to revel in the metaph3'sical, which, however, is not
peculiar to this age, for it belonged as well to the times of Plato
and Aristotle as it does to ours. More special reference will be
made here to the proclivity of the present epoch among philoso-
phers and theologians to parade science and religion side by
side ; talking of reconciling science and religion, as if they had
ever been unreconciled. Scientists and theologians may have
quarrelled, but never science and religion. At dinners they are
toasted in the same breath, and calls made on clergymen to re-
spond, who, for fear of giving offence, or lacking the fire arid firm-
ness of St. Paul, utter a vast amount of platitudes about the
beauty of science and the truth of religion, trembling in their
shoes all the time, fearing that science, falsely so called, may take
away their professional calling, instead of uttering in voice of
thunder, like the Boanerges of the gospel, that " the world by wis-
dom knew not God." And it never will. Our religion is made so
plain by the light of faith that the wayfaring man, though a fool,
cannot err therein.
No, gentlemen ; I firmly believe that there is less connection be-
tween science and religion than there is between jurisprudence and
astronomy, and the sooner this is understood the better it will be
for both.
Religion is based upon revelation as given to us in a book, the
contents of which are never changed, and of which there have
been no revised or corrected editions since it was first given, ex-
cept so far as man has interpolated ; a book more or less perfectly
understood by mankind, but clear and unequivocal in all essen-
tial points concerning the relation of man to his Creator ; a book
that affords practical directions, but no theory ; a book of facts,
and not of arguments ; a book that has been damaged more by
theologians than by all the pantheists and atheists that have ever
lived and turned their invectives against it — and no one source of
mischief on the part of theologians is greater than that of admit-
ting the profound mystery of many parts of it, and almost in the
next breath attempting some sort of explanation of these myste-
ries. The book is just what Richard Whately says it is, viz. :
'( Not the philosophy of the human mind, nor yet the philosophy of
president's address. 19
the divine nature in itself, but (that which is properly religion) the
rdation and connection of the two beings — what God is to us,
what he has done and will do for us, and what' we are to be in re-
gard to him. "
Now science on her part has her records : they are the discov-
ered truths in the relation that man bears to the animate and in-
animate kingdoms around him, so far as they are made out by him
from time to time ; but as he has to proceed in his labors with im-
perfect instruments and often equally imperfect senses, he has to
correct himself over and over again ; and his observations and
theories, especially the latter, ma^e frequent shifts, though each
time he supposes that the truth has been reached. I will exem-
plify this in a marked manner b}'^ an extract from a recent dis-
course by Prof. Ferdinand Cohn, delivered before the Silesian
Society for Natural Culture. In speaking of Humboldt and his
Cosmos (which he styles the ''Divina Commedia" of Science,
embracing the whole universe in its two spheres, heaven and
earth) he says : '^ But we cannot conceal from ourselves that the
Cosmos, published twenty-Jive years ago^ is in many of its parts
now antiquated. Any one who to-day would attempt to recast
the Cosmos must proceed like the Italian architect who took the
pillars and blocks of the broken temples of antiquity, added new
ones, and rebuilt the whole after a new plan." And I would
simply ask : When is this new structure to be torn down to form
material for another? Surely the most enthusiastic admirer of
the development of the last twenty-five years does not think that
we have arrived at the end of all things !
I will take yet another example. For the last fifty years or
more the unity of the human race has been a most prolific subject
of investigation and discussion, until it was generally conceded
that there must have been more than one origin for the different
races. In fact, theologians had already entered on that mis-
chievous work called reconciling science and religion, and saying
^hat after all there was some little mistake in the biblical record
on that subject, and, if the Author would only permit, it would be
well to make a correction just there ; but this could not be done,
and there it stood — that all men were of one flesh. But science,
^tless, changeful, moved on ; and to-day the unity of the human
^*«e is insisted on by nearly all the leading naturalists, who teach
what Prof. De Quatrefages teaches, as uttered in a recent lecture
I
20 president's address.
of his. He says : " In this examination of the physical man
everything leads to the conclusion which we had already reached
in our earlier lecture, and we can repeat loiih redoubled certainty
that the difTerences among human groups are characters of race,
and not of species. There exists only one human species, and
consequently all men are brothers ; all ought to be treated as
such, whatever the origin, the blood, the color, the race ;" and in
conclusion he further says : " I shall not regret either my time or
my pains, if I am able, in the name of science^ and that alone^ to
render a little more clear and precise for you the great and sacred
notion of the brotherhood of mj^."
One other example under this head, and I have done. The
book of science teaches that the sun is the source of all light and
heat ; yet in that post-prophetic chapter of the book of our relig-
ion it is said that the creation of the first day was light, and not
until afterward was the sun created ; and this was again a stum-
bling-block to theologians, and many wished that Moses had been
a little more particular. But science in its onward march, as it
grouped together the matter floating in space to form in . the be-
ginning of time this earth (our circling globe), tells us that if we
can imagine one to have been placed on our globe before it had
consolidated, he would have seen vast seas of vapor floating
around and far above it, shutting out the very light of heaven so
that darkness brooded over the waters ; that the first benign
influence that smiled upon the earth was the gentle rays of light
struggling through the dark mist ; and the prophetic eye, either
on the plain, in the valley, or on the highest mountain peak,
would not behold whence it came, and might exclaim in sublime
poetic ecstasy: "God said. Let there be light; and there was
light." Not until ages, perhaps, after that did the bright
orb of the sun reveal itself to the prophet as the source of this
light.
So I say, let our book of religion stand as it is ; if it be not
of God it will come to naught ; and let science search for truth,
and if it mistake its results it is certain to correct them in time,
for the causes of its perturbations are as surely discovered as
Leverrier and Adams discovered those of Uranus.
Science and religion are both travelling towards the same great
point — the Author of all truth — yet by two very difl[erent
roads ; and if they l)e induced every now and then to turn off their
presidext's address. 21
routes to compare notes, they will very much retard each other's
progress and waste much time in discussing the peculiar merits
of their particular road, and get into a quarrel about them. The
roads they travel are paved with certain principles and forces,
but of very different natures.
Science treads on certain mathematical axioms and principles^
recognizing matter and certain forces or modifications of an en-
ergy innate in matter, as heat, light, electricity, etc. Religion is
guided by its axioms and principles, faith, love and hope, and
with these it is expected to work out its great end in the present
and future of mankind. Science is nature revealed ; religion is
nature's God revealed ; and neither the one nor the other can be
without its axioms, incapable of demonstration.
Some may mock at faith and say " Faith is bankrupt, and
her accounts are under strict examination, to determine what
assets remain to be distributed among the impoverished souls
that are her creditors ;" still it is an axiom made manifest to
our consciousness, as much as the axiom that a mathematical
point is something without length, breadth or thickness, or that
a line has length without breadth or thickness.
This faith is as much an energy of the immortal, as heat is one
of the energies of matter. We know heat by its phenomena
alone, and we know faith fd the same way, its phenomena proving
its existence as well to the child as to the man, to the learned and
the unlearned. It led Socrates and Plato, even with their im-
perfect light, to the great God, the Creator of the heavens and the
earth, and to a belief in the immortality of the soul.
What God is in his essence we know not, nor how it is that he
can exist. A Being not made by himself nor any one else ; with-
out beginning of days or end of years ; existing, through infinite
ages ; filling immensity without being in any place ; everywhere
present without displacing a single one of his myriad creatures ;
pervading all things yet without motion ; being all eye, all ear,
all enei^, and yet not interfering in the least with the thoughts
and actions of man; — this has been well styled "the greatest
mystery of the universe, enveloped at once in a flood of light
and an abyss of darkness — inexplicable itself, explaining every-
thing else, and, after displacing every other diflBculty, itself re-
maining in inapproachable, insurmountable, incomprehensible
22 president's address.
grandeur, so that the Psalmist exclaims: 'Clouds and dark-
ness are round about him ; righteousness and judgment are the '
habitation of his throne.'?
This is the God whose existence reason cannot prove, while it
cannot disprove, and for whom the religionists and scientists
are looking : that they will one day see him as he is, is my firm
belief, and, as I before stated, they will see him the sooner by
keeping separate roads.
That many a scientist will be swallowed up in pantheism from
want of patience is to be expected, and, I regret to acknowledge,
will with Hartmann ^'maintain that creation is a cause, existence
a misfortune, life a deepening disappointment, and that the ex-
tinction of personal consciousness is the only salvation ; " but
many more will enjoy the double felicity of arriving at the great
end sustained both by science and by religion, and will agree with
what Socrates wrote nearly two thousand years ago, without the
revealed word of God to enlighten him — or to mystify him, as
some would sa}'. Listen to that philosopher of ancient days as he
says: "This great God, who has formed the universe and sup-
ported the stupendous work whose every part is finished with the
utmost goodness and harmony — he who preserves them perpetually
in immortal vigor, and causes them to obey him with a never-fail-
ing punctuality and a rapidity not to be followed by the imagina-
tion— this God makes himself sufllciently visible by the endless
wonders of which he is the author, but continues always invisible
in himself. Let us not then refuse to believe even what we do not
see, and let us supply the defects of our corporeal eyes by using
those of the soul ; but let us learn to render the just homage of re-
spect and veneration to the divinity whose will it seems to be that
we should have no other perception of him than by his benefits
vouchsafed to us."
I cannot close this part of my subject without reverting to the
tendency of certain men of science to make ph^'sical experiment
the test of all truth; even prayer and divine providence influ-
encing affairs in this world must become subjects for experiment ;
and if the results be not in accordance with the experiments,
then suspicion is to be cast on faith. This has been truly ex-
plained as coming ftom the spirit of an age which strives to make
natural science the all in all of wisdom, and begins with nature in-
president's address. 23
stead of beginning with Go^, and ends with burying man and
even God within physical conditions, and assigning to the supreme
Spirit the impersonality that is usually ascribed to material na-
ture ; and all this in spite of the fact that profound philosophers
and earnest devotees have believed in the existence of a con-
sciousness subject to influence above their sense.
K we look at nature as science has thus far penetrated into her
mysteries, we discover in the innermost parts of the earth matter
in a constantly restless state ; in the ocean or the air we behold the
ever moving, never resting ; above are the sun and stars speed-
ing on through boundless space, and they in their own 9)asses
are like huge boiling caldrons casting their vapors hundreds of
thousands of miles into space. And so the toiler in science
goes penetrating nearer and nearer, as he thinks, to the great
cause of all things. In the same way he thinks he has discovered
the cause of all motion upto this planet, both in the animate and
inanimate, and he hastily concludes that the energy resident in
the sun is fixed and invariable ; yet while he reasons as if he had
arrived at the prime cause, he admits that there is something
yet un'known on which the sun depends as much as the eaith does
upon the sun.
While I admit most freely that the smallest event in the
physical world is but the sequence of secondary causes (if I
may use the expression) and effects, obedient to what' appear
to us fixed and invariable laws, yet it is illogical for any mind to
assert that they cannot be altered by the operation of some
energy that may reach beyond any cause yet discovered by the
light of science.
While the energy of the sun travels in swift motion and in rapid
undulations through the ethereal space that divides the earth from
the sun, and in turn science by the spectroscope travels back from
the earth to the sun over the same waves, and has revealed to her,
in writing as it were, on the beautiful pages of the spectrum, the
composition of that incandescent globe and the mighty power of
its internal forces, so does the energy of that great cause that
formed the sun reveal itself to the internal consciousness, reaching
the eye of faith, by undulations more rapid than light ; and as
faith travels back, looking through its spectroscope (the revealed
word of God), it beholds the constitution of that great cause as
composed of infinite love and mercy, truth and justice.
24 pbesident's address.
As light has revealed the sun to. us by penetrating an organ
specially formed for its impressions, the physical eye, so is Grod
revealed by faith, tlie souVs eye. As well might we say that we
are acquainted with all phenomena of the rays of the sun as
to arrogate to ourselves the power of limiting the operations of
faith.
In these things science is both vain and modest, logical and
illogical ; as, for example, here is what Dr. Cohn says, in a dis-
course of his previously referred to : '' The deeper natural science
penetrates from outward phenomena to universal laws, the more
she lays aside her former fear to test the latest fundamental laws
of being and becoming, of space and time, of life and spirit :" and
in the next breath he says : "It is not to be hoped that during the
next twenty-five years all the questions of science which are at
present being agitated will be solved. As one veil after another
is lifted we find ourselves behind a stilV thicker one^ which conceals
from our longing eyes the mysterious goddess of whom we are
in search."
How Dr. Cohn expects to justify his first statement by his last
assertion of the increasing thickness of the impenetrable veil is
more than my logic can divine.
But in this matter of subjecting faith to physical test by what
is now commonly called the " prayer-gauge," philosophers of the
most advanced school difier very widely in tbeir opinion ; and
that remarkable pantheist (or pessimist), Edward Von Hartmann
(probably the most remarkable man of that school since the days
of Spinosa, who believing only in nature, yet ranks with the old
patriarchs in his idea of the power of faith, or something next
akin to it) calls all mankind to " combine together ia one grand
act of self-abdication, and to resign the very faculty of will by a
mighty concert, not of prayer, but of self-renunciation — by the
help of such means as art and science may apply, and by such
perfection of the magnetic telegraph as shall enable them all at
once to will not to will any more, and so to bring all conscious
personal life to an end by an absorption in the almighty and un-
conscious spirit." Not the most ascetic religious devotee could
exhibit more unbounded confidence in the power of faith subvert-
ing not only the laws of nature, but nature herself, than is ex-
pressed in those views.
In fine then, gentlemen, let us stick to science — pure, unadulter-
president's address. 25
ated scieDce — and leave to religion things which pertain to it ; for
science and religion are like two mighty rivers flowing toward the
same ocean, and before reaching it they will meet and mingle
their pare streams, and flow together into that vast ocean of truth
which encircles the throne of the great Author of all truth, whether
pertaining to science or religion.
I will here, in defence of science, assert that there is a greater
proportion of its votaries who revere and honor religion in its
broadest sense, as understood by the Christian world, than in
any other of the learned secular pursuits.
In this address I may be accused of more or less dogmatism :
but I can assure the Association that whatever there may be of
apparent dogmatism arises entirely from my reluctance to con-
sume more time in making explanations and reasoning fully on
the topics discussed. I have moreover departed from the usual
character of discourses delivered by the retiring presidents of this
Association, and have not presented a topic that might have been
of more interest to you, viz., some special scientific subject com-
ing more immediately within the province of my research: for
this departure I claim your indulgence, as well as for omitting
all allusion to scientific progress during the past year.
But before concluding I cannot refrain from rcfemng to one
great event in the history of American science during the past
year, as it will doubtless mark an epoch in the development of
science in this country. I refer to the noble gift of a noble for-
eigner to encourage the poor but worthy student of pure science
in this country.
It is needless for me to insist on the estimation in which Prof.
John Tyndall is held amongst us. We know him to be a man
whose heart is as large as his head, both contributing to the cause
of science. We regard him as one of the ablest physicists of the
time, and one of the most level-headed philosophers that England
has ever produced — a man whose intellect is as symmetrical as
the circle, with its every point equidistant from the centre.
We have been the recipients of former endowments from that
land which, we thank God, is our mother country, from which
we have drawn our language, our liberty, our laws, our literature,
our science, and our energy, and without whose wealth our mate-
rial development would not be what it is at the present day.
Count Rumford, the founder of the Royal Society of London, in
A. A. A. S. VOL. XXII. 2*
26 president's address.
earlier years endowed a scientific chair in one of our larger uni-
versities, and Smithson transferred his fortune to our shores to
promote the diffusion of science.
Now, while these are noble gifts, yet Count Rumford was giving
to his own countrymen — for he was an American — and both his
and Smithson's were posthumous gifts firom men of large fortune.
But the one to which I now refer was from a man who ranks
not with the wealthy, and he laid his offering upon the altar of
science in this country with his own hands ; and it has been both
consecrated and blest by noble words from his own lips ; all of
which makes the gift a rich treasure to American science ; and I
think we can assure him that as the same Anglo Saxon blood
flows in our 'Veins as does in his (tempered, it is true, with the
Celtic, Teutonic, Latin, etc.), he may expect much fVom the
American student in pure science as the offspring of his gift and
his example.
With this feeble tribute to our distinguished scientific collabo-
rator I bid you adieu, and, returning to the Association my most
heartfelt thanks for the honor that has been conferred on me,
surrender the mantle of my office to one most worthy to wear
it — Professor Lovering, of Cambridge.
PAPERS READ
AT THE
PORTLAND MEETING
A. MATHEMATICS, PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY.
Note on Dr. William Watson's Coordinates in a Plane.
By Thomas Hill, of Portland, Maine.
At the meeting of this Association in August, 1859, Dr. William
Watson proposed to take, as coordinates in a plane, g, the length
of a perpendicular let fall from the origin upon the normal, and v
the angle which this perpendicular makes with a fixed axis. He
showed that from this system, we readily pass to Peirce's coordi-
nates, by the formula
p = D^q +M'
Thus the equation qz=:A cos a v gives p =i (^^) A sin a )^ -j- c ;
*bich is evidently, when cz=o^ the equation of an epicycloid, A
^ing the radius of the stationary, and A {~ ) that of the rolling
circle. The epicycloid becomes a point before transformation into
* ^ypoc3'cloid as the value of a is made to pass through ± 1.
Thus any point in the plane, or any circle about that point, can be
f^presented by the equation
The values + « and — a give identical forms to the curve, but a
Querent genesis, by the familiar laws of these curves.
^ propose a slight modification of Dr. Watson's system, by
^^'^p, the length of the perpendicular let fall from the origin
^Pon the tangent, and using v to express the angle made by this
(27)
28 A. MATHEMATICS, PHTSICS AND CHEMISTRY.
perpendicular with a fixed axis. Assuming then jj=:/(v) we have
q = Dyp =zp' (that is p of the evolute), and p=zp-\- L^p (radius of
curvature), r=\^p^ + {^KpY (radius vector).
If we wish to transform to a new origin at the distance b and
direction 6^, it is evident that
p:^p — bco8{0 — v)
b
and if WB wish then to rotate the axis through the angle a we must
substitute
The cui've can be constructed by points, either by setting off p
in the direction v and erecting D^p perpendicular to it, or by the
equations for transforming to the Cartesian system,
xz=p cos V — Dp 8inv
y=p sin u-^ Dp cosv.
Either mode can be checked by calculating r.
Problem I. To investigate the equation.
(1) p^ziA (sin a v)*.
By the formula already given we obtain
(2) p = A ((a'(n"--n))(*in a v)«-2+(l— a' n*)(sin a >.)•*).
When n=:ly or p=: A sin a v, this reduces to
(3) /o = (1 — a^) Asin a V = (1 — a^) p^ which is an epicycloid.
For ?i = - equation (2) reduces to
(4) p=z(a — l)A(sinav) «
This gives for a = |, p=^ (sin ^ »/)', p = iA^A cii'cle. And for
a = j^, p = A (sin ^ v)®, pz=^A sin^v which is an epicycloid, the
cardioid, refen*edto its cusp. as origin, while by (3) it is referred
to the centre of the stationar}' circle.
For the case of (3), pz=.A sin a v, we have
(5) r—A (a«-f (1— a^X^n a v)«)i.
When in this case a= I, we get /o=0, r=±^, which is a point at
the distance A fi*om the origin, the direction being shown by the
formula for transformation to be ^= (n-^i)n.
For the case n= - as in (4), we have
(6) r=zA (sin av) «
A. MATHEMATICS, PHYSICS AND CHEMISTBT. 29
which again reduces to p = Afor az=il and to rz= A sin ^v for the
first case under (4), showing that the axis is a diameter of that
circle, and that the origin is at the right-hand intersection with the
circumference.
If in equation (2) we put n= — 1 and a=:l we obtain
(7) p=i2 A (coaec v)*
which shows that p=A cosec v is the equation of a parabola,
while the radius vector becomes r=.A (cosec v)*, showing that p
has other remarkable properties than those which I pointed out in
''Gould's Astron. Journal," vol. ii, p. 10, 11, since it bisects the
angle between the radius vector and the axis. It Vill also be ob-
served that a perpendicular raised firom the focus of a parabola
upon the radius vector bisects the radius of curvature, by (7).
When we make a=:l and n=:2, equation (2) gives for p=.
A {sin v)?, /> = — 3 A {sin v)^ which is one of the involutes of a hy-
pocycloid of four cusps.
Problem II. To find the equation of a cycloid, and reduce it to
its simplest form.
When in equation (3) representing an epicycloid we attempt to
make the stationary circle infinite we find the equation rendered
worthless ; a= »:f^, becomes unity, but A=zR-^2r becomes in-
finite. We therefore, directly from the geometry of the cycloid,
taking our origin at the middle of the chord joining two cusps, find
p = / (2 sin »'+(jr — 2 v) cos v).
Taking a new origin at the vertex of the arch gives
p=z7^ (r — 2v) cos V.
Rotating the axis through a right angle reduces this to
p=2r^ V sintf,
which is the simplest form of the equation of a cycloid, / being the
radius of the generating circle and v the angle made by p with a
normal at the vertex.
Problem III. To transform the case of equation (4) to polar
coordinates ; the case when na=zl.
The equation of the curve being written p=^ (^^'w^)" we find
r=zA («n^)*^^* But (since in every curve, p=r sin e) this
shows that e is here equal to ^ • And since in every curve the
30 A. MATHEMATICS, PHYSICS AND CHEMISTBT.
polar angle, ^, must be the sum of v in its present sense, plus the
complement of c, we have in this curve
which by reduction gives
n 1— n '
Rotating now the polar axis through a right angle, and thus
eliminating ^?r from the second member, we get by substitution
as the polar equation of the curve, which may evidently be written
in the form
in the same form as />, and the value of p in terms of ^ becomes,
p = A (sint^r+'-
Problem IV. The logarithmic spiral 7; = -4" apparently pre-
sents no difficulties.
Problem V. The equation, p=zAv^^ n being a positive integer,
gives the involutes of a circle.
Problem VI. The equation p-=.A\>* sin v, gives for the radius
of curvature
P=i2 A {sin v-f-2 cos v).
This cui-ve evidently enjoys the property of repeating itself in
its evolutes ; its arches are all tangent to a straight line through
the origin, perpendicular to the axis, at its cusps the tangent of
v=L — 2, and the cusps are all situated on a parabola with its
axis lying in the same direcl^ion.
A New Curve. By Thomas Hill, of Portland, Me.
The equation p=:Ay represents a curve, that in outward appear-
ance resembles that case of the elastic curve in which it does not
cross the axis. By integration we obtain
/>=e ^*»» »'+*; or log p=:A smv-f-B
A. MATHEMATICS, PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY. 31
In this equation, B only affects the scale of magnitude. A change
of sign in A simply throws the curve below the axis.
For -4=0 the curve becomes a circle infinitely removed from
the axis. For A=:co the curve is a straight line, falling perpen-
dicularly on the axis but not crossing it. If however this case be
drawn on an infinite scale by making B also oo, the value sin v=z
— 1 may make p finite ; that is, we see only the bottom of the loop
. tangent to the axis. But draw it on an infinitesimal scale by
making B=. — oo, and the value sinv=zl may make p finite, show-
ing us the top of an arch coinciding with the axis.
The value of the ordinate at the top of the arch is 2^i i= J e ^ and
for the bottom of a loop is y^ = — —
Ae
A
1
Four Equations partially discussed. By Thomas Hill, of
Portland, Me.
1. In the "Proceedings" of this Association, vols, xi, p. 42 ;
4
xii, pp. 1-6 ; and xiii, p. 158, will be found preliminary discussions
of some systems of coordinates, in which the present equations
are further examples.
2. Let the radius of curvature be proportionate to some power
of the ordinate, i. 6.,
p = Aj/^.
The geometry of the differentials gives, if r, the angle of the
curve with the axis, is taken as the variable,
pdT=Ay^ dT=zdy cos T,
8. Whence by integration
1
! y=((n—l)(^ cos T—B))
m
P=A({'nr^l)(A cos T—B)y^'
l—n
n
4. These equations show that p=iAy^ represents, when
n= — 1, the elastic curve,
n=^, the cycloid and its involutes,
n=|, an oval involute to a 4-cusped hypocycloid.
32 A. MATHEMATICS, PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY.
w = 1 , a curve presented \n a separate paper at this meeting,
n:= J, a curve which for -8=0 becomes a parabola,
n = 2, a curve which for J3=:0 becomes the catenary.
5. The ratio of p to y may be written
P_« A
y (nr-lj{AcoaT—B)
which for the special case .8=0 gives
y=z(n — 1) p cos T =(n — 1) p sin r
n n
p = (A^ 0^— 1)) ^-""isinr) i-«
I had discussed this last equation, and its caustics, (Gould's Ast.
Jour., ii, 84), before perceiving that it includes that case of the
elastic curve in which it crosses the axis at right angles.
6. Let the radius of curvature be proportional to the nth
power of the radius vector. This gives us
p = Ar^ p=fr]
p=B —
(n — 2) Ar »— *
And for all cases in which B is put = 0
e=:(l—n) <P+C; T=:(2— w) (P+C.
7. If, in §6, n= — 1, we find that for negative values of B the
curve is a series of loops, no one of which encloses the origin ; for
positive values of -B, less than J\/-4, a series of loops, each en-
closing the origin ; and for J5=0, four loops meeting in the origin.
In the last case, the curve may be transformed, with a loss of the
alternate loops, into the forms :
r=A,/3 Asin2 <P :=za/S A sine; tz=lS ^.
For the value of B^i^a^A this curve is a circle, with the ra-
dius \/A.
8. When n is put = 1, and J5=0, we obtain
logr=(pA,/A^—l
which is the equation of a logarithmic spiral. Inasmuch as in
every curve the radius of the evolute may be written
A. MATHEMATICS, PHTSICS AND CHEMISTRY. 83
and its radius vector
we easily show that, in the case of this article, we have
pz=.Ar'
which is a new demonstration of a familiar property of the spira
mirabilis.
9. For n= 1, when B is negative, the curve, examined by the
lemma
will be found to be a double spiraloid, enclosing the origin in a
^TTl
CORRIGENDA.
The reader is requested to mako the following corrections with a pen; Vol. xix, p.
21. the last line sliould be written,
n ! n I
and the close of the first line on p. 22 should be written,
/i„z=ReMz=eS„=Reef.
12. Making n = J, we have for J5 = 0
which are evident equations of a parabola.
A. A. A. 8. VOL. XXn. 8
34 A. MATHEMATICS, PHYSICS AXD CHEMISTRY.
13. Making n = 2, we have for 5 = 0
e= — ^; Tz=C; p= — oo
so that the curve has become a straight line at an infinite distance,
parallel to the axis.
14. Making n= 3, we obtain £= — 2^;tz= — ^ showing the
curve to be an equilateral hyperbola.
15. Thus a rapid preliminary survey of the equation p=:Ar^
shows it to contain circles, log. spirals, involutes of circles, and
of epicycloids, parabolas, hyperbolas, and many interesting new
curves.
16. Let us now suppose the radius of curvature to be propor-
tional to the nth power of the length of a perpendicular let fall
from the origin upon the tangent ; p =z Ap^-
17. In this case we readily obtain
n
__ ((H-l) (rM-^)) ••"*"^
18. This equation shows that by putting n'= -^^ we shall ob-
tain, for 5=0, p=A7^'; so that the equation p=iAp» includes
the curves of pz=Ar^
19. For the case n = 1 we have Tz=fp . . for values of
A> I this gives us
1
T = -=- log ^Ar*^B-fc
and this runs when 5:^0 into a logarithmic spiral.
1 [-1] . /T-rs
20. Butwhen^<l, t=: ■-= cos \^-b^'P
whence p= ^^-^zij ^^ ^^ — ^ ' ^ ^^^ch is an epicycloid.
21. And when ^ = 1, n being = 1, we have p = \/^-f--B, so
that g = \/ — 5, which gives us when B is negative, the involute
of a circle with a radius of \/ — B.
A. MATHEHATI08, FHTSICS AND CHEMI8TRT. 35
22. When n = 3, the curve reduces for JB = 0 to a parabola
and for B= — -1, to p=aJA' Cot — .
23. When nzn — 3, and J5=0, we have r= — ~, and the
curve is the equilateral hyperbola.
24. Let us now consider the radius of curvature as proportional
to the nth power of the length of the arc. This is readily in-
tegrated, and gives
1 w
p-=,A^-^ ((1 — n)v/) i-»'
When —— is a positive integer this is manifestly some involute
of a circle; also for n=:l, we have the spira mirabilis, and
n=0, of course gives the circle. When n= — 1 the curve starts
from the origin in opposite directions and coils itself around
two poles on a line passing through the origin at 45° with the axis.
The distance of the poles from the origin is d=-4\/2;r.
On the Relation of Internal Fluidity to the Precession op
THE Equinoxes. By J. G. Barnard, U. S. Army.
Since the investigations by Sir Wm. Thomson concerning the
relations between rigidity of the earth's substance and precession
(see "Rigidity of the Earth," Phil. Trans., 1863), ^nd his enunci-
ation that " if the earth had no greater rigidity than steel or iron,
it would yield about two-fifths as much to tide-producing influences
&8 if it had no rigidity, more than three-fourths as much as if its
rigidity did not exceed that of glass," and, as a consequence of
the centrifugal force of diurnal rotation o^ these solid tidal pro-
tuberances, the precession-producing couple will be diminished in
the ratio of their height to that of the tide of a wholly fluid sphe-
roid ; the question of internal fluidity has, in its relations to pre-
cession, lost much of its importance. For though, in another place,
(Treatise on Nat. Philos., §848) he states that "it is interesting
to remark that the popular geological hypothesis of a thin shell
of solid material, having a hollow space within it filled with liquid,
involves two effects of deviation from perfect rigidity which would
36 A. MATHEMATICS, PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY.
influence in opposite ways the amount of precession. The com-
paratively easy yielding of the shell must render the effective
moving couple due to sun and moon much smaller than it would
be if the whole interior were solid, and, on this account, must tend
to diminish the amount of precession and nutation :" and he thinks
that the *' effective moment of inertia of a thin solid shell contain-
ing fluid in its interior would be much less than that of the whole
mass if solid throughout," and hence there would be a " compensor
tory effect." But, on the other hand, he considera the probability
ver}^ small that this compensation should chance to be so perfect as
the actual observed precession would require it to be ; and I, for
my own part, believe he is in error in his notion that there is any
such compensation whatever. (See note to p. 48, Smithsonian
Contributions 240, "Problems of Rotary Motion.")
Nevertheless, the effect of Internal Fluidity has been made
the subject of one of the most famous investigations, concerning
the physics of the earth, by the late Prof. W. Hopkins* (Phil.
Trans., 1839-40-42) and his results have been considered so far
authoritative as to be at least referred to by most writers since.
So recently as 1868 the eminent French astronomer, the late
M. Delaunay, believed them entitled to a formal refutation at his
hands, and another prominent writer on the ''Figure of the Earth,"
the late Archdeacon Pratt, in his fourth edition of 1870, has
attempted a "vindication of Mr. Hopkins' method" against the
strictures of the French astronomer. Although neither the " refu-
tation" nor the "vindication" is, in my opinion, either one or
the other {vide notes pp. 39 and 49, Smithsonian Contributions,
240), the fact that, at so recent dates, they have been made, shows
that the question has not wholly lost its interest ; that the over-
shadowing influence of the question of "Rigidity" is not appre-
ciated ; or finally, perhaps I might add, that there is a large class
of minds, whose opinions deservedly command respect, who will
not give full credit to the results of purely mathematical investi-
gations on such subjects.
To the latter class, the mathematician can only present his view
of the case, and while admitting, where data are so recondite and
his instrument of so feeble a grasp upon the complicated oper-
•Even Sir Wm. Thoinpon has quiteVecently ("Nature," Feb. 1, 1872) given an elabo-
rate refutation of M. Delaunay'a views of '*vi8C08ity'* as an agent to nullify Prof.
Hopkins' rexults.
A. MATHEMATICS, PHYSICS AlTD CHEMISTRT. 37
ation of nature's' forces, that his exposition may not comprehend
the whole matter, claim that his results be arrayed against the
conclosions* of other investigators according to their probable
weigJU.
In a paper on the "Precession of the Equinoxes in Relation to
the Earth's Internal Structure," which has been read before the
Academy of Sciences, and printed as ^' Smithsonian Contributions
to Knowledge, No. 240," I have endeavored to show that the need
of high rigidity (as first announced bj' Sir Wm. Thomson), to great
depths, is unquestionable ; that to such depths, at least, it puts out
of court (if I may use the expression) the plea for internal fluidity ;
that the supposed compensation in loss of "effective moment of
inertia" which even Sir Wm. Thomson would concede to fluidity
has no basis of reality. If the terrestrial spheroid were wholly of
fluid and (of* course) wholly destitute of rigidity, the tidal protu-
berances developed by solar or lunar attraction can be mathe-
matically expressed with almost perfect accuracy; and I have
anal3rtically demonstrated that the centrifugal force (due to the
diurnal rotation) of the matter constituting these tidal protuber-
ances exactly neutralizes the precession-producing couple devel-
oped by the foreign attraction, and that, in such a spheroid, there
will be no precession. On the other hand, supposing the spheroid
to be solid throughout, Sir Wm. Thomson has determined the
degree of rigidity which its substance must possess in order that
the observed precession should coincide so nearly with that which
theory assigns to a perfectly rigid spheroid of its shape and laws
of internal density, with this result, viz : "that the actual rigidity
should be several times as great as the actual rigidity of iron
throughout two thousand or more miles thickness of crust.'*
If such a degree of rigidity be needed to a crust " two thousand
or more miles" thick, it is plain enough that the thin crust of the
geologists (i. €., a crust of thirty or forty -miles thickness) would
demand a rigidity not onlj^ surpassing imraensurably anything
actually belonging to cognizable portions of the earth's external
substance (and if we conceive volcanic lavas to come from the
internal fluid, our cognizance extends through the solid crust)
but surpassing anything we can reasonably attribute to solid
terrestrial matter.
Very strangely, however, the idea of the precession-neutralizing
effect of elastic yielding of the earth's substance does not appear
38 A. MATHEHATICS, PHYSICS AND CHEMISTBT.
to have entered into the minds of physicists until it was announced
by Prof. Thomson ; or rather, I should say, it was taken for granted
that the solid earth, or even a tbin crust of solid earth, was rigid
enough to be regarded, in the treatment of the problem, as per-
fectly rigid. So Prof. Hopkins, in his famous investigations, treats
the problem, and he has endeavored to find in the precession of
the equinoxes a test of the existence of internal fluidity, under this
point of view. His result is probably well known to those who
have given attention to this particular subject. It is, that, consti-
tuted internally in accordance with the most probable laws of
density and of ellipticity of strata of equal density, there must be
a solid crust of at least eight hundred or one thousand miles of
thickness. But this determination is based upon a supposed
discrepancy of one-eighth of the calculated precession between
that which is observed and that due to a homogeneous spheroid
having the earth's figure ; a discrepancy mainly depending upon
the assumption of yV ^^^. ^^^ moon's mass. The moon's mass
is now believed to be much less, and (see Thompson and Tait,
Nat. Phil., §828) tlie discrepancy is really, if not inappreciable,
certainly small, and at any rate so indeterminate as to afford no
datum for such a determination. Did such a discrepancy exist
and if it were with certainty determinable, it would prove (as the
subject is now understood) not a determinate minimum thickness
of crust, but^ that, bj- elastic yielding of the earth's substance, a
part of the precession was lost.
It is a matter of scientific curiosity, if nothing more, to
know the actual efl'ect of internal fluidity when this yielding is
excluded and the crust treated as perfectly rigid (for the results
will have an applicability to a certain extent in the case in which
the shell is supposed to yield partially to foreign attraction). In
Prof. Hopkins' investigation, while there is an elegance of treat-
ment and a mastery of higher analysis, combined with skill in its
application to physical problems, which claim admiration, there is,
ut the same time, I think, a fallacy in his application to the hete-
rogeneous spheroid, which, considering the notoriety of the inves-
tigation and the acceptance it has met with, renders it one of the
"curiosities" of modern mathematics.
In the "Addendum" to the Smithsonian publication already al-
luded to, I have pointed out what I believe to be the underlying
errors of Prof. Hopkins* analj'sis, and have endeavored to show
A. MATHEMATICS, PHTSIC8 AND CHEMISTRT. 89
that, attributing perfect rigidity to the shelly and identity, in the
two cases, in the law of internal density, the effect of fluidity of
nucleus is almost absolutely nil; or, in other words, that the pre-
cession will be, with inappreciable difference, the same for the two
cases. I shall endeavor to make this result intelligible and the
effects of fluidity understood without resort to other symbolism
than that of ordinary language.
In the first place, stability of the "Figure of the Earth" de-
mands that if there be an internal fluid, it shall be possessed of
the earth's diurnal rotation about an axis coincident (on the whole)
with that of the shell. Hence, by some means, the fluid as a mass
must be possessed of the same precessional motion as its shell.
And again, supposing the earth to have been once wholly fluid,
the solidification of the shell must have been governed by the law
of density combined with that of temperature, and hence in speak-
ing of a shell or crust, we speak of one having an inner surface
concentric and co-axial with the outer, but with an ellipticity which
may slightly vary. The questions then present themselves : " Will
such an internal fluid spheroid take up a common precession with
the shell?" And if so, " Will that common precession be the same,
or not the same, as that which would belong to the entire mass
solidified?"
The flrst question Prof. Hopkins answers aflarmativel}'' ; the sec-
ond he answers thus : — "The same, if the shell and Jluid he Iwmo-
geneous and of same external ellipticities ; not the same, if both
the shell and fluid be heterogeneous, the fluid strata of equal den-
sity being disposed in accordance with the requirements of equi-
librium of figure.
I answer the latter question, " The same in both cases."
To make myself understood, I must attempt to explain the
internal actions and reactions of the fluid.
First : suppose the fluid homogeneous. Let the following flgure
(an ellipse of sm^l ellipticity s) be a meridional section of the inner
surface of the shell (for it matters not how far removed the con-
centric external surface be). Let it be supposed, however, that
the axis of the shell has been displaced, by rotation around an
equatorial axis through O, normal to the plane of the figure,
through a minute angle P' O P = /5 from a position P P of coinci-
dence with that of the fluid ; now through whatever causes (not
acting on the fluid) the shell has undergone this displacement, it is
40
A. MATHEMATICS, PHTSICS AND CHEHISTBT.
evident that the fluid will not have been at once moved bodily with
the shell, but will have undergone the least possible change con-
P^ ^r .^..M sistent with the change
•^— M ^^ position of its en-
velope. The fluid vxis
^'~ • ' ^ revolving in planes nor-
mal to PP ; and by the
changed position of the
shell, portions of the
fluid contiguous to the
poles PP must change
their planes of rotation
which were perpendic-
ular to PP, through the minute angle, a, to parallelism to a plane
tangent at P to the displaced shell, which angle is of the same
order of magnitude with respect to p (or POP') as the ellipticity,
e, supposed small, is to ordinary magnitude (calculation gives
a = 2 e) /S ; and hence a minute quantity of the second order. The
least change possible in the fluid is that all its planes, mm^ mnij
mm^ etc., come into parallelism with the tangent plane PM. In
this position the rotary planes of the fluid are skew to their own
axis ; and the pressure upon the shell arising from its centrifugal
forces is unsymmetrically distributed on the inner shell surface,
giving rise to a ''couple" acting to turn the shell back from its
displaced to its original position ; or on the other hand, by reaction,
tending to turn the fluid niass in the reverse direction to a position
of axial coincidence with the displaced shell. Since the displace-
ment, a, of the plane of rotation is minute compared to the a^ial
divergence POP', this latter movement will be nearly equivalent to
a rotation of the fluid as a mass about the equatorial axis through
O ; that is to say, that the forces acting on each particle to turn
the fluid mass to axial coincidence with the shell, will be propor-
tional to its distance from the axis through O.
This is very elegantly demonstrated by Prof. Hopkins, by refer-
ence to the conditional equations for fluid equilibrium for an en-
veloped fluid, by which he computes the intensity of effort for each
particle. The correctness of this rationale, and the accuracy of
his computation find (as 1 have elsewhere demonstrated) a very
interesting confirmation in the analytical theory of the tides. The
analytical expression for the tidal distortion of a revolving sphe-
A. ICATHEMATICS, PHYSICS AND CHEHISTRT. 41
roid, entirely fluid, indicates a simple displacement of the external
configuration, like that of the diagram, the axis of the figure being
displaced from P to P'. No attempt has been heretofore made
to show Jiow the fluid mass, presuming its rotary velocity aud axis
unchanged, adapts itself to this change ; but I have shown (note,
p. 43, Smithsonian Contributions, 240) that Prof. Hopkins' com-
puted reaction, due to the minute change of rotary planes, is
exactly equivalent to the foreign attraction-couple which would
produce it ; and hence we may regard tidal distortion as a minute
angular displacement of the planes of rotation.
Now, in the theory of precession, as it is usually set forth, and
as the fact is visibly exhibited by the gyroscope, rotating bodies
subjected to the action of a couple, take a gyratory movement, the
axis of rotation moving at right angles to the plane of the couple.
Thus, by the interaction I have described between shell and fluid,
their masses will be subjected to gyratory motion, in opposite
directions, the degree of which will evidently be in inverse pro-
V portion to their respective moments of inertia (taking that of the
fluid as if solid) and their gyration cannot produce greater diver-
gence of the axis than the original disturbance, but are simply
relative oscillations.*
Let us now take another view of the subject and suppose the
shell and fluid both revolving with common angular velocity about
their common axis of figure, to be subjected to a foreign attraction
from some point {e. g,, the solar or lunar centres) situated at a
finite distance and not in the plane of the equator. Owing to
inequality of distances the resultant of this attraction, were the
whole mass rigid, would develop a couple tending to turn (or tilt)
it; and hence, as is well known, arise the phenomena of preces-
sion. But the internal fluid spheroid of our hypothesis is desti-
tute of rigidity, and the shell alone will be directly subjected to
the tilting efffect and resulting precessional motion. But by the
unequal action of the attraction upon the particles of the fluid,
pressure will be developed upon the inner surface of the shell. If
the fluid be homogeneons the analytical expression for this pres-
sure can be directly deduced from that for the tides of a wholly
fluid spheroid, as 1 have obtained them (Smithsonian Contribu-
* The foregoing rationale has reference to Prof. Hopkins' treatment. A more simple
ooe U to regard the tiltmg of each fluid rolutional plane, mm, as producing a tendency
^ gyraiion: which tendency can only be yielded to, considtently with uncUbturbed
rotation of the flaid mass, by a lodUy gyration of that mass.
A. A. A. S. VOL. XXII. 8*
42 A. MATHEMATICS, PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY.
tions, 240, note to p. 44) ; or they can be directly computed from an
integiation of the elementary attractions and couples, as Prof.
Hopkins has done. In either way the result will be that the
pressure-couple upon the shell is identical with that which tvould
be exerted on the fluid mass if solidified. And hence upon the
shell is exerted the entire precession-prochicing couple due to the
entire mass. Hence the shell would initially have the precession
due to this total couple acting upon its partial mass and moment
of inertia. We may regard it, therefore, as at the first moment
taking up this accelerated precession independently of the fluid.
Biit this cannot continue for a finite time (however minute) with-
out producing the relative displacement of shell and fluid, exhibited
in the diagram, by which gyration, and, consequently, preces-
sional motion, is impressed upon the fluid. In consequence, the
fluid and shell take up a common precession, subject to the minute
(relatively to each other) oscillations of their axes. In reacting
against the shell we have seen that the fluid opposes the moment
of inertia due to its mass, and thus, Anally, the actual precession
becomes that due to the total attraction-couple, combined with the
total moment of inertia. Hence the resulting precession is the
same as if the whole mass were solidified into rigid continuity ;
in other words, the existence of a fluid nucleus does not affect
precession, if the fluid be homogeneous. This is Prof. Hopkins'
result, as it is mine, though it is deduced by him from a minute
analysis, which introduces into the differential equations for rotary
motion (for shell and fluid separately) all the various elementary
forces acting on each.
If we now take the case of heterogeneity of the fluid, we must,
in the first place, assume that the strata of equal density are
disposed according to the laws of equilibrium, having reference
to the Figure of the Earth. That is to say, the strata will be
concentric spheroidal surfaces of ellipticity differing slightly from
that of the exterior by diminishing inwards with increasing den-
sities. This will not, however, affect the reasoning which has
been applied to relative displacement, as illustrated by the dia-
gram, in the case of homogeneity. If the shell suffers a slight
displacement relatively to the contained fluid, there will arise
an interaction of which the rationale is identically the same as
for the case of homogeneousness. The only question then, is,
"Will the pressure-couple upon the shell developed in the fluid.
1
A. MATHEMATICS, PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRT. 43
through the action of a foreign attraction, be identical with that
which the attraction would produce upon the fluid if solidified?"
I would answer by the affirmation : "Given a heterogeneous fluid
wholly enveloped by a rigid boundary surface and subjected to a
foreign attraction, and a condition of static equilibrium assumed,
the pressure-couple exerted by the fluid on the shell cannot difler
from that which the attraction would exert on the solidified fluid."*
The assumed state of static equilibrium implies not only reference
to the mutual attractions of the parts, but to the foreign attrac-
tion. Now, in the case of the heterogeneous earth, the conditions
for this static equilibrium are very complicated, and though the
distortion of stratification, which a heterogeneous earth-spheroid,
wholly fluid, would undergo by the attraction, can be determined
by use of transcendental analysis (the use of Laplace's coeffi-
cients, now more commonly called spherical harmonics)^ I know no
attempt to determine either the distortion of strata of an enveloped
fluid (when, as in the case of the earth, the mutual attraction of
the constituents of shell and fluid is to be taken into account)
or the resulting pressures upon the envelopes. Prof. Hopkins has
cut this Gordian knot by the simple process of integrating from
centre to surface the foreign attraction, as a free force acting oh
the fluid particles ; and it is not at all surprising that, obtained in
this way, the resulting pressure-couple is not identical with that
which would be developed by the attraction on the solidified fluid.
On this fallacy, and this alone, depends his flnal and celebrated
result. There are (besides the self-evident erroneousness of the
• process) two tests of its error. Applying the same process to
determining the pressure-couple exerted on the shell by the agency
of the centrifugal forces of diurnal rotation in the fluid particles,
he gets, for the auction and reliction of shell and fluid, in the case
illustrated in the diagram, couples not identical. Again, his final
formula for the precession of the earth, supposing it to consist of
an iuterior heterogeneous spheroidal shell, gives (as I show, note
to page 47, Smithsonian Contributions, 240) with decreasing in-
ternal ellipticities leas precession (instead of greater, as he sup-
poses) than would belong to entire solidity. Hence, increasing
*A denial of this, carried to its legitimate conKeqaences, woald inyolve^ I think, a
violation of law of thd "conservation of energy." The alight motion of change of
coDflgnration which, in diarnal rotation, the strata must undergo to accommodate
ttaflnselves to this conditiou of static equilibrium, is investigated hy Prof. Hopkins,
tad found insigniiicant.
44 A. MATHEMATICS, PHTSIC8 AlO) CHEMIfiTRT.
the thickness of the crust increases (if we accept his formula as a
true exponent) instead of diminishing precession ; and the actual
deduction from it should be, that even entire solidification would
not result in the diminished precession sought for. I further
remark that the necessary identity of the interacting couples
(upon shell and fluid), due to contriftigal forces in the fluid, indi-
cates a correction for the pressure-couple exerted on the shell
from that cause which, if likewise applied to the analogous
computation for the pressure-couple developed by foreign at-
traction (the sources of the error of computation in both these
cases, as before indicated, being the same), renders Prof. Hopkins'
formula an exponent of the truth of my thesis, viz. : that preces-
sion is not affected by the hypothesis of internal fluidity, whether
the crust and fluid be homogeneous or heterogeneous.
I shall conclude this paper, intended merely to give an easily
comprehensible notion of the relation of internal fluidity to the
precession of the earth, with the remarks appended to my discus-
sion of Prof. Hopkins' analysis, in the Smithsonian Contributions
already referred to.
1st. The analysis of Prof. Hopkins, in its application to a ho-
mogeneous fluid and shell, seems to establish (and the result i»
confirmed by its harmony with tidal phenomena, as already men-
tioned) that the rotation imparts to the fluid a practiced rigidity
by which it reacts upon the shell as if it were a solid mass, while
its pressure imparts to the shell the requisite couple to preserve
the precession unchanged.
2d. The same practical rigidity is, with entire reason, attributed
to the heterogeneous fluid by which (leaving out of view minute
relative oscillations which do not affect the mean resultant in other
natural phenomena and should not in this) the shell and fluid take
a common precession,
3d. The two masses retaining their configurations, mutual rela-
tions and rotary velocities, essentially unaltered by the hypothesis
of internal fluidity, it would be a violation of fundamental mechan-
ical principles were the resulting precession not identical with that
due to the entire mass considered as solid.
4th. The common and identical precession of fluid and shell
resulting fi*om the analysis is indispensable to any conception of
precession for the earth as composed of thin shell and fluid ; for
otherwise internal equilibrium would be destroyed and the "Figure
A. MATHSKATICS, PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY. 45
of the £arth*' cease to have any assignable expression. The
entire mass, fluid and solid, must (without invoking the aid of
"viscosity") be "carried along in the precessional motion of the
earth.'' Prof. Hopkins' analysis demonstrates the possibility, and
exhibits the rationale^ of such a community of precession, but fails
in the attempt to exhibit a test of the existence or absence of in-
ternal fluidity.
5th. The powerful pressures that would be exerted upon a thin
and rigid shell would probably produce in it noticeable nutational
movements ;* while if the shell be not of a rigidity far surpassing
that of the constituents of the cognizable crust, the "precessional
motion of the earth" would, owing to the neutralizing effect of
tidal protuberances, scarcely be observable.
Musical Flow of Water. By H. F. Walling, of Boston, Mass.
Mr. Walling called the attention of the sub-section to a strong
musical tone emitted by the faucet of one of the wash basins in
the toilet room of the City Hall building, where the meetings were
held. This tone could be made to vary about an octave, by
slightly opening and closing the faucet. It only sounded when
the flow of water was very small. The pressure of the water be-
ing modified by its motion, sudden closings, or partial closings of
the valve took place, by which shocks like those of the water ram
were produced. The pitch of the tone depended of course upon
the rapidity with which the shocks succeeded each other. The
range was from lower to middle C of the scale, corresponding to
the production of from 256 to 512 shocks per second.
Mr. A. A. Breneman of Lancaster, Pa., alluded to the analogy
between this action and that of musical flames, and said he
was accustomed, when performing the experiments before bis
classes, to illustrate the cause of the latter by comparing the out-
rushing molecules to a flock of sheep running through a gate,
when successive blockings up would occur, alternately followed by
rushes.
^Without reference to eonrentional^Nutatlon,'' which is but a form of precesBion
due to the non-coiocidence of the plane of the moon's orbit and ecliptic. The " Nuta-
4mu» referred to are explained in *• Smithsonian Contributions/' 240.
46 a. mathematics, fhtsigs and chemistbt. •
The Relation op the Dissipation of Energy to Cosmical
Evolution. By H. F. Walling, of Boston, Mass.
The dissipation of energy is a continuous process, quite familiar
to mankind in its main features and results, since tlie days of the
ancient philosophers. It was recognized by them that all mechan-
ical motions, being dissipated by friction, gradually diminish, and
must finally cease unless maintained by external power. In the
language of modern science the motion which thus disappears is
converted from molar into molecular motion.
It may be added that molecular energy, existing mainly in the
form called heat, tends to equalization or dynamic equilibrium,
after the attainment of which it is powerless to produce molar or
mechanical motion, a reconversion from the condition of equilib-
rium being impossible.
Accordingly the power to produce mechanical motion, exerted
by the heat of the sun, which is being lavished with such prodigious
prodigality, can only last while the sun continues to be hotter than
other bodies in space. At present it is well understood that all ter-
restrial motive power is derived from this source with the single
unimportant exception of that obtained from the tides, at the ex-
pense of the earth's energy of rotation. Among the more obvious
processes of conversion of the sun's molecular into terrestrial
molar motion, are the expansion and contraction of the atmos-
phere, the evaporation and condensation of water and the less
direct method by restoration of potential chemical energy accom-
plished in vegetation, whence are produced food and fUel.
But it is supposed that the &un will finally grow cold, and that
the resistance of the etherial medium, the evidence of whose ex-
istence is found in the demonstration of the undulatory theory of
light, will cause satellites to fall into planets, planets into suns
and suns into one common centre, after which, unless by special
interposition of divine power, darkness, silence and death will for-
ever prevail.
This gloomy prediction is of course inconsistent with the theory
of continuous evolution, which obviously excludes from cosmical
economy, catastrophes or extensive destnictive effects.
A careful consideration, however, of the circumstances which
will be likely to accompany the falling of a satellite into its planet
may lead to the conclusion that this occurrence will not necessarily
JL. ICATHEMATICS, PHT8ICS AND CHBMISTBT. 47
be catastrophic. The process must certainly be an exceedingly
siow one, no progress in it having been detected throughout all the
recorded observations of the moon's motion extending over thou-
sands of years. The only practical evidence which has been ad-
duced to prove the resistance of a medium, namely, a very slight
diminution in the period of that nearly .evanescent body, Encke's
comet, is very far from being definite and satisfactory. The mass
of the moon being enormously greater, it is probable that many
millions of years will pass before a diminution of her orbital period
from this cause will be perceptible. The immense periods of time
attributed to the past processes of geological evolution, and to
the supposed metamorphoses of organic life, are therefore very
brief when compared with those required for the returns of sat-
ellites to their parent orbs, admitting, as theoretical consideralions
eeem to require, that such returns are ultimately inevitable.
The eccentricity being diminished by the Resistance of a medium,
the moon's orbit would eventually become, and afterwards continue,
circular, so that final contact would be unaccompanied by violent
collision. But before the time of actual contact, changes of form
would be induced both in planet and satellite by mutual attrac-
tions, exemplified in the production of daily terrestrial tides. The
investigations of Hopkins, Thomson, and recently of Barnard,* in
regard to tidal and precessional influences, indicate that, even at
the present distance of the moon, they must cause elongations and
contractions of the solid materials of the earth, which are quite
appreciable. A considerable diminution of the distance between
the earth and moon would give rise to changes in the form of the
earth, and hence to bendings to and fro of its external shell even
if the earth were solid throughout. This would be accompanied
by earthquakes and kindred disturbances far exceeding in magni-
tude and destructiveness anything of the kind now known to man.
The frequency of these occurrences would be the same as that
of the moon*s meridian passage.
Resistances to this tidal action, however, would be developed,
in consequence of which the molar motion of rotation would be
converted into molecular motion, so long as the angular motion of
rotation in either body was different from that of the moon's revo-
lution, until the rotations became synchronous with the revolution,
a condition already arrived at in the case of the moon. Syn-
* See this volume, Sec. A. p. 36.
48 A. MATHEMATICS, PHTSIC8 AND CHEMISTRT.
chronism once attained would be permanent, acceleration both of
revolution and rotation occurring as the distance diminished, and
both at the expense of the potential energy of gravity between the
two bodies. Each body presenting the same face to the other, no
meridian passage could take place and hence no tidal action.
But there yet remains to be considered a continually increasing
tendency to distortion of form consequent upon approach. This
effect would be produced very gradually, being spread over such
enormous durations of time. . The curious and complicated fold-
ings of • the rocks, in the Appalachian regions, indicate that the
solid materials of the earth are sufficiently plastic to allow it to
take on any form towards which forces of sufficient magnitude
direct it, provided the times be very greatly extended. Hence,
considering the extreme slowness of the process, it may be reason-
able to conclude that the forms ultimately developed would be
identical with those which would be assumed by liquid masses
having the same relative positions and velocities.
The determination of these forms is a problem for the mathema-
ticians. In the absence of analysis, no reason is manifest for
supposing that the forms of equilibrium would be materially dif-
ferent just before and just after c*ontact. May it not be that the
order of change would be a partial reversal of certain supposed
processes of the nebular hypothesis? Thus the moon may be
gradually elongated into a closed ring which will slowly' contract
upon the earth as the energy of angular velocity is gradually
dissipated by the friction of the medium. In any event there
seems to be no good reason to suppose that there will be such
a sudden leap in the final osculation or embrace as would result
in a catastrophe.
The same considerations apply to the gravitational relations
between planets and suns. Other very important relations between
these bodies, however, with which organic life is more especially
concerned, require attention. One fundamental requisite to all
known terrestrial organic life is the conversion, within living
bodies, of molecular energy, either into molar motions, or into po-
tential energy which may afterwards be thus converted. All living
animals and plants, therefore, depend for their existence upon the
passage through their bodies, of heat, light and other molecular
forces originating in •fiie sun, in the movement towards distribu-
tion and equalization.
A. MATHEMATICS, PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY. 49
The integrity of cosmical evolution in relation to organic life,
according!}', seems to require the maintenance of great central
laboratories where molecular disturbances of sufficient intensity
and quantity can be continually generated, and their effects distrib-
uted throughout the universe. Notwithstanding the enormous ex-
penditure of heat by the sun its temperature is supposed to have
been maintained about the same as at present for ' a very long
period of time in the past, and no reason is manifest why this fixed
temperature will not continue for a very long time in the future.
Doubtless, operations are going on in the sun which it would be
impossible to imitate in terrestrial laboratories. May it not be
that the conditions of materials and the circumstances of pressure,
chemical affinit}', etc., are such, that substances more elementary
than our so-called chemical elements are uniting with an energy
far exceeding that of any chemical combination we can eiiect, and
80 prodigious as to maintain, at comparatively small expenditure
of material, the sun's temperature at that enormous degree which
marks the dissociation point of the tremendously energetic com-
bination? The duration of the combination or combustion would
thus be prolonged to an enormously remote period. At last when
• all the potential energy due to this particular reaction became ex-
hausted by the combination of all the Special materials required
for it, new materials whose dissociation point had a lower temper-
ature and which had consequently been prevented from combining
previously, would commence upon a similar process of combustion.
And so we may suppose combination to follow combination until
finally, perhaps at a time when the planets, freighted with their
living inhabitants, have begun to arrive at the sun's surface, long
after the fires of the last combustion have expired, it has itself
become a habitable globe, lighted and heated or served by other
molecular forces from distant orbs, where new conditions cause
new chemical combinations and conversions of newly developed
potential energies.
Finally, giving play to the imagination, why may we not sup-
pose farther, that in a liniverse extended throughout infinite space,
processes of concentration, similar to those supposed in the nebular
hypothesis and supplemented, by processes like those here indi-
cated, will go on forever, evolving worlds of continually increasing
magnificence, perhaps inhabited by living occupants of inconceiv-
ably transcendent and ever expanding facultfes ?
A. A. A. S. VOL. XXU. . 4
60 A. MATHEMATICS, PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY.
fl
Direction of Wind in Local Thunder Storms. By Hiram A.
Cutting, of Lunenburgh, Vermont.
In July, 1850, at Franconia, N. H., I was exposed in a buggy to
the fury of one of those local showers that pour rain in torrents,
accompanied by some hail and much thunder and lightning. .
As I was riding leisurely along I observed a small black oloud
almost directly overhead. It increased with great rapidity, and
in ten minutes the torrent came down. The wind was in gusts
from all pK>ints of the compass, demolishing my umbrella in a twink-
ling, leaAdng me to the mercy of the elements. I was drenched
in a moment and in an incredibly short space of time the body of
the buggy was full- and overflowing, though nearly four inches in
height.
The roads were like ijyef s and --^rery thing was flooded. In
driving north thre^K^J^d^^aff ^[idle^^ passed entu*ely out of
the limit of the st^mOof haihewid rain, i3frtUhe wind for two miles
farther had been/ vftlentltfrofWihgr^utlC prostrating com and
some trees and blowing down one bam. Tlie next morning I re-
passed the grouni^Mj^ound '{hat ttie^f^u^ern limit of the storm
was about six mile^tep Jlf^rt^d^^^idnt, and that at that part
the wind was strong fromTtit iJusiittfTaoing some damage.
In the atternoon, I visited the iron ore hill in Lisbon, which lies
west of ;the centre of the shower, and found the wind there had
been strong from the east. Upon my return I examined carefully
by the plants and trees, and by inquiry, into the direction of the
wind and found it upon the westerly side, in every instance direct
from the stortn and all described it as cool, though the forenoon of
the day of the shower was very hot and sultry with so little wind
that I was unable to learn its direction.
As the eastern limit of the storm was towards the White Moun-
tain range and a wilderness, I could get no information of its extent
or severity, except by the rise of the streams fed by it, which was
very great on all little streams, within or running through the
limit of a circle six miles in diameter.
Upon my return home to Concord, Vt., I resolved to investigate
fully the next storm of similar import. I soon removed to Lunen-
burgh, where I now reside, but saw nothing of similar storms
until June 30, 1856.* The morning was sultry, the forenoon hot,
with thermometer at 98°. The wind was unsteady, but from south-
A. MATHEMATICS, PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRTi 51
erly points. At about noon a dark low cumulus cloud appeared
in the west, which rapidly increased in size, until it hung with
inky blackness over the east part of Concord about five miles
awa}'. At noon, there was a strong breeze from the east, setting
directly towards this cloud and quite steady. At one o'clock
p. M., there was a hard gusty wind blowing directly from the
shower, feeling quite chilly after the forenoon heat and causing
the thermometer to fall in a few minutes to seventy degrees.
The cloud hung' over the same place for half an hour longer,
when it became lighter and was soon broken up in fragments and
dissipated. During the afternoon, small showers came up round
about and at three it rained slightl}' at Lunenburgh.
The next morning, hearing reports from the hail storm, I went
to the field of disaster. I found the storm of great severity but of
limited extent, being all within the radius of one-half mile. When
within a mile of the storm there were indications of a strong wind
from the west (I was approaching from the east) sufficiently so
to blow down many trees beyond the limit of the hail and rain.
I found, upon examination, some trees blowp down upon every
side of the storm, yet the wind invariably?from the storm cloud.
Upon inquiry, I found the wind', as fSr as noticed before its com-
mencement, blew directly towards it ftrom all quarters. The storm,
though so limited, was of unusual violence, in fact almost without
precedent in this section. The lightning was terrific, striking
• trees, etc. The testimon}' showed the thunder the heaviest ever
known and almost incessant. t
The cloud, to the parties living there, seemed, as it appeared to
me five miles distapt, to form directly overhead ; the atmosphere*
seemed very sultry while it was forming, with hardly a breath of
air. I could not learn that there was any special direction of the
wind and think there was not enough to note. The cloud formed
8o rapidly, that the farmers in their fields did not leave their work
until an almost total darkness settled down upon them, yet with
the opportunity of seeing a band of clear sky in all directions, at
the horizon. There was a strange feeling of oppressiveness in
the atmosphere. When the storm commenced at one o'clock p. m.,
a complete deluge of water first came down, followed almost
immediately by hailstones and chunks of ice several inches in di-
ameter which seemed pressed to earth, with a violent wind crushing
branches down from the trees with fearful violence. The duration
52 A. MATHEMATICS, PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY.
of the storm was no more than thirty minutes, yet in a circle one
mile in diametei; no green thing was left. The leaves, branches
and even the bark, were stripped from the orchards and shade trees.
A sugar orchard standing in the storm was destro5'ed in the same
manner. The shingles from the roofs and some boards were bat-
tered from the buildings and broken in pieces by the ice. The
glass and sashes were all broken. The grass crop was entirely
destroyed so that the grass fields looked like ploughed ground and
it was next to impossible to find straws more than two inches, long.
What became of the heavy crop of grass, ready for the harvest, I
cannot say.
Potatoes well hilled up by twice hoeing were destroyed and the
ground levelled as though it had been done with a roller, and no
stalks of potatoes or corn could be found upon all the ground.
The hailstones and masses of ice were piled up like snow drifts
in winter ; and twenty-four hours after the storm, in one drift by
actual measurement there were over twenty-five cords. Upon the
outer edge of the storm where the outward wind was strong there
was only rain, and a mile fV'om the centre there was only wind,
which extended at least from five to eight miles away ; how much
farther I cannot say. The section, over which the hail fell, was
left without a particle of verdure. No green leaves could be
found. It presented a state of devastation, as though the trees
had all been stripped >and the earth ploughed, and then pounded
down.
During the ensuing week, th^re were several storms similar in
their formation, and all accompanied with vivid lightning, heavy
thunder, hail and rain, but of much less severity than the one de-
scribed.
After this peculiar series of storms, there were no marked in-
stances of storms of this character until 1872. August 14th, of
that year, the town of SheflSeld, Vt., was visited by a local storm of
great severity. From the oppressive heat and calm of the morning,
clouds rapidly formed, and hanging stationary overhead the storm
between nine and ten a. m. burst upon the place.
This storm was of much greater extent, covering a section of
country five or six miles in diameter. These clouds continued to
send down their deluge of rain and hail for .three hours. Small
brooks were changed to streams ten or twelve feet deep. The
bridges were all swept away. The lightning struck several times
A. MATHEMATICS, PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY. 53
and several farms had fields of acres in extent washed awa}', and
other land was covered by the debris to the depth of six or eight
feet. . •
In the central part of the storm the wind blew in gusts from all
points of the compass, and outside of the storm the wind first set
towards the cloud from all points ; then from it, as before described,
seeming very cool. During the afternoon, showers spread about
the country in all directions, but in usual form and not of unusual
severity.
8ep^. 8th, a similar storm came directly under my observation
in the northern part of Lunenburgh. Though of great violence
one mile north of my place, I was enjoj'ing sunshine. As in other
cases, it seemed to form overhead and remain stationary. The
weather as before described. No perceptible wind, but vane point-
ing southwest. At the first .formation of the cloud, the wind set
towards it in a steady breeze ; then froqa it, cool and gusty. In
the area of the storm the rain and hail fell in torrents and the
darkness was almost like that of night.
Having been led, by former observations, to know what I might
expect, I was on the ground almost as soon as the rain ceased. I
found, fifty rods within the storm, the roads washed out so as to be
impassable, and leaving my horse, I' walked where water would
permit. The apples and most of the leaves were knocked off" the
apple trees by the hail though the hailstones were not large.
Grain not harvested was spoiled. Lightning struck but once
within the area of the storm, though the flashes were described as
incessant. Everything showed a great waterfall, though it was
nowbere measured ; around the skirts of the storm the wind was
cool and outward, blowing quite a gale for several miles. A por-
tion of the storm cloud passed off to the southwest, showering
moderately.
These of course are marked instances, yet many have noticed a
tendency to first an inward and then an outward wind in hard
showers, while those passing rapidly over, the countrj^ as the
saying is, pass against the wind. It however shifts a few minutes
before the rain falls. After a shower has passed^ it frequently
leaves a delightful cool breeze blowing from it. At the sides
of those showers, however, the wind is fitful and gusty, seldom
blowing directly to or from them.
I respectfully present these fjicts for consideration, hoping that
54 A. MATHEMATICS, PHTSICS AND CHEMISTRT.
others may observe them until the theory of hail storms and local
shof^ers of great severitj' is better understood.
I give no theory but let the facts stand out for consideration as
to whether they may not lead to a better understanding of the
formation of such storms.
On THE Silt Analysis op Soils and Clays. By Eug. W.
HiLGARD, of Oxford, Mississippi.
Among the objections raised against the utility of soil analyses
as mostly made and stated heretofore, not the least serious one is
that they do not indicate with any reasonable degree of accuracy,
or in a generally intelligible manner, those important points in the
physical condition of soils which are practically designate.d as
" lightness," '^ heaviness," " openness," etc. Indeed, the very idea
of what constitutes a sandy soil or a clay soil is exceedingly
indeQnite; necessarily so, so long as the constituent ideas of
"clay" and "sand," respectively, remain so ill-defined.
It makes a material difference whether the grains of sand con-
tained in the soil or clay are prevalently half a millimeter in
diameter, or the tenth or twentieth part of that amount. Sand
(or more properly silt) of the latter size is by no means impal-
pable ; and yet a soil containing 50 per cent, of this substance
might be exceedingly^ " heavy," while it would be " light" if the
sdnd grains approached 0*5*"™ diameter. And it would make an
equally material difference whether or not the impalpable matter
usually classed as "clay" were really, in the main, hydrous
silicate of alumina, or simply silex, or other mineral powder.
Equally important are, of course, the corresponding differences
in the properties of clays intended for use in the arts.
In the prosecution of ray researches on the soils of the state of
Mississippi, I found myself confronted by these difficulties, and
by the necessity of providing for some mode of operation, and
means of designating the several physical constituents of soils,
which should not only insure more accurate results, but should
also render these capable of ready comparison all the world over.
A. MATHEMATICS, PHT8ICS AND CHEMISTRT. 55
I need not recapitulate the often discussed objections to Nobel's
apparatus, with its four vessels of ever-varying capacity and slope
of sides, and variable head of pressure. Not one of the five sedi-
ments obtainable by its use is ever of a character apprbaching
oniformity ; and, even in one and the same instrument, successive
analyses of. one and the same material differ widely in their
results.
Scbultze's elutriating apparatus, as modified and used by Fre-
senius in his investigations of the clays of Nassau — a tall, conical
champagne glass, with an adjustable stream of water descending
through a tube in the axis — answers a better purpose ; but offers
the inconvenience of the accumulation of heavy sediments around
the mouth of the tube, whereby not only the velocity of the stream
IB changed, but its failure, at low velocities, to agitate the whole
mass of substance under treatment, allows portions of the latter
to escape the elutriating action altogether. And since in soil
analysis special importance attaches to these finer sediments,
which are carried off at low velocities, this objection is a capital
one.
Intending to carry out in a convenient form the idea (already
urged by Turrschmidt, Notizblatt, v, 180) of substituting for the
accidental and indefinite products usually appearing in the state-
ments of silt-analyses, sediments of known, and definite " hydraulic
value," I adopted in place of a variable head of water, a constant
one (a Mariotte's-bottle arrangementj adapted to ten-gallon car-
boys), modifiable by means of a stopcock with a long lever moving
on a graduated arc, on which the positions corresponding to given
velocities in vessels of known cross-section of mouth are marked
off according to empirical determinations.
In order to obviate the inconvenience arising from the accumu-
lation of sediment around the orifice of the tube delivering the
current, I introduced an intermediate conical relay reservoir (R,
fig. 2 ; a test glass, cut short) at the point of the elutriator (in-
verted) cone. The smallness of the lower orifice of the latter
renders the current there sufficiently rapid to prevent any portion
of the sediment concerned at a given velocity from falling into the
relay ; and whatever sediment does accumulate there can at any
time be stirred and brought back into the elutriating vessel, by
increasing the velocity for a few seconds of time.
Following up with the microscope the character of the sediments
56
A. MATHEMATICS, PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRT.
SO obtained with the apparatus, fig. 2, 1 soon found that they were
throughout of a very mixed nature ; and searching for the cause,
I found one in .the abruptly conical termination of the elatriator,
at C, where the efflux tube was at first attached. For, in that case,
the ascending current does not decrease regularly its velocity as
the cone expands, but is broken up into a complicated system of '
eddies, whose general tendency is to ascend in the axis of the
instrument, and descend at its sides. So far, therefore, from cor-
responding to the calculated velocity belonging to the cross section
Plain Elatriator,
with Conical Tube and
Hydraulic Stirring.
Chum Elatriator,
with Cylindrical Tube and
Rotary Stirrer.
at C, the sediment carried off represents the variable effects of
these eddies.
The obvious remedy was to adapt to the wide (upper) end of
the elutriator tube a cylindrical portion, as shown in the diagram,
above C. When the length of this cylinder is made not less than
•125""", no perceptible eddies reach the efflux tube ; and the sedi-
ments exhibited a pretty satisfactory uniformity of grain, save in so
far as the coarser ones still contained a good deal of fine material.
However, in subjecting the workings of the instrument to. the
test of the balance, I found the results still quite unsatisfactory,
A. IIATHEMATICS, PHTSICS AND CHEMISTRY. 57
and apparently inconsistent, especially as regards the finer sedi-
ments.
The cause of these anomalies became apparent upon attempting
to work over, the second time, a quantity of sediment originally
obtained at the velocity of 1""" per second. It should all, of
course, again have passed over at the same velocity ; but to my
surprise, barely one-half of it did so, while a heavy coarse sedi-
ment collected in the lower portion of the elutriating tube, and
even settled into the rel^-y resei-voir R ; as roughly shown in fig.
2. On returning, the portion that had passed over to the elutri-
ating vessel, the same phenomenon recurred ; and by repeated
" cohobation," I finally succeeded in getting about four-fifths of
the whole quantity of sediment settled into the relay reservoir !
On examination I found this coarse sediment to consist of floc-
culent aggregates of from a few to as many as thirty fine particles
of siliceous silt. When violently shaken, they part company and
become diffused, singly, through the liquid, which then presents
simply a general turbidity ; the particles then settling down slowly
and singly, at the rate corrQ^ponding to their individual size or
hydraulic value.
The process of formation of these aggregates may be observed
by means of a lens, in aU its stages ; it being the effect of the
downward currents always existing on the sides of the conical
vessel, as heretofore mentioned. The aggregation progresses
slowly at first ; but when once five or g^x particles have thus coa-
lesced, they begin to descend with increased rapidity, and, grow-,
ing, avalanche fashion, as the}' roll down, finally drop through the
narrow lower orifice, despite the rapid current existing there, into
the relay reservoir R.
I have vainly attempted to obviate this trouble in various ways.
Even when a central core is introduced in the axis of the conical
tube, so as to force up the current close to the sides, return cur-
rents will form, and with them these miniature avalanches.
It w obvious that this circumstance completely vitiates all deter-
mijiations heretofore made in conical vessels; whether those of
Nobel's apparatus, or those of Schultze and Fresenius ; or even
the later ones of Miiller, and of Schone ; * in all of which the
agitation produced by the current is alone employed for stirring.
* I regret taaTing been unable to obtain, for reference, tbe original papers of the
last two antliors; the most thorongh, piobably, heretofore pnblished on this aabjoct.
58 A. MATHEMATICS, PHTSICS AND CHEMISTRY.
The tendency to coalescence diminishes, of course, as the size
of the grains increases ; but does not altogether cease until their
diameter, exceeds 0-2"**, or about 16"^ hydraulic value. For the
elutriation of coarser sediments, hydraulic stirring may be suc-
cessfully employed. For finer sediments, however, the nse of
cylindrical vessels, and of rapid agitation by oiUside power^ seems
indispensable.
Fig. 1 of the diagram shows, on a somewhat enlarged scale, the
instrument I have devised, with this end in view. The cylindrical
elutriating tube T, of 34'8"" inside diameter at its mouth, and
290"" high, has attached to its base a rotary churn P, consisting
of a porcelain beaker triply perforated, viz : at the bottom, for
connection with the relay reservoir R ; and at the sides, for the
passage of a horizontal axis A, bearing four grated wings. This
axis, of course, passes through stuffing boxes, firmly cemented to
the roughened outside of the beaker, and provided with good,
thick leather washers, saturated with tallow. These washers, if
the axis run true, will bear a million or more of revolutions with-
out material leakage. From five to, six hundred revolutions per
minute is a proper velocity, which may be imparted by clock-work,
or a turbine.
As the whirling agitation caused by the rotation of the dasher
would gradually communicate itself to the whole column of water,
and cause irregularities, a (preferably concave) wire screen of
0-8"" aperture is cemented to the lower end of the cylinder. No
.irregular currents are then observed beyond about 75"" above the
screen, whose meshes are yet sufficiently wide to allow any heavy
particles or aggregates to sink down freely. Any grains too
coarse to pass must, however, be previously sifted out.
Thus arranged, the instrument works quite satisfactorily ; and
by its aid, soils and clays may readily be separated into sediments
of any hydraulic value desired. But in order to insure correct
and concordant* results, it is necessary to observe some precau-
tions, to wit :
1 . The tube of the instrument must be as nearly cylindrical as
possible, and must be placed and maintained in a truly vertical
position. A very slight deviation from the vertical at once causes
the formation of return currents, and hence of molecular aggre-
gates, on the lower side.
^UBoallj within 6 per cent, of tbe quantities foand.
A. MATHEMATICS, PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRT. 59
■
2. Sunshine, or the proximity of any other source of heat, must
be carefully excluded. The currents formed when the instrument
is exposed to sunshine will completely vitiate the results.
3. The Mariotte's bottle should be frequently cleansed, and
the water used be as free from foreign matters as possible. For
ordinary purposes, it is scarcely necessary to use distilled water ;
the quantities used are so large as to render it difficult to maintain
an adequate supply ; and the errors resulting from the use of any
water fit for drinking purposes are too slight to be perceptible, so
long as no considerable development of the animal and vegetable
germs is allowed. Water containing the slimy fibrils of fungoid
and moss prothallia, vorticellse, etc., will not only cause errors by
obstructing the stopcock at low velocities ; but these organisms
will cause a coalescence of sediments that defies any ordinary
churning, and completely vitiates the operation.
4. The amount of sediment discharged at any one time must
not exceed that producing a moderate turbidity. Whenever the
discharge becomes so copious as to render the moving column
opaque, the sediments assume a mixed character ; coarse grains
being, apparently, ppborne by the multitude of light ones whose
hydraulic value lies considerably below the velocity used ; while
the churner also fails to resolve the molecular aggregates which
must be perpetually re-forming, where contact is so close and
frequent.
This difficulty is especially apt to occur wheij too large a quan-
tity of material has been used for analysis, or when one sediment
^constitutes an unusually large portion of it. In either case, a
portion of the substance may be allowed to settle into the relay
resenoir, until the part afloat in the chum and tube is partly ex-
hausted ; after which, the rest can be gradually brought up and
worked off. Or, the sediments shown by the microscope to be
much mixed, may be worked over a second time. Either mode,
however, involves so grievous a loss of time, as to render it by far
preferable to so regulate the amount employed, that even the most
copious sediments can be worked off at once. Within certain
limits, the smaller the quantity emplo3'ed, the more concordant are
the results. Between ten and fifteen grams is the proper amount
for an instrument of the dimensions given above.
I have found that, practically, 0*25"^ per second is about the
lowest velocity available within reasonable limits of time ; and
60 A. MATHEMATICS, PHYSICS AND jCHEMISTBT.
that by successively doubling the velocities, up to 64"", a desirable
ascending series of sediments is obtained ; provided always, that
a proper previous preparation had been given to the soil or clay.
Preliminary Preparation. — As regards this point, which is of
capital importance, I premise that I find the usual precept of boil- ,
ing from tfiirty to sixty minutes, almost absurdly Inadequate to
perform that loosening of the adherence of particles, which is the
fundamental condition of success in any process of mechanical
separation. In no case have I found less than six hours' incessant
and lively boiling even approximately sufficient ; and, even with
double that time, so much of the disintegration is often left to
be done by the churner of the instrument, as to protract indefi-
nitely the exhaustion of the finer sediments, which are then con-
tinually being set free from the coarser portions. Thus, in average
cases the sediment of 0*25"" h. v. may be "run ofl"" in the course
of thirty to thirty-five hours. But in one case, after twelve hours'
boiling, the 0*25 sediment gave no sign of disappearance after
thirty-six hours, and continued to come off for fifty-four hours
more, with the coarser sediments.
It is therefore a material saving of time, and essentially promo-
tive of accurac}', to effect the mechanical disintegration in the
most thorough manner, beforehand. *This can rarely be done
without long protracted boiling, anxl the subsequent use of me-
chanical means (kneading) on the finest sediments. But I cannot
see the propriety of using chemical solvents for disintegration,
unless the investigation is to extend beyond the physical prop-
erties of the substance treated. The miniature Loess puppets,,
consisting of sand-grains cemented b}' carbonate of lime ; the
grains of bog ore, or alumino-siliceous aggregates found in Rome
soils, fulfil, physically, the same office as solid sand-grains of cor-
responding size ; and should appear as such in the analytical
statement.
The presence of clay in the instrument would materially inter-
fere with the proper separation of sediments. In consequence of
its property of indefinitely fine difiusion in water, clay — i. e., the
hydrous silicate of alumina — prpduces the same efifect as would
the dissolution of a salt, viz : increases the buoyant efiect, and
therefore the hydraulic efficacy of water, to such an extent as to
enable it to carry off, e, gr., sediment pertaining to the velocity of
1"" in pure water, when the actual velocity is but 0*25'
Lnun
A. MATHEMATICS, PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY. 61
In view of thes^ facts, I have adopted the following course of
preliminary treatment :
1. Boiling briskly, fpr twenty-four to thirty hours, fifteen' to
twenty grams of weighed " fine earth."
This is best done in a thin, long-necked flask of about one litre
capacity, filled four-fifths full of distilled water, and laid on a
stand at an angle of 40-45°. It is provided with a cork and con-
densing tube of 8ufl3cient length (five to six feet) to condense all
or most of the steam formed when lively ebullition is kept up by
means of a gas fiame. For the first few hours, the boiling gener-
ally proceeds quietly ; but as the disintegration progresses, violent
bainping sets in, which sometimes endangers the fiask, but is of
material assistance for the attainment of the object in view. In
extreme cases, some of the heavier sediment (generally clean
sand) may be removed from the fiask ; but this is undesirable. It
is frequently the case that when the boiled contents are left to
settle, the liquid appears perfectly clear within an hour ; although
BO soon as they are largely diluted, the clay becomes diffused as
asual, and will not settle in weeks. Probably this is owing to the
extraction from the soil of soluble salts, which «xert the same
ioflaence as does lime or common salt, even in very dilute solutions.
2. The boiled fluid and sediment is transferred to a beaker, and
diluted 80 as to form from one to one and one-half litres in bulk ;
and being stirred up, is allowed to settle for such a length of time
as (taking into account the height of the column) will allow all
sediment of 0*25"*™ hydraulic value to subside ; the process being
repeated with smaller quantities of fresh water, until no sensible
tnrbidity remains after allowing due time for subsidence.
It must be remembered that this time is considerabl}^ longer
than that- for pure water, so long as any considerable amount of
clay remains in the liquid, rendering it specifically heavier. And
as the precise amount of allowance to be made cannot in general
be foreseen, some sediment of, and exceeding, 0*25™*'* h. v. will
almost inevitably be decanted with the successive clay waters,
until the buoyant effect of the clay becomes insensible. The
united clay waters (of which there will be from four to eight litres)
mast therefore be again stirred up, and the proper time allowed
for the sediments of O^p™", and over, to subside. The dilution
being very great, a pretty' accurate separation is thus accom-
plished ; the sediments being then ready for the elutriator.
62 A. MATHEMATICS, PHYSICS AND CHEMIStlRT.
Treatment of the ^^Clay Water'' — I have based ou the well-
knowu property of clay, of remaining suspended in pure water for
weeks and even months, an olbivious method of separation from at
least the greater portion of silts finer than 0*25"" hydraulic value
(<0-25).
The clay water is placed for subsidence in a cylindrical vessel
(in which it may conveniently occupy 200°*" in height), and is
there allowed to settle for at least twent3'^-four hours. This inter-
val of time was at first chosen arbitrarily ; but I subsequently
found it to be about the average time required by the finest sili-
ceous silt usually present in soils, to sink through 200""" of pure
water. So long as any sensible amount of clay is present, the
time of course is longer, say from forty to sixty hours, or even
more, if the clay be abundant and the liquid not very dilute. The
sharp line of separation between the dark silt-cloud below and the
translucent clay water above is readily observed, and the time of
subsidence regulated accordingly. At times, several such lines of
division may be seen simultaneously in the column, indicating silt
of successive sizes, with a break between. No such appearance
is presented wh6n, after weeks of quiet, the clay itself gradually
settles. The liquid, which may be alpiost clear at the surface,
then shades off downward very gradually, until, near the bottom
of the vessel, it becomes entirely opaque.
After decantation of the clay water, the remaining liquid is
poured off temporarily, leaving .the sediment as dry as possible.
It is then rubbed or kneaded in the decanting vessel itself, with
long handled rubber pestle (conveniently cut out of a car spring).
Water is again poured on (agitating as much as possible, to
break up th£ molecular aggregates) to the proper height, and
another twenty-four hours subsidence allowed. This operation is
repeated (six to nine times), until either the water remains almost
clear after the last subsidence, or the decanted turbid 'water fails
to be precipitated by salt water.
It thus seems possible, by a large number of successive decan-
tations, to separate pretty sharply the clay proper from the fine
silts. But the amount of time and care required in the process of
complete separatipn is so great, and the difference of percentage
resulting from a neglect of the subsidence beyond twenty-four
hours is in most cases so slight, that in the analyses made thus
far, I have throughout adhered to the twenty-four hours interval ;
A. MATHEMATICS, PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY. 63
the "clay" thus obtained being, of course, more or less contami-
nated with some of the finest silt ; which is precipitated with it by
Bait, provided the relative amount of clay is not too small. Other-
wise a slight turbidity may remain for several days in the decanted
liquid, which cannot then be cleared by the further addition of
8alt.
5Qccm ^f ^ saturated brine (e. e., 1*5 per cent, of salt) is ordina-
rily sufficient to precipitate one litre of clay water ; the precipita-
tion is much favored bj" warming. Half the quantity, or even less,
will do the same, but more time is required, and the precipitate id
more voluminous.
As it cannot ordinarily be washed with pure water, it must be
collected on a weighed filter, washed with weak brine, dried at
lOO*' and weighed. It is then again placed in a funnel and washed
with a weak solntiou of sal ammoniac, until all the chloride of
sodium is removed. The filtrate is evaporated, the residue ignited
and weighed : its weight, plus that of the filter, deducted from the
total weight, gives that of the clay itself.
In some cases, especially of clays and subsoils deeply tinged
with iron, the clay, after drying at 100°, will not readily diffuse in
water, and can be washed with pure water until free from salt ; it
can then of course be weighed directly.
Properties of Pure Clay. — The " clay " so obtained is quite a
different substance from what usually comes under our observation
as such ; since its percentage seems rarely to reach 75 in the purest
natural clays, 40 to 47 in the heaviest of clay soils, and 10 to 20
in ordinary loams. Thin crusts of it are occasionally found in
river bottoms, where clay water has, after an overfiow, gradually
evaporated in undisturbed pools. When freshly precipitated by
salt it is gelatinous, resembling a mixed precipitate of ferric oxid
and alumina. On drying, it contracts almost as extravagantly as
the. latter, crimping up the filter, to which it tenaciously clings ;
and from which it can be separated only by moistening on the out-
side, when it may mostl}', with care, be peeled off*.
After drying, it constitutes a hard, often horny mass, difficult
to break, and at times somewhat resonant. Since the ferric oxid
with which the soil or clay may h^ve been colored is mainly ac-
comulated in this portion, it usually possesses a correspondingly
dark brown or chocolate tint. When a large amount of iron is
present, water acts rather slowly on the dried mass, which grad-
64 A. MATHEMATICS, PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY.
ually swells, like glue, the fragments retaining theii* shape. Not
so when the substance is comparatively free from iron. It then
swells up instantly on contact with water ; even the horny scales
adhering to the upper portion of the filter quickly lose their shape,
bulge like a piece of lime in process of slaking, and tumble down
into the middle of the filter.
There is a marked ditference, however, in the behavior with
water of clays equally free from ferric oxid ; some exhibiting the
phenomena just described in a much more energetic manner than
6thers. On the whole, those freest from iron appear to imbibe
the water, and crumble, most readily. Inasmuch as this property
. possesses highly important bearings, both on the agricultural and
ceramic qualities of clays, I propose to investigate it more minutely
hereafter.
The pure clay, when dry, adheres to the tongue so tenaciously
as to render its separation painful. When moistened and worked
into the plastic condition, it is exceedingly tenacious and " sticky,"
adhering to everything it touches.
' Under a magnifying power of 350 diameters, no definite parti-
cles can be discovered in the opalescent cla}*^ water remaining after
several weeks' subsidence. The precipitate formed by saline eola-
tions then appears as an indefinite cloud (mostly of a 3'^ellowish
tint), for which one vainly seeks a better focus. In stronger clay
water one. can discern a great number of indefinite punctiform
bodies, very uniformly diffused throughout the liquid, and appar-
ently opaque ; the precipitate then formed by brine also shows a
faintly dotted structure of its clouds.
Doubtless the fine silt obtained in the twenty-four hours' subsi-
dence, the diameter of whose quartz particles varies from 0*001 to
0*02 of a millimeter, is not entirely free from adherent clay ; as is
indicated by its deeper tint, compared with that of the coarser
sediments. The extent to which this contamination exists, the
possible means of further separation, and the distribution of the
important soil ingredients among the several sediments, I reserve
for future discussion.
Separation of the Coarser Sediments, — The mixed sediments
remaining after the separation of the clay, and silts of less than
Q.25mm iiydi^aulic value (< 0*25), hy decantation, are transferred to
the elutriator, after separating by means of a sieve, such as, being
of more than 0-8"° diameter, would fail to pass thi'ough the wire
A. MATHEMATICS, PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY. 65
screen, and thus interfere with the operation. The water should
previously have been let on, so far as to stand above the screen ;
otherwise some sediment may be forced back into the rubber con-
necting tube.
The Fine Sediments. — The operation is best begun b}^ running
up the column rapidly nearly to the cork, allowing a few seconds'
subsidence, and then setting the index to the proper velocity, of
0*25'"" per second at the beginning. At first the sediment passes
off rapidly, and the column remains obviousl}- and evenly turbid,
from the point where the agitation caused by the churner ceases,
to the top. But this obvious turbidity generally exhausts itself
in the course of a few hours, and it then requires some attention
to determine the progress of the operation. I have never known
the 0*25"™ sediment to become exhausted in less than fifteen hours,
and in one case it has required ninety. The more rigorously the
process of preliminary disintegration, above described, has been
carried out, the shorter the time required for runnitig off the fine
sediments, which otherwise tax the operator's patience severely.
In matter of fact, they never do give out entirely ; doubtless for
the reason that the stirrer continues to disintegrate compound
particles which had resisted the boiling process. Besides, down-
ward currents on the sides of the vessel will form, despite all
precautions ; so that the interior surface of the cylinder becomes
coated with pendent flakes of coalesced sediment. These must
from time to time be removed by means of a feather, so as to bring
them again under the. influence of the stirrer; but it is, of course,
almost mathematically impossible that, under these circumstances,
any of the sediments subject to coalescence should ever become
completely exhausted. Practically, the degree of accuracy at-
tainable at best, renders it unnecessar}'- to continue the operation
beyond the point when only a fraction of a milligram of sedi-
ment comes over with each litre of water. It is admissible, and
even desirable, to run off rapidly the upper third of the column
at intervals of fifteen to twenty minutes ; whereby not only time
is gained, but also the sediment in the reservoir is stirred and
brought under the influence of the churner, for more complete dis-
integration.
It is noticeabie that recent sediments — river alluvium, etc. — are
much more easily worked than more ancient ones ; as might be
expected.
1. A. A. S. VOL. XXII. 5
66 A. MATHEMATICS, PHTSICS AND CHEMISTBT.
Up to 4"™ hydraulic value, the use of the rotary stirrer is indis-
pensable, on account of the tendency to the formation of compound
particles. Beyond, this tendency measurably disappears, so that
for the
Coarse Sediments of 8 to 64™°*, hydraulic stirring may be
employed, and an elutriating tube of smaller diameter may ad-
vantageously be substituted, in order to dimiuish the otherwise
somewhat extravagant expenditure of water. The entire amount
required for one analysis is from 25 to 30 gallons; provided a
thorough previous disintegration has been secured. The average
times required, are as follows :
Sediment ...... 0-25»~ 30 to 40**
" O-S"" 15 to 25'*
" 1-0"" 5 to 10**
" ... - . 2 to 64™ 6 to 10^
Total, 56 to 85**
With proper arrangements, much of this can be done automati-
cally, at night ; completing an analysis (except the clay and finest
silt determinations) in the course of three or four days.
As the soils are most conveniently weighed " dried at 100®/'*
I have alwa3^s weighed the sediments in the same condition. Great
care is necessary to obtain the correct weight of the (extremely
hygroscopic) clay ; the same is true, more or less, of the < 0*25
sediment, which, moreover, is so' diffusible in water that it cannot
■
readily be collected on a filter. I find it best, after letting it sub-
side into as small a compass as possible, to evaporate the last
25-50'=*°* in the platinum dish in which it is to be weighed.
From the other sediments, the water may be decanted so closely
as to render their determination easy.
The loss in the analysis of clays and subsoils, containing but
little organic or other soluble matter, is usually ftom 1*5 to 2-0
per cent., resulting partially, no doubt, from the loss of. thS fine
silt which comes off more or less throughout the process, and is
decanted with the voluminous liquid. When t|ie turbidity is
marked, it indicates imperfect preliminary disintegration ; it may
be removed, and the silt collected, by adding a weighed quantity
*A somewhat clayey soU wUl continne to lose weight at 100*, for 6—^ days. But
after the first 6 hours the loss becomes insigniflcaiit for the purpose in qnestion.
A. MATHEMATICS, PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY. 67
of alum (about 25 milligrams per litre is sufficient) precipitating
with carbonate of ammonia, and deducting from the weight of the
(flocculent) precipitate the calculated amount of alumina.
The analysis of soils rich in vegetable matter involves some
modifications in the preliminary treatment and final weighings,
which I shall not now discuss. Ignition of the soil previous to
elatriation, as proposed by some, is obviously inadmissible, as it
would render impossible the separation of the clay from the finer
sediments.
As I have heretofore stated,* I consider that, ordinarily, the
investigation of the stibsoih is better calculated to furnish reliable
indications of the agricultural peculiarities of extended regions,
than that of the surface soils, which are much more liable to local
'* freaks and accidents," and usually differ from the corresponding
subsoils in about the same general points. For practical purposes,
therefore, the difficulties incident to the treatment of soils rich in
humus, may in most cases be avoided.
CJtaracter of the Sediments, — As regards the size of the particles
constituting the successive sediments, the most convenient, because
almost universally present, material for reference is quartz sand.
I give below a table of measurements, concerning which I remark
that the values given refer to the largest and most nearly round
quartz grains to be found in each sediment, and to scale divisions
of y4tj millimeter each.
As a matter of course, all sizes between that given and the one
next below, are to be found in each sediment. A few grains of the
finer sediments are also invariably present, owing both to the pro-
gressive disintegration of conglomerated particles by the stirrer,
and to the inevitable formation of the avalanche-like aggregates
of the finer sediments.
While the measurement of the quartz grains, which are rarely
wanting in a soil or clay, affords sufficient landmarks to the scien-
tific observer, it seems desirable to attach to them, besides, gener-
ally intelligible designations, which shall approximately, at least,
indicate the nature of the sediment. This I have attempted in the
table, which is in this respect, of course, open to criticism ; since
it is not easy to indicate in popular language, distinctions not pop-
ularly made.
* Am. Jour. Sci., Dec, 1872; Proc. Am. Assoc. AdT. Sci., 1872, p. 71.
68
A. MATHEMATICS, PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRT.
Table of Diameters and Hydraulic Values of Sediments.
No.
Designation of
materials.
Diameter of Velocity pr. sec, or
quartz grains. hydraulic value.
1.
Coarse Grits,
.... 1—3
mm p
2.
Fine
•
. . . .0-5—1
•
•
3.
Coarse Sand, '.
. . 80-90 (^i^)
64
mm
4.
Medium
•
... 50 55
32
5.
Fine
•
... 25 30
16
6.
Finest
•
. . . 20—22
" 8
7.
Dust
•
. . . 12—14
" 4
8.
Coarsest Silt, .
.... 8—9
" 2
9.
Coarse
.... 6 7
" 1
10.
Medium
.... 4—5
" 0-5
11.
Fine
... 2-5 3-0
0-25
12.
Finest
... 0-1 20
» <0-25
13.
Clay
9
• • • •
< 00023
I remark that the absolute diameter of the elutriator tube eyerts
a sensible influence on, the character of the sediments, in conse-
quence of the comparatively greater friction against the sides in a
tube of small diameter. Strictly speaking, none of the sediments
actually correspond to the velocity calculated from the cross sec-
tion of the tube and the water delivered in a given time, but to
higher ones, whose maximum is in the axis of the tube, and w^hich
gradually decrease toward the sides, according to a law which may
be demonstrated to the eye by slightly diminishing the velocity
while a sediment is being copiously discharged, so that the turbid
column remains stationary, while clear water is running off. The
surface then assumes a paraboloid form, which is sensibly more
convex in a tube of small diameter than in a wide one ; the results
obtained in the latter being, of course, nearest the truth.
Still, the accompanying samples of sediments from Mississippi
soils and subsoils show at once, even to the naked eye, that the
assorting process has been quite successful, and that the prominent
characteristics of soils in these respects may thus be determined
and exhibited to the eye, with a very satisfactory degree of ac-
curacy.
I reserve for future communications the detailed discussion of
the services which this method of analysis is capable of rendering
to the theory and practice of both agriculture and the ceramic art.
But I feel confident that the comparative neglect of the subject of
A. MATHEMATICS, PHYSICS AND CHEMISTBY. 69
soil analysis during the past decennium, was the result of hasty
jadgment, and that, by properly combining the examination of the
physical and chemical properties of soils and clays, we shall be
able to fulfil, in a great measure, the high expectations entertained
in the early days of agricultural chemistry.
The important bearing of the phenomena of "molecular coa-
lescence" upon the formation of natural sediments, is too obvious
to require discussion. It explains at once why we so rarely find
a deposit composed of particles of uniform hydraulic value, how-
ever favorable to such a result may have been, apparently, the
circumstances attending its formation. And it warns us to be
careful in our estimate of the nature and velocity of depositing
currents, as deduced from the character of the sediments.
In previous papers on the Quaternary formations of the lower
Mississippi Valley, I have called attentibn to the somewhat singu-
lar composition of the material characterizing the Bluff or Loess
group, which fails to show any marks of assorting or stratification
of materials, even in profiles of seventy feet ; although it consists
of all grades of silt and sand from xisVir"" upward. The uniform
intermingling of these ingredients ceases to be surprising, when we
consider that, under the influence of the slow eddying motion of
shallow and uniformly slow-flowing water, the finest particles may
assume the hydraulic value of very coarse ones, and be deposited
with them. "We thus, a posteriori, arrive at the same conclusion
concerning the circumstances under which this deposit was formed,
as had been previously deduced from geological data alone.
As might be expected, the temperature of water exerts a strong
influence on the coalescence of particles. It is sensibly less in
hot water, so long as the water is either strongly agitated, or per-
fectly quiescent. But the circulating motion set up in hot water
exposed to cooling influences very soon eflTects coalescence, and
consequent clearing of a turbid fluid. The habitual stirring-up of
precipitates by chemists, to favor subsidence, need but be men-
tioned in this connection ; as also the fact that troublesome pow-
dery precipitates, such as oxalate of lime or molybdo-phosphate
of ammonia, become flocculent when allowed to deposit on a slop-
ing surface.
The presence of dissolved mineral matter greatly favors the
coalescence of particles, and especially the precipitation of clay.
Foremost among the active substances are lime and common salt ;
70 A. MATHEMATICS, PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRT.
the action of the latter being exemplified on the large scale, at
the mouths of rivers, where the fine mud, whose molecular proper-
ties with pure water would have kept it in suspension for many
days, is suddenly thrown down in the shape of mud shoals, in
consequence of the admixture of sea water.*
The "settling" effect of alum, however, appears to.be mainly
due to the precipitation of alumina by the carbonates of lime and
magnesia, present in almost all sediments.
The remarkable action of lime^ in preventing diffusion and di-
minishing the plasticity of clay, will form the subject of a future
communication.
Note. — The subjoined comparative analyses of one and the
same material, after boiling 6** and 30^, respectively, exhibit the
effect of thorough preliminary preparation, and the gross errors
which may result from its neglect. It will be seen that while
agreeing as closely as could be expected as regards the coarse
materials, the differences in the percentages of the fine ones are so
great as to render the first one absolutely nugatory, and calculated
to lead to an utterly false estimate of the soil's qualities.
No. 173. Under-subsoil of Cretaceous prairie, Monroe Co.,
Miss. (See Miss. Bep., 1860, p. 262).
Time of boiling .... 6h. 80h.
> 64"°» h. V. (bog ore) . . . 2-10 2-07
8-64 " " (siliceous sand) . 0-62 0-65
8 " '' 0-20 0-21
4" " 1-26 1-21
2" " 518 2-92
1 " " 6-30 7-36
0-5™™ " . 13-19 8-81
0-25™™" 27-93 7-85
< 0-25 " " 27-02 35-22
. Clay, 14-82 33- 16
98-42 99-36
* Thia action of salt in clearing wat«r has lately, it seems, been claimed as a new
discovery by Mr. D. Robertson, in a communication to the British Geological Society.
But the clearing of muddy water by salt, as well as by alum, has been a popular recipe
for ages ; and the action at the mouths of rivers is pointedly referred to by Mr. SideU, ia
Rep. Pbys. and Hydr. of Miss. River, App. A, p. xi.
a. mathematics, physics and chemistry. 71
Silt Analyses of Mississippi Soils and Subsoils. By Eugene
W. HiLGARD, of Oxford, Mississippi.
The results here communicated are the first-fruits of an investi-
gation on the physical constituents of soils and clays, undertaken
with the aid of the "churn elutriator" for silt analysis, described
in another paper. While far from being as complete or satisfac-
tory as I could desire, there is much that is suggestive of the
direction to be pursued in the farther prosecution of the research,
and of the importance of the results to be attained. The neces-
sary interruption of the work on my part, for some time to come,
may serve as an additional apology for an otherwise somewhat
premature publication.
The materials of which the silt analyses are here given were
chosei) as. typical representatives of the more important varieties
of soils in the State of Mississippi. For reasons repeatedly ex-
plained, I have, in most cases, preferred to deal with the subsoil
instead of the soil itself, whose organic ingredients materially in-
terfere with the operations of analysis, as well as with the interpre-
tation of the results. The general differences between the soil
and subsoil, in ordinary cases, are well understood ; and for general
research and comparison, the latter is much more available. I
have nevertheless, in one case, analyzed the soil and subsoil (206
and 209 of the table) for comparison ; the differences falling, as
will be seen, just where they would be expected. The deficiency
in the summing up of the "50i7" arises mainly, of course, from the
dissolution and loss of vegetable matter.
As a standard for comparison and reference, I place first in the
table a very pure, highly plastic pipe-clay ; probably as free from
foreign admixtures as a sedimentary clay can well be, the sedi-
ments being exclusively white quartz grains, sharp and angular.
It resembles kaolin, and is probably directly derived from the
carboniferous fire-clays.*
* Miss. Bep., 1860, p. 34 and ff.
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A. MATHEMATICS, PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY.
73
Of the "Upland" soils in the foregoing table, Nos. 248, 206,
209, 397, 219 and 173, are properly of the "Yellow Loam" age,
i. 6., of the end of the Drift period ;» while 165 is one of the two
chief varieties of soils occurring in the " Flat Woods," a level
area bordering on the Cretaceous, and mostly characterized by the
occurrence of the lower tertiary clays near the surface. The light
soil (165) occurs in irregular strips and patches; it is very easily
tilled at all times ; all rain water is promptly absorbed ; but it is
too " open," droughty, and does not hold manure at all.
No. 248 forms a stratum 3 feet thick, on the ridges east of Talla-
homa creek, Jasper county. Miss. By its disintegration, it forms
a deep and extremely sandy soil, which is injured by high winds
carrying away its finer parts. It has, however, yielded good crops
of corn and cotton for fifteen years without manure, though liable
to injury' from drought. — Nos. 206 and 209 are typical of the
" Pine Hill " .region of South Mississippi, the home of the long-
leaved pine. The soil is very "light" and easily tilled, but not
nearly as "open" as the preceding two. It is materially improved
by the admixture of the subsoil. No. 209 ; which enables it to hold
manure, being what would be termed a " sandy loam."
Nos.' 397 and 219 are typical of the cotton uplands of western
Mississippi and Tennessee ; 219 being of the first quality; 397 a
second-rate soil. Their prominent characteristic is an excessive
and most distressing proneness to denudation or " washing," in
coDsequence of a want of perviousness, together with the property
of promptly swelling up, on contact with water, into a loosely gelat-
inous condition, in which they readily diffuse in water. From the
same cause, the frequent alternations of freezes and thaws in the
winters of their latitude of occurrence, are even more disastrous,
and cause a frequent freezing out of winter grain, that at first
sight seems very surprising. The effects of denudation on these
soils are but too obvious even to the passer-by, are difficult to
check, and are fast assuming the proportions of a public calamity.
These soils are easily tilled when in the proper condition, but if
ploughed too wet are severely injured, hard clods remaining
throughout the season. There readily forms on their surface a
very hard crust (they " bake"), so that the surface requires stirring
after every rain.
No. 173 is the subsoil of the cretaceous prairies of northeastern
* Mi8B. Rep., 1860, p. 197.
74 A. MATHEMATICS, PHTSICS AND CHEMISTBT.
Mississippi, formiDg a stratum 3 to 7 feet thick, overlyiDg the cre-
taceous rock. Although, in the wet condition, it is accounted a
"heavy clay" soil, it possesses the peculiarity of "slaking" on
drying, instead of forming a hard crust — unless, indeed, the dry-
ing process be exceedingly slow. It is not, therefore, as difficult to
cultivate as would be supposed from the sum of its fine ingredients.
Nor is it nearly as much subject to denudation as the two preced-
ing soils, the mass formed by its contact with water being too
tough and coherent to be readily moved by flowing water. But
being very little pervious, it is liable to injury in wet seasons ;
while in dry ones, the cracks formed by the contraction of the
subsoil prove disastrous.
No. 230 is the soil prevalent in the Flatwoods (see above), and
is the direct result of the disintegration of the old tertiary clays.
It is a very heavy, intractable soil, yielding good crops only in very
favorable years, as it is exceedingly liable to injury both from wet
and dry seasons, and can be tilled only within a very limited range
of condition as to moisture. Water will stagnate on it for weeks,
and a late, wet spring will, sometimes, altogether prevent the
pitching of crops. But it is not at all liable to denudation.
No. 246 is likewise the direct result of the disintegration of
(highly ferruginous) tertiary clays. Notwithstanding its high per-
centage of "clay," it is more easily tilled than the preceding one,
although acquiring a stony hardness when dried slowly. The
fact that among its 4025 per cent, of "clay" there are 10*6 of fer-
ric oxid, and that it contains *8 per cent, of lime, explains both its
easier tillage, and greater thrifbiness, as compared with the pre-
ceding. It is a pretty "safe" soil, and quite productive ; not at
all subject to denudation.
No. 196 is the extreme of a clay soil, so as to be almost unfit
for tillage, and directly available for the potter's lathe. It bears,
nevertheless, a pretty good growth of timber, chiefly pine. Its
popular name is derived from the peculiar aspect assumed by its
surface, when after a drought which has caused fissures (as much as
an inch wide) to be formed, a rain causes the edges first to crumble
off into the open cracks, and then swell ; which, with the subse-
quent swelling of the mass itself, compels it to bulge up. The
result is a hillocky surface, which is popularly likened to "h<^
wallows." The soil is, at present, practically worthless.
The next, .No. 390, is very similar in its (ostensible) physical
A. MATHEMATICS, PHYSICS AKD CHEMISTRY. 75
composition to the preceding. Yet while the "hog-wallow" soil
is among the most worthless of the soils of Mississippi : — this,
the celebrated " buckshot" soil of the Mississippi bottom, is among
the mo^ valuable. True, the chemical composition of the buck-
shot soil is greatly superior to that of the other ; yet it could not
rank as high as it does, as a cotton soil especially, but for the fact
that (in common with the prairie soil, 173, above described) it
possesses the property of crumbling or "slaking" by rapid dry-
ing ; so that, even when it has been ploughed too wet, on drying,
each clod resolves itself into a pile of loose crumbs, which have
given rise to the popular name of " buckshot." Notwithstanding
its clayeyness, it is therefore a very "safe" soil, and highly es-
teemed for its thriftiness.
Alongside of this soil, which represents the cypress swamp
deposits of the "Port Hudson" epoch of the Champlain period of
depression, I give the composition of the "Loess" of the Lower
Mississippi ; a deposit evidently formed in a shallow, broad, fresh-
water estuary possessing a slight flow, during the time of more
rapid depression of this portion of the continent. It forms a soil
very easily tilled, somewhat too open and droughty, but fairly pro-
ductive, and practically exempt from denudation.*
It is interesting to compare this ancient (deposit with those now
formed under somewhat analogous circumstances, by the sluggish
**bayou8" traversing the bottom of the great river. Compare No.
237 with 377, a"Frontland" soil from a plantation ouLidian Bayou
in Sunflower county, and we find the physical constituents almost
identical. No. 395 is from a point near the main river, on Gov.
Alcorn's plantation in Coahoma county ; it has evidently been de-
posited by a more rapid current, as it contains more of the coarser
ingredients, to which there adhered a suflSciency of clay to render
the soil retentive, though so porous that water will not stand on
it for a moment. It is very easily tilled, and from its great depth
is very productive.
I subjoin for farther comparison, the analysis of a specimen of
river deposit taken in the shallow water of the Southwest Pass of
the Mississippi river, three miles below the Head of the Passes, at
extreme low water. Here, again, the sediments of 1, 2, 4™" form
the prominent landmarks, as in the two other river deposit soils, in
which the clay and finest silts seem to be the chief variables.
* MisB. Bep.| 1800, p. 814.
76 A. MATHEMATICS, PUTSICS AND CHEMISTRT.
Having thus established, presumably, the normal composition
of the river alluvium proper, I add, for farther comparison, the
analysis of material from a stratified mudlump cone, which greatly
resembles in aspect the river deposit. The point to be determined
is whether this cone represents an upheaved mass of river deposit,
or the mud ejected from a mudlump crater* — an eruption cone.
The result seems to point to the latter as the more probable origin
of the mass, as it presents but little similarity to the recognized
river deposits, in the proportions of its sediments.
In discussing the results of these analyses, I first recall to mind
the practical object primarily intended to be subserved by them,
viz., to convey to any intelligent mind, anywhere in the world, a
definite idea of the physical qualities of the soil ; of its tillability,
so to speak ; of its behavior in wet and dry seasons ; its liability
to washing, etc. If the data given in the table do not at present
convey such definite knowledge to the minds of this audience, it is
because the molecular properties of the several sediments are not
yet fully known, nor generally understood. But there can be
little difficulty in the empirical determination of these factors,
once for all, so far as they refer to the pulverulent minerals,
whose physical properties are sensibly dependent upon the size
of the particles alone ; the diflferences of specific gravity, etc.,
being ordinarily too slight to infiucnce materially their modifying
infiuence upon the clay, or upon each other. To this rule mica and
bog ore form, probably, the only practically important exceptions.
As regards the modifying effect upon the extreme plastic prop-
erties of the clay, the pulverulent ingredients obviously divide into
two chief classes, viz. —
1. The coarse portion, which increases the "lightness" and
porosity of.the soil, sensibly in proportion to its percentage.
2. The fine portion, which, while modifying the plastic prop-
erties of the clay, yet renders the soil heavier in tillage than
would be the case if it were absent, and the clay adherent to the
coarse particles alone.
Soils consisting mainly of very fine siliceous silt, with only a
small percentage of clay, are among the very heaviest, working
"like putty," clogging the plough when in the least degree too
wet, and in drying, caking into clods of " hardpan."
* See my paper on the Geology of the Delta, and the Mudlumps of the PasBes of the
Mississippi, Am. Jour. Sc\.| April, May and June, 1871.
A. MATHEMATICS, PHTSICS AND CHEMISTRT. 77
Such being the case, it would seem that between the coarse
part which lightens soils, and the fine silts which, like clay, render
them heavier, there must be a neutral point — a degree of fineness
which will not sensiblj' influence either the porosity or the com-
pactness of the soil. Odd as this conclusion appears, it seems
nevertheless to be borne out by experience.
In lingering the coarser silts, it at once becomes obvious that
nothing above 1™" hydr. value can tend to render a soil heavier ;
while it is equally manifest that the impalpable particles belonging
to the velocity of 0*25™™ cannot teijd to lighten. In searching
tentatively', by the summation of groups of physical ingredients,
for numbers that would satisfactorily express the estimated rela-
tive resistances to tillage of the soil analyzed, I found that such
numbers would result from a summation of the three items lowest
in the column, viz., the silts of 0*25, <0-25, and clay. These are
given under the head of "Compactness" or "Resistance to
Tillage."
Similarly, numbers satisfactorily expressing the relative *' Open-
ness" result from the summation of the coarser ingredients, down
to I"'" inclusive. These numbers are given opposite to the head-
ing " Porosity."
But either series becomes quite unsatisfactory, so soon as the
silt corresponding toO'S""* is added either way ; except, of course,
where its percentage is too small to influence either sum very
seriously.
Of course these can only be approximations, it being especially
obvious that sand of 64 and 32™™ must exert a much greater in-
fluence towards rendering a soil " open," than silts of 1 or 2™" ;
which are, nevertheless, accounted for as equal in effect, in the
above summation. Yet even here, there are counterbalancing con-
siderations, which in a measure explain the comparatively close
approximation to the result of experience. Chief amongst these
is, doubtless, the circumstance that the finer materials, when damp
and stirred up (as they are in the cultivated soil), will occupy a
much greater bulk than equal weights of coarse sand ; being in
what is tecfinically termed a "woolly" condition of looseness. It
is therefore quite intelligible that, within certain limits, "coarse
silt" should exert a "lightening" influence equal to that of
"coarse sand," which is apt to pack quite closely.
It may be asked, What would be the character of a soil consist-
78 A. MATHEMATICS, PHTSICS AND CHEMI8TRT.
ing exclusively of the silt of 0-5™", claimed to be sensibly neu-
tral in its effect on the compactness and porosity of soils ? I reply
that, judging frDm the small quantities of material at my command,
such soil would offer an extremely slight resistance to tillage, and
that such resistance would be increased by the addition of either
clay or sand, in proportion to the amounts added. •
The case, however, can hardly occur in nature. The difficulties
encountered in separating the several materials in accordance
with their hydraulic values, even by the aid of apparatus espe-
cially constructed for the purpose, forcibly suggest that it is
scarcely possible that such conditions should ever be realized in
nature: the tendency to coalescence of particles necessarily
causing .all sedimentary deposits to consist of molecular aggre-
gates (at least so far as the finer portions are concerned), instead
of simple granules. These aggregates will rarely, if ever, consist
of particles of equal h3'draulic value, the natural tendency being
for small particles to fill up the interstices left between larger
ones, which cannot attain close contact between themselves alone.*
Moreover, in view of this inevitable formation of aggregates, the
molecular properties of a clay or subsoil will never correspond
exactly to the mean resulting from a mere consideration of the
molecular coefficients of each one, multiplied into its percentage.
How far this difference extends, is a question involving a previous
investigation of those coefficients.
Among the latter, that of absorption of aqueous vapor is of no
mean importance, since it determines, in a great measure, the
resistance of the soil to drought. As heretofore stated,t I find*
that at temperatures between +7 and +21®, the amount of aque-
ous vapor absorbed by a thin layer of a clay, or soil not unusually
rich in humuSj in a saturated atmosphere, is sensibly constant;
the variations being within the limits of errors of observation, and
indiscriminately either way. A glance at the data given in the
table, opposite the heading " hygroscopic moisture," shows that
while in general, as is well known, clay soils are more absorbent
than sandy ones, yet there exists no direct numerical relation be-
tween the amount of clay present, and the absorbing power. Not
.
* There is a sensible difference, in this i expect, between materials much ronnded
and water-worn, and those whose grains are Btill *' sharp." Tlie latter are mnch more
difficult to separate in the chum elutriator, and re-coalesce most pertinacioasly.
t Proc. A. A. A. S., Dubuque meeting, 1872; p. 78.
A. MATHEMATICS, PHTSICS AND CHEMISTBY. 79
only is that of the typical white pipe-clay (No. 238) scarcely
greater than that of an ordinary loam subsoil (Nos. 397 and 219),
but it is not half as great as that of the clay soil 246 (with 40 per
cent, of ''clay*') which in its turn has a higher absorptive coeffi-
cient than 196 (with 47 per cent, of clay). Finally, 230, with 25-5
per cent, of clay, is more than equal in hygroscopic power to the
pipe-clay with 75 per cent.
Evidentl}^ the hygroscopic coefficient is largely controlled by
the presence, with the clay, of the powdery ingredients which de-
termine its looseness of texture, so to speak ; moreover, the finer
silts tliemselves possess a considerable absorbing power. Again,
the presence of hydrated ferric oxid materially influences this
power ; so much so that no general conclusion concerjiiug the
hygroscopic eflfect of "clay" can be reached, tinless the amount of
iron present be taken into account. I am unable, as yet, to furnish
this datum for all the soils on the table, save as regards, for most
of them, the percentage in the original substance. That the
hydro-ferric oxid accumulates mainly in the "clay" obtained in
silt analysis, I have already stated ; and hence the percentages
given at the bottom of the table may measurably serve to form an
estimate of its influence on the hygroscopic properties. In some
cases, however, the ferric oxid obtained in analysis was almost
altogether present in the shape of bog-ore grains ; these are
placed in parentheses, it being obvious that the "white" soils, to
which these determinations belong, do not contain more than 0*5
per cent, of the oxid in the finely divided, hygroscopically effec-
tive condition. In the coarse sandy soil 248, the iron mainly
incnists the sand grains ; and in Nos. 165, 206 and 390, the pres-
ence of humus, in sensible quantities, influences the coefficient.
In the rest, the amount of humus is insignificant, and the influ-
ence of the finely divided hj^dro-ferric oxid is especially notice-
able when we compare Nos. 209 and 397 with each other; and
also Nos. 230 and 196 with 246. The clay obtained in the silt an-
alysis of No. 219 contains, according to Mr. Loughridge's determi-
nation,* 18-76 per cent, of ferric oxid, as compared with 5*60 in
the original substance ; its absorptive coefficient was 20- 0, as com-
pared with 7*21 in the original. How much of thii^ increase of
hygroscopic power was due to the concentration of the clay alone,
we can at present but conjecture ; but if we may judge by the
* See the sncceeding paper.
80 A. MATHEMATICS, PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY.
absorptive power of the pipe-clay 23B, the increase must be
largely attributed to the hydro-ferric oxid. *
The influence of ''humus" on the hygroscopic power is known
to be very great ; so also is that on the soil's porosity and resis-
tance to tillage. Unfortunately, the very indefinite character of
that substance renders it extremely difficult to determine quan-
titatively its action, and take it into account.
The questions remaining to be determined in connection with
this whole subject arc so numerous, and so little explored as yet,
that their full elucidation might well form the work of a lifetime.
Os THE Distribution op Soil Ingredients among the Sediments
Obtained in Silt Analysis. By R. H. Loughridge, of
Oxford, Miss.
In connection with the separation of soils into sediments of
definite h3'^draulic value, as accomplished by Dr. Hilgard's churn
elutriator, an interesting question arises as to the chemical com-
position of the sediments obtained.
It is evident from his results that, in the soils treated, all of the
important soil ingredients are contained in the finer sediments,
there being visibly nothing but quartz sand of diflferent diameters
remaining in the coarser ones.
Does then the "Clay" contain them all, or are they more or less
distributed among the several proximate sediments?
In the investigation of this question, use was made of the same
yellow loam upland subsoil, from Benton Co., Miss., that formed
the subject of my experiments on "Strength of Acid and Time of
Digestion." Great care was taken to obtain a complete and pure
sedimentation, distilled water being used ; and the anah^scs were
made, according to our usual method, after five days* digestion in
acid of strength 1-115.
In the following table of . results the percentages are given, first
with reference to the absolute amount of each sediment itself;
then with reference to the entire amount of soil taken for elutri-
A. MATHEMATICS, PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY.
81
ation. In the last column a summation is made of each ingre-
dient for comparison with a previous analysis of the soil, which is
placed alongside.
s
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It appears from these analyses that the "clay" is by far the
richest in mineral ingredients, the amount being more than twice
tliat of the others combined. Its insoluble residue is very small
while the soluble portion consists largely of free silica derived
from hydrous silicates of the bases.
Its volatile matter (which includes hygroscopic moisture left
after drying at 100"* C, and water of hydration) is of course the
largest ; as are also the remaining ingredients, except lime. The
A. A. A. 8. VOL. XXn.
6
82 A. MATHEMATICS, PHTSICS AND CHEMISTBT.
large amoant of soda, however, is due to the chloride used in the
precipitation of the diffhsed clay.
In the other sediments, the soluble ingredients, except soda and
lime, decrease in almost a geometrical ratio ; there being also a
corresponding increase of sand.
There are several interesting points in connection with this
ratio of decrease which may be summed up as follows.
1. The iron and alumina exist in almost identical relative pro-
portions in each sediment ; making it probable that they are in
some way definitely correlated.
2« Potash and magnesia also exist in almost the same quan-
tities, and their ratio to each other in all the sediments being al-
most constant seems to indicate that they occui* combined, perhaps
in some zeolitic silicate, which may be a source of supply to
plants.
8. Manganese exists only in the clay, a mere trace being found
in the next sediment.
4. The lime appears to be '* nowhere," having probably been
largely dissolved, in the shape of carbonate, by the large quantity
of water used in elutriation. Its increase in the coarser portions
may be owing to its existence in the crystallized form, not so
readily soluble.
In a general summation of the ingredients in the several sed-
iments and comparison with the analysis of the soil per se, there is
a loss in potash, magnesia and lime ; which may reasonably be
supposed to have been dissolved by the water of elutriation.
Some of the soluble silica clearly remains undetermined in the
coarser sediments.
The differences in ferric oxid and alumina, shown throughout
the analyses of this soil, may partly be accounted for by the une-
qual distribution of the particles of iron ore existing in the soil.
Of course the law of distribution of soil ingredients may differ
in other soils ; but the great distance from the point of derivation
of the materials, and the wide distribution of the soils of which
this is a type, probably render the above results of more than local
applicability.
a. matqematics, physics and chemistry. 83
On the Influence of Strength of Acid and Time of Digestion
IN THE Extraction of Soils. By R. H. Loughridge, of
Oxford, Miss.
The following investigation was undertaken with a view of de-
termining the extent to which the variations likely to occur in the
extraction of soils by hydrochloric acid, for the purpose of
analysis, can influence the ultimate results ; the special object
being to ascertain the comparability of the analyses made in
connection with the Agricultural Survey of Mississippi, both
amongst themselves, and with those made by similar methods,
by Dr. Peter, of soils collected by the Surveys of Kentuckj'^ and
Arkansas.
In beginning the analyses of Mississippi soils in 1858, Dr.
Hilgard adopted the following method, which has also been adhered
to by his successors in this work, in over two hundred analyses
made.
The soil {%. e. " fine earth ") is pulverized with a wooden pestle
and thoroughly mixed. The hygroscopic moisture is determined,
after exposing it in a space saturated with vapor, in a laj^er not
exceeding 1"" in thickness, for twelve hours, by drying at 200® C.
in a parafflne baih. Of this dried substance from two to three
grams are usually used in the general analysis, the methods em-
ployed being in general those adopted by Dr. Peter.* In another
portion, after ignition, the phosphoric acid is determined by diges-
tion for five days with nitric acid at lOO"* C, evaporation, pre-
cipitation by ammonium molybdate, digestion at 100,° solution in
ammonia and precipitation by magnesium sulphate.
For general analysis the soil is digested in hydrochloric acid
of strength 1*115 (as a rule) at 100.° It is then evaporated to
complete dryness, this adding another day to the digestion.
In the insoluble residue the soluble silica is determined by
boiling with sodic carbonate. The alumina and ferric oxid are
precipitated according to Rose's method of boiling, for the com-
plete separation of manganese, magnesium and calcium. The
mixed precipitate is treated with potassic hydrate.
After precipitation of the lime by ammonic oxalate, the am-
moniacal salts are destroyed by Lawrence Smith's method, with
aqua regia ; and the residue converted into nitrates, from which
*Ky. Beport, vol. Ui.
84 A. MATHEMATICS, PHT6ICS AND CHEMISTRY.
sulphuric acid is precipitated by barium nitrate. The alkalies
are then separated by treatment with oxalic acid, ignition and
washing, hi the residue, barium, manganese and magnesia are
separated as usual.
With the aid of a Bunsen's filtering apparatus we can, by this
method, complete an analysis in five days exclusive of digestion ;
and three analyses may be in progress at the same time.
The substance experimented upon was a subsoil, a typical rep-
resentative of the best yellow loam uplands of Mississippi, from
the table lands of Benton Co., Miss. ; No. 219 of the Survey
Collection.*
To determine the question as to whether such variations in the
strength of the acid, as might possibly have occurred in the use
of the steam-distilled {i. e, from a retort surrounded by steam)
product, without previously ascertaining its concentration, portions
of the subsoil wene digested five days with hydrochloric acid of the
strength, severally, of 1*100, 1*115 (the normal concentration)
and 1*160.
As to the time during which the soil must be digested in hy-
drochloric acid that the (sensible) limit of its solvent action upon
the important soil ingredients may be reached. Dr. Peter's prac-
tice has been to digest for about ten days, in his 800 analyses of
Kentucky and Arkansas soils ; while for reasons of convenience,
half that time has been adopted in the analyses of the Mississippi
Survey. The question whether under these circumstances, the
two series can be deemed comparable, was approached by diges-
tions for periods of one, three, four, five and ten days, of the same
soil with the same large excess of acid of 1*115 ; all precautions
being taken to accomplish each analysis as nearly as possible
under the same circumstances.
For the digestions, use was made of porcelain beakers (the use
of glass being objectionable because of its solubility) ; the same
amounts (40'^'^°*) of acid were used, and steam kept up about
twelve hours each day.
The hour of "putting down" was carefullj' noted, and at the
end of the allotted time the solution was poured off from the in-
soluble residue, and each evaporated to dryness separately and
reunited in solution, to prevent any further action of the acid.
* The AnalysU of the subsoil of a neighboring tract is giyen In Hilgard's Report,
1860, p. 282.
A. MATHEMATICS, PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRT.
85
The results of the investigation as to strength of acid are as
follows : —
INGREDIENTS.
Insoluble Residue
Soluble Silica . .
Potash
Soda
Lime
Ma^esia ....
Br. Ox. Manganese
Ferric Oxid . . .
Alumina ....
Snlphoric Acid
YolatUe Matter .
Amt. of Soluble Matter
Amt. of Soluble Baaes .
8F. O. OF AXJ
1.10
1.115
71.88
70.53
11.38
12.30
.60
.63
.13
.00
.27
.27
.45
.45
.06
.06
5.15
5.11
6.84
8.09
.02
.02
3.14
8.14
100.02'
100.69
24.00
27.02
13.50
14.70
1.160
74.15
9.42
.48
.35
.«J
.45
.06
5.04
6.22
.02
3.14
99.29
22.27
12.83
^t thus appears that in the strongest acid the amount of iusol-
^We residue is far greater than in either of the others, and that
*be difference lies chiefly in the soluble silica and alumina {i. e,
clay), together with potash and lime. The other ingredients seem
to be indifferent as to the strength of the acid.
Betv¥een the acids of strength 1-10 and 1'115 the difference is
not so great, but the advantage is clearly with the latter, the
amounts of silica, potash and alumina being greater, while the
lime remains the same in both.
This result points to the conclusion, that while lime and mag-
nesia (being readil}' dissolved) are probably present chiefly as
carbonates or hj'drocarbonates : potash as well as alumina, and
to some extent lime, are present as silicates, and for that reason
are not as fully extracted by acid of low strength as b}" that of
1-115 ; although the former acts more powerfully than that of
1-160.
The latter fact (the coincident result of two analyses) , though
86. A. MATHEliATICS, PHTSICS AND CHEMI8TBT.
unlocked for, is not without analogies, although its precise cause,
in this case, still requires elucidation. Whether the maximum of
action is exerted by acid of 1*115 is another question of some
interest, to be determined hereafter.
As for the comparability of the analyses as aflfected by the prob-
able variations of strength of acid, I remark that the acid used
for distillation by Dr. Peter, as Dr. Hilgard informs me, was the
"C. P." of commerce, whose strength rarely much exceeds or
falls below that of 1'115 ; while that used by us was usually the
crude, diluted nearly to the same strength. The first and last
portions coming over were habitually, I believe, rejected in either
laboratory. Under these circumstances, it is very improbable
that either of the .extremes of sp. gr., above discussed, ever
actually occurred ; especially as regards the stronger acid, which
being in small quantity, would always be mixed with the succeed-
ing weaker distillates.
It is therefore not probable that the percentage of potash, or
other important ingredients, could have been so far underestimated
in either of the series of analyses, as seriously to influence their
comparability, either within themselves, or with each other.
The experiments on the influence of the time of digestion, made
with acid of 1*115, resulted as shown in the table opposite.
It appears that the amount of dissolved ingredients increases
up to the fifth day, the increase becoming, however, very slow as
that limit is approached. It is also found that the ingredients of-
fering the greatest resistance to this action are the same as those
whose amounts were sensibly affected by the strength of acid,
viz., silica, potash and alumina.*
In regard to lime and magnesia, one day's digestion not being
suflScient for full extraction, it is evident that they do not exist in
the soil as carbonates or hydric oxides only, as has been supposed ;
but also as silicates.
A comparison of the results of the five and ten day digestions
shows that the solvent action of the acid has substantially ceased,
there being no farther increase of the amount of dissolved matter.
* There is an apparent loss of alumina in Uie 4 days* digestion, owing to the lack of a
second separation from iron, whose quaatitj is correspondlnglj increased.
▲. MATHEMATICS, PHYSICS AND CHEMI8TBT.
87
So far, therefore, as the time of digestion is concerned, the anal-
yses of the Mississippi Survey are strictly comparable with those
of Arkansas and Kentucky soils, made by Dr. Peter.
INGREDIBNTS.
1
No. OF DATS Dig
8 4
ESTED.
5
10
Insoluble Besidae . . .
76.97
72.66
71.86
70.53
71.79
Soluble Silica . . . .
8.80
11.18
11.64
12.30
10.96
Potaah
.35
.44
.67
.63
.62
Soda
.06
.06
.03
.09
.28
Lime
.26
.29
.28
.27
.27
Magnesia
.42
.44
.47
.45
.44
Br. Ox. Manganese . .
.04
.06
.06
06
.06
Ferric Oxid
4.77
5.01
6.43
5.11
4.85
Alumina
5.15
7.38
7.07
7.88
7.16
Phosphoric Acid . . .
.21
.21
Snlpharic Add . . . .
.02
.02
.02
.02
.02
Volatile Matter . . . .
3.14
8.14
• 8.14
3.14
3.14
TOTAL
99.68
100.68
100.55
100.69
99.80
Amount of Soluble Matter
10.67
24.88
25.57
27.02
24.87
" " " Bases.
11.06
13.68
13.91
•
14.49
13.68
88 A. MATHEMATICS, PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY.
Remarks on Glass-making. By Lewis Feuchtwanger, of New
York, N. Y.
Considering the incalculable benefits which the discovery of
glass has rendered to mankind, not alone for purposes of daily life
as an article of domestic use but, I may say, for more important
and higher objects, as by the knowledge of glass and its applica-
tions the most accurate observations and experiments in astronomy,
natural philosophy, chemistry and physiology have been performed,
we have nevertheless been very slow in keeping pace with the dis-
coveries and improvements in other kindred arts and sciences.
"While Pliny and Strabo gave at an earl}' period very accurate
accounts of the glass manufacture in Alexandria and even the
Portland vase, which w^s the most beautiful specimen of colored
antique glass and was found in a marble sarcophagus, within the
tomb of Alexander Severus, who died in the year 285 ; we have
only the full description of the art of glass-making fh)m Agricola
in 1550, and have the information of the first glass-house in Eng- .
land in the year 1557 and that in Sweden in 1641 ; still very few
improvements have been brought to light ; the same furnaces, the
same tools, the same materials and the same glory-hole have
been to this day retained these 320 years ; if we except the applica-
tion of Siemen's Furnaces, which are intended to save the heat of
the gas, which is not taken up in the reduction of the glass mate-
rials, while the chamber under each end of the furnace is so arranged
that the outer one receives the air and the middle one mixes and
ignites air and gas, whereby the heat is saved at a very great per-
centage so as to calculate one pound of glass from one pound of
coal.
The discovery of LeBlanc in 1792, which is the conversion of
common salt into carbonate of soda, is another improvement of
the eighteenth century. The application of glass for optical pur-
poses such as microscopes, telescopes, cameras, etc., has for fifty
years past occupied the unceasing attention of the greatest phil-
osophers of the nineteenth century without fully overcoming the
many obstacles ; it arises from the power which glass possesses of
refracting light or turning it aside from its original direction ; the
property of decomposing white light and giving rise to colors ; for
an instrument constructed with lead glass lenses will produce an
A. MATHEMATICS, PHYSICS AMD CHEMISTRT.
89
image of the heavenly bodies or of microscopic objects with a colored
margin, which will preclude the possibility of accurate observation.
The experiments of Faraday, Frauenhofer, Utzschneider, Guinand
and Bontemps have been met with many diflSculties in producing
an achromatic lens, for the simple reason that the refractory power
depends upon the different density of materials, and a want of uni-
formity in the refractive power of the glass in different parts of
the mass, and whenever a denser layer of glass comes in contact ,
with one of less dense matter a streak is produced which will oc-
casion distorted images.
In 1827, while a student in Jena, I assisted my teacher, Koerner,
in numerous experiments of glass-making, principally for obtaining
achromatic glass of uniform density, by the use of caustic baryta,
borax, and silex, all materials very carefully prepared for the fur-
nace, keeping the mixture in fusion for six days and allowing it to
cool slowly for six days more before removing the pot, and then to
break the same so as to use the lowest part of the mass for cutting
up into lenses ; we succeeded but partially. Faraday's report in
1830 speaks of his borosilicate of lead which yielded him a heavy
glass of 5-4 specific gravity with a low dispersive power ; still it
did not prove useful for optical purposes and was altogether unfit
for the desired object.
In order to obtain an achromatic glass of a fair standard, the
mandfacturers have of late years resorted to the expedient of com-
bining one kind of glass, which is called crown glass, and composed
of silex, potash and lime, with another glass called fiint glass,
which contains an addition of sixty per cent, of oxide of lead,
a combination which would be satisfactory as regards the refracting
power, but the difference of specific gravity through the whole
mass has again produced the obstacle ; this had to be overcome by
uniting numerous and small selected masses of glass of well ascer-
tained gravity which must be quite uniform, into one large mass,
while still plastic by pressure. It is clearly shown that flint glass
decomposes light more distinctly, as regards the refracting power,
than crown glass, which contains no lead ; and by employing a con-
cave lens of lead glass and a convex lens of crown glass, when
combined their respective effects upon light will compensate each
other in consequence of the forces of the compound lens.
Now all these remarks prove how deficient the art of glass-making
is to this day, both in the production of achromatic glass as well as
1
90 ▲. MATHEMATICS, PHTSICS AND CHBMISTBT.
in that of a proper and uniform composition. The glass-maker has
not yet appreciated the atomic theory, which would teach him that
certain equivalents are necessary for the production of uniform
mass ; he is behind the art of steel manufacture, for which the spec-
trum gives him the sign when his ingredients are chemically com-
bined.
Description op a Printing Thermometer. By G. W. Hough, of
Albany, New York.
During the past quarter of a century numerous mechanisms
have been constructed for recording automatically the fluctuations
of temperature. The machines heretofore used for this purpose
may be divided into three classes : —
First, — Records made by a metallic thermometer by using either
a single wire or a combination of rods.
Second, — ^The application of photography, by means of which
the height of the mercury in the thermometer tube is photographed
in the form of a continuous curve.
Third, — Records made at definite intervals from a mercury ther-
mometer by the use of electro-magnetism.
The first method is capable of giving approximate results.
There are, however, serious objections to its use, the most impor-
tant of which is the impossibility of making a piece of metal sub-
jected to any work maintain its zero of length. To illustrate : — if
a rod of brass or steel be made to support a weight, viz., ten
pounds and at the same time be subjected to heat and cold, for a
short time, the length of the bar at a given temperature will not
be the same as previous to the experiment, consequently metallic
thermometers will not maintain a fixed zero ; a fact observed by
many meteorologists.
Another objection to the method of mechanical registration is
that when a machine is made to do work, its indications are not
always the same. The force required to make a legible mark se-
riously interferes with the accuracy of its results.
Of the second method, by means of photography, it may only
A. MATHEMATICS, PHTSICS AND CHEMISTBT. dl
be necessary to state that the amount of attention required in the
preparation of the paper, the developing of the photographs and
the measuring up of the records, precludes the possibility of its
general use by meteorologists. The records also are often indis-
tinct, and the curve is never sharp, showing that all minute fluc-
tuations are lost.
Of the third form of instruments, when the record is made at
definite intervals by means of electro-magnetism, the zero of the
thermometer, if of mercury, will remain fixed and the records will
be correct within certain determinate limits. The only objection
is, that changes occurring between the intervals of recording are
^ot shown ; with this exception, the method may be regarded for *
general use as superior to those before mentioned. A thermom-
eter constructed on this plan has been in operation at the Dudley
Observatory for the past three years. But the labor required for
converting the curve into numerical results was so great, that it
was decided to construct a machine that would give the height of
the thermometer hourly, printed with tj'pe.
The thermometer which we have adopted, consists of a glass tube
bent in the form of a siphon, the closed leg of which is filled with
alcohol and the open one with, mercury. On the surface of the
mercury in the open end, there rests an ivory float suspended from
a delicate balance, having platinum wires attached to each end of
the lever ; when the column of mercury in the thermometer tube
rises or falls from the effect of temperature, the platinum wires dip
in small mercury cups placed underneath them, thereby causing a
current of electricity to pass through one of two electro-magnets
operating mechanism for giving motion to a fine micrometer screw.
The motion of this screw elevates or lowers the carriage supporting
the balance, thereby breaking the circuit.
Whenever a change of temperature equal to one-tenth of a de-
gree Fahrenheit occurs, the magnetic circuit is completed and the
screw is moved a space equivalent to the change in the height of
the mercury in the thermometer. By this method, which is the
same in principle as our printing barometer described in 1866, no
work is required to be done by the thermometer, with the excep-
tion of supporting one-half the weight of the float. The force
required to establish a magnetic current does not exceed two
grains, and when once established even this pressure on the mer-
coiy oolunm is removed.
92 A. MATHEMATICS, PHTSICS AND CHEMISTRY.
When the temperature rises or falls the screw follows its motioD,
at the same time the clock-work moves the type wheels, indi-
cating the temperature, which is printed at the end of each hour
on a slip of paper moving in front of them. A pencil held
against a revolving drum also records a continuous curve, ex-
hibiting at a glance the height of the thermometer.
The machine gives the temperature to tenths of degrees ; the
probable error of an impression being about two-tenths of a degree
Fahrenheit. The clock-work and printing mechanism are placed
Inside the building ; the thermometer and can-iage only being out-
side. The connection between them is made by a fine wire running
over two pulleys and attached to the micrometer screw and balance.
Description op an Automatic Registering and Printing Evap-
orator AND Rain Gauge. By G. W. Hough, of Albany,
New York.
One of the most important elements in the study of meteoro-
logical phenomena has heretofore been too much neglected. We
refer to the evaporation continually taking place on the earth's
surface.
But comparatively few observations have been made to determine
the atnount of water evaporated at different places and for differ-
ent conditions of the surface. Engineers, in estimating the water
supply for cities, have, until perhaps quite recently, based their
estimates entirely on the amount of rainfall, a very fallacious
method, since it will be apparent to any one, on reficction, that
for two localities of equal area and similar surface, the one covered
with forest and the other exposing the ground uncovered, the
amount of water which can be utilized will be much greater in the
former case than in the latter. What ought to be ascertained,
therefore, with the greatest precision possible, is the amount of
the evaporation in forests and in the open country, as well as for
different conditions of the soil.
Although the rainfall has not sensibly changed in amount since
the first settlement of this continent, yet it is well known that the
A. MATHEMATICS, PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY. 93
volume of water in the brooks and small streams has greatly di-
minished. One need only make a Journey through the older states
and notice the ruins of former mills to be forcibly reminded of the
fact. We recall to mind a number of instances of brooks, which
in our boyhood were considerable streams for the whole season,
and are now entirely dry during the greater part of the year.
The anaount of water annually reaching the ocean through our
great rivers may not have sensibly diminished, yet owing to the
gradual removal of the forests they become more and more subject
to excessive fluctuations in volume, owing to the ease with which
the rain-water, falling on an uncovered surface, reaches their chan-
nels.
The agricultural condition of the country, too, depends largely
on the amount of evaporation. A record of the rainfall alone is
not sufficient to determine whether the conditions for agriculture
were favorable or otherwise. It is onl}'^ when the two elements,
rainfall and evaporation, are considered together, that correct con-
clusions can be reached.
The importance of the subject led us to devise a mechanism for
recording continuously, in the form of a curve, the amount of
rainfall and evaporation, and for printing hourly, to the one five-
hundredth of an inch, the same quantities.
The discussion of such records would enable us to determine
the diurnal variation of these elements, heretofore but approxi-
mately known.
In order to record the fall of snow, and the evaporation from
snow or ice in the winter season, without changing the apparatus
or mode of registration, it was decided to record by weight instead
of volume, as is usually the practice.
The apparatus consists of a vessel two feet square and one foot
deep, suspended by means of one or more levers, and held in equi-
librium by a small spring balance. The amount of change in
weight of the mass, either that due to the precipitation or evapo-
ration, will then be indicated on the balance.
It is obvious therefore, that were a pencil connected with the end
of the weighing lever, it would trace, on a suitable revolving drum,
the changes of weight. But such a crude device would not give
results sufficiently accurate for ascertaining the hourly evaporation.
If, however, in place of making the apparatus do mechanical work
directly, the lever is made to vibrate between two platinum points,
94 A. MATHEMATICS, PHTSICS AND CHEMISTRY.
whenever a change equivalent to the weight of one five-hundredth
of an inch of water takes place, it will touch one of the points,
thereby establishing a circuit through one of two electro-magnets,
operating a micrometer screw ; since the force required to complete
an electrical circuit between two plates of platinum amounts to
only a few grains, it is seen that no sensible amount of work is
required of the apparatus.
This mechanism is now in process of construction ; when com-
pleted, the vessel for holding the water will be placed on the roof
of the Physical Observatory with the recording apparatus inside ;
the connection between the two being secured by means of a small
wire cord. It will be exposed directly to the sun and wind, and
will give results from which may be determined the coefficients of
temperature, wind, moisture, etc. , affecting the rate of evaporation.
The amount of evaporation from soil can be ascertained by
filling a suitable vessel with soil saturated with water, and record-
ing the weight either continuously or at definite intervals.
On the Introduction of the Metric Sistem into Medicinb and
THE Unification of Doses. By Harvey W. Wilet, of
Indianapolis, Jndiana.
In Chemistry, the basis of pharmacy, the work of introducing the
Metric System is accomplished. The first step, therefore, is already
taken, affording a stronger reason for the completion of the work.
There is certainly no great propriety in buying a kilogram of
potassic bromide, and then dealing it out to our patients in grains
and drachms. But because our physicians and druggists are used
to grains and minims, drachms and fluid ounces, these values
must be used as aids to something better*
For practical purposes we may take the gram as eqnal to
15-5 grains. It is easy thus to change grain or multiple grain
doses into the Metric scale.
Thus '1 gram is equal to a grain and a half, so that those med-
icines which are now given in from 1 to 2 grain doses might read-
ily be prescribed in doses of •! gram.
▲. MATHEMATICS, PHYSICS AND CHEMISTBT. 95
CJontinuing the comparison, we find : —
3 grains =i- '2 gram.
4-5 " = -3
6 " = -4
7-5 '' = -5
9 " = -6
10-5 " = -7
12 " = -8
13-5 " = -9
15 '' =1 " nearly.
Of course these are only given as approximate values^ and they
will aid us in estimating how many grams, or what part of a gram
of any medicine, should be administered, by a knowledge of the
number of grains which we have been in the habit of exhibiting.
After we have become familiar with the gram quantities, we need
^0 longer think of the grains ; Just as one who has a thorough
^owledge of a foreign language does not translate it into his ver-
llACuIar when reading.
In regard 1p those medicines which are administered in a liquid
form, we can make similar comparisons, subject to^ similar expla-
nations. Thus 16*2318 minims=l cubic centimetre, or 1 milli-
litre.
Practically therefore : —
4 Minims =» "25 Centimetre*
8 " « -5
12 " — -75
15 " =-1 "
((
((
((
drachm nearly — 60 drops.
20 «' — 1-25
24 " — 1-5
■
28 " ■= 1-75
32 " — 2 " = half a teaspoonM.
36 " — 2-25
40 " — 2-5
44 » — 2-75
48 " — 3
52 « — 3-25
56 « = 3-5
60 " — 3-75
64 << — 4 " — teaspoonftil — fluid
96 A. MATHEMATICS, PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY.
Let it be remembered, however, that the drop is as variable as
the old system of measures, for while about 60 drops of dilute
sulphuric acid are equal to 4cm^, it requires 120 of laudanum and
150 of ether to make the same amount. But the size of the drop
depends also upon the shape and size of the orifice through which
it comes.
These tables of comparisons might be continued to exhibit
larger or smaller quantities ; but, just as they are, they apply to the
greater number of medicines administered.
If it be objected that druggists would not know how to fill a
prescription in which grams and cm^s were employed, it is sufficient
to say that they could easily learn ; and any intelligent physician
or apothecary in half an hour could thoroughly master the Metric
System and begin to write and fill prescriptions in its symbols to
his almost unlimited advantage.
I have, however, as the principal object of this paper and the
especial purpose for which its preparation was attempted, to sub-
mit a further suggestion to the profession touching the intro-
duction of the Metric System in medicine. It is a plan for the
Unification of Doses.
Every practising physician is painfully aware of the fact that
mistakes are daily made in the compounding and division of med-
icines which frequently end in most disastrous results, and, unless
the physician himself has an extraordinary memory, it is most
difficult for him to keep in mind the proper amount, of any but
common remedies, which ought to be administered.
Especially is this true of young physicians where the memory
is not fortified by long experience. The young physician may eji-
sily make out his diagnosis and recall the remedy which is most
appropriate, but among the thousand different quantities which
constitute a dose, he cannot recall that one which belongs to the
remedy he wishes to use. He, therefore, either has to postpone
its exhibition or guess at the quantity to be given ; in either case
at a great risk. Moreover, every medical student knows that by
far the most difficult part of the Materia Medica is that which re-
lates to quantity. He can remember the source of the drug, the
method of its preparation, its therapeutic action, its compatibles
and incompatibles ; but, when he comes to the proper amount for a
dose, his memory fails him at the very point where practically he
needs it most. It therefore seems evident, that if any system can
A. MATHEMATICS, PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRT. 97
be devised by wbieb tbe great majority of remedies in common use
could be miade to bave a common quantity for a dose, tbe physician,
the apothecary and tbe patient would all be benefited.
In order that this happy pharmaceutical millennium may be
brought about, it is necessary in the first place to establish at
least two standard doses, one for solids and one for liquids.
This being done, in the second place it will be necessary to have
all Sblid substances so prepared that the standard dose will be
the average dose of that solid for the adult patient.
In like manner the liquid medicine should be prepared, so that
the standard dose would as before be the average for the adult pa-
tient.
Let us now fix these standaixl doses as follows. (This is only a
suggestion in regard to the standard doses ; it could be fixed at
any other value if found more convenient. It, however, fully illus-
trates the principle.) For a solid let the standard be '2 gram.
This is about 3 grains. Let quinine be taken as the typical solid.
It is a normal solid. By this is meant thai the standard dose, *2
gram, is the average dose for the adult patient.
A prescription for quinine would therefore read
R Quinise sulphatis, grams ij (N).
Sig. one every two hours till cinchonism is produced.
(N) signifies that the solid is normal^ i, e., the dose is -2 gram or
three grains. This signifies that the apothecary is to put the two
grams up in *2 gram powders. Therefore it is not necessary to
rewrite it on, the prescription. Suppose however the physician
should desire to prescribe powdered opium. In this case of
course tbe standard dose would be too large. It would be rather
unsafe practice to exhibit '2 gram opium to a patient unaccus-
tomed to its use. In order to meet this, and similar difilculties in
solids and liquids, all manufacturing chemists should be required
by law to make only standard mixtures and solutions or some
mnltiple of the standard. Thus powdered opium thoroughly
nibbed up with three times its weight of milk sugar, chalk or some
other comparatively inert substance would become a normal mix-
ture and should be put up in a bottle labelled (N). The physician
would therefore write
ft Opii pulveris gram j (N).
Sig. one at night before bedtime (etc.).
Morphia on the other hand should be most thoroughly tritu-
A. A. A. 8. VOL. XXn. 7
98 A. MATHEMATICS, FHT8ICS AND CHBMISTBT.
rated with seventeen times its weight of equal parts of milk sngar
and chalk, in order to form a normal mixture ; we could then
write
R Morphise sulphatis, gram, ij (N).
Sig. one every two hours till hypnotic effects are secured.
In such cases as these the salt perhaps would be better made into
a normal pill weighing *2 gram. All pills can thus be readily
reduced to the standard by proportionate variations in their in-
gredients.
In like manner it would be exceedingly easy in the decimal sys-
tem to make all mixtures of solids in such proportions as would
give the leading ingredients the average dose in the standard
dose. The case of the compound cathartic pills will illustrate the
whole series.
Thus these pills made according to the following recipe contain
precisely the same proportion of compound extract of colocynth,
calomel, jalap and gamboge, as the pill formed according to the
formula given in the "U. S. Dispensatory," but each pill will of
course be standard, t. e., contain '2 gram which is a very little less
than the ordinary pill.
R Comp. ext. colocynth, grams xij.
Ext. jalap.
Calomel, aa. grams jx.
Gamboge, grams ij.
Mix, make 160 pills.
This would give pills of the standard weight, and one of these
would be an ordinary dose for a mild laxative. Thus we see
that by means of the metric system all prescriptions for solids
may easily be made to conform to the standard dose; a thing
which would be almost impossible under the present system of
weights. Again, all substances which are given without mixture
may be made normcUy in fact can easily be made so. In case,
however, the substance is of such a nature that the standard
dose is not sufficient to produce the required effect, it shordd
be so mixed that two, or three, or four, times the st-andard dose
would be the average dose for the adult patient. It should then
be labelled (J N) (J N) (^ N) 'etc., signifjring that the dose is
twice, three times, four times, etc., etc., the standard.
On the other hand, should it be inconvenient to dilute the very
active solids, such as morphia, to the normal, let the dilation be in
A. MATHEMATICS, PHYSICS AND OHEMISTRT. 99
some multiple of the nonnal and labelled (2 N) (3 N) (4 N) etc.,
signifying in each case that the dose is one-half, one-third, one-
fourth the standard.
But tbis is, I hope, sufficient to present at least the outlines of
the proposed plan of unification as far as it applies to solids.
Let us now consider the same problem in liquid medicines.
It would be well to refer here to the table of comparison between
minims and cubic centimetres. From this it appears that the
most convenient standard dose of a liquid is 4cm.^ equivalent to
64 minims nearly, or one fluid drachm, or a teaspoonful. Let us
take this then as a standard dose. The bottles in which medicines
are given out could be furnished with glass stoppers hollowed out
with a cup-shaped cavity measured to hold 4cm.^ Teaspoons are so
variable in size that they are not always to be depended on to
measure a dose. Of course as in the case of solids the manufac-
turing chemist should be required by law to put up only standard
solutions or some multiple of that standard.
Nothing would be more easy than this and it is but right that
the profession should be protected fVom the cupidity of manufac-
turers which leads them often to dilute officinal preparations.
The government should appoint an inspector who should see that
every liquid medicine exposed for sale is normal, i. e., that a dose
of 4cm.^ contains the average dose of the active principle in the
liquid for the adult patient. Li the case of laudanum, for instance,
it is well known that when the crude opium is high the tincture is
weak so that the physician is safe in prescribing twice as many
drops when opium is twenty dollars per pound as he does when
it is ten. Let us suppose, however, that we have some laudanum
of ordinary strength of which 16 minims contains 1 grain of
opium.
How now are we to standardize this solution in order to apply
the principle pf unification? The standard dose which we have
assumed is 4cm.^ or about 64 minims. Hence if we dilute the
laudanum with 4 times its bulk of water or mint water the solu-
tion becomes normal and then we may write
R Tine, opii 1 decilitre (100cm.«) (N).
Sig. 4cm.' (a teaspoonful) before bedtime or until soporific eflTects
are produced.
Here 4cm.' represents 1 grain of the crude opium or nearly so.
Again, the common officinal aromatic dilute sulphuric acid, diluted
100 ▲. MATHEMATICS, PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY.
with six times its bulk of water or mint water becomes normal
and we write
R Sulph. acid dil. aromat. decilitre j (N).
Sig. dose every three hours.
(N) signifies always that 4cm.' is the dose for the adult patient.
Should it be desirable to administer quinine with the above acid
the prescription can be varied thus,
R Aromat. sulph. acid, decilitre j (N),
Quinife sulphatis, grams v,
*Mix. Sig. dose every two hours until cinchonism is produoed.
Since the five grains of quinine dissolved in the acid would not in-
crease its bulk appreciably, this increase is practically neglected
(1 decilitre is 3^ fluid ounces nearly). Again, the ordinary dilute
phosphoric acid by the addition of one-half its bulk of water or
mint water becomes normal and, as before, we write
ft Phos. acid, dil. decilitre j.(N).
Sig. every four hours.
Or if it be desirable to give strychnia in the phosphoric acid,
R Phos. acid, dil. decilitre j (N),
Strychnia, '04 grm..
Mix. Sig. every four hours.
We thus administer about ^ gr. strychnine at each dose, etc.
It is not worth while to multiply examples. I hope that I have
made my idea clear ; that at least this paper may direct the mind
of the profession to the merits of the metric system which is certain
sooner or later to reform the nomenclature of remedial quantities.
If it be urged in objection to the foregoing suggestions that there
would be great difficulty in making and keeping these normal so-
lutions, it will be sufficient in reply to call attention to the fact of
their very general introduction into the science of quantitative chem-
ical analysis within the last few years. The analyst has found his
work greatly lessened and calculations simplified by their use. I
can safely affirm that every^ practical analyst who has ever made
use of these normal solutions will cheerfully bear witness to the
beauty and simplicity of the modes of analysis into which tbey
enter. With a burette, a pipette and litre flask it is possible to
make analyses which would require by the gravimetric method
extensive and costly apparatus. I can easily see how in like
degree the physician and apothecary would be benefited by the
of normal remedies, and the consequent unification of doses.
A. MATHEMATICS, PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY. 101
Another objection, which it is well to anticipate, will be urged
against the normal remedies when it is desirable that several of
them be exhibited together. As each one of the constituents of
the mixture requires a dose of 4cm^, or '2 gram, it may be said that
foar or five of them together would inflict upon the patient a dose
of enormous proportions ; but in the case of mixtures it does not
follow at all that each ingredient of the compound must furnish
its standard dose to the general dose. On the contrary, it is quite
possible that a standard dose of the compound containing one-
half, 6ne-third, or one-fourth, etc., the standard of each ingredient,
according to the whole number entering into the mixture, would
be the proper amount to be given at once. To the thoughtful and
competent practitioner it will not seem extravagant to say that a
prescription containing half a dozen or more ingredients serves
oftener to show the egotism and pedantry of the doctor and to
bother the druggist than to benefit the patient.
When however it becomes necessary, as is often the case, that
remedies be exhibited together, they may easily be prepared from
the standard mixture and normal solutions, and the dose regulated
accordingly.
If, for instance, it were desirable to administer balsam of tolu,
laudanum and syrup of squills together, the prescription could be
made as follows —
R Balsam Tolu (N),
Laudanum ^^
Syrup of Squills " aa ^ decilitre.
Sig. every four hours.
The same reasoning will apply in the case of solids, so that the
whole subject of mixtures becomes a simple problem of ratios,
which can be altered at pleasure. In the above mixture the pro-
portion of either ingredient could be changed, taking care only
that the whole should amount to a decilitre.
Bat finally it may be said that the druggist should keep not
only the normal drugs, but also keep them in their ordinary
forms. The physician could then have his mixtures made by the
apothecary as in the case of strychnine and morphine already
given, only taking care that the medicines when finally ready
should be of such a constitution as to be given in the standard
dose. In the case of children or very weak patients where the
standard dose is too large, it will only be necessary to write after
102 ▲. MATHEMATICS, PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRT.
the (N) at the end of the prescription a fraction denoting what
part of the standard dose is to be given. Thas, R Laadanum
(N)tV or i\y(N) would show that only one-tenth of the standard
dose was to be given. In the case of solids J(N) would direct the
druggist to put up in *1 gram doses, etc. With the proposed
changes unifying the doses of medicine it would be almost im-
possible for forgetful or careless nurses to disregard the directions
of the physicians. By the present system where often three or
four different remedies are administered from different bottles
during a single day, it is not at all strange that the nurse should
become confused and do everything wrong. Every one can see
how the possibility of such mistakes would be removed by the
Unification of Doses.
Ctclonism and Antictclonism. By Pliny Eable Chase, of
Philadelphia, Penn.
By cyclonism, I mean that the current of air at the point of
observation is cyclonic, or curves towards the left ; by anticyclo-
nism, that it curves towards the right. By a cyclonic or anti«
cyclonic storm, I mean a region of precipitation where cyclonism
or anticyclonism, as here defined, exists.
Of course in a typical Espy-storm, modified by the earth's rota-
tion, there is cyclonism toward the centre, and anticyclonism
toward the circumference. But such a storm can never occur
until there has been precipitation enough to produce a local, par-
tial vacuum, and consequent indraught. It is desirable, in weather
forecasts, to anticipate, if possible, the formation of the storm cen-
tres on the probable lines of prospective precipitation.
Such lines, which are more common than simple centres, may be.
' straight, cyclonic, anticyclonic, or mixed, according as the origi-
nating pressure is direct, or modified by rotation in flowing toward
a centre, from a centre, or in the areas of conflicting vortices ; the
vortices being either both cyclonic, both anticyclonic, or one cy-
clonic and the other anticyclonic.
▲. ICAXHEMATICS, PHYSICS AND GHEMISTBT.
103
The weather maps of the Signal Service Bureau show that a
large proportion of the American rainfalls and snow-storms move
80 nearly in straight lines, that it is difficult to classify them as
either cyclonic or anticyclonic.
One of the best illustrations I have seen of synchronous cy-
clonic and anticyclonic storms is afforded by the following obser-
Tations, taken from the morning map for March 22, 1872 : —
Stations.
Nashville.
Cairo.
St. Louis.
Keokuk.
Davenport.
Milwaukee.
Escanaba.
Marquette.
Duluth.
Memphis.
Shreveport.
Vicksburg.
The storm was therefore anticyclonic at Nashville, Cairo, St.
Louis, Keokuk, Davenport, with two cyclonic branches ; one pass-
ing through Milwaukee, Escanaba, Marquette and Duluth, the
other, through Memphis, Shreveport and Vicksburg. A slight
new centre of pressure was formed by the meeting of vortices
near Davenport.
The frequency of anticyclonism appears to be
Wind.
Weather.
Barometer.
E.
Snow.
30-32
S.E.
((
30-22
((
((
30-11
S.
((
30-05
((
((
30-14
s.w.
Cloud.
30-10
0.
Snow.
30-09
S.E.
((
No report.
N.E.
((
29-76
E.
((
30-19
N.W.
Bain.
30-04
E.
((
30-01
Greatest in fair weather.
" winter.
" snow-storms,
near highlands,
in upper currents.
(4
({
((
44
Least in storms.
*' summer.
" showers.
" near water.
in lower currents.
" cities.
(4
44
4(
" " the country. "
Greatest near anticyc. streams. Least near cyclonic streams.
From a careful examination of thirty-eight thousand, five hun-
dred and eighty-two observations, extending over a period of two
years, from July 16, 1871 , to July 15, 1873, both inclusive, I have
deduced the following comparative tables of cyclonism (C), doubt
(D) and anticyclonism (A), in each season of the year : —
104
A. MATHEMATICS, PHTSICS AND CHEMISTBT.
Fair.
Cloud.
Rain.
Snow.
C.
._ _ . ^
D. A.
C. D.
A.
T
c.
D.
A.
C.
D.
— ■»
A.
Spring . . .
1194
2371 2298
1017 1416
851
273
234
98
124
144
51
Summer . .
1447
2679 2406
909 975
607
177
160
48
,
Autumn . .
lOlS
2433 2009
966 1221
794
228
215
97
57
50
19
Winter . .
846
2893 1597
1185 1765
1108
155
178
74
257
277
158
Tear . . .
4S29
9876 8310
^1067 6876
8300
833
782
317
438
471
223
The percentages of cyclonism and anticyclonism are given in
the following table : —
spring ,
Summer
Autumn
Winter
Year .
Fair.
Cloud.
Bain.
Snow.
C. A.
C. A.
C. A.
C. A.
84 66
54 46
74 26
71 29
88 62
60 40
79 21
34 66
55 45
70 30
75 25
35 65
52 48
68 32
63 8r
85 65
55 45
72 28
66 34
Total.
. The uniformity of the total ratios and their accordance with the
general prevalence of anticyclonism, which was shown by Coffin's
'^ Results of Meteorological Observations," seem to indicate the
approximate accuracy of the detailed estimates. The amounts of
cyclonism in fair weather, and of anticyclonism in cloudy and
stormy weather, appear to be much greater than meteorologists
have generally supposed.
A. MATHEMATICS, PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY. . 105
A Chord op " Spheral Music." By Pliny Earle Chase, of
Philadelphia, Penn.
In various communications to the American Philosophical Soci-
ety, I have pointed out simple harmonic relations between planet-
ary distances, which seem to indicate a tendency to cosmical
aggregation at harmonic nodes, in a vibrating elastic medium.
In a paper, read on the second of May last, I introduced the har-
monic series, J, -^^ /j, /^, ^4, of which the unit is the earth's
mean radius vector. Finding representatives for the other terms,
I stated that the term ^ represents '^ a possible unknown planet,
planetoid group, or other seat of solar and planetary perturbation."
By Kepler's law the cyclical period of such a perturbation would be
about 51 days. I also suggested that Wolfs sun-spot period of
27 days "might be readily explained by the perturbations and
transits of a planetoid or meteoric group, at a distance which
would complete the terrestrial harmonic series."
Professor Winlock kindly allowed me to examine the measure-
ments of the sun's spotted area, at the observatory of Harvard
University. They indicated such a periodicity as I was looking
for, but as the observations covered a period of less than five
months, I did not regard them as conclusive.
I subsequently found in "Nature," of July 17th, an abstract of
a communication to the Royal Society on June 19th by Messrs. De
La Rue, Stewart and Loewy, who find evidences of a tendency in
son-spots "to change alternately from the north, or positive, to
the south, or negative, hemisphere and vice versa" and ^Hhat the
tvoo outbreaks are at opposite ends of the same solar diameter"
Their inferences are drawn from observations taken in three
different years and covering an aggregate period of 407 days.
Their lowest approximate estimate of the mean interval be-
tween two maxima in the same solar hemisphere is 22*25 days ;
the highest, 28 days; "the most probable mean value, 25*2
days." The interval between two maxima of the same sign and
originating at the same axial extremity would, of course, be twice
as great.
Herschel (following Bianchi and Laugier), Sporer, Carrington
and Faye, give estimates of the sun's sidereal rotations varying
between 24*62 and 25*33 days. The evidence, therefore, seems
conclusive, both of a cycle due to solar rotation, and of another,
106 A. MATHEMATICS, PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY.
dae to some disturbing influence which revolves around the sun in
a period approximately equivalent to two rotations.
The half-periods, being all m^de sidereal, and the corresponding
mean distances, compare as follows : —
Days.
Distance.
Sporer,
24-62
•263
Carrington, . . . .
24-97
-265
Faye,
25-07
•266
Wolf,
25-14
•267
De La Rue, Stewart and Loewy,
25-20
•267
Herschel, Bianchi and Laugier, .
25-32
•268
Harmonic prediction, .
25-51
•269
A Stroke of Lightning, with Hints as to Immunity. By James
Hyatt, of Stanfordville, N. Y.
The house of Mrs. Hallock, in Dutchess County, N. Y., was last
summer ^'struck" by lightning, notwithstanding that each of some
half dozen chimneys (all there were) had a branch rod attached,
connecting with rods along the ridge and descending by three
separate mains into the ground. Fortunately but little damage
was done, some short bits of clapboard were cast off and a few
splinters; but there was a vast amount of fright, and some of
the inmates narrowly escaped with their lives.
Under the house is a well, connected by a large lead pipe with
the pump in the kitchen. About five feet from this pump was the
kitchen stove, with the usual iron funnel leading into a chimney,
on which was one of the branching rods.
The son, then at home, an intelligent young man, was standing
a foot or two only, aside from a direct line between the stove and
the pump aforesaid, and a '^farm hand" was near by. At the
instant of the electric coup^ this son was overthrown by the mere
physical force of the discharge, though entirely untouched by the
electricity. He describes the sensual impression as similar to
that of the discharge of a piece of light ordnance, with the appear-
ance before his eyes, as he expressed it, of a *4arge ball of fire."
▲. MATHEMATICS, PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY. 107
The tin leaders, which descended perpendicularly, at several of
the corners of the house, reached to within, perhaps, a foot of the
ground. This ground, on which the house stands, is a dry, grav-
elly knoll of slight elevation, say about six or eight feet above
the average level of the adjacent land. The three lightning rods
descended into this dry gravel a few feet only, being practically
insulated from the general body of water in the earth. At the
lower termination of those perpendicular tin leaders, there was
some slight splintering of the adjoining wood-work. At one place,
where the course of the electricity was across a space of a foot or
more between two of these leaders, some small nails were thrown
out from the wood-work, in which they were embedded, as was
shown by the hole which they left, which was also slightly splin-
tered.
Having been consulted with by Mr. Hallock, the father, for some
years now deceased, in reference to the protection of his house by
lightning, I advised him, by all means, to connect his rods all well
together, and to extend them, with sufficient size of metal, to the
bottom of the well. This had been neglected ; although Mr. H.
had informed his family, before his death, apparently with some
misgivings as to his failure to comply, that I had so advised him.
It was quite evident, that the main force of the electric dischai^e
had, in this case, taken its course away from the lightning rods,
across the kitchen, from the stove to the pump, and so on to the
well, as I had anticipated.
In common jf ith all students of the electric force, I consider that
no safety is to be had from the effects of lightning, but in the
perfect connection of the rods altogether, and the extension of the
conductors, for m^ny feet into the general mass of water which lies
at or below the surface of the earth.
While I do not imagine that any such extensive metallic con-
nection with the water is necessary', as one hundred square feet,
which has been spoken of as required, still it is well to err, if at
all, on the side of safety. With a protection, in addition, of every
projecting portion of the house, by means of a branch rod, I have
no doubt that a building may be about as safe from electric dis-
charges, as it is from floods, when placed on an immovable founda-
tion, above any possible rise of water.
Subsequent to the occurrence, here narrated, I personally and
carefully examined the premises. The case may be instructive.
108
A. UATHEUATICS, PHTBICS AMD CBBUISTBT.
An Attachment to the WniBLiNo Table fob fbojectino Libba-
joc's Curves. By A. E. Dolbbar, of Bethany, W. Va.
The costliness of the usual apparatus for the projection of
Lissajou's Curves baa led me to devise a method for accomplishing
the same resalts in a comparatively inexpensive way, which proves
in other ways to be superior to the method with vibrating forks.
It consists of the following attachment to the Whirling Table.
Two posts p and p' are made fast to the ^ame upon the oppo-
site sides of the inertia plate a. A small wooden pulley *, about
an inch in diameter is made to tarn upon an axis that is made fast
in the postp, and with such adjustment that the pulley rests upon
the plate a and turns by friction on that plate. It Is best to have
a thin India rubber ring upon the friction
pulley to insure it tVom slipping. Above the
pulley the mirror m is so mounted as to swing
in azimuth and is made to do this by a wire
fastened to it at its hinge and bent into a
I loop t at its lower end, which is opposite the
face of the pulley a. Another twist in the
wire at o will be needed, for a pin which is
fast iu the post p; this will make a lever of
the wire I, with the fhlcrum at o, and if it is properly fastened
to the hinge of the mirror will cause it to vibrate in a horizontal
plane when the plate a revolves.
A. MATHEMATICS, PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY. 109
A somewhat similar arrangement is made for the other side,
save that the friction pulley s' has its bearing made fast in a sep-
arate piece c, which is so fastened to the end of a long screw d that
the whole fixture can be moved to or from the centre of the plate
a. The piece c is furnished with two guides which keep it steady
in any place where it is put. The mirror m/ is made to tiit in a
perpendicular plane by an arrangement quite similar to the former
one, save that the wire connection has its lower end bent into a hori-
zontal loop through which a pin in the face of the pulley s' is
thrust. This is practically an exccntric and, being directly fastened
to the hinge of the miiTor m', gives to it an^angular motion pro-
portional to the distance of the pulley face pin from the centred
The mirrors should be not less than two inches square. If then
the pin is an eighth of an inch from the centre of the friction pul-
leys, they will have ample angular motion ; much larger than can
ever be got from forks.
Experiments.
It is evident that if the two friction pulleys have equal diameters
and they are at equal distances from the centre of the plate a, they
will vibrate in unison in their respective planes. Now let a beam
of light r, from the porte lumiere^ fall upon the mirror m at such
an angle as to be reflected first upon the mirror m\ thence to the
screen. If the plate a is now revolved the beam of light will de-
scribe a circle, an ellipse or a straight line, either of which can be
made at will by simply adjusting the crank of one of the mirrors
to the required angle. Thus, suppose the mirror m' is tipped back
its farthest by bringing the pulley pin at the top, as indicated in
the drawing, at the same time that the mirror m is at its maximum
angular deviation. The beam of light will describe a circle.
If it moves slowly the path and direction of the moving beam
can be nicely observed. These two advantages are not to be
had with forks ; for, first, it is accidental if one gets a circle or
any other desired resultant figures from forks in unison, for the
obvious reason that the phases cannot be regulated, and second,
the vibrations of the forks are so rapid that the analysis of the
motion can only be made in a mechanico-mathematical way.
By moving the fixtures on the left side toward the centre of the
plate o, the pulley s' will not revolve so fast. If moved half-way
it will make one revolution while the other makes two, and the
vibrations stand in the ratio 1 : 2 represented by forks in octave.
110 A. MATHEMATICS, PHTSICS AND CHEMISTBT.
Such ratio is shown upon the screen by a form very much like the
figure 8, and known as the lemniscate.
Between these two places, every musical ratio in the octave can
be got and the resultant motions projected in their proper curves.
More than that, while the mirrors are both vibrating^ any of the
ratios desired can be moved to at once by merely turning the
thumb screw d, which is- wholly impossible with any forks which
require stoppage and adjustment of lugs for each different curve.
Again, if the fixture c is moved still farther toward the centre
than half-way, the curves projected will be those belonging to the
second octave, until the pulley reaches three-fourths of the way,
when the ratio will be 1 : 4 and the resultant figure will be like a
much flattened double eight.
If one would show the phenomenon of beats it will be necessary
to have the mirror m and its attachment so adjusted as to have it
vibrate in a perpendicular plane like m'. This can be done by fix-
ing its hinge at right angles and the rest the same as for mirror
m'. The refiected beam from the second mirror may be received
upon a large mirror held in the hands and thence reflected upon
the wall or screen. All the phenomena of vibrations that can be
shown by forks can be reproduced on a scale that is not approached
by means of them, by any one possessing a turning table, and at
less than the fifth of their cost.
On the Convertibility op Sound into Electbicitt. By A. E.
DoLBEAB, of Bethany, W. Va.
I HAVE found by experiment that if a vibrating tuning fork
have its stem applied to the face of a thermo-electric pile, which
is in circuit with a delicate galvanometer, the needle will be de-
flected, showing that electricity has been developed in the pile.
The question is ast to its immediate origin. It may be asserted
that the vibrations of the fork are competent to develop heat,
which, in its turn, is converted into electricity, so that its appear-
ance is a secondary phenomenon. To this explanation counte-
nance is given by the experiment of Professor Henry, who found
A. MATHEMATICS, PHTSXCS AKD CHEMISTRT. Ill
that the deadening effect of a rubber cushion, when the stem of a
vibrating fork was put upon it, was due to the fact that the vibra-
tions were converted into heat. But the vibrations are not no-
ticeably deadened in the former case, and the junction of the
metals is subject to definite and measurable vibrations.
The antecedent to the production of electricity is the contact,
either mediate or immediate, of substances, which differ in compo-
sition or in condition, and if electricity is a mode of motion it
ought to appear whenever a motion may be set up kt such point
of contact as mutually to disturb the molecules of the differently
constituted matter. That the vibrations of the fork are compe-
tent to do this without necessarily giving rise to the phenomenon
of heat may fairly be inferred, I think ; so that, a priori j one should
look for electric phenomena firom such. a combination of favorable
conditions. At any rate it will hardly be asserted by any one,
that becatise the electricity is generated in the thermo-pile its im-
mediate cause must be heat. I do not know that it has ever been
proved that heat motion was the only kind of motion that was
capable of direct conversion into electricity in the so-called ther-
mo-pair. It is probable that the more general statement is true,
namely, that molecular disturbance at the junction of dissimilar
metals will give rise to electricity.
We know that the molecular disturbance called heat will give
rise to it, and it is not improbable that the disturbance, caused by
a regularly vibrating tuning fork, may do the same thing directly.
My experiment does not prove, that such is the case, but it hints
at it, and I offer these considerations to meet the objections of
some who take it for granted that it cannot be true that sound
vibrations are really conveiled into eliectricity, except in an in-
direct way. This is capable of verification I do not doubt, but
I have not had time to apply the eoDperimentum cruets^ as the idea
did not occur to me until a day or two ago, and I bring it to the
Association as an interesting experiment, whatever its rcuiondle
maybe.
112 A. MATHEMATICS, PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY.
The "Tornadoes" op Illinois. By M, L. Comstock, of Gales-
burg, 111.
Tub "tornadoes" which occur in different parts of the United
States are so remarkable in their sudden rise, and in their de-
structive effects, as well to deserve the most careful observation
and study ; not, perhaps, with any well founded hope of averting
them, but that their occurrence may bo foreseen a few hours, and
places of safety secured by persons in danger.
Very severe, if not the most remarkable of their class, are the
" tornadoes" that visit Illinois. I do not propose to theorize very
much in this paper, but I shall, in a simple manner, state such facts
as have fallen under my own observation. My notes will refer to
two storms which occurred May 3, 1868, and May 22, 1873.
The first of these visited a village called Shanghai situated 14
miles northwest of Galesburg. The length of the track in which
serious damage was done fell short of five miles, with a width of
half a mile. Shanghai occupied the middle of this line, and the
centre of the storm passed within the limits of the village. A few
days after the storm, I visited the locality, and examined care-
fully a tract of land one and a half miles long and half a mile in .
width. I found everything levelled to the ground — churches,
dwellings, fences, trees — though as the place was upon a prairie
there were no forest trees, except a few transplanted ones of dimin-
utive size. The course of the storm through the village was N.
70° E. ; before reaching it, N. 80° E. ; after leaving it, N. 60° E.
South of the central track, buildings were moved north ; some
of them N. 20° W., or even N. 25° W., appearing in many cases to
have been carried perpendicularly to the central line of the storm.
Trees near this line had been thrown toward the northeast and
fences had been carried in the same direction. A new board fence
with green white oak posts stood directly across the line of the tor-
nado. 'This was left standing, except a few rods near the central
line. Straw and dirt were blown only against the west side of
this fence and the rubbish was packed into the angle between the
post and boards as if driven violently from the southwest. North
of the central line, buildings were moved south and east of soath.
The trees of an orchard were thrown down to the south almost
exactly ; and upon carefully examining the fence before mentioned
the rubbish was found to be packed in the angles from the north-
west.
A. MATHEMATICS, PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY. 113
There was no evidence of a whirl anywhere. It seemed as if
there had been a travelling point, toward which the air rushed with
great velocity from various directions, but especially from the
sides. Objects were thus swept toward the central track, then up-
wai'd by ascending currents, then forward by the moving body of
the storm. The disturbance did not extend far from the centre,
and the rate at which it was propagated did not diifer much from
the progressive motion of the storm ; hence the disturbance in
front of the storm was slight until it burst with its full force.
South of the central track X found nothing blown south of the
point from which it started, and north of the same line nothing
north of its starting point.
Such results would hardly have been possible if there had been
a whirlwind, especially if the whirl had occupied several rods in
width ; for the front of the storm would carry objects in one di-
rection, and the rear in exactl}'^ the opposite direction. Trees'
partly uprooted would be twisted around and thrown out by the
roots, aud in some cases certainly must have left signs of these
different movements. I made this the special object of my search,
for persons who were in the ''tornado'* had affirmed that there was
a whirlwind, but I could not find the least evidence of any such
action. Again, if the whirl had occupied only a point, or a very
small space upon the surface of the earth, objects along the line
of its travel would, no doubt, have been twisted, but there was no
appearance of the kind. True, I found evidence of a change in
the direction of the wind in some places, and more evidently near
the central track. One church was moved from its foundation N.
10'* W., but tlie ruins were carried N. 45° E. This church was
south of and near the central track. Twenty-five rods farther
sooth another church was blown down, the sills moving seven feet
north, and two feet east, while the debris was carried northeast.
At equal distances north and south of the central track, the lines
of direction of the wind made equal angles with that track, and
changed so as to become more nearly parallel with it as the storm
advanced.
As to general facts ; the morning of the day had been showery,
becoming very warm. The latter part of the day was sultry, the
atmosphere being near the dew-point. The clouds formed and
moved rapidly. The thunder and lightning were not remarkable
for this country.
A. ▲. A. s. VOL. xxn. 8
114 A. MATHEMATICS, PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY.
The storm of May 22, 1873, passed through Warren and Fulton
jounties, twenty miles south of Galesburg. There had been a
Heavy rain in the morning in this part of the country ; the day
was sultry ; the atmosphere near the dew-point. But the move-
ment of the storm was not as rapid as that of 1868, and it was
much more extensive in its sweep. The exhibition of electricity
was not remarkable. After striking the surface of the earth, in
going east six miles it went south half a mile ; then east four
miles, south three-fourths of a mile ; then east four miles, south
one-fourth ; then east three, south one ; then east one, south one ;
it then appeared to rise, passing over a body of' woods and the
valley of Spoon River, striking the earth again and pursuing the
same general direction. The cloud accompanying this storm was
quite extensive (another ^^ tornado" having burst from it near
Washington, Iowa, seventy-five miles northwest), but its destruc-
tive effects were apparent upon a strip not more than half a mile
wide. Every house near the central track was destroyed or nearly
so. One frame house was unroofed, and ever3rthing movable car-
ried out of the upper story ; the second floor was sprung upward
and curtains from below drawn through the openings made between
the ceiling and side walls. Here there seemed to be a strong up-
ward current, though the effects named may have been produced
by a horizontal current across the open top of the house. Apple
trees a foot in diameter were carried from an adjoining orchard
three-fourths of a mile. The roof of the house, the barn and
other buildings were carried north toward the central track, which
was about ten rods distant. So on the north side of the track,
buildings and trees were thrown in a southerly direction. Thus
the general lines of direction were toward the central track ; and
on the central track, as nearly as I could determine, objects were
carried in the direction in which the storm travelled. One neigh-
borhood exhibited singular results. On the north side of the
central track, just where the storm began to move one mile south
in three miles east, a dwelling standing on high ground was de-
molished, the timbers, furniture, etc., being literally broken to
pieces and carried N. 80° W., while the large trees of an orchard
standing northwest of the house, and prostrated after it, as shown
by the relative position of scattered objects, were uniformly thrown
S. 80"* W. Other buildings not far distant, but all on the north
side of the central track, were thrown toward the west. This is
A. MATHEMATICS, PHTSIC8 AND CHEMISTRT. 115
the only place at which I could find the least evidence of a whirl-
wind ; and it may be that this was but the first meeting of the
storm with a body of cold air flowing from the woods of Spoon
River, which finally diverted the tornado from its direct course
and caused it to rise from the surface of the earth. South of the
central track and opposite this last mentioned dwelling the cur-
rents of wind seemed to bear the same general relation to the
central track as was observed commonly.
I present these, then, as two specimens of Illinois storms, hoping
that the facts may add somewhat to the data by the aid of which
some philosopher will yet explain all the secret workings of these
wonderful phenomena.
New Theory op Gbtseb-action as illustrated by an Artificial
Geyser. By Edmund Andrews, of Chicago., 111.
BuNSEN suggested the following theory of the action of geysers
which, in default of any better, has been generally adopted, viz : —
The volcanic rocks of regions where geysers exist must nec-
essarily contain caverns and passages capacious enough to hold
and transmit the fluids which they eject at intervals from their ori-
fices. Now the deep vertical well, from which the jet issues, must
be subjected to constant heat from the surrounding rocks. The
water in this pit will boil at a higher temperature in its lower, than
in its upper portions, because of the greater pressure in the deep
parts. Now, when the whole column has by the heat of the rocks
been brought nearly to the boiling point, if a jet or belch of steam
from some superheated cavern rush into the lower part of the pit,
and lift the whole column of water a few feet, the upper portion
will flow off and the whole column be made shorter by the exact
amount of the uplift. All portions of the column being nearly at
the boiling point before, they will, on this relief from pressure, break
into sudden ebullition. The upmsh of so large a volume of steam,
intimately mingled with the water, would carry up a mass of foam
and spray, which might for a few moments mount high into the
air, thus causing an eruption.
116 A. HATHEUATICS, PHTSICS AND CHEUI3TRT.
Prof. Tyndall illustrated Bunsen'a idea by the use of a vertical
iron tube six feet in length and supplied with water. A fire, ap-
plied around the central portion of this tube, caused it to eject its
mingled steam and water at regular intervnls.
This explanation is interesting, and probably the force referred
to in it acts to some extent in modifying geyser-phenomena, but,
ttom the description given by eye-witnesses of the eruption of the
great geysers of the Yellowstone River, the main principle must
be something diSerent.
On Bunsen's tlieory the eruption ought not to consist of clear
water, but of an intimate mixture of steam and water ; in other
words, of foam and spray. But Maj. Barlow of the Corps of
Engineers of the U. S. Army, who was sent to examine the gey-
sere of the Yellowstone, asserts that they throw a great stream of
FIk.I. Matarsl GefBcr; S, Su]ip[f channel; 11,11, Reslon or lieiiUdrocbB; C,Ov.
en; O, Outlet; G, Geyser; r, Folatco whlchtbe WRterialfae BiipplycliuiDCllsnirced
down diirlDg erui>tiOD.
clear water, which, in some springs, maintains itself steadily withoat
mixture of foam for nearly half an hoar at each eruption, while the
steam escapes at the close as if released from a cavity. Further-
more, on Bunsen's theory the eruption ought to be very brief, for
the steam formed by the ebullition in the pit would escape in a
very few moments, and the heat consumed by its formation would
as speedily reduce Uie remaining. water to a temperature where the
boiling would cease.
A. MATHEMATICS, FHTSICS AND CHEMISTRY.
117
It would seem that the following explanation would much bet-
ter account for the phenomena as observed by Maj. Barlow, and I
find that an artificial apparatus reproduces them with great fidelity.
As the cooler waters of the surrounding countiy make their way
into and through the caverns of the region of heated rocks, it
will sometimes happen that the channel of supply will enter a
cavern at a point higher than that where the channel of exit leaves
it. If now this channel of supply has, like many other subterra-
neous watercourses, some portion -of its course much lower than the
point of its entry into the cavern, we have all the main conditions
necessary for a geyser. Let Fig. 1, p. 116, represent these con-
ditions.
Fig. 2. Artificial Geyser seen in Section. R, Beseryoir; S, Supply pipe; C, Boiler
representing cavern ; L, Spirit lump or other supply of heat; O, Discharge pipe.
Suppose now that the whole of the caveras and passages are ftiU
of water. The heat of the rocks II, H, in which the cavern is
situated, aided perhaps by superheated water and steam forced up
through crevices from deeper volcanic sources, will soon cause the
water in the cavern C to boil. The pressure of the steam accu-
mulating in the top of the cavity will resist the further infiux of
cool water from the supply channel S and perhaps force it back
118 A. MATHEMATICS, FHTSICS AND CHEMISTRT.
down the channel to a point P where the hydrostatic pressure of
the column S resists further progress of the stream in that direc-
tion. Meantime the steam accumulates more and more in the top
of the cavern and by its rapidly increasing pressure forces out the
water through the channel of exit O, producing the jet G in the ex-
ternal air. As long as the level of the water in the cavern is above
the orifice of exit, the jet will consist only of clear water, but when
the cavern is emptied down to the level of the outlet pipe, the
steam escapes with violence and relieves the cavern of its pressure.
The cool water of the supply channel, no longer meeting any re-
sistance, rushes in, cools the chamber and fills it, afl/er which
another eruption will occur as soon as the water is heated to the
boiling point.
I have constructed several artificial geysers on this principle and
find that they are perfectly automatic and produce their eruptions
with great regularity. Fig. 2 illustrates the plan of their con-
struction.
These artificial geysers are very satisfactory in the fact tliat they
throw a stream of clear water, which, like that of the natural ones,
is sustained for a considerable period and is followed by a gush of
steam at the close. It would seem probable therefore that they
illustrate the mechanism of the great geysers of the Yellowstone
^ Park better than the form suggested by Bunsen.
The Arctic Regions ; — The Arctic Basin ; The Arctic Ocean ;
Its Outlets and Inlets ; Its Currents and the Gulf
Stream; Fog and Ice-blink; Climate op the ARcnric
Regions, The Story op Spinks and other Evidence,
considered with Reference to the Atmospheric Theory
op an Open Sea and an Ameliorated Climate. By
William W. Wheildon, of Concord, Mass.
No portion of the globe is of so much present interest to phys-
ical geography, and to science generally, as the Arctic Regions ;
and it is remarkable how continually, from a very early period in
A. MATHEMATICS, PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY. 119
the history of navigation and discovery, attention has been di-
rected to, and an interest maintained in, these remote regions ;
the most uncongenial in themselves, the most repelling to human
pursuit and yet so attractive that men of rank and position have
heen unable to resist the desire of making themselves more "nota-
ble" by some fortunate discovery or success in them. In no other
part of the earth has so much hazardous enterprise, indomitable
perseverance and enduring labor been brought out, prompted and
inspired as these have been by the prospects of trade, the pursuits
of science and the promptings of humanity. This is so true that
at the present time, when science is ardent and earnest in its de-
sire of arriving at knowledge and truth in regard to these regions,
there is in the community a seeming unwillingness to encourage
further exploration and exposure of life in those cold and icy des-
olations. Every proposition for further effort seems to send a
chill through the sensitive blood of the civilized world and the
question is often asked of what use is a further exposure and waste
of human life in this perilous pursuit.*
Yet the demands of science on one hand, and that longing curi-
osity among the unscientific, who have of late ye&Ts read and
heard so much to excite their attention concerning these occult re-
gions, on the other, seem to justify each new effort to reach the
impenetralia of the Arctic circle. So much has been said in this
behalf by scientific men and others that, in this place at least, no
word need to be added and no justification of past or present ef-
forts is required. It is no new thing for scientific men to assume
great risks when there is an object to be gained, nor yet to permit
apprehension or fear to defeat a high purpose. All that we know
*Theactaal loss of Iffe in' the Arctic regions, among explorern, is known to have
been relatively very sniaJl. the deaths less than in the same number of persons at home.
Mr. Siromonds says, * Out of ten searching vessels in tliree years, including Americans,
bat one man died, nor did any casualty occur to the ships or tlieir sledging parties;
iodeerl not more than twenty deaths in the pi-esent century out of fiAcen hundred men
employed and not half of the twenty attributed to climate or perils encountered." In
a perilous voyage of four years, tiic Investigator lost one officer and five men out of a
frtwof sixty-flve. There were one hundred and thirty-eight officers and men lost in
the Franlclin expedition— a much smaller number of lives than have been lost in
some or the disasters on the Atlantic ocean.
Since the above lines were written. In view of the recent Polaris expedition and its
reeuU^.a new interest has been excited in the public mind; a feeling of competition
sceras to have arisen between the United States and England as to which of the two
peoples shall accomplish the desired object of reaching the central poitions of the
Arctic ocean. In both countries new expeditions are (suggested and urged upon the
respective governments.
120 A. MATHEMATICS, PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY.
is the reward of labor and more or less of danger. In medicine
and surgery, in chemistry and engineering, ardent men have put
their lives in hazard for science or for humanity, and in mining
and the ordinary navigation of the sea, risks are assumed mainly
for pecuniar}' benefits which it sometimes seems not easy to justify.
In the various and continued attempts to explore the interior
of Africa we see the indomitable spirit and enterprise of man,
prompted by a worthy ambition to become a discoverer in geogra-
phy, history or science, sometimes rewarded by a drear and lonely
grave, hardly less fearful than that which terminated the efforts of
Sir Jolm Franklin and his brave companions. There is nothing
that can. be suggested in the way of adventure or exploration,
which promises a pecuniary reward, that will not find individuals
ready to undertake it ; and there are those devoted to scientific
pursuits, as ardently disposed, as daring and it may be as uncom-
promising in their undertakings.
The early attempts to reach tlie Arctic regions were made in
the very infancy of navigation, and have been continued to the
present time almost without inteiTuption by the difiereiit maritime
nations, keeping pace with the progress of naval architecture,
navigation and science ; and it is almost true to say, success has
been in proportion to the means employed.
Arctic Basin : — The late Prof. Ilenr}- D. Rogers, in his Phys-
ical Atlas published in Edinburgh, includes in the Arctic basin
("equivalent to the Arctic Regions") all those wide circumjacent
lands which empty their drainage into the great polar sea, and
describes the region as follows :
"The Siberian division of this enormous region of converging
and rotating waters includes the great rivers Obi, Yenessi and
Lena, and extends southward to latitude oO°, taking in all northern
Asia from the Urals to the sea of Okhotsk, while the North Amer-
ican portion embraces the vast basins of the Mackenzie, Sas-
katchewan and Hudson's Ray, and reaches quite as far southward.
Viewing Greenland and the countries bordering Behring Strait as
portions of the Arctic regions, it will be seen to include all the
lands, excepting northern Europe, which lie between the pole and
the circle of 50° north latitude. The broad zone of land thus
bounded and draining into the polar sea has an area of about
five million square miles. The river systems of the Obi, Yenessi
A. MATHEMATICS, PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY. 121
Lena and Kolyma, in Asia, with those of the Mackenzie and
Saskatchewan, in America, alone cover a surface of more than
3,200,000 square miles or equal to that of all Europe."
Another writer speaks of the Arctic basin as including six mil-
lions of square miles, surrounded by an ice barrier and receiving
the waters of more than 3,500,000 square miles of land. The
polar sea, Prof. Rogers says, has an approximately circular line
coinciding roughly with the parallel of 73° north latitude. This
would give to tho sea a diameter of more than two thousand miles :
four hundred miles wider than the Atlantic ocean between New-
foundland and the coast of Ireland. Capt. Barrow considers the
polar sea as a circle, on the latitude of 70®, of two thousand four
hundred geographical miles in diameter and seven thousand two
hundred miles in circumference ; and regards the talk, at one time
common, about its being exhausted by southerly currents, as abso-
lute nonsense : since that time some theorists have poured both
oceans into the Arctic ocean, without much reason for either.
The Arctic Ocean. — The gi'eat mystery of the Arctic regions
is still in the Arctic ocean, the interior of which is yet to be
reached ; and so long as it remains unknown it will be the sub-
ject of speculation and assertion, based it may be to some ex-
tent upon what we know of its approaches and its borders. It is
taken for granted that it must be peculiar and different from the
other oceans, and the opinion has heretofore prevailed that it is
completel}^ frozen over for the whole or at least a portion of the
year, — which can hardly be the case if subject to a tidal wave,
even if the winds and storms do not keep it from freezing — to say
nothing of an ameliorated climate or other external influences.
But aside from these it seems improbable, as we have heretofore
shown, that so large a body of water can be frozen over. Lake
Superior (fresh water) is never wholly frozen over, nor is the well-
known "north water" of the whalers, in Baffin's Bay ;* and it is
said by a distinguished astronomer, that " were the ocean covered
by a substance of moderate thickness, say of ice, the reaction
of the water, caused by pressure from being drawn up into a tem-
porary heap by the attraction of the moon passing over it, would
•Hayes.— "The little sea at the head of Baflfin^s Bay. the north water of the whalers,
Althongh bat eighty thousand square miles in superficial area, is never entirely frozen
OTer, even daring tho seyerest weather.''
122 A. HATHEMATIGS, FHTSICS AND CHEMISTRY.
be SO powerful as to break it up into innumerable pieces."* What-
ever else may be said of the Arctic ocean, it will hardly do here-
after, to speak of it otherwise than as an open sea.
This vast ocean is spoken of in the quotation which we have
given, as "an enormous region of converging and rotating waters,"
terms which are not applied to any other ocean and intended, no
doubt, by the writer to be descriptive of this according to his in-
formation on the subject. The region of the polar sea within
which is included the theoretic axis of the earth, owing to the flat-
tening of the surface and the slower diurnal motion, is peculiar in
these respects, and is subject of course to the severity of the cli-
mate by reason of the absence of the sun. So far as the waters
of the great rivers which have been mentioned, or waters from
either of the great oceans, flow into it, they may be said to be
"converging;" but that its waters are "rotating" in a peculiar
manner, so as absolutely to form a rotating ocean in itself, irre-
spective of and independent of the rotation of the earth, seems
to be an assumption not authorized by anything that we know, and
in fact essentially opposed to all accepted information on the sub-
ject. It seems to be supposed that because this ocean surrounds,
so to speak, or includes the position of the theoretic pole, it must
therefore revolve around that object^ as it has come to be regarded :
an American writer recently suggested that Capt. Hall would be
able "to set his foot upon the pole itself," and Capt. Barrow once
said that on "his plan a month would enable the explorer to put
his foot on the point or pivot of the axis on which the globe of the
earth turns." [Simmonds, p. 105.] Nevertheless it is to be pre-
sumed that the Arctic ocean has its tides ahd currents, both of
which have been observed, as other oceans have, and possibly re-
sembles them in other respects.
Its Outlets and Inlets : — "This sea," continues Prof. Rogers,
"has really but two outlets into the general ocean of the globe,
one of which, Behring Strait, is less than thirty miles wide, and,
what is of more consequence, is very shallow, having less than
twenty-flve fathoms of water in its deepest channel. As an open-
ing, therefore, it is almost null ; so that the polar sea, on this side,
is virtually land-locked. The other much wider, deeper outlet is
*Bolp h Falb, editor of 'SiriuB," published at Gratz in Styria.
A. MATHEMATICS, PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY.
123
partially blocked by an immense belt of cliff-lined islands, from
Iceland to the Parry Group, the largest being Greenland."
The Professor, proceeding with the subject of " Configuration,"
adds : —
"The sole practicable inlet to the polar sea is the wide channel
between Spitzbergen or Iceland and the northwest coast of Europe.
This is the broad highway for the northeast branch of the Gulf
Stream."
Behring Strait Prof. Rogers first includes as one of the "really
bnt two outlets," then rejects it as an " opening almost null," and
finally in the same paper speaks of it as the inlet of " a sort of
second gulf stream • ♦ • prolonged from the Japanese current,"
and assisting in the rotating process already considered.*
"Thus enforced," Prof. Rogers continues, "it [the Gulf Stream]
washes the Arctic coast of America, where it preserves a lane of
open water between the ice-pack and the shore, the greater part of
the way from this inlet [Behring Strait] to the Parry Islands ;
there it streams through the great channels of this archipelago and
clogs them with its vast drift of ice, until it finally works its way
oat into the Atlantic through Baffin's Bay and northward round
Greenland, chilling as it flows southwestward all the northern part
of America with ice-cold and ice-laden waters."
We do not know that the whole or any part of this statement,
excepting for the favor it may receive from the public, demands
any consideration beyond what we have given it upon the general
subject of the Gulf Stream. By it an enormous work is put upon
the assumed northeast prolongation of that stream, pouring its
heated waters around Nova Zembla, sweeping around the Arctic
ocean, "softening the boreal climates of Norway and Siberia,"
and with the aid of the Japanese current making its way into
Baflftn's Bay, etc., all of which needs confirmation. To say the
very least of it that can be said, there is no satisfactory Evidence
of the prolongation of the Gulf Stream around Nova Zembla ;
none of its ameliorating the climates of Norway or Siberia ; none
that it is enforced by the Behring Strait current ; and in fact
no evidence whatever that any portion of its waters, in this direo-
*Pror. Davidson, of the U. S. Coast Survey, does not think much of the Japanese
ctnrent for clearing a way to the pole, Behring Strait being only twenty-five miles
^de, with an average depth of only twenty-flve fhthoms, and the rate of the cnrrent
flowing through it being from a half to three knots per hoar. [Amer. £d. Monthly*
^ebmary, 1873.]
124 A. MATHEMATICS, PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY.
tion or any other, reaches the Arctic ocean. And if this last,
which has been so frequently asserted and still repeated, could be
shown, there are no reasonable grounds of belief that its waters
would retain force enough and heat enough for the purposes re-
quired. As to the velocity of the current or drift there is but little
evidence of any kind : what there is gives it a trifle over three miles
per hour, at a point more than fifteen hundred miles from the pole.
As to the heat of the water, Lieut. Maury's statement is that " a
cubic foot of water which leaves the Straits of Florida at a tem-
perature of 85®, on arriving at the frozen regions through the Gulf
Stream, does no longer measure a cubic foot. It will have wasted
away [ ?] by the way of contraction caused by a change in the
temperature of some fifty or sixty degrees." So that the Gulf
Stream water reduced to 25' (below the freezing point of salt
water) would hardly answer Capt. Bent's purposes of assaulting
the ice-girdle if it could reach it, whatever it might do for the other
parties.
Besides all this the parties who advocate the Gulf Stream theoiy
do not agree upon any plan ; one or two of them pour the heated
waters around Nova Zembla, without showing how they reach the
enclosed polar sea ; one or two of them sink the warm waters in
the Spitzbergen sea and pass the current under the ice-barrier, and
another party, represented by Capt. Bent, uses the heated waters
to assault the ice-belt and open a gatewa}'' for themselves.* It is
in vain, we presume, to expect these authorities to agree upon any
theory as to the prolongation of the Gulf Stream ; nor do any of
them show that there is any necessitj'^ for the waters of the Gulf
Stream in the Arctic ocean or for such a use of them. So far as
yet appears, the Spitzbergen sea, from Nova Zembla to Greenland,
is an outlet of the Arctic ocean and not an inlet as Prof. Rogers
states. Failing in this particular, the whole theory, so fully set
forth by him, fails also ; and it remains only to be said, respecting
*Since this writing ono of the leading newspapers of this country which has always
fbyorcd the Gulf Stream theory, in one of its forms, published the following para-
graph in its editorial columns :
" So far no researches have explained the absence of the Gulf Stream influence in the
Bcene of Mr. Leigh Smith's recent voyage [in the neighborhood of Spitzbergen], and
U U hard to explmn it. The body of warm water drifted [ ?] into the polar basin by
this Atlantic current mast be many times as large as the Bchring Strait current. What
becomes of the former? Is it lost in the mid Arctic ocean, or is it diverted, as Dr.
Fetermann and others contend, over toward the Siberian seas ?" [N. Y. Herald edlto>
rial| Oct. 20, 1873 1 . The error is in the postulate which is assumed.
A. MATHEUATICS, PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRT. 125
oatlets and inlets of the Arctic ocean, that all of them are meas-
arably if not entirely outlets ; and are absolutely required as such
by the conditions of the ocean, its rivers, its rainfall and its vast
water-sheds.
Its Currents : — It will be observed that upon the statement of
Prof. Rogers the general movement of the waters of the Arctic
ocean is to the eastward. It seems to us that the whole amount of
evidence is against this statement. Dr. Kane has very truly said
that '* currents in the ice-flows is a complicated problem." One
writer and advocate of the Gulf Stream under-current theory, in
speaking of Scoresby*s discovery of warm water below the surface,
says, '• Be this as it may, the current of the Siberian coast is west-
ward and a continuation of this flow is formed in the great polar
drift of tJie Greenland and Spitzbergen seas"
The polar current, always running westerly and southerly, is
well known to all navigators of the north Atlantic and Spitzber-
gen seas, if not to those of Baffin's Bay, and is variously described
as follows : —
"The polar current coming down through the Spitzbergen sea,
along the eastern coast of Greenland, laden with its heavy freight
of ice, and bringing from the rivers of Siberia a meagre supply of
drift wood to the Greenlanders, sweeps around Cape Farewell and
flows northward as far as Cape York, where it is deflected to the
westward," and joins the current from Smith's Strait. [A little
assumption, in this case, similar to that of Prof. Rogers, would
authorize a statenaent directly opposite to his, viz : that the Arctic
ocean is a "converging and rotating sea," flowing to the westward^
from Behring Strait along the coast of Siberia, across the Spitz*
bergen sea, and around the southern, or it may be northern coast
of Greenland. There is, we believe, as much authority for this
statement as there is for that of which we have spoken.]
Another writer says, "The north polar current, after passing
around the north cape of Europe, crosses the upper part of the
Atlantic, running to the southwest till it reaches the coast of Green-
land." Capt. Buchan, in 1818, oflT the north coast of Spitzbergen,
was drifted to the westward. In the following month, July, while
secared to a field of " ice, we had the mortitication of finding our-
selves drifting fast to the southward." [Beechey, pages 83 to 109.]
Another explorer suggests that as the current through Behring
126 A. MATHEMATICS, PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY.
Strait runs to the north, and that between Spitzbergen and Green-
land to the south, it may be that the former current extends across
the pole ; and this suggestion is at least partially sustained by
Capt. Parry's experience. In speaking of the current which drifted
Capt. Parry down towards Spitzbergen from latitude 82° 45',
Capt. Beechey says, " What may be the cause of this current can,
at the best, be but conjecture ; and we must at present remain sat-
isfied with the knowledge of the simple fact." This drift was only
about four miles a day, while Capt. Ross (according to Lt.
Mauiy) reports the current through Behring Strait at from sev-
enty to one hundred miles per day.
There can be no doubt, we apprehend, about the direction of this
well known polar current, from the Siberian coast or Nova Zembla,
across the Spitzbergen sea towards Spitsbergen and Greenland,
which, it will be seen, must absolutely cross the dssumed prolongation
of the Ghilf Stream ! The latest intelligence from this region is
that furnished by Dr. Peter mann of Got ha, who has given special
attention to the Spitzbergen sea and regards this as the proper
region of approach to the pole. • In one of his recent circulars, he
reports the progress of the Norwegian and Austrian expeditions,
(October, 1872), and says: —
" Capt. Nils Johnson sailed on May 8, in the sailing yacht Lyd-
iona, of twenty-six tons burden, with a crew of ninety men, from
Fromscoe, Norway. He directed his course in June towards the
western half of the open sea, and, in the second half of this month
(June), when the Austrian exploring steamship TegcthoflT had just
left the German coast, was already some fifty miles east-southeast
of the island of east Spitzbergen, in the middle of the usual posi-
tion of the polar stream, which generally carries an enormous mass
of ice towards Spitzbergen and the Bear Islands. In July and
August of this summer [1872] the ice current held a more easterly
course, toward Nova Zembla, and left the western half of the sea
free from ice, as the reports already received from Capt. Altmann
[of Hammerfest] at the end of August had announced."
Capt. Johnson visited those almost unknown islands lying east
of Spitzbergen^ in latitude 76° to 78°, supposed to be what has
heretofore been known as Wiche Land, and the most important
discovery which he made there was the immense quantities of drift
wood, sometimes piled twenty feet above the highest tidal mark
along the eastern coast, from the Siberian rivers, brought down by
A. ICATHEMATICS, FHTSICS AND CHEMISTRY. 127
the polar current from the northeast, of course directly across the
Spitzbergen sea.
In view of what has been said, it may be considered as certain
that the waters of the Arctic ocean do not rotate around the pole
eastwardly, as Prof. Rogers asserts, and that the direction of the
polar current is westward and southwestward. The currents of
Smith's Strait, Lancaster Sound and Baffin's Bay are all outward
into the Atlantic ocean, and it only remains to speak of the
current through Behring Strait. The reports regarding the
movement of the waters in these straits are various and contra-
dictory. Most of the navigators and writers declare that the
current runs through the straits into the Arctic ocean, and others
assert that the water runs out of that sea into the Pacific ocean.
We have been told that it runs in on one shore and out on the
other, but Kotzebue, who thought ^^as a constant current descends
into Hudson's Bay on the eastern side of the continent, an equal
flow of water must enter Behring Strait from the Pacific on the
western side," says " the current from the south was equally strong
on both sides of the channel."
The statement of Capt. Kerhallet* is quite different from the
foregoing, and is as follows : —
"The current of the coast of Kamtschatka is a branch of the
Japan current running toward the northeast and the north-north-
east along the coast of Asia as far as Behring Strait.
" It separates from the Japan current on the meridian of 152°
east longitude and on the parallel of 38° north latitude. Its eastern
limit passes to the west of the Aleutian Islands, of St. Matthew's
Island, and of St. Lawrence Island. There it passes through
Behring Strait and spreads over the northern ocean, running
northwest on the coast of Asia, northeast on the coast of America,
and north in the middle of the strait.
"Behring's current appears to be formed by the excess of waters
carried to the strait of this name by the current of Kamtschatka,
which do not find a sufiScient discharge through this strait. It per-
haps owes its origin to some entirely different cause ; but we have
not observations enough to show whether this current is cold or
warm.
Behring's current descends from the strait of this name gen-
ii
*"Gdneral Exploration of tho Pacific Ocean," by Capt. Cliarles Pliillipe EerhaUet,
trmnsbited by Commander Chas. Henry Dayia, U.S.N. Blunt, N. Y., 1861.
128 A. MATHEMATICS, PHYSICS AND CHEMISTBT.
erally in a soath-south west direction. As it goes south it spreads
considerably in such a manner that at its most southern part it
runs through the whole chain of the Aleutian Islands, and is very
strong in the channels termed by the islands."
The temperature of the two currents here described, so far as
reported, ranges from 4 7° to 52°. The velocity of the Kamtschatka
current is given at seven to ten miles north per day, and that of
tiie Behring*s current at five to nineteen miles south per day.
There is nothing in these authoritative statements that can be
construed in favor of a rotating ocean, or afford an}^ aid to the Gulf
SStreadi theory. If any further evidence is needed on the first
point, reference may be had to the surveys of Commodore (now
Rear Admiral) Rogers, in 1855. These show that on the westerly
side of Behring Strait, the current is almost invariably to the
westward, and its force is stated at from one-half knot to one knot
per hour. As regards the prolongation of the Gulf Stream, we sup-
pose it will hardly be contended that it crosses the polar current ;
and it seems to us that this matter is effectually disposed of.
Fog or Ice-blink : — One of the most frequent and prevailing
phenomena of the Arctic regions, reported by all explorers, is
the fogs or ice-blink, which are as common over the surface of the
sea as are clouds in the sky, and are the evidence of water and air
of different temperatures. Ice- blink has been supposed by navi-
gators as always to indicate the presence of open water and this
no doubt is generally the case at all points reached by them. Capt.
Beechey, in his experience in 1818, gives a very striking account of
ice-blink, as he calls it, off the northwest coast of Spitzbergen,
where there is often to be fuund considerable spaces of open water
in the drifting ice-fields. A storm was raging at sea, but it did
not reach his position and it was perfectly calm where his ships
were lying. He says : —
'' Over the ice the sky was perfectly cloudless, whilst the sea was
overcast with storm clouds, which passed along until the line of
the packed ice was reached. Here at the line of demarcation of
the two atmospheres it was curious to mark the rapid motion of the
clouds to the right and left, and how immediately they became con-
densed or were dispersed on arriving at it. The contrast between
the two atmospheres is sometimes called ice-blink." [Beechey,
p. 86.]
A« ICATHEKATlCSy PHT8IC8 AND CHBHISTBT. 129
Dr. Kane's experience of ice-bUnk in Wellington Channel, Octo-
ber, 1850, is also peculiar :
'^ The brig and the ice. around her are covered by a strange black
obacnrity, not a mist nor a haze, but a peculiar waving, palpable,
unnatural darkness ; it is the frost-smoke of Arctic winters. Its
range is very low : climbing to tiie yard arm, some thirty feet above
deck, I looked over a great horizon of black smoke and above we
saw the heavens without a blemish/'* [Kane's first voyage, p.
220.]
Capt. McQintock, February 2, 1859, records ^^ a lovely, calm,
bright day, except over the water space in Belloit Strait, where
'rests a densely black mist, very strongly resembling the West
India rain squall as it looms upon the distant horizon." p. 20.
Belloit Strait is in about lat. 72^, north of Boothia Felix, and
wholly beyond the reach of the Gulf Stream. In similar cases
the record is, almost constant fog excepting in very boisterous
weather and heavy gales.
In speaking of the fogs, Capt. Hall found all his experience in
the Arctic Regions or elsewhere at fault. He says —
** Before coming to the north, I thought I was prepared to give
a fair statement of the true theory of fogs. I am satisfied that
no man can give a satisfactory reason for the appearance and the
sudden disappearance, their reappearance and final dispersion, as
I have witnessed them during the last few days." [Hall's Arctic
Expedition. Harper's edition, 1865.]
Capt. Hall's difficulty is only what others have experienced
before him ; it is the same as that which compelled Dr. Hayes to
declare that '* facts made mischief with his theories," dnd required
Mr. Schott to account for the warm* winds experieneed by Dr.
Kane by declaring that they '* must have originated or blown over
a water area partially open [?] of the temperature of 29^." The
fogs, as Capt. Hall saw them, and as other explorers have seen
them '^ throughout the year ;" the thawing and tropic showers of
Dr. Hayes, and the warm winds of Dr. Kane and others, are
• Something like this oocnrred In Boston harbor in Jan., 1806, and la described as
foUows:—
** The vapor is rising in donds ftom the snrfoee of the water in the harbor, and hides
tnm, sight the islands, and the shipping riding at anchor in the stream. The atmos-
plieric mirage at early dawn was wonderful. The ice is forming rapidly in the
harbor." [Boston, Jan. 8, 1866.]
Probably the same thing has often ooonrxed at Boston. Ice smoke has been tt^
qnently obserred by the writer on Charles riyer, driyen oyer the surfhce of the ice
with the wind.
A. A. A. 8. VOL. XJJL 9
180 A* MATHEMATICS, PHT8IC8 Ain> CHEMI8TBT.
certainly not to be explained on the theory of the Gulf Stream
waters. Of coarse no *' area of water partially open" can origi-
nate a wind which will make the '' upper deck sloppy '' and raise
the temperature of the lower deck to 75^, as in the case of Capt.
McClintock. The Gulf Stream itself removed bodily, so to speak,
into the Arctic regions, could not produce such a temperature
under the circumstances stated. The whole Arctic basin, if it
were true that its waters are " never chilled to within several de-
grees of the freezing point" (29^), as asserted by an explorer while
standing upon the icy border of the supposed open sea, *^ old ice"
at that, could not produce such an atmosphere. In the tropical
aerial currents only, it would seem, is to be found an adequate
cause for these phenomena, and although the natural warmth of
the sea and the low temperature of the atmosphere, may often
produce ice-blink over considerable spaces, no such openings as
reported can originate a wiarm wind or account for other known
phenomena. Fogs and clouds are produced by atmospheres of
different conditions, as regards temperature and humidity,* and
the surplus humidity in the mass falls in the form of rain or snow.
A tropical current, moving in the higher regions of the air toward
the poles of the earth, as described by various writers, following
approximately the lines of longitude, provides these atmospheres
with heat and moisture, and answers all the conditions required,
and makes possible, in fact inevitable, the remarkable phenomena
of the Arctic regions. Nothing less than this, it seems to us,
is adequate to account for these phenomena, so common and so
constant " throughout the year."
We may add to what has been said, in confirmation of the views
expressed, the experience of Dr. Hayes, in the North Fiord of
Disco, lat. 70"", in August, 1860 :
*' In all my former experience in this region of startling novel-
ties, I had never seen anything to equal what I witnessed that
night. The air was warm, almost as a summer's night at home,
and yet there were the icebergs and the bleak mountains. * ♦ •
The sky was bright and soft and strangely inspiring, as the skies of
Italy. The bergs had wholly lost their chilly aspect," etc. p. 25.
"I awoke after a few hours, shivering with the cold. The ball's
• « The conditions nnd«r wliich Uie yapor of water becomes risible depend npon
the temperature and the degree of saturation.'' [Flammarion, p. 417.]
** Fogs are clouds which float on the surface of the earth; and clouds are fog* in
the higher regions of the atmosphere.'' [Dick., Atmos., p. 47.3
A. HATHEHATICS, PHT8ICS AND CHEMISTBT. 181
eye above my head was open, and a chilly fog was ponring in upon
me. Harrying on deck, I found the whole scene changed. A
dense gray mist had settled aver the waJtere and icebergs and moun-
tains, blending them all in chaotic gloom.*' p. 26.
CuMATB OF THE Abctio Reoions : — The evidence of a modified
climate and that in favor of an open polar sea — ^like the other
oceans of the globe — at the present time appear to be conclusive ;
and these two points admitted, our preconceived notions of the
general climate of the unknown region are at fault and no longer
to be accepted. One of the earliest and strongest suggestions in
this matter is that which resulted from the expedition of Sir
Edward Parry in 1827, when he found himself surprised by the
growing weakness of the ice, and annoyed by the frequent rains
and the repeated changes firom snow to rain which occurred during
his sledge excursion. It may be said if this remarkable attempt
to reach the region of the pole by sledges proved anything besides
that of a drift to the south, it proved a modification of the climate
as he progressed, and an ameliorated state of the atmosphere
beyond the point reached. The weather and the temperature
which he met and found, had they prevailed farther south, would
have made an impression upon the great ice barrier ; and it now
seems have done so in subsequent years. But even prior to Capt.
Parry's experience, the circumstance reported by Capt. Beechey,
in 1818, of enveloping a vessel, sails and rigging, in ice during a
snow storm off the north coast of Spitzbergen which changed to
rain, was thought to be very suggestive, inasmuch as the air above
must have been very much warmer than the air at the surface of
the sea. Morton says, '* After travelling due north over a solid
area choked with bergs and frozen fields [just as Capt, Parry had
done], I was startled by the growing weakness of the ice: its
surface became rotten and the snow wet and pulpy." As he con-
tinued his journey ^^land ice and snow ceased altogether." Dr.
Hayes had the same experience.
Capt. Parry found ponds of fresh water on the ice in lat. 82^ 17'
W which had been there a long time. Capt. Inglefield, in 1852,
reached lat 78^ 28' 21", in Smith's Sound and found an open sea.
From appearances he inferred that he had reached a more genial
climate than at BaflSn's Bay. Instead of eternal snows which he
had left behind him the rocks appeared in their natural color. In
132 A. MATHIMATICS, PHTfllCS AND CHXXI8TBT.
Parry's voyage, having passed the winter at Winter Island, in
1822-d, he says, *' Now we know that a winter in the ice jnay be
passed not only in safety but in health and comfort/' Capt. Hail
in his last despatch to the Secretary of the Navy, Oct., 1871, lat
82"* 8', long, ei"* 10' west, in Kennedy channel, says '' We find this
a much warmer coontry than we expected. From Cape Alexander
the moantains on either side of the Kennedy channel and Robeson
Strait were found entirely bare of snow and ice, with the excep-
tion of a glacier that we saw commencing in about lat. 80^ W
north, on the east side of the Strait, and extending in an east-
northeast direction as far as can be seen from the mountains by
Polaris Bay. We have found that the country abounds with live
seals, game, geese, ducks, musk oxen, rabbits, wolves, foxes, bears,
partridges, lemmings," etc. Capt. Tyson, in the same vessel, de-
scribes the climate as being ^* distinctly milder than it is several
degrees flEurther south," and gives other evidences of an ameliorated
climate. The shore was free from snow and covered with herbage.
Musk-oxen live in this region through the winter. • ^< After passing
the ice-'barrier, which extends from the 70th to the 80th degree," re-
ports a correspondent of the "London Times" of the Polaris
voyage, " the climate became sensibly modified. Drift-wood from
the northward was picked up, much decayed. Besides musk-oxen,
rabbits and lemmings were abundant ; one or two bears were seen,
numerous birds from the south in summer, and wild flowers were
brilliant." There was a marked difilsrence between the two
shores, the eastern being more favored in climate and vegetation
as is the case throughout the Arctic regions.
There are many well established facts which appear to autho-
rize the conclusion that there is beyond the well known ice-barrier,
which encircles the polar sea, a region possessing a climate less
severe than that directly south of it. The idea that the farther
north we penetrate, and the nearer we approach the pole, the colder
it becomes, natural enough in itself, is not true in point of fact.
The poles of cold are within the range of the ice-belt, and they
indicate the prevailing temperature of the region at the surface.
Among the evidences of an ameliorated climate are those which
relate to animal life in the highest points reached, not in the
summer months alone but especially in the winter months. The
accounts of the migration of birds to the north from various points
are numerous and undisputed, and make certain the presence of
A. - MATHBMATICSy PHT8IC8 A3XJ> OHUOSTBT. 188
open waters of considerable extent. The appearance of animals
in Greenland, Jan Mayen and Spitzbergen, in the winter months
and early in the spring, famishes irrefragable evidence that they
remain in the higher parts of those countries during the year and
live upon the products of the soil. In the attempts made to es-
tablish settlements at Jan Mayen in lat. 71^, bears appeared during
the winter and were killed in February and March.
On the 10th of November the bears, *^ as appears to be their
custom," says the record, became extremely numerous : the gulls
did not quit the island during the winter, but had their nests in
the mountains, to which they returned in the night '' The winter,
tiiough checkered with thaws and rains even in the coldest months,
was occasionally very severe ; and there was suck an abundance
of snow that it was often up to their arm pits, and sometimes
wholly prevented their moving out of their house." [Beechey, p.
175.]
Capt. McClintock says ^'Peterson tells me that the Esquimaux
of Upemavik are unable to account for the occasional disappear-
ance and reappearance of immense herds of deer, except by assum-
ing that they emigrate at intervals to feeding grounds beyond the
glacier." Capt. Phipps, in July, 1778, speaking of the Seven
Islands on the north coast of Spitzbergen, says the valleys were
filled with snow, while reindeer were feeding on moss and scurvy-
grass in the middle of the island, and birds were abundant.
Capt. McClure, in his celebrated passage on the ice around the
North American continent, says, ^' the hares and ptarmigan de-
scended from the high ground to the sea ridges, so that a supply of
game was kept up during the winter," by which fresh meats were
had twice a week, besides the Christmas festival.
The mountains of Spitzbergen are reported to be bare or com-
paratively bare of snow. Capt. Beechey first speaks of them, on
approaching the island, when '< the dark pointed summits of the
mountains, which characterize the island, rose majestically a^)<>ve
beds of snow" Some of the mountains^ he says, ''have smooth
rounded surfaces; upon several of which the snow remains
throughout the year." Vegetation is '' found to a considerable
height, so that we have frequently seen the reindeer browsing at
an elevation of 1500 feet. This elevation, it will occur to many
of my readers, must be above the region of perpetual snow," which
De la Beche (Geology, p. 24) places at 450 feet. Again Capt.
134 A. MATHEMATICS, PHT8ICS AKD CHEMI8TBT.
Beechey says '* we find mountains divested of their snowy oorer-
ing at elevations far above the line at which perpetual frost may
otherwise be presumed to exist; ♦ * ♦ * extensive tracts are
sometimes seen perfectly bare at the height of 3000 feet.** Morton
also reported Mount Parry bare of snow, and it is almost certain
that the mountains of Greenland, in the interior, are comparatiTely
free of snow and the resort of immense herds of reindeer during
the winter. The islands around Spitzbergen are reported to be
high and precipitous, but covered with lichens and other rich pas-
turage for reindeer.
The Stobt of Spinks : — One of the most fearfUl and ullimatdy
ludicrous incidents to a single individual in the Arctic regions
happened to one of Capt. Buchan's sailors at Spitzbergen. It
appears that Spinks had obtained permission, with a number of
other seamen, to hunt deer upon the mountains near the coast,
where they were feeding. Late in the afternoon a signal was
made from the ship for all hands to return on board. Spinks was
determined to be at the landing a little ahead of his companions,
as was his custom on all occasions ; and his promptitude and reli-
ability made him a general favorite with his officers. Spinks
started to go down the mountain, a slow and difficult process in
the usual manner, and soon came to the upper edge of the snow.
He here seated himself and prepared to slide down over the frozen
surface, holding on by the heels of his boots, by which means he
expected to check his speed in making the descent. But he soon
found the crust too thick and firm for his boots to penetrate, and
lost all control of his progress, going down the slope of two
thousand feet with increasing velocity, and making the fine snow
fly so as completely to envelop himself as in a cloud. In this
condition he was seen from the ship and by the men on the
beach, flying down the mountain with the speed of the wind, di-
rectly towards the perpendicular face of a glacier, two or three
hundred feet high, fronting on the sea. To those who witnessed
his descent his fate seemed inevitable; but by some means,
unknown to any of the observers, his direction became slightly
changed, and the fearfhl precipice of the glacier was escaped.
He dashed over the brink of the mountain and was instantly
buried many feet under the snow. As soon as possible he was
dug out by his comrades, and when placed upon his feet started
A. MATHEMATICS, FHT8I08 AND CHBMI8TRT. 135
on a run for the beach, having, aa Sir Edward Beechey soberly
declares, ^'wom through two pairs of trousers and something
more,'' in his fearftil descent. It may be iiiteresting to know that
after his return to England, Spinks was promoted to the office of
gunner in His Mi^esty's service, and died some years later at
Gibraltar — ^where he was buried with special honors by his officers
and shipmates— -one of the few sailors in the English navy whose
name ever meets the public eye in print, much less finds a record
on the pages of history.
Rainfall: — ^There can be no doubt that frequent rains, like
those already mentioned, fall upon the mountains, and probably
throughout the vast water-shed, during the whole year ; and that
these in the valleys, as well as on the mountains, do more than the
presence of the sun in dissolving the snow. It is equally certain
that the melting processes throughout the Arctic regions, and more
especially in their most northerly sections and mountainous
countries, are not limited to what is called the summer season, or
daring the presence of the sun. In the summer the* process is
doubtless going on, partially at least, as described by Gapt.
Beechey, while in Magdalena Bay, Spitzbergen, in 1818 :
^' There is the most marked difference between the sides of the
Bay, both in point of climate and general appearance : for while,
on the oney perpetual frost is converting into ice the streams of
water occasioned by the thawing snow upon the upper parts of the
mountains which are exposed to the sun's rays, the other side is
relieving itself of its superficial winter crust and refreshing a vig-
orous vegetation with its moisture." p. 48.
This process is very much aided, and likewise carried on in the
absence of the sun and wherever the sun's influence may not reach,
by the abundant rains. Scoresby mentions the fact that it rains
nearly every month in the year. Hall mentions rain in Frobisher
Bay, Dec. 22, 1860. Dr. Hartwig reports rain in Spitzbei^en in
January, and there are numerous similar statements.* In speak-
ing of the melting ice, Prof. Tyndall says —
'*Ice requires a great deal of heat before it melts. A layer of
ice often becomes a protection against the cold. * * • • The
* In the Antarctic regions, Cordova, In 1774, says the eummer months are seldom clear;
no daj passed withont some rain falling and the most nsnal state of the weather was
that of constant rain.
186 A. UATHEUATICS, FHT8ICS ARD 0HXMI8TBT.
Blowness with which ice melts is well known. During the winter
of 1740, the Czar built, at St. Petersburg, a magnificent palace of
ice, which lasted several years. Since then cannons have been
made of ice, and have been loaded with balls and fired. They
were fired ten times without bursting. It is, consequently, indis-
putable that ice melts slowly and may be turned to good account
in the polar regions. In Siberia the window panes are made of
ice." It has already been remarked that rain had a greater effect
upon the ice than the presence of the sun, a statement which will
not be controverted.
Wash Wikds, etc. : — ^The climate of the Arctic regions, so £v
as our knowledge extends, is one of great variableness in respect
of temperature, winds, storms and calms.* Beyond the ice-
barrier, however, there is reason to believe it is one of more equa-
nimity, resembling perhaps in this respect the temperate zone;
but of course still subject to sudden changes. One of the strong*
est evidences of a warmer climate beyond the ice-barrier, if not
in fact conclusive, is the warm winds which are reported all around
the Arctic circle as blowing from the true north ; which are in
fact, what may be called the extension of the warmer northern cli-
mate to the south, sometimes it would seem to a very annoying ex-
tent.
Of course the southern limit of this modified climate cannot be
defined. It may be different in different directions as well as at
different times. The reported observations of Mr. Scoresby, Jr.,
are illustrative, although we do not regard them as authorizing the
conclusion which he reached. From the observations of many
years he found the temperature in latitude 78^ as follows: May,
June and July, average, 22^,81^ and 87^ respectively ; and for the
whole year, 17°. He inferred from these that the average temper-
ature at the pole must be 10^ and therefore that such a thing as an
open oircumpolar sea was ^^ chimerical." Since the time of Mr.
Scoresby (1808 to 1818), we have gained more information and
reached very different conclusions in regard to the temperature of
the Arctic r^ons beyond the 78th parallel. From 1820 to 1873,
we have been in the receipt of evidence, year by year, of a modified
climate in the neighborhood of the pole, shown by almost every
^ Sir Edwiird Belcher sajs : —
'* Climate and winds dlfllBr here so widely within a space of ten miles, that it la quite
impossible to calculate on the weather they may experience.'' p. 246, yol. L
A. KATHSHATI08, FHT6IC8 AND CHBKISTRT« 137
Bpedes of^testimony connected with physics, meteorology and nat-
ural history. This climate no doabt told upon his statistics, which
indicate a remarkable eqaanimity daring the whole year, the aver-
age of the year differing from that of the warmest month only
twenty degrees. Of this region, it may be said, and has been said
of Siberia, ^* as nnder the tropics there are only spring and sum-
mer, so in the north th^re are only summer and winter."
We annex some farther evidence upon this subject and the con-
clusion of the whole matter seems to be inevitable that there is an
open sea in the region of the theoretic pole and that it is approach-
able and can be reached ; and the argument goes far to confirm
lAe r^[>orU of the Dutch navigators that they have several times
reached and sailed around the positian of tJie pole^ in latitude 88^
and 89''.
EviBENCB OF AN AxELiORATEB Clukate : — August 18, 1821.
^^Nothing could exceed the fineness of the weather about this time ;
the climate was indeed altogether so different fh>m that to which
we had before been accustomed in the icy seas, as to be a matter
of instant remark.'' [Parry's 2nd voyage, p. 203.] *'The days
were temperate and clear and the nights not cold," though thin
ice formed in sheltered places.
Oct. 24. ^^ The wind veering to the S. E. on 24th and 25th, the
thermometer gradually rose to -|-23^. I may possibly incur the
charge of affectation in stating that this temperature was much too
high to be agreeable to us ; but it is, nevertheless, the fact that
everybody felt and complained of the change." ''From -40^ up
to zero is welcome, but from zero to 32^ is rather an inconvenience."
[Parry, p. 239.]
Oct. 10 to 21, 1850. A rise of temperature from -2^ to +20''
with wind northeast. This sudden change was for from pleasant
to the crew and the old hands warned the novices against ''being
fools enough to pull off their clothes on account of such a bit of
sunshine, for perhaps in an hour's time zero would be about again.''
[McCIure in Sargent, p. 363.]
"The sky of Baffin's Bay, though but 800 miles from the polar
limit of all northness, is as warm as the bay of Naples after a
June rain. What artist, then, could give this mysterious union of
warm atmosphere and cold landscape?" [Kane i, p. 149.]
1853. Dec. "Our anticipations of decrease of temperature
188 A. HATHB1CA.TIC8, PHYSICS AKD CHEXI6TBT.
were in this instance groundless, as with the increase of wind it
rose rapidly to + 25*', Aloft it evidently blew a heavy gale, of
which we were merely entertained with the whistling and rattling
of onr loose gear atop." [Belcher, " Last of the Arctic Voyages,"
p. 85.]
"At Bear Island, beyond Icy Cape, in latitude 74** 80', great
mildness of climate was experiended by some seamen who passed
the winter of 1828-4, in this locality ; they encountered no severe
cold nor saw either packed or floating ice." [Ann. 8c. Dis. 1853,
p. 898.]
Capt. Richard Wells, of steamship Arctic of Dundee, in a letter
to Mr. GrinneU, 1867, says he continued to the ''north until he
opened out Smith Sound, Humboldt glacier being in sight through
the glass from the mast-head." There was no indication of ice to
the northward ; sky blue and watery and only a few small streams
of light ice to be seen ; then in about 79** as he judged. He adds,
" I believe that had we not been on a whaling voyage, we should
have met with no difficulty in attaining to ahnost any extreme
northern latitude."
" Within the Arctic circle there are countries inhabited as high
nearly as we have discovered ; and if we may confide in the rela-
tions of those who have been nearest the pole, the heat there is
very considerable, in respect to which our own navigators and the
Dutch perfectly agree." [Barrington's Miscellanies, London, 1581,
p. 65-6.
Pbecipitation : — It seems hardly necessary, after what has been
said, to refer ta Prof. Rogers' statement on this subject from the
work already quoted, and we should omit to do so but for the fear
that the statement may be accepted as true. In speaking of the
great water-sheds of Asia and America, Prof. Rogers says :
. <' But through a large portion of the year the precipitation does
not flow off, but remains frozen on the surface until the sadden
arrival of summer sets the whole mass free ; then, augmented by
the summer rains, the entire annual accumulation pours off, dur-
ing a few weeks, into the polar sea."
Prof. Rogers could hardly have seen, it seems to us, the Aill
meaning of this statement. Such a condition of things, we ven-
ture to say, under the circumstances, is impossible, and is at vari-
ance with all we now know of the Arctic climate, summer or
A. MATHEMATICS, PHT8ICS AlTD CHZMISTBT. 139
winter. The idea that the accumulatioiis of a large part of the
year coold flow off in a few weeks is not to be credited. What-
ever the accnmulations of snow and ice may be, the outflow of
the ocean is never checked, and drift ice is always to be met with.
The rainfall is very great, as we have already shown, and it is
reported as melting the ice more rapidly than the heat of the sun,
even in summer, and rain is reported in every month in the year
in Spitzbei^n, Greenland and Jan Mayen, and occurs, no doubt,
in all the glacial regions. So that while the rains melt the ice at
and near the surface, they also melt the snow that falls upon the
tops of the mountains and contribute largely to the formation of
glaciers ; and in this way a vast amount of the rainfall and accu-
mulations of ice pass out of the Arctic Regions in the form of
icebergs, which are dissolved in the ocean.
RscEirr Intelligenge. — ^The most recent intelligence fh>m the
Arctic regions, — that received by the party from the Polaris, of
Capt. Hall's expedition, is of very interesting character, and while
it throws into the shade some of the results of former expeditions,
confirms the most important features of them and adds consider-
ably to our reliable knowledge of the character and geography of
those regions. Capt. Hall, it is generally admitted, was- able to
reach with his vessel up Kennedy Channel, a higher latitude than
was attained by Dr. Kane or his successor. Dr. Hayes, by sledges,
or any other navigator in the same direction, namely, 82^ 16^ He
went beyond the open sea of Morton and the '' iceless ocean " of
Dr. Hayes, and ascertained that what they saw is merely an ex-
pansion of Kennedy Channel, with Washington Land and Grinnell
Land on either side of it, still extending to the north free of ice.
On the eastern side of the channel Capt. Hall found a bay or inlet
twenty miles wide, which it was thought might prove to be the
northern coast line of Greenland. The precise latitude of this
inlet is not given, and it is very probable that it is the same strait
discovered by Capt. Inglefleld, in the steamer Isabel in 1852, and
named by him Murchison Strait. He places it in latitude 77^ 80'
and likewise supposed it to form the northern limit of Greenland.
Capt. Inglefleld saw the open sea stretching, as he supposed, at
least to latitude 80^, but was prevented by a heavy gale from sail-
ing farther into it. North of this inlet in latitude SV 88', Capt.
Hall locates Polaris Bay, in which he passed the winter of 1871,
140 A. 1IATHBMATI08, PHT8I08 AND 0HBMI8TBT.
beyond the highest point reached by his predecessors. The land
on the eastern shore of the channel trends to the northeast as
far as Bepalse Harbor, latitude 82^ 9', the highest point reached
by land, and that on the west shore appeared to terminate in a
head-land in latitude 84^. These evidences of the extension of the
land towards the north, it will be seen, essentially reduce the size
of the open sea and leave ns in the dilemma of a recent writer,
who, almost on the same page, declares that there is no assignable
reason for the supposition that Greenland extends to the pole, and
none to conjecture that EUesmere Land does not so project.
CoNCLUSioK. — In concluding this discussion we may congratu-
late the Association that, after more than three hundred years of
exploration and effort, we have reached, it is to be hoped, an ap-
proximation to the truth in regard to these interesting regions ;
and although we cannot claim for our country that it was among
the early laborers in this field, we* may point to our efforts, our
achievements and the results attained, with pride and satisfaction.
It belongs to England to say that her brave and courageous navi-
gators have circumscribed, if not circumnavigated, the North
American continent ; and to her also, as yet, the Airther honor
of having made (in modem times) the nearest approach to the
pole in the person of her noble son. Sir William Edward Parry.
Nevertheless, the labors of Kane and Morton, Hayes and HaU,
have added much to our knowledge of the Arctic regions ; and
it would seem, by their discoveries and explorations more clearly
than ever before, have opened the way to that mysterious polar
sea which has been so long the object of such laborious and peril-
ous effort, and of such absorbing interest.
CoBBEcnoN. — ^In the Dubuque paper on this subject, vol. xxi
of the Proceedings, the reader is requested to strike out the word
*^ thousand" on p. 112, 2l8t line, probably an accidental interpo-
lation of the compositor (as it is not in the manuscript), unfortu-
nately not detected by the proof reader, and, as it stands, a most
egregious error of statement.
A. XATHEICATIGS, PBTSIGS AKD CHEUISTBT. 141
A MoDmcATioN or ths Vagxtum ob Filter Pump, that can
BS USXD WITH FBOM THBXB TO FIYB FEET FALL OF WATEB AND
DOBS NOT EASILT OBT OUT OF BBPAEB. Bj A. £. FOOTB, Of
Ames, Iowa.
The introdaction of the Sprengel vacuam or filter pump, so
widely known by the commendation that it received from Prof.
Hansen, was limited by the fact that most laboratories did not
possess the necessary fall of water.
The discovery by Jogno, in 1872, of the vibrating tube and valve
will not only widely extend the use of the filter pump, but also
afford a substitute for the cumbersome original form. In attempt-
ing to introduce Jogno's apparatus, I, together with many others,
found that there were several defects to be overcome. Among
these the worst was that the valve became stiff after a short period
of use, getting out of order and working imperfectly if at all.
To obviate this difficulty Prof. T. E. Thorpe devised a new form
of valve, a description of which was read before the British Asso-
ciation last fall. An abstract of this paper may be found in the
^* American Journal of Science and Arts" for April, 1878.
Thorpe's valve is difficult of construction, works very badly un-
less perfect and soon wears out. The device that I present for
your consideration is exceedingly simple and easily constructed,
since it can be made of common materials by any plumber or
worker in iron. It has been in use in our laboratory for some
time and we easUy produce by it a vacuum of twenty-six inches
of mercury.
The following is a description of the apparatus as modified by
myself. A A is a tube three feet or more in length and from three-
eighths to one inch in diameter ; to the side of this, by means of a
T, an arm B is affixed. This arm is from four to eight inches in
length and may have a manometer tube attached. C is a caoutchouc
vibrating tube which conducts the water to A. The upper end of
A, over which it is thrust, is cut off at an angle of about 40^. The
vibrations are regulated by an arm D. To B, is attached a rubber
tube £ which leads to the vacuum bell Jar or bottle. Within B
and at or near its connection with A, is fixed by cement the valve
represented in Fig. 2. This is constructed as follows : the end of
a metal plug is filed off as represented in Fig. 2, leaving a tongue
of metal in the centre, which is driven down upon a flat of thin
142 X. KATHZIUTICS, PHT8IC9 iXD CHEWSTBT.
sheet caoutchouc, holding thU upon the holes, Trhtch penetrate the
plug aad communicate with a channel Sled on the lower side of
the plug as repreaented. The holes, in order to be perfectly closed
bj the flap, must be at least one-sixteenth of an inch in diameter.
A clamp placed upon £ and used to retain the vacuum maj also
be made to regulate the rapidity of filtration or evaporation ; this
may be done more economically by means of a stopcock F, inserted
in C to regulate the flow of water.
I have been led thus fully to detail this piece of apparatus fh>m
the belief that, as soon as known, Its simplicity, compactness) effi-
cient working and cheapness of construction will cause its general
IntroducUon in laboratories even where a fall of thirty feet of
water can be obtained without dtfllculty. Its value, not only for
A. MATHBICATIGS, PHYSICS AJSTD CHSMISTBT. 148
rapid and difficult filtrations, but also for evaporations where the
application of heat is objectionable, cannot be oyerestimated.
I take pleasure in acknowledging my indebtedness to Prof.
Alexander Thomson for much aid, especially for the mechanical
execution of the work and the drawings that accompany this
article.
In this connection a simple piece of apparatus, devised by one
of our students, deserves mention on account of its simplicity,
convenience and efficiency. It is ample for all ffitrations where
but a slight vacuum is needed. To the top of the shelving above
the table and sink, fastena tube (rubber). Connect one end of
this with the water supply pipe, the other with the bulb of a
thistle tube by means of a glass tube inserted in a rubber cork ;
through another hole in the rubber cork carry a tube which is
connected with a large vacuum bottle. The vacuum produced will
be proportional to the column of water supported in the thistle
tabe and its connections. The waste water is, of course, allowed
to flow into the sink.
The Chemicai. Composition op a Copper Matte. By T. Stbbbt
Hunt, of Boston, Mass.
ABSTBAOT.
The name of matte or regulus is given to a product obtained in
smelting partially roasted sulphuretted copper ores, and consisting
in great part of sulphur and copper ; it is the result of a process
of concentration. A specimen of this, holding forty-five per cent,
of copper, beside iron and sulphur, was found to give up the greater
part of its iron to dilute acids, with the escape of f^ee hydrogen
and sulphuretted hydrogen gases. It precipitated metallic copper
and metallic lead abundantly from their neutral solutions, and
contained apparently the greater part of its iron in a metallic
state. When oxidized by nitric acid or by bromine, it left a res-
idue of more than ten per cent, of grains of pure magnetic oxide
Hi A. 1LLTHV1LLTI08, FHTSIOS XSD GHBinSTBT.
of iron, and the dissolved portion contained about thirteen eqaiv-
alents each of copper and sulphur, besides eight of iron and a
little zinc. It was, as might be expected, strongly magnetic.
The author insisted upon the apparent anomalj exhibited in the
association in a furnace-product of a stable oxide of iron with a
Bulphuret, the affinities being curiously balanced in the fhsed mass.
The presence of metallic iron at the same time he explained as the
result of a partial dissociation of a double sulphuret of copper and
iron on cooling. His inquiries in this matter are not yet finished,
but throw an unexpected light on some fkmace-reactions, as the
treatment of iron in the Bessemer process, and also on the produc-
tion in nature of many igneous and volcanic rocks.
Detehminatiok of Tbaksatlantio Lokgftudes. By J. £. Hil-
GABD, of Washington, D. C.
[Commanlcated by permiBBion of Prof. Benjamin Peirce* Snpt. U. S. Coast Surrey.]
The exact determination of the longitude of some point in the
triangulation of the Coast Survey, fh>m the principal observatories
of £urope, forms one of the most important problems of that
work, and all the various means known to science have been suc-
cessively brought to bear on its solution. The Ck>ast Survey
Reports from 1848 to 1866 show that the methods of moon-culmi-
nations, of chronometer transportation and of lunar occultations,
have each in turn received a large share of attention. The latter
method has not yet yielded the fhll results that may be expected
of it, in consequence of the infrequency with which corresponding
observations are obtained in Europe and America, owing to the
parallactic displacement of the moon ; it cannot be doubted, how-
ever, that with a suitably organized system of observation, this
method will, in time, give results of great exactness.
Upon the successful completion of the Atlantic telegraph from
Ireland to Newfoundland, measures were at once taken to make
use of that means for the determination of the longitude between
the two continents. The results of these operations, conducted
▲. KATHEMATICS, PHYSICS Ain> CHEIOSTBT. 145
by Dr. B. A. Goald, have been given at length in the Report for
1867. Although far more certain than the previous results, the
value thus obtained still lefb a larger margin of doubt as to its
precision, than is desirable in so ftindamental a determination.
This uncertainty, which probably does not exceed one quarter
second of time, is owing in part to the fact that, though we can
measure the total time of transmission of signals through the
cable and back again, we are unable to separate the duration in
opposite directions and are obliged to assume it equal, an
assumption which may not be exact within a sensible fraction of
a second.
When the laying of the French cable, from Brest in France to
Duxbury in Massachusetts, afforded an independent means of ver-
ifying the former result by observations under entirely different
conditions, the opportunity was promptly seized, and the longitude
between Brest and Duxbury determined by G. W. Dean, Assist-
ant in the Coast Survey, as set forth in the Report for 1870.
At this time, no cable was yet in operation between Brest and
England, so that Mr. Dean was unable to carry his determination
direct to the Observatory at Greenwich. Such a cable having
smce been laid, the wanting link in the chain of longitudes was
supplied, during the past summer, by J. E. Hilgard, Assistant in
the Coast Survey, who temporarily gave up the charge of the
Coast Survey Office, in order to bring this much desired operation
to a satisfactory conclusion. While reoccupying Brest for that
purpose, it appeared in every way desirable that the experiments
through the French cable should be repeated ; this time with an
intennediate station at St. Pierre, where the long cable makes a
landing. That part of the operations which connected St. Pierre
with Cambridge was under the immediate direction of G. W.
Dean.
The general plan of operations was to unite at Brest, signals
from St. Pierre, from Greenwich and from Paris, sent nearly at
the same time and compared by means of the Brest chronograph ;
and to determine the personal equations of the several observers
through one of them, who should observe successively with all
the rest. This was done by Sub-assistant F. Blake, Jr., who
ably assisted Mr. Hilgard throughout the work. Through the
kindness and assistance of Sir George B. Airy, the Astronomer
A.A.A.S. VOL. xxn. 10
146 A. MATHEMATICS, PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRT.
Royal of England, and of Mr. Delaunay, the distinguished Direo-*
tor of the Paris Observatory, whose lamented death occurred
while the operations were in progress, and through the generous
courtesy of the French Atlantic Telegraph Company, and of the
Submarine Telegraph Company, the work was brought to a suc-
cessful conclusion in the month of September, 1872.
In the course of these operations the longitude between Paris
and Greenwich has been incidentally determined in two different
ways; first, in July, via Brest, and afterwards, in September,
between Greenwich and Paris direct, through the " Submarine"
cable via Calais. These two determinations are not entirely inde-
pendent of each other, since the personal equation between Blake
and the Paris observer enters into both, but the near satisfaction
of the equation (Brest — Paris + Paris — Greenwich -[-Greenwich
— Brest) :=0, or the closing of that longitude triangle, must enti-
tle the results obtained to great confidence.
We now proceed to give some account of the instruments and
methods, before reciting the principal results.
Bbest — Greenwich — Paris.
The station at Brest was chosen on the place d'armes in fh)nt
of the Transatlantic Telegraph Company's Office, with which it
was connected by wires. It was found to be 8*46" south and
0*44' east of the tower of St. Louis church, a point in the trigo-
nometrical survey of France.
The instruments used were a transit instrument by Sinmis, of
45 inches focal length, and 25 inches transit axis, with a diaphragm
of 15 lines ; a circuit-breaking chronometer by Bond, and a Bond
chronograph.
The plan adopted for determining the clock corrections pro-
vides for observations in both right and left position of the tran-
sit telescope, a set in each position comprising five time stars and
two circumpolars, one above and one below the pole. By this
system it is practicable to deduce the azimuthal deviation of the
instrument independently for either position, and even to arrive at
a fair value of the coUimation, when observations have been ob-
tained in but one position.
A careful determination of the inequality of pivots was made
A. MATHEMATICS, PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY. 147
by a series of levelings, and the corrections found to be due were
applied in the reduction of the observations.
The chronometer is fitted with a circuit-breaking attachment by
which the current is interrupted for an instant every two seconds
and likewise at the fifty-ninth second, to mark the minute. In
order to avoid the Inconvenience arising f^om the deflagi*ation
of contact surfaces, by the spark developed at the break, a branch
circuit, including a resistahce-coil, was introduced according to
the device of Mr. Hilgard, bridging the break, and permitting the
ready passage of the secondary current, while the resistance is
too great to affect sensibly the recording magnet.
It will be observed that the rate«of this chronometer was not
only determined by the observations made at Brest, but was also
checked by daily comparisons with the clocks at Paris and Green-
wich. Its performance was very satisfactory.
The observations of star transits and the time scale were re-
corded on the chronograph with the same pen, whereby any cor-
rection for relative position of the pens or styles is avoided, and
the reading much facilitated.
At the Paris Observatory the general arrangements for the
work were committed to Mr. Loewy, who lent a most cordial co-
operation to our work. The chronographic method of recording
time observations, not then in ordinary use at the Observatory,
was adopted for the present occasion, and the assistant astron-
omer, Mr. L. F. Folain, who made all the coiTcsponding observa-
tions, devoted a fortnight to preliminary practice with the new
method, so as to obtain a settled habit of observing. The large
transit instrument (lunette meridienne) was employed for the work,
which was prosecuted with the greatest assiduity. The instrument
was reversed twice on each night, and two complete sets of ob-
servations were made, each comprising eight stars in each posi-
tion of the instrument, beside clrcumpolars and micrometer
readings on the meridian mark.
After completing the observations at Brest, Mr. Blake trans-
ported his instruments to Paris and mounted his transit on a pier
that had been provided for the purpose, a short distance to the
south of the observatory transit, very nearly in its meridian, in
the garden. Each ob^rver now determined the time with his own
instruments and after his own method, and compared the time-
148 A. MATHEMATICS, PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY.
keepers in the same way as had been done between Brest and
Paris ; the personal equation thus obtained including all peculiari-
ties that may arise from instrumental causes.
At Greenwich the regular routine of observing was followed,
as described in the Greenwich observations, the observers changing
in a certain rotation, two observers generally determining the
clock corrections on each day and their observations being referred
to a common standard by the personal equations derived from the
comparisons thus obtained.
When Mr. Blake, after completing the work at Paris, went to
Greenwich for the purpose of comparing his personal equation
with that of the Greenwich observers, his transit was mounted on
a pier erected for the purpose by order of the Astronomer Royal,
and again observed in his accustomed way, comparing his time-
keeper telegraphically with the Greenwich clock and likewise with
that at Paris, where Mr. Folain was still keeping up his corre-
sponding observations. The Coast Survey party are specially
indebted to Mr. William Ellis, who, under the direction of .the
Astronomer Royal, aided them in every way in the prosecution
of the work.
The place of the pier, which has since been marked by a slab of
marble bearing the inscription ^^Hilgard" is 0*160* west and 1*74:"
south of the Greenwich transit circle.
The method of exchanging signals was by means of arbitrary
signals sent over the line and recorded on the chronograph at each
station. These signals were sent for five minutes at approximate
intervals of five seconds, but the intervals were purposely varied
so as to give different fractional readings. At eleven, P. M.,
Greenwich began sending to Brest, then Brest sent to Greenwich,
next Brest to Paris and finally Paris to Brest. Between Green-
wich and Brest but one series of signals was exchanged on each
night, as the free use of the cable could not be granted for more
than ten minutes. Between Brest and Paris, however, a wire was
placed at the disposal of the party from eight, P. M., for the night
and, in general, two series of exchanges were obtained.
The observations of Mr. Blake have been reduced in the fol-
lowing manner. The chronograph sheets having been indepen-
dently read by two persons and readings collated, each evening's
work was reduced by Mr. Blake, on the plan of deriving the colli-
A. MATHEICATICS, PHTSICS AXD CHEMI8TRT. 149
mation and the azimuthal deviation of the instrument from all
the observed stars by means of the usual normal equations, giving
equal weight to all the stai's-— the clock correction being finally
determined from stars within 60** declination, omitting the cir-
cumpolars, by applying the instrumental corrections previously
obtained. In a more elaborate second computation made by R.
Keith, each conditional equation was affected by a weight depend-
ing upon the star's declination according to a law derived from
the observations themselves, and moreover separate values for the
azimuthal deviation, before and after reversal, were deduced.
The resulting clock corrections, obtained by the two methods of
reduction, show a very good agreement, the average difference
being only 0-017' ; the sum of the residuals for each star is less in
the second than in the first in the ratio of twenty-six to thirty-one ;
but it should be observed that in consequence of the introduction
of four instead of three variables in the equation, the observations
should be better represented in something near that ratio, and
only a small improvement can be ascribed to the use of weights.
This matter will be found more fully discussed in the Coast Sur-
vey Keport for 1872, when the observations of the American party
will be given in full. Those made at Paris and Greenwich will
be found in the regular publications of those observatories.
The right ascensions used in these reductions are a mean of
those of the Washington Observatory from 1862 to 1867, and of
the Harvard College Observatory from June to November, 1872.
They do not agree precisely with either the Greenwich or the
Paris right ascensions, but the differences are small. It would
certainly have been desirable to use the same data in the reduc-
tion of the observations at all stations, but as Greenwich and
Paris do not agree in their standard places, it was thought best to
use the list adopted for the Coast Survey work and let the acci-
dental variations be merged in the errors of observation, while
any systematic difference in the places would form part of the
personal equation. The longitudes cannot, in any sensible degree,
be affected by the differences adverted to.
We will now give a table of chronometer corrections, as de-
duced by the second method of reduction, to show the perform-
ance of the timekeeper, followed by a specimen of one night's
work, and finally a tabular statement of the results for longitude.
150
A. MATHEMATICS, PHYSICS Ain> CHEMISTBT.
Corrections of chronometer Bond, No. 880, at 18h., S. T.,from
observations by F. Blake, Jr.
Place.
Date.
CorrectioD.
Hourly rate.
Brest.
July
B
s
1
-3-741
— 018
8
-a-760
•019
4
+3-370
•018
6
H
hl-953
•018
9
+0-049
•020
11
— 0^933
•024
12
—1-651
•029
14
—2139
•010
17
—2-803
•009
18
—3054
•010
19
—3010
•002
20
—3-261
•003
21
—3-391
•009
22
—3-702
•012
23
—4-053
•015
Paris.
AugVLBt
—1-470
+•006
17
—1322
—•001
18
—1-848
•003
19
—1-382
•006
20
-1-530
•006
Greenwich.
August
28
-1-725
+ 004
80
-1^895
■018
81
-2 205
•007
8
-^•706
•017
4
-4-109
•015
•
6
-4-469
•021
6
-4-945
•023
7
-5-508
•030
9
-6-885
•080
10
1-7 030
•031
Brest, July 5, 1872. Observer F. Blake, Jr.
star.
L.
ObBerved time
of transit.
Corrections.
Level.
Azim.
Coll.
ui Bootis •••••••
£
W
W
15 19 39M05
29 15-65
48 43-61
16 15 53-70
22 16-42
28 15-92
41 16-85
51 36-58
66 53-03
17 8 48-68
37 4402
— 14
— 11
—•87
—•08
—•13
— 19
+ 07
— 03
—•02
+ 00
+ 00
+-01
+ 01
— 06
+•00
— 01
— 02
—•30
— 09
—•04
—•08
+•13
ft.
+ 06
+ 05
+•22
+•07
+ 10
+ 1S
+ 18
— 07
— *oa
a Cor. Bor
i Ursa Minor
T Herculis.... .......
« Dracon is..........
A Draconis..........
9 Camelop. L. C
K Oobiuchi..........
d Herculis
a' Herculis
—•OR
ft Draconia
— '40
▲• KATHEMATIOS, PHYSICS AND CHSHISTBT.
151
Star.
L.
Time of Merid-
ian Transit.
Ttight
Ascension.
Clock
Corrections.
ji'BootU
£
£
w
15 19 88-97
29 15*60
48 43-40
16 15 68*09
22 16*88
28 15*84
41 16*80
51 86*89
56 52-88
17 08 48*42
87 43*96
b. m. a.
15 19 40-92
29 17-65
15 4& 45*43
16 15 56-67
22 18-83
28 17*82
41 18-60
51 88-88
56 54*80
17 06 50-52
87 45-68
+1-95
2-06
2*08
1*98
a Cor. Bor.
^Ursa Minor
T Hercnlis
i| Draconls
A Draconifl.
1*96
1-98
9 Camelop. L. C...
« Ophiachi
1*80
1*99
d Rffrr-qlfif T r t ..*.... .
1*92
a'HerciJIis
2-10
M Draconis
1*78
h. 1.
Clock correction at 16*4. Sid. T. +1*982.
CoIIim. = —056. Aximuth for Lp. E. +-026 ; for Lp. W. —•182.
The first reduction, without weights, had given clock correction +1986, collimation
—'010, azimuth — *077.
The " observed time of transit " is the mean of fifteen threads.
TELBOBAFH 8IONAL8 BETWEEN BBE8T A2n> GREENWICH.
Oreenwich to Brest. Brest to Greenwich,
July 5, 1872.
m. *. m. ■.
Difltoence, mean of 80 signals, +17 11*101 Difference, mean of 80 signals, +17 11*134
Correction of Brest clock, — 1*950 Correction of Brest clock, — 1*948
Correction of Greenwich clock, + 47*900
Longitude— Signal time, +17 57*051
Mean, +17 57068
Correction of Greenwich clock, + 47*000
Longitude + Signal time, +17 57*086
Signal thne, 0018
TELEGRAPH SIGNALS BETWEEN BREST AND PARIS.
Paris to Brest. Brest to Paris.
July 5, 1872, 1st Exchange.
Difllerenee, mean of 30 signals, +27 40*813
Correction of Paris Clock, — 20*570
Correction of Brest Clock, — 1-996
Longitude — Signal time, +27 18*278
Mean, +37 18*323
Difference, mean of 30 signals,
Correction of Paris clock,
Correction of Brest clock.
Longitude + Signal time,
Signal time.
July 5, 1872, 2nd Exchange.
Difference, mean of 30 signals, +27 40*833
Correction of Paris clock, — 20-601
Correction of Brest clock, — 1*958
Longitude— Signal time, +27 18*274
Mean, +27 18-332
Difference, mean of 30 signals,
Correction of Paris clock,
Correction of Brest clock.
Longitude + Signal time.
Signal time.
4^40-968
— 20-574
— • 1990
+27 18*369
0-046
m. ■.
+27 40-949
— 20602
— 1*967
+37 18-390
0-068
I
152
▲• MATHBMATXOS, FHTSICS AND CHBMISTBT.
BBSULT8 OF OBSEBYAHONB FOB PERSONAL BQUATXOK.
ParU,
Blake, west of Folain, August 16,
17,
18,
19,
20,
-0-136
+0-075
+0-198 '
+0076
+0-054
Blake, west of Folain, mean,
+0'(»8 +0-087
Oreenwkh.
Coast Surrey Station reduced to Transit circle.
Beductlon, —0*16
Date.
Blake east of obserrer.
Reduction to standard
observer.
Blake east of sten
dard obserrer.
August 28
SO
81
September 8
5
6
7
9
J. C. +0-070
L. +0-427
E. — 0124
H. C. —0001
L. +0-866
J. -O025
J. C. —0-050
Std. +0-005
E.-0117
+(foio
-0-240
+0-230
0-000
—0-240
+0-060
+0-010
0-000
+0-280
+0-(«0
- -0-187
+0-106
-0001
+0-125
--O035
—0-040
-M)-005
+0-118
Blake east of Greenwich standard obserrer, mean
+0-068JlOH)16
LONOITUDBS.
Brest— QrtenuHdi,
17 57-149
Julyl,
8, 67-124
4, 67-190
6, 57-068
11, 17 67-096
Mean, 17 57-097 jl 0-016
Personal Equation, « +0-0682^0016
Difference of Longitude, 17 57*165 3! 0-029
Brttt— Parts.
B. fL
Jidy 1, 27 18-232
8, 18.268
4, 18192
6 18-328
0, 18-369
19, 18186
20, 18-331
21, 18-207
22 27 18*166
Mean, 27 18252 + 0-o'i6
Personal Equation, —0-063 j]| 0-037
Difference of Longitude 27 18-199^0-039
A. MATHEMATICS, PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY. 158
Greemeieh — Parit.
t.
Angnetas, 9 21020
81, 21000
Sept. 7, 21062
9 20-9U
10, 21006
Mean, 9 21000 + 0016
Personal Equation, —0063 j^ 0037
Bedaction to Greenwich transit, +0*160
Difference of Longitude 9 21-107^0*039
The results of the first computation were as follows :
m, a,
Brest— Greenwich .^ 17 67124
Brest— Paris 27 18176
Greenwich — Paris ...... 9 21*116
difTering but very little from the preceding values.
The sum of the values Brest — Greenwich + Greenwich — Paris
exceeds the direct determination Brest — Paris by 0-073% which
is within the limits of the assigned probable errors. If we now
distribute this residual among the three values, without regard to
weights, and omit the thousandths of seconds, we shall find as the
resulting longitudes :
m. s.
Brest — Greenwich 17 57'14
Greenwich — Paris 9 21*08 •
Brest— Paris 27 18-22
It appears that the uncertainty of any of the above values does
not probably exceed 0-03'. If we compare them with other deter-
minations heretofore made, we find that Brest — Paris was deter-
mined telegraphically in 1863, under the direction of Mr. Le
Verrier, when the longitude of the ^^tour de St. Louis" from the
^^ meridienne de France" (the centre of the Paris observatorj*) was
found to be 27"* 18*49' (Annales de I'Observatoire de Paris, viii,
1866, p. 279). In order to reduce our own result to the same
point of reference, we must deduct 0-12 at Paris and add 0-44' at
Brest, whence we obtain 27" 18*54', differing but 0-05' from that
fouDd by the French operations, which were very elaborate and are
published in full ; or if we compare with our direct determination,
the difference is only 0'03*.
154
A. MATHEMATICS, PHT8ICS AND CHEMISTBT.
The loDgitude between the observatories of Greenwich and Paris
was determined in 1854 at the instance of Mr. Le Verrier. The
result then obtained, 9" 20'63% which is nearly half a second less
than that resulting from our recent work, has ever since been ac-
cepted, but the Paris observations, upon which it depends, have
never been published. Partly owing to this fact, and partly
because in those operations the chronographic method was not
used, the Central European Geodesic Association had, at its ses-
sion at Vienna, in the autumn of 1871, expressed the wish that it
should be redetermined. In pursuance of this expression, Mr.
Delaunay had already entered into correspondence with Mr. Airy
when the American party came into the field and, desiring to refer
their longitude to each observatory independently, obtained leave
to determine the difference between the same as an incidental
part of their operations. It is to be presumed that another deter-
mination will be made before long to verify this important datum.
Another combination of the results may be made in Ihe follow-
ing manner. Remarking that on four occasions observations were
had at Greenwich, Brest and Paris on the same evenings, we may
deduce the longitude Greenwich — Paris directly, without using
the observations at Brest, when we oblain
Greenwich— Paris, July 1
l( 41 II 2
U (I l( 2
11 11 11 ^
Mean
Personal equation
Longitude
9 21*083
•142
•SGO
9 21138
— 121
9 21018
The personal equation here applied is that between Folain and
the Greenwich Standard Observer as derived through Blake, viz. :
•053 -|- '068, as previously given in detail. Combining the result
of these four nights with that of the five when Blake observed at
Greenwich, viz. : 9"» 2M07', we get Greenwich— Paris 9" 21-07'.
Combining farther the two determinations Brest — Paris (1872),
27"» 18-20, Brest— Paris (1863), 27" 18-17' and Brest— Greenwich
(1872), 17" 57-16' with the foregoing, we shall obtain, as the most
probable values that can be assigned,
tn. 8.
Brest — Greenwich 17 57*14
Greenwich — Paris 9 21 '06
Brest — Paris 27 18*20
a. mathematics, physics anp chemistry. 155
Brest — St. Pierre — Cambridge.
It was intended that the observations at and exchanges of sig-
nals between the American stations should be as nearly simulta-
neous with those in Europe as the weather might allow, in order
that the intermediate stations at Brest and St. Pierre should sen-
sibly disappear from the determination of the longitude of Cam-
bridge from Greenwich and Paris. Such simultaneous operations
proved, however, to be impracticable in consequence of the condi-
tion of the cables. The long cable between Brest and St. Pierre
was working badly, and required to be repaired before it was fit
for our use. When this was accomplished it proved to have a
better insulation than ever before, and transmitted the signals
with great sharpness. Meantime the cable between St. Pierre and
Duxbury had been broken and could not be repaired during the
summer, in consequence of which otir arrangements required to be
changed. Mr. Dean, who had charge of the American part of the
operations, at once proceeded to make arrangements for exchang-
ing signals between St. Pierre and Cambridge over the Nova
Scotia and New Brunswick telegraph lines, connected with St.
Pierre by a short cable, and working with ordinary Morse registers,
so that this part of the work offers no unusual features, the signals
being registered automatically on the chronograph. The signals
sent through the Brest -St. Pierre cable, on the contrary, were
observed by means of the Thomson galvanometer, as heretofore
described in the account of the 1867 longitude operations by Dr.
Goul^. The cable was working so well that no special battery or
signal arrangements were required, a single current at intervals of
five seconds giving a very sharp movement of the index, which
returned to its zero before the next signal was sent. The personal
equation of each observer, in perceiving and recording these sig-
nals upon his chronograph by tapping a key, was frequently deter-
mined by means of a short circuit, and was found to be very
constant for each observer as well as nearly equal for both. For
Blake at Brest it was 0-24% and for Goodfellow at St. Pierre 0-28*.
The station at St. Pierre was in charge of Mr. Edward Good-
fellow, Assistant in the Coast Survey, who had taken part in the
two previous determinations of transatlantic longitude by cable.
All the observations were made by himself. The observer at
Cambridge was Mr, Edwin Smith, of the Coast Survey. The
i
156 A. MATHEKATICS, PHTSICS AKD CHEMI8TRT.
instrament was mounted on a pier, one hundred and eight feet to
the west of the observatory dome, to which our longitudes are
usually referred, requiring a reduction of 0-096*. Three piers were
built in this temporary observatory, permitting the three transit
instruments used in the expedition to be mounted in the same
meridian at one time. This was done after the return of the
observers from Europe and St. Pierre, for the purpose of deter-
mining their personal equations and some instrumental constants.
The instruments were alike in construction, having forty-five inches
focal length, twenty-five inches transit axis, mounted on a heavy
cast iron stand and provided with a reversing apparatus. They
differed, however, in the arrangement of the diaphragm lines, Mr.
Goodfellow having preferred the usual spider lines, Mr. Blake a
system of double lines ruled on glass, and Mr. Smith single lines
ruled on glass. The personal equations were compared by each
observer determining the time with his own instrument in the cus-
tomary manner, using the same stars, as well as by observing at
the same instrument the transit of the same stars over alternate
tallies of lines. The results by the two methods were found not
to differ sensibly.
The personal equations found are *
Blake places himself East of Smith . . 0*-07
" " " West of Goodfellow . 0'-04
Goodfellow places himself East of Smith . 0"*11
The first datum only enters into the longitude Cambridge —
Brest, since Goodfellow occupied an intermediate position.
Advantage was taken of the opportunity of placing the three
transit instruments in the same meridian, for the purpose of test-
ing them as to flexure of the transit axis, by comparing in each the
line of collimation as indicated by reversals, right and left, with
that resulting from revolving it about the axis, using the two
other instruments as collimators, each being in turn placed in the
middle. The collimation resulting from the observation of cir-
cumpolar stars in the direct and reversed positions was likewise
compared with that from reversal in the horizontal direction of the
telescope, using the adjoining one as a mark. The results fully
confirmed that there are no sensible inequalities of flexure in these
instruments.
At the request of the Superintendent of the U. S. Naval Obser-
A. MATHEMATICS, PHTSICS AND CHEMISTRT. . 157
vatory in Washington, signals were also exchanged between St.
Pierre and Washington daring the progress of the work, and sub-
sequently the several observers compared personal equations. Of
this portion of the work no results have yet been reported. The
second and more elaborate computations of the longitudes St.
Pierre — -Brest and Cambridge — St. Pierre are also still in prog-
ress while this report is going to press, and the final results cannot
therefore be given at this time. But they cannot differ materially
from those of the preliminary computations, given below, which
were made by the observers in the field.
The difference in the time between Brest and St. Pierre, as
derived from eastern and western signals, including the personal
eqaatioDS of the operators and the time of transmission forward
and back through the cable, was on the average 1*19", varying
five-hundredths from the mean. Deducting from this the sum of the
personal equations 0*47', we find for twice the time of transmis-
sion through the cable, 0-72% or 0'36* for a distance of twenty-two
hundred nautical miles. The signal time between St. Pierre and
Cambridge was 0*14*.
The following are the results for longitude :
St. Pierre — Brest, mean of seren nights 3 26 45-20 ^ 0*05
Cambridge — Brest, mean of eight nights 69 48*78 j^ 0*03
Correction for personal equation, S.— B —0*07 j[ 0*03
Beduction to Harvard Observatory dome -0*09
Harvard— Brest 4 20 83-82J30.06
Brest— Greenwich (as above) 17 67'14J[0'03
Harvard— Greenwich 4 44 30*96^30*07
The' term Harvard is here used to denote the centre of dome of
the Harvard College Observatory at Cambridge, U. S.
Comparing now this result with those formerly obtained, we
have for the operations of 1870 :
Cambridge transit— Bnxbnry 0 1 60*23 "^0*02
Bednction transit to dome —0*04
Dnzbaiy— Brest, station of 1870 4 24 42*873^0*05
Bednction station 1870tol872 +0*79
Brest, 1872- Greenwich 0 17 57'14~^0*08
Haryard— Greenwich 4 44 80*99~^o*
06
158 A. MATHEMATICS, PHTSICS AKD CHEMISTRY.
The figures for Cambridge — Duxbury and Duxbury — Brest are
taken from No. xvi, Memoirs of the American Academy, Cam-
bridge, 1873, by Prof. J. Lovering, who had charge of the compu-
tations. By reference to that publication it will seem that in
those operations the ends of the two cables were joined at St.
Pierre, by bringing their several condensers into contact, and in
this way the signals were exchanged directly between Brest and
Duxbury. The method of transmission was thus quite different
in the two campaigns, and the close agreement of results can only
be held as dissipating all doubt as to the sensible equality of the
rate of transmission in opposite directions.
We will finally compare the preceding results with those ob-
tained in 1866 through the Ireland-Newfoundland cables by the
operations conducted by Dr. B. A. Gould, a full account of which
is published in the Coast Survey Report for 1867, and also in
volume xvi of the Smithsonian Contributions. The results there
given lack one link in order to be complete, that being the per-
sonal equation between Mosman, the observer at Foilhommerura,
and the standard observer at Greenwich. This defect we have
endeavored to supply, as far as is practicable after the lapse of
some years, through the personal Equations between Mosman,
Blake and the Greenwich observers in the followingjnanner. The
well ascertained equation between Blake and Mosman is that
Blake places himself 0-09' to the west of Mosman. He is, more-
over, 0-07' to the east of the present Greenwich standard observer
(Criswick), who again is -ll' to the east of the standard ob-
server of 1867 (Dunkin). Hence we deduce that Mosman placed
himself 0-05* more east than Dunkin, and the former difference of
longitude between Greenwich and Foilhommerum must be in-
creased by that amount.
The figures given in the publications above referred to require
some other correction^ in consequence of the personal equations
having been applied with the wrong sign. We therefore recite
the several links of the combination as follows :
li. m. t.
1866. Greenwich to Foilhommernm 0 41 S3*S4
1866. FoUhommcnmi to Hearts Content 2 61 56'32
1866. Hearts Content to Calais 0 55 87-97
1857. C^als to Bangor 0 6 OOSl
1851. Bangor to Harvard Obserratory 0 9 23*06
Greenwicb to Harvard Observatory 4 44 81-00
Considering the number of separate determinations entering
A. liATHEMATICS, PHYSICS AND CHEHISTBT. 159
into this result, we cannot well ascribe to it a probable error less
than ± 0-10% even when dismissing all further question of the
inequality of transmission time in opposite directions. .The close
agreement of the three independent determinations made in dif-
ferent years is therefore no less surprising than it is satisfactory.
We have :
LOKGITUDE OF HABVABD OBSEBYATOBT FBOM QBEENWICH.
ta. a. ■. ■■
1806 4 a 81-00J[^0*10
1870 8009 j^ 0-06
1873 80-96 + 0-07
Mean 4 44 80-08 + 0*05
To deduce finally the longitude of the dome of the U. S. Naval
Observatory in Washington City we add 23™ 41 '11', the value de-
duced from the elaborate determinations in 1867, published in the
Coast Survey for 1870 (Appendix, No. 13), and find
Washington— Greenwich . . . 5** 08™ 12-09",
and further, using the value Greenwich — Paris = 9™ 21*06 above
obtained, we have
Washington— Paris . . . . 5^ 17" 33-15'.
Apparatus for Illustrating the variation of Wave Lengths
BT THE Motion of its Origin. By E. S. Morse, of Salem,
Mass.
ABSTRACT.
The interesting discoveries of Huggins and others, in deteimin-
ing the direction of movements of bodies in remote star depths,
from displacement of lines in the spectrum, were first alhided
to. It is well known that when a star is approaching the ob-
server the luminiferous waves emitted by it are crowded to-
gether, and on the contrary are separated when the star is receding.
To illustrate this change in the wave lengths, so that it may be
160
A. MATHEMATICS, PHTSICS A3n> CHEMI8TRT.
fairly comprehended by students and the public at large, variooB
comparisons have been made, among the best of which is that of
Proctor, often quoted by Tyndall, which embraced the conception
of a person dropping periodically a series of corks into a stream.
If the person dropping the corks stands in one place, they will be,
fof instance, three feet apart ; if he moves with the stream at a
given rate, they will be say two feet apart ; if he moves up the
stream, dropping them at the same rate, they will be four feet
apart. Another comparison is taken from the sound of the whistle
of an approaching locomotive, which increases in sharpness be-
cause the vibrations are more rapid ; or, receding, diminishes in
pitch. But the latter comparison fails in correctness, because the
waves of light and sound are, strictly speaking, incomparable—
those of sound moving in pulsations, those of the luminiferoos
ether in undulations.
F!g. 1.
iTiA- a.
lifT. 8.
MACHINE TO SHOW VARIATION OP WAVE LENGTHS.
Fig. 1. Appearance of waves when the source fVom which they start is at rest.
Fig. 2. Stiortened waves, when the machine producing them moves in the directton
of their motion ; e. g.^ in the case of a star approaching the observer.
Fig. 3. Lengthened waves, when their source is moving in a contrary direction.
A plan of an instrument was given by which this phenomenon
in the case of light may be easily and plainly illustrated
before a large audience. The instrument consists of a tank
filled with water and set on wheels. On top of this is a compart-
ment containing compressed air. From one end of the tank a
pipe protrudes, which is moved up and down at a fixed rate by
A. MATHEMATICS, PHTSICS AND CHEMI8TBT. 161
simple clockwork. When the cock is opened, allowing the water
to escape from the pipe, the stream assumes a sinuous line, which
may be shown, if brilliantly lighted, across a large audience hall.
This undulatory stream, when the tank is at rest, illustrates a
Inminiferous wave from a stationary source. To exhibit the short-
eniDg or lengthening of the waves of light by the approach or
recession of the luminiferous body, it is only necessary to move
the apparatus rapidly back and forth on the table. As the appa-
ratus moves with the direction of the stream its undulations are
crowded together, and the waves arc consequently shortened. On
the other hand, when the motion of the apparatus is in an oppo-
site direction, the waves are proportionably lengthened. The
advantage of this illustration is that it exhibits precisely what
takes place in the luminiferous waves approaching or receding
from the observer of celestial bodies, producing the displacement
of spectrum lines.
The Solar Photosphere. By S. P. Lakglet, of Allegheny,
Pennsylvania.
Having been engaged, more or less, for the past three years on
the study of the Solar Photosphere, I desire to give, on the part
of the Allegheny Observatory, some brief account of the nature
of this portion of its work in advance of a more complete pub-
lication. The labors of Schwabe, Carrington and others abroad,
and of Peters in this country, have been directed to the deter-
mination of the laws of the motions of spots upon the solar
surface f^om drawings and measurements, and these (supplemented
by photography since for the same purpose, at Kew and else-
where) have left little for others to add in that branch of the
subject. The field of solar research, however, is unlimited, and
the interesting questions, raised by the discussion of recent the-
ories as to the nature of cyclonic action, led me to commence a
series of drawings in which the attempt was made accurately to
delineate upon the largest practicable scale some one spot or
▲. ▲. ▲. 8. VOL. XXII. 11
162 A. MATHEMATICS, PHTSICS AKD OHSMISTBT.
group, from the time of its first appearance at the eastern limb,
daily, until it passed fVom view, for the specific purpose of deter-
mining the extent of any gyratory movement of the spot upon
its own axis, or any motions of its parts among themselves, and
not with the aim of ascertaining the laws of its movement of
translation. While the heliocentric coordinates were therefore
determined only with a precision sufiScient to indicate the spof s
approximate place, the drawing itself was rather a map than a
picture, being intended to embody the results of micrometrical
measurements throughout. I have in accumulating many data
of this kind, which are still awaiting reduction, been led inci-
dentally to a study of the minuter details of the surface, and to
an impression that the interest of recent spectroscopic discoveries
has rather unduly diverted attention from what remains to be done
by the older methods. Although considerable labor has been de-
voted at Allegheny to the class of observations to which I refer,
as well as to a revision of the early researches of Henry with the
thermopile, and the subsequent ones of Secchi, I wish here to give
only some brief account of researches carried on with the tele-
scope alone, and which seem to me to offer some suggestions
which may be of interest in reference to physical theories of the
solar circulation, since they are obtained by a method independent
of the spectroscopic researches upon which these theories have
of late been chiefly based.
I may presume that every student of the subject is acquainted
with the controversy which arose some ten years since out of Mr.
Nasmyth's supposed discovery that the solar photosphere was
composed of bodies shaped like willow .leaves, very definite in
outline and about 0-4" in width by 2-00" in length. Since that
discussion, which left our knowledge of the minute structure of
the photosphere still in an unsatisfactory state, very little indeed
has been done in this direction, and what observations have since
been' added have been often so apparently contradictory, that I
think it would be diflScult to point to an account of any consid-
erable detail which has not been controverted or left in doubt by
some other observer.
The cause of this lies chiefly in the extreme diflaculty of such
observation, yet not wholly. The nomenclature of the subject is
iB a regrettable confusion, scarcely any two observers using their
descriptive terms in the same sense. To fix my own meaning
▲. MATHEMATICS, PHT8IC8 AKD CHBMISTBT. 168
let me premise that by the *'iinclei" of a spot, I refer to certain
dark shades discernible by special caution within the nmbra, in
some cases, and that while not using the word with the exact sig-
nificance that Mr. Dawes seems to have attached to it, I agree
with him in employing it in this restricted sense, where others
have made it a synonyme for the umbras themselves. By *' pores"
I mean relatively dark portions of the photosphere, where the
withdrawal of the aggregations of luminous matter for a little
space exposes a relatively gray medium, in which these incan-
descent aggregations appear elsewhere to float. The word ^^rice-
grains" I use provisionally in the sense apparently attached to it
by Mr. Stone. As it will appear from all I have said that there
is a peculiar liability to misconception here, I aid the explanation
of my meaning as I go on, by these colored drawings,* and will
first briefly describe the appearance of the photosphere in tele-
scopes of moderate power and in good photographs, in order to
prevent any confusion of what is thus seen, with that of the
minute structure hereafter described as visible in the most pow-
erful telescopes only under favorable circumstances.
When with a telescope of moderate power, we project the image
of the sun upon a white surface, we see a disc of nearly uniform
brightness, but which is yet perceptibly grayer at the pircumference
' than near the centre. Elongated and very irregular patches of
white are seen near the edges (very commonly surrounding a spot
there), in relief against this gi'a}', and these (which are the well
known /acu^ce) and the spots themselves are all that at first sight
appear to break the uniformity of the disc. Let us discard them
from mind atid confine our attention to the nearly uniform white
snrface of the central part of the sun. With proper care, and
while still using a moderate aperture, this surface is seen to be
mottled with small .cloud-like forms, which are of no definable
shape, and which elude any attempt to delineate their outline.
They may be observed in some superior photographs of the -sun,
notably in those obtained by Mr. Rutherford, and in those taken
at Cambridge by the refiecting mirror and long horizontal tele-
scope as used by Professor Winlock. They are only well seen,
however, in a comparatively small number of photographs, and
appear to be missed when the atmosphere is not in a very favor-
able state. Still they are visible, as I say, in the projected
* Three drawings in color were exhibited at tlie time the paper waa read.
164 A. MATHEMATICS, PHTSICS AND CHEMISTRY.
image obtained from a telescope of moderate power. Their gen-
eral appearance may be not inaptly compared to that of flocks of
wool strewn on a white cloth, from which their color is just dis-
tinguishable, and I mention this fleecy structure, seen in ordinary
telescopes and good photographs, only to request that it may in
no way be confounded with its far more minute components I am
about to describe.
We shall shortly have occasion to look in the white photo-
spheric surface for bodies which are nearly its own color, and
whose probable diameter is less than 0'^'' of an arc, and as these
lie close together, it is evident that however bright the light, we
cannot avoid the indefiniteness caused by diffraction without the
use of apertures, at least as large as those requisite for the closest
double stars. We must of course then use for this research, tele-
scopes such as are seldom found in private hands, and this, with
the intrinsic interest of the study, points it out as a fit subject
for the employment of the large equatorials of our regular obser-
vatories. That of the Allegheny Observatory, employed in the
present case, has thirteen inches of aperture.
When we use a large telescope upon the sun, we find two great
difiiculties; one the excessive light and heat, the other the dis-
turbance produced in our own atmosphere, and which is greater
by day than by night. For the first difficulty we employ special
optical aids such as the Dawes eye-piece or, far better, the polar-
izing eye-piece, which gives an image <of the sun sensibly devoid
of color, and of any brightness desired. For the second there is
no remedy but assiduity and patience.
In this kind of investigation, drawings are very necessary, but
rather such as emulate the fidelity of the topographical draughts-
man, than such aslaim primarily at pictorial efiiact. I am accus-
tomed to try to secure accuracy in the numerous details which
the photograph cannot yet reach, by reducing everything to mi-
crometrical measurement, where it is possible. A very useful help,
where we have a large equatorial provided with clock-work, is to
attach to the instrument a light frame, which holds a sheet of
paper at any convenient distance fi'om the eye-piece, and perpen-
dicular to the optical axis. The Position Filar Micrometer being
in its place, when the instrument is turned on the sun, an en-
larged image of the spot is projected upon the pi^er, and the
wires of the micrometer along with it. Then the projection of the
▲• MATHEliATICS, PHTSI08 AND CHEHISTBT. 165
spot may be made to run along the projection of the wire, just as
a star is made to run along the wire itself, and measurements may
be made both of position and magnitude, as accurately as in any
ordinary use of the instrument, and with a rapidity otherwise
unattainable; — a rapidity indispensable in an object which so
incessantly changes its form. In practice it is usually even yet
better to draw an accurate scale upon the paper itself, to ascertain
its value in arc by the transit of the solar limb over it, and then
to trace the outlines of the spot directly on the paper, on which it
remains fixed while the sheet is carried along by the clock-work«
This projection it will be understood is merely a skeleton to be
enlarged and filled in by subsequent direct study with the polar-
izing eye-pieccj to which the ordinary micrometer is not well
adapted. For the stiH enhanced accuracy of work with this (the
polarizing eye-piece), Professor Rogers, now of the Harvard Col-
lege Observatory, has had the goodness to rule for me two of his
very beautiful glass reticules, which may also be employed in the
focus with a fhll aperture where the common web would be burned.
I have not yet, however, had an opportunity of using these reti-
cules to their full advantage, and have temporarily employed
coarser graduations on mica, as a special micrometer for use with
the polarizing eye-piece. With an instrument I designed some
years since, and in which the ray is polarized with three successive
reflections, the eye may be placed in the actual solar focus of the
lens of thirteen inches aperture without the intervention of any
colored medium and without inconvenience.
When with such improved optical and other aids, we now return
to the study of the photosphere, we are enabled to see that the
fleecy or cloud-like surface, first mentioned, is a singularly complex
structure. Isolate, as far as we can, any one of these scarcely
distinguishable fleeces on the solar surface, its surface in turn is
found to be covered with small patches of gray, united by whiter
lines of most irregular form, and which it is hard to distinguish
clearly from the background, which they so much resemble in
color. The size of these -gray patches, which have received the
name of Pores, is very various, and they appear to be caubed by
the absence of the clusters of whiter nodules, which as it will, be
seen, make up the photosphere. The great variety in their sizes
and shapes makes any direct estimate of their magnitude unreli-
able, but we may say in a roughly approximative way, that the
166 A. ICATHBl^ATICS} PHT8XCS AND CHBMISTRT«
average linear diameter of the more conspicuous pores is from 2"
to Z" of arc. The photospheric surface is filled with small, in-
tensely bright, masses, chiefly oval or elongated, half defined by
a faint gray background from which they are just distinguishable,
which blend into each other, and in looking at which the eye is
tantalized by the fitfUl appearance of a still more minute subdi-
vision, which is rather suspected than seen. The fleecy appear-
ance seen in good photographs, and which has been before de*
scribed, is due then to the aggregation of these* forms, which I
understand to be designated by the term ^'Rice-grains." Finally,
in moments of the very rarest definition, with large apertures and
very considerable magnifying powers, these '^ Rice-grains" or
^'Granules" I have in turn resolved into unequally brilliant minute
nodules, circular or very slightly elongated, each usually separate
and distinct (as although numbers of them may be in juxtaposi-
tion their lines of demarcation are yet visible), and whose average
diameter is probably much within one-half of a second pf arc.
The ultimate structure then, of the photosphere, is found ta con-
sist of these seemingly discrete bodies, which float, as it were, in
an ocean of comparatively gray fluid. These bodies are visibly
the principal source of the solar light, their remarkable individu-
ality being perhaps on the whole their most notable feature. The
aggregation of these excessively minute nodules forms the ^' Rice-
grains ;" themselves seen in large telescopes only under more than
ordinarily favorable circumstances ; and the aggregation of '' Rice-
grains" and ''Fores" combines with confused definition to present
the fleecy appearance which is generally easily recognized, and which
bears some resemblance to our clouds, while for the priroaiy
components I know of no analogy in our terrestrial atmosphere.
Considering that Mr. Nasmyth's "willow-leaves" are something
like two entire seconds of arc in length, and that the photosphere
has been resolved by Secchi, and perhaps by others beside the
writer, into discrete bodies of less than one-fourth this size, it is
allowable to say with confidence, that if such willow-leaved shapes
always exist, they would have been seen. Still I think from Mr.
Nasmyth's drawings, that he was the first or among the first to get
an idea (though a partially incorrect one) of the ultimate stmct-
ure of the photosphere ; and those only who know, from their own
experience, that sometimes three months of daily observation
will not in our climate yield in the aggregate fifteen minutes of
▲. ICATHSKATICS, PHTSICS AKD QHBICISTBT. 167
sach study seeing that these *' Bice-grains " even can be clearly dis-
tinguished f^om each other, with the best optical means, will under-
stand how easy it is for conscientious and able observera to differ
among themselves as widely as Nasmyth, Dawes, Secchi and
others did at first, in their accounts of this singularly interesting,
but singularly difficult, observation. Let us now study these
bodies in the vicinity of a sunspot, and in the spot itself, of which
they constitute under a modified form the most important feature.
Let us view them in some small isolated spot before we examine
them in larger and more complex ones.
As we approach the spot, we see them elongated and protruding
upon the gray boundary of the penumbra. This penumbral edge
is always, I think, far more irregular than ordinaiily drawn, and
its irregularities are resolved in the best seeing into these
minute ultimate constituents of the solar surface. The outer
border of the penumbra, it is readily observed, is darker than its
interior edge ; but it is a fact of interest I have not seen remarked
upon, that this outer penumbral shade is nothing else than the
gray interstitial matter, which covers the whole solar surface, and
in which the ^^Bice-grains" appear elsewhere as suspended. The
impression is vividly conveyed in good seeing that these ^' Bice-
grains" are really filaments of considcFable length, whose extrem*
ities only are seen on the surface (a fact first discovered I think,
by Mr. Dawes), and that there is a break in their continuity
around the spot. They are dimly seen occasionally through this
gray penumbral edge, and reappear as the well-known 'Hhatch-
straws" of Dawes, over all the inner part of the penumbra, and
especially where they are seen projected on the darker umbral
shade. It will be understood that I find both rice-grains and
thatch-straws are in turn resolvable, and that I consider the ' 'Bice-
grain" and '' Thatch-straw," one and the same thing under dif-
ferent aspects, and that both consist of a union of more minute
filaments. I will, however, continue to use the term (filament)
here, in the sense in which it is employed by others, though it
should perhaps be reserved to indicate this minutest and scarcely
recognized subdivision.
We can derive most essential aid, in the study of currents within
the spots, from these filaments, the spectroscope telling us partly
of the direction of the motion, but nothing definite as to the loca-
tion and inclination of the currents whose interaction is so well
168 A. ICATHXMATICS, PHYSICS AND CHEMISTBT.
worth study. Their disposition enables ns to see, I think, that the
theory of the sun-spot so ably developed by Faye, and which is bo
fertile in explanation of the most diverse phenomena, is yet to be
extended or modified in some details. There appears for instance
to be a less marked cyclonic action in the small and unsegmented
spots. So far as my observation has gone, these filaments are not,
in such cases, to be ordinarily seen bent by any single whirlwind
so that they have a common spiral tendency. Not unfrequently the
filaments, or rather the thatch-straws, are short, nearly straight,
and lying in quite different directions like a heap of jackstraws. It
is, it is true, the rule and not the exception to find them carved,
but it is ordinarily by what seems to be the action of small and
independent local whirlwinds. A gyratory movement of the spot
as a whole, about a motionless axis, may exi^t, but it is not plainly
marked on the filaments, which are such sensitive indices of other
local action. Nearly associated with these small local whirlwinds
are the evidences apparently of both an upward and a downward
current, in the umbra of the same spot, and sometimes of several
such. The polarizing eye-piece shows that the nuclei or darker
shades of the umbra occupy no certain position near the centre,
such as Mr. Dawes was disposed to assign them, and that the um-
bra itself is a very complex structure, crossed not only by the
well known bridges or bright ropes of filaments which invade and
lie along it, like tangled white threads upon an ink spot, but that
it (the umbra) is made up largely of these same filaments, which
are dimly seen, as it were, beneath its surface, and often of a red-
dish brown on the violet purple of the umbra, which is also some-
times studded Avith minute points of light, formed apparently by
the tips of the filaments which are occasionally presented to us
here in the same foreshortened position, as on the general surface.
In Secchi's work umbral colors are occasionally depicted of as
vivid a crimson as that of incandescent hydrogen seen on a bright
background. This intensely vivid crimson I have not observed,
though a brick-red tint is not uncommon. If the downward cur-
rent were at the centre of the spot, and the compensating uprush
at the edge of the umbra. We might expect to find the ends of the
filaments which overhang the umbra, brighter than elsewhere, and
this is ordinarily the case, but it is a rule not without exceptions.
I have seen these bright threads of light, bending down and grow-
ing darker as though further and further immersed in some dark
A. MATHEMATICS, PHTSICS AND CHEMISTRY. 169
fluid ; like rushes overhaoging a turbid stream, in which their
points are dipped and in which th^ eye can follow them below the
Borface. I have seen again these thatch-straws presenting an ap-
pearance analogous to that to which geologists give the name of a
" fault ;" as if broken with a continuous line of fracture running
transversely to their length, over nearly one-third the circumfer-^
ence of a spot, and the lower portion partly overflowed, if I may
use the term, by the umbral shade.
It appears, then, that even in small spots there are sometimes
several centres of action, and this view is somewhat strengthened
by the fact that a cyclonic action extending uniformly over the
whole spot is so rare. The filaments, though very generally bent,
are bent in different directions, and as though by many small and
independent whirlwinds, moving in concert as we may see them in
a dusty street. I have also frequently observed in these filaments
evidence of superposed currents, nearly as definite as that we ob-
tain when we look up to our sky to see one set of clouds moving
over and in an opposite direction to another.
I cannot convey without drawings made with more graphic
skill than I possess, an adequate idea of the extraordinary forms
these filaments assume, but I would insist on the fact that they
under almost all circumstances, preserve the appearance of individ-
ual bodies. Whether seen on the general photosphere, or in the pe-
numbra, or projected on the umbra, they rarely or never seem to
merge into one another ; however they may be massed together
and twisted by the solar whirlwinds, they remain distinct like the
strands of a rope. Even in the bridges of light over the umbra,
which appear at first to be composed of a fusion of them, a fine,
scarcely visible dark line may be traced in good seeing, along the
bridge, which testifies to the unsurrendered individuality of the
component parts. It is very difficult to conceive of matter in any
form that we know it, which would behave just as this docs.
They (the filaments) are seen at times bending into graceAil flame-
like curves as though perfectly pliable ; at other times they may
be found (appareiitly) broken abruptly. They are collected at
times in the large spots into forms of the most tantalizing com-
plexity, strangely suggesting something that is both foliate and
crystalline in structure, and I have seen such which could be com-
pared to the most complex and beautiful forms ever traced by the
frost on a window pane. In some large spots, the centres of
I
170 ▲. XATHBMATICS, PHYSICS AND CHEMISTBT.
violent disturbances, I have seen in those very rare moments when
the highest power of a great telescope may be used, forms of which
I should almost hesitate to present an uncorroborated delineation,
were I able, so unlike are they to those commonly depicted in
sun-spot drawings, and so curiously do these exceptional forms
simulate those of vegetation. Even the generally excellent draw-
ings of Secchi completely fail here, as indeed anything but the
photograph must fail, and our subject is unhappily far beyond the
reach of anything solar photography has done yet.
As to the size of these rice-grains or filaments, it will be remem-
bered that estimates of the most varied kind have been made by
skilled observers. Chacornac, in a communication to the ^^ Comp-
tes Bendus" of the Institute, states that he finds the average
diameter of the rice-grains to be one hundred and sixty leagues,
which is almost precisely V* of arc. Nasmyth makes their length
something like twice as great, and Secchi gives a value very much
less than either. I have made one set of measurements with the
mica scale, the value of whose division was approximately 15", by
counting the number of umbral threads to each division. The
mean of three such measurements gave 1*14" as the distance of
the observed threads from centre to centre. The measurements
were made with the polarizing eye-piece, but were varied on one
occasion when the atmosphere was so exceptionally tranquil, that
the solar image could be projected upon a graduated screen with
such definition that the individual filaments were counted on the
paper, and their number to a division estimated. This quite inde-
pendent determination gave 1.08'' ; these measurements including,
with the filaments, the considerable space which separates each
fh>m each.* I have never as yet been able to obtain sufiSciently
precise vision for micrometrical work upon these bodies on the
general photosphere. There is an admitted assumption therefore,
in taking this measurement to be the same which might have been
found at the other extremity of the filaments where they appear
* Subsequent meitsnreinentSy under reiy fiivorable cIrcumstanceB, gave where taken
on a group of filaments Ijing In unusuaUj cloee Juxtaposition, a mean of rather leas than
aix-tenths of a second for the sum of the width of the filament and that of the space
separating It fh>m its neighbor. In the case of both rice-grains and filaments irradia-
tion masics the true figure, while enhancing the apparent sise; of this intervming
space of 00", then, the share that is to be assigned to the filaments must be partly
conjectural. If we assume the filaments as equal in absolute diameter to the interral
which separates them (which I can hardlj think thej are), we obtain 0*8" as the ap-
proximate size. Note added March, 1874.
▲• MATHBXATICS, PHYSICS AND CHBIOSTBT. 171
at the Burface ; I feel coBfident, however, from repeated scratiny,
that the difference, if it e^^st, is inconsiderable. I believe we
have no data yet from any source which will enable us to speak
positively as to the absolute size of the filaments, as we cannot
yet allow for the effect of irradiation ; still if we assume the width
of these bodies to equal only the average space between them, we
m
shall find it not more than half of a second of arc, at the most ;
but it may for anything we can yet tell, be much less. All that
we can now do is to assign an upper limit to their diameter,
and this I think cannot, ordinarily exceed one-half of a second
of arc. It is well to repeat that it may be almost anything less,
irradiation here masking the real magnitude as it does in the case
of a star. It is very desirable that more measurements be ob-
tained, and it is not through negligence that I have failed to
multiply them as I should have been glad to do, till their probable
error could be determined, but it will be remembered that a year
may pass by without bringing more than a few hours of conseCi-
utive seeing, good enough for this very difficult work, in which
only large apertures and high powers can be used, for we can
employ high powers probably ten times at night on a star, where
«
we can once with advantage upon the sun, owing to the greater
atmospheric tremor by day and the distortion of the image by
the unequal heating of the anterior and posterior surfaces of the
object-glass.*
In this connection, I will, while repeating that the whole of
the umbra appears to be frequently composed of forms not unlike
the penumbral ones, add that the color as well as the light of the
isolated umbra is usually decided. I have, with some care, made
an esi>eriment which is very simple in conception, and which,
though not easy in practice, I am surprised to find no record of
elsewhere. It consists in completely cutting off all extraneous
light emitted by the penumbra and umbra, so that none can be
received by the eye, unfess it be from the apparently perfectly
tkuk ''nucleus" or core of the umbra. The eye being so placed
that it can receive light from that alone, this intensely ''black"
*Sine« reading this paper, I hare had several opportunities for extendioff these
measnrements. The detailed results of later researches would not be in place here,
hot I may saj that I should now rather reduce than enlarge the estimates of the size of
the illaments here giren, and that it seems probable that with the opportunity of ap<
plying higher powers, the resolution of these filaments or of the components of the
rloe-grains, Into stiU minuter aggregations, is likely to go on indefinitely. Kote ad-
ded Much; 11174.
I
172 A. MATHEMATICS, PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY.
«
nucleus is seen to shine with a dazzling light, ordinarily of a vio-
let tint. I have also received the umbral light upon a screen so
arranged as to be Illuminated only by it, and by diffused daylight,
and then with brush and color made a large number of imitations
of its tint directly upon the paper beside it, until one was found,
which, in the independent judgment of two persons, most nearly
represented it. It was nearly matched by the purple technically
called "violet-carmine" (coloi-ed sheet exhibited).
One objection against the gaseous theory of the sun, urged, I
believe, by Mr. Herbert Spencer, as well as by professional astron-
omers, has been that the laws of gaseous radiation oblige us to
believe that the body of the sun (if purely gaseous and dark)
would be transparent ; that we should hence be enabled to see the
photosphere upon the other side quite through the whole body,
(thus looking through the sunspot as through a window to light
beyond), and that a necessary result of a purely gaseous sun with
a non-luminous interior would hence be that sun-spots would not
be visible at all. This reasoning, in itself theoretically justifi-
able, evidently here rests on an assumption as to the /act of the
blackness of the nucleus, an assumption which must have ap-
peared, at the time it was made, quite justifiable, it being founded
probably on the language of Mr. Dawes ; an excellent and usually
most cautious observer, but who in this case in speaking of the
" perfectly black" nucleus used too unqualified terms.
To restate in a few words the substance of what has been
said : —
The surface of the whole sun is covered with filiform bodies
which are of an average diameter of not greater than one-half of
a second of arc, and whose length is undetermined, but very con-
siderable. The aggregation of these upon the surface has given
rise to forms which, seen under ordinary definition, might possi-
bly be mistaken for a " willow-leaf "-like structure, but no such
spindle-shaped or willow-leaved bodies (in the sense in which Mr.
Nasymth first described them) exist. The study of these bodies
where seen in the penumbra, though difficult, forms at present,
perhaps, our best means of learning the direction of solar currents,
the most prominent results being that the dominant type is that
of forms evidently due to cyclonic action, and that cloud strata
superposed in a complex manner, and drifting over one another
in difTerent directions are also common. While the existence of
A. MATHEMATICS, PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY. 173
some such appearances as the minute photosphcric forms present
when aggregated upon the surface, and when segregated and
drawn out in the penumbrse, may be recognized under the respec-
tive terms of "rice-grains" and "thatch-straws," such phrases,
unqualified, are calculated to mislead, and should be replaced by
more'accurate ones representing the results of a critical study of
bodies, which whatever be their nature, are the immediate sources
of the solar light, and which are in every way deserving of far
more attention than they have received.
The best photographs are as yet far from being able to repre-
sent these forms, and careful drawings based directly upon micro-
metrical measurements, and in which pictorial effect is considered
only as it is incidental to minute fidelity, afibrd at present our
best means of studying them, and (by comparison) of correcting
the efiects of subjective peculiarities of the observer.
The great utility of a very elevated station for observation,
which has been brought into renewed notice by recent spectro-
scopic acquisitions, would seem however to promise every gain
for sach researches as these.
What has just been said will not be understood to be meant
to depreciate the great advantages which photography can rea-
der now, in researches as to the motion of the spots, and it may
be hoped is destined to render, as to the minute details of their
structure. No one can be more conscious than I am, of the inev-
itable defects of such drawings of the minute structure as this,
or more desirous to see photography take their place, which, how-
ever, the time has not yet come for it to do. Aware of the little
r have been able to attain certitude on, 1 deem it best to confine
myself at present to a simple description of what appear to be
facts of observation, without on this occasion offering any hypoth-
esis as to the nature or function of thQ things described.
BBFEBEKCE TO PLATE.
I hare been enabled by the kindnesB of the Association to add to this paper
a photogrraphic redaction of one of the drawings exhibited at the Portland Meeting,
which I have slightly modified slnce^ that it might embody results more iwsently
attained. It might be called a typical sun-spot, as it is rather a collection of typical
forms taken directly flrom studies made and compared at the telescope, and then
brought together in their proper physical connection, than an attempt to delineate ex-
actly any particular spot at a given moment. This method of procedure is in fact una-
Toidable, as spots change so rapidly that drawings ot any accuracy of detail must
present features which would not have been simultaneously seen. No attempt is made
to give any speoifio photospheric forms away Trom the spot or anything else than th«
general appearance of the photosphere. In ihe spot, however, everything is (as for as
my ability to represent what I saw goes) a minutely literal transcript of so much of
what presented itself In good definition at various times as was nnqueatlonably seen.
(174)
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committee decided should be printed by title only :
On a New Fobii of Breakcibcuit and the Electric Control
OF Chronographs. By C. A. Young, of Hanover, N. H.
The Solar Envelope. By C. A. Young, of Hanover, N. H.
Meridional Arcs measured in the Progress of the Coast
Survey. By J. E. Hilgard, of Washington, D. C.
On Solar Disturbances of the Magnetic Needle. By J. E.
Hilgard, of Washington, D. C.
On Methods op Determining the Ratio of Volume and Weight
OF Water. By J. E. Hilgard, of Washington, D. C.
The Coefficient of Safett in NAviaAxiON. By William A.
BoGERS, of Cambridge, Mass.
Notice of some Experiments in Etching on Glass. By Wm. A.
Rogers, of Cambridge, Mass.
On the Periodic Error of the Right Ascensions of the Nau-
tical Almanac, and its Effect on the Longitudes which
DEPEND on them. By Wm. a. Rogers, of Cambridge, Mass.
Notice of a Machine for Ruling Microscopical Lines. By
Wm. a. Rogers, of Cambridge, Mass.
On the SuBSTrruTiON op Double for Single Threads in Transit
Instruments, and of Diagonal Threads for Micrometers
IN Zenith Telescopes. By Wm. A. Rogers, of Cambridge,
Mass.
Thb Atmospheric Electricity of the Earth, of the Sun and
OF the Comets ; and the Physical Constitution op the Sun
AND of thb Comets. By Jacob Ennis, of Philadelphia, Penn.
(176)
176 a. mathematics, phtsics and chemi8tbt.
The Telescope and the Means op Improving it, and also tot
Utilization of Solar Heat. By George W. Hollet of
Niagara Falls, N. Y.
Note on the Rotation of the Planets as a Result of the Neb-
ular Theory. By Benjamin Peirce, of Cambi*idge, Mass.
Facts and Suggestions in Proof of the Theory of the Grad-
ual AND Continual Diminution of the Quantity of Watee
UPON the Earth, and its Conversion into Solid Forms of
Matter. By Mrs. George W. Houk, of Dayton, Ohio.
Cold Water Condensers. By Joseph B. Walker, of Louisville,
Ky.
On the Inconceivable Elasticity op the Het^ric or Commok
English Alphabet. By Wm. Boyd and H. G. Allen, of
Cambridge, Mass.
Methods for Regulating the Motion of Chronograph. By
G. W. Hough, of Albany, N. Y.
Relation of Frequency of Auroras to Changes in the Length
OF THE Earth's Radius Vector. By E. B. Elliott, of
Washington, D. C.
The Cohesion of Liquids. By George J. Wardwell, of Rut-
land, Vt.
Investigation into the True Cause of a Peculiar Form of
Mirage. By P. H. Van der Weyde, of New York, N. Y.
Periodicity of Rates of Interest in the New York Market.
By E. B. Elliott, of Washington, D. C.
Irregularities in the Returns of the Population op the U. S.
Census of 1870, at Earlier Ages, with Methods and Re-
sults OF Correction and Adjustment. By E. B. Elliott, of
Washington, D. C.
Life Table, Table op Mean Future Duration of Life, and
Table of Life Annuity, on the Basis of the U. S. Census
of 1870, with Method of Construction. By E. B. Eluott,
of Washington, D. C. .
International Coinage — its Progress. By E. B. Eluott, of
Washington, D. C.
a. mathematics, physics and chemistbt. 177
Method of Habmonizikg Apothecabebs' and the Metric System
OF Weights. By E. B. Elliott, of Washington, D. C.
Metric and Radial Systems of Measures of Length. By
E. B. Elliott, of Washington, D. C.
On the Credit of the U. S. Government, as indicated by the
Daily Market Quotations of Prices of its Securities. By
E. B. Elliott, of Washington, D. C.
On the Dissociation of Water by Heat as a Cause of Steam
Boiler Explosions. By L. Bradley, of Jersey City, N. J.
An Automatic Filtering Apparatus at Work, Described ik
May Number of American Journal of Science. By H. W.
Wiley, of Indianapolis, Ind.
The Unreliability of Life Statistics as Usually Compiled.
By T. 8. Lambert, of New York, N. Y.
Exhibition of a Microscope of Novel Construction, with New
Style of Micrometer and Remarks on the Method of En-
larging THE Field. By P. H. Van der Weyde, of New
York, N. Y.
fiSMARKS ON A PROJECTED GiGANTIC TELESCOPE. By P. H. VaN
DER Weyde, of New York, N. Y.
Remarks on the Angular Aperture of Immersion OBjEcnvES
FOR the Microscope. By R. H. Ward, of Troy, N. Y.
Ok Heating Iron by Hammering. By F. W. Clarke, of Wash-
in^n, D. C.
Some Remarks on the Equilibrium and Dynamic Theories of
THE Tides. By J. G. Barnard, of New York, N. Y.
Rkmahks upon the Last Circular of Dr. Petermann, from the
Swedish and Norwegian Arctic Exploring Expeditions.
By William W. Wheildon, of Concord, Mass.
A. A. A. 8. yOL. XXH. 12
PART II.
SECTION B,
NATUKAL HISTORY.
B. NATURAL HISTORY.
On the Duty op Governments in the Pbeservation of Forests.
By Franklin B. Hough, of Lowville, N. Y.
The presence of stately ruins in solitary deserts, is conclusive
proof that great climatic changes have taken place within the
period of human history in many eastern countries, once highly
cultivated and densely peopled, but now arid wastes.
Although the records of geology teach that great vicissitudes
of climate, from the torrid and humid conditions of the coal
period, to those of extreme cold which produced the glaciers of
the drift, may have in turn occurred in the same region, we have no
reason to believe that any material changes have been brought
about, by astronomical or other natural causes, within the historic
period. We cannot account for the changes that have occurred
since these sunburnt and sterile plains, where these traces of man's
first civilization are found, were clothed with a luxuriant vegetation,
except by ascribing them to the improvident acts of man, in de-
stroying the trees and plants which once clothed the surface, and
sheltered it from the sun and the windj^. As this shelter was
removed the desert approached, gaining new power as its area
increased, until it crept over vast regions once populous and
fertile, and left only the ruins of former magnificence.
In more temperate climates the effect is less striking, yet it is
sufficiently apparent everywhere and throughout our whole country,
bot especially in the hilly and once wooded regions of the eastern
and northern states. In these portions of our union the failure of
springs and wells, the drying up of brooks which once supplied
ample hydraulic power through the summer, and the increasing
difficulties of procuring water to supply canals for navigation, and
wholesome water for cities, are becoming every day something
more than a subject of casual remark. It is destined to become
a theme of careful scientific and practical inquiry, to ascertain
how these growing evils may be checked, and whether the lost
A.I.A. 8. VOL. XXII. B. (1)
Z B. KATUBiX HISTOBT.
advantages may be regained. We regard the ocean itself as the
source whence the moisture, precipitated in rains, is mainly de-
rived. Its area changes not ; the . exposure to solar heat is uni-
form (unless, as some suppose, the spots on the sun's disk may have
an appreciable influence) ; and, except as varied within fixed limits
by the inclination of the earth's axis in its revolution around the
sun, there are no astronomical or other causes that should sensi-
bly change the annual amount of genei'al evaporation from the
surface of the ocean fVom year to year or from age to age. The
vapors raised from the sea are disftributed by the winds over the
land, and descend as rains where mountain ranges, forests and
other causes favor condensation, it 4« probable that the Gulf of
Mexico furnishes more vapor for rain within the United States
than the Atlantic Ocean, its influence ibeing felt thronghout and
beyond the great basifi of thie Mississippi and its tributaries.
In a work which I recently prepared for the Regents of the Uni-
versity af 4;he state of New York, I was able to collect, from all
sources and for various periods, in some stations for almost half
a century, about two thousand years of rainfall records within
the state <9f New York ; and in a volume published within the last
year by the Smithsonian Institution, there is a much more ex-
tended series ifor the whole country. These extensive series are
not enough to determine, with any claim to accuracy, the secular
changes, if any, iihat may be going on, in the amount of precipita-
tion of rain and snow. Although they reveal grest irregularities
in a series of ^^ars at any given locality, they do mot Justify us in
supposing that, in the general average of perioda, 'the amount is
sensibly increasing or diminishing, although they do show, in
some cases, greater tendencies to drought for a series of years to-
gether, and often a more unequal 'distribution of isain throughout
the 5'ear.
•
This growing tendency to 'floods and droughts can be directly
ascribed to the clearing up of woodlands, by >whieh the rains
quickly find their way into the streams, •oft^n swelling theai into
destructive floods, instead of sinking into the earth to reappear as
springs. Aside from the direct effee^ rof shelter and shade
afforded by trees, the evaporation of raindrops tthat fall upon the
leaves, and the chemical action of the leaves themselves, have a
marked influence upon the humidity and temperature of the air
beneath and around them. The contrast in a very dry season,
B. NATURAL BISTORT. 8
between an open and sunbarnt pasture, and one interspersed with
clumps of trees, must have been noticed by every careful observer,
and the actual relative profits of farms entirely without trees, and
those liberally shaded (everything else being equal), will show, at
least in grazing districts, the advantage of the latter in the value
of their annual products. The fact that furniture, in houses too
much shaded, will mould, is a familiar and suggestive instance of
the humid influence of trees, and the aggregate results of wood-
land shade may well explain the fulness of streams and springs
in the forest, which dry up and disappear when it is removed.
The economical value of timber, and our absolute dependence
upon it for innumerable uses in manufactures and the arts, the
rapidly increasing demand for it in railroad construction and the
positive necessity for its use in the affairs of common life, even
were its use as fuel largely supplanted by the introduction of
mineral coal, are too obvious for suggestion. It is this necessit}'^,
rather than considerations of climate or of water supply, that has
led in several countries of Europe to systems of management
and regulation of national forests, as a measure of governmental
policy and public economy. Such systems have been devised to
a greater or less extent, in Russia, Turkey, Austria, Germany,
Italy, France, Denmark and Sweden ; and more recently in British
India. The extent of state forests in France, is about 3,180,000
acres ; to which may be added 5,385,000 acres belonging to com-
munes, corporations, hospitals, and other public establishments,
making the whole extent of forest under the management of the
forest administration, 8,465,000 acres, or about 18,226 square
miles. They are distributed widely over the country, a large pro-
portion being in the departments of the east. Legislation in
France having in view the preservation of forests, chiefly dates from
the ordinance of 1669, which fixed a certain time for the cutting of
forests belonging to the state. A clause was inserted by the
statesman Colbert, '^ that in all the forests of the state, oaks
should not be felled unless ripe, that is, unable to prosper another
thirty years." The present French Forest Code was established
in 1827. It intrusts the care of public forests to the Ministry
of Finance, under a Director General, assisted by two administra-
tions ; one chained with the management of forests, and the sale
of their products, and the other with the police of the forests, and
the enforcement of forest laws. In the departments there are
4 B. NATURAL HISTORY.
thirty-two Conservators, each in charge of one or more departments,
according to the extent of forests in each. The immediate
supervision is intrusted to Inspectors, who are assisted hy sub-m-
spectors and Gardes Generaux^ who live near, and personally
superintend the work of the forest guards. The latter live in the
forests, and act as police over a certain range. They personally
observe the operations, and report all infractions of the laws. No
timber is cut till marked, and most of the saw-mills are owned by
the government, and rented to the wood-merchants. The system
has been extended to Algeria, where several rainy days have been
added to July and August, by forest culture.
These details might be extended, but they would not have prac-
tical application with us, because our states,' ^ a general rule, own
no large forests, and we have no strong central organizations or
means of enforcing the stringent regulations which make their
system a success. The title to the lands in our older states (where
the evils resulting from the loss of forests are liable to be first and
most severely felt) has already passed into the hands of Individ*
uals, and from the theory of our system of government, the
power that must regulate and remedy these evils must begin with
the people, and not emanate from a central source. With us, there
are no great estates, entailed upon future generations, to keep to-
gether, and promising a reasonable hope of reward to the family
for a heavy investment in their improvement. Nor is there even
a reasonable prospect that the landed estate of a wealthy citizen
will pass unimpaired and undivided beyond one generation of his
descendants* It should also be remembered that, fi*om the pecu-
liar nature of forest culture, one generation must plant for another
to ^^reap," as the age of a fulUgrown tree in some species much
exceeds that of a human life* The investment for land, planting
and protection, must be carried with interest into another century »
and for the benefit of a generation unborn.
These considerations present a problem difficult, it may be, of
solution, but I have confidence in the ability of our American
people to work out a practical sj^stem, adapted to our social organ*
ization, and our general theory of laws. We must begin at the
centre of power, and that centre is tha eireumference. We must
make the people themselves familiar with the facts and the neces-
sities of the case. It must come to be understood that a tree or
a forest, planted, is an investment of capital, increasing annually
B. NATURAL BISTORT. O
in value as it grows, like money at interest, and worth at any time
what it has cost — including the expense of planting, and the
interest which this money would have earned at the given date.
The great masses of our rural population and land owners should
be inspired with correct ideas as to the importance of planting
and preserving trees, and taught the profits that may be derived
from planting waste spots with timber, where nothing else would
grow to advantage. They should learn the increased value of
farms which have the roadsides lined with avenues of trees, and
should understand the worth of the shelter which belts of timber
afford to fields, and the general increase of wealth and beauty
which the country would realize from the united and well-directed
efforts of the owners of land in thus enriching and beautifying
their estates.
In this great work of popular education, agincultural societies
and kindred associations may do much, by promoting a spirit of
emulation, and offering premiums for the most effectual results.
In a recent premium list of the Highland and Agricultural Society
of Scotland, I notice fourteen prizes ofifered, amounting to one
hundred sovereigns, in medals and coin, for approved reports upon
the subject of tree culture in its various relations. They have
also established a ■ system of examinations, by competent pro-
fessors of their universities, at which young men may appear
and receive certificates of attainment, according to degree, which
can scarcely fail to find for them profitable employment by the
owners of forest estates. They afford a strong incentive to high
ambition, and a conspicuous opportunity for those who seek dis-
tinction in a lucrative and honorable employment.
The necessities of European governments have led to the estab-
lishment of Schools of Forestry for instruction in the sciences
that find application in the growth, preservation and removal of
timber, in which an eminently practical system of education is
adopted, and the precepts of the class-room directly applied in the
operations of the forest. About a dozen such schools exist in
Belgium, Denmark, France, Germany and Switzerland. The
necessity for special education in this department is sure to arise
in our own country, in which perhaps fewer persons will find a
special profession in forestry, but a greater number will feel the
want of practical instruction in the principles upon which success
depends.
O B. NATURAL BISTORT.
Our educators would act wisely in taking this into considera-
tion, in devising plans for new institutions, or revising plans of ex-
isting ones, and perhaps some far seeing and enlightened benefac-
tor, of sufficient means, may find in this direction the opportunity
of rendering his name familiar in the annals of fame, by establish-
ing a school of forestry, in its most comprehensive sense, for the
systematic training of educators and practical engineers, in this
inviting field of enterprise, and fully adapted to our American
wants and ideas upon this subject.
However much the public may favor, there will still arise the
need of laws to regulate, pix>mote and protect the growth of wood ;
as we find laws necessary in the management of roads and
bridges, or of any other great object of public utility. Let U8
consider some of the measures which a state might adopt for the
promotion of this end, without interfering with personal rights, or
stepping beyond the line which limits its duty in protecting the
rights of its citizens.
1. By withholding from sale such wild and broken lands as
might be returned from time to time for non-payment of taxes,
when found chiefiy or only valuable from the growth of timber,
and by establishing laws for its protection, and for realizing to
the state or to the county, whatever profits there might arise from
the thinning out of timber, so as to preserve the tract as a forest.
In this connection I would remark, that a more efi'ectnal vigilance
would probably be secured, if the benefits belonged to the local
administration of the place, as party jealousies and private in-
terests would tend to keep ofiScials under close surveillance,
where a state officer, residing at a distance, and not personally
known in the locality, would often find his authority ignored,
and the public interests in his charge invaded. There should,
however, be required an annual report to a state officer, clothed
with ample power to enforce a rigid compliance with the laws upon
the subject of forests.
2. By exempting from taxation for a limited time, and by of-
fering bounties for, lands planted and enclosed for the growth of
forest trees.
3. By offering bounties to counties, towns and individuals, for
the greatest number of trees planted in a year, and made to Uvo
through the second season.
4. By requiring railroad, turnpike and other road companies,
B. NATURAL BISTORT. 7
where valid reasons to the contrary do not exist, to plant the sides
of their roads with trees, or empowering town authorities, in case
of neglect, to do this at their expense.
5. By imposing a tree-tax, payable in the planting of trees, or
a fixed sum for each tree, to be expended only in planting trees.
In cities and villages this commutation might be applied under
local officers to the improvement of parks or other objects of pub-
lic utility and ornament.
6. By protecting trees on the way-side, and in public places, as
well as on private grounds, from wanton destruction, by adequate
penalties, sufficient to restore the loss and pay the injury.
7. By requiring the elements of science applicable to forest cul-
ture to be taught in the public schools, and by encouraging it in
academies and colleges. This, in the higher grades of schools,
would embrace the most approved methods of cultivation, the influ-
ences of soil and climate, and the various mathematical, mechan-
ical, ph3'siological and chemical principles involved in the subject.
Special schools under national or state patronage might ultimatel}'
be founded.
Congress has recently taken action tending to encourage the
planting of forests in the territories, where most needed,* but
might do much more in promoting this great measure of public
utility. A few of the states have also done something intended
to advance the same object, but without uniformity, and as yet
with but very limited result.
With respect to the failure of water supply for hydraulic power,
navigation* or city use, until woodland shade can be restored to
the sources, we must depend upon reservoirs, to retain the surplus
floods of winter for summer wants. There are few streams or
rivers in the country, where these might not be made to advan-
tage, and in some cases greatly to the improvement of the natural
capacity of these streams as they were first known. In the con-
Btmction and maintenance of these reservoirs for navigable canals
or for cities, they should obviously be under the same control as
these works themselves, of which they are the essential part. But
where needed for hydraulic power only, they could best be in-
tmsted to the management of those who have an interest in them,
and government should only provide, by general laws, for the or-
ganization and regulation of companies with the corporate powers
necessary for their object. As in other cases where pecuniary
/
8 B. NATURAL BISTORT.
values are involved, the vote or power of each owner should be in
just proportion to his interest, with the right of appointing a
proxy to represent it when desired. Under suitable regulations of
law, such associations could scarcely be perverted from their
proper object.
There may be cases in which a state would be justified in
making reservoirs to improve the hydraulic power of rivers, thus
securing solidity of construction, and amplitude of size ; and often
such improvements might be made before any capital had been in-
vested along the line, or where its amount was too feeble to war-
rant the expenditure ; but the expense should ultimately be taxed
upon the interests ' concerned, and the management should be
given up to these interests, as soon as it can safely be done.
In the state of New York, measures have been begun for the
preser>'ation of forests, which I may briefly notice. An extensive
region north of the Mohawk river and west of Lake Champlain,
embracing over two million of acres of land, the Adirondack
Mountains, and the sources of the Hudson and other rivers, lies
an unbroken wilderness. More than a hundred years have passed
since settlements were formed on its southern and eastern border,
and more than seventy since it has been entirely surrounded by a
belt of improvement embracing some of the best farming lands of
the state. Although a scheme of speculation was far advanced
before the close of the colonial period, for the settlement of this
region, and great sums have since been wasted by capitalists in
attempting to develop its agricultural resources, these efforts have
uniforml3^ resulted in failure ; and, excepting in a few favored
spots, the region is still as wild and picturesque as when it was
known only as the hunting ground of the native Indian. This
uniform failure may be justly ascribed to the scanty sterile soil
which covers the surface where the surface is not the naked rock,
and to the cold and forbidding character of the climate, due to
great elevation and the influences of mountain ranges. Com and
the cultivated fruits would seldom ripen, from the frosts that
may happen at any time in the summer, and only hay, oats and
potatoes can be grown to advantage where the soil and exposure
favor. Yet it is for the most part covered with timber, often of
the finest quality, and it is supposed to abound in magnetic iron
ores, of which mines are wrought with great profit near the east-
em border.
B. NATURAL HISTOBT. V
Some twenty years ago, some railroad speculators secured from
the state, a grant of a quarter of a million of acres, at five cents
an acre, yet failed to build the road, or to confer the advantages
promised ; and since this period almost the whole of the lands in
this region have passed into the hands of lumbermen and tanners,
leaving at present only about forty thousand acres in the seven
counties wholly or partly included in the wilderness. Most of
these lands have been repeatedly returned and sold for the non-
payment of taxes, and if no more tax skies are held, a lai^e por-
tion will doubtless in a very few years again revert to the state.
Through this wilderness lines of navigation extend through lakes
.and along rivers with slight portages, entirely across, from the
Moose and Beaver rivers on the west, to the Saranac and Racket
rivers of the northeast. For many years it has been the favor-
ite haunt of parties of sportsmen and those seeking relaxation
from the cares of business, by a few weeks' residence in summer,
among the wild picturesque scenery and healthful climate of this
region. Hotels for summer residence have been built upon the
banks of lakes in various places in the inteiior, and many guides
find emplo^nnent in conducting parties along these rivers and lakes,
and in furnishing the supplies and assistance they may need.
Boads and telegraphs have been constructed to navigable points
in the interior, and every year adds to the number of visitors to
this great solitude of woods and waters.
In 1872, the Legislature of New York passed an act creating
a Commission of State Parks, and appointing certain persons
therein named to examine and report upon the expediency of vest-
ing in the state, the title to the wild and timbered regions lying
within Lewis, Essex, Clinton, Franklin, St. Lawrence, Herkimer
and Hamilton counties, and to recommend such measures as might
be deemed proper, relative thereto. The Commission was to
continue two years, and there is a probability that it will be
made permanent. Already, at its suggestion, the sale of lands for
non-payment of taxes has been ordered to be discontinued, and
thus the first step taken towards the accomplishment of its object.
The commission will recommend no enclosed grounds, no sala-
ried keepers, and no attempt whatever at ornamentation. There
should be stringent laws and adequate penalties against spoliation
of timber, or destruction from careless fires ; and means of access
from various places on lines of thoroughfare should be provided
10 B. NATURAL BISTORT.
and maintained. In some cases short canals, with locks for pass-
ing boats, might save the labor of a difficult portage, but beyond
these there is scarcely more needed for the present..
There are, however, important questions involving the supply
of water for the state canals ; the preservation or restoration of
hydraulic power on the rivers ; and possibly the future supply of
New York City, and the cities and towns along the Hudson with
pure water, by an ample aqueduct, from the crystal fountains of
the Hudson, which may be properly considered ; and a fit oppor-
tunity is given for presenting in its strongest light, the importance
of protecting forests, and of promoting the growth of trees, on
account of their influence upon climate, and upon the general wel-
fare of the state.
These questions are not limited to a particular state, but in-
terest the Nation generally ; and I would venture to suggest that
this Association might properly take measures for bringing to the
notice of our several State Governments, and Congress with res-
pect to the territories, the subject of protection to forests, and their
cultivation, regulation and encouragement ; and that it appoint a
special committee to memorialize these several legislative bodies
upon this subject, and to urge its importance.
A measure of public utility thus commended to their notice by
this Association, would doubtless receive respectful attention. Its
reasons would be brought up for discussion, and the probabilities
of the future, drawn from the history of the past, might be pre-
sented before the public in their true light. Such a memorial
should embrace the draft of a bill, as the form of a law, which
should be careAiUy considered in its various aspects of public
interests and private rights, and as best adapted to secure the
benefits desired.
Hints for the Promotion of Economic Entomology. By John
L. LeConte, M.D., of Philadelphia.
It is indeed a most gratifying evidence of the increasing in-
terest in the department of zoology which we cultivate, t^at the
entomologists, now in connection with the ^'American Association
for the Advancement of Science," are sufficiently numerous to
B. NATUBAL BISTORT. 11
form a separate sub- section, and enough in earnest to make the
meetings of the section of value to attract our widely scattered
students.
I hail with Joy the opportunity of being present at this meet-
ing, and the more so, because absence from the country' has pre-
vented me from being with you on previous occasions, when you
assembled to deliberate on the means necessary for the promotion
of our favorite science ; to communicate to each other that which
you have done of best during the year, and call on your col-
leagues to rejoice with you over the gems of truth which Nature
bonntifblly bestows on you and on all who visit with pure heart
and humble mind her exhaustless treasury.
Believing, as I do, that the few days thus spent in closer com-
munion, by those who are in sympathy in their main intellectual
pursuits, should be devoted rather to mutual instruction and
comparison of general views derived from our studies, than to
the reading of essays on special or descriptive subjects, which
sooner or later will appear in suitable places in scientific journals,
I have thought it not inappropriate to give briefly some ideas
suggested by a long course of investigation both in the field and
in the museum, regarding the requisites for a more rapid advance
of American entomology, and a more speedy development of the
practical benefits which the science promises.
Before endeavoring, so to speak, to forecast the fViture, or to in-
dicate those paths of research from which the most useful results
may be expected, it would be well to glance at the past history
of oiu- science ; so that by rapidly reviewing the steps by which
progress has been made, we may be better prepared to estimate
the comparative value of the agencies by which our present po-
sition has been attained.
The beginning of the American school of entomology may be
considered as made in 1817 by Thomas Say, in those days the
most generally instructed zoologist in the United States. Though
his contributions to the literature of other departments of natu-
ral history were quite copious, yet entomology seems to have
been his favorite science, and on his studies of the various orders
of insects his scientific reputation must mainly rest.
At that time the text-books in entomology were mainly Fa-
bricias, Herbst and Latreille, and the efforts of American nat-
uralists in every branch were confined to adopting, without
12 B. NATURAL BISTORT.
independent criticism, the classifications and generic determina-
tions of their European correspondents. Biology did not exist
either in name or in idea. Careful observations of a few noxious
species by Prof. Peck and Dr. T. W. Hairis were the slight foun-
dation upon which the whole structure of economic entomology
was to be erected.
It will be readily seen then, that the entomologists of that
early period were essentially species men, namers and describers
of the unknown objects with which they were surrounded:— a
work which was done so well that of the many hundreds of
species described by Say, and the smaller number by his collabo-
rators, scarcely any remain doubtful, and but few unknown.
Preeminent among the early naturalists of the United States,
and far beyond any of them, both as an industrious collector,
a careful observer in the field, and an intelligent investigator in
the museum, was Dr. T. W. Harris, of Massachusetts. A man
of singular modesty and diffidence, appreciated neither by him-
self nor by others, but whose memory will be cherished by all
who knew him, and whose merits will be more and more recog-
nized as time brings him with his limited opportunities more
strongly in contrast with the other students of his day. Had be
published, as he wrote, the independent investigations on classifi-
cation which he made, or had the proper facilities been afibrded
him and the requisite stimulus given, our science in this country
would have anticipated many of the schemes of arrangement de-
veloped later by the best European students.
Among the entomologists of that time, properly pertaining to
our country, must be named Dr. C. Zimmermann, a German by
birth, and trained to science before he made this continent his
home. The monographs of Zabrus and Amara, published before
leaving Europe, still remain thoroughly careful and classical
studies of those genera, to which nothing has been or can be
added except the descriptions of species since collected. It was a
misfortune for our science that Zimmermann too, though a pro-
found and laborious student, would never publish the results of his
investigations. As a systematist in the science, he was of the
very highest order, and I here cheerfully acknowledge my obliga-
tions to him for some of the hints which, afterwards more fully
developed, have gained for several of my memoirs the generous
approval of foreign entomologists. His manuscripts, submitted to
B. NATURAL HISTORY. 13
me in 1867 by his widow, contained a large part of a systematic
work on Coleoptera, with descriptions of many hundred new
species of the Southern States, which, however, had been ren-
dered of no avail by recent publications, posterior to the manu-
scripts in question.
After the founders of the science in this country came a period
of apathy, during which nothing was done. The work of <ie-
scription was then resumed by Melsheimer, Ziegler and myself,
without, however, an3' attempt at independent study of classifica-
tion or particular observation of life histories of the objects de-
scribed.
The first serious monographic study made was that of the
HisteridcBy published in 1845 by my father in the Boston Journal
of Natural Historj', modelled on the Monographia Histeroidum
of Paykull, and, like it. Illustrated with outline figures of all the
-species.*
The second period in the history of American entomology
now begins, in the decade from 1840-50 ; a most important
epoch in the intellectual history of our country. An indepen-
dent school of science had commenced in zoology by the inves-
tigations of James D. Dana on the polypes and Crustacea collected
while attached to the Exploring Expedition of Captain (now
Admiral) Wilkes; in geology by James Hall of the New York
Geological Survey, and by the brothers Rogers of the Pennsyl-
vania and Vii^nia Surveys. Prof. Agassiz also came to us,
introducing methods of systematic instruction, which previously
each student, after many trials, had to invent by himself, and for
himself alone ; and with his unequalled ability as a lecturer to
excite enthusiasm in his hearers, he added a powerful stimulus. to
the cultivation of natural history, the eifects of which can
hardly be exaggerated. With few exceptions, the zoological
stuilents who have since become prominent in the United States
have been instructed for a longer or shorter period by him ; and
it hR8 been a frequent caiise of regret to me, that my early efiforts
*I have purposely excluded fV*om thU sketch of American entomology the illus-
trated work of Boisdaval and LeConte on the Lepidoptera of North America. Al-
thoagb the task of collecting material and making notes on the habits of larvaa with
many drawings occupied my father, Major John LeConte. for several years, the text
of the work and the systematic arrangement, snch as it was, were prepared abroad,
not at all under -his control ; and the work was stopped before the completion of the
first TOlume. All the notes and drawings which were to have been used in the study
of the Ueterocera were retained by his ooeditor, and still remain in Europe.
14 B. NATURAL HISTORY.
in science had not been directed by one who could so thoroughly
combine kindness in instruction with firmness in criticism ; who
could so well temper the natural impatience for rapid publication
of the young and inexperienced observer, to that calmuess of
Judgment which permits nothing to be published until it ex*
presses the best results which the author can at that time pro-
duce.
Another most valuable auxiliary to science in the United States,
belonging to the same decade, was the establishment of the Smith-
sonian Institution, on a secure basis, and nearly in the form do*
vised by its learned secretary, Prof. Joseph Henry ; whereby the
funds were employed chiefly in the assistance of investigators and
explorers, and in the publication of scientific memoirs.
It has long been the privilege of those who labor to extend
the boundaries of human knowledge to work hard and (in ordi-
nary phraseology) to find themselves: and, until the organization-
of the Smithsonian Institution, it was their further privilege, in
this country, to publish at their own individual expense all me-
moirs, which from bulk or cost of illustration were beyond the
limited means of local scientific societies.
Under the fostering influence of this, among the most noble
of the intellectual chanties of the age, many valuable works on
abstract science have been published ; which, though produced in
less than one-third of a century, by a small number of investiga-
tors, thinly dispersed over a large extent of territory, would do
honor to older communities, in which students of science and their
labors are not unfrequently oared for by the protecting influ-
ence of government.
It has thus come to pass that manuals and catalogues of several
orders of insects have been prepared by the students best qualified
to give, in a condensed form, compilations of the latest results of
investigation, or entitled to put forth their own views of classificar
tion, as worthy of acceptance ; and in the preparation of this
series of works, valuable assistance ha^ been rendered in orders
which had not received attention from our native students, by
some of the best European authorities on those subjects, among
whom are specially to be remembered with gratitude Hagen, Loew,
Osten-Sacken and De Saussure.
The excellence of the memoirs thus published by the Smithso-
nian Institution results fVom two facts ; the persons invited to pre-
B. KATURAL HISTOBT. 15
pare the works are those who are recognized by scientific men as
most competent for the labor ; and the memoirs when prepared are
submitted to committees capable of judging of their value. Neg-
lect of these precftutions will probably ensure greater or less failure
in attempts to procure works for either primary or advanced sci-
entific instruction ; and I am the more confirmed in this opinion
by the miserable result attending the munificent expenditure of
the st^te of New York, on the volume illustrative of insects in-
jarious to agriculture. Compiled by a person ignorant of the
science, and illustrated by a draughtsman untrained in natural
history drawing, it remains a permanent example of misplaced
confidence and liberality ; an equal disgrace to the legislation, the
science and the art, of the great state in which it was published.
The possibility of acquiring some knowledge of our insects,
without the possession of large costly libraries which up to this pe-
riod were indispensable, soon made the science more popular ; and
the names of the species beginning to be known, many persons
were attracted to form collections, and others to the equally fas-
cinating study of the life history of individual objects.
Thus arose the present condition of economic entomology ; and
the biological studies commenced years before by Dr. Harris were
worthily continued by Dr. A. Fitch of New York, and the state. en-
tomologists afterwards appointed in several of the Western States.
Most prominent among those to whom we are indebted for the
development of practical entomolog}*^ was the lamented B. D.
Walsh, of Rock Island, Illinois ; an Englishman by birth, bringing
to this country a mind well trained in classical and scientific in-
struction by a thorough University course, and animated by an
enthusiastic love not only for science but for truth and consistency
in life.
The ^' Practical Entomologist," a monthly magazine, published
(1665 to 1867) by a committee of the entomological society of
Philadelphia, was edited chiefiy by him. Its successors, the
*' American Entomologist" and '^American Entomologist and Bot-
anist,'* of Saint Louis, were edited by Mr. Walsh, and Mr. C. V.
Riley, the accomplished state entomologist of Missouri. These
volumes will be often referred to, not only for the meritorious es-
says on injurious insects and for the excellent suggestions towards
controlling these pests, but still more for the fearless and caustic
manner in which the editors exposed many quack contrivances for
16 B. NATURAL BISTORT.
exterminating our insect enemies ; thus endeavoring to protect oar
too credulous farmers against the pretensions of ignorant invent-
ors and shameless empirics.
Last to he mentioned, hecause the most recent, of the aids for
the cultivation of entomology, and for popularizing the science,
is the "Guide to the Study of Insects," by Dr. A. S. Packaiti, Jr. ;
a most judicious and excellent compilation from the best works on
the various orders, adapted to the North American fauna, and il-
lustrated with copious and well drawn original figures, combined
with no insignificant portion of the author's own investigations,
chiefiy in embryology.
Having now shown, by a hasty survey of the past, the gradual
progress of our science, let us consult in regard to what is to be
done to perfect the structure, the foundations of which are thus
securely laid, and above all, what is necessary to popularize and
utilize the great mass of information which has been obtained by
so much labor.
Of all the branches of zoology, there is none more intimately
connected with the great agricultural interests than entomology ;*
and yet from the vast number of objects involved in the study,
many of which, on account of their small size, are with difl9culty
recognized by the untrained observer, and also from the compli-
cation of metamorphosis and habits such as are seen in no other
department of the animal kingdom, there is no branch of natural
history which requires for its elucidation greater industry, or
higher powers of scientific analysis. For the same reasons, none
of the inferior animals are so well fitted to elude and resist human
control. We may therefore expect the practical application of the
abstract truths and facts contained in the science to be a task of
more than ordinaiy difiSculty, requiring the assistance of the most
learned students and the most ingenious investigators.
I may, perhaps, be accused of uttering a very vapid tniiam,
when I assert that before any science is capable of rational prac-
tical application, the science must be well advanced, or at least
its general principles and methods of investigation firmly eetab-
*"The entire sum expended by Conjrress, or bj our Tarions State Legislatures for
this purpose (flrom 177S-l»{e) cannot exceed $90,000 to 100,000, or about $1,000 n year. Tet
the annual damage done by injects within the limits of the United States cannot be less
than ($:i00,000.000) three hundred millions of dollars. Am. Bntom. and Bot. ii, loe.
" Napoleon, at the summit of his prosperity, never inflicted more dama^ on a nation
than the Uliputian insect army inflicts on the United States.'* Ibid., il, 367.
B. NATURAL HISTORY. 17
lished ; and further that the application must be made by those
who are fully informed as regards the science. Yet, by neglect of
this apparent axiom, we have seen that the great state of New
York expended a sum of mone}", almost sufficient to print all the
useful books on entomology since published in the United States,
upon one quarto volume, which is a monument only of presump-
tion and ignorance.
I may be excused, then, if I mention first those things which
in my opinion will contribute to a more rapid advance in the de-
scriptive and systematic portions of our science^ and. conclude with
t-hose relating to its future usefulness.
First, then, will come the completion gf the series of works, pub-
lished by the Smithsonian Institution, on the classification of the
several orders. For this students must be found, who will devote
themselves to the study of those orders which have been here-
tofore neglected. This series must be supplemented by synony-
mical and bibliographical catalogues, and finally by synopses of
species in each order, to which supplements must from time to time
be made, to diminish as far as possible the necessity of reference
to other works, and thus place the accurate results of science
within reach of persons who can ill afford the costly libraries now
necessary for reference.
Second, and equally important, will be the formation of type
collections for the identification of species. The number of
species is so vast, the differences so small, and the multitude
of new forms, not yet represented in collections, so great, that
the best descriptions that can be written do not obviate the ne-
cessity of referring at times to the original types for comparison,
and the amount of time, labor and expense saved to students, by
having the whole of the information within reach at one place for
each order of insects, can scarcely be estimated.
These type collections should be in the possession of the stu-
dent who can make best use of them for the present interests of
science, and on his death, or retirement from intellectual pursuits,
should not be exposed for sale^ or to any other vicissitudes of for-
tune, but should be given to his successor in science, or placed in
some public institution where they will be most careftUly presei'ved
and vsed only for reference.
The liberality of friends, both at home and abroad, has already
made my collection of coleoptera such a type collection, and with
A. A. A. 8. VOL. XXII. B. (2)
18 B. NATURAL HISTORY.
the exception of a moderate number of species described in Euroiie,
of which no duplicates can be obtained, and a very small number
which I have described from other collections, at the solicitation of
their -owners, it contains types of nearly all the described cole*
optera of America north of Mexico. From the saving of time
both to students who visit my collection, and to m3'se1f in naming
series for correspondents, I cannot too strongly recommend the
formation of similar collections in other orders of insects.*
The last portion of our subject yet remains to be discussed;
the practical application of the great mass of scientific truth
which has been thus far gathered in relation to the structure,
classification, habits and life history of insects.
Of the immense number of insects which are found in any given
portion of the earth's surface, couiparatively few are capable of
becoming so numerous as to affect plants injuriously. But from
time to time, the interference of man in the progress of civiliza-
tion destroys the balance which previously existed, and insects,
before unimportant by reason of their comparatively small
numbers, finding the checks to their increase removed, suddenly
become very destructive to one or another of our agricultural
products. In this case what is to be done? Obviously there are
but two courses ; the first to abandon the crop, until the insect
enemy is reduced by starvation to its former insignificance ; the
other is to establish, by human intelligence, a system of checks
to take the place of the divine machinery which has been inter-
fered with by the same human intelligence. The second is the
course that is, and probably will continue to be, generally adopted.
This new system of checks, according to the habits of the insect
to be suppressed, may be divided into (1) those requiring per-
sonal labor and diligence alone ; (2) personal labor assisted by
contrivances ; (3) automatic contrivances, not requiring personal
attention (including the use of -poisons) ; (4) the production of
diseases; (5) the introduction of parasites and other enemies.
Under the 1st head may be mentioned the destruction of larvae
♦ As a proof of the earne>tnesR of this recommendaUon, as weU aa a duty I owe to
thoee interested in the progress of the siiicnoe, M'ho have cooperated wiMi me in plac-
ing their types in my collection, I hereby pledge myself that my collection shall neTcr
be sold or divided, but that it shall be placed permanently whei*e it can be best cared
for, and made accessible for the authentication of specimens. And I inviie those who
are willing to sacrifice rarities, or even uniqnes in their collections for such a puriiose,
to send them to me, with the ftall confluence that they are thus rendering them of mor«
general use than they can be in local coUectiona.
B. NATURAL HISTORY. 19
of borers by wires, etc. ; 2nd, the collecting of plum weevils,
potato chrysomelflB, etc., by large nets, and their subsequent de-
struction ; 3rd, sugaring with poisoned food, specially applicable
to nocturnal lepidoptera, and the use of fires, or lanterns with
a vessel of poison, to attract nocturnal species ; 4:th, the commun-
ication of fungoid disease (like pebrine, which affects the silk-
worm) to other lepidopterous larv^se ; * 5th, introduction and
preservation of insectivorous mammals, birds, reptiles and insects
according to the particular indication of the case ; and the trans-
portation of parasites known to affect the pest in other localities.f
In the last annual report of Mr. C. V. Riley, Missouri state en-
tomologist, there is a very effective comparison of the ravages
made by the gregarious insect pests with the destruction caused by
an invading army. The same simile has been frequently used by
me in conversation, and has doubtless often occurred to many of
you. The application of it made by Mr. Riley is that, if an en-
emy were to cause a small fraction of the injury which results each
year from the depredations of even one of several of our insect
enemies, the whole country would resound with, a clamor for the
suppression of the invaders. The memory of a colossal conflict
is, alas ! still fresh in our minds, and I desire not to awaken the
painful recollections which rest in the bosoms of us all ; but
leaving out reference to the distressing scenes which we have all
witnessed, there was much of the ludicrous, from which we may
on this occasion derive profit, or at least the material for carrying
oar simile somewhat farther.
Putting out of view for the moment the noble patriotism of the
nncorrupted and incorruptible masses of our nation, prominent
among whom were the great agricultural class, whose interests it
is the object of the present inquiry to protect, we all remember
vividly the eager struggle of small politicians for staff appoint-
ments, of greater politicians, innocent of martial training, for
higher commands ; the zeal of contractors to furnish supplies for
the soldiers in the field (sometimes, as in the case of shaving soled
* I am extremely faopefkil of the resnlt of nslng this method. I have learned of an
instance In ^hlch fVom the communication of the dinease by some silkworms, the whole
of the caterpillars in a nine-acre piece of woods were destroyed.
fl learn from the 8rd annual report of Dr. W. LeBaron, Illinois state entomologist,
that in accordance with ideas first published by Mr. B. D. Walsh, a Chalcideous par^
asite of a coccus which attacks the apple tree, has probably been successfully intro-
duced into the northern part of the state, where it was previously unknown. (Op. eU,
p. MO).
20 B. NATURAL HISTORY.
shoes, and shoddy garments, rather aggravating than relieving their
sufferings) ; the general hurry and scurry, and bustle and turmoil,
to do everything hastily and with the greatest pecuniary profit.
Why was all this ? Was the great glory to be obtained in mili-
tary service, when man fights man, the stimulus? Is there not
equal glory in the more laborious, albeit peaceful combats of sci-
ence, when man subdues the inorganic or the organic powers which
resist his will, and makes them subject to his control ? Or is it,
perhaps, to use a common phrase of the period, because there
was money in it?
If the latter be a part of the cause of the agitation to which we
allude, let us see if the same idea cannot be utilized for our pres-
ent purpose. There is money, aye, much mone}^ in any well de-
vised scheme for the practical application of entomology to the
protection of agricultural interests. First, there is the saving of
untold millions in the productions of the country, now destroyed
by insect pests. Second, there is the necessity for the expansion
and reorganization of the Department of Agriculture, so that it
will represent and protect the farmers, to the same extent that the
Coast Survey' protects the commercial interests of the nation.
In this expansion and reorganization of the Department of Agri-
culture the controlling power should be the highest scientific ability
that can be procured for the place, and the ofi9ce should cease to be
as it has been since its establishment, a semi-sinecure for persons
of small or local political influence. New places would have to be
created, but with a moderate sprinkling of good working scientific
men, many of these might be regarded like other ofiSces, as the
spoils of the dominant political party, and the interests of the
farmer still be protected. Better would it be, though, if the latter
class should demand that the government give them a thoroughly
organized, compact, industrious body of the best trained scientific
men, to teach them what should be done to control the destroyers
of their labor.
There is now lying idle in Washingtori a great mass of notes on
habits of injurious insects, collected by the untiring exertion of
Mr. T. Glover, the industrious entomologist of the Department of
Agriculture. This material, in its present imperfect form, if ar-
ranged under proper scientific supervision, and illustrated by
figures submitted to judicious criticism, and then published in the
same careful manner as the explorations of the Engineers, the
B. NATURAL BISTORT. 21
Coast Survey, and other scientific departments of the government,
would be of great utility in preparing the condensed reports, which
should finally be accessible to every intelligent agriculturist.
One more illustration, and we will dismiss this already some-
what prolix simile of the invading army.
As in all such cases of aggression, it is competent with the
higher military authorities to take private property for the benefit
of the nation ; so, too, a power similar in its results, though less
despotic in its exercise, is necessary in our contests with the
organic ''powers of the air," which attack our fields. How this
authority is to be localized and manifested admits of much dis-
cussion, to enter upon which would tax your patience, and prolong
this discourse far beyond the limits to which I intend to confine it.
For the moment, the following may be suggested, with some mod-
ificatious, as probably feasible in the extreme cases, fortunately
few in number, which may be exemplified by such destructive at-
tacks as the army or boll-worm upon cotton ; the Hessian fly upon
wheat ; Scolytidae (bark borers) upon pine forests ; and the cur-
culio upon plums and allied fruits.
The establishment of a fund, by the assistance of the federal
government, state, or county authorities, or by private combina-
tions, from which are to be paid owners of infected crops, which
are destroyed in order to prevent the spread of the infection. This
must of course be done under the advice of intelligent and care-
fully chosen agents of the authority by which the fund is to be
dispensed. The rate of compensation could be easily determined
at the end of the season by the average value or jield of similar
crops in the vicinity, and should be such a liberal fraction of the
full value, as would stimulate the owner of the property to be de-
stroyed to declare the infection at the earliest possible moment,
but at the same time not so large as to prevent due diligence on
his part to confine the infection within the smallest limits.
Besides these two measures, which I consider of primary im-
portance, there are* several others, more easily under present con-
trol, by the adoption of which our accurate knowledge of the
really formidable insect pests can be greatly increased, and the
means for their suppression intelligently and efQcientl}"^ applied.
With a condehsed statement of them, I shall conclude my dis-
course, thanking you for the kind attention with which you have
favored me.
22 B. NATURAL HISTOBT. .
1. Reorganization of the Department of Agriculture, on a sci-
entific basis, for the proper protection and advancement of agri-
cultural interests.
2. Preparation of lists of the most destructive insect pests,
with condensed notes of what is now known concerning them, that
attention may be directed specially to those investigations neces-
sary to complete our knowledge.
3. Coordination and cooperation of state entomologists with
the chief of the Department of Agriculture, that they may work
harmoniously and intelligently in concert, and thus avoid the waste
of labor now resulting from duplicate observations and repetitions
in publication : collateral to this, the publication each year of a brief
report containing such important advances made in the science,
both at home and abroad as should be made known to the farmers.
4. Accurate calendars to be prepared of the appearance, disap-
pearance and other phenomena of the history of the most injurious
insects in different parts of the country.
5. Contrivance of apparatus on a large scale, by which, with
the least expenditure of material and labor, the nocturnal species
may be attracted by light, and dropped into a vessel containing
«
cyanide of potassium or other poisonous substance.
6. Experiments on the effects of poisons upon those species
whose habits permit the wholesale application of such means of
destruction : especially adapted to nocturnal lepidoptera by the
process known as sugaring for moths.
7. Careful study of epidemic diseases of insects, especially
those of a fungoid nature : and experiments on the most effective
means of introducing and communicating such diseases at pleasure.
8. The preparation b}'^ our best instructed entomologists work-
ing in concert, of one or more elementaiy books suitable for use
in schools, giving in a compendious form the general principles of
the science, and indications for applying the knowledge to prac-
tical results.
9. The appointment in agricultural colleges of competent pro-
fessors of entomology, who have been trained in a scientific school,
to fit them for the duty of instruction.
1 0. The establishment of the means of compensation for com-
pulsory or voluntary destruction of crops infected by formidable
pests, as above mentioned.
B. NATURAL HISTORY. 23
Note ok Bufo Americanus. By Thomas Hill, of Portland, Me.
This note is intended as a contribution toward the p83xhology
of the American toad ;. simply presenting some evidences of in-
telligence and of capacity for learning to which I have been
witness.
In the summers of 1843-5, an old toad used tasit under the
door of a beehive every fine evening, and dextrously pick up those
bees which, overladen or tired, missed the doorstep and fell to the
ground. He lost, by some accident, one eye, and it was observed
by several members of the family, as well as myself, that he had
with it lost his ability to pick iip a bee at the first trial ; his
tongue struck the ground on one side the bee : but after several
weeks' practice with one eye he regained his old certainty of aim.
I have never seen our toad use his hands to crowd his food into
his mouth as the European toad is said to do ; although he uses
them freely to wipe out of his mouth any inedible or disagreeable
substance. When our toad gets into his mouth part of an insect
too large for his tongue to thrust down his throat (and I have
known of their attempting full grown larvie of Sphinx quinquemaO'
ulattLs^ and even a wounded hummingbird) he resorts to the
nearest stone or clod and presses the protruding part of his
mouthful against it and thus crowds it down his throat. This
can be observed at any time by entangling a locust's hind legs to-
gether and throwing it before a small toad.
On one occasion I gave a "yellow-striped" locust to a little
toad in its second summer, when he was in the middle of a very
wide gravel walk. In a moment he had the locust's head down
his throat, its hinder parts protruding ; and looked around for a
stone or clod, but finding none at hand, in either direction, he
bowed his head, and crept along, pushing the locust against the
ground. But the angle with the ground was too small and my
walk too well rolled. To increase the angle he straightened his
hind legs up, but in vain. At length he threw up his hind
quarters, and actually stood on his head, or rather on the locust
sticking out of his mouth, and after repeating this once or twice
succeeded in "getting himself outside of his dinner."
But these instances of ingenious adaptation to the circum-
stances were exceeded by a toad about four years old at Antioch
college. I was tossing him earthworms while digging, and pres-
24 B. NATCRAL HISTORY.
ently threw him so large a specimen that he was obliged to attack
one end only. That end was instantly transferred to his stomach,
the other end writhed free in air, and coiled about the toad's head.
He waited till its wri things gave him a chance, swallowed half an
inch, then taking a nip with his jaws, waited for a chance to draw
in another half-inch. But there were so many half-inches to dis^
pose of that at length his jaws grew tired, lost their firmness of
grip, and the worm crawled out five-eighths of an inch, between
each half-inch swallowing. The toad, perceiving this, brought his
right hind foot to aid his jaws, grasping his abdomen with his foot,
and, by a little efibrt, getting hold of the worm in his stomach
from the outside ; he thus by his foot held fast to what he gained
by each swallow, and presently succeeded in getting the .worm
entirely down.
A garter-snake was observed this summer in North CJonway
pushing a toad down his throat by running it against clods and
stones ; just as the toad crowds down a locust.
The amount which a toad can eat is surprising. One Tuesday
morning I threw a Coreus tHstis to a young toad, he snapped it up,
but immediately rejected it, wiped his mouth with gceat energy,
and then hopped away with extraordinary rapidity. I was so
much amused that I gathered some more of the same bug and
carried them to a favorite old toad at the northeast comer of my
house. He ate them all without making any wry faces. I gath-
ered all that I could find on my vines, and he ate them all, to the
number of twenty-three. I then brought him some larvae of Py-
gcera ministra, three-quarters grown, and succeeded in enticing
him to put ninety-four of them on top of his squash bugs. Find-
ing that his virtue was not proof against the caterpillars when I
put them on the end of a straw and tickled his nose with them,
he at length turned and crept under the piazza, where be re-
mained until Friday afternoon, digesting his feast.
A gentleman having read this paper told me he had seen the
toad tuck in the last inch of an earthworm with his hand, Euro-
pean fashion. I then remembered that I have several times seen
our toad put the last quarter-inch of earthworms in with his hand ;
but never saw him take his hand to a locust.
V
B. NATURAL HISTORY. 25
^^ "^ALS AND Green Mountain Gneisses op
<^ ^' Py J* ^* Dana, of New Haven, Conn.
^ V ''American Journal of Science" in
^ ^noticed by Percival, that crystals
^ ^alisbiirj', Connecticut, in mica schist
y ^K^ ^ die Stockbridge or Canaan limestone.
^ '%^ ,iul in southern Canaan, at a locality in Falls
iie Housatonic River (to which I was directed
K\
cir t^ .1 Reed of Pittsfield), crystals of this mineral in a
4L I , well-characterized mica schist ; but in this case, the
ycerliea the limestone and is, therefore, the newer rock.*
^ $taurolitic mica schist contains also small garnets. The
order of superposition is free from all doubt, for the Canaan
limestone outcrops at the bottom of the same hill, from beneath
the schist, and the dip is not over fifteen degrees.
The age of the Stockbridge limestone is admitted by all recent
writers on the subject to l}e Lower Silurian. Logan referred it to
the Quebec group or the formation next below the Chazy. But
since then Billings has described fossils from the same limestone
at West Rutland, which he has identified as Chazv. And the
Crinoids and other species, mentioned in the "Vermont Geological
Report" as found in the limestone at other Vermont localities
appear to show, as long since suggested by Professor James Hall,
that the Trenton limestone is also present in the formations. The
Chazy and Trenton limestones (Black River included) follow one
another in New York, and the west and south. That the Canaan
limestone is the same identical stratum that occurs at Stockbridge
in Massachusetts, and farther north at Pittsfield, I know from a
personal tracing of the rock throughout this region ; and examina-
tions still farther north in Massachusetts and Connecticut lead me
to believe in the conclusion of the geologists of the Vermont
survey, that all is one formation — the Stockbridge limestone, or
the Eolian as Hitchcock named it.
The fossils found in Vermont lead to the conclusion that the
limestone represents the Trenton era as well as the Chazy. The
overlying mica schist and other associated rocks have a thickness
of at least three thousand feet ; and, if the limestone is Trenton
^From fiftcts I hare obserred elsewhere, I think it probable the SaliBbury Bchiet if
•bo an i^ver^filng rock.
26 B. NATURAL HISTORY.
in part, they belong to an era later : either to a closing part of
the Trenton period, or to the period of the Hudson River or
Cincinnati group.
In any case there is no reason to doubt that the staurolites
occur in rocks of the later part of the Lower Silurian age, and
strong reason for the conclusion that these schists are in age veri-
table Hudson River rocks.
On this view, the Hudson River or Cincinnati group, in the
Green Mountains — alike in Connecticut, Massachusetts and
Vermont, — includes beds of quartzite, mica schist, chloritic mica
slate, hydro-mica slate (the talcose slate of the earlier geolo-
gists), well-characterized gneiss of various kinds, some of it much
contorted, and granitoid gneiss.
At a locality at South Canaan village, in Cobble Hill, the lowest
rock over the limestone is quartzite ; next follows mica schist
passing into gneiss ; apd above this there is a light-colored grani-
toid gneiss, breaking into huge blocks with very little of a schist-
ose structure.
Near the boundary of the towns of Tyringham and Great Bar-
rington, four miles east of the latter village, a locality long since
studied by Mr. R. P. Stevens of New York, and by him pointed
out to me, there are, over the limestone, alternating beds of
quartzite gneiss and limestone dipping at a small angle to the
eastward. Commencing below, the succession is
1. Granular limestone, that of the valley.
2. Mica schist, a thin bed.
3. Hard Jointed quartzite, 30 feet.
4. VThite granular limestone, 00 feet.
5. Hard Jointed quartzite', iO feet.
6. GneisBoId mica schist, 30 feet.
7. Bluish granular limestone, 40 feet.
8. Mica schist, 6 to 8 feet.
9. Quartzite, partly laminated, lao feet, forming a high blolT,— the site of Devanj'f
hearthstone quarry ; and then
10. Gneiss, forming the top of the bluff, and having great thickness in a ridge to the
northeast, bat in its upper portions becoming very silicious or in part qaaxtzlte.
The fact that quartzite, limestone and gneiss or mica schist
here alternate with one another is beyond question ; and, if I
am right in the age of the deposits above suggested, the alter-
nations occur at the junction of the Trenton and Hudson River
formations.
The above section occurs on the east side of a small open valley.
On the west side of the same valley the foot of the bare front of
B. NATUBAL HISTORY, 27
the hill consists of quartzite, dipping slightly to the north-west-
ward, as if one side of a very gentle anticlinal of which the rock
of the Devany quarry is the opposite. The quartzite, although
hard and generally pure, contains a layer of mica schist ten inches
thick which becomes pure quartzite a hundred feet to the east-
ward. Above the quartzite follows gneiss, which continues west-
ward three miles, in a shallow synclinal, to Great Barrington, and
there this gneiss is overlaid by a second thick stratum (100 feet
or so) of quartzite. Here, then, there are two strata of quartzite
separated by two or three hundred feet of gneiss, the whole over-
lying the Stockbridge limestone. The gneiss is a very firm rock,
covering the slopes in some places with blocks like houses in size,
where, upturned through the growth of trees. I had suspected
that it was one of the older gneisses of New England, until I
found that it was overlaid by quartzite, and, on tracing further the
stratification, proved that it belongs unquestionably to the series
of rocks newer than the limestone.
From the facts which have been presented it follows that all
old-looking Green Mountain gneisses are not prae-silurian, and,
further, that the presence of staurolite is no evidence of a prae-
silurian age.
The Slates of the Taconic Mountains op the Age op the
Hudson River or Cincinnati Group. By J. D. Dana, of
New Haven, Conn.
In my study of the Stockbridge limestone and the associated
rocks in Berkshire county, Massachusetts, I have found that the
ridges are often, if not always, synclinals. They consist of the
slates or schists (and sometimes quartzite) overlying the lime-
stone i and in the downward flexnres of the limestone, during the
period of disturbance and metamorphism which made the moun-
tains, the overlying beds or part of them were folded together into
a compact mass which has withstood degrading agents, while the
same beds in the anticlinals or upward flexures were extensively
broken and have disappeared. The slate ridges are then nothing
bat squeezes of the slate formation between the sides of a lime-
stone synclinal. •
$8 B. NATURAL HISTORY.
The Taconic mountains lie on the western border of the Berk-
shire limestone region ; and, in general, the dip of the limestone,
as well as of the Taconic slates is to the eastward, and hence the
slates being underneath are seemingly the older. They are actu-
ally so, unless the Taconic ridges are also synclinals, with an east-
wardly inclined axis, like some of the Berkshire mountains. Un-
til recently I had regarded the apparent order of superposition as
the true order of succession, that is, I had 8U{5posed that the lime-
stones were newer than the Taconic slates. The conclusion
seemed to be confirmed by finding at different places the slates
and limestone with the same high easterly dip, the slates under-
most.
But a few weeks since, on an examination of the eastern base
of Mt. Washington, the highest part of the Taconic range in south-
western Massachusetts, along the road just east of the highest
summit, called Mt. Everett, 2,634 feet in height above the sea,
the limestone of the SheflSeld plain was found to have, in-
stead of the usual easterly dip, a westerly dip, and this continued
up the slopes of the mountain as far as the limestone extended,
about 120 feet above the plain and there the limestone was seen to
pass directly beneath the slates of the mountain, these having the
same dip and strike, the dip 20** to 25.** Thus the limestone was
seen to descend under Mt. Washington and the slates to be the
superior rock. Following along the base of the mountain north-
ward, this dip of the Stockbridge limestone under the mountain
was found to continue for nearly four miles, that is, along the
whole eastern front.
These facts seem to prove that the limestone of Berkshire goes
under Mt. Washington and comes up in the great limestone of
Copake on the west side of the Taconic range.
I might show that there are probably two close-pressed syn-
clinals in the Mt. Washington plateau (which is four to five
miles broad), with steep easterly inclined axes, and that these
synclinals are synclinals of slate riding over a single broken syncli-
nal of limestone ; that, to the north of the mountain, where the
mountain descends to the limestone plains of Egremont, these S3^n-
cllnals become separated and include an anticlinal of limestone,
the limestone of the anticlinal appearing in the intermediate
valley while the ridges (synclinals) are slate ; and that the two
synclinals have an eastwardly inclined axis, the dip being very
B. NATURAL HISTORY. 29
steep to the eastward. But to explain fully would require
diagrams, and I leave the details for another place.
Gray lock in northwestern Massachusetts, to the east of the line
of the Taconic, and 3500 feet in height, whose rocks are much like
those of Mt. Washington, is described by Emmons as a synclinal ;
and, after a survey of the facts on the ground, observing the
westerly dip of the limestones. of the eastern slopes near South
Adams, and the easterly dip on the western slopes near the en-
trance to the "Hopper," as the great central vaTley is called, I am
satisfied that he was right. The dip at the summit and most other
parts is very steep to the eastward. It appears then to be a result,
like many other Berkshire Mountains, of a squeeze of the slates
in a synclinal ; and like Mt. Washington it is probably not a sim-
ple synclinal. It may be a double one, with the Hopper corre-
sponding to the intermediate anticlinal, the beds of the whole
having a high dip to the eastward owing to the eastward inclination
of the axis of the folds. At North Adams, in the ridge of slate
just west of the village, the limestone and slate both dip eastward,
there being here the north end of one of the inclined synclinals.'
The making of the highest summits of the Taconic region ap-
pears thence to have depended on this doubling of the folds. It
becomes exceedingly difficult in such cases to ascertain the true
thickness of the slate formation.
In view, then, of the facts stated in my former article vrith regard
to the age of the limestone and its overlying rocks, it is not easy
to avoid the conclusion that the Taconic slates are Hudson river
slates^ as long since held by the Professors Rogers; and, also,
that the rocks, on which Prof. Emmons, in his New York Geologi-
cal Report, first based his Taconic system, or out of which he de-
vised it, are after all nothing but the Hudson river and Trenton
groups, with the underlying Chazy. The Trenton limestone and
Hudson River or Cincinnati groups, which properly constitute one
series in American Geological History, are then the true Taconic
system.
30 b. natural history.
Farther Observations on the Embryolo(jy of Limulus, with
Notes on its Affinities. By A. S. Packard, Jr., of
Salem, Mass.
In a recent paper on the Development of Limulus, published in
tJie " Memoirs of the Boston Society of Natural History," I stated
that the blastodermic skin, just before being moulted, consisted of
nucleated cells, and also traced Its homology with the so-called
amnion of insects. I have this summer, by making transverse
sections of the egg, been able to study in a still more satisfactory
manner these blastodermic ceils and to observe their nuclei before
they become effaced during and after the blastodermic moult.
On June 17th (the egg having been laid May 27th) the periph-
eral blastodermic cells began to harden, and the outer layer, that
destined to form the -'amnion," to peel off from the primitive band
beneath.. The moult is accomplished by the flatteneil cells of the
blastodermic skin hardening and peeling off from those beneath.
During this process the cells in this outer layer lose their nu-
clei, and, as it were, dry up, contracting and hardening during
the process. This blastodermic moult is comparable with that of
Apus, as I have already observed, the cells of the blasto<iermic
skin in that animal being nucleated.
This blastodermic skin in its mode of development may also
safely be compared with the "amnion" of the scorpion as de-
scribed and figured by Metznikoff, and we now feel justified in un-
hesitatingly homologizing it with the " amnion " of insects, in which
at first the blastodermic cells are nucleated, and appear like those
of Limulus. Moreover the lajcr of germinal matter, from which
the blastodermic skin moults off, may be compared with the prim-
itive band of insects. On June 19th, in other eggs, the cells
of the blastodermic skin were observed to be empty, and the nu-
clei had lost their fine granules, and were beginning to disappear.
The walls of the cells had become ragged through contraction,
and in vertical section short peripheral vertical radiating lines
could be perceived.
At this time an interesting phenomenon was observed. In cer-
tain portions of the blastodermic skin, or amnion, the cells had
become effaced, and transitions from the rudiments of cells to
those fully formed could be seen. From this we should suppose
that the retention of these cells in the amnion of Limulus is due
B. NATURAL HISTORY. 81
to the siugular function this skin is destined to pcrfonn, i.e., to act
as a vicarious chorion, the chorion itself splitting apart and falling
off in consequence of the increase in size of the embr3'o. In in-
sects these cells disappear, and after the skin is moulted it appears
structureless.
From studies afterwards carried on in the laboratory of the
Anderson School of Natural History, on the anatomy of the adult
Limulus, I have been able fully to confirm the important discovery
of Prof. Owen (Lectures), 1852, and more recently confirmed and
greatly extended by M. Alphonse Milne-Edwards,* relative to the
sheathing of the nervous cord and its branches by a system of
arteries, and I would here bear testimony to the accuracy of
Edwards' drawings and descriptions. Moreover I have been able
by a stud}' of living Limuli, beautifully injected by Mr. Bicknell
by the kind permission of Prof. Agassiz, the director of the Ander-
son School, to extend still farther the anatomical researches of
Milne-Edwards. With Mr. Bickneirs aid I have ascertained the
existence of still smaller arterial twigs, on the peripheral sub-
cutaneous portion of the body, than indicated b}*^ Milne-Edwards,
and have made out the existence of an extensive series of vessels
in the respiratory abdominal feet. For this I was prepared by a
study of the respiratory lamellae, which, in the arrangement of
their chitinous septa, may be closely homologized with the gills
of Amphipod Crustacea, as observed in living specimens without
injection.
With the new information afforded us by A. Milne-Edwards, re-
garding the relations of the nervous cord with the ventral system
of arteries, and the remarkably perfect circulatory system, so much
more highly developed than that of any other Arthropod, I should
no longer feel warranted in associating Limulus and the Merosto-
mata generally with the Branchiopoda, but regard them, with the
Trilobites, as forming perhaps a distinct subclass of Crustacea.
Certainly if we consider the relations of the anatomical systems
to the walls of the body, the disposition of the segments forming
those body walls, and the nature of the appendages, Limulus
is bailt on the crustacean type. Because its nervous cord resem-
bles that of the scorpion, and its circulatory system is more
perfect than that of any Arthropod we know, this is no reason for
assuming that it is not a Crustacean. On the same ground Cera-
• IZeehercbeB ear PAnatomie des Limules. AonnleB del So. Nat., 1873.
32 B. NATURAL BISTORT.
todus is not a fish because it has the lungs of a reptile, nor is
Ornithorhynchus a Saurian because it has the shoulder girdle of &
Saurian. * I have, moreover, shown that some important features
in the embryology of Limulus are like those of the scorpion and
the hexapodous insects, the ^^ amnion" of Limulus apparently
being homologous with that of the insects. '
In fact Limulus seems to me to be a sj'nthetic or comprehensive
type, bearing the same relations to the Crustacea that Ceratodus
does among the fishes, or Archseopteryx among the birds ; and be-
cause Limulus has strong analogies to the Arachnida, we should
not overlook its true afiSnities with the Branchiopodous Crustacea.
Limulus may, then, be regarded as a Crustacean with the cara-
pace of Apus, bearing simple and compound eyes as in that Phjl-
lopod, with the antennoe foot-like as in many Entomostraca, and
the abdominal appendages truly crustaccous in their structure,
while the circulatory system is not fundamentally unlike that of
other Crustacea, but only more perfect, and the digestive system is
throughout comparable with that of the normal Crustacea ; finally,
its nervous system closely resembles that of certain Arachnida.*
On a Remarkable Wasp's Nest Found in a Stump, in Mart-
land. By P. R. Uhler, of Baltimore, Md.
The insects of the genus Polistes have not hitherto been reported
to make nests of clay. All the North American species have
been considered paper-nest-builders. Many species are known
from the United States, Canada and the West Indies, and these
are generally of a brown or yellow color, having spots or bands
either lighter or darker.
In the present instance we have a dark brown species with nar-
row yellow bands across the abdomen, and with yellow feet, which
builds a nest of clay in the form of a cylinder. In the stump of
a decayed Liriodendron, found by O. N. Bryan, Esq., in Charles
county, Maryland, a number of these insects had aggregated their
cylinders. The stump was about two feet in diameter and the
•I have been reminded by Professor Wyman of this pecuUarity in Omithorliyncbiu
as stated by Meckel.
B. NATT7BAL HISTORY. 83
central cavity (which had been formed by the borings of large
beetles) was five inches wide. In this, attached to the sides, some-
times lying flat in the grooves left by the beetles, or standing off
at a considerable angle, and attached by their bases, were thirty-
three of these peculiar structures. They were of a yellow clay,
generally about half an inch in diameter, and varj'^ing in length
from two to five inches. Sixteen of these were attached in one
group projecting from the side of the cavity, and towards their
outer ends were bent into a blunt curve, resembling a colony of
the tubes of Serpula.
The nest, or, more properly, receptacle for the egg and young,
is constructed in this manner. The adult Polistes flies to an adja-
cent place where there is suitable wet clay, works this substance
into an oval pellet and flies to the place where the building is to
be made. The pellet is then laid obliquely and pressed down by
the fore feet and head of the insect so as to cause it to adhere
firmly to the surface on which it is building. This operation is
repeated until it has formed a cylinder about one inch in length.
As it proceeds, it smooths the inside of the cylinder by working
with its jaws and pushing the* front of its flat head against the
plastic clay. The first section being thus finished to its satisfac-
tion it flies off to secure small spiders. It seizes a spider with its
fore feet, stings it in just such a way as to paralyze, without de-
stroying its life, and then deposits it in the bottom of the cj'linder.
An egg is then laid beside the spider, and the wasp flies off to
secure other spiders. This is continued until the cavity, which
generally holds from twelve to fifteen of the smaller kinds, is full.
The wasp then proceeds to cover the open end with a cap of the
same material as before, after which it adds other sections to the
number of three or four, filling each with spiders, and depositing
one egg in each. The young larva feeds on these paralyzed spi-
ders, ahd, as it seems, requires from twelve to fifteen of them to
nourish it until it is ready to become a pupa.
Unlike the species of Pelopseus, which also make clay nests, it
does not nurse its young, but they are securely sealed up in the
sections to feed themselves. When ready to come forth, the wasp
gnaws a round hole in the wall of its cell, and flies forth as a per-
fect insect.
A similar, if not identical, species was very troublesome in Bal-
timore during the early part of last summer.
A. A. A. 8. VOL. XXU. B. (8)
84 B. NATURAL HISTORY.
On the front walls of the Peabody Institute these wasps as-
sembled in considerable numbers ; and constructed their cells in
the grooves of the joints of the marble. Their clay cylinders
were so numerous as greatly to disfigure the marble and render it
necessary to have the front of the Institute cleaned.
On Recent Additions to the Fish Fauna of Massachuskxts.
By Theodore Gill, of Washington, D.C.
In the first trustworthy enumeration of the fishes of Massachu-
setts, the report of Dr. D. H. Storer, published in 1839, only one
hundred and seven nominal species were specified, ninety-one of
which were salt or brackish water, and this number included sev-
eral doubtful or "bad" species. Subsequently Dr. Storer, from
time to time, made known additional forms, and in his "History
of the Fishes of Massachusetts," completed in 1867, one hundred
and thirty-four species were described and illustrated ; of these,
one hundred and sixteen are salt or brackish water forms, and
eighteen fresh water. In an appendix to this work, however,
twenty-one additional species were catalogued by Mr. Frederick
W. Putnam, among which are included seven species made known
from collections in the Smithsonian Institution, due chiefly to Prof.
Baird. Since that time. Prof. Baird, as United States Ck)mmi8-
sioner of Fish and Fisheries, while stationed at Wood's Hole, has
been instrumental in bringing together twenty-three additional
species, all of which are represented now in the collections of the
Smithsonian Institution. These species belong to the following
groups :
DiODONTOiDS, or porcupine fishes ; one species, viz. : ChUo-
mycterus geometricus.
EcHENEiDOiDS, or " suckcrs ;" two species, viz.: (1) Lepteche-
neia naucraieSy and (2) Rhomhochirus osteochir.
CoTTOiDS, or sculpins ; one species, viz. : CoUus MUchUli.
LoBOTOiDs ; one species, viz. : Lobotea Surinamensis.
Elacatoids ; one species, viz. : Elacate CanadfUy said some-
times to be called crab-eater.
B. NATURAL BISTORT. 85
XiPHioiDS, or sword-fishes ; two species, viz : (1) Tetrapturus
albidus and (2) Histiophorus gladius. These are of peculiar in-
terest, as neither had been previously signalized as inhabitants of
oar waters, but both, if we may rely on the fishermen, are regular
denizens along the coast, at least in summer, and have received
the name of bill-fish. The former is readily distinguished from the
common sword-fish by the long dorsal fin and ventrals, and the
latter by the very high dorsal fin, as well as by the ventrals.
Tliree specimens of . the Tetrapturus^ have been obtained for the
Smithsonian Institution, and several others have been procured
by other persons. Only one of the Hiatiophorus has been ob-
tained, the animal being caught with difficulty ; but it is distin-
guished by the fishermen on account of its elevated dorsal.
Scombroids ; two species, viz. : (1) Cybium regale^ and (2) Or-
eynus alliteratua. The first is known as the cero or kingfish, and is
closely related to the famed Spanish mackerel, but attains a larger
size and is spotted with black instead of yellowish ; it is inferior
as food to the Spanish mackerel. The second is a small tunny,
and was never before known to visit any portion of our coast ; but
in 1871 large numbers came in, making their appearance about
the middle of August, when they were first caught in small num-
bers, bat afterward by hundreds ; they were quite uniform in size,
averaging about fourteen potmds; their flesh is dark and very
poor.
Caranooids ; with five species, viz. : (1) Decapterua punctaiua^
(2) D. macarellus^ (3) Trachuropa crumenophihalmus^ (4) Caran-
gns hippos and (5) BlepharicMhys crinitus. These are all small
fishes, and interesting chiefly to the ichthyologist on account of
their northerp range. The latter, however, is remarkable for the
greatly prolonged and flexible rays of the dorsal and anal flns,
and six or seven sent to the Smithsonian Institution were so inex.
tricably intertangled by their rays that an assistant was obliged to
spend two hours in disentangling them. The pampano ( Trachy*
notus Carolinus)^ although previously found by Prof. Baird in its
young stiage, was for the first time obtained so far north in its
adult condition.
ExoccBToms, or flying flshes ; one species, viz. : Exocoetus me-
lanurus.
CoNORHTNCHOiDS ; One species, viz. : Conorhynchus macrocephr
altis, the lady fish.
36 B. NATURAL BISTORT.
Elopoids ; one species, viz. : Elops saurtis.
AciPENSEROiDS ; One species, viz. : Acipenser brevirostriSj the
blunt-nosed sturgeon.
Mtliobatoids ; one species, viz. : Mhinoptera qtuidriloba, the
cow-nosed ray.
Trygonoids ; one species, viz. : PteropkUea madura^ the butter-
fly ray.
Galeorhinoids ; two species, viz. : (1) Eulamia MUberti^ the
common shark of the New York waters ; and (2) CkUeocerdo tigri-
nu«, the tiger shark. The latter, although previously known as an
inhabitant of the southern coast, had not been known to occur
as far northward.
It is only necessary to add that all these species are inhabitants
of tropical or warm waters, and the presence of a number of them
so far northward was entirely unexpected ; indeed, only a few can
be regarded as regular summer inhabitants of the Massachusetts
seas, and perhaps the majority of them must be looked upon as
accidental or occasional visitors. The number of species found at
Wood's Hole alone was one hundred and twenty, and the number
of Massachusetts fishes, including fresh-water forms, is now in-
creased to one hundred and seventy-nine. A striking contrast as
to the extent of the fish fauna is exhibited between Wood's Hole
and the present locality of the Fish Commission (Portland), at
the latter only sixty-two species having yet been obtained, and
among them there is not a single warm-water non-pelagic form. I
am happy, however, to be able to announce the discovery of a
number of specimens of the Platessa glabra of Storer, hitherto
known (so far as can be ascertained) from a single specimen ; that
species proves to be a true Pleuronectesy the description and figure
of Storer being erroneous.
B. KATURAL HISTORY. 37
SOGGESTION FOR FACILITATION OF MdSEUM ADMINISTRATION. By
Theodore Gill, of Washington, D. C.
ABSTRACT.
This paper detailed a system introdaced into the Smithsonian
Institution, in concert with Prof. Baird, for facilitating the arrange-
ment of the collections. Catalogues of the families and subfamilies
of the different classes, with numbers attached to the former and
letters to the latter, were in the first place prepared, and these
numbers and letters (for example 87 B, — 87 indicating the number
of the family and B the subfamily of that family) were attached
to the bottles or specimens ; these numbers and letters being fixed,
and indicating exactly the groups, the most ignorant subordinates
can be made use of for finding any specimens by simply giving
the number and letter of those desired. The collection can also
be revised by a subordinate unacquainted with science, and who
is only required to see that all numbered and lettered alike are to-
gether. Other advantages were claimed. Catalogues with this
object in view had already been published by the Smithsonian In-
stitution for the classes of Mammals and Fishes, and those of
MoUusks and others were being prepared.
The QuARTzriE of Williamstown and Vicinitt, and the
Structure of the Graylock Range. By Sanborn Tennet,
of Williamstown, Mass.
The quartzite of western Massachusetts, and the geological
structure generally of the Graylock range and of the adjacent
ranges of mountains, have long engaged the attention of some of
the best geologists of the country. But I believe there is not yet
a universal agreement as to the nature of the geological facts ex-
hibited in this region, nor a universal agreement as to the signifi-
cance of the facts observed. Therefore I feel that every new fact,
tiiat can be brought forward in regard to the geology of the region
nnder consideration, is of interest and importance.
Living near the Graylock range and numerous outcrops of the
38 B. NATURAL HIBTOBT.
well known quartzite of the vicinity, I determined sonae time ago
to examine careftilly all this part of Massachusetts, and to make
myself acquainted with all accessible geological facts revealed in
this interesting region.
I have already carefully examined a considerable part of the most
important portion of the ground, and some of the points of especial
interest and importance I have examined several times. My ex-
aminations, however, are far from being completed, and therefore
what I have to present now is merely a brief report of progress.
But I beg to be permitted to say that my examinations have already
been carried far enough to convince me that the quartzite of this
part of the state of Massachusetts, and the structure of the Gray-
lock range and of the adjacent mountains, are worthy of still
further attention from our ablest geologists.
It has long been well known that the Taconic range is composed
mainly of a finely laminated mica slate resembling a talcose slate ;
that Stone Hill, between the Taconic range and the Graylock
range, is quartzite and black slates ; and that between the Taconic
range and Stone Hill there is a belt of limestone. It has also been
long known that the Graylock range is composed of mica slate and
limestone, the former making up the principal part of the entire
range ; and that between Stone Hill and the Graylock range, or
rather on the eastern' flank of Stone Hill, there is also a belt of
limestone.
All of these rocks, as they occur in the region under consider-
ation, have a northeasterly strike, and a steep easterly dip, the
strike being north 10** — 20° or more east, and the dip 20"*— 60**
easterly.
It may also be stated here, as a fact which I am not aware has
been stated before, that somewhat north of the latitude of Stone
Hill, there is an additional outcrop of limestone half-way up the
slope of the Taconic range,
In the relations of the slates of the Taconic range to the great
limestone belt at its eastern base I find that there is no reasonable
doubt that the slates dip under the limestone, although the ab-
solute contact of the two kinds of rocks has not yet been found,
owing to the loose materials which overlie them along their whole
line of junction, as far as I have yet observed.
In examining the relations of the last named limestone belt to the
quartzite of Stone Hill, I find evidence, which is almost conclusive,
B. NATURAL BISTORT. 89
that the limestone dips under the quartzite^ instead of there being
a fault between the limestone and the quartzite, as was held by
the lamented Emmons, and as has been accepted by others. The
evidence that the limestone on the west of Stone Hill dips under
the quartzite of Stone Hill, is found mainly in the very close
proximity of the two belts, and in the identity of their strike and
dip. At the western base of Stone Hill, near a place well known
as ^^ Cold Spring," there is a large outcrop of the limestone which
is distant from the quartzite but little more than the width of the
public road and the stream that runs beside it ; at one point about
forty rods, more or less, northerly from Cold Spring the limestone
appears nearer the quartzite by the whole width of the road
and the stream, so that, although the line of Junction cannot be
seen, there is scarcely room for doubt that the limestone dips un-
der the quartzite. Now going less than a quarter of a mile farther
south, and ascending Stone Hill from the public highway on which
Cold Spring is situated, we pass over a belt of limestone, the eastern
portion of the belt just mentioned, and as we approach the crest of
the hill we find the limestone and the quartzite in such relations
that here again there can be no reasonable doubt that the former
rock dips under the latter. It is true I have not found the line of
junction of the two rocks^ for no such line appears at the surface
here. But the limestone outcrop and the heavy bedded quartzite
have both the same strike and dip, and the strata in the two
cases are scarcely a rod apart. I may add here, that at an early
day I intend to cross-cut the rocks at this place, so that afterwards
there never can be any question as to the relations which these
two kinds of rocks sustain to each other at this locality.
Passing eastward from the outcrop of limestone just men-
tioned I find in the first place quartzite, then black slates, then
quartzite again, these two kinds of rocks making up the main bulk
of Stone Hill, as long ago pointed out by Emmons and others.
On the eastern slope of Stone Hill we find limestone again,
and this we follow down nearly to Green River, a small stream
which occupies the bottom of the valley between Stone Hill and
the Graylock range. From this stream eastward to what would be
popularly considered the eastern base of Graylock, that is, the im-
mediate eastern base of the main portion of the mountain, though
not the real base, all the rocks have a steep easterly dip, and they are
all mica slate excepting a belt of limestone on the western slope
40 B. NATURAL HISTORY.
of Prospect, which, as may be inferred from the statement just
made, dips under that mountain. But passing eastward from the
immediate eastern base of Graylock, that is from the base imme-
diately adjacent the main mass of the mountain, we soon find,
after crossing a narrow belt covered with soil, grass and bushes,
the mica slate dipping westward, that is towards or under the
Graylock range ; and passing eastward still, we soon find a broad
belt of limestone also dipping westerly ; and following this lime-
stone still easterly we soon find it dipping easterly, and following
it still farther toward the east, we find, before reaching the Pitts-
field and North Adams railroad, that it dips westerly again. These
facts point to the conclusion, long ago reached by Emmons, that
the Graylock range is a synclinal, but not just such a synclinal as
he has figured, since the main bulk of the whole range in the lati-
tude of which I am speaking exhibits only steep easterly dips:
so that the whole range has the appearance of a vast monoclinal.
I may add here that I hope at an early day to publish a diagram
showing the position of all these rocks as well as the position of
the rocks from the Taconic range to the Hoosac range inclusive.
But one of the things which has specially attracted my attention
in the study of the geology of this region is the relation of the
quartzite to the limestone, when followed along the line of their
strike. In studying the strata on the southerly slope of Stone
Hill, within a hundred rods of the road leading from Williams-
town to South Williamstown, I find the quartzite and limestone
so closely associated with each other, as to indicate that the
quartzite of Stone Hill gradually merges into limestone, and that
therefore there is here really no distinct formation of quartzite,
but a series of beds which are quartzite at Stone Hill and lime-
stone .to the southward, and probably to the northward also. And
I am the more inclined to take this view from other similar facts
which I will now present as I found them on the east side of the
Graylock range, and which, so far as I am aware, are here brought
forward for the first time. On the east side of the Graylock
range, and near the "Notch" road, or "Bellows-pipe" road
leading from the "Notch" to South Adams, and near the quarry
where the limestone blocks were obtained for building bridges on
the Troy and Boston railroad, I find the limestone on the west
side of the road with a strike of north 20° — 25'' east, by the
needle, and with a dip of 40° westerly. On the opposite or east
B. NATURAL HISTORT. 41
side of the road the same kind of limestone has a very steep
easterly dip. Now following southward on the belt of limestone
dipping easterly, I find the limestone suddenly replaced by quartz-
ite as well defined as that at Stone Hill on the west of the Gray-
lock range ; and going still farther south a short distance, I find
the quartzite and limestone very closely associated with each other,
interstratified and passing into each other in many cases by easy
gradations ; but also in some cases th^ change occurs abruptly ;
in all cases, however, the two kinds of rocks maintain their con-
formability. The evidence here seems to be conclusive that the
same series of beds are limestone at one place and quartzite at
another, and this is perhaps the case with all the quartzite beds in
this part of Massachusetts.
As regards the conclusion respecting the relation of the quartzite
and limestone, so far as the passage of the one into the other
along the line of their strike is concerned, I believe I am antici-
pated by Dana, in observations made in other places ; but my
conclusions are drawn from the data which I have now pfesented.
If the observations enumerated above are to be relied upon, they
show that the limestone and quartzite are conformable at Stone
Hill, and that the former dips under the latter ; that the quartzite
and limestone at Stone Hill, and at a locality near the eastern
base of the Gray lock range, pass into each other along the line of
their strike; and that the Graylock range is a synclinal, as long
ago shown by Emmons, but not exactly such a synclinal as he has
figured, no westerly dips presenting themselves in the main mass
of the mountain range, the synclinal being indicated only by west-
erly dips of the mica slate and limestone as exhibited between
the main mass of the range and the Pittsfield and North Adams
railroad. I repeat, the main mass of the whole range appears like
one vast monodinal.
I hope to present additional facts in regard to this range of
mountains, and in regard to the Hoosac Mountain at an early day.
42 b. natural bistort.
On the Cause of the Transient Fluctuations op Level ik
Lake Superior. By Chas. Whittlesey, of Cleveland, Ohio.
In this paper I shall confine myself to that class of fluctuations
which are not only transient^ but where there is a wave-like regu-
larity of occurrence, and the height of the undulation is small.
The secular fluctuations^ extending through a series of years, no
longer need discussion, as to their origin. It may be considered
as settled that they are due to meteorological causes, extending
through many years, giving rise to differences in the rainfall, and
evaporation.
The annual fluctuation is subordinate to the secular, having the
same origin, T)ut the period is less, covering only the term of the
seasons within each year. Neither do I mean to treat of those
striking irregular oscillations, swashes or seiches, consisting of a
bold crest moving rapidly along, often in quiet seas, which have
been observed, from the time the Jesuit fathers made their first
journeys along the shores of the Upper Lakes ; nor to discuss the
minute lunar tides, recently discovered through the observations
of the United States Lake Survey ; nor the long swells produced
by distant storms. They are common to all lakes and seas, and
the cause is shown, by the reports of the' Lake Survey, to be
variation of atmospheric pressure, and it is also universal. A fitful
agitation of the waters, which I purpose noticing, will be found
in all latitudes and climates, but it is more marked in the
temperate and the frigid zones, because there, atmospheric changes
are more frequent and more extreme.
The cause of the low pendulum4ike pulsations, which Professor
Mather observed at Copper Harbor, in July, 1847, and on which
I made observations at Eagle River, in 1854 and 1856, reported
in the Smithsonian Contributions for 1859 , has not, so far as I
know, been demonstrated.
These are no doubt common to all waters, but they are so slight
that they are not generally noticed, and are more prominent on
Lake Superior than on the Lower Lakes, for reasons that will
appear to be good, provided my conclusions in regard to their
origin are sound. My endeavor will be to bring them into the
same category as the other fluctuations, although barometrical
readings, as far as we have them, do not tally with such a conclu-
sion. The period of the oscillation is too short, to produce an
B. NATURAL BISTORT. 43
appreciable change in the mercurial column. It requires some delicate
mechanical contrivance to magnify the effect of slight barometrical
movements, before the question can be settled by observation.
The readings of Professor Mather extended only through a part
of a day, during which there was a storm in the vicinity. While
the flux and reflux of the water was incessant, the movement of
the mercury was regular, and such as was due to the storm. It
indicated no atnjospheric oscillations.
At Eagle River, twenty miles west of Copper Harbor, on the
same coa^t, from the 25th to the 29th of June, 1854, the oscilla-
tions were continuous. Of six readings of my water gauge on the
29th, the average time between one rise and the next was (11)
eleven minutes ^ the average height of the wave (3) three inches and
(7-10) seven-tenths. No storm occurred in that vicinity during
these days.
The readings which were made were intended to represent the
aver<ige of the oscillations, which extended through a fortnight, not
continuously, but without long interruptions.
On the 11th of October, my attention was arrested by the occur-
rence of a very regular series of oscillations, in calm water, with
a stiff breeze off shore, that is, from the southeast.
The average of (8) eight readings, extended from 7.43 to 8.58
A.M., made at a dock in the open lake, in three feet of water,
was for time from flood to flood (9) nine minutes and (4-10) four-
tenths; for vertical range of flood (10) ten inches and (1-10) one-
tenth. The undulations came in parallel with the shore and broke
with a regular, but low ripple on the beach. They continued during
the day, which was cloudy and rainy, without wind. In 1855
these movements were not noticed until the 20th of June, with
calm and clear weather. They recurred on the 26th of June and
on the 13th of July, continuing with little interruption for a week ;
weather cloudy, rainy and frequent thunder storms.
From the 24th to the 31st of July they occurred every day,
the weather being quite the reverse of that in the middle of
the month — warm, foggy and calm. In the month of August the
oscillations were frequent, but with interruptions. On the morning
of the 2d of August the average period was (12) twelve minutes j
and in the evening of the 3d, it was (9) nine and (1-2) one-half min-^
utes. During the 2d, the weather was calm, cloudy and sultry.
On the 3d a thunder storm with wind.
44
B. NATURAL HISTORY.
In October, 1856, 1 was for the first time enabled to read the
barometer and the pulsations at the same time. During one hour
on the afternoon of the 2l8t they were very rapid, the mean of
elapsed time being (3) three minutes and (1-10) one-ten^A, with a
northeasterly wind, a swell on the lake, and a driving rain. The
barometer rose steadily from 29-440 to 29-520. During the suc-
ceeding four hours, or until 9 p. m., there was no cessation of the
waves, and the barometer reached 29603.
From 6.45 a. m. of the next day, until 9 p. m., there was only
an occasional intermission, with very variable weather ; barometer
ranging from 29-485 to 29-600. On the third day, Oct. 23d, the
movements were slight and irregular, barometer rising all day
from 29-640 to 29-860, and light northerly winds. Average period
of pulsations for one hour (7) seven and (4-10) four-tenths minutes.
The mean elevation of Lake Superior, above tide, is about six
hundred and five feet. From the few barometrical readings hitherto
made in reference to this class of movements, little can be inferred
beyond the fact that the oscillations are more marked when tfie
pressure is large.
Any agitation having its origin far out in the lake would ap-
proach the shore in waves nearly or quite parallel to it.
I have never seen an instance of perfect quiescence, on the
waters of the North American lakes. On a shelving sandy beach
there is always a slight wave-like ripple, even when the atmosphere
appears to be perfectly tranquil, but there never can be a thor-
oughly quiet atmosphere, over a large area of water.
Until a better theory is found, I adopt that of atmospheric
movement, as the cause of the undulations under consideration.
There is a source of perpetual motion in the atmosphere, in the
perpetual presence of unequally heated areaSy to which I will soon
make reference. Water is so sensitive to aerial currents that
they cannot take place without producing an effect upon the
equilibrium of its surface. I shall first show that all movements
of flowing water are in a wave-like or undulatory form, and en-
deavor to deduce by analogy, that movements of the atmosphere
take the same form, producing pulsations in the waters over which
they move.
Pulsations in the Flow of Liquids.— Where a sheet of water
flows over a dam, or a natural fall with a regular edge, it is inces-
santly changing. Its vibrations are sufllcient to produce a mo-
B. NATURAL HISTORY. 45
notonous sound, that has in it something of musical harmony.
Beneath the falling sheet, there is a constant fiux and reflux of
air, which, in large waterfalls like Niagara, gives rise to powerful
gusts of wind. This is due to a constant variation of pressure
within and without the sheet of falling water.
Jets and fountains, sustained by distant and quiet reservoirs,
present a continual change, in the height of the discharge. The
intervals between the lengthening and shortening of the columns
vary with the size and form of the discharge pipe, and the head
of the fountain.
One of the series of jets at Cleveland is a mile from the reser-
voir. In the centre is an upright pipe, throwing a jet about fif-
teen feet in height ; with an orifice of about half an inch. It is
surrounded by fifteen shorter ones, not quite half as long, which
are curved outward ; the orifice about one-fourth of an inch. In
perfectly calm weather, all these discharges pulsate in perfect
unison as to time ; but not in the amount of rise and fal] of the
jets. Their period is from thirty-seven to forty in a minute.
When water is allowed to flow through a flexible tube, like a fire-
man's hose, or the ordinary rubber pipe, it is discharged, not with
a steady stream, but in spirts that have regular intervals.
The molten material, coming from stack furnaces and cupolas,
has the same undulatory or wave-like fiow.
There is something analogous in the discharge of volcanoes and
geysers. In flumes and in the narrow channels of rivers, as soon
as the running water acquires velocity, the surface takes on the
form of undulations lying across the current.
In the atmosphere, the effect of concussion is to produce con-
secutive waves, which spread from the point of agitation in a
circular figure, and, by reaching the ear, produce sound.
The size, form and extent of this undulatory wave, depends upon
the chai'acter of the agitation, or concussion. Those arising from
lightning, or the discharge of fire-arms and artillery, have their
pulsations sharp and violent. Musical instruments, such as trum-
pets, are made to produce an infinite variety of notes, b}' a slight
variation of form in the instrument, which changes the form of the
atmospheric wave, on its way to the drum of the ear. The human
throat which is a fiexible trumpet, closed at the orifice, is capable
of more and finer modulations, than artificial ones, because it can
produce undnlations of infinitesimal dimensions. Stringed instru-
46 B. NATURAL HISTORY.
ments produce their various notes in the same way; and these
waves of concussion have such relations to each other, that the
tones they produce are musical haimonies. Light and heat are
transmitted in the form of undulations. It is therefore reasonable
to infer that movements of the atmosphere in general fall into the
same category ; and that this is a law in the motion of gases as
well as fluids.
In the case of the atmosphere there is always present a canse or
power which is too much overlooked, but which is perpetaal
and produces prodigious results, in the natural world. It is so
simple ' and so quiet that it passes unnoticed. Wherever there
are bodies irregularly heated in different parts, if they are fluid,
there mu8t he motion. In the waters of the ocean it gives rise to
wide-spread currents, whose size, velocity and distance, are deter-
mined by the unequal distribution of heat over the earth. Aerial
cun-ents, both local and general, from the gentlest zephyr, through
all grades of breezes, winds and storms, until a tornado is formed,
are due to an unequally heated atmosphere.
Electrical action, and with it chemical action and magnetism,
are brought into play in the same way. Germination and the
growth of plants, the changes of the seasons and the annual
progress of storms, are in the control of the same agent.
It is the foundation of the general circulation, which character-
izes all departments of nature, and allows stagnation nowhere.
The sun, in its daily action upon the earth, heats the soil, the
waters and the air, irregularly. In its annual movement of dec-
lination, there is a change every day, in the effect of its rays upon
the earth in every parallel of latitude.
On all shores there is a daily land and water breeze, arising
Arom the unequal effect of solar heat for that day, upon the land
and the water. As these movements are almost incessant, and the
cause is ever present, if it is granted that they follow the general
law of undulations, I think we have in them an explanation of
those low but regular pulsations, which take place in the waters of
all seas and lakes.
b. natural bistort. 47
Descent of Biyers in the Mississippi Yallet, Area of Drain-
age 1,000,000 Square Miles. By Chas. Wuittleset, of
Cleyeland, Ohio.
Of that part of North America east of the Rocky Mountains
four-fifths lies below an elevation of 1,000 feet. Humboldt calcu-
lated the mean height of North America to be 748 feet, by which
he meant, if a plane, or rather a spheroidal surface parallel with
the earth's surface, should be passed at that height above the ocean,
the parts above it, would fill up the spaces below.
Probably he would modify his estimate if he were now living and
had access to the inter-oceanic railway sections, and would fix the
plane of equalization somewhat higher. This would come, not so
much by increasing the mass of the Rocky Mountains, as of the
large elevated plateaus along their bases.
The proper establishment of such planes is a work beyond the
resources of individuals. It requires the finances of governments,
and the prolonged labor of their agents.
Profiles of surveys for railways present the same discrepancies
as barometrical profiles, only in a less degree. The Coast Survey or
the United States engineers, are the parties to establish such planes,
in a manner to give confidence in the results.
Those which are here given provisionally are intended to illus.
trate some of the most striking topographical features of the United
States. One of these is the large areas of low country. A plane at
the elevation of 2,000 feet would have above it the mere caps of
the Alleghanies, including the mountains of New York and New
England. It would scarcely touch the Laurentian hills north of the
St. Lawrence towards Hudson's bay, and would pass over that im-
mense tract east of the Rocky Mountains, northward to the Arctic
Ocean. This desolate region of rocks, scoured by the ancient con-
tinental glaciers, of drift gravel and bowlders and of countless
lakes, filling cavities excavated during the ice era, is nearly equal
to the United States in extent. Lake Winnipeg in Manitoba, which
is as large as Lake Erie, lies only 820 feet above the ocean, Lake
of the Woods 987 and Rainy Lake 1035. The low water-shed be-
tween the waters of Hudson's Bay, and those of the Atlantic where
0O many great rivers have their sources, will be noticed below.
For only a few of the streams in this valley, has the elevation
of the channel or low water been taken. Such observations are
48 B. NATURAL HISTORY.
highly important for topographical purposes, because where there
are no falls, chutes, or important rapids, the descent of the channel
is approximately uniform. Between points only one or two hundred
miles apart, it is nearly proportional to »the distance, and the ele-
vation of the adjacent country may be obtained with a barometer
or by means of short side levels ; using low water as a base. For
instance, the Mississippi, at the mouth of the Ohio, is 324 feet
above the Gulf. Midway it cannot be far from half that eleva-
tion, or 162 feet.
Mississippi Riveb.
Feet.
Month of the Ohio, (Low water above gulf) 324
it it tt j^eyre River, Galena, 111. > " ** " ** ^
«« " •« Des Moines, rapids 28 ft. ) •* " *' **
(I (( (I Wisconsin, Prairie des Chlens, 618
" ** *' Black River 694
Lake Pepin, 630
Mouth of the St. Croix River, 645
" *' " St. Peter's ** Mendota, .692
Head of Falls of St. Anthony, . 777
Mouth of the Crow Wing River (chutes and falls below at St. Cloud), II30
" ** ** Sandy Lake Outlet, 1253
Tokegema Falls, at base, fall 1 Oil ft., 1340
Cass or Red Cedar Lake, 1400
Itasca Lake (Schoolcraft's source), 1532
Turtle Lake (Beltrami's " ), 1413
Leech Lake (greatest flow of water), 1S80
Missouri Rivbr.
The elevations along this river are not always distinguishable from
those of the towns on the bluff's : — -
Fort Leavenworth (a<yacent hills 912) river, 750
Omaha (river bloflis), 1217
Fort Pierce, 1609
Red Cedar Islands, latitude 48<» N. (bluflb), 2083
Fort Clarke, 1827
" Berthold, 1873
** Union, mouth of Yellowstone River, 1879
Mouth of Milk River (water level) 2010
Fort Benton, 2663
B. NATURAL HISTORY. 49
Oflio River.
Feet.
Moath at Cairo (low water), * 824
Cincinnati (falls at Louisville 27 ft.), 429
Portsmouth, Ohio, 469
Marietta (three ft, below Lake Erie), 662
Pittsburgh, Pa., 704
Mouth of French Creek, Franklin, Pa., 908
Olean, N. York, 1280
Chautaaque Lake, N. T., ^1291
Watkrs of the Tennessee River.
Tuscumbla, Alabama, 600
Chattanooga, Tennessee, 675
London ** 737
Knoxville ** (railroad depot 898) river level, . . 816
Sources near Bristol, state line of Virginia, 1678
Little Tennessee, state line, at a gap in the Unlkoi Mountains,
high water, 1114
Tellico River at old ftirnace, 1149
Plane op One Thousand Feet Elevation.
The intersecting line of a plane, one thousand feet above tide,
comnaences at the southwest on the Rio Grande near Ceralvo ( 1066) ,
proceeds in a curve along the base of the rolling or hill country,
turning up the Colorado, thence to the neighborhood of Fort Worth
on the Trinity (1100) and by another curvature to the south and
east around into the valley of the Red River. It extends up this
stream, into the Indian country a distance not 3'et determined ;
doubling back on the north side, over the high land, to the valley
of the Arkansas. This river comes out of the country of hill
and mountain, in the neighborhood of Little Rock, whence the
plane of one thousand feet cuts the surface along the foot of the
Ozarks, in. a northeasterly direction to the heads of the St. Francis.
Bending abruptly to the west, across southwestern Missouri, the
line is quite irregular and impossible of determination in the pres-
ent state of information, but strikes the Kansas River near the
mouth of the Kaw. From thence it will cross the Missouri River,
not far below Omaha, turning back into northwestern Missouri
and leaving most of Iowa beneath it, and will take a course nearly
north to Lac qui Parle, and Big Stone Lake in Minnesota. Here it
A.A. a. S. VOL. XXTI. B. (4)
50 B. NATURAL HISTORY.
sweeps away to the northwest, down the west side of Red River
to the waters of Mouse River, and the Saskatchewan in Canada.
On the eastern side of the Mississippi it can be better defined.
Beginning in the hill coantry at the terminus of the Blue Ridge,
in Georgia, and of the Cumberland in Alabama, the plane leaves
below it nearly all of the valley of the Chattahoochee and its
branches, sometimes passing up these valleys beyond the Chatta-
nooga and Atlanta railway. Coming around the buttresses of the
Cumberlands near Tuscumbia, a narrow tongue is thrust up the
Tennessee valley, beyond Knoxville and also up the Sequatchie
valley. Passing thence westward around the most westerly flank
of the Cumberlands, between Bridgeport and Huntsville, it turns
sharp to the north in the valley of Elk Creek, following the base
of the mountains northeasterly to the Cumberland River, above
Monticello in Kentucky. It cuts near the tops of the hills around
Lexington, Frankfort, Covington and the Highlands in Ohio. In
Indiana and Illinois, probably, there is no point rising to an ele-
vation of one thousand feet.
In West Virginia, there are many knolls, which are below the base
of the mountains, but rise above the level of one thousand feet.
It passes about three hundred feet up the side of Cotton mountain
at the Falls of Kanawha, and the same on the hills around Pitts-
burgh.
Up the Alleghany, it ititersects the river hills at the mouth of
French Creek one hundred feet above low water. The passes or
lowest water crests in Ohio lie nearly in it, all of them showing
the abrasion of the ice period. There are very few summits in
this state that rise two hundred feet above and very few that lie
below it. As already stated, the water gap between the St. Mary's
and the Great Miami is nine hundred and forty-two ; Tymochtee
summit level eight hundred and ninety-eight ; Black River, Medina
Co., nine hundred and one ; Portage summit nine hundred and
fifty- eight ; Mi^oning and Grand Rivers, Trumbull Co., nine hun-
dred and eight, above sea level.
It passes four hundred and thirty-five feet above the surface of
Lake Erie, intersecting the slopes of its south shore, near their
tops, leaving below it a large space in New York and on the north
of the lakes in Canada.
The lowest water gaps between the Interior lakes of New York
and the waters of the Susquehanna are close under this plane.
B. NATURAL HISTORY. 51
In the lower peninsula of Michigan there are very few points
that reach up to it, the highest pinnacle of Mackinaw Island being
two hundred feet below. In the upper peninsula a large part of
the country lies above the line of one thousand feet, though it
seldom rises to that of two thousand.
The sand dunes east of Grand Island and the surface of the
country east of the Chocolate River lie in this imaginary pliane,
which crosses the Menominee River, near the Twin Falls into Wis-
consiOf and thence westerly across the Wolf River, near Lake
Poteau and the Wisconsin near Stevens Point, to the Bluffs of the
Mississippi at Lake Pepin. Here it deflects north up the vallej^ of
the St. Croix, to the heads of its northern branches and those of
the Brule. From the Brale portage the line passes west through
Fortuna to St. Cloud, and to the portage of Lac qui Parle, whera
it comes in contact with the one already described, coming up on
the west side of the Mississippi valley.
North of this it separates, bending northeasterly down Red
River valley and across to a point on Rainy Lake River, between
Lake of the Woods and Rainy Lake. From here its course around
the Basin of Hudson's Bay, through that rough but low region of
bare rocks and pure water, cannot as yet be defined.
On the Origin op Mountain Chains. By Chas. WniTTLESEr, of
Cleveland, Ohio.
The first result of the act of creation, as applicable to matter,
must have been the production of simple substances^ such as met-
als, the non-metallic solids like carbpn, phosphorus and sulphur ;
and of gases, such as oxygen, chlorine, hydrogen and nitrogen.
To them should be added the imponderables ; light, heat, elec-
tricity and magnetism.
As Ibe imponderables produce chemical action in material sub-
stances, and motion, which produces momentum, they must be re-
garded as material. We are unable to conceive of a thing which is
neither matter, nor spirit. It is too much for the human mind to
decide, certainly in the present state qf knowledge, the order in
52 B. NATURAL BISTORT.
which the creation of material substances took place ; but there
must have been a succession, and there must have been in some
cases, long intervals between the acts of creation. Until oxygen
was present there could be no oxides, or water. Sulphides and
chlorides are not possible, until there is sulphur and chlorine.
According to the theory of La Place, which has received the
general assent of philosophers, the solar system must have been
at some period of its existence in a nebulous condition, analo-
gous to vapor ; occupying a spherical space whose radius was equal
to that of the orbit of the farthest planet, and having a motion of
revolution.
Such a condition is incompatible with the existence of binary
compounds, such as oxides, earths, alkalies, water, the atmosphere
and acids. It might occur with pure metals, or with metals and
hydrogen, or such gases as have no chemical affinity for metals.
The consequences that follow from this affinity are no part of
creation, but the results of qualities impressed upon matter ; which
go by the name of " secondary causes," or natural laws. They
had much to do, however, with the structure of our globe ; but
must not be confounded with the creative acts.
Hydrogen and nitrogen might be introduced into this mass of
metals in a state of vapor, with comparatively small results, but
those which must follow the appearance of oxygen were prodig-
ious.
Between 30 and 40 per cent, of the crust of the earth, including
water, is oxygen in a state of chemical union. The igneous
rocks are molten oxides. The sedimentary strata are oxides that
have been in suspension, or salts that have been in solution, in
which oxygen is the leading component.
Imagine all the metals in a state of vapor, which requires a high
degree of heat, the whole in a shape of a rolling sphere, sur-
rounded by an atmosphere of oxygen. Potassium and sodium,
iron and calcium, would combine with it so rapidly that most in-
tense heat would result ; and there would be a general combustion.
Other metals combine less rapidly, but in time a large part of the
free oxygen present must assume a solid state.
Chemical action, which includes combustion, is probably due to
electrical action, which is always excited in bodies that are ime-
quaHy heated. The process of general oxidation might produce
the requisite electrical conditions to form water, which must have
B. NATUBAL HISTOBT. 53
preceded the deposition of the sedimentary rocks, and the pres-
ence of vegetable or animal life.
A world of inanimate matter might fill its place in the solar
system, but could fill no place in a moral or intellectual system,
of which personal sentience and happiness form a leading part.
The presence of oxygen brought into play the acid forming
affinities, giving rise to the ubiquitous carbonic, sulphuric hydro-
chloric and nitric acfds ; which in turn seized upon the oxides, al-
kalies and earth, forming a multitude of quaternary compounds.
As nitrogen is lacking in affinity for metals, most of it remained
free and mingled with the surplus oxj^gen, constituting the atmos-
phere. All these processes are secondary, and the result of
causes that are natural and not beyond our comprehension ; but
all of them must have occurred before there were rocky strata or
mountains.
Mountain chains conld not be elevated until the solid crust of
the earth was formed.
Nearly all great mountain ranges are composed of sedimentary
strata carrying marine fossils, which proves that they were once
beneath the ocean. These rocks are quite different from the molt-
en material, of which the interior of the earth is composed.
This fluid mass, arranging itself around the centre of gravity in
a spheroidal form, should be in a quiescent, and not an aggi*essive
state. There is nothing in a liquid body of this character calcu-
lated to produce a rupture of the solid crust which rests upon it.
How then are mountain chains raised many thousand feet above
the mean surface of the earth, on long lines of fracture? Volca-
noes, or the forces that produce volcanoes, and earthquakes, are
not adequate to such results. These have been observed during
the historical period, and are not known to have acted along fis-
sures to elevate chains of mountains, but only at points, to build up
cones with mud, scoria, and lava, thrown out of a circular vent.
These self-constituted escape pipes have been well compared to
safety valves. Volcanic discharges are local, and are due to the
pressure of confined gases, and of steam, acting on the fluid mass
beneath. There are about three hundred of them, active and latent,
most of which are located in the sea, producing islands of various
sizes. Earthquakes are connected with these eruptions, and with
the local rise and sinking of the land, but not with long fissures
and nplifls.
54 B. NATURAL HISTORY.
The rise of mountain ranges was generally gradual, and not
spasmodic ; and must be due to some cause that has pervaded this
planet, operating more energetically, however, while the sedimen-
tary rocks were being deposited. Very few were uplifted prior to
the era of the lower Silurian formations.
Those of the laurentian age, like the Adirondacks of New York,
are not numerous nor prominent. The Cumberlands and most of
the Alleghany range roso since the deposit of the coal. A large
part of the Rocky Mountains, and the other Pacific ranges, are
cretaceous and tertiary.
The most "satisfactory theory of elevation is that of lateral com-
pression, due to the contraction of the solid surface of the globe,
by radiation of its heat. Such a contraction would produce wrin-
kles and corrugations along long lines, nearly straight, which could
not be done by an explosive force.
Mountain knots, like the Adirondacks, which are as a group
nearly circular, might be produced by such forces acting in succes-
sion ; consequently the pre-silurian mountains partake more of this
character, than those of subsequent date.
The brothers Rodgers while engaged upon the sur\^eys of Penn-
sylvania and Virginia, and Prof. Leslie, since their day, have given
special attention to strata folded on each other throughout the
Appalachians. In places they are tilted over so as to be reversed
in their geological order. The tops of the ridges are nearly
straight, overlooking narrow valleys, also straight, like Laurel Hill
in Pennsylvania and Waldroun's ridge in Tennessee, the folds being
numerous, and of nearly equal height. By pushing any flexible
plane together from the edges < under a weight, precisely such
parallel wrinkles will be produced. To treat of the condition of the
earth during the sedimentary era, which gave rise to such a com-
pressing force, is not a part of my present programme, which is
simply to call attention to the inadequacy of earthquake action to
form mountain ranges.
B. NATUB1.L HISTOBT. 55
>
On thb Species op the Genus Microptebus (Lac.) or Grtstes
(Acer.)- By Theodore Gill, of Washington, D. C.
Thk best excuse for the presentation of so technical an article
to the Association will be found in the popular interest in the spe-
cies of this genus, celebrated in different parts of the United States
under the name of black bass, but also called, in the southern
states, trout, salmon, chub, etc. The nomenclature of the species
has become involved in much doubt, and, if we may judge from
the literature and the distinctions insisted on by Prof. Agassiz
and others,* at least four or five species are supposed to exist in
oar waters ; but it is evident from a perusal of the descriptions
that the distinctions hitherto made are of very doubtful value.
Having been requested by the United States Commissioner of
Fish and Fisheries (Prof. S. F. Baird) to determine the number of
species represented in the fresh waters of the United States, and
the earliest names respectively assigned to them, all the specimens
in the collections of the Smithsonian Institution were examined,
*Iii the nominal (1) '^ Orystes faeeiatua Agass.," it is said, "the tealea are a little smaller,
hot of the same form as in (2) G, Mnlmoides; the radiating strisB are perhaps less marked.
Thevcover the opercular apparatus and the cheektj but at this latter place their [the fcalee*}
tmaUertizeU quite remarkable ; this latter character is very striking when we compare
both species." — Agass., Lake Superior, p. 2ti6.— The italicized portion (not italicized in
original) indicates that the G. talmoides Agass. was a large-mouthed form. (3) **Huro ni-
grieant Cur. is another species of the lower Canadian lakes, which occurs also in Lake
Champlain .... I shall therefore call it in future Gryetet nigricans Dr. DeEaj
describes it as Centrarchus fiiseiatuB, although he copies also Cuvier's description and
£gure of Huro nigricans, but without perceiving their identity." Agass., Lake Superior,
p. 287. — Huro nigricans Cuv. and Val. and Centrarchus fusciatus DeEay are unques-
tionably distinct, the former being the large-mouthed species, and the latter the small-
moutheil one. It is probable, however (thus giving him the benefit of the doubt), that Prof.
Agaasiz based his idea of the Fpccies on the large-mouthed form.
**Tbe species of this group [Grystes Cuv.] are indeed very dilOcult to characterize.
Tbey differ chiefly in the relative size of their scales, the presence or absence of teeth
on the tongue, .... etc. There are besides marked differences between the young and
adults. These circumstances render it imposf^ible to characterize any one species
without comparative descriptions and figures. (4) The species from Huntsvillo [Ala.]
. . . differs equally from [G. fasc^xtw A;fa98.>ind G. ^'salmoneus*^ Agass.]. I call this
species provisionally Orystes nobilis Agass." Am. Jour. 8ci. and Arts (2), xvii, p.
S97. 29H, 1854.
Prof. Agassiz thus recognized four species (besides indeterminate ones), viz :—
1. G. fasdatus Agass. = 3f. salmaides.
i, G. talmoides Agass. (not Cuv. and Val. nor G. salmoneus Agass., 1854) = M. ni'
grieanM.
S. a. nigrioins Agass./ = 3f. nigricans!
4. O. nobilis Agass. = M. nigricans.
Judging by the comparisons. Prof. Agassiz had in view, in 1854, in the "G. salmoneus,**
the true Jf. salmoides.
Baird and Girard added to these species, also in 1854, (5) their O, nuecensis as (M.
migricanB'^.
56 B. NATXJBAL HISTORY.
as well as a large series ft'om many other localities kindly trans-
mitted for that purpose by the Museum of Comparative Zoology
(Prof. Agassiz, Director). Study and comparison of those speci-
mens clearly demonstrated that two perfectly distinct types of the
genus were represented in most of the waters of the cismontane
(east of the Rocky Mountain) slope of the United States, except
those of the New England states and the Atlantic seaboard of the
middle states. In limitation of this general statement it need
only at present be remarked that but one of those types, the
small-mouthed, appears to have been an original inhabitant of
the hydrographic basin of the Ohio River.
In order to obtain as clear and unprejudiced' ideas as possible
respecting the species, the specimens from all the localities were
in the first place examined without reference to their names but
only with the view to ascertain their relations to each other. This
examination confirmed the previous experience of the author for a
more limited range, and led to the combination of all into the two
groups just referred to : between these many differences existed,
but none were discovered which permitted further definite subdi-
vision. The differences thus ascertained may be tabulated as
follows :
Contrasted Differential Characteristics.
Small-mouthed. Large-mouthed.
Scales of trunk
Small (e.g. lat. line, 72-76; be- Moderate (e. g. lot. line^ 65-70;
tween lateral line, and back, II between lateral line and back, 7} or
rows). 8 rows).
Scales on nape and breast
Much smaller than those of sides. Scarcely (on nape), or not mach
(on breast) smaller than those of
sides.
Scales of cheeks
Minute (e. g., between orbit and Moderately small (e, g., between
preoperculum, about 17 rows In an orbit and preopercnlum, about 10
obliqae line and about 9 in a hori- rows in an oblique line and about
zontal one). 5-6 in a horizontal one).
Scales of interoperculum uniserial
CoveriDg only about half the Covering the entire width of th«
width of the bone. bone.
B. NATURAL HI8TOBT. 57
Scales of preopercular limb
None. Developed in an imperfect row
(c. g., 8-5 in number).
Scales on dorsal
Developed as a deep sheath (in- Developed as a low (obsolete)
volving last spine) of small scales shallow sheath, and with series as-
differentiated from those on the cending comparatively little on
back, and with series advancing high membrane behind the rays (none
op the membrane behind each ray behind last five or six),
(except last two or three).
Scales on anal
Ascending high behind each ray. None (or very few).
Mouth
Moderate. Large.
Supramaxillary
finding considerably in front of Extending considerably behind
hinder margin of orbit (about nn- • the posterior margin of orbit,
der hinder border of pupil).
Bays
Dorsal, articulated, 18. Dorsal, articulated, 12 (I. 11).
Anal III, 10-11. Anal III, 10.
Pectoral, llG-117. Pectoral, 114 (118).
Dorsal fln in front of soft portion
Little depressed, the ninth spine Much depressed, the ninth spine
being dnly abont a half shorter being only about a fbarth as long
than the longest (8, 4, 5) and a as the longest and half as long as
fonrth shorter than the tenth. the tenth.
Thus naroerous and well marked are the differences between
the two groups ; within the limits of neither of these groups were
found diflferenccs in the slightest degree comparable with them or
that suggested the differentiation of the forms into distinctly
marked subordinate types: in other ^ords, no differences were
found of specific value, and, although a renewed examination may
possibly result in the discovery of some, their value must be very
alight in comparison with those distinguishing the two groups
indicated : these groups may therefore be considered as specific.
The question now arises, What are the names to which they are
respectively entitled? In order to ascertain this, it is advisable to
enter quite fully into the very complicated history of the genus.
58 B. NATURAL HISTORY.
Bearing strictly in mind the differential features of the two species,
Yfe may now proceed to an analysis of the successive descriptioDS
of forms of the genus and endeavor to refer them to their respec-
tive types.
The first scientific allusions to any species of the genus are found
in the great work on fishes by Comte de Lacepede.*
In 1800, in the third volume (pp. 716, 717), Lacepede intro-
duced into his sj^stem, under the name Lahnis sahnoides, a species
based on a description and figure sent him by Bosc from Soath
Carolina, which, according to Cuvier and Valenciennes, relate to
the small-mouthed type.
In 1801, in the fourth volume (p. 325), Lacepede described, as a
new generic type, named Micropterus Dolomieu^-^ a fish concerning
which no particulars were given as to habitat or station and which
could not have been positively identified from the description : the
original specimen having been preserved, however, Cuvier and Val-
enciennes ascertained that it belonged to the genus Grystes and
was in fact identical with the species described by Lacepede from
the notes and figures of Bosc as Lahrus salmoides.
In 1817, C. S. RafinesqueJ described a form of the same
genus under the name Bodianus achigan which evidently belonged
to the small-mouthed type : while most of the characters noted
are common to all the species (or erroneous), the number of
rays (D. IX I, 14§ ; A. Ill, 11 1|) and the absence of scales on the
preoperculum (gill covers **all scalj' except the second") indicate
the pertinence of the species to the group in question : the number
•Lacepi^de (Bernard Germain £tienne de la Ville-Biir-nion, Comte de). Hietoire
Natarelle dee Poissons, .... Paris. .... [1796 — 1803, 4to5 vj.
t"121e genre. Les Micropt^res.
"Unou pinpieurs algnUlons. et point de deutelure anx opercules ; nn barbfllon.on
point de barbillon aux m&choires; deux nageoires dor&ales; la aeconde tr^batae,
tr^s-coiirte, el comprenaut au plus cinq rayous.
**E3pfece. Le Miuropt^re Dolomien.
" CaracUres. Dix rayons aiguillonn^s et sept rayons articul^s k la premiere nageoire
du doj*; qantre rayons k la seconde; deux rayons aigniUonn^s et onze rayons arlicnl^
k la nageoire de Taniis ; la caudale eu croissant ; un ou deux aiguilloDS k la seconde pitea
de chaque operoule." [Br. 5; p. 16; v. i, 6; c. 17].
t Rafinesque-Schm ALTZ (ConstanUne Samuel). Museum of Natural Sciences. By C.
8. Raflne-«que, Esq. First Decade of New North American Fishes. <The American
Monthly Magazine and Critical Review. Vol. ii, New York, . . . 1817 (pp. ISO, 181).
5 "The dorsal depressed In the middle and with twenty-five rays, whereofTten are spl-
nescent " It is assumed that the last or double branched ray is counted as two.
II " Anal fill with flaeen rays whereof three are spinescent and short." The laat rmy
was also in this case probably counted as two.
B. NATURAL HISTORY. 59
of rays (15) attributed to the pectoral does. not confirm this iden-
tification, but the number (admitting even the accuracy — very
doubtful — in the case of the very careless observer) is within the
range of variation of the type. The exact locality from which
RaHnesque derived his t3'pes was not specified, but they were prob-
ably observed by him at Lake Champlain, where he had shortly
before collected (See Am. Month. Mag. |ind Crit. Rev., ii, p. 202,
Jan., 1818).
In 1820, the same naturalist described, in his way, various
specimens which appear, almost w^ithout doubt, to be referrible to
the same type. These descriptions appeared originally in the
"Western Review and Miscellaneous Magazine," published at
Lexington, Kentucky, and were reprinted (from the same types)
for the "Ichthyologia Ohiensis-."* No less than six generic and
subgeneric names appear to have been based primarily on a species
of this type and as many as seven nominal species, viz : —
Genera and Subgenera.
1. CaUlums (n. g.).
2. Lepomis (n. g.).
Aplites (u. s. g.).
Nemocampsis (n. s. g. prov.).
Dioplitcs (d. 8. g.)*
3. [Etheostoma].
AplesioD (n. s. g.).
Species.
1. CalHurus punctulatus.
2. Lepomis pallida (s. g. AplitCH)*.
3. Lepomis trifasciata (s. g. Aplites).
4. Lepomis flexuolaris (s. g. Aplites, or n. s. g. Nemocampsis).
5. Lepomis salmooea (s. g. Dioplites).
6. Lepomis notata (s. g. Dioplites).
7. Etheostoma calliara (s. g. Aplesion).
Of these, it need here only be in general remarked that the differ-
ential characters employed result (1) partly from erroneous pbserva-
tionand (2) partly from erroneous assumptions : — that is, because
the author had not signalized certain characters in specimens pre-
vionsly examined, but which were noticed in others examined
*rebthyolog!a OhieneiB, or Natural History of the Fishes inhabiting the River Ohio and
its tributary streams, . . .Lexington, Kentucky; printed for the author by W. G. Hunt.
{Price one dollar). 1820. (pp. 28—88). Reprinted (with separate pagination and aOJust-
ineat for form) from the Western Review and Miscellaneous Magazine, Lexington, Ky
Tola, iy U, and ill (Dec. 1819 to Nov. 1820).
60 B. NATURAL HISTORY.
later, he assumed that they did not exist in the former and there-
fore the two differed. Inasmuch, however, (1) as all the descrip-
tions cited, best (and decidedly so) agree with species of the genus
Micropterus, and (2) as, in those respects in which they differ,
they equally deviate from all known forms in the waters from which
they were obtained, and (3) as it is in the highest degree im-
probable that forms better agreeing with them have been over-
looked, the names in question arc all relegated to the synonymy
of Micropterus. Within that genus in almost ever\' case some spe-
cification (chiefly as to the number of rays) indicates that the sev-
eral descriptions were based on individuals of the small-mouthed
type. This probability is greath' enhanced by the fact that (so far
as known or recorded) the small-mouthed species was the only one
known from the localities where Rafinesque observed.
The description of CalUurus punctulatus^ however, 'it has been
thought by Prof. Agassiz, was based on a form of, the sunfish type
with large mouth. But such could not have been the case as is quite
evident from the armature of the operculum (*' opercule with an ctctUe
and membranaceous appendage, before which stands a flat jtpt'ne"),
the contour of the dorsal Q^ depressed in the middle"), and above
all the number of the rays of that fin ('-dorsal fin yellow with
twentj/'four rays, of which ten are spiny") ; in all these respects
(as well as others), the description is inapplicable to a Pomotid
and only applicable to a Microptei'us,
A couple of years later (in 1822), a much more reliable natural-
ist* published descriptions of five. supposed new species of the
genus Cichla of Bloch (as supposed to have been adopted by
Cuvier). All except one (0. cenea =: AmbloplUes rupestns) really
belong to the genus Micropterus^ and all the northern forms {Cfas-
ciata^ 0. ohiensis^ C. minima)^ as is evident from the allusions to the
number of rays, squamation, or size of mouth, belong to the small-
mouthed type, while the description of the Floridian species (C
floridana) is as applicable to the same as to the large-mouthed
type. The descriptions are not suflaciently contrasted and are too
general and therefore vague ; nor, on comparison with specimens, are
the differences suggested by the mention of characters in one case
and their neglect in another apparent. As no reference was made
*Le SuRiTR (Charles A. . . .)• Descriptions of the [«ic] five new species of tliegenns
Cichla of Cuvier. By C. A. Le Sueur. ReadJune 11, 1022. <Joumal of the Academy
of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia. Vol. ii, Parti. PhUadelphia. . . . ISil. Lpp 214—
221].
B. NATURAL HISTORY. * 61
to the forms of the same type previously described, although the
author was doubtless acquainted with Eafinesque's memoir, it is
presumable that the neglect was intentional' (and doubtless pro-
voked by the character of that author's work) and not without
etroDg suspicion that the species named had already, perhaps,
received designations, but with unrecognizable descriptions.
In the great ^'Hisloire Naturelle des Poissons,'** Cuvier and
Valenciennes described the two species of the genus, but, deceived
by the state of their specimens — in one case at least {Huro nigri-
cans)^ completely failed to recognize the relations of the two. (1)
In 1828 (tome second, pp. 124-126) they described the large
mouthed species as a new generic type (under the name Euro ni-
gricans)^ but, misled by an injur}'^ to the spinous portion of the
rlorsal fin (and apparently tlie loss of the seventh spine), they
ranked it in their group of Percoids with two dorsal fins, atlrib-
utlng to it a first dorsal with six spines, and a second \\ith two
spines in front ^instead of ten dorsal spines). (2) In the fol-
lowing year (1829) and volume (tome troisieme, pp. 64 — 58), they
described the small-mouthed species, identifying it with the Labrus
salmoides of Lacepede, and forming for it (and at the pame time
associating with it an Australian fish) the genus Grystes : this
was referred to the section of Percoids with a single dorsal fin
and placed after Centropristes and ' before Rhypticxis. The de-
scriptions of both species (after making allowance for the error
induced by the state of the dorsal in Huro) were quite good,
and, especially in the case of Grystes salmoides, much better than
any subsequently published, and they can consequently be iden-
tified without difi9culty.
Subsequently, Dr. DeKay, in his "Zoology of New York,**t re-
produced the figures and (in a modified form) the descriptions of the
two species from Cuvier and Valenciennes* work, but, failing to
identify them, redescribed and refigured one of them (Grystes sal-
moides) under two names {Centrarchus fasciatus=: Cichla fasciata
* Cuvier (Georges Chretien Leopold Dagobert 6aron) and AchUle Valenciennes.
HiBtoire Naturelle des Poissons, .... Paris, .... 1828—1849. [t. il, 1828, pp. 124—128;
tm, 1829, pp. 54— 58].
IDeKay (James E...). Zoology of New York, or the New York Fauna; oomprising
detaUed descriptions of all the animals hitherto observed ifithin the State of New
York, with brief notices of those occasionally found near its borders, and accompanied
by appropriate illustrations. By James E. DeKay. Part IV. Fishes. — Albany;
printed by W. A A. White A J. Visscher. 1842. [4to, xIt [1, errata], 416 pp. ; atlas, 1 p.
]..71Bp. 1].
62 • B. NATURAL HISTORY.
Les. and Centrarchus obscurus DeKay, n. sp.). Of course all were
adopted by Dr. Storer in ^his " Synopsis of the Fishes of North
America."* In those works, therefore, the species stand under three
generic and four specific names.
In 1850, Prof. Agassiz, in his "Lake Superior,"t decidedly
advanced beyond his predecessors, (1) recognizing, for the first
time, the generic identity of the forms described by LeSueur^ Cuvier
and Valenciennes, and DeKay, (2) retaining for the genus thus
enlarged the name Grystes, and (3) recognizing two species as
inhabitants of the north ; he was, however, less fortunate in his
appreciation of their specific relations, (1) his Grystes fasdaba
being the small-mouthed form, (2) his " Orystes scUmoneu^* (as is
evident from the contrasted characters noticed in his comparisoQ
of G, fasciatiis with it) being the large-mouthed southern form,
and (3) his Grystes nigricans being differentiated without state-
ment of reasons and the Centrarchus fasciatus of DeKay iden-
tified with it.
At a later period (1854), Prof. Agassiz distinguished specimens of
the genus obtained from Huntsville,{ Alabama, as Grystes nobilii^
which evidently belongs to the large-mouthed type ; the brief
notice is only comparative, contrasted with the small-mouthed
type, and contains no specific peculiarities.
In the same year and month (March, 1854), Messrs. Baird and
Girard§ described specimens of the same type from the "Rio Frio
and Rio Nueces, Texas," under the name Grystes nuecensis. This
form was subsequently described in greater detail and illustrated
by Dr. Charles Girard, in the Report on the Mexican Boundary
Survey.
•Storer (David Humphreys). A Synopsis of the Fishes of North America. . . .
<\Ieraoir8 of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. New seriea. Vol. H
(CamV)ridge, 1846), pp. 253—550.
A Synopsis of the Fishes of North America. . . . Cambridge: Metcalf and Com-
pany, printers to the university. 1846. [4to, 1 p. 1. (= title), 298 pp.]
t Agassiz (Louis). Lake Superior; its Physical Character, Vegetation, and Animals*
compared vrith those of other and similar regions. . . . Boston ; . . . 1850. (p. 995).
X Agassiz (Louis). Notice of a collection of Fishes fW)m the southern bend of the
TenneHsee river, Alabama. . . <The American Journal of Science and Arts, second
series. Vol. xvli 1854. [pp. 297--308; 353— 365=tiry8te8, pp. 297, 898.]
S Baird (Spencer Fullerton) and Charles Girard. Descriptions of new species of
Fishes collected in Texas, New Mexico and Sonora, by Mr. John H. Clark* on tbe U. S.
and Mexican Boundary Survey, and in Texas by Capt. Stewart Van Vliet, U. S. A...
< Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of PhUadelphia. Vol. yu, 1854,
1855. [pp. 21—20; Grystes, p. 25J.
B. NATURAL HISTORY. 63
In 1857, Dr. Theodatus Garlick* of Cleveland, Ohio, in a
treatise on the propagation of fish, described and published rough
woodcut figures of the two forms of the genus: (1) the small-
mouthed species under the name ^''Grystea nigricans; or black
bass ;" (2) the other, as a new species designated '' Grystes me-
gastoma; or, large-mouth black bass.^J The species are quite
well distinguished by the size of the mouth and the comparative
size of the scales : his Grystes nigricans is, however, not the true
Grystes nigricans {Huro nigricans Cuv. & Val.), as that name
really belongs to his Grystes megastoma.
In 1859, Dr. Giinthert described specimens of the small-mouthed
species under the name Giystes salmoides^ and first restricted the
genus to that species (having removed the Australian species as
the type of a new germs —Oligorus) . Having overlooked the
rectifications by Prof. Agassiz, he continued the errors of his
predecessors, admitting as nominal species (1) Huro nigricans^
(2) Centrarchus fasciatiis^ and (3) Centrarchus obscurus^ and also
the same species as doubtful forms (in foot-notes) of Grystes^
i. e. O, nuecevMs and G. fa8ciatus,\
For the present, the notices and descriptions of the several
forms of the genus by other authors may be passed over in silence,
as they do not involve any questions of nomenclature. It may be
added, however, (1) that the author had long recognized the exist-
ence and differences of the two species of the genus, one under
the name Micropterus achigan: the other as Micropterus nigri-
cans^ and (2) th^t Prof. Cope, under the names Micropterus fas-
cia^us (which he attributed to the present author through some
misapprehension) and Micropterus nigricans has signalized the
same species from widelj' distant regions (e. g,^ Michigan, Virginia,
North Carolina), and has evidentlj'' understood their relations.
Analysis of all the published descriptions and comparison with
the fishes themselves led to the following conclusions :
*Gabuck (Theodatus). A Treatise on the Artificial Propagation of certain kinds of
Fiflh with the descriptions of such Icinds as are tiio most suitable for pisciculture, . . .
Cleveland, Tho. Brown, publisher, Ohio Fanner office, 1857. [12mo, 142 pp. Grystes, pp.
1(»— 110.J
t**Th]s llsh has been identified with the common black bass (Oryttes faiciatiu),
but is b7 DO means the same fish, ditfering in many respects, both in its habits and
physical structure, and has not been described in any work on American fishes, so far as 1
can learn" (op. cU. p. 108).
XGCsTHBft (Albert). Catalogue of the Acanthopterygian Fishes in Ihe Collection of
the BritiBh Hnseum, . . . Vol. i, . . , London ; . . . , 1859 [pp. S52— 266].
64 b. natural bistort.
Section 1. — Morphological.
After an examination and comparison with each other of speci-
mens from the great lakes (Champlain to Michigan), the states of
New York, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Michigan, Illinois, Iowa, Kentncky,
Missouri, Tennessee, Alabama, Texas, Wisconsin, West Vii^nia,
Virginia, North and South Carolina, and Georgia, no differences
could be found much if any greater than such as could be detected
among numerous individuals from any given locality. There are
differences resulting from age and condition ; the fins may be
(slightly) more or less developed, and the colors may be more or
less intense, but no deviations have been found, from the ordinary
standard, of such a character as at all to compare, for example,
with the differences between the large-mouthed and small-mouthed
forms, or to indicate that there are any specific differences among
the small-mouthed or large-mouthed forms. The natural coarse,
then, appears to be to recognize only the two forms whose differ-
ences are so obvious as species, and — at least till differences may
be detected of which none have yet been found — to consider all
the other forms, and from all localities, however distant they may
be, as representatives or varieties of those species.
Section 2. — Nomenclature.
A critical analysis of the numerous notices and descriptions of
the forms of the genus indicates that the differences between the
respective species have been very imperfectly apprehended, and
mostly confined to the size of the mouth and in vague terms to the
size (comparatively large or small) of the scales: most of the
other differences signalized are either non-existent or individaal
and dependent on the condition of the specimens. The charge of
vagueness and insufficiency of diagnosis is especially applicable to
the first descriptions of species of the genus ; guided, however,
by a knowledge of the geographical distribution of the genus and
hints furnished by the radial formulas, etc., it ma}' be safely con-
cluded, (1) that most of the names referred to in the historical
introduction may be relegated to the synonymy of the small-
mouthed species ; (2) that the first name applied to that species
was Labrus salmoides; (3) that only the names Huro nigricans^
(and most of its derivatives), Orystes megastoma, Grystes nobilior^
and Dioplites niiecensis belong to the large-mouthed species ; (4)
/
B. NATURAL HISTORY. 65
that the name nigricans is therefore the first specific term applic-
able to it ; (5) that the name Micropterus was tiie first applied to
the genus ; and (6) that therefore, if we only take into considera-
tion the priority of the names (irrespective of the applicability or
erroneousness of the description), and combine the first specific
names applied to the respective species with the first generic name
given to a representative of the genus, the two species should be
designated as (a) Micropterus salmoides^ the small-mouthed black
bass, and (6) Micropterus nigricans^ the large-mouthed black
bass.
The descriptions of the genus and its two species follow next in
order.
MICROPTERUS Lac. emend,
SYSOimffT.
Micropterus Lac. Hist. Nat. des PuUs., iv, p. 325, 1800? C=Gryste8, ;ft?e
Cut). & VaU^ Hist. Nat. des Polss., v, p. v, 1830).
Calliarus Raf.y Journ. de Physique, W. R. & M. Mag., i,p. 374, Jan., 1820;
Ich. O., p. 26, 1820 (not Ag.).
Lepomis Baf.y Journ. de Physique, W. R. & M. Mag., il^ p. hOj Feb., 1820?
Ich. O., p. SO, 1820.
(Lepomis) Aplites, n s. g. Baf., W. R. & M. Mag., il, p. 50, Feb., 1820?
Ich. O., p. 31, 1820.
(Lepomis) Nemocampsis, n. s. g. Raf,, W, R. & M. Mag., ii, p. 51, Feb.,
1820?; Ich. O., p. 32, 1820.
(Lepomis) Dioplites, n. s. g. Baf.y W. R. & M. Mag., ii, p. 52, Feb., 1820?
Ich. O., p. 32, 1820.
(Etheostoma) Apleslon, n. s. g. Baf,, W. R. & M. Mag., ii, p. 56, Feb.,
180? Ich. O., p. 86, 1820.
Huro Cuv. & Val., Hist. Nat des Poisd, ii, p. 124, 1828.
Grystes Cuv. & Vol., Hist. Nat. des Poiss., iii, p. 54, 1829.
Gryste» Ag<i8s., Lalce Superior, 295, 1850.
Dioplites Girard, U. S. Pac. R. R. Expl. and Surveys, x. Fishes, p. 4,
1858.
Micropterus QUI, Ann. Rep. Dep. Agric, 1866.
Labrus sp., Lac.
Bodianus sp., B(tf.
Cichla sp., Les.
Centrarchus sp., Kirtland, DeKay, Stortr, etc.
Body ovate-fusiform, compressed, deepest behind the ventrals,
vrith the caudal peduncle elongated, scarcely contracted towards
the base of the fin.
Scales small or moderate, quadrate, rather higher than long ;
with the exposed portion densely muricated, rounded behind and
A. A. A. S. VOL. XXII. B. (5)
1
66 B. NATURAL HISTORY.
about twice as high as long; with the fan with few (4-9) folds;
extending to the nape and throat.
Lateral line regularly parallel with the back, in scales nearly
like but smaller than the adjoining ones.
Head compressed and oblong conic, with the lower jaw promi-
nent and the profile rectilinear ; with scales (more or less smaller
than those of the trunk) on the cheeks, operculum, suboperculnm
and interoperculum.((l) none or (2) few on the preoperculum) ;
operculum ending in a flattened point (spine) and with the border
above it emarginated ; suboperculnm with a pointed membrane
extending beyond (behind and above) the opercular spine ; pre-
operculum entire. Eyes moderate, about equidistant fVom the
snout and preoperculum ; nostrils normal ; anterior with a poste-
rior lid ; posterior patulous.
Mouth, with the cleft moderately oblique, large (the supramax-
illary (1) nearly to or (2) beyond the vertical of the posterior bor-
der of the eye). Supramaxillary with the accessory ossicle well
developed. Lips ; upper, little developed ; lower, moderate on the
sides,- but separated by a very wide isthmus.
Tongue moderate and free.
Teeth on the jaws in a broad band, acute, curved backwards,
and increasing in size towards inner rows ; on the vomer, palatines
and pterygoids, viUiform.
Branchiostegal rays six (exceptionally seven) on each side.
Dorsat with its origin behind the axil of the ventral; (1) its
spinous portion longer but mucl\ lower than the soft portion, with
ten spines more or less graduated before as well as behind and the
ninth much shorter than the tenth ; (2) the soft portion well devel-
oped.
Anal with its base shorter than the soft portion of. the dorsal,
nearly coterrainal with it, with three spines, of which the third
is much the longest.
Caudal emarrginated and with obtuse lobes.
Pectorals and ventrals normal.
This enumeration of the characters common to the known forms
of the genus has been drawn up with a view to exhibit the features
differentiating the genus from the other representatives of the
family Pomotidse. The difference indicated by the general ex-
pression is coordinated with the greater distance of the eye
from the preoperculum, the armature of the operculum, the pecul-
B. NATURAL HI8TOBT. 67
iar form of the dorsal and the relatively small size of the anal fin.
The elucidation of the anatomical characters of the genus and
comparison thereof with those of other genera are reserved for a
future occasion when the distinctive features can be illustrated.
MICROPTERUS 8ALM0IDES (Lac) Gill.
THB SICALL-MOUTHKD BLACK BASS.
BTNONTMT.
(1)
Labrus salmoldes Lac., Hist. Nat. des Poiss., ill, pp. 716, 717, pL 5, f. 3,
1800?
Grystes salmoldes Cuv. and VaL, Hist. Nat. des Poiss., ill, p. 54, pi. 46,
1829.
Grystes salmoldes Jardine^ Nat. Lib., Perches, p. 168, pi. 29, 1885
(copied).
Giystes salmoldes DeKay, Nat. Hist. N. T., iv (Fishes), p. 26, pi. 69, f..
223, 1842 (copied).
Grystes salmoldes Storer, Mein. Am. Acad. Arts and Sci., n. s., ii, p. 288;
ib.y Syn. Fishes N. Am., p. 36, 1846 (copied).
Grystes salmoldes Val. (Cuv., Regne Animal, ed. par disc, de Cuv.),
Polssons, Atlas, pi. 9a, f. 2, p. 18.
Grystes salmoldes Herbert, F. F. Fish and Fishing U. 8., p. 197 (copied).
Grystes salmoldes Othr., Cat. Fishes B. M., 1, p. 252, 1859 (Lake Erie).
C2)
MicTopterus Dolomleu, Lac.y Hist. Nat. des Poiss., iv, p. 825, 1800?
(Grystes salmoldes, Jld^ Cuv. and VaL, Hist. Nat. des Poiss., v, p.
6, 1830).
(3)
Bodlanus achigan Bc^., Am. Month. Mag. and Crit. Rev., 11, p. 120,
•Dec, 1817.
Lepomis achigan QUI, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., 1860, p. 20.
Micropterus achigan Gill, Rep. Comm. Agric, for 1866, 407, 1867.
Calliurus punctnlatns Bctf.y W. R. and M. Mag., i, p. 874, Jan., 1820; »'&.,
Ich. O., p. 26 (not Ag.).
(6)
Lepomis [Aplites] pallida Baf., W. R. and M. Mag., ii, p. 50, Feb.,
1820 (?); <6., Ich. O., p. 30.
(6)
Lepomis [Aplites] trifasciata Baf,, W. R. and M. Mag., ii, p. 51, Feb.
1820 (?) ; ib.j Ich. O., p. 31.
(7) .
Lepomis [Aplites or Nemocampsls] flexuolaris Baf., W. R. and M.
Hag., ii, p. 51, Feb., 1820 (?) ; ib., Ich. O., p. 81.
68 B. NATURAL HISTORY.
(8)
Lepomls [DlopUtes] salmonea Raf,, W. R. and M. Mag., il, p. 52, Feb.,
1820 (?) ; i6., Icht 0., p. 32.
(9)
Lepomis [Dioplites] notata ^a/., W. R. and M. Mag., ii, p. 52, Feb.,
1820 (?); Ich. 0., p. 82.
(10)
Etbeostoma [Aplesion] calliura ^a/., W. R. and M. Mag., ii, p. 56, Feb.,
1820 (?); Ich. O., p. 86.
(10
Gichla fasciata jLe«., Jonr. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., ii, p. 216, 1822.
Cichla fasciata Kirtland (Rep. Zool. Ohio) ; 2d Ann. Rep. Geol. Snr^.
Ohio, p. 191, 1888.
Centrarchus fasciatos Kirtland, Bost. Jour. Nat. Hist., v, p. 28, pi. 9, f.
1, 1842(?).
Centrarchus fasciatus DeKay, Zool. N. Y., iv, Fishes, p. 28, pi. 11, f. 8,
1842.
Centrarchus fasciatus Storevj Mem. Am. Acad. Arts and Sci., n. s., Ii,
p. 290; ib., Syn. Fishes, N. Am., p. 38, 1846.
Black Bass Brown, Am. Anglers* Guide, pp. 189, 298, 1850 (Figure copied
from DeKay's C. fasciatus).
Grystes fasciatus Agass., Lake Superior, 295, 1850.
Centrarchus fasciatus Thompson, Civ. and Nat. Hist. Vermont, p. 131
(with fig.), 1863.
Centrarchus fasciatus Gthr., Cat. Fishes B. M., i, p. 258, 1859 (copied).
Grystes fasciatus Eoff., Smith's Rep. for 1854, p. 289, 1855.
Grystes fasciatus Putnam (Storer*s- Hist. Fishes Mass., p. 278), Mem.
Am. Acad. Arts and Sci., ix, 1867 (Mass.).
Micropterus fasciatus Cope, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., 1865, p. 83
(Michigan).
Micropterus fasciatus Cope, Jour. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., 2d ser., vi,
p. 216, 1868 (West. Va., etc.).
Micropterus fasciatus Cope, Proc. Am. Phil. Soc, xi (?), p. 460,* 1870
(N. Car.).
(12)
Gristes nigricans Herbert, F. F. Fish and Fishing U. S., p. 196 (26, 197),
with fig. (Not Huro nigricans Cuv and VaL).
Grystes nigricans Garlick, Treat. Art. Propag. Fish, p. 106 (with flg.),
1857.
Grystes nigricans Norris, Am. Anglers* Book, p. 103, 1864.
(18)
Cichla ohiensls Les., Jour. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., ii, 218, 1822.
(H)
7Cichla minima Les,, Jour. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., il, p. 220, 1822.
Cichla minima Kirtland (Rep. Zool. Ohlo<), 2d Ann. Rep. Geol. Surv.
Ohio, p. 191, 1838.
B. NATURAL HISTORY. 69
(16)
Centrarchns obscarns DeKay, Nat. Hist. N. Y., iv, Fishes, p. 30, pi. 7,
f. 37 (really 48).
Centrarclins obscnras Storer^ Mem. Am. Acad. Arts and Sci., n. s., ii, p. 292 ;
ib., Syn. Fishes N. A., p. 40, 1846.
Centrarchus obscurus Qihr-^ Cat. Fishes B. M., i, p. 258, 1859 (copied).
Scales small, in about seventy to eighty oblique rows between
the head and caudal, and eleven longitudinal ones between the
back and lateral line, decreasing very much towards the nape and
(especially) the breast ; forming a sheath encroaching considerably
upwards upon the soft portion and last spine of the dorsal. Head
transversely (slightly) convex between the orbits, with (1) scales
on the operculum larger than those of the nape, (2) on the sub-
operculum (in front) in two rows, (3) on the interoperculum nar-
row, mostly invested in the membrane (in one row), (4) on the
cheeks very small (in about seventeen to twenty rows), and (5)
on the preoperculum none. Mouth moderate, the gape from the
symphysis to the angle being little more than one-third (1 : 2^) of
the head's length. Supramaxillary ending in advance of vertical
from the hinder margin of the orbit (about under the posterior
border of the pupil).
Dorsal fin with its anterior spines rapidly graduated (1=1 ; II
= 1-5; 111=1-90; IV=2-05 ; V=2-30) to the fifth; fifth, sixth
and seventh longest and about equal to the space between the
back and lateral line ; the succeeding ones very gradually dimin-
ishing to the ninth which is shortest (three-fourths — 1 : 1*25 — of
fifth) the tenth being about as long as the eighth and about a
third shorter than the longest, t.e. fifth.
Dorsal fin with scales differentiated from those of the sheath and
advancing high up on the membrane behind each soft ray (except
the last two or three).
Anal fin with scales ascending high on the membrane behind the
several rays.
Color, in young and adolescent, bronzed grayish, w^ith (1) irreg-
ular darker spots tending to arrangement in three series alter-
nating with each other above the lateral line and (2) indistinctly
maculated with darker and yellow below ; head dark above, gray
on sides, with three oblique or horizontal bands, viz : — (1) from
margin of upper jaw to below angle of preoperculum, (2) from
lower angle of orbit to margin of preoperculum, (3) from hinder
70 B. KATUBAL HISTOBT.
border of orbit to angle of operculum, and with a crescentiform
band (curved forwards) in front of the forehead between the eyes :
spinous dorsal simply punctulated with dark ; the soft with a series
of bronzed spots between the respective rays ; anal greenish with
a marginal band of grayish-white: in adults the markings aie
more or less obliterated and the color a uniform dead grec;;!.
MICR0PTERU8 NIGRICANS (Cuv.) Qnx.
THE LAROE-MOUTHED BLACK BASS.
BTN017TMT.
(1)
Haro nigricans Cuv. and Fa^,Nat. Hist, des Poiss., 11, p. 124, pi. 17, 182d.
Haro nigricans Bich, Fauna Boreal., Amer., Hi, p. 4, 1836. «
Huro nigricans Jardine, Nat. Lib., i. Perches, p. 108, pi. 6, 1835.
Haro nigricans DeKay, Zool. N. T., part Iv, Fishes, p. 15, pi. 224, 1842.
Hnro nigricans ^torer, Mem. Am. Acad*. Arts and Sci., ii, p. 277, 1846;
ib., Syn. Fishes, N. Am., p. 25, 1846.
Hnro nigricans Gthr,, Cat. Fishes B. M., 1, p. 255, 1859 (copied).
Grystes nigricans Agass,, Lake Superior, p. 297, 1850 (excl. syn. part).
Micropterus nigricans €Hll, Rep. Comm. Agric. for 1866, p. 407, 1867.
Micropterus nigricans Copet Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., 1865, p. 88
(Mich.).
Micropterus nigricans Cope, Proc. Am. Phil. Soc, xl, p. 451, 1870 (N. Car.).
(2)
Grystes noblllor Agass., Am. Jour. Sci. and Arts (2), xvli, p. 298, 1854.
Grystes noblllor Putnam, Bull. Mas. Comp.Zool., 1, p. 6, 1863 (name only).
(3)
Grystes nuecensls Baird and Oirard, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci., Phlla.,yll, p.
25, 1854.
Grystes nuecensls Gthr., Cat. Fishes B. M., i, p. 252, 1859 (doubtfttl sp.
— name only).
Dioplites nuecensls Oirard, U. S. Pac. R. R. Expl. and Surveys, x, Fishes,
p. 4, 1858.
Dioplites nuecensls Oirard, U. S. Mex. Bound. Sunrey, 11, Ichthyology,
p. 3, pi. 1, 1859.
Grystes salmoldes Holhrook, Ich. S. Car., p. 25, pi. 4, f. 2, 1855; i&., 2d
ed., p. 28, pi. 4, f. 2, 1860(?) (not Cuv. and Val.).
Grystes salmoldes Norris, Am. ' Anglers* Book, p. 99, 1864 (fig. and
desc. copied fl*om Holbrook) ; observations partly referring to Jf.
salmoides,
(6)
Grystes megastoma Garliek, Treat. Art. Prop, of Fish, p. 108, 1867.
B. NATUBAL HI8T0BT. 71
(6)
Oswego Bass Browrii Am. Anglers* Guide, p. 189, 1850.
Oswego Bass Norris, Am. Anglers' Book, p. 110, 1864.
Scales moderate, in about sixty-five oblique rows between the
head and caudal, and eight (or seven and a half) longitudinal ones
between the back and lateral line, decreasing little towards the
nape but more towards the throat ; with the sheath enveloping the
base of the soft portion of the dorsal very low and developed
towards the end of the fin. Head flat between the orbits, with (1)
scales on the operculum about the size of those of the nape, (2)
on the suboperculum broad and in one row, (3) on the interoper-
calum broad, conspicuous and regularly imbricated, in one row, (4)
on the cheeks moderate (in about ten rows in an oblique line, and
five or six in a horizontal one), and (5) on the preoperculum
(two to five) in an incomplete row'. Mouth large, the gape from
the symphysis to the angle of supramaxillary equalling nearly a
half of the head's length. Supramaxillary not continued back-
wards decidedly beyond the vertical from the hinder border of the
orbit.
Dorsal fin with the anterior spines slowly graduated (the first
being comparatively^ long) to the third (I:=l ; 11=1 '30; UI=
1'50) ; fourth longest (but little more so than the third) and
equal to or exceeding the interval between tiie back and lateral
line I succeeding ones successively and in increased ratio abbrevi-
ated to the ninth, which is very short (two-sevenths — 1 : 3*5 — of
fourth), the tenth being longer than the eighth (shorter than the
seventh) and about two-thirds as long as the longest (i.e., fourth).
Dorsal fin with scales ascending comparatively little behind on
the membrane behind the soft rays (none behind last five or six).
Anal fin with no (or very few) scales.
Color, in young and adolescent, greenish-black, verging to yel-
lowish-white on lower sides and abdomen, with (1) a series of
large blotches arranged in a regular line, from' shoulder to caudal,
on the middle of sides, the posterior third of which becomes a
continuous stripe and (2) below this middle series, rather irregular,
small blotches, with tendency to become a continuous stripe on
posterior third of body. Head dark above, white from lower half
of maxillary bone, and suboperculum to chin and throat, and with
three oblique and horizontal bands upon cheek, viz. : (1) one from
angle of upper jaw to margin of preoperculum, (2) one from
72 B. NATURAL HISTORY.
lower edge of orbit to angle of operculum, and (3) one radiating
slightly upward from posterior margin of orbit to operculum.
Apex of operculum with large dark spot, upper fins dusky, lower
yellowish-white.
The stripes on the body frequently continue until the fish is well
grown, though gradually becoming obsolete ; black spots upon the
scales remain more or less permanently, giving the appearance, io
old fish, of fine lines or stripes. (Color fide J. W. Milker, Mss.)
On Movement in the Stigmatic Lobes of Catalpa. By Thomas
Meehan, of Germantown, Penn.
It has long been known that the expanded lobes of the pistil in
some species of Mimulus close when touched. In communica-
tions to the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, I have
shown that this power extends to other genera of scrophularia-
ceous plants, and even extends to Bignonia in an allied order.
I have not suggested any service to the plant by this motion ;
but recently a correspondent of the London "Journal of Botany,"
referring to the Mimulus moschatus^ expressed his belief that it is
one of the arrangements, recently discovered, whereby plants
avoid self-fertilization and seek aid from insect agency. He says,
in efiTect, that when a pollen-covered insect touches the stigma on
entering, the cloven stigma at once closes, and thus avoids its own
pollen which is taken out by the insect on its exit, and carried to
another.
As it was but last winter that I observed the motion in Tecoma
jasminoides, I have* only now been led to look for it in Catalpa
bignonoidesj of the same natural order. 1 find it to have the same
m6tion, but in a very slow degree. It takes about one minute for
the fully expanded lobes to close wholly. It would thus appear
that in this case the motion can hardly have relation to insect fer-
tilization, as an insect would be very unlikely to remain so long
in one flower. On withdrawal it would introduce the flower's own
pollen to the stigma long before the lobes closed. On reading the
B. NATURAL HISTORY.
73
suggestion referred to, I was prepared to accept the explanation
from knowing how much the Bignonia radicans is frequented by the
hummingbird, which I supposed might prove its fertilizing agent ;
but I find that no insect but a few honey bees frequent the Catalpa
here, unless there be some nocturnse which have escaped my obser-
vation. But these honey bees do not affect the stigma. The lobes
remain open after their visit, and as they close on being touched
afterward, it is clear the insect avoids them. Yet the trees pro-
duce seed in great abundance. Fertilization is probably effected
here by wind.
It may be that, though the stigmatic motion may have no refer-
ence to insect fertilization in this case, it may have in the Mimu-
lu8 and other cases ; for there is evidence to show that in plants,
as in animals, there are inherited tendencies which, valuable to one
race or variety, are of no use to another springing from it, and
which will gradually die away in time. Still this suggestion, so
far as it relates to Catalpa^ is met by one from an opposite point,
namely : that plants which require the aid of insects in their fer-
tilization are later creations in the order of time than those which
are fertilized by wind. If, therefore, other allied plants require
insect aid, the Catalpa ought to be acquiring a power rather than
losing one. But these speculations are merely to indicate the
direction of popular inquiries ; the main object of the paper is to
note the stigmatic motion in Catalpa^ and the difficulty it presents
to the acceptance of the insect fertilization explanation of it.
On Hermaphroditism in Rhus cotinus (the Mist Tree) and in
Rhus glabra (Common Sumac). By Thomas Meehan, of
Germantown, Penn.
I believe Rhus cotinua is generally regarded as hermaphroditic.
Describers, referring to it, usually say it is so, or merely say,
"flowers sometimes abortive." A friend informs me that, in a
collection of plants from the south of Europe, he once saw both
male and female specimens ; and from experience with a large
74 B. NATUKAL HISTORY.
number of plants on my grounds, I can say that here they are
truly diodcious. It is probable that the error arose from the fact
of our chief acquaintance with it being through cultivated speci-
mens. But in late years nurserymen depended on layers for
propagating it, and as the female form is the most desirable, that
one has thus been rendered the best known. In all probability one
original plant furnished most of those in cultivation. Somewhat
recently, seed, probably f^om wild plants, has been extensively
distributed by German seedsmen, and it is to these seedlings that
the facts of this paper relate. The plants of the past — layered
plants — "mostly abortive," as the books say, usually perfect their
carpels ; but these contain no seeds, so far as I have been able to
find. In the male the gynodcium is almost wanting, while the
stamens are fUlly developed, and the flower is nearly double the
size of the female flowers. These are smaller, and have the merest
rudiments of pistils.
This knowledge has more than usual importance from the fact
that the " mist," as the hairy pedicels are popularly called, is only
produced to any great extent by the female plant. The male
flowers, not having the viability of tUe female, according to the
laws already developed in my former papers on sex, die away soon
after developing — pedicels, general axis and all. Sometimes the
misty hair will become developed a few lines in length, before the
inflorescence loses its vitality; and in three cases out of many
hundreds vitality continued long enough to develop fair "misty"
heads. The general rule, however, is for the male inflorescence to
die entirely away soon after the anthers burst.
Another matter of interest is that in some vigorous develop-
ments (deemed vigorous from the great number and length of
pedicels in one panicle) two carpels, and occasionally three, will
be developed from a single flower, in the latter case forming a tri-
angular capsule. This might be expected from the trifid pistil,
but I believe the actual development has not been placed on record
before.
It is worthy of remark that in most plants which have a her-
maphroditic appearance, but are practically dioecious, the relative
length of the stamens and pistils varies in the dimorphic conditions.
In the one case, the truly female, the pistil is longer than the sta-
mens, and the stamens are the longer in the male. In Rhus glabra
there is a form considered hermaphroditic, in which the pistils
B. NATUKAL HISTORY. 75
seem highly developed in the midst of perfect stamens, quite as
mach so as in the purely pistillate plant ; but so far as my obser-
vations go, no pollen-bearing flowers ever produce seed. The
pistillate plants of Mhus glabra also are several days later in
coming into bloom.
Note on a New Sigillaria showing Soars of Fructification.
By J. W. Dawson, of Montreal, Canada.
ABSTRACT.
This new species is closely allied to the S. Lalayana of Schim-
per, and has been named S, Lorwayana from the Lorway coal
mine in Cape Breton where it was found. Its description is as
follows : —
Leaf-bases about 8"™ broad and 5°™ high, in trunks of moderate
size, hexagonal with rounded angles, or approaching to oblong,
sometimes a slight indentation below causes them to appeal* reni-
form. They are contiguous, or nearly so, in vertical rows, being
separated from each other only by a slight ridge. The rows
are separated by spaces of wrinkled bark nearly half as wide as
the leaf-bases. Vascular scars near the top of the leaf-base, each
having two minute and often confluent points and two larger and«
Innate lateral punctures.
Fruit-scars arranged in transverse rows forming a girdle, each
member of the girdle consisting of from two to seven contiguous,
vertical scars placed in the spaces between the leaf-scai*s in the
vicinity of an articulation, where the rows of leaf-scars are not
continuous, as if there had been an interruption of growth. These
articulations are from two inches to a foot apart vertically. The
scars are depressed or sunk into the stem, rounded or angular by
pressure, having in the centre a small sunken ring and dot.
The bark appears to have been thin. Flattened specimens are
sometimes a foot in diameter.
When the epidermis is removed, the inner surface appears ru«
goae longitudinally, and there are transverse leaf-scars, each with
76 B. NATURAL HISTORY.
m
two vascular points, the whole presenting the appearance of the
type Leioderma,
The author contended that the fruit-scars are evidently modi-
fied leaf-scars passing into these. They have thus no affinity,
either in form or relation, with the large, round, cone-bearing scare
of Lepidofloios^ and they must either have borne single ovules or
modified leaves with marginal fruit. The fruit may have been
either Trigonocarpa or Cardiocarpa, and these may have been
borne in racemes of the nature of Anthoolitea, This view does
not accord with that of Goldenberg and Schimper, but is in har-
mony with that stated by the author in ^^ Acadian Geology," pp»
437, 438, 459.
On an Ancient Burial-ground in Swanton, Vt. By George
H. Perkins, of Burlington, Vt.
About two miles north of the village of Swanton in north-
western Vermont is a* sandy ridge, which was formerly covered
by a dense growth of Norway pines; the thickly-set, straight
trees resembling somewhat a huge growth of hemp. The place
was at one time called " the old hemp yard," a name which still
clings to it. Rather more than twelve years ago it was discovered
that beneath this forest stone implements were buried, and further
investigation has shown that the spot that was so covered with
large trees and stumps, when the first white men came int4> the
region, had been, ages before, used as a burial place by some
people, whose only records are the various objects which the af-
fectionate care of the living placed in the graves of the dead.
From directly beneath the largest trees or half decayed stumps,
some of these relics were taken, so that we may feel sure that
before the great pines, which for many years, perhaps centuries,
grew, fiourished and decayed, had germinated, these graves were
dug, and with unknown ceremonies the bodies of the dead were
placed in them, together with those articles that had been used
during life, or were supposed to be needed in a future existence.
B. NATURAL HISTORY. 77
We cannot know how many successive growths. of trees may have
followed each other since the forest began to usurp the place set
apart for sepulture.
In the early days preceding the settlement of the country by
the whites, two great nations, the Algonquins and Iroquois, occu-
pied the region bordering the northern part of Lake Champlain.
A branch of the Algonquins, the St. Francis tribe, as they were
latterly called, were living on the banks of the Missisquoi River,
near Swanton, when the place was settled by white men. These
Indians had a village near the river, which had been occupied by
them from ancient times. Near this village was a second and
more recent cemetery, about four or five miles from that first
named. Though this was evidently less ancient than that beneath
the pine forest, and had been used up to comparatively modern
times, it yet bore evidence of considerable antiquity. A brief
account of both of these places was given by the late Professor
J. B. Perry, at a meeting of the Boston Society of Natural His-
tory in December, 1868, which was printed in volume xii of the
Proceedings of that Society, pp. 219-221. Professor Perry's
account was evidently intended merely to call attention to the
case and was probably given from memory without recent exami-
nation of the objects which he describes, as in many details his
statements are inaccurate.
While, of course, the survivors of the St. Francis tribe, a few
of whom lived near Swanton not many years ago, were acquainted
with the burial place of their own tribe, they had no knowledge,
as Professor Perry states, of the more ancient cemetery, not even
a tradition that hinted of its existence. That it belonged to a
difi^erent people is shown by the character of the articles found, as
they differ in many respects from those taken from the graves of
the St. Francis tribe, being of finer material for the most part, of
different shape, more elaborately wrought and altogether giving
evidence of a higher degi'ee of culture than that to which the
Iroquois or Algonquins attained.
For many facts concerning this more ancient burial place I am
indebted to Mr. H. H. Dean of Swanton, who has opened more of
the graves than any one else and who has been careful to ascer-
tain the exact truth in regard to all the excavations. His state-
ments are corroborated by others and by my own investigations.
That the pine forest of the old hemp yard covered the remains
78 B. NATURAL HISTORY.
of some of the ancient inhabitants of the country was not sus-
pected until discovered by accident, there being nothing on the
surface to indicate anything of the sort, not even mounds of any
kind, though small ones may have originally existed and been
obliterated during subsequent changes. Twenty-five graves at
least have been opened at this place and, though at present no
more can be examined, it is probable that more, perhaps many
more, yet remain untouched, and others still have very likeljt been
uncovered by the wind, and their contents scattered, for the light
sand, in which the graves were dug, has been for quite a long
time blowing off. Those graves that were earliest opened were
at least six feet below the surface, as Deacon E. Frink, who
opened them, states, but those that have since been discovered
have none of them been as deep, some less than two feet ; in all
cases since, perhaps, the first one or two graves were opened, the
surface material had blown off, or been disturbed so much that
it is not possible to determine the precise depth of the graves,
when the bodies were placed in them.
The sand in which the graves were dug is of a very light
color, but that immediately around and beneath the body was,
with two exceptions, colored a dark red or reddish-brown ; in the
exceptional cases it was black. 'This red sand was from four to
six inches in depth and its color was undoubtedly due to the
presence of red iron oxide, or red hematite, small pieces of a
compact, deep red variety of that mineral having been found in
several of the graves. These bits of ore, while pretty easily
giving color to water when powdered, are not soft enough to have
caused the coloring of the sand by staining such water as might
have trickled through it, so that the oxide must have been pow-
dered and mixed with water, or, less probably, with the blood of
some animal, and poured into the graves as a part of the funeral
rites. As nearly all of the objects taken from the graves are
stained, as well as the sand, it is probable that the coloring ma-
terial was poured over the body and such objects as were depos-
ited with it after they were placed in the grave. The black color
mentioned was due probably to the decomposition of organic
matter, no coloring liquid having been poured into those graves.
The skeletons found in the gi*aves were much decomposed, only
two bones, a femur and a radius, being entire, though several
others are nearly whole, among the rest nearly half of a skull ;
B. NATUBAL HISTORY. 79
bat most of the bones crumbled more or less on exposure to the
air. The skull I have not been able to examine with care. As to
the position of the body in the grave I am unable to assert any-
thing positive with reference to most of the graves, though it is
probable that most were buried in a sitting posture facing the
east. In a few cases I am sure of this. Deacon Elliott Frink,
upon whose land the graves were found, states that he dug open
several of the graves that were first examined, and that he found
one body, that of an adult person, buried in a perpendicular posi-
tion with the head downwards, and that in* this grave no imple-
ments were found except a few arrowheads. If the body really
was buried in this singular position it is a fact of great interest,
and suggests the disgrace and punishment of some great criminal,
inflicted not only during life, but carried even into his dishonor-
able burial. But we cannot be so sure of the fact of this unheard-
of burial as we should like to be. While we have entire confidence
in the honesty and truthfulness of the person who observed the
apparent fact, we must bear in mind the ease with which one unused
to such investigations might be deceived. My friend, Mr. F. W.
Putnam of Salem, an excellent authority in archaeological matters,
states that it not very infrequently happens that, after the decom-
position of a body buried in a sitting posture, the head drops down
between the legs or feet, and it is possible certainly that by a
sinking of the soil and by such displacement of the ground as
might easily enough be caused in digging open the grave, if the
digger were not sure of the position of the body, or carefdl not to
displace an^'thing, such a change of position in the skeleton might
be caused as to make it appear to have been originally deposited
in a position quite different from that in which it really was. I do
not intend to assert that it is not possible that the body mentioned
was buried *head downwards, but only that it is much more prob-
able that it was not.
Through the kindness of Dr. G. M. Hall and Mr. H, H. Dean,
of Swanton, and Dr. Hiram Cutting, Curator of the State Cabinet,
I have been able to examine a full series of implements taken
from the graves. In all, I have studied not far from a hundred
articles, and, so far as I can discover by diligent inquiry in and
about Swanton, this series includes at least two-thirds of all that
have been ft)und.
As the result of a careful comparison of the various implements
80 B. NATURAL HISTORY.
found in the Swanton graves with those from mounds in the west,
I am convinced that in the Swanton relics we have evidence that
at some time a branch of the mound-building race wandered east-
ward, perhaps following the St. Lawrence, and found their way to
the region on the Missisquoi River near Lake Chaiuplain, where we
now find their remains. From the comparatively small number .
of graves, and from the fact that we have graves but no attempt
at the formation of any mound, I am inclined to infer that the
people who thus strayed from the main body were few in number,
and perhaps their residence in Vermont was not of long duration.*
For proofs of the relationship of the people of the Vermont
graves to those of the mounds of the Mississippi valley, the
reider is referred to some of the articles described farther on,
some of them being, as will be noticed in connection with them,
identical, except in some unimportant details, with some of those
figured and described by Squier in the first volume of the Smith-
sonian Contributions.
Moreover we have evidence elsewhere in Vermont of the pres-
ence of the mound-builders. A copper spear point, found not far
from Burlington, is almost exactly like one figured in Dr. Foster's
late work on " Prehistoric Races of the United States," page 255,
fig. 53e, which he regarded as an implement of the mound-
builders. The Vermont specimen differs only in being narrower,
and the edges of the shank are not bent over so far, being more
as in fig. 55, p. 258, of the same work. Quite a number of stone
implements have been found in diflerent parts of Vermont which
closely resemble others from the Mississippi' valley, yet it may
properly be stated that the relics from the Swanton graves form a
collection unique in itself and quite difierent from collections of
similar objects from the state at large. No pottery of which I am
aware has been found in any of the graves, though 'several fine
examples have been dug up not very far from Swanton.
Besides implements of definite form and use several objects have
been obtained in the Swanton graves, which, though apparently of
little use, may have been preserved as objects of curiosity. Among
these is a mass of gnarled spruce or pine, having somewhat the
* The absence of moands where the graves are found does not necessarily prove that
none ever existed, for the soil is so light and easily moved by the strong winds to which
it is often exposed that, as soon as the grass or otlier vegetation that may be growing
ill the sand is removed, exten-ive excavation soon rollows. Hence "mounds of some
size might bare been made and yet no trace of them now exist.
B. NATURAL HISTORT. 81
appearance of a sphere bearing upon its surface quite irregularly
conical protuberances. It is wrought only a little and was prob-
ably formed in the roots of a tree where very Uke\y several roots
started from the main stem at neighboring points. It is about
twice as large as one's doubled fist and would attract the atten-
tion of any one seeing it, as being much like a rude carving. A
smooth water-worn pebble of white quartz, weighing just a pound,
was found in one grave ; it is about four inches long, three wide
and one thick and of oval shape. One side was deeply stained
with the so-called paint, and it may have been used for grinding
the iron oxide that was to form the basis of the coloring material
to be poured into the graves of the dead or used as paint for the
bodies of the living. In another grave was a piece of black shale
resembling the Lorraine shales of New York. It is about six inches
long, three or four wide and a fourth of an inch thick. It does
not seem to have been wrought in any way, but it bears distinct
cavities, the matrices of fossils that had dissolved out, thickly
scattered over it, and these undoubtedly made it attractive. From
another grave came a much larger piece of the dark red Potsdam
sandstone, found at Highgate, just north of Swanton. This is
covered over a part of its surface with casts of Obolella, Cono-
cephalites and other characteristic fossils. One end is broken off,
the remaining sides are all rudely squared and smoothed, so that
the general form of the stone is that of a brick. As the fossils
in this stone are very inconspicuous and the stone itself unat-
tractive, it is difficult to see what there was in it especially inter-
esting. Only a very small proportion of the objects taken from
the graves can be classed among those just mentioned, b}' far the
larger number having evidently been made for some definite use ;
these are formed of copper, of shell and of stone.
Impleraents of copper are not at all common, not more than
eight or ten in all having been found. The largest of these, that
shown in fig. 1, is somewhat chisel-shaped or long triangular ; the
surfaces are slightly convex and the corners are bevelled along the
sides Tery regularly. The broad surfaces are tolerably smooth,
bat are dented as if struck from end to end with some tool having
a blunt edge. Neither end of this instrument is brought to an
edge, bat the broadest end is thinnest. Along each side runs a
regular and rather deep groove. When first taken from the
ground by Mr. Dean it had fragments of wood adhering to it, and
A. A. A- 8. VOL. XXII. B. (6)
82 B. NATURAL HISTORY.
it still bears impressions upon its corroded surface of woody fibre.
It was probably a point projecting from a war club, the broader
and thinner end being inserted in the wood, the dents, just men-
tioned, serving to hold it in place and the more nearly square
pointed end projecting. Its surface is badly corroded and the
wood found with it speedily crumbled on exposure to the air.
It is 5-9 inches long, 1-2 inches broad at one end and '4 inch at
the other, '15 inch thick at broad end, -45 inch near the middle
and *25 inch at the narrow end, and its weight is 6*25 ounces,
Troy. It is in the collection of Mr. Dean. Fig. 1 shows this
implement, one-half natural size. Like all the other articles of
copper it is of the pure native copper of Lake Superior. Fig. 2
represents a chisel also reduced one-half. This implement is
smoother than the other and seems rather more carefully formed ;
it is also thinner ; the corners are not bevelled, but left sharp,
and the ends are more nearly equal in breadth. It is, as the
drawing shows, smaller, being 4'4 inches long, *6 inch and 1*2
inches wide at the ends and *2 inch thick near the middle.
Figs. 3 and 4 are reduced drawings of bars of nearly the same
length and weight, though fig. 3 is rather larger. This was found
held in the teeth of a skull. Its corners are bevelled so that a
cross section is octagonal, but, as the surfaces made by this
bevelling of the corners are quite narrow, the other four are
much wider and two of these are grooved, each by a rather shallow
furrow, much like that on each edge of fig. 1. The ends taper to
very blunt and rather irregular points. The entire length is 4-7
inches, greatest breadth '35 inch, greatest thickness -3 inch.
Fig. 4 differs from this in being cylindrical and having its ends
more regularly tapered. Its length is nearly the same as that
of fig. 3, but its diameter is less, being nowhere more than -27
inch.
Besides the larger articles quite a number of tubes have been
found which are quite like those taken from some of the mounds of
the west. They are so much corroded and broken that it is not
possible to determine their original length, but as they now are
this varies from *5 inch to 2 inches. The diameter does not vary
much, it being from -2 inch to '3 inch. These tub& are made firom
sheets of beaten copper rolled together, and, as the inner edge
remained flat for a short distance, the surface of the tube above
this is flat, as ofben occurs when any stiff material is rolled.
B. NATURAL HISTORY. 83
sides being corroded the surfaces of the bits of tubing are dented
and battered as if they had been subjected to rough usage.
Objects made from shell are more numerous, though all of the
same general form — that of beads, as may be seen in figs. 5, 6 and
7. In all, thirty of these shell ornaments have been found. They
were formed from the columellse of large shells, such as Fascia-
laria and Strombus.
Where the surface of the shell was smooth it was left as it was
found, while the irregular ends and sides, where the fragment
that was to be used was broken from the rest of the shell, were
rubbed smooth and the whole made more or less regular in shape,
and perforated, as will soon be described. In size these beads
vary greatly, the largest being over two inches long and an inch
in diameter and the smallest not more than half an inch long and
a quarter of an inch in diameter. The longer and more slender
specimens, such as fig. 7, are more common than those that are
shorter and thicker, such as fig. 5 ; the more common size perhaps
is from an inch and a quarter to an inch and a half long and one-
fourth of an inch, or a little more, in diameter. They are all
perforateil, though not exactly in the same manner. In some, as
fig. 5, the hole runs directly from end to end, in others, as fig. 6,
a hole is bored for a short distance into each end, until it meets a
second aperture caused by boring from one side down upon the
former, and so meeting it at right angles, or, as in fig. 7, there
is a hole running from end to end, which is met by a single trans-
verse opening. Besides the fragments of the columellae of large
shells, one or two entire specimens of the small Marginella conoid-
alls J so common on the Florida coast, were found. These were
drilled longitudinally through the spire. Thus, while the articles
of copper show that the ancient people, whose works we are study-
ing, had intercourse, direbtly or indirectly, with tribes living near
the Lake Superior copper region, so these shell beads show a sim-
ilar communication with the southern portion of the country.
As would naturally be expected, the greater number of articles
obtained from the graves are of stone. Perhaps most interesting
among these, are certain tubes, shown in figs. 8 to 1 0. They are of
a light drab col<5r, except where stained by the iron oxide already
mentioned. They are all probably of stone ; some seem undoubt-
edly of this material, while a few look verj^ much as if made of
baked clay, bat experienced potters to whom I have shown them
B. MATDBAI. BISTORT.
ngl. 1, S| S, 1. COPPBB IXrUSMEHTS.
ngi. 1 wod 3 about I taU e\ie; S uid i abont | fnll tl
11(1. S, S, T. Soau. BUDB; fall ilie.
B. NATURAL HlffTOBT.
•
^mm^im^gamm.
Tubes of Sion.
F<K. S. 1 size; e Had 10. ) size.
rigi. So. and ei, repreasnt the ends of Dg. S, of abont ) b1i«.
Fig. II rcpreaonu tbe engrailDg on ttg. 10. of ^11 size.
I'^K- la repre«nU ■ alooe plug tbund In tbe amall ond or one of the tnbei.
86 B. NATDRAX BISTORT.
pronounce them all of stone. The tubes are none of them of
uniform size throughout their length, but are always largest at one
end, and often both ends are larger than the middle. There are
three somewhat diverse forms found ; one is shown in fig. 8 ; this,
like all the rest, begins to contract rapidly at the end, but, after
about an inch, it changes and enlarges very gradually till within
about two inches of the opposite end, when it again contracts,
the whole shape being a good deal like that of an ordinary ball
club. The length of the tube, shown in fig. 8, is 13 inches ; its
greatest diameter is 1*35 inches. Another form is seen in fig-
9, in which the greatest diameter is at one end, from which
the tube contracts, at first rapidly, but soon slowly to the other
end. The tubes of the first-named form are largest, those of that
just described smallest, while an intermediate fonu and size is that
given in fig. 10. In these, the tube contracts rapidly from one end
for an inch or so and then enlarges gi-adually to the opposite end.
Both ends of the tubes are cut oflT squarely. AH are perforated in
the same general manner, the hole running directly from end to
end, and being about twice as large at one end as at the other,
€,g.^ in the largest tube found, that shown in fig. 8, the bore is
•95 inch in diameter at one end and '52 inch at the other; in
fig. 10 it is '9 inch at one end and *4. at the other, and so on.
The larger end of the bore seems to have been scraped out, after
the main portion of the hole was made, by some thin edged instru-
ment, as the circular striae which are very numerous elsewhere are
here replaced by longitudinal. This larger end of the aperture is
always nearly as large as the tube, only a thin shell of the material
being left, while at the opposite end, and indeed thi'oughout most
of the length, the walls are thick ; the relative appearance of these
is shown in figs. 8a and 86, reduced one-half. As seen in ^g, 8a,
so in the other tubes, the smaller end of the bore is not in the
middle but always one side of it. Into this smaller end of the
bore was inserted a stone plug, like fig. 12 ; these plugs were not
all carefully made and did not often entirely fill the aperture ; in
one or two cases a small quartz pebble with little or no working
was used, though most are of sandstone. They are from '75
inch long and '5 inch in diameter to not more than '5 inch
long and -4 inch in diameter at the larger end. The tubes are
rarely perfect cylinders, but are more or less oval in section.
All the tubes show considerable care in their formation ; the
B. NATURAL HISTOBT. 87
materials differ somewhat, some being hard, others quite soft,
though the hardest are easily scratched by a knife, and all appear
to be made of a sort of argillaceous sandstone, the sand predomi-
nating in the harder and the clay in the softer. The surface of
most is very smooth and shows but few marks of the tools by
which they were wrought.
One of the tubes, that shown in fig. 10, is especially interesting
on account of certain markings upon it ; these are, so far as I am
aware, the only marks that have been discovered upon any article
taken from the graves. They are near one end of the tube and con-
sist of the outline drawing of some bird, below which are three
characters. These objects are engraved or rather scratched on
the tube — the scratches being somewhat irregular and neither very
deep nor wide, and some are very fine ; they are shown of full size
in fig. 11, while their position on the tube is shown in fig. 10,
which is reduced to one-third size. The bird, which somewhat
resembles more recent delineations of the fish-hawk, and may
have been intended for it, is 1-4 inches long and '65 inch broad
across the wings. The three characters below the bird are, as
may be seen, made up of straight lines and dots, and are about
a quarter of an inch high and a little less broad.
In the notice of these graves before mentioned, Prof. Perry re-
marks that these, "curious hieroglyphics of undoubted antiquity"
to his mind "give almost unmistakable evidence, if not of Asiatic
origin, at leasf of a people closely allied in their sentiments and
habits to the nations of the East." "Reference is now made to
tubes, etc., etc., ornamented with hieroglyphics of a moral or re-
ligious character." " These symbols as far as I can make them
out are closely akin to those employed as well in the Eleusinian
rites, as in the old Cyribaic mysteries of Samothrace."* As the
only hieroglyphics that have been found in the Swanton graves are
those given in fig. 11, the reader is referred to that and can use his
own judgment as to the moral or religious bearing thereof. I can
hardly think that he will be very deeply impressed by either, and
as to the proof of Asiatic origin afforded by these few scratches,
it is scarcely conclusive to every one.
Those who are seeking constantly to find evidences of Israelitic
origin in the former inhabitants of this country may indeed be
struck by the resemblance of these three characters to Hebrew
* Proceedings Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., vol. xii, p. 220.
88 B. NATURAL HISTORY.
letters, but most of us will hardly be williDg to place any soch
value upon them. That they are curious and interesting we are
not disposed to deny and even that the last two characters migbt
be read as Hebrew letters rather rudely formed, is unquestionably
true, but yet this proves very little because it proves too much,
as it proves too advanced a civilization. Had we evidence in the
implements, ornaments, modes of burial and similar records that
have come to light, of any such civilization as would admit of the
use of a written language by the mound-builders, to whom, as
already stated, I believe these people to have belonged, we then
might seek for some significant meaning in these characters, but
we have no proof that anything of the sort existed. It must not
be forgotten that the possession of a phonetic alphabet implies
a high degree of culture — a culture and a civilization that has
passed far beyond pictorial writing and reached the last and
highest stage in the development of language. As we have no
reason to believe that the mound-builders had reached this ad-
vanced stage and as we have abundant reasons to convince us
that they had not, we may set aside all idea that the few scat-
tered symbols that so resemble phonetic characters have anything
in common with such characters, beyond the mere resemblance ;
therefore I do not regard those characters given in fig. 11 as
anything more than accidental — as probably having no more
meaning than the various combinations of lines which a child
makes on its first slate. I have written more at length upon this
point than perhaps the case demanded, but, as quite a number of
persons to whom I have shown ray drawings, who were not experi-
enced in archaeological matters, have appeared deeply impressed
by the resemblance of these characters to those of oriental alpha-
bets, as Prof. Perry evidently was, I have thought that some dis-
cussion of the question would not be useless. Few indeed are they
who will see in them anything suggestive of the mysterious relig-
ious ceremonies of Samothrace, or the worship of Ceres at Eleusis.
One, and onlj' one, of the tubes shows any signs of having been
near the fire, but this one, which is in the state collection at Montr
pelier, is blackened and badly cracked as if for some length of
time ex[)osed to severe heat. In all about a dozen of these tubes
have been found in the graves at Swanton, while, so far as I can
learn, nothing of the sort has ever been found elsewhere in the
state. The largest is thirteen inches long and holds a little more
B. NATURAL HISTORY.
89
than a fifth of a pint. Measurements of others giving extreme
as well as intermediate sizes are given below.
Length .
Diameter of ends marked a. in flg.
of bore in end a. "
(( t< it ^^ t(
K
tt
No. 1.
Fig. 9.
No. 2.
No. 3.
Fig. 10.
No. 4.
No. 5.
Fig. 8.
Inches.
Inches.
Inches.
Inches.
Inches.
7.1
8.
9.5
10.
13.
1.35
1.35
1.2
1.3
1.35
1.
1.
1.15
1.1
1.2
.45
.45
.4
.5
.52
.8
.8
.9
.8
.95
I do not find that tubes very nearly resembling these have been
found anywhere else, though a few that have a general similarity
have been taken from western mounds. ■
Schoolcraft, in plates 32 and 33 of the first part of his exten-
sive work on Indian tribes of the United States, figures several
that he says were made of steatite. These seem to be of a reg-
ular, cylindrical form. He also figures several formed of bone
from Canada, but these bear very little resemblance to our Swan-
ton tubes.
Squier also in vol. i of the " Smithsonian Contributions," pp.
224-227, jBgs. 122-125, describes and figures six tubes, all diflerent
from each other, and from our Swanton specimens. These are
all from the Mississippi valley. In size they agree pretty well
with the Vermont tubes and it is quite likely that their uses may
have been the same, but what those uses were it is not easy to
decide. Some have regarded them as musical instruments, but
it is not by any means plain how they could have served such a
purpose. Squier remarks in regard to the tubes he had seen, " that
the skill of the present succeeds in producing very indiflerent
music from them. Either the art of playing upon them has sadly
deteriorated, or the musical taste of the makers was not regulated
by existing standards" (S. I. Contr., vol. i, p. 226). To the
tabes we have described, these remarks apply with double force,
when we consider that all of them were stopped at one end. It
is possible that, connected with some parts now lost, these tubes
may have served as musical instruments, and then a savage yell
90 B. NATURAL HISTORY.
sent through one of them may have been sweeter to savage ears
than the music of our finest instruments.
Mr. Schoolcraft's notion, that the tubes he studied might have
been used as telescopes, would hardly do for the Swanton tubes,
for the' quartz or sandstone plugs could scarcely have taken the
place of lenses. Others have supposed that they might have
served as tubes for smoking, but no evidence of such use remains.
Most, if not all, of those in the west are of ornamental stone,
while the lack of ornament, either in material or form, in the
Swanton tubes seems to indicate that they were for use rather
than for ornament. A small piece of an oval dish of the same,
or similar, material as that of the softer tubes was found with
them, and other dishes, very nicely made, have been found in dif-
ferent parts of the town, which not improbably were made by the
same persons as these who formed implements taken from the
graves, as the skill shown in their manufacture indicates a greater
proficiency in such arts than any shown by the Algonquins.
Quite a number of flat plates of stone occurred in the graves,
which may be arranged in a series, from those quite rudel}' fin-
ished to such as are very carefully formed and smoothed ; those
which are most carefully finished are of hardest and most com-
pact stone. Perhaps the simplest is of diamond shape the sides
being slightly unequal. It is not entirely flat but somewhat undu-
lating over its surfaces, as they are left just as the cleavage of
the stone formed them. The material is of greenish-^ay mica
schist with transverse dark veins. It is 3*5 inches long, 2*3 inches
broad and about '48 inch thick. It is in the state collection. In
Mr. Dean's collection is another plate of rectangular form, larger
and rather more finely finished than the preceding, the longer sides
are nearly parallel though not quite straight ; its ' upper end is
straight while the lower is regularly, though not strongly, curved.
The surfaces are smooth, one is fiat, the other somewhat irregularly
bevelled in several directions. It is composed of a dark greenish
slate, obliquely veined with a darker shade so that it is quite attrac-
tive in its appearance. Its length is 4*15 inches, breadth 1*9 inches,
and average thickness about '4 inch, but this is very variable.
In the state collection is a yet more nicely finished plate of com-
pact, purple slate, like that first described ; it is rectangular, the
surfaces smooth, flat and sloping graduall}*^ towards the edges, so
that these are thinner than the general surface. The comers are
B. NATUBAL BISTORT.
91
slightly rounded and the sides not perfectly straight. It is 4*35
inches long, 2-2 inches broad and from •! to "2 inch thick. It is
not certain, I think, whether these plates had in themselves a defi-
nite use, such as to smooth skins or rub seams sewed in them,
or some other such domestic use, or were simply unfinished articles
like those about to be described. The least carefully wrought of
these is much more regular and better finished than any of the
simple plates. All of this second class are perforated with two
holes. In one of them the form is rectangular, with one surface
flat, the other convex. It is made of dark veined slate, much
like that of which one of those just described was made. The
sides are straight and the edges sharp and clearly cut ; one end is
a little narrower than the other, as is often the case with the rec-
tangular plates. It is 4-25 inches long and at the broadest end
1*35 inches wide, average thickness '25 inch. This is in the state
collection.
Another in Dr. Hall's collection is quite as nicely made. The
sides are not exactly parallel, as one end is broader than the other ;
all its outlines are, however, very straight and sharply cut. Its
form is rectangular, the length being 3*75 inches, breadth 2-1 inches
atone end and 1*85 inches at the other ; thickness, which is quite
uniform, except just at the ends, which are somewhat thinner,
•25 inch. It is made of a fine, compact, dark purple slate very
much like that of which one of the imperforate plates was made.
The holes are bevelled from each side though not equally. By
far the finest of these two hole stones is one in Mr. Dean's col-
lection ; it is of oval form with the ends cut squarely off, and is
wrought with admirable skill, the curvature of the sides being
very regular and that of both exactly the same; the ends are
straight and* true and the fiat sides regularly convex. This reg-
ularity is more remarkable as the plate is not flat, but twisted
slightly, so that its surfaces are spiral, only slightly indeed, but
yet very distinctly. It is formed of a very hard, compact clay-
ironstone and the twist just mentioned may be due to the cleav-
age of the mass from which the plate was struck off, but even if
this were the case it would, apparently, have been easier to have
rubbed the plate flat than to have followed the spiral cleavage,
and it is not at all impossible that the twist was intentional on
the part of the workman. Its regularity on each side would indi-
cate this, for the stone is not one that would have been found in
92 B. NATURAL HISTORY.
thin layers and this p\ate must have been split from a mass of
irregular cleavage, so that its form is by no means certainly due
to this. The color of the stone is of a dark reddish-brown and
the surface appears to have been originally coated with some
black pigment, patches of which still remain, forming spots of
smooth, glossy enamel. It is 3-5 inches long, '5 inch thick near
the middle, -2 Incl; thick at the ends and 2-5 inches broad in the
middle. The holes are bevelled from one side onlv and are
nearly twice as large on that side as on the other, being where
largest '45 inch across.
A large number of perforated plates of stone have been found
in the mounds of the west and considerable discussion has arisen
concerning them. Schoolcraft figures two which, he regards as
instruments for twisting sinews or bark into twine, but, as
Squier remarks, had this been their use we should expect to find
the holes worn by the friction of the twine, whereas no traces of
wear are usually visible, the strise caused by the drill being as
distinct as ever. Squier says that he has examined a hundred
of different sorts, and in all, the absence of all marks of use was
noticeable; he also notices in his "Memoir on Mounds of Miss-
issippi Valley," that in quite a number of stones the holes were
almost exactly four-§fbhs of an inch distant from each other, and
on measuring those that I have seen from S wanton, I find that in
one case the holes are almost exactly four-fifths of an inch apart
and in the other two they vary but slightly from that distance,
though, as the holes are not exactly perpendicular to the plane
of the stone in all cases, it makes a little difference on which side
the measurement is made. This coincidence is remarkable, as the
stones described by Squier were from the west, none being from
farther east than Ohio. This would indicate that the makers of
these objects were particular as to the distance of the holes and
that the law they followed was widely known and this is the more
interesting on account of the great diversity in the form of the
stones. All are thin and flat, but scarcely any two of them agree
in outline or size, though not always differing very widely.
Adair mentions a custom existing among some tribes of having
high religious dignitaries wear a plate of shell pierced with two
boles by which it hung to an otter-skin strap. From this it
would seem not improbable that these stones were used as a part
of the religious paraphernalia of the ancient people to whom
B. NATURAL flISTORT. 93
they belonged, and the absence of marks of wear would seem to
Indicate that they were worn, not constantly, but only upon
special occasions.
A rather rude, but quite unique article is in the state collection.
Its general form is that of a long, narrow trapezoid. The ends
are rounded and of somewhat unequal breadth. It is made of
dark gray mica-schist, thickly studded with small garnets. On
ODe side it is flat and smooth, while on the other it is flat along
the central portion, and from this the surface is strongly bev-
elled to the edges, which are rather thin. The narrower end is
thicker than the other. The length of the article is 5*5 inches,
breadth at one end 1*3 inches, at the other 1*85 inches, the thick-
ness is, in the centre, from *5 inch to *75 inch. As to its use I
am unable to conjecture unless for rubbing flesh and fat from
skins, or rubbing sinews or bark for twine.
Three articles of somewhat similar form and apparently for the
same use were found in different graves. The general form of
these is boat-like, one side being flat or nearly so, while the oppo-
site is convex. One of these is of a dark red slate, the base (or
top?) is flat, but curved slightly from end to end, while the opposite
side is bevelled from the middle where it is thickest to the sides
and ends. In the centre of the flat side is a slight groove running
nearly from end to end. On each side of* the central portion
of the object is a hole drilled obliquely from side to side and
bevelled from each end. It is pretty well made but less carefully
than either of the others. It is 5*3 inches long ; '65 inch high ; '8
inch broad, and the holes are 2*1 inches distant from each other.
Of similar material, but of different color, is the second of these
objects. It is larger and much more finely finished than the
preceding. It is of drab slate with black veins, though much
of it is so colored by the red coloring matter already mentioned
as to appear reddish-brown ; its surface is very smooth and its
form regular. The base, or flat side, is rectangular, long and
narrow, nearly flat, with but a slightly excavated groove running
from near one end to a short distance beyond the middle. The
upper surface slopes from the rounded apex to the sides and ends,
the side surfaces being slightly convex while the others are flat.
Its length is 7*25 inches ; breadth in the middle 1 inch, at one end
•85 inch, at the other '65 inch ; height '75 inch in the middle and
'15 inch at the ends. The holes are bevelled from the flat side and
94 B. NATURAL HISTORY.
taper very regularly. The third of thepe singular objects is equally
well wrought ; it apparently served the same use, though differing
in form from the other two, being much shorter and higher in out-
line and the slight groove in the others is here represented by a very
deep cavity. It is of a delicate green steatite, of very regular form
and the surface smooth ; this is, however, in some places decom-
posed and so roughened, the ends are both broken and, it is probable,
originally ta;pered to more or less sharp points. The sides are
regularly and quite strongly convex, while the surfaces that go
from the apex to the ends are nearly flat. The base is slightly con-
cave over its entire surface, and, as already mentioned, the centre
is deeply excavated. This excavation, which is of similar form
as the outside of the object, is 2-25 inches long, '95 inch broad in
the middle and -8 inch deep in the deepest part. From this deep-
est portion the holes are drilled through to the other side, tapering
as they go upwards from -4 inch to "25 inch in diameter. From
patches here and there of polished surface it would seem that the .
entire surface was originally well polished, but the material waa
not sufficiently compact to resist exposure. On one side of the
apex is what appears to be the beginning of a third hole. The
holes that extend through the stone are I'l inch distant from each
other on the upper side.
Two carvings, which may be regarded as representations of
animals, have been taken from the graves ; one of these, shown
of full size in tig. 13, is of dark red slate, hard and compact.
The surface is very smooth and the curves finely formed. The base,
as shown in fig. 13a, is flat, oval and pretty regularly cut ; it is
3' 7 inches long and 1*1 inches broad. Through the base are bored
two holes, one at each end ; these taper from below upward, from
•4 inch to '2 in diameter. Continuous with the upper side of the
base are the neck and head directed strongly forward ; the head is
somewhat bird-like in appearance, the eyes are large and very
prominent, as shown in fig. 13&, which represents the object viewed
obliquely, being '3 inch in diameter at the end and projecting '2
inch beyond the side of the head, which is straight below, arched
strongly above and quite thin, with the end of the beak blunt
and rounded ; the height of the figure, from the base to the top of
the head, is 2*2 inches ; length along back, 4-5 inches ; length of
head 1*4 inch, height 1 inch and thickness -4 inch. This head was
found with the second of the long boat-like objects described above.
B. NATURAL HISTORY.
95
Fig. 13ft.
Fig. 13.
Fig. 13a.
Cartinq of Dakk Red-blatb.
mg. 13, profile; 13a, base: flill size.
Fig. VSbf yiewed obliquely f^om above; about i sise.
96 B. NATURAL HISTORY.
Another of these interesting carvings is in the state collection.
This is of pure white marble, finely carved and smoothed, and
probably it was originall}' polished as there is still a slight polish
on some portions. Its soft material has suffered more from expos-
ure than the harder rock of which the other head is composed, yet
it is in very good preservation. The upper two-thirds are colored
a deep reddish-brown while the lower portion is stained bright
green ; this latter color is probably due to contact with the copper
in the graves, but the red color seems to have been applied inten-
tionally. As in the head just described, so in this the eyes are large
and prominent, about -3 inch in diameter at the top and -17 inch
high above the sides of the head. The general outlines of this
second head are more angular than those of the preceding, it
is broader at the base and the neck is not so long nor so oblique ;
the end of the nose is, in this, cut off squarely instead of being
rounded as in fig. 13, and the sides of the head are nearly straight
above and below, while the base is extended somewhat beyond the
rest of the figure. The neck is thicker and less regular than that
in fig. 13, and on one side are carved grooves which seem as if
designed to represent a crest or mane. The base is oval, but much
more convex on one side than on the other and it is w^ider in pro-
portion to the length than that of the preceding ; is not perforated
as is the other, and its edge is quite undulating. The height of the
image is 2*65 inches ; length of head 1*5 inches ; height of head
•95 inch ; height at end of nose -4 inch ; length of base 3*15 inch-
es ; breadth of base 1-3 inches in the middle ; breadth of neck
near the base 2 inches ; with this was found the steatite boat-like
object described above.
A single example of the discoidal stones which are sometimes
found in the west has been found at Swan ton and is now in the state
collection. Its form is beautifully regular and its surface very
nicely finished. The fiat sides of the disk are hollowed so as to form
shallow cup-like depressions while the edge rounds outwards above
and below, but is fiat around the middle of the disk. The material
of which this discoid stone is made is a compact white quartz, btit
it is coated over the outside with dark coloring matter, by which
its appearance is changed. Its diameter is very nearly three
inches, thickness at the edge M5 inches ; circumference 9-5 inches.
The excavated portion does not extend to the extreme edge of the
stone, but falls so far short as to leave a naiTow rim around the
B. NATURAL HISTORT. 97
edge. This rim is rounded very nicely. Tlie diameter of the de-
pressed portion is precisely the same on each side, viz : 2*3 inches,
but the depth is '2 inch on one side and '15 inch on the other.
Squier figures several of these discoid stones, one of which (fig. 121,
No. 2) is much like that just described. In Foster's ** Prehistoric
Races of U. S.," fig. 26 (page 218) is much like this but is perfor-
ated through the centre. Squier says that they have been found
from the valley of the Ohio River, through Central America to Peru
and Chili, and that they have also been found in Denmark. Old
writers, such as Adair, mention them as in use for playing certain
games at the time they visited the Indians. The writer just named
says that they were " made by rubbing them on rocks with prodi-
gious labor," and that they belonged not to individuals but to the
tribe, were "kept with religious care" and handed from genera-
tion to generation ; and were, by law, exempted from the burial with
the dead so commonly practised with other implements.. This
being the case, we may suppose that the presence of one in a
grave is indicative of high rank or distinguished service on the
part of the person with whose remains it was deposited.
Arrow and spear heads and stone axes are more abundant than
other implements in most collections of stone objects, but this is
not so much the case with the Swantou collections as usual.
Quite a nnmber of these articles have indeed been taken from the
graves, but they do not much outnumber other kinds of imple-
ments. Arrowpoints are abundantly found on or near the surface
all about the town, but the graves have not afiforded a large num-
ber. It is quite possible that many of those found away from the
graves were formed by the same people as those in the graves.
The axes are still less numerous for I have seen but Gyq in all.
Two of these bore slight notches on each side for the attachment
of a handle while the rest were of the sort known as hand axes ;
all are quite small and well formed, though some are much more
neatly finished than others. In none was there any sign of a
groove extending around, or on the sides, but only the notches,
and these not very deep, on the front and rear edges, so that all
may have been easily held in the hand. The three without notches
are of the same general form, the lower side, or edge, rounded
more or less, the upper straight and thick and the sides straight
and inclining towards each other as the}' approach the top.* The
form of these is, in general, the same as those figured on page
A. A. A. S. VOL. XXU. B. (7)
98 B. KATUBAL BISTORT.
210 of Dr. Foster's work already mentioned, or figs. 110, page
217, and 112, Nos. 3 and 4, p. 218, of Squier's "Ancient Monu-
ments of Mississippi Valley" (Smithsonian Contributions). One
of those from 8 wanton is quite like Squier's fig. 112, No. 4, both
in form and inateriicl, and also like a figure in Lubbock's '^Prehis-
toric Times," fig. 164, p. 188, of an axe from Switzerland. The
specimen from Swanton is 3'65 inches long, 1*75 inches across the
edge, 1 inch across the top, -and in greatest thickness *7o inch.
It is most neatly finished of all. The other two straight-sided
axes are less regular, the sides are more nearly parallel and they
are of larger size, one of them, which is of trap rock, being larger
than any other found in the graves ; this is 5*75 inches long ; 2*2
inches broad at the edge and *55 inch thick near the middle. The
other is of smaller size, being 4*7 inches long and 2*4 inches
across the edge. It is of dark colored mica-schist. The two re-
maining axes, those with notched sides, are both carefully made.
The smaller of the two is of trap ; the edge is unusually sharp
and well shaped and, suitably attached to a handle, it would be re-
garded, even now, as a by no means useless article. It is 4-2
inches long, 2*65 inches across the edge, 1*23 inches in greatest
thickness. The other is nearly as well formed and finished. It
is made of a compact purple sandstone and is a little more than
five inches long and 2*5 inches across the edge.
The arrow and spear points from the Swanton graves differ
somewhat from any others that I have seen, with the exception of
one or two. They are thinner than most of those from other
localities and are nearly all very regular in form and handsomely
finished. The most common forms are the "triangular" and a
form which approaches the "leaf-shaped," as nearly as.any of the
forms under which these articles are grouped, and the "indented."
One quite common form is nearly straight across the base, which
is thin, the sides curve regularly and gradually towards the point,
the base being a little narrower than near the middle. These aie
not exactly like any that I have seen from other localities. The
edges are very sharp and the flakes chipped off in the manufactore
of the article were small, so that the surface is quite smooth. They
are made of a dark flint and are of different sizes, from 1 inch
to 2*5 inches long and from -75 inch to 1*25 inches broad. A j
peculiar bluish-white, semi-transparent quartz was used in the
manufacture of quite a number of this class of implements. One
1
B. NATURAL HISTORY. 99
of these is much like fig. 103, No. 5, p. 212 of Squier's Memoir
and another like No. 9 of tlic same figure, though broader at the
base and indented. Each of these is about 2*25. inches long.
Two very long objects for lances, or knives it may be, are of the
same material. One of these is much like NV>. 3, fig. 99, p. 211 of
Squier's Memoir. It is 7-25 inches long, 1*8 inches broad in the
middle and '6 inch in average thickness. It is rather bluntly
pointed at each end. The other is pointed at only one end and
there only very bluntly. It is 9*65 inches long, 1*9 inches broad
and in some places nearly one inch in thickness. As may be no-
ticed these last mentioned flints are exceptions to the general rule
that the Swanton spear and arrow points are very light and thin.
Another object, which may have been used as a lance, or for some
other and quite different purpose, is of a similar material. Its
form is quite regularly oval, pointed at each end. It is 5*8 inches
long and three inches broad in the middle and is quite thin and
flat over its sides. Several other large spear or lance heads of
good quality, some very finely finished, are in the various collec-
tions from the graves we have been considering. These are mostly
of dark, greenish flint and are from four to six inches in length.
Only two among all that I have seen from this locality are barbed.
One of these probably had a stem when first made, but it is now
broken off. Its form is broadly triangular, the edges sharp, as is
the point, and the short barbs are directed outwards. It is of
olive-green flint 1*4 inches long and 1'25 inches broad. The otiier
• barbed specimen appears to have been made for a knife, as it is
very inequilateral, one side being nearly straight and ending below
in a short barb, while the opposite is strongly curved. There is
evidence in this, as in the preceding, of a stem. The point is
very sharp and the whole very finely made. It is of dark grieen
flint and is little more than two inches long and one inch broad
at the broadest part. One of the arrowheads is of the form called
by Foster "lozenge-shaped."
So far as I know these forms include all of this class of imple-
ments that have been found. Of course all the articles found
in the graves are not herein described, but all that are in any way
typical that have come to m}'^ notice are mentioned so that a tol-
erably complete exhibit of the contents of the graves is here af-
forded. My views as to the people who placed the bodies and
implements in the graves have already been given.
I
100 B. NATURAL III8T0RT.
It is not impossible that more graves will be hereafter discov-
ered and their contents studied, as the locality is probably not
exhausted, but at present further examinations cannot be carried
on and we can have no further evidence in regard to the character
of this ancient people than that afforded bj the objects I hare
attempted to describe. I may add that since the foregoing pages
were in type, a fragment of a tube identical in form and material
with those described has been found near Burlington, and with it
quite a number of arrow and spear points of the same pecaliar
bluish quartz, of which most of this class of articles from the
graves were made.
The Devonian Limestones in Ohio. By N. H. Wincheix, of
St. Anthony, Minnesota.
In Delaware county, in central Ohio, the valleys of the Scioto
and Olentangy rivers are excavated mainly in the Devonian. The
latter begins in the black slate and the former in the water lime.
Thus a connected section of the Devonian limestones may be
made out along their banks in the area of a single county.
In the summer of 1872 the writer examined this county with*
others, for the Geological Survey of Ohio, and found these lime-
stones to consist of the following parts :
1. A hard, fine-grained siliceous limestone, in beds generally of
eight to twelve inches, non-fossiliferous or nearly so ; of a blue or
black-blue color and apt to hold much pyrites. Thickness four to
nine feet.
2. A blue and argillaceous limestone in beds usually not exceed-
ing six inches, but sometimes reaching fifteen. This is the princi-
pal building stone of Delaware and Erie counties and is extensively
wrought at Sandusky and Delaware. The calcareous beds are hard
and crystalline, but -are apt to be interstratified with thin shaly
laminations, injuring their durability. It is quite fossiliferous,
holding generally at every quarry Spirifer mucronatus, Oyrtis
HamUtonenais and Cyrtoceras undulatum. It also holds at Dela-
B. NATURAL HISTORY. 101
ware a species of Discina and at Sandusky a TentacuUtes. It
contains numerous fish remains that have been extensively studied
by Dr. Newberry. Its thickness is thirty-five to forty feet.
3. A saccharoidal or often a crinoidal limestone, in beds that
weather out three to five inches thick, but in deep quarrying appear
a foot or two-thick. This is of a light color and differs constantly
in that respect from the last. It is rarely used for any purpose
except for quicklime. Its most common fossils are brachiopods,
the most conspicuous of which are species of Strophomena. It
also holds one or two species of Cyathophylloids. Cyrtoceras mh-
dulatum is also common.
The lower ten feet of this limestone are sometimes quite bitumi-
nous, especially when charged with corals, as they not unfrequently
are. In the central part of the county of Delaware this belt is
chiefly fossiliferous in the lower three or four feet, the remainder
being rather hard but of a blue color. The southern part of the
same county, however, seems to be without this bluish and highly
coralline member, the Delhi beds coming immediately down on to
No. 4. This bituminous matter is sometimes in the form of scales
and films or irregular patches or pockets, or it is disseminated evenly
through the bedding, mingling closely with the sedimentation. In
the former case the corals are well preserved. In the latter very
few fossils are to be seen, the color of the stone becoming bluish.
The thickness of the Delhi beds, including this coralline member,
is thirty-eight feet. The corals here found are different species of
' Favosites^ Cceyiostroyjia, StromcUopora and Cyathophylloids.
4. A light-colored, even-bedded, nearly non-fossiliferous, vesic-
ular or compact, magnesian limestone, that is often popularly
mistaken for a sandstone. Its upper part, sometimes amounting
to ten feet, is in beds of four to six inches and the rest in beds of
ten to thirty-six inches. It is even-grained and makes a good cut
Btone, being considerablj' wrought for building in several places in
northwestern Ohio, as well as for quicklime. Toward the bottom
it becomes arenaceous. Its thickness is about twenty-seven feet.
5. An arenaceous limestone like the last, which sometimes is a
pure quartzose sandstone and sometimes an arenaceous limestone
. conglomerate. The water-worn limestone pebbles in this conglom-
erate are evidently from the underlying limestone (Waterlime)
and arc occasionally five or six inches in diameter. No fossils
have been seen in this member. Thickness two to ten feet.
102 B. NATURAL HISTORY.
Notes on the foregoing limestones.
With the exception of the last, these have all been united by
Dr. Newberry under the term Corniferous.* The last is regarded
by him as the equivalent of the Oriskany of New York and the
base of the Devonian. Nos. I and 2 constitute together a verv
important and conspicuous member of the Ohio Devonian, which
can everywhere be easily distinguislied at a glance from the lower
members, chiefly by their color, but also by their bedding and by
their fossil contents. The uppermost member (No. 1) has not
heretofore been distinguished as overlying No. 2. It occurs in the
Olentangy River near Waldo in Marion county, and near Norton
in Delaware county. It may also be seen in the bed of the same
river at Delaware, where it is overlain by the blue shale that has
been regarded as the representative of the Hamilton.* It also is
seen in the Auglaize River south of Defiance, in. Defiance county,
and in the Maumee near the line separating Henry from Defiance
county, where it is immediately overlain by the black slate, the
'* blue shale" being entirely wanting. A bivalve impression, two
inches in diameter, resembling Aviculopecten^ was seen in it at Del-
aware. This limestone is believed to be the equivalent of the
Tully Limestone of New York. No. 2 is the limestone that has
been described as Hamilton in the state of Michigan, or perhaps
more correctly it is the upper portion of that limestone. It has
there not been separated from the Corniferous. Hamilton fossils
prevail over those having a distinctive Corniferous character, both
in Michiganf and in Ohio throughout this blue limestone, and in
Michigan seem to extend downward into the Corniferous. The
shales, however, which accompany this limestone in Michigan are
wanting in Ohio. There is a fossiliferous black shale in northern
Michigan which, however, may be the equivalent of the Marcellus.
The writer, in deference to Dr. Newberry's nomenclature, has dis-
tinguished No. 2, in reporting on several counties in Ohio, as
Upper Corniferous. It is believed to be the equivalent of the
Hamilton of New York. It is colored on the Ohio county maps
as " Corniferous," that color also covering, as already remarked
of the word, Nos. 3 and 4, the narrow blue belt representing the
shale overl^'ing No. 1, which the writer has distinguished as
Olentangy Shale.
• See Report of Progress on the Ohio Survey for 1869.
tSee Report on the Grand Truverse Region, by A. WincheU.
B. NATURAL HI8T0RT. 103
No. 3 seems in fossil contents, as well as in thickness and geo-
logical position, to be the exact equivalent of the Corniferous
Limestone of New York. The writer, to distinguish it from other
portiens of the great Corniferous Group of Dr. Newberry, has
designated it Delhi Limestone, from the village of that name in
Delaware county where it is extensively burned for quicklime.
No. 4 in like manner represents the Onondaga Limestone of
New York, and in a similar manner furnishes a good building stone.
It is the lower portion of this member that has been referred to as
representing the Ohio corniferous, quarried at Charloe, Paulding
county. It may be seen in the banks of the Scioto near Belle-
point, in Delaware county, and is burned for lime at Bellevue in
Sandusky county. Its manner of union with No. 5 is not constant.
Sometimes it is not at all sandy near the bottom, and at other
times it contains one or two very sandy layers, before the sandy
character of No. 5 is fully set in.
That the shale which overlies the foregoing No. 1, and which is
well exposed in the Olentangy River at Delaware, is not the Ham-
ilton of New York, is evident from the following considerations :
1st. At every point examined it is found to be closely interstrat-
ified with the black slate, even to the base ; and in Defiance county
it is entirely wanting, the black slate lying on No. 1. This indi-
cates that its associations are with the black slate rather than
with the Hamilton.
2d. If it be the Hamilton, in Defiance county, the Hamilton
is wanting ; yet there are Hamilton fossils in the blue limestone
lying below (No. 2).
3d. It has not yet afforded to the writer a single fossil form.
The fossils at Front's Station cannot come from the same shale,
although the writer has not examined that locality. A very close
inspection of this shale in Delaware county, where it affords con-
tinuous bluffs, sometimes for half a mile, has not disclosed a
single fossil.
4th. It does not graduate into the underlying blue limestone
(Nos. 1 and 2) but the transition is abrupt, from soft, argillaceo-
bituminous shale in thin beds, to a hard siliceous limestone in heavy
beds.
5th. While it contains no fossils proving its Hamilton age,
there are fossils in No. 2 that are confessedly of Hamilton age, and
those fossils are formed through the whole thickness of No. 2.
104 B. NATURAL HISTORY.
6th. In New York the Hamilton is shaly and calcareous ; all
other formations in passing west into Ohio change from coarse sed-
iment to fine. Coarse sandstones become shales. Shales become
limestones and limestones lose much of their thickness. In accord-
ance with this well-known law it is more likely that a calcareo-
argillaceous formation should become calcareous like No. 2 than
entirely argillaceous or bitumino-argillaceous, like the Olentang}*
Shale.
If the foregoing parallelizations are correct it does not seem
that the Hamilton runs out in passing through Ohio, but maintains
a full development as a calcareous member of the Devonian.
Origin and Properties of the Diamond. By A. C. Hamun, of
Bangor, Me.
The formation of the diamond is the same, with slight excep-
tions, all over the world, and the true matrix of the gem is in the
gravel beds of the Tertiary period.
This peculiar formation in which the diamond is always found
unless the strata has been disturbed by currents of water, is a fer-
ruginous conglomerate, and known as cascalho-mellan or hard-pan.
It is forming even at the present day, and examples may be seen
in the " AUios" of France, the conglomerates of Cape de Verde,
or the coasts of Cornwall^ and in many other places. The diamond
placers are situated at the bottoms of ancient shallow lagoons or
lakes, and the deposits may be traced oftentimes with perfect reg-
ularity from the shallows of the shore of the lake along its depths
to the opposite side. The gems found here have unbroken edges,
and show no signs of aqueous action, while those obtained from the
beds of rivers which have traversed the diamond placers, plainly
indicate abrasion occasioned by the force of falling water.
The keen eye of Buffon early detected the formation of the true
gem strata, and believing that the gems were produced in these
peculiar beds by the solar forces, he boldly asserted that the}' were
formed in the superficial strata from debris of older formations
B. NATURAL HISTORY. 105
mineral, animal and vegetable. There are many evidences to sus-
tain the view of diamonds having been deposited where they are
found, such as the tints of the diamond corresponding to the color
of the surrounding earth, the impression of clay or grains of sand
on the sides of the crystals, etc.
It has been admitted by eminent mineralogists, that the dia-
mond proceeded from the slow decomposition of vegetable material
and even animal matter, as the requisite carbon could be obtained
from either source. But they have also maintained that the gem
was found under the same condition of heat as produced the met-
amorphism of argillaceous and arenaceous schists : these being
'supposed to have once been altered from shales impregnated with
carbonaceous substances of organic origin. To this theory, how-
ever, the microscope offers decided objections, for it reveals within
the diamond, vegetable fibres and germs of higher organization,
which fact forbids the idea of the development of any considerable
degree of caloric. The quantity of vegetable remains often found
in the diamond is considerable, and the stone is admitted by mi-
croscopists to be the foulest of gems, cavities having been found
in the mineral which have yielded impurities like rotten weeds.
Admitting the h3'pothesis that the diamond is found in its
matrix at the bottoms of these ancient lagoons, and that it is com-
posed of carbon, we have abundant material for the formation of
the gem in the vegetable and animal matter, which is collected by
the impervious conglomerates forming the beds of stagnant pools.
Carbonic acid is readily produced from the decomposition of
this organic debris^ and is, moreover, constantly evolved from the
earth itself. It has the property of decomposing many of the
hardest rocks and is the cause of that mysterious decay which
Dolomieu called ^^ la 7)ialadie du granite,**
It is not at all improbable that the diamond contains hydrogen
as some sau^mts have suspected from the energ}'^ of its refractive
powers. In carburetted hydrogen we have the united force of two
of the most active substances known as organogens or generators
of orgunic bodies ; and the ease with which their combinations
may be decomposed by electricity, also the extraordinary display
of electric force, along the true gem fields, are to be considered in
the study of this subject. The production of a drop of water, by
the action of electricity upon a mixture of hydrogen and atmos-
pheric oxygen, suggests the manner in which the diamond might
106 B. NATURAL HISTORY.
be formed from carburetted hydrogen. It is true this experiment
in the laboratory has failed to produce the transparent and crys-
talline form of carbon, although it has thrown down the elemcDt
in an amorphous state. This failure is by no means decisive^ for
m&,ny of the simple acts of nature are beyond the imitative power
of man.
The charm of the diamond consists no't only in the extraordinary
brilliancy of the stone, but especially in the display of prismatic
color. The cause of these two properties has been a theme of
earnest study among experimentalists, and many ingenious the-
ories have been offered. The brilliancy appears to be due to the
nature of the substance, and not especially to its hardness or its
density. The soft minerals crocoite, greenockite and octahedrite,
which exceed the diamond in refractive power, indicate thathani-
ness has nothing to do with brilliancy. And if this property is in
any way connected with the density of a mineral, the zircon, the
sapphire and the spinel, ought to exceed the diamond in their re-
fractions, but in fact they are far inferior.
The topaz, which has the same specific gravity as the^ diamond,
has a refractive index of but little over one-half that of the dia-
mond. Concerning the charming prismatic display many plausible
theories have been oflTered, and none, perhaps, so probable as that
lately advanced by an English philosopher. This savant adopted
the view that this property was due to the relation of the low dis-
persive to the high refractive power of the gem, and hence the
Spinelle does not exhibit the rainbow hue because it possesses a
very high refractive. As the diamond stands quite alone among the
gems in this relationship, it has been extremely difficult to find
transparent minerals to test the correctness of the theory. The
white garnet would furnish a fine example if we could find a trans-
parent specimen, as it possesses a refractive of 1*81 and a low
dispersive of '033. But unfqrtunately gems of this variety are
quite unknown. However, Mt. Mica, with its white tourmalines
has furnished us with a perfect test for the hypothesis. This gem
affords the same relationship as the diamond, having a refractive
of 1*66 with the remarkably low dispersive of '028 while the dia-
mond has a refractive of 2*24: with a dispersive of '038. There-
fore if the theory is correct the white tourmaline should exhibit
the colored reflections as well as the diamond ; but on cutting sev-
eral of these stones into fine and perfect brilliants we fail to wit-
B. NATURAL HISTORY. 107
ness any prismatic display. Therefore we are reluctantly com-
pelled to regard the ingenious calculation as incorrect.
The diamond is not the most ancient of gems, and it was not
until the art of man polished its 'surface and revealed its hidden
splendors, that it became a favorite stone with man. The proc-
ess of polishing is not of very ancient date, but it extends many
centuries beyond the discoveries of Louis de Berquem.
In early times diamonds were so rare that only princes pos-
sessed them, and the smallness of the size of those that have de-
scended to us from those periods indicates that the paragons were
unknown before the fifteenth century. History sustains this view,
and the celebrated traveller, Tavernier, boldly asserts that all of
the famous diamonds have been discovered since the above men-
tioned date. The gem was but little known in Pliny's time, and
it does not appear in the decorations of the. fetes of Alexander,
and the early conquests.
The color suite of the diamond is far more extensive than has
been generally admitted. Of the yellow tint it affords the most
beautiful examples, and far surpasses in variety all the other
gems. To the yellow topaz it is decidedly superior in its range
of shades, and in some of its chrome-like tints it is without an
equal among the gems. Fine green are sometimes seen, but the
ruby red is exceedingly rare. Those of a peach blossom hue are
not uncommon and there are recorded a number of diamonds ex-
hibiting a beautiful shade of blue. The nodular or globular forms
which are apparently water- worn are really natural crystals,
the crystallization radiating from the centre. As they are defi-
cient in cleavage planes it is quite impossible to polish them,
which fact is sufl3cient to distinguish them from the water- worn
pebbles. They recall to mind the singular concretionary and
radiated masses of the animal remains found in the Old Red Sand-
stone.
The diamond is widely distributed over the earth. The gem
fields of Asia and Brazil are very extensive, and the placers of
Africa are not only exceedingly rich but they are of enormous ex-
tent, and will probablj' supply the wants of commerce for ages to
come. Its geological age is certainly very recent if we admit its
matrix to be the secondary gravel beds of the Tertiary period.
Furthermore, if we accept the observations of Humboldt, Mur-
chison and Verneuil, concerning the deposition of the bones of the
108 • B. NATURAL HISTORY.
rhinoceros and the mammoth, in. strata twenty feet below that in
which the diamond is found in the Adelfskoi district of Siberia, we
must reasonably conclude that the mineral was deposited since the
introduction of animal life, and that it is also the last gem placed
upon the earth.
On some ExTiNCt Types op Horned Perissodacttles. By
Edward D. Cope, -of Philadelphia, Penn.
It is well known that the type of Mammalia of the present pe-
riod, which is preeminently characterized by the presence of osse-
ous horns, is that of the Artiodactyla ruminayitia. At the meet-
ing of the Association of last year, held at Dubuque, I announced
that the horned mammals of our Eocene period were most nearly
allied to the Proboscidians. I now wish to record the fact, as I
believe for the first time, that the Perissodactyles of the interme-
diate formation of the Miocene embraced several genera and spe-
cies of homed giants not very unlike the Eobasileus and Uinta-
therium in their armature.
While exploring in connection with the United States Geological
Survey of the Territories, I discovered a deposit of the remains
of numerous individuals of the above character, which included
among other portions crania in a good state of preservation.
Most of these skulls are nearly or quite three feet in length, and
mostly deprived of their mandibular portions ; these are quite abun-
dant in a separated condition. The crania represent at least
six species, while the mandible represents a condition distinct
from that of Titanotherium or any allied genus, viz. : I., 0 ; C, 1 ;
P. M., 3 ; M., 3. The teeth diminish rapidly in size anteriorly, and
there is no diastema behind the canines, whose conic crowns do
not exceed those of the premolars in length. To the genus and
species thus characterized I have elsewhere given the name of
Symborodon torvus.
One of the crania, referred to under the name of Miobasileus
ophryas, is character izecl by its strong and convex nasal bones
B. NATURAL HISTORY. 109
aud concave superior outline posteriorly, and by the presence of a
massive horn-core on each side of the front, whose outer face is
continuous with the inner wall of the orbit, as in the Loxolophodon
cornutus. It stood above tlie eye in life, and diverged from its
fellow so as to ^overhang it. In the specimen, which was fully
adult, they were worn obtuse by use — length, about eight inches ;
thickness, three inches. The molar teeth differ from those of Ti-
tanotheriutn Proutii in having cross crests extending inward from
the apices of the outer chevrons, each of which dilates into a T-
shape near the cones.
The third species is referred to the new genus Symhorodon under
the name of 6\ acer. It has overhanging eyebrows and the vertex
little concave ; but the nasal bones are greatly strengthened,
and support on each side near the apex a large curved horn-core
of ten inches in length with sharply compressed apex. These
horns diverge with an outward and backward curve, and when
covered with their sheaths must have considerably exceeded a foot
in length. This was a truly formidable monster, considerably ex-
ceeding the Indian rhinoceros in size.
The fourth species is allied to the last, and has well developed
superciliary crests without horns. The latter are situated well an-
teriorly, and are short tubercles not more than three inches in
height. They are directed outward and have a truncate extremity.
The type individual is of rather lai'ger size than those of the other
species. There are several crania referrible to the three now named.
The present one has been named Symhorodon helocerus.
Other species based upon crania without mandibles, were referred
to the genus iSymhorodon,
These animals show true eharacters of the Perissodactyla in their
deeply excavated palate, solid odontoid process, third trochanter
of femur, which has also a pit for the round ligament, in the di-
vided superior ginglymus of the astragalus, etc.
110 b. natural history.
On the Origin of Insects and Remarks on the Antennal Char-
acters IN THE Butterflies and Moths. By Aug. R. Grote,
of Buffalo, N. Y.
We understand metamorphosis in insects as correlated with
development, and as a growth period characterizing the gradaal
escape from a lower and more embryonic physical conditiou. We
may consider it as a reminiscent action marking the successive
developmental halts in the kingdom of Articulata. And, in rea-
soning upon the facts brought to light by the embryological stud-
ies of Haeckel, Fritz Miiller, Packard and Dohrn, we must accept
the conclusion that the common origin of Tracheata is to be
sought in the biregional Crustacean. The fact of the abortion of
the tracheal system in the thorax presents a parallel to the
fact of the remains of the swimming bladder in man. In con-
sidering the general progression of Hexapoda, the Devonian and
earliest forms known seem to be Neuropterous, nor is there yet
sufficient evidence to prove that the common origin of Hexapoda
is to be carried back through suborders exclusively fossil. Yet
that the position of the Neuroptera suggests such a third, less dis-
tinctively marked series, which is now no longer living, and which
has given rise to the Orthoptera, Hemiptera and Coleoptera, and
again to the Diptera, Lepidoptera and Hymenoptera, cannot be
denied. And that the Lepidoptera are the more recent, paloeonto-
logical evidence seems to confirm, while we should not expect the
Butterflies among the flowerless forests of the Carboniferous pe-
riod. As yet the fossil butterflies discovered, such as those ror
cently described by Mr. Scudder, belong to the Miocene Tertiary.
As matters now stand there can be no objection to the conclusion
that the Butterflies and Bees are contemporary with man. Thus
hitherto recorded observations suggest to us very plainly the direc-
tion from which the hexapodous type has proceeded. The land
was probably visited at first irregularly and then at a stated life-
period, while the hexapodous type affords an ascending series of
grade in terrestrial adaptation. The consideration of the general
longer period of larval life shows a connection with this effort,
while the greater equalization in duration of the periods of growth,
or the curtailment of the younger stage to the benefit of the
adult, marks a permanent advance in type in Hexapoda.
The antennal structure in the Butterflies and Moths has been
B. NATURAL BISTORT. Ill
made the basis for classification, at different times, by two French
entomologists, MM. Duin6ril and Boisduval. While the terms
employed by the former have priority, those of Ehopalocera (club-
horned) and Heterocera (diversely-horned), used by the latter, have
come into general use, chiefly through the bibliographical impor-
tance of the work, the first volume of the uncompleted Species
Greneral (the completion of which is now no longer a necessity), in
which they were announced. The increase in our knowledge of
the Lepidoptera has brought with it a different conception of the
antennal structure and abundant physical proof of the absence of
any such an absolute difference. The divisional values intended
are unequal. The terms are inapposite and should be rejected
from scientific use and literature. On reflective observation the
difference between the antcnufle in the Butterflies and Moths does
not seem to me to lie in the characters of their different termina-
tions but in the upward direction, comparative rigidity and uni-
formity in length of the antennal stem in the Butterflies. The
flexibility and diversity of the appendages to the joints of the an-
tennal stem in the Moths point to a more active use, while the
more lateral and forward direction is a lower character in grade.
From the stout, rayed and short antennae of Attacus^ to the thread-
like neuropteriform and lengthy antennae of Adela^ there is a
wide diversity indicative of utilitarian change. When we remem-
ber the general habit of the Moths, the necessity for a develop-
ment of their perceptive faculties, independent of vision, seems
obvious ; their more sensitive antennae may protect them from
.many enemies to which their habit exposes them. On the other hand
the Butterflies are more protected by vision ; and the rigidity,
together with the greater uniformity in length of the antennae, .
seems to be the result of desuetude. In the Ilenperidfje^ a group
occupying an intermediate station in rank and, I believe, in time,
there is a greater comparative diversity in the length of the an-
tennae as compared with the true Butterflies. In Castnia and
the higher Moths the antenna is, as we naturally expect it, but-
terfly-like in structure.
This change in the antennal structure in the Lepidoptera ac-
companies the change in the position of the wings, signalized by
Agassiz in 1849, the discovery of which, on the whole, may be
considered as our most important accession to an understanding
of rank within the Lepidoptera. Agassiz^s observations are con-
112 B. NATURAL HISTOBY.
fined to a comparison of the quiescent positions of the wings. In
the act of assuming flight a single muscular action seems neces-'
sary to the Butterfly. The Moth throws the deflexed wings first
forward, unfolding the secondary in a horizontal direction (notun-
plaiting it as in the lower suborders) ; under the same circum-
stances the Hesperian first elevates the horizontally extended hind
wing.
I notice, in conclusion, Dr. Clemens* experiment with the moth
Platysamia cecropia. Concomitant with the gradual excision of
the antennae, Dr. Clemens found a corresponding indisposition to
flight presented by the mutilated insect. At last '* the power of
hovering was completely lost," and Dr. Clemens drew the extraor-
dinary conclusion, that " the antennae are instruments of atmos-
pheric palpation." The power of hovering, on the contrary, was
not lost by antennal mutilation, but became suspended through the
consequent loss of the perceptive faculties of direction, and the
nightflying moth naturally refused to proceed. The use and con-
trol over the wings, through* the thoracic muscles, could not have
been impaired by the loss of the antennae.
The largest Fossil Elephant Tooth tet described. By EoMTifD
O. Hovey, of Crawfordsville, Indiana.
ABSTRACT.
This tooth was found in Alameda Co., Califoniia, and is now
in the Cabinet of Wabash College, Indiana.
Its vertical depth is thirteen (13) inches, transverse measure-
ment is fifteen (15) inches, length of triturating surface nine (9)
inches, and the weight of the tooth is twenty-one and a half pounds
avoirdupois.
B. NATURAL HISTORY. 113
NOTBS OK THE GsOLOOT AND ECONOMIC MiNERALOGT OF THE
SOUTHEASTEKN APPALACHIANS. By T. StERRY HuNT, Of
Boston, Mass.
ABSTRACT.
The author began by a brief sketch of the physical geography
and topography of the mountain region which borders, on the
southeast side, the great Appalachian valley in its extension
from southwestern Virginia to northern Georgia, and referred to
the published accounts of Henry Darwin Rogers and Professor
Guyot, who are our best authorities on this region. He described
the bifurcation of the mountain chain of crystalline rocks to the
southwest of Lynchburg, the eastern branch of which retains the
name of the Blue Ridge, and the western is known as the Iron
Mountain, Smoky Mountain, or Unaka range ; the two ridges in-
closing an elevated valley, in the northern part of which the New
River takes its rise. The prevalence over large portions of this
region of gneisses and mica-schists like those of the White Moun-
tains was noticed, and the character presented by their superficial
decay described. The drift-phenomena of the North are here
unknown, and the rocks, decomposed to great depths, still retain
their original positions. The inclined beds are to be seen in the
cuttings through soft clays, which were ouce nearly vertical strata
of hard feldspathic and homblendic rocks. This change was
chemical, and not mechanical, and was due to the action of water
holding in solution carbonic acid and oxygen, which had re*
moved alkalies and lime, and peroxidized the iron. The exis-
tence of similar phenomena in Brazil and other countries was
noticed, and it was shown that it appears only in regions beyond
the limits of glacial action. The question was then asked why
do the similar rocks in New England offer no evidences of such a
decay, and it was suggested that it was the result of a process
which took place at a very remote period, and before the glacial
erosion, which has, in the regions to the northeast, removed all
traces of these softened and disintegrated rocks. The author,
while maintaining this view, desired to call especial attention to
this curious and important geological phenomenon, which he con-
nects with climatic and atmospheric conditions unlike those of the
present period.
The concretionary veins of these gncissic and micaceous rocks
A. A. A. S. VOL. Xl^II. B. (8)
114 B. NATURAL BISTORT.
were next noticed. Some of them are made up of coarsely crys-
talline orthoclase with quartz, tourmaline and great plates of
mica, while in others examined by the speaker, calcareous spar
and calcareo-magnesian silicates such as hornblende aud pyrox-
ene, with zoisite and garnet, are met with. These minerals are
oilen associated with sulphurets such as pyrite, pyrrhotine, chal-
copyrite, and more rarely with galena, blende and molybdenite.
The character of some great deposits of iron and copper sul-
phurets, met with under similar conditions from Virginia to Ten-
nessee, was described ; some of them are clearly transverse veins,
but others, which seem intercalated in the stratification, exhibit
in the banded arrangement of their materials, and in the grouping
of their crystalline minerals, evidences that they are, not less than
the transverse veins, the result of concretionary deposition in rifts
in the strata. Some phenomena of infiltration in the laminae of
the adjacent schists were described ; but it was contended that
these are but local and accidental phenomena, and are not to be
confounded with the deposits of sulphurets which in the Huronian
rocks of the Green Mountains and elsewhere seem to have consti-
tuted from the first a portion of the formation.
The economic value of these great metalliferous lodes of the
southeastern Appalachians was alluded to. The copper mines of
Ducktown, in Polk County, Tennessee, and of the Ore Knob, in
Ashe County, North Carolina, were noticed, and the value of these
and of similar deposits in Virginia, as sources both of copper and
of sulphur, was pointed out. While England brings from South
Carolina our phosphates for the manufacture of fertilizers, she
imports from Spain the sulphuret of iron to furnish the acid nec-
essary for their treatment. We, on the contrary, bring the native
sulphur from Sicily for the same purpose, while the mountains of
the Blue Ridge coutain deposits of sulphur-ore as abundant as
those of Spain, which will one day be made available for the treat-
ment of the South Carolina phosphates, and their conversion into
the fertilizers so necessaiy for southern agriculture.
Prof. C. A. White, in support of these views, described the evi-
dences of a similar profound disintegration of the crystalline
rocks in the northwest, and stated that from such a decom-
posed material a great part of the soils of the region was formed.
He was of the opinion that it had taken place previous to the
Cretaceous period, since the strata of that time in the region in
B. NATURAL HISTORY. 115
question were formed from the results of this decay of the felds-
pathic and hornblendic rocks of the vicinity.
The Metamorphism of Rocks. By T. Sterrt Hunt, of Boston,
Mass.
abstract.
The various changes which rocks undergo under the influence
of water, air and various gases, and their changes in molecular
structure, were briefly noticed, and the use of the name of meta-
morphic rocks, as now generally applied to crystalline strata,
considered. While some geologists have considered that many of
these, such as gneisses, diorites, serpentines, talcose and chloritic
rocks were igneous products, more or less modified by subsequent
chemical processes, others maintained that they were formed by
aqueous sedimentation, and subsequently crystallized. This was
taught by Hutton ; and when, earl}' in this century, the crystalline
rocks of the Alps were shown to rest upon uncrystalline fossilifer-
ous strata, it was suggested that the overlying crystallines were
newer rocks, which had undergone a metamorphism from which
those directly beneath had been exempted. This notion spread
until the great crystalline centre of the Alps was considered to
be in part of secondary and even of tertiary age. The history of
the extension of this notion to Germany, to the British Islands,
and to New England was then sketched, and it was shown that
similar crystalline rocks from supposed stratigraphical evidence
came to be referred to formations of very diflTerent ages in palaeo-
zoic or more recent geologic times.
The author then detailed the course of study b}' which he had
been led to question this notion ; he showed that there was, ac-
cording to Favre, no longer any evidence in the Alps in support
of the view above noticed ; that Sedgwick in England, and NicoU
in Scotland, had rejected the notion of the palaeozoic age of the
crystalline schists in these countries, regarded by Murchison as
Cambrian and Silurian ; and finally gave the observations by which
he (the speaker) had satisfied himself that the cr3'stalline rocks of
116 B. NATURAL HISTOBT.
tbe Green Mountains and the White Mountains, and their repie-
sentatives alike in Quebec, New Brunswick and in the Blue Bidge
were more ancient than the oldest Cambrian or primordial fossillf-
erous strata. He showed how folding, inversion and faults had
alike in the Alps and in Scotland led to the notion that these
crystalline rocks were in many cases newer than the adjacent fos-
siliferous strata, and mentioned that the subject would be Airther
illustrated by a paper on the geology of New Brunswick.
Note.— In a paper on the geology of the White Mountains in the Proceedings of the
A. A. A. S. for 187S, Prof. C. H. Hitchcock (p. 146) refers to mj address before the Aiso-
ciatlon in 1871. in which I have discussed tlie crystalline rocks of New BngUnd, and
speaks of " the position assigned by Dr. Hunt to the whole White Mountain series in
his * * * address.'' According to him I have referred " the age of the series to tbe
Cambrian J not for firom the period of the Potsdam sandstone." This is howerer com*
pletely at variance with the statements of my address, and with my whole arguisent
extending over several pages. I have there stated with regard to certain crystaUiDS
schists of Europe, my conviction that they *' belong to a period tnUerior to the depori-
tion of the Cambrian aedimente, and will correspond with the newer gneittic win
of our Appalachian region^** that is the White Mountain series (p. 32). Again (p. 16)
I consider the view Which I formerly shared with most other geologists of the pslieoiolc
age of the " crystalline rocke of th/e Oreen Mountain and White Mountain eeriee^^ and
declare that " I And on a careAil examination of the evidence no satisfkctory proof of
' such tin age and origin, but an array of facts which appear to me incompatible witli
the hitherto received view and lead me to conclude that the whale cf omr orytteUiitf
echitte of eaatefrn North America are not only pre-Silurian but pre'Cambrian in age?
This view is, I believe, adopted by Prof. Hitchcock. He in his paper fhrther states Mb
opinion that the lower part of the White Mountain series is Laurentian, but as my dfsi*
nition of the White Mountain series in the address above quoted is primarily lithoiogi-
cal and expressly excludes the rocks of the Laurentian series, the statement of Prof«
H. amounts only to an assertion that the White Mountain series ^ certain parts of New
Hampshire rests directly upon Laurentian rocks, which is by no means improbable*
I pointed out in 1870 and 1871 reasons for supposing the existence of areas of Lsoren-
. tian strata both in eastern and western Massachusetts.
Geology op Southern New Brunswick. By T. Sterrt Humt,
of Boston, Mass.
ABSTRACT.
The recent labors under the Geological Sui*vey of Canada by
Messrs. Bailey, Matthew and the author were sketched. They
show south and west of the New Brunswick coal-basin variooB
uncrystalline formations, all resting upon ancient crystalline rocks.
These latter are by the author regarded as for the most part the
B. NATURAL BISTORT. 117
equivalents of the Green Mountain and the White Mountain
series, or what he calls Huronian and Montalban. These are pen-
etrated by granites, and associated In one part with Norian rocks,
bot the presence of Laarentian in the region is somewhat doubtful.
While the author recognizes thus, at least, four distinct series of
pre-Cambrian crystalline rocks in eastern North America, he does
not question the possible existence of yet other series in this re-
gion. The analogies offered by the more recent rocks of this
region are very suggestive. We have within twenty miles of St.
John, New Brunswick, larger or smaller areas of not less than five
palaeozoic formations, the Menevian of Lower Cambrian age, the
fauna of which has been so well studied by Hartt ; true Silurian,
probably of Lower Helderberg age ; Devonian, yielding the fossil
flora made known to us by Dawson ; Lower Carboniferous, and
triie Coal Measures, besides sandstones of Mesozoic age. Each
one of these is found resting on the older crystallines, and except
the last they are highly inclined and even vertical. As the result of
contortions and overturn-dips, the older crystalline strata are
found to overlie in some cases the newer ones ; besides which the
latter are occasionally formed in great part of the ruins of the
crystalline strata, and so consolidated that they have been con-
founded with them, decomposed rocks made up of the debris
of pre-Cambrian felsites and orthophyres are found alike in the
Lower Carboniferous and the Silurian series, and the beds of the
latter are made up in other localities of comminuted Huronian
diorites and argillites. A conglomerate of similar origin occurs
at the base of Menevian or Lower Cambrian, and other parts
of this series abound in the ruins of the White Mountain mica-
schists.
Breaks in thb American Paljsozoig Series. By T. Sterrt
Hunt, of Boston, Mass.
ABSTRACT.
The author began by considerations on the value and signifi-
cance of breaks in the succession of strata and of organic re-
mains. He then referred to the classification of the palaeozoic
rocks of the New York series, and showed that Hall, in 1842, and
118 B. NATURAL HISTORY.
again in 1847, pointed out the existence therein of a fauna older
than what was then called Silurian by Murchison, or was known
in Great Britain ; Hall maintaining that our comparison with
British rocks must commence with the Trenton limestone, the
equivalent of the Upper Cambrian of Sedgwick (Llandeilo or
Lower Silurian of Murchison). The rocks below this horizon in
America are the equivalents of the Lower and Middle Cambrian
of Sedgwick, which, when they were found to be fossiliferous,
were wrongly claimed by Murchison as part of the Silurian.
He sketched the history of the introduction of the nomenela-
turf of Murchison into our American geology, and then proceeded
to show the e^cistence of a break both stratigraphical and palseon-
tological at the base of the Trenton. The contact between the
Calciferous sandrock and the unconformably overlying Trenton is
seen in Herkimer County, N. Y., according to Hall. The so-called
fossiliferous Quebec group of Logan, the Primal and Aiu-oral of
Rogers, which extends along the great Appalachian valley from
the Lower St. Lawrence to Georgia, corresponds to the Lower and
Middle Cambrian ; and the Potsdam, Calciferous and Chazy for-
mations are its equivalents in the valleys of the Ottawa and Lake
Champlain, much reduced in thickness. These are overlaid by
the rocks of the Trenton and Hudson-River groups (Upper Cam-
brian), which in various localities to the north overlap the older
fossiliferous rocks, and in the absence of the latter, repose directly
upon the crystallines, indicating a considerable continental move-
ment corresponding to the break in palseontological succession.
The relation between these is explained by Logan as resulting
from a movement posterior to the deposition of the Hudson-River
group, which produced a great uplift of several thousand feet, ex-
tending for more than one thousand miles. While showing that
there have been movements in parts of the region since that period,
the author rejects the above explanation, and shows that the rela-
tion between the two is due to the fact that the Trenton and the
Hudson-River rocks overlie unconformably the disturbed Quebec
group. These two great discordant series correspond to the
rocks of the first and second faunas of Barrande.
The second great break is at the summit of the Hudson-River
group, and is marked by the Oneida conglomerate in New York,
and a similar one in Ohio described by Newberry. The rocks
above, to the base of the Corniferous limestone in the New York
, B. NATURAL BISTORT. 119
series, are the Upper Silurian of Murchison, or Silurian proper,
and bold what is called by Barrande the third fauna. As long
since shown by Hall, they are, however, to be divided on palseon-
tological grounds into two groups, the lower including the Me-
dina, Clinton and Niagara formations, and the upper what was
named the Lower Helderberg group. These are separated in
New York and Ontario by the great non-fossiliferous Onondaga
group, holding salt and gypsum, and deposited from a great salt
lake.
The close of the Onondaga was marked by another period of
disturbance, which, like that preceding the deposition of the
Trenton, changed the levels, and caused the ocean-waters to
spread alike over the Onondaga formation and the adjacent rocks
which had formed the ancient sea-barrier. Then was deposited
the Lower Helderberg limestone, followed by the Oriskany sand-
stone, together constituting a fourth natural division of our palae-
ozoic rocks. This limestone was deposited unconformably over
the Trenton and Hudson-River rocks in the St. Lawrence valley,
and upon the older crystallines in various localities among the
Appalachian hills in New England and the British Provinces.
Over this whole region there are no known representatives of the
second, and, except to the far eastward, none of the third or
Medina-Niagara fauna. The fourth or highest Silurian fauna
corresponds to the Ludlow rocks of Britain, or the Upper Silurian
of the Canada Survey ; while to the third fauna this survey has
applied the name of Middle Silurian. The necessity for such a
division, in accordance with the views of Hall, is admitted, but the
name is to be rejected, since the rocks immediately below it are
properly not Lower Silurian but Upper Cambrian.
Evidences of a fourth break between the Oriskany and the
Cornlferous were mentioned in the erosion of the former in New
York and Ontario, although to the eastward, in Gasp6, they form
a continuous series. The author closed by a tribute to the
memory of the venerable Sedgwick, the Nestor of British geolo-
gists, who died last winter ; and to the labors of Prof. James
Hall, who, in his vast work on our palseozoic geology, has reared
for himself an imperishable monument.
Note.— An unpublished geological map of northeastern America, extending from
Labrador to the Mississippi and to Virginia, prepared bj the author so as to show by
aa many different colors the geographical distribution of the roclcs of the four palaeozoic
faunas recognized in the above paper, was exhibited by him to the geological memben
of the Association.
120 B. NATURAL BISTORT.
Geological History op Winnipiseogeb Lake. By C. H.
Hitchcock, of Hanover, N. H.
The hydrographic basin of Winnipiseogee Lake comprises about
three hundred and fifty square miles. Its waters flow into the
Merrimae, though the general level of the country would seem to
ally it with the waters of the Saco or Cocheco valley.
The lake is quite irregular in form. Its general course is from
S. 25°-30** E., with several long bays or arms. On the south is
Alton Bay, eight or ten miles long, which resembles a fiord more
than any of the other arms. On the southeast is Wolfsboro Bay
in close connection with Smith's Pond. On the northeast are two
branches into Moultonboro. On the northwest is the expanse
known as Meredith Bay. The western shore is comparatively
straight from Meredith village to Alton Bay village. The hills
about the lake are steeper than the average in other parts of the
state.
The length of the lake proper is nineteen miles. The breadth
at the widest part is eight and one-fourth miles. The area of the
water is sixty-nine square miles, five hundred and thirty-one acres
and 3'03 square rods. If Long Bay, which is properly an expan-
sion of the outlet, be added, the area becomes seventy-one square
miles, five hundred and fifty-nine acres .and 43*56 square rods.
The lake abounds in islands. Their number, large and small
together, is two hundred and seventy-four. The height above
mean tide-water is given by the best authorities at five hundred
and one feet. The water is remarkably pure but shallow. No
soundings have been made, but no part is likely to be over two
^hundred feet deep.
Commencing at the outlet, passing northerly around the hydro-
graphic basin, the following may represent the altitudes of the
rim above the lake. "We quickly reach a hill about two hundred
and seventy-five feet, then descend a hundred feet and, with other
irregularities, reach Wadleigh Hill, three hundred and sixty feet.
At the north foot of "Wadleigh Hill lies Meredith village, which is
also at the end of the northwest arm of the lake. The lowland con-
tinues six or eight miles to the summit on B. C. and M. R. R.
towards Ashland, one hundred fifty-three feet, passing over a body
of water called formerly Measly Pond and latterly Waukewan
B. KATURAL HI8T0BT. 121
Lake. The hills on the west side of Wankewan rise four hundred
feet or more above the main lake.
Passing to Sandwich through Centre Harbor, the rim lies be-
tween Lake Sqoam and the tributaries of Winnipiseogee. The
lowest point in Centre Harbor is one hand red and sixty feet, in a
depression about the centre of the township. Between Long Pond
and Squam, the height cannot be more than about forty feet. The
lowest point in the rim of the basin is here. Squam Lake is
about one-third the size of Winnipiseogee, and flows into Little
Squam Lake, and thence about three miles, through a narrow tort-
uous valley with steep sides, to the Pemigewasset River at Ashland.
Between Squam Lake and Ossipee Mountains the country is low,
with a few small ponds lying in hollows of the drift. The lowest
point I can find is in Sandwich, two hundred and nineteen feet, and
scarcely any hill in the low country to the east, towards Saco
River, will rise to four hundred feet above the lake.
Passing south the Ossipee Mountains succeed, attaining an al-
titude of at least fifteen hundred feet. To the south the two low-
est points are at the crossing of the divide by the Wolfsboro branch
railroad, say two hundred and fifty feet, and the ridge leading to
Merrymeeting Lake, which is about the same. The steep hill east
of Alton Bay is four hundred and forty-seven feet above the lake.
The height of the divide between Alton Bay and the waters of the
Cocheco River is only sef enty-two feet ; the west side of the Alton
Bay valley is from seven hundred to eight hundred feet above the
lake or six hundred and twenty-seven at the lowest point. Pass-
ing northerly succeed the mountains of the Belknap range, the
highest attaining an altitude of one thousand nine hundred and
sixty-nine feet. About two miles south of the present outlet the
divide must be only eighty feet above the lake. The highest point
north of this valley before coming to the outlet is one hundred and
twenty-one feet.
I
The prominent lowest points in the rim are therefore the fol-
lowing : —
Feet.
Ashland ridge, 158
Centre Harbor ridge to Sqnam, 160
Squam Lake by Long Fond, 40
Ridge to Saco waters, 219
Ridge to Cocheco River, ....... 72
Old outlet In Gilford, SO
122 B. NATURAL BISTORT.
Hence a rise of the Winnipiseogee Lake forty feet would cause a
flow into Squam Lake ; a rise of eighty feet would allow water to
flow both into the Cocheco and what appears to be an old outlet
through Gilford, towards Lake Village. A rise of one hundred
and fifty-three feet would be required to make a direct connection
with the Pemigewasset valley, the route via Squam Lake being
very tortuous.
The existing outlet is an interesting stream. It expands imme-
diately after leaving the lake into Long Pond, being navigable for
steam tugs, through the passage way. The dam of the Lake Com-
pany at Lake Village prevents farther navigation, but in a mile or
two it expands and sends off two bays, called Winnisquam Lake
and Round Bay. There are two more expansions in Belmont, Til-
ton and Northfield, called Sanbornton and Little Bays. The water
then descends rapidly to the Pemigewasset at Franklin, the twg
streams combined becoming the Merrimac. The total descent
of the outlet for its fourteen miles' course is one hundred and
seventy-three feet. It flows almost entirely over the hard pan or
glacier drift deposits, and seems to have made no terraces above
fifteen or twenty feet in altitude. No others exist above the west
corner of Belmont, and those seem to have been formed in con-
nection with the Pemigewasset.
The striking feature of this lake border is the absence of ter-
races. The banks are chiefly of glacial drift. The few terraces
that may be seen are of limited rise. The following are the prin-
cipal ones : —
At Alton Bay two,
West Alton two places,
Several places in Gilford,
Plain of Laconla, perhaps
Meredith Village,
Moultonboro,
Wolfsboro,
Centre Harbor Village,
55 and 75 feet.
75 and 100 feet.
10, 81, 47 and 80 feet.
10 to 12 feet.
5, 15, 23 and 30 feet.
75 feet.
25 feet and more.
8 to 10 feet.
Periods in the History. We can trace no less than ten periods
in the history of this lake basin.
1. Period of the deposition of the Porphyritic Gneiss or Oran-
ite. This is the oldest formation in the state. A range of it
starts southerly from Waterville and proceeds southeasterly to
Mt. Prospect in Holderness. Thence it courses more southerly,
B. NATURA.L HISTORT. 123
proceeding to New Hampton Centre Village. In this vicinity it is
developed more perfectly than in any other part of the state. At
this village it makes a sharp turn eastward to Meredith Village
thence northeasterly nearly to Squam Lake in the extreme north-
east part of Centre Harbor. It then makes another sharp turn
down both sides of Meredith or Northwest Cove and appears also
on the islands off Weirs, and the north part of Gilford. It now
rapidly diminishes in width and is covered up, tliough appearing
again in West Alton, and is last seen in the south part of Alton.
2. Winnipiseogee Lake Gneiss Formation. This is a granitic
gneiss filled with segregated veins and has not yet been observed
away from the vicinity of the lake. It does not appear upon any
mountains, nor in bluffs ; and has everywhere been greatly de-
npded so that its ledges are inconspicuous. It joins the first
named rock everywhere on the east and covers it in Alton. The
strata are highly inclined and sometimes inverted.
3. White Mountain Series, This rock is often characterized by
the presence of andalusite. It crops out in Gilford and Alton and
bounds the lake gneiss on the east where the junction is not ob-
scured by overlying formations.
4. The next great period may represent the time of the Eleva-
tion and perhaps Metamorphosis of the three groups already enu-
merated. We possess no decided evidence to show that these^
three groups are unconformable with one another. The presump-
tion is that these groups belong to the Laurentian system ; they
are certainly Eozolc.
5. Eruption of the Granites of the Ossipee Mountains, In a
paper presented last year, a description was given of the rocks
among the White Mountains ; where it was stated that the upturned
edges of the White Mountain series were covered first by a layer
of coarse granite and then by a spotted granite. Both these vari-
eties are found in the Ossipee Mountains, and in a similar strati-
graphical position.
6. Deposition of Felsites or Compact Feldspars. Enormous
thicknesses of variously colored felsites cover the spotted granite
124
B. VATURAX HI6T0BT.
of Osslpee and form the summits of the pile of mountains. None
of the Ossipyte, a compound of labradorite and chrysolite, has yet
been seen. These granites and felsites together constitute a great
system of formations which I suppose are the equivalents of the
Labrador system of Logan. He has not given the limits of his
system, but I retain the name suggested by him, for the system of
granites and compact feldspars developed so finely in New Hamp-
shire. There is an extensive mass of granite in Wolfsboro and
New Durham which may be connected with the Labrador system,
but its relations have not yet been made out with certainty.
7. Eruption of Sienite. The Belknap Mountains, certain peaks
in Alton, Diamond Island and probably Rattlesnake Island in
Winnipiseogee Lake, and Red Hill in Moultonboro and Sandwich,
are composed of sienite of various textures, which seems to have
been erupted after the deposition of the felsites. Its age is shown
by the fact that it cuts the ossipyte in Waterville.
8. Deposition of Mica schist. This formation is enormously
developed in Strafford and Rockingham counties, touching the lake
only at Alton Bay. It evidently covers all the formations thus far
specified.
This is the last of the solid rocks in this area. There succeeds
an ejiormous interval of time of which we have no record in New
Hampshire. The country must have been elevated so that no de-
posits could be formed. The interval embraces the principal por-
tion of the fossiliferous rocks.
9. Olacier Period. The phenomena of this age about the lake
are striae, embossed ledges, pot holes, beds of clay, bowlder drift,
etc.
The courses of the strise usually agree with the course of the
valley; or from S. 25°-30° E. The following are compass courses
of a number that I have measured.
Ashland Village,
Centre Hilrbor, commonly,
Holderness, top Prospect Mt.,
New Hampton Village,
New Hampton Centre,
New Hampton, N. E. part, above clay bed,
New Hampton, Harper's HiU, .
S. S0« E.
S. 80O E.
S. 26<> B.
S. 40<' £.
S. 80*> E.
S. 25* E.
S. 40* E.
B. NATUKAL HI9T0BT.
125
Line between N. Hampton and Meredith,
8. 250 E.
Hill N. W . from Meredith Village, . . . .
S. 80<» B.
<< (« li below sammit, .....
8. 26° E.
East of Long Fond, N. Hampton,
8. 260 E.
Meredith Centre,
S. 15*> E.
Highest hill, Meredith Neck,
8. 80° E.
Advent church, M. Neck,
8. 80° B.
Line between Meredith and Centre Harbor,
8. 28° E.
Gilford, hill N.E. from Lake Village,
8. 28° E.
Gilford, north part, on lake, ....
8. 26° E.
*• N. E. part,
8. 80° E.
Alton Bay, ridge west,
8. 80° E.
Alton, east town line,
8. 80° E.
" farther west, . . .
8. 26° E.
New Durham, commonly,
8. 80° E.
The strise at the north and south ends of the hydrographic
basin differ from those juatr enumerated.
Down the valley of Baker*s River, Arom Warren through Wentworth to
W. Kumney, south nearly.
Rumney, varying slightly with valley, . . . 8. 40° E.
Plymouth Village,
Holderness, Shepard's Hill,
Holdemess, 8quam Mountain,
Sandwich, west part.
Near Tuftonboro Comer, .
8. 60° E.
8. 60° E.
8. 60° E.
East.
N. 80° E.
These observations indicate that ioe moved down the valley of
Baker's River in a southerly dii*ection, but when the course of the
valley changed the ice went with it, and passed southeast, and
finally easterly over Plymoutli, Squam Lake and to the north of
Ossipee Mountains. After the ice had commenced moving east,
erly it continued in that direction, passing out of the Pemigewas-
set valley, and that even though it climbed the Squam Mountains.
Facts are wanting to show whether the ice continued to move east-
erly after passing the Ossipee Mountains. Unless these easterly
courses were made in the decline of the ice period, a portion of it
must have been deflected by the Ossipee Mountains so as to exca-
vate the S. 30° £. groovings along the lake valley.
We had supposed the ice continued in its southerly course after
passing the lake basin, but a recent observation in Tuftonboro
indicates that it turned again to the east passing up the water-shed
between the lake and Ossipee River. It is possible this easterly
course was induced by the blocking up of the direct path by the
126 B. KATUBAL BISTORT.
low summits of Cropplecrown, Moose Mountain, etc., about Mid-
dleton. In that case part of the ice may have moved more east-
erly and part more westerly, so as to correspond with the common
diieclion of the strise in southern New Hampshire.
Pot Hole. On Beach Hill, New Hampton, there is a pothole
worn out of the rock,* about four feet deep and two feet in diam-
eter, at an elevation of four hundred feet above the lake. It is
not in the line of any river course. People in the neighborhood
ascribe it to the handiwork of Indians. It seems to belong to that
class of pot holes in New England, which were made by torrents
of water, falling through crevasses in the ice of the glacier. Mj
father ascribed them to the action of ancient river courses, poste-
rior to the drift period, and therefore inferred an immense erosion
of rock, sufficient to have removed the rims of the ancient valleys.*
It seems to me much better to assume a different theory for their
excavation, and then we can avoid the difficult conclusion involved
in the other supposition.
Clay Beds. The discovery of two beds of clay situated in the
glacier drift in New Hampton and Lacouia presents a phase of
glacial action never before mentioned, so far as I am informed.
It is not the bowlder clay, but a finely stratified deposit without
stones and covered over by earth containing striated bowlders.
The first is at Weirs, a steamboat pier connecting with the Bos-
ton, Concord and Montreal Railroad. It is about one hundred
feet thick, with the base nearly at the level of the lake. It is
stratified throughout, and no bowlders can be found in it, save
what may have fallen from above. It is extensively excavated for
the manufacture of bricks. Perhaps its area is oval in shape,
forty rods in diameter. The bed in New Hampton is smaller, but
more elevated, being five hundred and fifty-five feet above the lake
or ten hundred and fifty-six above the ocean. It is four hundred
feet above the ridge between Ashland and Meredith, and its
drainage goes into the Pemigewasset. We pass four hundred and
thirty-three feet below the base of the clay towards the river be-
fore reaching any stratified sand, the area between being occupied
by the unmodified glacial drift. The clay in New Hampton falls
quickly into small angular pieces, when dug into, as if it had been
•Geology of Vermont, vol. i, p. 218.
B. NATUBAL HISTOBT. 127
compressed laterally by ice. The strata slope five or six degrees
toward the valley. The second area shows over one or two acres
only, and the material is, as before, utilized for the manufacture
of bricks.
Were the first the only instance, it could be easily explained by
supposing the outlet of the lake had been dammed up to the
height of a hundred feet, and in the still water resulting clay had
been deposited. Essentially this explanation, however, must be
resorted to for both cases. The existence of ponds of water must
be assumed in order to explain the deposition of clay. No natu-
ral barriers now exist to form the pond on the New Hampton hill.
The ice must have constituted the barrier, while still in slow mo-
tion southeasterly. Either a deficiency in the material or a partial
thawing of the ice may have left a hole which became filled with
water. In both cases the hill rises considerably back of the clay.
This would allow streams of water to flow down into the ponds,
carrying fine particles, which settle to the bottom, and thus j^ro-
duce clay. These clays are therefore accidental modified drift
deposits, produced during the glacial period. Had the country
been covered by icebergs during the glacial era, such beds ought
to be common among our hills.
10. The Terrace Period. There are no evidences to show a
submergence of the lake area by the ocean, unless it be derived
from the existence of fresh-water smelts, apparently of the same
species with their compeers of the salt water. No attempt has
yet been made to find any marine animals in this large body of
water by dredging. The terraces seem to indicate several former
levels of the lake. Assuming this to be true, we can believe that
Lake Winnipiseogee stood successively 100, 80, 55, 30, 20, 15 and
12 feet above its present level, but never any higher, or at least not
long enough to allow sand to collect around the shores. Some
of these terraces may be higher back among the jSelknap Moun-
tains, but it is only the height of this river terrace at its junc-
tion with the lake that indicates the former altitude of the water
level.
With the elevation of the water one hundred feet the river at
the Alton outlet must have been eighteen feet higher than now so
as to prevent the egress of water. The present outlet may
have been entirely closed. This we can easily appreciate, since
128 B. NATUBAL HISTOBT.
the drift ridge has evidently been excavated by running water
more than this amount, as is indicated by the steepness of the
present banks. There may also have been a barrier in Gilford to
the south of the present outlet. Granting the existence of barriers
in those directions, the outlet must have been through SquamLake.
Possibly there may have been a barrier across the Squam River
also, where the valley is narrow, though all loose material is
now removed f^om it. If so the outlet probably ran through
Gilford.
There is nothing to indicate the nature of these barriers other
than has been specified. Considering the character of the period,
it is likely that there was earth in Alton and ice in the Gilford and
Squam rivers. When the barriers had sunk twenty feet more,
egress would have been checked only in Gilford. We may sup-
pose at this epoch that the principal outlet lay to the south to the
Cocheco River. As the lake sank more and more there might
have been terraces formed locally at various levels, as our figures
seem to indicate. But the level must have sunk to less than forty
feet before Squam Lake could have existed separate f^om Winni*
piseogee, and the outlet ran through its present channel. If the
drift ridge at the Weirs gradually sunk by erosion, we can under-
stand how the several local terraces mentioned above have been
formed. Shoald there be another falling of the level a new set of
terraces would appear, just beneath the present shore line.
The theory formerly prevalent respecting the origin of terraces
supposes that the ocean was present to allow the gradual accumu-
lation of sand and gravel beneath its retiring waves. The onlj
objection to this view, proper to be mentioned at this stage of our
paper, is that if terraces were made all the way up to one hundred
feet there is no reason why others should not exist at twice and
thrice that elevation. It is the absence of these higher terraces that
led me to examine the surface geology of this region and to specu-
late whether this fact would not lead to the abandonment of the
oceanic theorv.
%■'
The true theory seems to be developed by studying the condition
of the neighboring valley of the Pemigewasset and its connection
with Winnipiseogee ; for we have already seen that forty feet
rise in the latter would carry its waters into the former valley, no
Squam Lake and River.
The Pemigewasset and Merrimac rivers make an inclined plane
B. KATURAL HI8T0KT. 129
from the height of about five hundred feet (the same with the lake)
at Plymouth to the ocean. The highest banks of sand of appar*
ently fluviatile origin connected with the stream are the following.
In most cases the measurements have been made with an aneroid
barometer and may be regarded as approximations only to the
truth.
HEIGHTS OF TBHRACES ABOTB
, " — ^
SIYBR. LAKE W. OCUAK.
Plymonth 184 121 e23
Ashland ? 154 121 622
Hew Hampton ? 860 811 812
N.SanborntOD 400 892 761
FrBDl:lij) 140 30 below 470
Concord 125 50 below 460
Manchester 60 to 110 (f&lls) 250 below ^50
Lawrence ' 80
Connected with tbese are a few others of interest.
Holdemess (tributary) 134 822 888
Principal terrace east of Plymouth 134 61 563
Height of rim between Squam and Winni- ) ^f. ...
, piseogee ( *" °*^
Water-shed in Ashland ? 186 158 654'
^Terraces in Belmont 170 150 650
Perhaps the following generalizations may be drawn from these
figures :
1. The highest level of sand or terrace descends rapidly from
Plymouth to the ocean and more rapidly than the river itself.
2. The terraces near the ocean are not so much elevated above
the river a» those higher up the stream.
3. There is higher sand in New Hampton than in Plymouth and
Holderness, farther north ; nevertheless a tributary in Holderness
holds about the same height, but this of itself does not necessarily
prove the presence of the Pemigewasset water at this level. The
sand is also greater in amount as well as height. It will be also
noticed that the New Hampton sand is one hundred and fifty-eight
feet higher than the Ashland water-shed leading to the lake, while
the Ashland sand is thirty-two feet lo.wer than this ridge. Why
then should the sand have accumulated in New Hampton higher
than this water-shed ? We should naturally expect the stream to
have gone over to the lake and carried the sand with it.
It seems clear that water must have gone to the lake through
this Ashland-Meredith valley, for that is the direct course of
the stream from north to south, and it may be that it carried sand
also, since the terrace does not rise so high at Ashland as below.
There is no detritus upon the lower side of the water-shed. The
valley is entirely devoid of all loose materials.
▲.A. A. 8. VOL. XXn. B. (9)
130 B. NATURi.L HISTORY.
Water at the height of eight hundred and twelve feet woold
also flow into Winnipiseogee through Squam, but would cany no
material with it, as the course is tortuous and northeasterly.
Inspection of a map will show a great bend in the Pemigewasset
just below Ashland. This may explain the unusual accumalstlon
of sand in New Hampton ; for when a river passes around a bend
there is always a deposition of sediment held in suspension. With
a powerful stream filling the valley, coming down from the north,
there would be an immense amount of sand which would be checked
by this point of land and deposited. The most noticeable mass
of sand in New Hampton is arranged much like a terminal moraine
just as might be expected upon this view.
4. The terraces upon Winnipiseogee River are quite different
from an}' upon the Pemigewasset. Above Belmont they do not
exceed fifteen feet in height. On the Mill Stream in the west cor-
ner of Belmont the terraces are six hundred and fifty feet above the
ocean and one hundred and seventy above the river and they are
continuous hence on either side to the Merrimac valley, while
the river almost uniformly flows over hard pan.
These facts afford the inference that these high terraces in Bel-
mont, Northfield and Sanborn ton, are made by the Pemigewasset
back water and not by the Winnipiseogee. It would result •from
this view that the outlet of the lake lay in some other direction
at the time of the formation of these higher terraces and that a
barrier kept back the river water from commingling with the lake.
The terraces agree nearly in height with the Ashland-Meredith
water-shed. If we suppose the waters of the Pemigewasset poured
freely into the Winnipiseogee basin through the Squam, Ashland
and the outlet avenues, at the height of one hundred and fifty or
one hundred and seventy-five feet, we can understand why the
main stream still went down the Merrimac, as the laud descended
more rapidly in that direction.
We conclude that the outlet made only small terraces, while
the upper sands must be referred to the high water of the Pemi-
gewasset. The connections through the several avenues would
not be such as to carry detritus to the still water of the lake.
5. In general, therefore, without pointing out further details, we
may refer the origin of the Merrimac terraces to the action of
the river alone without the necessary presence of the ocean. This
conclusion agrees with the generalizations of Prof. J. D. Dana,
B. NATURAL HISTOBT. 131
respecting the origin of river terraces. The fluviatile origin of
the Merrimac valley sands has been for many years a favorite
topic of conversation with Hon. S. N. Bell of Manchester, N. H.,
elected to this Association in 1853. It was in consequence of
suggestions from him that I was led to understand the proper
source of the Merrimac sands, and to compare them with the
scanty surface deposits about Winnipiseogee Lake: Mr. Bell also
accompanied me in exploring the borders of the lake.
Note upon the Cretaceous Strata op Long Island. By C. H.
Hitchcock, of Hanover, N. H.
Upon a geological map of the United States recently prepared
by myself, with the cooperation of W. P. Blake for the western
portion, and published in the third volume of the " Report of the
Ninth Census," I have represented the north shore of Long
Island as Cretaceous. *' The American Journal of Science and
Arts'* in noticing this map (IH. Vol. vi, p. 66) recommends cer-
tain improvements for future editions ; one of which is, " to take
away the green color, which means Cretaceous, from the whole of
the north side of Long Island, no facts making the region Creta-
ceous."
With attention thus pointedly drawn to the subject I have re-
called the reasons for representing this portion as Cretaceous.
Notwithstanding . the evidence is so probable in its favor, it is
surprising to observe that mine is the first published map that
colors this area correctly. It is represented either as Tertiary or
alluvial upon the geological map of the " New York Geologists,'*
1842, upon ray father's and Marcou's map of the United States,
1853, upon H. D. Rogers' map, 1858, and upon Sir W. E. Logan's
map of Canada and the adjacent portions of the United States,
1868, the latter part having been prepared under the supervision of
Prof. James Hall.
W. W. Mather, in his report upon the Geology of the First
District of New York, pp. 272, 273, states that what he has called
132 B. NATURAL BISTORT.
" Long Island Division " must be Cretaceous. The following is
his language : ^' It follows from these facts, that the lower part of
the Long Island Division, embracing the white, mottled, red and
pyritous ciajs, with their associated beds of gravel, conglom-
erate and sand containing lignite, are geologically equivalent to
the beds in New Jersey called by Prof. H. D. Rogers the ** Potter's
clay formation," and to the lower division called by others the
"greens and formation," "Ferruginous sand formation, Creta-
ceous formation," etc. ; and that the overlying loams and clajs
containing the green earth with associated sands, gravel, etc., are
equivalent to the green marl deposit, or to the tertiary, or perhaps
to both those periods."
Prof. H. D. Rogers makes no reference to these rocks in his
New Jersey Report. Nor does Prof. G. H. Cook, the present
State Geologist, though he favored me with a letter affirming his
belief in the Cretaceous age of this formation. An inspection
of his map shows this division, called " Plastic clays," coursing
from Wilmington, Del., to the vicinity of Philadelphia and Tren-
ton, and thence direct to Staten Island. The strike prolonged a
short distance impinges upon the west end of the Long Island
Division. Hence fVom geographical distribution we should expect
to find this Plastic clay prolonged into Long Island.
Furthermore, both the Plastic clay and the Long Island Divi-
sion contain much lignite, and are fresh water accumulations,
while the Tertiaries are of marine origin. This feature will sep-
arate the rocks under consideration from everything else.
I have information that E. Lewis, Jr., of Brooklyn, L. I., has
recently discovered Cretaceous fossils in this group ; which will
soon be described in the Popular Science Monthly. Dr. Newberry
has also discovered Cretaceous plants upon the island. I may add
that I delivered a lecture^ in the winter of 1869, before the Long
Island Historical Society upon the " Geological History of Long
Island," in which the Cretaceous age of this clay and sand deposit
was affirmed to be as stated above. The essential facts of this
lecture were stated also before the Lyceum of Natural History in
New York, the same week.
Note.— While this paper Is passing through the press, I observe that Prof. Dana hat
modified the statement quoted above in the October namber of the Journal, to the effect
that the Beport of Prof. Mather affords a sufficient reason for the representation of tM
Cretaceous upon Long Island.
B. VATOBJlL histobt. 183
ARTIFICIAL Shell Heaps op Fresh-water Mollusks. By C. A.
White, of Branswick, Me.
The characters of the Kjoekkenmoedding or shell ^eaps of
marine coasts, both of Europe and America, arc too well known
to need explanation in this connection, but the fact that similar
accnmulations are common upon the banks of the interior rivers of
the United States is not so well known. It is true, however, that
Atwater, Brinton and Wyman have at diflTerent times published
notices of artificial accumulations of the shells of fresh-water mol-
lusks. Although Professor Wyman's observations were made with
his usual great accuracy and care, the accumulations he described
were so near the sea-coast (in Massachusetts and Florida) that
the report he gave of them did not seem to attract that distinctive
attention which they merited. Consequently it was then hardly
suspected that the former aborigines of North America made
habitual use of fresh- water mollusks for food.
Observations made by the writer, during the five years just
passed, along the Mississippi and its tributaries, in the states of
Minnesota, Iowa, Illinois, Missouri and Indiana, establish a knowl-
edge of the fact that shell heaps of the kind referred to are very
common ; and that the mollusks, whose shells are thus accumulated,
belong almost wholly to the family Naiades and mainly to the
numerous species of Unio prevalent in those waters.
In general character these fresh-water shell heaps resemble
those of marine coasts but they are usually not so extensive.
They vary in extent from a few bushels of shells to accumulations
from fifty to a hundred yards long, four or five yards broad and
from a few inches to a yard or two in thickness. Thej^ are usually
located upon the immediate bank of the river, sometimes a little
below and sometimes above the reach of the highest floods.
Although many of these heaps have been examined so far as to
determine their real character, only a few of therii have been exam-
ined with care.
The three most interesting of these were found near the villages
of Keosauqua, Sabula and Bellevue, Iowa ; the first upon the
bank of Des Moines River and' the other two upon that of the
Mississippi.
At the first named locality the shell heap rests upon the ordi-
nan^ alluvial soil of the river bank and consists of shells of
134 B. NATURAL HISTORT.
about a dozen species of Unio intermixed with silt derived
from the water of the river at the time of its high floods, which
at intervals of a greater or" less number of years are known to
cover the spot. All the species of mollusks found in the heap
are now living in the river close by, just as they were living,
without doubt, when the heap was formed. As they could be
obtained only at the time of low water it was not necessary to
carry them to higher ground.
Upon digging into the heap, pieces of limestone from the cliff
near by were found laid together, with evident traces of fire upon
them and with charcoal and fragments of rude pottery scattered
about them. Sharp flint flakes, flint an*owheads and one green-
stone axe were also found in* the heap.
The pottery was rudely ornamented by irregular and interrupted
parallel lines made while the clay was soft, by some pointed instru-
ment and by having been also impressed at different places 'by
twisted strings. It is composed of coarse commdn clay intermixed
with some sand and slightly burnt.
The bones of the common deer ( Cervus Virginiana) and snapping
turtle {Chelydra serpentina) were also found intermixed with the
shells. The long bones of the deer were all broken and split in
the usual manner, doubtless for the purpose of obtaining the mar-
row.
At Sabula ten species of Unio were recognized in the heaps,
together with bones of the common deer, wild goose {Bemicla
Canadensis)^ snapping turtle, soft-shelled turtle (Trionyx ferox)^
cat-fish (Pivielodus)^ sheep's-head (Atnblodon gninniens) and a few
other undetermined fragments.
Fragments of the usual coarse pottery were also found in the
heaps here, the clay of which was intermixed with comminuted
shells. One piece of it was ornamented by a spiral groove of
several coils, making a figure of oval outline. The same species
of Unio, and in about the same proportionate numbers as are found
in the heaps, ma}^ now be obtained living from the river close by.
The deer is still occasionally found near there, and the ponds and
bayous still afford the same species of aquatic birds, reptiles and
fishes, the remains of which are found in the heaps.
At Bellevue eleven species of Unio and one of Alasmodonta
were recognized in the heaps, all of which still live in the adjacent
waters of the Mississippi, In these heaps were also found flint
B. KATUBAL BISTORT. 135
arrowheads, pieces of pottery the clay of which had been mixed
with comminuted shells, and also bones of the deer and buffalo {Bos
Americanus).
The shell heaps both at Sabula and Bellevue are smaller than
many others, but they afford some peculiarly interesting charac-
teristics. These consist in traces of rude methods of cooking the
unios and other articles of food, practised by those who accumu-
lated the shell heaps.
In the argillaceous soil upon the banks of the river numerous
small pits were dug, about half a yard wide and of like depth.
These are now found closely filled with shells among which are
fragments of the bones of such animals as were also used for food.
The sides and bottom of the pits, as well as some of the shells
and bones they contain, show traces .of fire and pieces of charcoal
were also found in some of them. The earth had evidently been
heated by building a fire in the pits, the mollusks and other food
then placed in them, then covered and the contents allowed to
cook by the retained heat. The fragments of pottery found indi-
cate that their vessels were of small size, and they were, in conse-
quence probably driven to this and other rude methods of cookery.
Such a method of cooking must have been very imperfect, and we
find that the two valves of many of the unios found in the
pits still remain together, the mollusks having never been eaten,
indicating that the cooking was insufficient or that the supply of
such food was too abundant to require economy.
All the species of vertebrates, the remains of which are found
in the fresh-water shell heaps, are occasionally or habitually used
as food by civilized man, but not so with the fresh- water mollusks.
The latter were, however, the chosen food of the people who accu-
mulated the heaps. This is' evident from the fact, that they are
not obtainable at the time of greatest scarcity of food for savage
men, namely, in winter and early spring, but on the contrary
they are more easil}*^ obtained at times when other food is j^lentiful.
That other excellent food was obtained and eaten with the mol-
lusks is proven by the presence of its remains, as stated, in the
shell heaps. Those who accumulated the heaps seem to have had
little or no choice among the difierent species of Uuio, since their
relative abundance is about the same in the heaps and in the adja-
cent waters, where they are now living. In short they seem to
have eaten all mollusks indiscriminately, the few gasteropod shells
186
B. NATURiX HISTOBT.
(Melantho) found in the heaps being in about the same rektiye
abundance with those now living. No pipes nor fragments of
any have been found in any of the heaps.
The following table shows the species of moUusks and other
animals, the remains of which were found in the heaps and pits at
Eeosauqua, Sabula and Bellevue.
Species Found in the Shell Heaps of Keosauqua,
Sabula and Bellkvue.
Sfecibs.
Keosauqua.
Sabula.
Bkllktub.
MdmmeUs,
Bos Americanns,
•
Cerrus Yirginianus,
*
•
Birds.
Bernicla Canadensis, ....
BepiUes,
Chelydra serpentina, ....
•
Trionyx ferox,
Fiihes.
Pimelodiis sp., .......
Amblodon ginnniens, ....
Melantho (Paladina) Integra, 5ay,
•
•
Unio aesopus, <7reen, ....
*
*'■ anodontoides, Xea, . . .
«
•
** crassus, Say;
*
•
'* ebenus, Leoy
•
" gibbosos, Barnes, , . .
•
** nodosus, Barnes, . . .
*
•
MoOuiki. ,
** oratns, .Say,
*
•
" pllcatnfl, Sapy
*
•
•
** pastalosns, Lett, ....
*' rectos, Lamarkf ....
*
«
•
" mgosus, Barnes, ....
«.
•
" tnberculatus, Barnes, . .
*
<< nndatns, Barnes, ....
*
•
« yentricosus, JBam««, . .
«
•
The important question now arises, By what people were these
shell heaps accumulated and what is their age ? Those of the
interior are doubtless contemporaneous with those of the coast
and all contained in, or connected with, both indicates that they
were formed by people no farther advanced in civilization than
those were who accumulated the Kjoekkenmoeddings in Europe,
which are usaally referred to the Stone age. TVe know also that
this was the real condition of the greater part of the savage tribes
of North America at the time of its discovery by Columbus.
Especially was that the condition of the tribes that occupied the
B. NATURAL HISTORY. 137
region in which the shell heaps referred to in this memoir are
found, as well as of those that then occupied the Atlantic coast.
Therefore there can be little doubt that the greater part, if not the
whole of the shell heaps of those regions, were formed by the peo-
ple of the tribes referred to and their descendants, even down to
the occupancy of the land by white people. It is true that the
mounds of the probably more ancient '* mound builders" are often
found in considerable numbers in the immediate vicinity of the
shell heaps of the interior, and it is probable that that people may
have commenced some of these accumulations, but we have thus far
no evidence of it. No copper, nor other metal, has been found in
connection with the shell heaps, nor anything else that suggests
their origin by people different from those who occupied the coun-
try at the time of the discovery by Columbus.
From the fact that the more savage people change so little as
regards their habits of life, very little evidence of the lapse of
time can be gathered from the remains of their rude arts. There-
fore it is difficult to form a definite opinion in regard to the age of
these American heaps. The entire absence of all articles of civil- .
ized manufacture, even those that savages most eagerly secure,
seems to be very good evidence, however, that they are older
than the date of the discovery. At Bellevue, Sabula and the
Lower Rapids of the Mississippi also, oak and elm trees from
two to two and a half feet in diameter were found growing in the
soil that had accumulated upon the shell heaps. By counting the
rings of annual growth of the tre^s, the age of the heaps upon
which they grow is estimated to be not less than two hundred years.
The condition of the shells in different heaps varied very much
according as the soil covering them was clayey or sandy, the pres-
ervation being better in the former. No evidence has been obtained
that any perceptible geological change has taken place since the
accumulation of the fresh- water shell heaps began, except the usual
washing away of the river banks such as sometimes takes place
within a very few years.
The habitats, also, of the moliusks and other animals whose
remains are found in the heaps, except such as has resulted from
the occupation of the country by white men, remains unchanged.
Therefore the conclusion as to their age is, that while some of
the heaps may be, and probably are, very ancient, there has yet
been no evidence obtained to prove them more than a few hundred
years old.
138 b. natural uistort.
On the Geological Relations of the Iron Ores op Nova
Scotia, By J. W. Dawson, of Montreal, Canada.
The iron ores of Nova Scotia, long neglected, have recently
begun to attract the attention of capitalists to an extent in some
degree commensarate with their importance. The magnitude and
variety of the deposits, the great richness of the ores, their prox-
imity to the Atlantic and to great deposits of coal, are all features
which give them very great economic value, and must eventually
cause them to take no small part in contributing to the iron
supply of the world. My purpose in the present paper is, with
the aid of recent researches in which I have been occupied, to give
a concise summary of the geological position and mode of occur-
rence of the principal deposits, and more especially of those facts
which have been developed since the publication of my "Acadian
Geology."
If we arrange these deposits in the first place under the two
heads of Beds conformable to the stratification and Veins^ we
shall find that the former occupy three distinct geological horizons
— that of the Lower Helderberg or Ludlow in the upper part of
the Silurian, that of the Oriskany at the base of the Devonian,
and that of the Lower and Middle Carboniferous. The latter
occur in altered rocks, which may be assumed to be of Silurian
age, in the Lower Carboniferous, and at the junction of these two
groups of rocks. We may shortly consider the deposits of these
several kinds and ages in their order.
I. Bedded Okes.
(1) Great Hematite Bed of the Lower Helderberg Series. This,
in so far as at present known, is most extensively developed in
the vicinity of the east branch of the East River of Pictou, and
on the upper part of Sutherland's River. Here the rocks which
rise unconformably from beneath the Carboniferous beds of the
Pictou coal-field consist, in great part, of gray and olive slates,
usually coarse and unevenly bedded, and with occasional calca-
reous bands, holding the characteristic fossils of the "Arisaig
group," a series in Nova Scotia equivalent to the Lower Helder-
berg of American geologists, though in its specific forms more
nearly allied to the English Ludlow than to groups of this age on
the great inland plateau of America. These beds are affected with
B. NATUKAL HISTORY. 189
slaty cleavages, highly inclined, much faulted, and folded in
abrupt anticlinals, so that their detailed arrangement has not yet
been satisfactorily traced. The great ore-band, which forms one
of the most conspicuous marks for unravelling their complexities,
has. been traced mainly along two distinct lines of outcrop, both
somewhat curved and broken, seeming to lie on the opposite sides
of ad anticlinal axis. It has also been recognized in two other
localities where it must come up on distinct lines of outcrop, the
precise relation of which to the others has not yet been ascertained.
The ore bed is accompanied by a thick band of olivaceous slates,
and beneath this there appears hard ferruginous quartzite which
Dr. Honeyman compares to the Medina sandstone. Lower than
this and possibly unconformable to it are black and greenish slates
with bands of quartzite and soft chloritic and nacreous schists
which as yet have afforded no fossils. They are associated with
hard beds or masses of rock rising into some of the highest emi-
nences, and which have usually been described as trap, but which
seem to consist for the most paH of an indurated slaty breccia or
conglomerate,' corresponding very nearly in character to the typi-
cal graywacke of the older German geologists. These rocks may
be of middle Silurian age, though possibly in part older, and we
shall meet with them again in connection with the great vein of
specular iron.
The ore bed, where most largely developed, attains a thickness
of about thirty feet, an4 in places where it has been opened up
by exploratory works, it has been found to afford from ten to
twenty feet in thickness of goo;l ore. This ore is a red hematite,
sometimes compact and laminated, but more frequently of an
oolitic character occasioned by the arrangement of the peroxide of
iron in minute concretions enveloping grains of sand. By the
increase of these siliceous grains it passes, in the poorer portions,
into a sort of ferruginous sandstone. Similar beds of fossiliferous
ore are well known to occur in the Clinton group of New York
and Pennsylvania, and Prof. Hall informs me that they are found
also in the Lower Helderberg series of New York.
Along the different lines of outcrop above referred to, this bed
has been traced for several miles, and being of a hard and resist-
ing character, it rises into some of the higher elevations of the
country. Though not one of the richest ores of the district, its
great quantity and accessibility render it highly important for
140 B. NATURAL HISTORY.
practical purposes. The anal3'^8e8 made of it show a percentage
pf metal varying ft-om 43 to 54 per cent. The foreign matter is
principally silica, and the proportions of phosphorus and sulphur
are small — one of the specimens analyzed affording none whatever,
another '22 phosphoric acid and '29 sulphur. These analj-^a
were made at the instance of Mr. E. A. Prentice, now organizing
a company to work this and other deposits in the district. The
principal exposures of this bed are distant only twelve miles from
the great collieries of the East River of Pictou, and less than ten
miles from the Pictou and Halifax railway. This deposit was
first described by Mr. R. Brown, in Haliburton's History of "Nova
Scotia," 1829, and subsequently by the wi'iter in "Acadian Geol-
ogy." More recently exploratory works have been carried on and
a practical report made by Mr. G. M. Dawson, Associate of the
School of Mines, London ; and the bed has been traced and col-
lections of its fossils made by Mr. D. Frazer of Springville.
(2) Hematite and Magnetic Iron of Nictaux and Moose River,
This deposit takes us to the other extremity of Nova Scotia, and
brings us a stage higher in geological time, or to the period of the
Oriskany Sandstone. It would indeed appear that the conditions
of ore deposit, so marked in eastern Nova Scotia in the upper Si-
lurian, were continued in the western part of the province into the
Devonian. In many specimens of the Nictaux ore the chief ap-
parent difference as compared with that of Pictou is in the con-
tained species of fossils.
Where I have examined this bed, it appears to be six feet thick
and enclosed in slaty rocks not dissimilar from those associated
with the Silurian ore of Pictou. Recent explorations at Nictaux
are said to have developed extensions of this deposit ; but I have
no details of them. As rocks of the Arisaig group are known to
underlie the Nictaux beds, it is not impossible that additional
beds of ore may be found in these. The normal condition of the
iron of the Nictaux bed is that of peroxide ; but locally it has
lost a portion of its ox^'gen and has become magnetic. This I
believe to be a consequence of local metamorphism connected
with the immense granite dikes which traverse the Devonian rocks
of this region.
The Nictaux ore is more highly fossiliferous than tliat of Pictou,
and contains a larger proportion of phosphate of lime. In the
B. NATUBAL HISTORY. 141
attempts hitherto made to work this ore, the distance from coal
has been a main disadvantage, but the construction of the
Windsor and Annapolis railway has diminished this. The Devo-
nian beds holding this bed are described in "Acadian Geology."
An analysis of a specimen made many years ago gave 55 per cent,
of Iron.
(3) Bedded Ores of the Carboniferous System. The most re-
markable of these is a bed of crystalline spathic iron or siderit^, oc-
curring in the Lower Carboniferous series, near Sutherland's River
in the County of Pictou. As described by Mr. G. M. Dawson, who
prosecuted works of exploration in it last year, it is a conformable
bed, occurring in the Lower Carboniferous red sandstones, and
varying from six feet six inches to ten feet six inches in thickness.
It is accompanied with smaller bands of the same mineral, and at
no great vertical distance from it is a bed of gypsum. Its mode
of occurrence is on the whole not dissimilar from that of the non-
fossiliferous sub-crystalline limestones which occur in some parts
of the Lower Carboniferous series associated with the gypsum.
This ore is a true spathic iron, granular and crystalline in texture,
and, when unweathered, of a light gray color. It affords from 42
to 43 per cent, of iron and contains from two to eight per cent, of
manganese. This bed is only four miles distant from the "Vale"
collierv, and is intended to be worked in association with the
hematite already described, and with the other ores on the East
River of Pictou possessed by the same proprietors. From the
Report of Mr. Andrews on the second geological district of Ohio,
it would appear that similar beds, though on a smaller scale, occur
in the Lower Carboniferous series of that State. In Nova Scotia
this bed is at present altogether unique.
Clay ironstones occur in many parts of the Nova Scotia coal-
field. In the workings of the main seam of the Albion mines,
Pictou, considerable quantities of nodular black ironstone are ex-
tracted, and will, no doubt, be utilized. In the beds under the
main seam there are also clays rich in ironstone concretions.
Beds with ironstone balls also occur in the measures north of the
New Glascow conglomerate, and one of these is remarkable for
the fact that the nodules were found by Dr. Harrington to contain
nuclei of blende, a mineral otherwise unknown in the carbonife-
rous of Nova Scotia. No attention has yet been given to these
142 B. KA.TURAL HISTORY.
ores as sources of iron, but it may be anticipated that a demand
for them will arise in connection with the richer ores in the older
formations.
II. Veins of Iron Ork.
(1) Great Specular Iron Veins of the Silurian Slates and Quart-
zites. In a paper on the metamorphic and metalliferous rocks of
eastern Nova Scotia in 1848,* I mentioned the fact that the in-
land series of metamorphic rocks (bounding the coast series now
known as the gold-bearing series) believed to be of Upper or
Middle Silurian age, abound in veins of specular iron, associated
with spathic iron and ferruginous dolomite, and occasionally with
metallic sulphides, and I described some of these deposits. In
the country eastward of Lochaber Lake, where this same forma-
tion occurs, not only are numerous small veins of specular iron
and carbonate of iron found in it, but a rich vein of copper pyrites,
noticed in *' Acadian Geolog}-," has recently been opened up and
found to be very valuable.
In most parts of the region these iron veins, tjiough very nu-
merous, are of trifling thickness : but in two localities they are
known to attain to gigantic dimensions, rendering them of great
economic importance.
The earliest known of these was the great vein of the Acadia
mine in the Cobequid mountains, discovered by the late Mr. G.
Duncan, and on which I reported in 1845.. Ttiese hills consist on
their southern side of parallel bands of olive and black slate with
beds of quartzite, all very highly inclined- The iron vein is a
great irregular fissure, extending for many miles pai'allel to the
bedding, and apparently accompanying a band of quartzite. It
contains in addition to crystalline and often micaceous 8i)ecular
iron and magnetic iron, large quantities of a rich earthy red ore,
which, from the crystalline planes which it presents, would seem
to have been a carbonate of iron decomposed and oxidized.
These iron ores are associated with large quantities of a crystal-
line ferruginous dolomite, allied in composition to ankerite. This
may be regarded as the veinstone to which the iron ores are sub-
ordinate, and which in the thinner parts of the vein occupies
nearly its whole breadth. At the outcrop of the vein it is in some
♦ Journal of Geologioal Society of London.
B. NATURAL HISTORY. 143
places weathered to a great depth into a soft and very pure yellow
ochre. Small quantities of sulphides of iron and copper and of
sulphate of barium are occasionally present. In addition to the
above, which may be regarded as the primary contents of the vein,
there occur in some parts of it secondary deposits of concretionary
limonite, which have of late years afforded a very largo part of
the ore smelted by the Acadia Company.
In some places the thickness of this vein has been found to be
150 feet, with intercalated masses of rock, but it is very irregular,
diminishing occasionally to mere strings of ankerite. It is re-
markable that in the Cobequid mountains, which are cut by
transverse ravines to the depth of about 300 feet, the vein does
not appear to be well developed in the bottom of the ravines, but
only in the intervening heights. At first I was disposed to ac-
count for this by supposing that the deposit is wedge-shaped,
diminishing downward ; but I have more recently been inclined
to believe that the large development of the vein is dependent on
differences in tlie containing rocks which have rendered them
harder and more resisting at the points of such greater develop-
ments.
With respect to the age of these beds, they must be older than
the Lower Helderberg rocks which, both at the eastern end of
the Cobequids and at the East River of Pictou, rest upon them.
They are on the other hand probably newer than the auriferous
primordial rocks of the Atlantic coast. As they have afforded no
fossils their age does not at present seem capable of more precise
definition. With regard to the filling of the vein fissures, this,
if coeval with the metamorphism of the containing beds or im-
mediately subsequent thereto, would fall between the period of
the lower Devonian and that of the lower Carboniferous, or within
the Devonian age. The denudation connected with the Lower
Carboniferous conglomerates and the fragments contained in these
conglomerates, seem to imply that the ore-bearing slates were then
in the same condition as at present. On the other hand the Lower
Carboniferous sandstones themselves contain in places narrow
veins of specular iron, which also occurs, as well as magnetic iron,
in the fissures of the Triassic trap.
On the west side of the East River of Pictou, there occur rocks
precisely similar to those of the Cobequid range, of which indeed
they may be regarded as an eastern continuation, and including
144
B. NATURAL HISTORT.
an iron vein which mnst be regarded as the equivalent of that of
the Acadia mine, which it resembles perfectly in mineral character
and mode of occurrence, differing only in the greater proportionate
prevalence of the specular ore.*'
In New Lairg, a few miles from Glengarry Station, the moat
western portion of this vein known to me contains much ankerite,
with strings of specular iron'; and in large loose pieces there are
indications also of red ore which is not visible in place. Farther
to the eastward on the west branch of the East River of Pictou,
there appears a band of quartzite thirty feet thick filled with veins
of Limonite ; but specular ore is not found at this place. Still
farther to the eastward and near the east branch of the East River
the specular vein attains a very large development, showing in
some places a thickness of twenty feet of pure ore. Its course is
S. 60° to 70° E. or neai-ly coincident with that of the containing
beds ; and, as on the Cobequids, its attitude is nearly vertical and
it appears to be thickest and richest in the rising grounds. In one
very deep ravine the bed of quartzite usually associated with the
ore seemed to be wanting, and the vein was represented by innu-
merable strings of ankerite, forming a network in the slate. As
in the Cobequid vein, masses of magnetic ore are occasionally
mixed with the specular. To complete the resemblance, loJbse
masses of limonite are found in the vicinit}"^ of the vein, giving
rise to the expectation that a vein or veins of this mineral may be
found to be .associated with the specular ore. The ores of this
vein in Pictou county are nearly pure peroxide of iron, containing
from sixty-four to sixty-nine per cent, of metal, and can be ob-
tained an great quantity from the outcrop of the vein where it
appears on the rising grounds.
Ideal Section^ ahowing the general relations of the Iron Ores of the East Rwtr of Pictou.
1. Groat bed of Red ilcmntite.
3. Vein of Specular Iron.
8. Vein of Limonite.
(a) Older Slate and Qnartzite series, with Trap, etc.
(6) Lower Helderberg formation and otlier Upper Silnrian rocks,
(c) Lower Carboniferous of the East Branch of East River.
*Thi8 vein was first described by the li^e Mr. Hartley in the Report of the Geo>
logical Survey of Canada, 1871.
B. NATURAL HISTORY. 145
(2) Limonite veins of the East River of Pictou. The valley of
the East River of Pictou above Springville is occupied by a nar-
row tongue of Lower Carboniferous rocks, having at one side the
slates containing the ore last mentioned, and on the other a more
disturbed country already referred to as containing the great Lower
Helderberg bed of hematite. It is highly probable that the river
valley follows the line of an old pre-carboniferous line of fracture,
denuded and partially filled with the Lower Carboniferous beds,
including large deposits of limestone and gypsum. At the line of
junction of the carboniferous and older rocks on the east side of the
river, occurs the great limonite vein of the district, forming a vein
of contact of exceeding richness and value. It follows the sinuosi-
ties of the margin of the older rocks, and varies in thickness and
quality in different places, apparently richest opposite the softer
slates where these are in contact with a black manganesian lime-
stone, which here as in many other parts of Nova Scotia forms
one of the lowe'st members of the Carboniferous series. The ore is
sometimes, massive but oftener in fibrous concretionary balls of
large size, associated with quantities of smaller concretionary or
"gravel"' ore. In some places the ore of iron is associated with
concretions or crystalline masses of pyrolusitc and manganite.
Denuding agencies in the post-pliocene period have removed
«
portions of the vein and its wells, and have deeply covered the
surface in many places with debris. Hence the outcrop of the
rein was originally marked by a line of masses of the ore too
heavy to be removed by water. From the analogy of the other
veins to be mentioned in the sequel I was led to believe that the
source of these masses would be found in the Lower Carboniferous
rocks, and so stated the matter in the first edition of "Acadian
Geology" (1855). Subsequently, however, the vein having been
exposed in sitUy and one wall proving to consist of metamorphic
slate, it was described by Dr. Honej^man and by Mr. Hartley of
the Geological Survey as,a vein in the Silurian rocks. Still more
recently exploratory works conducted by Mr. G. M. Dawson, with
the aid of Mr. D. Fraser, have clearly proved that the vein follows
the junction of the two formations. The ore of this vein is of the
finest quality, affording from sixty-two to sixty-five per cent, of
metallic iron. The more productive portions of this vein, as well
as of the specular vein in its vicinity, are in the hands of the par-
ties alrea<1y referred to, in connection with the hematite bed.
A. A. A. S. VOL. XXn. B. (10)
146 B. NATURAL BISTORT.
(3) Limonite of Shuhenacadie^ Old Bams and Brool^dd, At
the mouth of the Shubcnacadie River, the lowest Carboniferoas
bed seen is a dark-colored lapainated limestone, in all prob-
ability the equivalent of the manganesian limestone already
referred to, as well as of the manganiferous limestone of Walton,
the plumbiferous limestone of the Stewiacke, and the lower black
limestone of Plaister Cove, Cape Breton.* This limestone, and
the sandstones and marls overlying it, are traversed by large fis-
sure veins, holding a confused aggregation of iron ores and other
minerals, as limonite, hematite, gothite, sulphate of barium, cal-
cite, etc., some of which appear sufficiently large and rich for
profitable exploration. In the same formations, farther to the
eastward, at Old Bams, similar veins are found to be largely de-
veloped, and at Brookfield, fifty miles east of the Shubenacadie,
and apparently near the junction of the Lower Cai'boniferous with
older rocks, large surface masses of limonite appear to indicate an
extensive deposit of similar nature, but which has' not, I believe,
been yet so far opened up as to establish its practical importance.
(4) Iron Veins of the Triassic Trap. Veins of magnetite and
specular iron occur in several localities in the great beds of trap
associated with the Triassic red sandstones of the Bay of Fandy^
but so far as known these ores are insignificant in quantity.
It will be observed from the above notes, that while the iron
vein of the Cobequid hills is at no great distance from the coal-
field of Cumberland, with which it has now railway connection,
the still larger and more important deposits of Pictou are very
near to the extensive collieries of that district, and to railway and
water communication, so that every facility appears to exist for
their profitable exploration, and it may be anticipated that they
will soon be rendered available for the supply of iron of superior
quality, more especially to meet the large and increasing demand
of the Dominion of Canada.
* See Acadian Geology.
B. NATURAL BISTORT. 147
The Proximate Future op Niagara ; in Review of Prof. Tyn-
dall's Lecture thereon. By George W. Hollet, of
Niagara Falls, N. Y.
The distinguished scientist whose writings have charmed so
many readers, and whose instructive and brilliantly illustrated lec-
tures, during the last winter, charmed so many listeners — Prof.
John Tyndall — in the closing paragraph of a lecture on Niagara,
delivered before the Royal Institute after his return to England)
speaks of the future of Niagara in these words: ''In conclusion
we may say a word regarding the proximate future of Niagara.
At the rate of excavation assigned to it by Sir Charles Lyell,
namely, a foot a year, five thousand years will carry the Horse-
shoe Fall far higher than Goat Island. As the gorge recedes
• * * it will totally drain the American branch of the river,
the channel of which will in due time become cultivatable land.
• * * To those who visit Niagara five millenniums hence I
leave the verification of this prediction."
With these words for a text it is proposed to remark upon some
points in the lecture which, as printed in the June number of the
"Popular Science Monthly," contains thirty-nine paragraphs,
taking them in reverse order, or from the end to the beginning.
Let us first inquire how Sir Charles Lycll arrived at the con-
clusion that the rate of excavation was a foot a year. In his
" Travels in the United States," in 1841-2, vol. i, page 27, he
says : —
"Mr. Bakewell calculated that, in the forty years preceding
1830, the Niagara had been going back at the rate of about a
yard annually, but I conceive that one foot per year would be a
much more probable conjecture"
Thus we discover that the rate suggested was the result of a
conjecture founded on a guess. From certain oral and written
statements which the writer has been able to collect, he has, as
elsewhere recorded,* made an estimate of the time required to
excavate the present chasm-channel from Lewiston upward. In
the last hundred and seventy-five years, certain masses of rock
have been known to fall from the water-covered surface of the
• In a work quoted by Prof. TyndaU entitied ** Niagara, its History and Geology,
iBctdeDts and Poetry."
148 B. NATURAL HISTOBT,
cataract, and a Btatement as to the surface measure of each mass
was made. In using these data it is supposed that each break
extended to the bottom of the precipice, although the whole maas
did not fall at once. Of course the substructure must have been
worn out before the superstructure could have gone down. Fa-
ther Hennepin, in his well known description of the locality as
he saw it in 1678-80, says, "One may go down (on the Canada
side) so far as the bottom of this terrible gulph. The Author of
this discovery was down there the more narrowly to observe the
fall of these prodigious cascades. From hence we could dis-
cover a spot of ground (?) which lay under the fall of water
which is to the east (American Fall) big enough for four coaches
to drive abreast without being wet." Seven years later the Baron
La Ronton, in reference it is supposed to the Canada side, says,
" Between the surface of the water that shelves off prodigiously,
and the foot of the precipice, three men may cross in abreast
without further damage than a sprinkling of some few drops of
water." We cannot assign less than twenty-four feet space to
the " four coaches " moving abreast. The projection at the west-
erly end of the water-covered surface of Table Rock has diminished
but little, siuce three men could now go under the sheet abreast
if they had a proper footing, whereas the over-hang on the Amer-
ican side has almost entirely fallen, since there is now but a slight
projection there of the surface rock. The huge pile of lai^
bowlders now lying at the foot of the precipice indicates the same
result. Authentic accounts of similar abrasions are the following,
namely : in 1818 a mass one hundred and sixty feet long by sixty
in width ; in 1828 and 29 two smaller masses nearly equal in the
aggregate to the last. Also in 1828 a huge mass, the top sur-
face of which was called half an acre. In 1850 there fell a
smaller mass about forty feet long and ten feet wide ; in 1852 a
triangular mass the base of which was forty feet and its altitude
three hundred, extending south from Goat Island out beyond the
Terrapin Tower, and in 1871, from the west side of the inner curve
of the Horseshoe, another piece about ten feet by forty. Here
we have some proximate data on which to base our calculations.
In addition to these it is supposed that there have been abrasions
by piecemeal that were not noticed and that equalled all the
others.
Combining all these minor masses into one grand mass, and
B. KATURAL BISTORT. 149
• omitting fractions, "we find we have a magnificent bowlder con-
taining twelve million cubic feet of rock. If this were spread
over a snrface one thousand feet wide and one hundred and sixty
feet deep, the average width though less than the average height
of the falls below the feriy, it would cover it to the depth of
seventy-six feet. This for one hundred and seventy-five years is
four inches per year. At this rate to cut back six miles would
occupy seventy-two thousand years, or twelve thousand years for
a single mile, a mere shadow of time when compared with the age
of the coralline limestone over which the water fiows. So, if our
data are reasonably correct, more than twice as many millenniums
as Prof. Tyndall has named will be consumed before his predic-
tion can be fulfilled.
The next point in our text relates to the '^ entire drainage of
the American branch of the Niagara River the channel of which
in due time will become cultivatable land." A consideration of
some facts connected with the physical features of the river,
which his short visit doubtless prevented Prof. Tyndall from as-
certaining, will compel us to put less faith in this prediction than
in the one we have just considered. They are as follows: the
surface of the water at Gill Creek, two miles up stream, is, by
actaal survey, fifty-two feet higher than the highest point of the
falls below. The river just above the mouth of Gill Creek is
twenty feet deep. Hence the bottom line of the river there is
thirty-two feet higher than the top of the American Fall. It fol-
lows that if this fall shall ever reach Gill Creek and the bed-rock
shall prove snfllciently strong to maintain its position, the fall
will be about fifty feet higher than it is now.
Secondly, there stretches up from the head of Goat Island,
ahout three-fourths of a mile, a rock bar, having about the same
snrface level as the bed-rock of the island itself. Undoubtedly
it was once covered with soil and formed a portion of the island.
This bar projects above the foot of Grass Island which lies about
midway between it and the American shore. Toward the Can-
ada shore, and near the centre of the river, is another bar composed
of rock, bowlders and gravel about the same length as the last,
and stretching much farther up stream. These two bars form, as
it were, a partition separating the currents flowing down from the
channels between Navy and Grand islands and between this last
and the American shore. This is one of the finest reaches in the
160 B. NATURAL HISTORY.
upper Niagara. It is about three miles in width and flows on
with a strong but unruffled current until it reaches the first break
in the rapids above the falls. It is divided practically into three
channels of nearly uniform depth, the difference in elevation
between the two sides of the river having disappeared by the ris-
ing of the dip of the bed-rock. The first channel comes from the
south, between the Canadian shore and Navy Island ; the second
and deepest from between this island and Grand Island, and the
third from between Grand Island and the American shore. The
water in the first channel, except in floods, passes down the Can-
ada side. The other two channels are more or less blended
and pass partly over the Canadian and partly over the American
Fall. As has been before noticed, the rock bar stretching up from
the head of Goat Island reaches above the foot of Grass Island.
The channel inside of and next to Grass Island is deeper than
that outside of it. The conformation of the bed of the river is
such that the currents formed by these two channels unite and,
diverging northerly, run diagonally toward the American shore,
in which they have excavated quite a deep bay. From the foot
of this bay is taken the water to supply the hydraulic canal which
empties into the river half a mile below the falls.
Now we must bear in mind a fact which Prof. Tyndall and all
others, who have written or speculated upon the geological char-
acter of the falls, seem to have passed without notice, namely :
that whereas while they were below their present position they
were constantly diminishing in height because they were receding
with the dip of the bed-rock, now they are, so to speak, rising on
the dip, the river making an acute angle with its former direction.
By reason of this southwesterly declination of the bed-rock the
surface of the water in the Horseshoe Fall, next to the Canada
shore, is ten feet lower than that of the most northerly point of
the American Fall. But with the change of direction in the chan-
nel of the river, this difference is fast disappearing and will be
entirely neutralized when the falls shall have reached a point a
few rods above the mouth of Chippewa Creek, a mile from Table
Rock. To this change of direction and this upward trend of the
bed-rock we are indebted for the existence of the rapids above
the falls, one of the finest features of the locality. At no point
below their present position could such a prelude — musical as well
as motioned — to the great cataract have existed, simply because
B. NATURAL HISTORY. 151
the water above the precipice lay like the water in a mill pond
above* its dam, over which it tamely falls to the level below.
There were doubtless slight breaks in the current on the two sides
of the river, produced by the suction of the shallow toward the
deeper water in the centre of the stream. But they must have
been tame and lifeless compared with the grand rush, tumult and
roar of the present rapids. When these have vanished in the
receding flood there can be no others that will equal tliem in
length, breadth, beauty and power. The only reminder of them
even, that can exist hereafter, will be seen by the traditional New
Zealander who may stand on the dilapidated walls of Fort Porter
and look upon the waters that will then rush down the slope of
the corniferous limestone which forms the dam at the foot of Lake
Erie.
Finally, in reference to. this question of the " entire drainage"
of the American channel, we have had a remarkable demonstra-
tion of the entire improbability of its ever occurring. This dem-
onstration was made on the 29th of March, 1848. The preceding
winter had been intensely cold ; the ice formed on Lake Erie was
unusually thick and covered nearly, if not quite, two-thirds of
its surface. During the warm days of the early spring this great
mass was, as is usual in such cases, loosened around the shores
of the lake and detached from them. During the forenoon of
the day named a stiff wind moved the whole mass up the lake.
A little before sunset the wind chopped suddenly around and blew
a gale from the west. This brought the vast field of ice back
again with such tremendous force that it filled in the neck of the
lake and its outlet so as to form a very effective dam, by which
the outflow of the water was very greatly impeded. Of course it
needed but little time for the falls to drain off the water below
this dam. The consequence was that on the morning of the fol-
lowing day the river was nearly half gone. The American chan-
nel had dwindled to a deep and narrow creek. The British channel
seemed to have been smitten with a quick consumption and to bo
fast passing away. Far up from the head of Goat Island and out
into the Canadian rapids and from the foot of the island out
beyond the Terrapin Tower the water was gone. The rocks were
bare, black and forbidding. The roar of Niagara had subsided
almost to a moan. The scene was desolate and, but for its nov-
elty and the certainty that it would change before many hours,
152 B. NATURAX HISTOBT.
would have been gloomy and saddening to those who witnessed
it. Every person who has visited Niagara will remember a beau-
tiful, broken jet of water which shoots up into the air from the
Great Rapids about forty rods south of the. outer Moss Island,
called, with a singular contradiction of terms, the ^^Leaping Rock."
This rock was laid entirely bare, and the writer drove out with a
horse and carriage across the rocky bed of the river, near to and
above it. This extraordinary syncope of the waters lasted aU
the day, and night closed over the strange scene. But during
the night the dam gave way and the next morning the river was
restored in all its strength and beauty and majesty, and the
dwellers on its shores were glad to welcome its swelling tide once
more.
By this occtirrence the formation — the topography, so to speak —
of the river bottom was revealed. A mile and a half above the head
of Goat Island the waters were divided so as to form a huge T
through both branches of which they flowed over the precipice
below, thus showing that nothing less than an entire stoppage of
the water can leave the American channel dry, simply for the rea-
son that in the main stem of the Y it is as deep on the American
as on the Canada side.
But even if this portion of Prof. Tyndall's prediction should
be verified, it is greatly to be feared that his " vision" of cultivat-
able land in the bottom of the American channel after the Wkter
has left it will prove to have been one with a most " baseless fab-
ric." If the future possessor of that portion of the earth's sur-
face should undertake, after it had been both over and under
drained, to run his plough through it, he would not leave behind
him, like a ship sailing in a starlit sea, a wake of phosphorescent
illumination, but rather he would see before him an illumination
resulting from the contact of rock and steel which might lighten
his track in the darkest night. If Prof. Tyndall had found time
to visit, on the Canada side, the cliff at the head of Foster's Glen
or at the foot of the whirlpool, he would have had a "realizing
sense" of what this kind of "farming" might be. One might
more hopefully try to run his plough through the valley of Jehosh-
aphat in ^front of the Beautiful Gate, where he might possibly
disturb the mural covering of some long forgotten Israelite ; but
in the dry bed of the Niagara he could disturb nothing but his
own temper.
B. KATURAIi HISTORY.
153
In the second paragraph preceding the one we have been dis-
cassing Prof. Tyndall makes this remarkable statement, namely :
"The river above the fall bends and the Horseshoe immediately
accommodates itself .to the bending, following implicitly the di-
rection of the deepest water in the upper stream ;" thus making
the depth of water the master element in determining the direction
of the chasm, and inferentially the rapidity of abrasion ; whereas
the friability of the substructure, the greater or less induration
and compactness of the bed-rock is the controlling factor in the so-
lution of the problem. This is clearly demonstrated at the pres-
ent time in the Horseshoe, Luna and American Falls. There are
two notable angles of recession in the Horseshoe Fall. One of
them lies in the midst of the deepest water with its upward direc-
tion bearing nearly southeast. The other angle and the one that
has receded farthest from the edge of the precipice lies just north
of the deepest water, and its upward tendency is nearly northeast.
The Cave of the Winds, under Luna Fall, is a deeper boring
into the bed-rock than can be detected in any part of the Horse-
shoe. Fifty years ago the deepest channel on the south side of
and near to Goat Island was eight rods farther south than it is
now. The water has cut down and carried away more than forty
feet perpendicular depth of bowlders, cobble stones, gravel and
earth, and made for itself a deeper channel than it ran in before.
The little Horseshoe, as it is sometimes called, is the deepest
reentering angle in the American Fall, while the deepest water on
that fall pours over its angle or point of greatest projection, next
to the American shore. Moreover by far the greatest abrasion
known to have occurred within the historic period — that of the
larger portion of Table Rock in 1850 — was a lateral one over
which no water was running, nor had been for more than a cen-
tury except over a small portion of its southerly end.
If the substructure upon which the water lies or over which it
falls were homogeneous Prof. Tyndall's dictum would be correct.
But there are scarcely ten consecutive square rods of the river-bed
that can be called homogeneous.
With these facts before us we cannot resist the conclusion that
it is the character of the river-bed, and not the depth of water, that
solves the problem of recession, and that will determine both the
proximate and distant future of Niagara, so far as its location is
concerned.
154 B. NATURAL HISTORT.
" To complete my knowledge," says Prof. T., "it was necessary
to see the fall from the river below it, and long negotiations were
necessary to secure the means of doing so. The only boat fit for
the undertaking bad been laid up for the winter ; but this diflS-
culty * * * * was overcome." Two oarsmen were obtained.
The elder assumed command and "hugged the cross freshets (?)
instead of strikin^: out into the smoother water. I asked him why
he did so, and he replied that the}'' were directed outward and not
downward." If Prof. Tyndall had been at Niagara during the
summer season he would have had the opportunity, daily, of seeing
the fall "from below," and of going up or down the river on
any day in a boat. All the boats (four) at the Ferry are "fit for
the undertaking" and all of them are, very properly, "laid up in
the winter," since they would be crushed by the ice if left in the
water. Our oarsmen do not consider themselves very shrewd
because they have discovered that it is easier to row across a
current than it is to row against it. The party had an exciting
and, according to Prof. T's account, a perilous trip. It w an
exciting trip to a stranger, but the writer has made it so fre-
quently that it has ceased to be a novelty.
" We reached," he says, "the Cave (of the Winds) and entered
it, first by a wooden way carried over the bowlders, and then
along a narrow ledge to the point eaten deepest into the shale"
He also speaks of the " blinding hurricane of spray hurled against
him." This last circumstance probably prevented him from no-
ticing the fact that no shale at all is visible in the Cave of the
Winds. Its wall, from the top downward some distance below
where he stood, is formed entirely from the Niagara limestone.
But it is checkered by man5^ seams and so is easily abraded by
the elements. The cave is the result.
Without noticing other statements that will illustrate the bril-
liant imagination of the distinguished " poet of science," and also
the poetical license which is good-naturedly allowed to distin-
guished travellers, we may be permitted to remark, in conclusion,
that Prof. Tyndall's style is so vigorous, animated and poetical,
that one may be excused for preferring to read T^'ndall's romanc-
ing rather than the most realistic utterances of many of his
brother scientists.
B. NATURAL HISIOBT.
155
No.
1« Sncpcnslon Bridge.
3. Hydraalic CHnal.
S. American Full.
4. Uorsoslioc Fall.
B* Goat laland.
No.
6. Moss Islands.
10. Chippewa Creek.
11. Grass Island.
13. GIU Creek.
No.
U. Connor^s Island.
14. Navy IsIniKi.
1\ liiickliorn Island.
16. Grand lalaud.
156
B. NATURAL HISTORY.
On some Expansions, Movements and Fractures of Rocks,
OBSERVED AT MoNsoN, Mass. By W. H. NiLES, of Cam-
bridge, Mass.
In the " Proceedings of the Boston Society of Natural History,"
vol. xiv, 1871, there was published an account of '*Some Interest-
ing Phenomena Observed in Quarrying." It was my object in
that paper to give simply a preliminary account of the phenomena
to be observed at Monson, Mass., rather than to inquire into the
causes which produced them. Since that time the phenomena have
increased in frequency and extent, and have thus given me some
further acquaintance with the nature of the force producing them,
and it is my object at this time to communicate to the Association
some of these additional observations and conclusions. For a
satisfactory statement of these, however, it may be important to
refer briefly to certain observations which have already been re-
corded.
At the eighth meeting of this Association held at Washington,
D. C, 1854, Prof. John Johnston of Middletown, Conn., read a
" Notice of Some Spontaneous Movements occasionally observed
in the Sandstone Strata in one of the Quarries at Portland, Ct,''
which was published in the Proceedings of that meeting. The
movements were in one of the quarries which had been worked to
a considerable depth. Whenever the workmen attempted to open
the bottom stratum of the quarry by making a long easterly and
westerly channel in the rocks, they found that before they were
able to cut quite through the bed, the portion of the stone remain-
ing at the bottom of the channel was "crushed to fragments with
a loud report, by an enormous lateral pressure." The walls of the
channels sometimes approached each other three-fourths of an inch.
These movements, however, were perceptible only in northerly and
southerly directions. Prof. Johnston's conclusions were as follow :
" These facts I think plainly show that the strata of sandstone
at this place are not at the present time perfectly at ease in their
ancient bed, but that in some way they have received a disposi-
tion to change slightly their position ; and it becomes an interest-
ing question to determine the cause, a question, however, upon
which I do not propose now to enter."
So far as I am aware, this "Notice" of Prof. Johnston's is the
only scientific record of such phenomena, observed at any locality
B. NATURAL HISTORY, 167
excepting Monson. It is true there have been verbal and news-
paper reports of spontaneous explosions and fractures of rock at
other places, but I do not know that they have received any scien-
tific investigation.
The quarry at Monson, Mass., where most of the phenomena
occur, is the one owned and worked by W. N. Flint & Co. It ex-
tends over an area of about five or six acres upon the gentle slope
of a hill of moderate size.* The rock is gneiss, without any ap-
parent planes of stratification, but with a distinct parallelism in
the arrangement of the component minerals, that is, it has a schis-
tose texture. Divisional planes, which are nearly parallel with the
gently sloping surface of the hill, cut across the stratification and
divide the rock into beds which vary in thickness from one inch
and a half to five feet or more. These beds are very extensive
and are not broken by au}'^ joints or other divisional planes. They
lie, of course, nearly parallel with the surface of the hill and are,
therefore, nearly horizontal in some parts of the quarry, while at
some other places they have an inclination of about ten degrees.
Expansion op the Rock: — One of the most interesting phe-
nomena to be observed here is the expansion of the stone as it is
broken either spontaneously or artificially from the rock.
The quarrying is mostly done by driving wedges into small
holes drilled into the upper surfaces of the beds, in long lines par-
allel 'with the strike of the rock, thus splitting off stones of the
required forms and sizes. Whenever a stone of considerable length
is thus quarried from any entirely undisturbed portion of a bed it
is found that the stone expands lengthwise, that is, with the strike,
becoming slightly longer than the place on the edge of the bed
from which it was broken. The most convincing examples of this
movement are those where a long cleft has been made, liberating
only one end of the stone, the other remaining attached to the bed
by a perfectly solid connection. In such instances those parts of
the drill holes seen on the side of the stone near its freed end are
not directly opposite their respective parts remaining on the edge
of the undisturbed bed, but they have moved from the attached
end somewhat beyond them. As the bed and partly quarried
* For a more detailed account of the position of the qnarry, the mode of working it
and the pecnliar phenomena, see *' Proceedings of the Boston Society of Natural His-
tory," Tol. xiy, p. 80.
158 B. NATURAL HISTORY.
stone are still solidly united at one end, it thus becomes clearly
evident that either the stone must have expanded or that part of
the bed must have contracted. That it is the expansion of the
stone is proved by the fact that the freed end has moved from its
original position upon the underljing bed. The amount of this
expansion is best registered by the difference in position of the
two parts of that drill-hole nearest the loosened end of the stone.
In the autumn of 1869 a fissure of this kind, three hundred and
fifty-four feet long, was made and then the amount of expansion
was -one inch and a half. That there is an actual expansion of
the stone is further demonstrated by the fact that the parts of that
hole which is nearest the solid junction of the stone and the bed
apparently perfectly accord in position, while the want of agree-
ment increases regularly with the distance from the end of the fis-
sure.
These expansions are not mere occasional phenomena, but they
occur whenever a perfect cleft of this kind is made in an entirely
undisturbed portion of the' rock. Since attention was first drawn
to these expansions, now nearly four years ago, they have appeared
so continually in every part of this extensive quarry, and in all
beds, those near the surface, as well as the deeper ones, that we
may conclude that all the undisturbed rock there has this natural
tendency to expand. These movements may be either up hill or
down, but they are always in northerly and southerly directions,
with the strike of the rock. I have made very careful examina-
tions to see if there was a trace of any expansions in easterly and
westerly directions, but have never seen the slightest indication of
any. The bands of darker and lighter color caused by the schis-
tose texture of the rock, which appear in any one bed, show no
want of conformity with the parts of the same bands in the bed
immediately below, even where there has been every opportnnity
for a tranverse expansion. The cause of this expansive tendency
of the rocks must therefore be attributed to some force which acts
or has acted in only these two directions. This fact alone would
seem to show that the expansions are not produced by changes of
temperature or of humidity, for I can see no reason why these
should affect the stone in only northerly and southerly directions.
That the expansions have occurred during all conditions of the
weather, warm and cold, wet and dry, is another proof that the
cause is not to be sought in meteoric changes.
B. NATURAL HISTORY. 159
Another interesting feature is that when the fracture is suddenly
and thoroughly made, the expansion takes place immediately, and
sometimes the expansive force itself completes the desired work.
Before the wedges were driven I have drawn lines across what was
to be the quarried stone to the part of the rock to be left undis-
turbed and then have carefully watched the operation. Under
these circumstances I have seen the stone so suddenly spring into
the elongated state that I am fully convinced that the rock there
has by some means been laterally compressed in the beds, and
that its elasticity or natural tendency to occupy its former space
is always ready to expand it whenever an opportunity is presented.
That certain beds of rock are by nature in a compressed state,
and that they now possess an active expansive power, are I think
demonstrated by the facts to be observed at Monson, and I believe
that such a demonstration is new to science.
Formation op Anticlinals : — Another instructive operation to
be studied at Monson is the elevation of portions of the beds and
the formation of anticlinals. Beds varj-ing in thickness from the
thinnest to four feet or more are thus disturbed, but most fre-
quently the thinner sheets. The amount of elevation varies from
one-quarter of an inch to three or four inches. The span of the
arch thus formed is sometimes fifty feet, while some are only three
feet broad. Usually the thicker the bed the broader the arch.
The crests of the anticlinal always trend in easterly and westerly
directions, and as the elevating and plicating force must work at
right angles to the axis of the elevation produced, the power
which forms these anticlinals must, therefore, be one which acts in
northerly and southerly directions.
In the article on "Peculiar Phenomena observed in Quarrying"
I considered the elevations as formed entirely by a lateral pressure,
but subsequent observations have convinced me that the immedi-
ate cause of most of them, and probably of all, is the expansion of
the compressed rock. This is particularly apparent where thin
sheets have been loosened from the upper surfaces of thick beds
and formed into anticlinals. Usually at each base of the anti-
clinal arch the edge of the folded sheet remains so closely attached
to the underlying bed, that no lateral slipping of this edge upon
the rock could possibly have taken place, nor could the bases of
such an arch have approached each other, for the underlying rock
160 B. NATUBAL BISTORT.
with which they are united remains undisturbed. It is evident
that a line drawn from a fixed point at one base to the crest, then
downward to a fixed point at the other base, would be a longer
line than a straight one connecting the two fixed points, and
therefore, that portion of the rock which is elevated and plicated
must have expanded. There are abundant evidences at the
quarry, some of which will soon be presented, that this tendency
of the compressed rock to expand is a power fully competent to
form such elevations. While, therefore, a lateral pressure may
have compressed the rock yet, here evidently, expansion is the
immediate cause producing the anticlinals.
We have become accustomed to consider the larger anticlinal
and synclinal curves, and the contortions of strata in disturbed
districts as produced entirely by an immense lateral pressure.
But at Monson, to a certain extent we have the work actually in
progress and we may calmly witness the plication of the beds.
Besides the lateral pressure we find that the compression and the
subsequent expansion of the rock are there important parts of
the formative process. If now in our geological reasoning we
interpret the past by the operations of the present, shall we not
consider that the compression and the expansion of Pocks have
exercised an important function in the more extensive elevations
and plications and in the formation of mountain chains ?
f'RACTUREs OP THE RocK : — Another result of this rock expan-
sion is the formation of numerous cracks and fissures attended
sometimes by violent explosions. These recently formed, or
now forming cracks, are the most common and most constant
evidences of this power. When a portion of the bed has been
quarried in such a manner that the expansive power of the rock
is concentrated upon the narrowed part of the bed, the rock is
not usually strong enough to endure the enormous force, and in
such cases it becomes fractured and sometimes considerably shat-
tered. So great is the power that beds of three, four and five feet
and even of greater thickness are rent, sometimes for a hundred
feet or more. In the latter part of June, 1872, sa^'s Mr. A. T.
Wing, there was a natural breakage which extended about two
hundred and seventy-five feet, and was about seventy feet back
from the working face and parallel with it. One end of the loos-
ened mass remained solidly attached to the undisturbed rock, and
A^
B. NATURAL HISTORY. 161
by its expansion about ten tbousand tons of rock were moved.
Many other striking examples of the same movements might be
given if it were necessary, and in most cases the expansion of the
self-liberated stone is quite apparent, and the character of the
fractures clearly shows that the power which produced them oper-
ated in northerly and soiitherly directions only.
These cracks and rents are more commonly formed slowly, but
sometimes suddenly, attended not only by the breaking, shattering
and even crushing of the solid rock, but by a loud report, and
sometimes by the throwing of stones of considerable size for a
short distance. On the morning of the eighteenth of June, of
the present season, 1873, at about six o'clock, the engineer was
startled by an explosion, and looking towards the quarr}- saw stones
and other debris in the air being thrown to a considerable dis-
tance. I visited the spot on the twentieth and found it lookino-
much as though a small but powerful earthquake had taken place.
A bed five feet four inches thick had been ruptured iu two nearly
parallel fissures, each of which measured sixty-eight feet in length.
Besides these the rock was otherwise much broken, and in places
shattered and crushed, and some of the. liberated stones were
thrown southward, but there were none thrown in any other direc-
tion. These fractures were from eighteen to twenty-three feet
from the working face of the bed.* There were \ery evident ex-
pansions of the rock from tlie north, southward. Sounds of the
cracking of rocks are now rather common at the quarry, noises
which are somewhat similar to the cracking of the ice on a pond.
The facts connected with these explosions make it evident that
they are produced by the sudden yielding of the beds to the enor-
mous expansive power of the rock. These movements are in many
respects similar to some earthquakes. May not the same disturb-
ing power produce some of the slight earthquake shocks in non-
volcanic districts?
Concerning the nature of the power which has compressed the
rock, it is evident that it cannot be, nor can it have been any ver-
tical force tending to elevate the rock, for any such upheaval
would produce a tension of the beds rather than a compression.
♦••Since this paper was read, but before going to press, another exploBion has taken
place bj which a stone tweuty-three feet long, of an average width of two feet and
more than two feet thick, was broken out of the bed, and had one end of it thrown more
than two feet from the pUice in the bed from which it came. As this took place on quite
a cold and cloudy day, it is evident that it could not have been caused by heat.
A. A. A. S. VOL. XXU. B. (11)
162 B. NATURAL HISTORY.
Nor cau it be, as with the creeps in coal mines, the weight of
overlying beds in the immediate vicinity, for the quarry has not
been worked to a great depth, and these movements often take
place in those beds immediately at the surface.
But is this merely a local power, or is it a local manifestation of
an extensive force ? Until observations have been made at many
other localities it will be impossible to answer this question, bat
a few thoughts upon the subject may not here be out of place.
The geological structure of the hill is such as to make it possible
as a mere local phenomenon. The general form of the hill approx-
imates that of a much elongated and considerably flattened half
dome. The trend of the hill, like that of the other ridges in the
vicinity, is nearly north and south, that is, nearly parallel with the
strike of the rock. The eastern side is very steep ; near the crest
it is quite precipitous, and the edges of the beds appear from that
side to form an immense arch. The western slope, near the
southerly end of which is the quarry, is quite gentle excepting at
or near the crest. If now we were at liberty to suppose that this
arch of bedded rock has a tendency to sink or become flattened by
its own weight or otherwise, then we could understand how the
xock might be locally compressed in the directions of the trend of
the hill. But I know of no evidence, nor yet of any facts other
than the compression of the rock, that would even indicate that
such a local subsidence is in progress.
But it is a significant fact that the phenomena in the Connecti-
cut valley sandstone at Portland, Ct., reported by Prof. Johnston,
show that the disturbing force there worked in the same general
directions. Whether the rock there was in the same compressed
condition or not, the facts there observed did not definitely prove,
but the phenomena were of the same kind as those occurring here,
which as we know proceed from compression. But whether the
forces manifested at these two localities, and in entirely difl(Brent
rock formations, are distinct but of the same kind, or whether they
are parts of one more extensive natural power manifesting itself
only at these localities on account of the favorable conditions of
the rock, we cannot now state.
That similar movements have not been observed at intervening
localities would be no argument against their being parts of one
largely distributed force. Not only might such movements have
occurred without having been observed, but the great extent of the
B. NATURAL HISTORY. 163
bedsy not strata, at Monson, without any joints or fractures is a
condition very favorable for the manifestation of any such force.
But there are persons at other favorable localities now watching
for similar manifestations, and if such appear they will be reported
to me, when I hope to give the same study to the localities that I
have to this one. I hope in this way, at length, to get at other
facts which may give light upon the question, if not a solution to
the problem.
The Geology of Portland. By C. H. Hitchcock, of Hanover,
. N. H.
In obedience to the custom of presenting a sketch of the local
geology at the meetings of the Association, I have made some
special examination of the rocks about Portland.
The earliest sketch of the geology of this neighborhood was
published by my father, the late President Edward Hitchcock, in
the Journal of the Boston Society of Natural History, vol. i, 1836,
from observations made the previous year. He described the rocks
by their lithological names, and represented them upon a map,
with a section. These formations were grouped under two gen-
eral heads ; first, Gneiss; second, Talcose slate. The former was
r^arded as the older, corresponding in position and age with
similar rocks in central Massachusetts. He called the clays ter-
tiaiy, and was the first to describe the shell afterwards famous,
Nucida PorUandica^ for a long time believed to be extinct. Dr. C.
T. Jackson also made a few allusions to the geology of Portland in
his Geological Survey. I am not aware of any other publications
before my report as state geologist of Maine in 1861-2. In that
report it is stated that evidence exists for regarding the Portland
clays and sands as covered by ice-drift, at least in part ; but I did
not commit myself to this view, not having examined the deposits
critically and systematically. This view was upheld by my prede-
cessors, in the use of the word tertiary, and by the unanimous
belief of all the gentlemen with whom I came in contact in Maine.
164 B. NATURAL HISTORY.
This view was contrary to what I had seen of deposits of the same
character in the Champlain and St. Lawrence valleys, and there-
fore I was not prepared to receive it without examination. This I
have not been able to make till the present month, and the sequel
will show that my first impressions were correct.*
One of the most thorough memoirs relating to the geology of
the surface deposits of this neighborhood appeared in the first
volume of the memoirs of the Boston Societ}* of Natural History
in 1865, by Dr. A. S. Packard, Jr., of Salem, entitled "Obsena-
tions on the Glacial Phenomena of Labrador and Maine." He
describes minutely all the localities in Maine where the fossils had
been found in the clay, and presented interesting generalizations
respecting the history of the entire Post-Tertiary period. This
paper will for a long time continue to be the great authority upon
these subjects for this part of the world.
I find also that Dr. T. Sterry Hunt has in some recent publica-
tions referred to the talcose and micaceous rocks about Portland.!
I understand from conversation with him, that he believes they are
to be referred to the Iluronian, and that they are older than the
White Mountain gneisses adjacent in Deering, Gorham, etc., be-
cause the gneisses along the Grand Trunk Railway in Maine have
low dips, while the green schists are commonly highly inclined.
The general relations of the rocks in this vicinitv will be under-
stood by an inspection of our large geological map of Maine.
Only three distinctions appear upon it, viz: Gneiss, Huronian
and Cambrian. The first occupies a position along the shore from
Gorham to past the Penobscot River. The second is limited to
the towns east of the Saco River, including the islands in Casco
Bay, and not passing east of Harpswell. The third lies to the
west and northwest of Portland. My general theor}- of the struc-
ture is the following : The green schists were deposited in a basin
of gneiss, now embraced between IIari)swell and Saco River, in
one direction, and between Deering and Westbrook and some
ancient rim fifteen or twenty miles out to sea. Originally these
talcose rocks may have extended fifty or sixty miles out to sea,
and the force of elevation has crowded the outer rim of ffneiss to-
wards the interior, pushing up the schists into a highly inclined
position. We have in the gneiss of Phippsburg and the Isles of
•Preliminary Report upon Geology and Tnatiiral History of Maine, p. 275, lOT.
t Presidential address at Indianapolis, p. 10.
B. NATURAL HISTORY. 165
Shoals, relics of the outer rim which borders the Huronian rocks
on their ocean side. Before the submergence of the Gulf of
Maine this ridge must have been prominent. The gneiss occupies
a position along the shore from Gorham to beyond the Penobscot
River, while the Huronian series is limited to Portland, and the
towns east of the Saco River.
This view of the stratigraphical relations of the rocks in this
region is derived from personal explorations this season, in con-
nection with five years' work on similar formations in New Hamp-
shire.
There is an interesting mass of granite to the west of Saco
River in Biddeford, which is extensively used for building. It
closely resembles the "Common or Franconia granite" of the
White Mountains, which in my papers upon New Hampshire Ge-
ology is refen'ed to the base of the Labrador System. It seems
to have. been poured out like lava among the mountains, and to
have filled up a hydrographic basin four or five hundred square
miles in extent. Dr. T. S. Hunt regards this Biddeford granite
as exotic* It seems to be surrounded by hard flinty slates.
JTie Huronian System. The following are the groups of rock
referred to this system about Portland. Circumstances prevent
their delineation upon a map.
Green unctuous schists, formerly called talcose, but now talcoid
or hydro-mica schists (the ledges commonly exposed by excava-
tions in the city limits are of this character ; they commonly
dip N. 30° W., at a very high angle, standing nearly vertical) ;
variously dark colored quartzites ; arenaceous mica schists ; plum-
baginous slates ; py^ritiferous slates ; calcareous layers ; argillo-
mica schists ; hornblende schists ; soapstone ; masses of chlorite,
but rarely chlorite schists.
A drive along the sea-shore in Cape Elizabeth will bring all
these varieties to view. At Knightsville, on the right, are calca-
reous layers ; on the left, soft schists. Passing the ridge be3"ond
a church, we can see ledges of quartzite. These are curiously cut
by joints, often but two or three inches apart. Thej'' are similar to
the jointed seams which have cut across the pebbles in the conglom-
erate at Newport, R. I. Next succeed hornblendic layers. Still
farther along the outer coast line of Cape Elizabeth, one will see
* Amer. Jour. Scl., Ill, vol. i, p. 85, 185.
166 B. NATURAL BISTORT.
vai:ious varieties of mica, plumbaginoas, and pyritiferoos schists.
At Great Pond the plumbaginous variety has in early times been
dug into with the expectation of finding coal. I understand some
imagine that coal can now be mined in this neighborhood. It
should be stated plainly for the benefit of such persons, that ex-
ploration for coal in quantity in this vicinity will be entirely futile.
And if search were to be made for this valuable mineral, no rock-
cutting would be necessary since the strata everywhere stand
nearly upon their edges, and their contents can be perceived by
examining the surface.
An interesting variety of schist is that whioh splits up into
pieces like rails. Some of them are ten feet long and are utilized
by the farmers for fences, just like rails split from wood.
The blackboard will show a roughly drawn section across the
Huronian, from Deering to the Cape Light House. There are in
this at least six folds of the strata. Supposing that Half Way
Rock is gneiss, we have in that and the similar rocks at the Isles
of Shoals relics of the outer rim of the rock which borders the
Huronian series on their ocean side. Before the submergence of
the "Gulf of Maine" this ridge must have been prominent, as it
certainly was while these green schists were being deposited.
o
OB
« O N OB ►» JS
■^5 5 P g^SPo^^ 2
a
o
Section from gape uqut to debiiino.
I must here take issue with Dr. Hunt in respect to the relative
position of the gneiss and green schists. Both of us agree in re-
ferring the former-to the White Mountain series of New Hampshire,
and the latter to the Huronian system of Logan, but he believes the
latter is the older because the gneisses along the Grand Trunk
Railway, in Maine, possess low dips, while the green schists are com-
monly highly inclined. The following reasons favor our view. 1.
B. NATURAL HISTORY. 167
At the line of janction, as observed in Deering, the two groups of
rock possess exactly the same inclination, of 60^ southeasterly.
My father also remarked that on approaching the northern border
of the green schists the dip decreased in pitch, corresponding with
that of the gneiss. If in their natural position, therefore, the
gneiss underlies the schist. 2. The discovery of the outer ritn
from Phippsburg to the Isles of Shoals indicates a repetition of the
underlying rock. 3. On comparing the similar rocks in New
Hampshire, I find the upper and lower sides of the White Moun-
tain series usually in contact with some other formation than the
Huronian. Hence I should conclude, if the dip of the gneiss can
be invariably established as lower, that it was formed, metamor-
phosed and elevated before the depositicto of the Huronian s^'S-
tem, and at the later period of elevation, the slates being more
easil}* moulded, were forced into a more vertical position.
Perhaps some one may object to referring this series of schists
to the Huronian, on the ground that lithological resemblances are
not of sufficient consequence to justify identification. Fossils
may be said to be necessary for satisfactory correlation.
The following are grounds for justification : 1. Logan, in 1855,
described a system of rocks overlying unconformably the Lauren-
tlan gneisses about Lake Huron, which were distinguished by
means of lithological characters. All geologists, therefore, who
use the name Huronian, of necessity practically adopt this prin-
ciple, though perhaps insensibly. We do not claim that a talcose
rock can never be found in any other system than the Huronian,
nor that gneiss may never be interstratified with the hydro-micas.
Professor Dana's recent paper shows that gneisses, quartzites and
limestones are interstratified in the Lower Silurian of western New
England. 2. The rocks of similar lithological characters are sep-
arated from others in this instance by stratigraphy', and in no in-
stance would we claim that mineral character is suflScient to
distinguish systems without a stud}' of the relations of the strata.
We may sometimes generalize, and believe that rocks of similar
mineral character must be of the same age. but such speculations
always provide for confirmation bj'^ a study of the strata. 3. It
has got to be proved that one kind of rock can exist upon one
side of an axis and another upon the opposite side, or, in other
words, that a gneiss can dip down a valley and come up on the
other side as a chlorite schist. The presumption from all study is
against such a supposition. On the contrary, continuity of min-
168
B. NATURAL HISTORY.
eral cbarr.cter indicates similarity of age till otherwise proved.
The biirvU'u (H' proof is with our opponent.
Cambrian, These rocks crop out in Saco, a dozen miles west.
They are clay slates and indurated argillaceous schists, the latter
having a northwest strike, while the rocks of the older series run
northeasterly. These rocks are in character and position allied
to the Cambrian Paradoxides slates of Massachusetts, and exist
in immense mass along the coast of Maine west of Saco, and in
New Hampshire.
The slates in Saco are quarried for roofing purposes as well as
slabs for sinks, billiard tables, etc. The Cascade Slate Co. have
opened a ledge where a cliff of fifty feet altitude gives facilities
for cleaving the strata. . There is no diflaculty in getting slabs
ten feet long. Between the clay beds are harder strata with
quartz veins carrying the mineral ankerite, I have found precisely
similar veins in New Hampshire carrying gold, and presume the
same mineral may be found in Saco, as well as in Portland. A
geologist would have no reason to look for coal in this vicinity,
but he would be justified in searching for the precious metal.
This same view has been entertained by my father, Dr. Jackson,
and Dr. Hunt. It should be said of the slates that the}- correspond
in character with those at Brownsville, Monson, etc., in the Pis-
cataquis region. As j'ou are aware these slates command in the
market a higher price than those from Vermont and Pennsylvania.
They may be worthy of attention on account of the proximity of
the ledges in this neighborhood to the sea.
In Windham there are two ranges of mica schist accompanied
by scanty layers of siliceous limestone. The schist caiTies kya-
nite and staurolite, and hence probably belongs to the Coos
Group of New Hampshire. I have been informed by Mr. Gould,
Secretary of the Society of Natural History, that this mica schist
has a course of N. W. and S. E. If so, this is a test locality to
determine the correctness of a position I have assumed, respecting
the radical difference in age between the Coos and White Moun-
tain groups. If we have here mica schists with a N. W. strike
overlying the andalusite gneiss, there is the same unconformability
which I have described as occurring in the White Mountains. I
refer the lower division to a place beneath the Labrador series,
and the upper slates to some undescribed position above the Lab-
rador.
B. NATURAL HISTORY.
169
POST TERTIARY DEPOSITS.
I have already indicated the opinion of my predecessors upon
the matter of the succession of the Post Tertiary deposits. Re-
cent examination has led me to assign a different order to them
from that referred to, and I think all will admit that the evidence
is satisfactory.
The succession, as I read the strata, is as follows :
1. The covering of this city and the whole surrounding country
with an immense sheet of ice, which pushed towards the ocean,
transporting bowlders and fragments of rock, rounding, scratching
and polishing the ledges, or the Glacier Period,
2. A period of submergence to the depth of forty or fifty feet,
in which arctic mollusks inhabiting the deep water, say three hun-
' dred feet, located themselves upon the very spot where we now
stand. This is the period of the Leda Clay.
3. Sands containing shells of animals living on the sea-shore,
the highest of them about one hundred feet above tide water.
This is the Saxicava Period.
I proposed in 1861 the name of Champlain Period for the com-
bination of the two just mentioned, — a term which has generally
been adopted by American geologists. I first saw the distinction
of lower and upper in the writings of Prof. C. B. Adams, in Second
Annual Report upon the Geology of Vermont in 1846.
The names Leda clay and Saxicava sands were proposed for the
subdivisions by Dr. Dawson of McGill College, Montreal, who
has distanced all other collectors of these Champlain fossils by
the enormous number of species which he has discovered. He has
more than doubled the lists as given by all previous observers.
4. Over all these deposits, in the highest parts of the city, is a
layer of j^ellow ferruginous gravel with rolled bowlders, usually
two or three feet thick, but much greater on Bramhall Hill. As
the highest part of Portland is about one hundred and sixty feet
high, we are confident there has been a submergence great enough,
since the Champlain Period, to cover entirely the city of Portland.
To this we have heretofore given the name of Terrace Period.
I will not detain 3''ou with the details which might be presented
on this topic. I will rather give my theory of the position of
these several layers, and leave to the members of the Association
the pastime of visiting such of the localities as they may desire.
I have colored one of the beautiful maps of the city made by the
170 B. NATUEAL HISTOBT.
Coast Survey, upon which you may see at a glance the localities
of interest. In its preparation the members of the Society of
Natural History have aided me. The catalogue of fossils from
this vicinity was prepared by C. B. Fuller, and the specimens upon
which the determinations are based can be seen in the Natural
History collections in the room above.
I will not raise the question whether Portland was more elevated
than now in the glacial period. The general course of the stri»
in this neighborhood is S. 15^ to 20'' E. There is a notable excep-
tion near Blue Point, Scarboro, where they run S- 20** W. The
latter may have been made by floating ice along the sea-shore in
a time of submergence. I have measured a few of the courses,
which I mention :
Saco, slate quarry, S. 3** to 5** E.
Blue Point, S. 20^* W. crossed by faint lines S. 10° E.
West edge Cape Elizabeth, Saco road, S. 15° E.
Evergreen Landing, Peak's Island, S. 10° E.
East side of Peak's Island, S. 20° E.
East side of Knightsville, running up hill transversely S. 5° E.
Cape Light, south exactly.
LOCALFTIES OP FOSSILS.
Along east side of Munjoy's Hill, for four hundred yards between
Eastern Promenade and Grand Trunk Railway.
Portland Company's Works, St. Lawrence street.
Adams street.
Between Fore street and Custom House.
Cove on Washington street opposite north end of Race Course
From this point to Fox street.
Between Washington and North streets.
In an old pit on Congress street above Mountfort street.
Almost anywhere north of Congress street between Alder and
Anderson streets.
Congress street north of Reservoir.
Old slide next Canal, described by Mr. Morse.
For two hundred yards at the foot of Emery street*
Knightsville, nodules containing shells, fish, etc., very abun-
dantly in Decring, Westbrook, Cape Elizabeth and Islands in
Casco Bay.
I will now give my reasons fqv saying that all these localities of
fossils lie above the glacier drift.
B. NATURAL HISTORY. 171
Munjoy's and Bramhall hills are the true glacier drift. The
large striated bowlders and accumulations of unmodified material
abundantly present all the usual phenomena of this deposit. In
every case the strata containing the fossils dip away from these two
hills, the clay being lower down. This dip shows conclusively that
the clay does not run under the bowlders, as at first sight one
would imagine. I do not mean the smaller bowlders of the upper
gravel, which cover everything — only the glaciated stones.
Dr. Wood informs me that in an old excavation on Adams
street, he saw the fossiliferous clays overlying the coarse drift for
a considerable distance.
Again, along West Commercial street, the clay has been entirely
removed, and where fossils once existed only the underlying
bowlder clay is now found.
A section at the recent excavations at the race course shows the
relative positions of the underlying drift, the fossiliferous sand and
the superficial gravel. Those who desire to see these different
members in contact should examine this locality. It is in these
sands that Mr. Fuller found the clam or mussel shells lying in
their native habitat. The siphon holes still remained — only sand
had been silted into them from above. No fact could more clearly
establish our view of the submergence of this part of the city.
The immense sand and clay plains to the east and west of us
seem to have been deposited at the same time with the upper
ferruginous gravel, i.e., in the Terrace Epoch. The ferric condi-
tion of the iron about Portland indicates that the water was not
deep at that time. No fossils have yet been found in this, nor in
the terraces in the vicinity. As some of the bowlders are two feet
in diameter, it would seem as if floating ice may have been an
agent in their transportation. This pebble bed may be regarded
partly as older than the clays of Cumberland and York counties,
and partly as representing the same period, the stronger current
having carried the coarse materials across to the shallow water
over what are now the heights of Portland.
SLIDES.
Several slides have been described in the clays about Portland,
particularly on the Presumpscot River.
The first one described (though not the oldest) occurred on the
north bank of the Presumpscot River above Pride's bridge in 1831.
An account of it was written by my father.
172
B. NATURAL HISTORY.
The next occurred in June, 1849, on the southern bank of
Stroudwater River, about five miles from Portland. Estimated
size, seven acres.
A third was described as occurring in November in 1868. This
is above the slide of 1831, and much larger than any of the others.
This and some older ones, not known to history, have been fully
described by Prof. E. S. Morse in the Proceedings of the Boston
Socifety of Natural History for 1869. The following descriptions
of them, and the very interesting changes induced by them in the
bed of Presumpscot river, are copied from his paper :
There are traces of two slides of great magnitude, one of which
has quite changed the former course of Presumpscot River. One
of these slides occurred within the city limits of Portland, and has
formed the abrupt embankment of Bramhall's Hill. Mr. C. B.
Fuller and others have oftentimes remarked the evidences of a
slide at this place. A few weeks since I made a special examma-
tion of this spot, and all the characteristics of a land slide are as
plainly seen as if the slide occurred ^^esterday. On looking down
from the embankment, the lateral ridges are seen to front the em-
bankment only.
While examining this slide, my attention was attracted to the
evidences of a river once nmning through Deering's Oaks and into
Back Cove, showing clearly a broad river bed. As one passes
over the Portland and Rochester railroad bridge, and examines the
estuary across which the bridge is built, he cannot help remarking
the evidences of the former presence of a river at that place,
pouring into Back Cove. The traces of a terrace plainly exist.
To the west of this region are scattered brickyards, and the whole
surface is low and clayey, the surface sand being quite removed,
and, as I believe, by a series of land slides. All these evidences
prove that at one time a large body of water poured through this
region, cutting out the long estuary called the "Fore River," pro-
ducing the Bramhall slide, and at one time, on being turned aside
through Deering's Oaks, assisting, at least, in wearing out the
estuary called Back Cove. Certainly the Stroudwater River is too
small a stream to have produced these results, since it has no
natural reservoir, and drains but a small portion of country. My
brother, who is quite thoroughly versed in the surface features of
this region, concurs with me in the opinion that at one time the
Presumpscot River flowed through these estuaries and originally
formed the Fore River estuary.
B. NATURAL HISTORY. 173
An additional proof of this is seen in the traces of another slide
of great magnitude, which wc believe first turned the Presumpscot
River into its present course. The outlet of this slide is occupied
by the village of Saccarappa. It will be noticed that this slide
occurred on the south side of the river, at the precise angle where
it would be expected, and is of sufficient magnitude to have pro-
duced these results. And furthermore my brother has partly
traced the old bed of the river, commencing soHth of Saccarappa
and running through marshy land whose waters empty into Fore
River.
As to the evidences of the Saccarappa slide, they are of the
most positive character. In the first place the village rests upon
a level plain of clay, and bordering this on all sides is an embank-
ment from ten to twenty feet in height. The upper portion of
this depression has always been called by the inhabitants "War-
ren's cellar," and indeed many have regarded this area as sunken
land. In digging wells and sewers, trunks and branches of trees
are met with at a depth of thirty feet from the surface. My
brother sends me a birch stick, and says it was dug out at a depth
of twelve feet from the surface, and about an eighth of a mile from
the present bed of the river. A great man}" pieces of wood have
been found in digging for a sewer ; some loam has been found, but
not much. I saw one leaf that was dug out ; it was quite fresh.
Another gentlemen informs me that he saw a number of leaves
of the Ganltheria procumbens, which were still green, taken out at
a depth of thirty feet. Some bones, presumed to be those of a
bear, were also found.
I think there are evidences of another slide running to the south
of the Saccarappa slide, and if this is the case, it will lend addi-
tional proof to the h^-pothesis that the river formerly had a south-
erly course.
I have rudely estimated the superficial area of the slide at one
hundred and eightj'^-three acres.
Prof. Morse also informs me that since his paper was published,
Mr. Jonas Hamilton, while superintending the excavations for the
Portland and Ogdensburg railroad engine house, came across sticks,
leaves and all the debris of a land slide, at a depth of fourteen
feet. This excavation was made on the site of the supposed
Brarahall slides. This is important evidence of the correctness
of the views advanced by Mr. Morse.
1
174
B. NATURAL HISTORY.
The following is a list of all the Champlain fossils that have
been found in the vicinity of Portland by C. B. Fuller.
YERTEBRATA.
Two species of whale.
Mallotus villosas.
Scales of Rays.
Teeth of Shark.
CRUSTACEA.
Cancer Irroratus Say.
Hyas coarctata Leach.
Bernhardus Streblonyx Dana.
Balanus balonoides Linn.
»* crenatus.
Cythera leioderm a (Norman).
Iutea(MUn.).
MacChesneyi (Brady and Cross-
key),
emarginata (Sars).
conciuna (Jones).
Dawson I (Brady),
limicola (Norman),
cuspidata (Bi-ady and Crosskey).
diinelmensis (Norman).
Cytherldea papulosa (Bosquet).
*" coi*nea (Brady and Robertston).
Sorbyana (Jones).
Williamsoniana? Bosquet.
Loxoconcha grauulata (Sars).
XeBtoleberis depressa (Sars).
Cytherura nigresccns (Baird).
" Sarsii (Brady).
** oristata (Brady and Crosskey).
•< striata (Sars).
** granulata (Brady & Croeakey).
" undata.
Cytheropteron latisslmnm (Norman).
** complanatnm (Brady and
Crosskey).
" nodosum (Brady),
Sclerochilus contortus (Noiman).
Paradoxostoma variabile (Baird).
tt
it
a
u
(c
li
(I
tt
OTHER ARTICULATA.
Nereis.
Spirorbis spirellam.
MOLLUSCA.
Rhjrnchonella psittacea Gm.
Terebralulina septentrionalis Coath.
Ostrea borealls Lam.
Pecten Islandicus Ch.
Nucula antiqua Migh.
Yoldia pygmaea Mund.
" limatula Say.
Purpura lapillus Lam.
Tectnra testudmalis Stm.
Leda glacialis Gray.
'* tenuisulcata Couth.
Hodiolaria nigra Gray.
Hytilus edulis Linn.
Cardium pinnatulnm Ca.
Serripcs Groenlandicus, Ch.
Cryptodon Gouldii Phil.
Astarte semisulcata MolL
" lactea Br. and Sow.
** striata Leach.
Mactra polynyma Stm.
Macoma subulo^a Sprengl.
'* fusca Say.
Solen en sis Linn.
Mya urenaria Linn.
*' truncata Linn.
Cyrtodaiia siliqua Sprengl.
Suxicuva distorta Say.
" arctica Linn.
Thracia Conradi Couth.
^' truncata Migh.
Lyonsia arenosa.
Pandora triliiieata Say.
Pholas crispata Linn.
Bulla occulta Migh.
Cemoria noachina Linn.
Margarita cinerea Cent.
ApoiThais occidentale.
Natica pusilla Say.
'* clauBa Sw.
Buccinum GrGonlandlcnm.
'* undatum Linn.
" ciliatum Fabr.
*• Donovani Gray.
Trophon scalariformis Stm.
** clathratus Linn.
Bela harpularia.
" pleurotomaria Couth.
Fusus tomatus Gould.
*' decemcostatus Say.
Trichotropis borealls Br. and Sw.
Lepraiia hyaliua Linn. ,
*• variolosa.
" BelUi.
Tubnlipora.
Membranipora.
RADIATA.
Echinarachinus parma Gray.
Echinus granulatus Say.
FORAMINIFERA.
Lagena sulcata.
semistriata.
substriata.
gracilis.
clavata.
globosa.
Entosolenia squamosa.
*^ caudata.
** marginata.
Lingnlina carinata.
Polyraorphina lactea, yar. compressa.
Nonionlna scapha.
'* striato-punctata.
Bulimina Aisiformis.
** pupoides.
Triloculina tricariuata.
*' oblonga.
Tnmcatulina lobatulina.
Quinqueloculina seminolum.
Dentallna subarcuata. "
Textularia variabUis.
Sperilina foliacea.
Polystoraella nmbllicatnla.
Patellina comigata.
Globigerina buBoides.
Bilocullna ringens.
tt
tt
n
J
B. NATURAL HISTOBT. 175
Dr. Packard, in his able memoir, points out the distribution of
the marine aiiimals of our coast. The Arctic fauna is at present
confined to the limits of North Greenland and about the pole at
the isotherm of 0° C. This is succeeded by the Labrador or Syr-
tensian fauna extending now as far as the mouth of the Bay of
Fundy. Our present New England or Acadian fauna extends from
the southern limit of the Syrtensian to Cape Cod, and also ap-
pears in several places above the lower limit of the latter. The
lower British Provinces exhibit one or the other of these faunas
according to the presence of the polar current or the influence of
the Gulf Stream.
The fauna of Portland in the Champlain corresponded to the
Syrtensian, or the colder one. It seems to have extended as far
south as Gloucester or Cape Ann.* The northern limit of the
Acadian fauna during the same period was near Point Shirley,
Winthrop, Mass. Thus the cold was sufl^cient to bring the boreal
life two and a half degrees farther south than it is found at the
present day.
Some have argued that the Champlain period is coeval with that
of the glacier drift. I understand that the supposed superposition
of bowlders at Portland and at Point Shirley is relied upon to sus-
tain this view. I think I have shown clearly that all the bowlders
over the fossiliferous deposits about Portland belong to the ter-
race period. I judge the same to be true at Point Shirley, since
Stimpson states the dip of the sands to be eighteen degrees.
Hence, though we cannot reduce the number of periods by uniting
the drift and Champlain, we establish the reality of their differ-
ence ; and thus contribute to the advancement of truth.
Note.— I wi]l here take occasion to correct an error in a paper read last year at
Dabnqne upon **Becent Geological Discoyerles among the White Mountains.'' Upon
page 146, line eight Arom the bottom for Cambrian read Pre-Cambrian.
* Shaler, Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., toI. xi, p. 30.
176 B. NATURAL HISTORY.
On the Question "Do Snakes Swallow their Young?** ByG.
Brown Goode, ot AV'iisliiDgton, D. G.
It has long been a popular belief that the young of certain
snakes seek temporary protection from clanger by gliding doBH
the open throat of the parent. This has been doubted by many
naturalists, and the general disposition has been to class the belief
among the popular superstitions. This paper is intended to sum
up the evidence, which will show, it is hoped conclusively, that the
popular idea is sustained by facts.
Allusions to this habit are found as early as the sixteenth cen-
turj\ In the "Faerie Quepne," Spenser describes Error in these
words : —
" But full of fire and greedy hardiment
The youtlifuU knight could not for ought be Btaidc :
But forth unto the dnrk^oin hole he went,
And looked in : His glislring armor made
A litlc gluomiug light, much like a shade;
By whii-h he s-aw the ugly monfiter plaiue,
Hall'e like a berpent horiibly dini'laide,
But th' other hall'e did womans sliaiie rctnine,
!Mobt loth6om, 111th ie. foulc and full of vile di^dainc.
" And. ab she lay upon the durtie ground,
Her huge long tude her den all overspred,
Yet was in knots and many bonglites upwound,
Pointed with mortall siting. Of her there bred
A thousand yong ones which Phe dayly fed,
Sucking upon her poibuous dug.s; each one
Of guudrie shapes, yet all ill-favored :
Soone as that uncouth liyht upon them ghone,
Into her mouth they crept y and suddain all were gone.
*' She poured forth out of her htliish sinke
Hcrfruitjul cursed spawnv of serpents small,
I>eforme«l mon-ter.-, Ibwle and blacke as iiikc
Wliich swarming all about hie legs did cndl.
And him enconibrd sore, but couhl not hurt nt all.
" Her Fcattred brood, poono as their parent dearc
They >»aw t-o rudely falling to the ground,
GroningfuU deadly all with troublous A-arc
Gathrcd themselves about her body round,
Wtening tht ir wonted entrance to h-iref.nnd
At her iride mouth; but, being there witli-tood.
They flocketl all about her bleeding wound.
And packed up their dying mothers bloud
Making her death their life, and eke her hurt theirgood."
L" The Faerie Qtt<?enc," 1500, Book 1, Canto l,vv. U. L"), 22 and 25.]
I
B. NATURAL HISTOBT. 177
In Browne's "Vulgar Errors" may be found the following ac-
count of the Viper: — "For the young ones will upon any fright
for protection run into the belly of the Dam ; for then the old one
receives them in at her mouth, which way, the fright being past,
they will retume againe ; which is a peculiar way of refuge, and
though it seems strange is avowed by frequent experience and
undeniable testimony."*
Gilbert White refers to the prevalent belief in this habit of the
viper, and though rather inclined to favor it, he is evidently shaken
in his faith by the adverse testimony of the Loudon viper-catch-
ers.f
M. Palisot de Beauvois, an eminent French naturalist, published
in 1802 some very important observations on the rattlesnake,
which will be quoted hereafter.
S. John Dunn Hunter, an early traveller in the United States,
says: — "When alarmed, the young rattlesnakes, which are gen-
erally eight or ten in number, retreat into the mouth of the parent
and reappear on its giving a contractile muscular token that the
danger is past."| * A few years later a long discussion occurred
in the *' Gardener's Chronicle" which, however, reached no satis-
factory conclusion.
In a note to the eighth edition of "Selborne," Sir William
Jardine says: — "The question remains, we believe nearly as it
did in White's time. The supposed habit is so much at variance
with what we know of the general manners and instincts of
animals, that without undoubted proof of its occuiTence we are
inclined to consider it as a popular delusion. "§
In 1865 Mr. M. C. Cooke, editor of " Science Gossip," made a
strong argument in the affirmative.)
Mr. F. W. Putnam published in the year 1869f a very thorough
*''Pbendodoxia Epidemica: or. Enquiries into very many received TeDents and
commonly p^e^umed Truths. By Thomas Browne, Dr. of Physick.^' London, 1646,
p. 143.
f- The Nntural History of Selborne," 1789, Series 1, letter xvii ; Scries 2, letter xxxi.
t" Memoirs of a Captivity among tlie Indians of North America,'' London, 1823, p.
170; and " Xorlh American Review," 1826, pp. 6t, M-107.
f ''Xntaral History of Selborne." London, 1863, p. fi8.
I ** Our Reptiles," London, 1885, p. 68.
V" American Naturalist," vol. ii, p. 173. To this article, which first interested me m
the snbject, I owe many valuable suggestions. 1 am also indebted to Prof.
Biird, to Prof. Theo. Gill, to Prof. W. N. Rice of Middlctown and to Mr. James Slmson
of New York, who have called my attention to facts which would otherwise have es-
caped my notice.
▲. A. A. S. VOL. XXn. B. (12)
178 B. NATURAL HISTORY.
discussion of the question.* He speaks of it as still unsettled
and, though sympathizing fully with Mr. Cooke, asks for addi-
tional proof.
During the past year an animated discussion has been carried
on in the London '' Land and Water." Mr. James Simson and
others have argued for the affirmative but Frank Buckland, the
editor, classes the belief among the numerous popular delusions
and persistently refuses to believe until he or some other natural-
ist has personally investigated the subject.
The feeling of the majority of naturalists at the present time
seems to be well expressed in these words: — '^The cumulative
testimony of many witnesses would compel us to receive this
supposed habit as an established fact, did not experience warn us
of the extreme liability of untrained observers to be misled by
preconceived opinions. The fact that no competent naturalist
has found young vipers in the stomach or oesophagus of the
mother raises a strong presumption, on the doctrine of probabili-
ties, of its being a mere delusion. The habit moreover would be
contrary to the ordinary laws of animal instinct which lead both
parent and offspring to adopt the best available means for the
preservation of the race.*
Theorizing upon this question has proved useless, and it is ob-
vious that it can only be settled by the statements of persons who
have seen the act. Believing that none would be so likely to
supply the desired facts as those whose vocation brings them into
daily contact with snakes in their native haunts, I wrote a short
note to Mr. Orange Judd, Editor of the "American Agriculturist/'
which he kindly inserted in the issue of that magazine for Febru-
ary, 1873.
As a result over eighty letters were received, from persons in
twenty-four states and provinces, almost every one containing
valuable evidence. Many of the writers seem indignant that a fact
BO well known to them should be questioned. On the depositions
of these witnesses, together with those collected by diligent per-
sonal inquiry, the case must rest.
A farmer living in Mechanicsburg, Ohio, writes : — "In 18351
saw on the bank of Deer Creek a large water-snake. I procured
a pole for the purpose of killing her. One stroke slightly wounded
her and she immediatel}' made for the water ; after she had swam
•II i> » (Yorktown, Virginia) in " Land and Water," xt, p. 78, Feb. 1, 18TS.
B. NATURAL HISTORT. 179
about her length she wheeled, placing her under jaw just out of
the edge of the water, then opening her mouth to the fuUesf ex-
tent. Some dozen young snakes, three to four inches long then
seemed to run or rather swim down her throat, after which she
clumsily turned in search of a hiding place. I opened her and
found about twenty living young snakes, two or three seven or
eight inches long."
A gentleman in Georgetown, S. C, writes : — ''I had for several
days noticed a verj'^ large moccason coiled around the limb of a
small tree near the pond. 1 concluded to capture it and accord-
ingly procured a large rabbit and placed it some way up from the
pond to toll her away from the water. She soon came down and
disappeared under a large log ; when next seen she was near the
bait, having traced it along the log on its opposite side. When she
had nearly swallowed the bait we made an advance ; quickly
disgorging it she gave a shrill whistling noise, and five young
snakes ran from under the log and ran down the throat of the old
one. We cut off her head and found the five young, which made
efforts to get away."
A farmer in Rosendale, N. Y., writes : — *' I was one day mowing
and coming close to a smooth flat rock, I thought I saw as many
as a dozen snakes on it. I ran for a fork which was standing
within a few yards and when I came back there was only one
snake on the rock. I struck it on the back and seven snakes ran
out of the mouth."
A letter from Chesterfield, N. H., says : — ** 1 saw a striped snake
on the hillside, and noticed something moving about her head, and
counted twenty little snakes, from' one and a half to two inches
long. I made a move and the old one opened her mouth and they
went in out of sight. I stepped back and waited and in a few
moments they began to come out. Then I made for the old snake
and killed her and forced out several."
A farmer in Newburyport, Mass., writes: — "Riding through a
large com field, in the centre of which was a large shelving rock
I observed on the top a curious commotion, but on near approach
fouild nothing. My curiosity was excited, and the next day I
repaired to the spot very cautiously, and on the top of the rock
saw an enormous striped snake sunning herself, surrounded bv a
bevy of young four to six inches long. After viewing them to
my satisfaction I made a demonstration, and to my surprise the
180 B. NATURAL HISTORY.
old snake opened her mouth very wide, the little snakes ran da?m
her throat and then she disappeared in the shelving rock. I re-
peated the experiment a number of days to the same effect.**
The total number of testimonies in my possession is one hundred
and twenty. Sixtj'-scven witnesses saw the 3^oung snakes enter
the parent's mouth ; twenty-two of these heard the young warned
by a whistle or hiss or click or sound of the rattles ; five were
considerate enough to wait and see them reappear when danger
seemed over ; one seeing the act repeated on several days.
Three saw young snakes coming out of a large one's mouth, and
not having seen them enter were naturally much astonished. Five
struck the parent and saw the young rush from its mouth ; eighteen
saw the young shaken out by dogd or running from the mouth of
the dead parent. Thirty-six of those who saw the young enter
the parent's mouth, found them living within its body. Only
twenty of the sixty-seven allowed the poor, affectionate parent to
escape. Thirty-three who did not see the young enter, found
them living within the parent's body. Testimony of this charac-
ter concerning the ovo-viviparous species is, however, to say the
least, dubious.
It may be objected that these are the testimonies of laymen, of
untrained observers, of those who might be influenced in their ob-
sei-vations by their prejudices. I reply that the letters are from a
class of well-informed farmers, mechanics and business men, intel-
ligent readers of a practical agricultural magazine. The act of
swallowing the young is of such a character as to admit little room
for error in the observations, and I find that, as a general rule,
opinions on the subject are current only among those who have
had it brought to their notice by their own experience or that of
their friends. Due weight should be given to the wide distribu-
tion of the witnesses, and the remarkable concurrence in their
statements.
Let us not, however, trust entirely to the statements of the un-
trained observer. Says Mr. Cooke: — *' Clergymen, naturalists,
men of science and repute, in common with those who make no
profession of learning, have combined in this belief."* We^d
the statements of gentlemen, the accuracy of whose observations in
other departments of natural history would surely not be doubted.
Prof. Sydney I. Smith, of the Shefifield Scientific School, saw a
•<'0urReptUeB,»p.76.
B. NATURAL HI8T0BT. 181
ribbon-snake (Eutosnia aauritd), about two feet long, accompa-
nied by two young ones of three or four inches ; on a hiss from
the parent they disappeared down its throat. The parent was killed
and two ran out of the mouth, while a third was found alive in the
body. Dr. Edward Palmer, a well known traveller and collector,
assures me that when in Paraguay with the " Waterwitch" expedi-
tion, he saw seven young rattlesnakes {Caudisona terrified) run
into their parent's mouth. After it was killed they all ran out.
These snakes, parent and brood, are preserved in the U. S.
National Museum, Washington.
Rev. Chauncey L. Loomis, M.D., of Middletown, Conn., a keen
and enthusiastic observer, saw a black snake {Coluber Alleghanien-
818?) open its mouth, allow seven young ones to enter and then
glide away.
D. L. Phares, M.D., of Woodville, Miss., writes: — "A few
years age a gentleman, directing some hands at work on my lawn,
heard a low, blowing noise, and on looking saw a large water
moccason {Toxicophia pisdvorusy I believe) and a large number of
young hurrying to her head and disappearing so rapidly that he
first thought they ran under her. He soon discovered that they
went into her slightly opened mouth, which was held close to the
ground till they had all entered. She then attempted to escape,
but was cut in two with a hoe. We took from her a large number
of young, eight or ten inches long."
I might take from Mr. Cooke's work several statements equally
to the point. I quote from the *' Zoologist" a note concerning the
scaly lizard (Zootoca vivipara), which has an important bearing
upon the question. Says the editor, Mr. Newman: — "My late
lamented friend, William Christy, Jr., found a fine specimen of
the common scaly lizard with two young ones ; taking an interest
in everything relating to natural history, he put them into a small
pocket vasculum to bring home, but when he next opened the vas-
culam the young ones had disappeared, and the belly of the parent
was greatly distended ; he concluded she had devoured her own
offspring. At night the vasculum was laid on a table and the
lizard was therefore at rest ; in the morning the young ones had
reappeared and the mother was as lean as at first."*
Mr. Putnam has kindly put into my hands a note from Thomas
Meehan, of Philadelphia, containing strong affirmative testimody
• *' The Zoologist," p. 2269.
182 B. NATURAL HISTORY.
in the case of the Euglish viper as observed by him in the Isle of
Wight ; also a note from Herman Strecker of Reading, Pa., who
says : — " Some years ago I came across a garter snake {Eutcsnia
aaurita) with some 3'oung ones near Ber. Soon as she perceived
me she hissed and the j^oung ones jumped down her throat, and
glided beneath a stone heap. Another time I caught a snake of
the same species, but as I thought of immense size, which I took
home and put in a cage ; on going to look at her some short time
afterwards I discovered a great number of young ones (about
thirty if 1 recollect rightly) and whilst I was still looking at the
sudden increase, two more crept out of the old one's mouth, and
finallv after a little while a third one did likewise."
•Prof. C. F. Brackett, of Princeton College, sends me a note
which, besides throwing light upon the question under considerar
tion, gives a very interesting instance of hereditary instinct: he
writes: — "About twenty-five years ago I saw the fcUowing
things. A workman who was mowing in my father's hay-field
came upon a moist, moss-grown knoll, and his scythe cleft off a
portion of the thick moss and sphagnum and revealed several (at
least a dozen, I should say) small soft bodies which he declared
to be snakes' eggs. I at that time having no knowledge of such
matters was incredulous, and proceeded to tear one of them open,
when, to my surprise, there appeared a small, perfectly formed
milk adder, which immediately assumed a pugnacious attitude, and
brandished its tongue as defiantly as an old snake would have
done. Other eggs were torn open with like results. Soon the
old snake appeared and after endeavoring, apparently to encoarage
the young family, thus suddenly initiated into the world, it put its
mouth down to the ground, and every one that had been liberated
from the egg voluntarily and hastily disappeared within the ab-
domen of the old one (mother?). Last of all I put the point of a
pitchfork through tlie old snake and fulfilled the scriptural in-
junction of bruising its head, when with a pocket knife I opened
the abdomen and found the young ones still active."
The snake referred to by Prof. Brackett is apparently the
common milk-snake {^Ophiholus triangulum).
Col. Nicolas Pike, late U. S. Consul at the Mauritius, assures
me that he has seen the garter-snake (Eutcenia sirtalis) afford its
j'oung fixmily temporary protection in its throat, from which they
were soon noticed to emerge.
B. NATURAL BISTORT. 183
Our last witness is one who appears to have been overlooked
throughout this discussion, one whose statement, it would seem,
ought of itself to have decided the question long ago. M. Palisot
de Beanvois, an eminent French naturalist, member of the Institute
and Councillor of the University of Paris, thus details an observa-
tion made near the close of the last century : — '' When making my
first excursion into the Cherokee country,* 1 happened, while bot-
anizing, to see a rattlesnake in my path. I approached as softly
as possible, but, just as I was about to strike, imagine my sui'prise
to see it, after sounding its rattle, open a very large mouth and
receive into it five little serpents, each about the size of a goose-
quill. Astonished at this singular spectacle I retired some dis-
tance and hid behind a tree. After some minutes, the animal,
believing itself out of danger, again opened its mouth and allowed
the little ones to escape. I advanced, the little ones retreated to
their stronghold, and the mother, carrying her precious treasure,
disappeared among the underbrush where I was not able to find
her."t
We have the opinion of Dr. Jeffries Wy man, | Prof. Gill and other
physiologists, that there is no reason why the young snakes may not
live for a time within the parent. It would be very difllcult to
smother a reptile, even in such close quarters, and lizards, toads
and snakes have often been rescued, unharmed, after a sojourn in a
snake's stomach. It is a well known fact that living tissues are
acted upon very feebly by the gastric juice. §
The supposition that the serpents swallow their young for food
is manifestly absurd, for the act is purely voluntary with the young
snakes. K the habit is not protective in its design, it must be
destructive to a degree that will in time exterminate the species
which practise it.
An analogous case is found among certain South American fishes
of the genera Geophagus, Arius and Bagms^ the males carr^-ing
the eggs in their mouths, depositing them in places of safety and
removing them on the approach of danger.]
*The Cherokees were at this time joint*owuer8 of the Rtates of Tenncseee, MiseiS'
aippi and Alabiiraa, with the western portions of North Carolina and Georgia.
tBeanvoi-*, '* Ob-icrvationfl sur le^ Serpens "in D.mdin's •• HiptoireNaturcUe, Gdn-
eralo ct P irticuli^re des Reptiles*' Paris, An. Rep. xi (1803;, vol. v, p. 65.
1** American Naturalist," vol. ii. p. 137.
( Flint's " Physiology of Man," New York, 1871, vol. ii, pp. 275-282.
llWyman, "Proceedings of the Boston Society of Xatnrnl History," vol. vi, p. 328,
1858. "American Journal of Science and Arts," vol. xxvii, 1859, p. 11. GUnther
"Catalogue of the Fishes In the British Museum," vol. v, 1864, p. 173.
184 B. NATURAL HISTOBT.
I have been told of two instances where a large snake was found
to contain one of smaller size, wliich in its turn had within it a
number still more diminutive. This may be easily explained by
supposing the parent snake, after affording the usual protection to
its young brood, to have been swallowed by some hungry reptile
of larger size.
The American Indians seem to have had some knowledge of
this peculiar habit of the rattlesnake. Among the many legends
collected by Maj. J. W. Powell, U. S. Geologist, in his researches
among the Pai Utes, is one giving the origin of the echo. An old
sorceress was suspected of wrong doing and was pursued by her
enemies until in desperation she sought aid from her grandfather,
"Takoa," the rattlesnake. His only resource was to open his
mouth and allow the old witch to crawl in out of sight and out of
danger. She was so well pleased with her safe retreat that she
could not be induced to leave it, so the rattlesnake had to crawl
out of his skin and leave her within. And there, say the Pai
Utes, she remains to this day, and when any one calls she mock-
ingly repeats their words from her hiding place in the cast off
snake-skin.
This curious tradition, even if it cannot be counted as evidence,
shows in an interesting way the wide prevalence of this belief.
There is much need of other observations, to determine what
species of American snakes have this singular habit. Thirty-four
of the observations relate to Evtcenia; the habit is probably
shared by all the species, but is only well attested for the garter
snake (EtUceniq, sirtalis) and the ribbon-snake (Eutcenia satirita).
Seventeen refer to the water-snake {Tropidonotus stpedon). Nine
refer to the banded rattlesnake {Caudisotia Jiarrida)^ two to
the copperhead (Ancistrodon contortrix), three to the moccason
{Ancistrodon piscivorus) and one to the massasauga {Crotalns ter-
geminus). Does the habit extend throughout the Crotalidaf
One instance is given for the blowing-adder (Heterodon plntyrhi-
nos) and three for the mountain black snake {Coluber AUegha-
niensis). Six relate to the so-called "black snake," but this name
is too indefinite. With all deference to Mr. Buckland, I belicTe
the case of the viper {Pelias herns) to be settled, as well as that
of Zootoca, Whether the male snake ever protects the young in
this way has not been observed.
It is a noteworthy fact, which may or may not prove an im-
B. NATURAL BISTORT. 185
portant one, that the snakes mentioned above are all ovo-vivip-
arous with the exception of Ophibolus. There is nothing to
indicate that the habit is shared by the oviparous snakes of the
genera Liopeltis^ Oyclophiiy Storeria, DiadophiSy and Pityophis.
The case of Bascajiion^ which is oviparous, is still quite prob-
lematical, and it remains to be shown whether the ^^ black snake''
of my correspondents is Coluber Alleghaniensis^ or Bascanion cori"
strictor, Mr. Gosse gives facts which make it seem quite proba-
ble that the Jamaica boa {Childbothrus inomatus) may share the
habit.*
The breeding habits of North American snakes deserve careful
investigation, as they are totally unknown in more than twenty-
five of the genera.
Circles of Deposition in American Sedimentary Hocks.
By J. S. Newberry, of New York.
At the meeting of the American Association for the Advance-
ment of Science, held at Newport, H. I., in 1860, having then
just returned from the far West, where I had spent several years
in geological explorations, I communicated to the Association the
results of a study of the Cretaceous deposits in the area lying
between Eastern Kansas and Indianola, Texas, on the 6ast, and
the Colorado River on the west. In this region I found the base
of the Cretaceous system composed of coarse sandstone, some-
times a conglomerate, containing everj'where the impressions of
Angiospermous leaves, and in many places heavy beds of lignite ;
the equivalent of Meek and Hayden's No. 1 . Above this lies a
laminated, impure limestone, containing as characteristic fossils,
lonoceramua problematicus, Gryphcea Fitcheri, Scaphites larvcpfor^
mis, Ammonites percariiMtua^ etc., the series which corresponds
to Meek and Hayden's No. 2 and No. 3. Above the last mentioned
* "A Natnrallst's Sojoam in Jamaica,'' London, 18fil. pp. 818-23, 601. There is rea-
•00 to 1)elieTe kbat some of the Eatasniaa, like the Bcaly lixard (^2kH>toca vipnra) are in
tome instances oviparous, in others oyo-yiviparous, and this point should he kept in
mind hi making obseryations upon that and other genera.
186 B. NATURAL HISTOET.
group is a heavy mass of calcareous strata, abounding in Ammo-
niteSy ScaphiteSy and other well known and characteristic Creta-
ceous mollusks. The fourth member of the series, best developed
in and about the Rocky mountains, is formed by a group of
calcareous sandstones and shales, with impressions of plants,
sheets of lignite and some mollusks, such as characterize Meek
and Hayden's No. 4 and No. 5. From this sequence of strata, I
read the history of a submergence of the Triassic continent and
an invasion of the sea which resulted, first, in the formation of a
wide-spread sheet of beach sand and gravel, containing the tronks
of trees, which had grown on a land surface in the vicinity of the
localities where they are found. Second, a mixture of mechanical
and organic sediments, constituting the off-shore deposits of the
invading sea. Third, a great calcareous mass, the organic sedi-
ments of the open sea during the long continued period of
greatest submergence.
Since the date of the presentation of the paper referred to
above, my attention has been particularly directed to the study
of the palaBozoic formations of the vallej'^ of the Mississippi. The
result of such study has been to lead me to believe that each of
the great palaeozoic systems represented on the eastern half of
our continent, may be resolved into a circle of deposits similar in
general character to that of the Cretaceous s^'stem. These views
have been briefly set forth in the first volume of the Final Report
of the Geological Survey of Ohio, but I now propose to present
them somewhat more fully and connectedly for the consideration .
of the members of the Association.
Before attempting to analj^ze the composition of our different
systems of sedimentary rocks, it is important that a few prelimi-
nary facts and considerations should be stated, as they constitute
the real premises from which our conclusions are to be drawn.
First : the sea is the mother of continents. It is now universally
conceded that with tlie exception of certain local fresh-water
beds, all stratified rocks are sediments deposited from the waters
of the ocean, and tliat wherever we now find these sediments we
have in them proof that the sea has reached and flowed over such
localities.
Second : the composition of the geological column proves that
repeated submergences of our own and other continents have
taken place, and shows that what we call terra firina is rather a
B. NATURAL HISTORY. 187
type of instability. Elevations and depressions of the sea level
have been constantly going on in past ages, and are undoubtedly
progressing at the present time, but so slowly that in the brief
period of human life, or even of human history, the changes
effected b}' them attract little attention.
Third : the manner in which sedimentar}' strata are formed, and
the action of the sea upon its shores, will be best understood by
an examination of what is now going on upon our own and other
coasts. By the action of frost and sun, ice, rain and rivers, all
land surfaces are being constantly worn away, and the commi-
nuted and dissolved materials are carried off to be deposited in
the oceanic basin into which the rivers discharge themselves.
Along the coast lines the shore-waves are constantly eating away
the barriers against which they break. Nothing can resist their
mechanical force, solvent power and incessant activity. The
hardest rocks are in time ground up and comminuted by them,
and the resultant materials are distributed along the ocean bed
by the undertow according to their specific gravity or the minute-
ness of their trituration.*
The wash of the land which forms the mechanical or frag-
meutal sediments, reaches but a limited distance from the shore.
In the depths of the ocean organic sediments are accumulating,
which are derived from the hard parts of the various organic forms
inhabiting the open sea. This is the " ooze" brought up in all deep
sea soundings, and is mainly composed of the carbonate of lime,
.as it is for the most part made up of the shells of mollusks and
foraminifera which have the power of drawing this substance from
the ocean waters. On shores lined with coral reefs or composed
of limestone rocks, even the mechanical deposits are calcareous.
Coral-lined shores, too, are often increasing, as here the accumu-
lation of material through the agency of polypes and other or-
ganisms, is more rapid than its waste bj^ the mechanical or
solvent power of the shore waves. These exceptions do not,
however, affect the validity of the general rule which is here
enu Delated.
•Tlje power of water or a!r In motion to transport any homoj^eneous material is
measured directly by the size of Its particles or maeBcs. According to the law of the
ratio of ihe surface to solidity on spheres of different diameters, tlie ratio of surface to
mass increac'es as the diameter is diminished. The tran8i)ortiug medium acts on the
fiarface and its power increases as the relative surface increases. This accounts for
the different transporting power of water on boulders, gravel, sand and clay, and
Bhows why iron-filings are carried by the wind and cannon balls are not.
188 B. KATUBAL HI8T0BT.
We see, then, that the sediments deposited on every shore form
two areas or belts, viz. : that nearest the land, where they
are mechanical and graduate in fineness from the shore line to
deep water ; and an area beyond the wash of the land, where cal-
careoas and organic sediments are alone thrown down. Necessa-
rily along the line of the. junction of these areas the sediments
will be of a mixed character. The map of the sea bottom oflf onr
Atlantic coast, made by Count Pourtales, beautifully illustrates
the statements that have been made. On this map is shown a
broad belt skirting the shore, where the sediment is mainly sand.
Outside of this, a parallel belt, over which the sediments are
calcareous.
Fourth : if now an invasion of the continent by the ocean were
to take place, such as have repeatedly occurred in past ages, the
following sequence of phenomena would necessarily ensue. All
portions of its surface must in succession be subjected to the
action of the shore waves. • By their agency the solid and super-
ficial materials lying above the sea level would be ground up and
washed away, the greater part forming mechanical sediments and
being distributed according to the law of gravitation, the soluble
portions taken into solution and carried out to impregnate the
ocean waters, and to supply material to the myriads of organisms
that have the power to draw from this solution their solid parts.
In the advance inland of the shore line the first deposit fVom the
sea would be an unbroken sheet of sea-beach, composed of coarse
sand and gravel, containing trunks, branches and leaves of trees,
and other d6bris of the land. This sheet would cover the rocky
substructure of all portions of the continent brought beneath the
ocean. Over these coarser materials would be deposited a sheet
of finer mechanical sediments, principally clay, laid down just in
the rear of the advancing beach, and finally over all a sheet of
greater or less thickness of calcareous material, destined to form
limestone when consolidated, the legitimate and only deposit
made from the waters of the open ocean.
Fifth : in the slow retreat of the sea, at the end of a period of
submergence, the land would be again covered with vegetation,
creeping down from the highlands, if any such had remained un-
covered ; where complete submergence had taken place, by the
importation of a new flora, as the coral islands have been clothed.
The receding sea would receive the drainage from the land — for
B. NATURAL HISTORY. 189
the most part fine mechanical material, — and mingling this with
the new calcareous deposits and the shore wash of older organic
sediments would leave behind it a sheet of mixed material, me*
chanical and organic, as the last product of this submergence.
Sixth: when the sheets of sediment, the genesis of which we
have been considering, were consolidated to rock — as they would
generally soon be by pressure or by siliceous and calcareous solu-
tions,— if they should be penetrated and examined they would be
found to consist of, 1st, superficial materials, the product of sur-
face erosion and washing ; 2d, a mixed mechanical and calcareous
stratum containing shallow-water, marine or estuary organisms ;
3d, a limestone containing the remains of all the inhabitants of
the ocean which possessed shells or other hard parts ; 4th, a sheet
or sheets of mechanical materials, once cla^s sand and gravel,
now consolidated into shi^le, sandstone and conglomerate. All
these strata wrmld rest upon the rock}' foundations of the conti-
nent, the result of a previous submei:gence and representing an
earlier geological age. The later strata would be found laid down
over all the irregularities of the older surfjice ; and between the
older and more recent rocks a break or want of continuity would
be discovered and generally a want of harmony in their lines of
deposition.
Seventh : another invasion of the sea would leave similar rec-
ords of a similar history, with this difference only, that the tribes
of animals and plants inhabiting the land and water would, in the
lapse of ages, have experienced marked changes. Perhaps in
the interval the old fauna and flora would have entirely disap-
peared ; 80 that the new sediments would include only relics of
new races.
Eighth : in the foregoing sketch an uninterrupted sequence of
phenomena has been alone considered. When, however, during
the invasion or recession of the sea the uniformity of the elevation
or depression should be broken and oscillations of level ensue, the
record would be considerably complicated, and we should have
local alternations of land, shore and sea conditions, which would
give us smaller circles within the great ones, and thin sheets of
mechanical or organic sediments interstratified in any one of the
great members of the series.
Having thus briefly reviewed the conditions under which the
different kinds of sedimentary strata are deposited, and having
;
190 B. KATUKA.L HISTORY.
traced out the circle of deposits that would necessaril}' be formed
in the submergence 'of a continent by the sea and the subsequent
retreat of that sea, let us see how far we can trace a parallelism
between the series of phenomena described and those presented
by the strata composing our different geological S3'stem8.
Tn the United States the geological column is composed of the
following elements : at the base we have the Laurentian and Ho-
ronian groups, forming the Eozoic system, and composed of crys-
talline rocks, once limestones, sandstones, shales, etc., but now
much metamorphosed and disturbed, and their fossils obliterated.
These are the oldest rocks known, and when elevated they formed
what we may call the Eozoic continent. Upon the Eozoic rocks
we find, between the Atlantic and the Mississippi, the vari-
ous strata which compose the palseozoic systems, the Lower Silu-
rian, Upper Silurian, Devonian and Carboniferous. Of these the
Lower Silurian consists, beginning at the base, of, 1st, the Pots-
dam sandstone^ generally a coarse, mechanical shore deposit ; 2d,
the Calciferous sand-rock^ a mixed mechanical and organic sedi-
ment, more sandy towards the east, more calcareous and magne-
sian towards the west, which we must class as an off-shore deposit;
3rd, the Trenton limestone group, consisting of the Ghazy, BinVs-
eye, Black River and Trenton limestones ; a great calcareous mass
full of marine organisms, including representatives of the sub-
kingdoms of the Protozoa, Radiate, Mollusca and Articulata, but
no remains of Vertebrates. This is plainly an open sea deposit;
the different members of the limestone group representing epochal
subdivisions of one great life period, and one great chapter in the
history of the first submergence of the Eozoic continent, that of
the long continued prevalence of marine conditions over all the
area where this formation is now found ; 4th, the Hudson group,,
consisting of shales and impure limestones, mixed mechanical and
organic sediments, the deposits of a shallowing and retreating sea-
This member completes the circle of the deposits of the Lower
Silurian and ends the history of the first submergence of the
Eozoic continent.
The Upper Silurian system is composed at base of the Medina
sandstone^ locally a conglomerate to which the term Oneida has
been applied, a shore deposit corresponding to the Potsdam;
above this, the Clinton groups which is composed of limestones
and shales, and the peculiar Clinton iron ore, evidently an off-
B. NATURAL HISTORY. 191
shore deposit ; still higher, the Niagara group; below, shal}', and
showing a shallowing of the Clinton sea ; above, a great and wide-
spread mass corresponding in position to the Trenton group of the
Lower Silurian circle. This abounds in the remains of marine
fossils, and is evidentlj' the sediment of the open sea of the Upper
Silurian age. The inhabitants of this sea, judging from the re-
mains they have left behind them, were generally distinct from
those of the older Trenton sea, although a few species seem to have
been common to both. In America we have as yet found no traces
of Vertebrates in the sediments of the Upper Silurian sea, but in
Europe some remains of fishes have been found at this horizon.
The Niagara limestone is overlaid by the Salina and Helderberg
groups. Of these the Salina is evidently the deposit from a shal-
low and circumscribed basin like the Caspian, Dead sea or Salt
Lake, where the salts held in solution, chloride of sodium, sul-
phate of lime, etc., were precipitated by evaporation, with a con-
siderable portion of introduced earthy matter. The Water-lime
grovp^ which overlies the Salina and forms the base of the Helder-
berg series, is an earthy magnesian limestone. It is best developed
towards the west, while the Helderberg proper is thickest towards
the east, showing an unequal tilting of the shallow oceanic basin
in which these strata were deposited, and a gradual emergence of
the land on the north and west. Notwithstanding some local
irregularities of deposition, the Helderberg group corresponds in
character and position with the Hudson of the Lower Silurian and
completes the Upper Silurian series by a return to land conditions.
The two circles of deposition which have been described are
grouped together under the term Silurian, but as each is complete
in itself and is a record of a totally distinct round of changes,
and as the fauna of the two systems have almost nothing in com-,
mon, it will, I think, be generally conceded that it was an error to
combine them under one name ; and since they are as distinctly
separated as are the subsequently formed systems, each of which
has an independent title, that it would have been better to desig-
nate the Silurian systems by totally distinct names.*
The Devonian system is composed, at the base, of the Oriskany
sandstone J a shore deposit, above which we have the Schoharie grit^
*ThG interests of science and the caase of justice would both be served if we could
agree to call the Lower Silurian by Prof. Sedgwick'^ name. Cambriim, leaving Murchi-
SOD adequate honor in retaining his names, Silurian and Devoniarif for the overlying
systems.
192 B. NATURAL HISTORY.
a mixed mechanical and organic, arenaceous and calcareons, sedi-
ment, an oflf-shore formation ; then the Comiferous group, a inde-
spread sheet of magnesian limestones, containing little earthy
matter, abounding in marine fossils, and plainly the deposit of an
open sea. In this sea the fauna was, with the exception of two or
three surviving species, totally distinct from that which preceded
it ; its chief characteristic being its various genera and species of
fishes, many of which attained large size. The Corniferous lime-
stone is overlaid by the Hamilton group, a calcareo-argillaceous
mass consisting of alternations of shales and limestones, the
shales thicker and more sandy at the east, limestone predomi-
nating at the west. Including the Genesee and Huron shales,
which properly belong to it, the Hamilton group presents all the
main features, in character and position, of the Helderberg and
Hudson, and is, as V believe, composed of the sediments of an
oscillating, but on the whole shallowing and retreating sea.
In all our works on geology the Portage, Chemung and CatskiU
formations are included in the Devonian system, but in my judg-
ment it would be better to consider the Portage sandstones — the
upper half of the Portage group — as the true base of the Car-
boniferous system. Drawing the line at this point, we find the
Portage and Chemung forming an indivisible mass of mechanical
sediments, which, both in fossils and lithologieal characters, con-
trast strongly with the underlying Hamilton, and is evidently the
record of a new era in the geological history of the continent.
This new group I have called the Erie, and I think it will be
found to belong, both by its fossils and its physical relations,
rather with the Carboniferous than the Devonian system, and thus
to correspond with the Potsdam, Medina and Oriskany beloi/.
The CatskiU is a local and ill defined deposit which will probably
prove to be the sediment of a fresh- water basin or a circumscribed
bay in the land which formed the shore of the Carboniferous sea.
Above the Erie and CatskiU we have the Waverly groups the
equivalent of the "Vespertine" and ''Umbral" of Rogers, a mixed
mechanical and organic, shore and off-shore deposit. Above this,
and spreading over a great area towards the west, we find the Car-
honiferoiis limestone, which is plainly, as I have elsewhere shown,*
the sediment of an open sea caused by the gradual submergence
of the central and western portions of the continent.
* Geological Suryey of Ohio, toI. 1, p. 73.
B. NATURAL BISTORT.
193
Overlying the carboniferous limestone are the Carboniferons
conglomerate and the Coal Measures, both of which should, how-
ever, be grouped together as the product of one epoch, and that
of continental elevation, though of local subsidence. During the
deposition of the Coal Measures there were numerous alternations
of elevation and subsidence, the latter strongly marked in the
coal basins proper, but as a whole it was a time of prevailing
and increasing land conditions, so firmly established at the
close of the Coal Measure epoch, that in the region between
the Atlantic and Mississippi there has been no general submer-
gence since.
FLACB OT
DBP081T.
KIKDOF
BRDIMBNT.
COBBB8PONIHVO CIB9LE8 OF DEPOSITION.
BetreatiBg
Sea.
Mixed.
Hudson.
Helderberg.
Hamilton.
Coal Measures.
Open .Sea.
Organic.
Trenton.
Klagara.
Comiftroas.
Carboniferous
Limestone.
Off Shore.
Mixed.
Calctferons.
Clinton.
«
Schoharie.
Wayerly.
Shore.
Mechanical.
Potsdam.
Medina.
Oriftkanj.
Erie.
In the foregoing table the classification of the sediments which
compose our palseozoic sj^stems is such as I think may be found
illustrated in many localities, and yet I should be unwarranted in
claiming that all the elements in the circles of deposition described
aboTC can be recognized in the products of every continental sub-
mergence. It will probably clarify and simplify the theory now
advanced, to claim as the essential elements of each circle of depo-
sition resulting from an invasion of the sea, but three distinct
sheets of sediments, viz. : the mechanical, organic and mixed, the
products respectively of the advancing, abiding and retreating
sea. The lines of separation between these are more or less
sharply defined according to the rapidity of the submergence, and
the nature of the materials acted upon by the shore waves.
Although the views advanced on the preceding pages have
grown up from independent observations and were substantially
embodied in the analysis of the Cretaceous and Triassic groups
▲. A. A. s. VOL. xxn. B.
(18)
194 B. NATURAL BISTORT.
of the far West, presented by me to the American Association in
1860, it is also true that '^Circles of Deposition" in sedimentary
rocks have attracted the attention of many other geolc^ts. Sir
Roderick Murchison, in his description of the Permian of Bassia,
alludes to the fact that it consists of a trinity of strata — mechan-
ical sediments above and below, separated by a limestone—jiut
as in the Trias, which is composed of the Banter, the Mnschelkalk
and the Keaper. Mr. Edward Hull has written quite lai^ely upon
the subject,* proposing an arrangement of all the sedimentary
strata in ternary series, a limestone being the centre of each trin-
ity. In our own country the similarity in lithological diaracter in
the elements composing our different geological systems has been
referred to by Profs. Eaton, Hall, Huntf and Dawson.} Althongh
constructed quite independently, the Circles of Deposition traced
out by Hunt, Dawson and myself agree in all their more important
features, and they may therefore be accepted as being in the main
accurate representations of real facts in nature. My reading of
these facts is, however, somewhat different from that offered by
any of my colaborers. From the striking resemblance presented
by the circles of deposition described, it is evident that they are
the product of a common cause or series of causes ; in other words,
that they are different expressions of one law (order of sequence)
in the deposition of sediments. To define and explain that law is
the chief object of this paper.
In his description of the circles of deposition which he enumer-
ates, Mr. Hull with great sagacity points out many interesting
and suggestive features in their structure, such as their being
composed of mechanical sediments above and below, separated by
a limestone ; in the lateral reach of the strata the preponderance
of limestone in one direction, of mechanical sedimehts in the
other, etc., etc., but he offers no suggestion as to the causes by
which these systematic phenomena were produced, except to des-
ignate the mechanical sediments as the product of ^'epochs of
Iscnd prevalence with movements ; " the calcareous sediments, the
product of "sea prevalence with quiescence."
* Jonmal of the Geological Society of London, toI. zrlli, p. 13S. Geological XtgA-
zlne, Tol. ▼, p. 143. Qnarterly Jonraal of Soience, Tol. yi, p. 853.
t Geology of Canada, 1868, p. 137. American Journal of Science (8 ae.)i ^ol- xzxf «
p. 167.
t Jonmal of the Geological Society of London, toI. zxU, p. Wi, Acadian G«olo8J«
p. 130.
B. NATURAL HI9T0BT. 195
Prof. Dawson's oirdes are comfiosed of four elements each, as
follows :
4. '< Shallow, subsiding marine area, filling np with sediment.
8. "Elevation, followed by slow subsidence, land-surfaces, etc.
2. "Marine conditions ; formation of limestones, etc.
1. " Subsidence ; disturbances ; deposition of coarse sediments."
As I have remarked on a preceding page, we may locally have
four or even more elements in a circle, but three are all that
can be insisted upon as the necessary effects of the cause to which
I attribute the phenomena we discover. That cause I claim to be,
as will be remembered, an invasion of the sea and submergence of
the land in each geological age, the spread of mechanical sedi-
ments formed by shore waves over most of the area invaded ; then
, the deposition on this sheet of mechanical material of a mass of
greater or less thickness of calcareous sediments, the record of
the quiet occupancy of the submerged area by the open sea ; and
finally, mixed calcareoas and mechanical sediments deposited by
the shallowing and retreating sea.
In many instances we have circles within circles, as in the Ni-
agara period with its several epochs, the Hamilton, the Coal
Measures, etc. These subordinate cu*cles are proof of oscillations
of level, t.e., alternations of shore and sea conditions. It is
scarcely necessary to say to a geologist that in passing from the
area of permanent land (land that was not submerged in any
inundation), to the area of permanent sea (the area beyond the.
reach of the wash of the land, where neither shore nor off-shore
deposits were laid down, but only an unbroken series of lime-
stones) , we shall get different sections at different points of obser-
vation, the 'strata becomipg more calcareous in one direction, and
more siliceous in the other. Hence we find the mechanical strata
diminishing in force and finally thinning out completely as we
recede from the old coast formed by the Canadian highlands, the
Adirondacks and the Blue Ridge, toward the oceanic basin on the
south and west. So on the eastern side of the continent the Palae-
ozoic strata are nearly all calcareous in the Gasp6 district. It
should be borne in mind also, as has been suggested, that local
circamstances materially modified the record made by the invasion
of the land by the sea. In some places the portion submerged
furnished abundant material out of which gravel, sand and clay
196 B. NATURAL BISTORT.
beds were formed. In other Jocalities the shore waves beat on
abrupt declivities of hard rock, perhaps in sheltered situations
where little force was developed and little sediment produced.
Here during the period of greatest submergence, limestone strata
were deposited directly upon the clean, washed rocks, with no
intervening sea beach. In the third place where the shore was
formed of upheaved strata which were all calcareous, or where it
was lined with coral reefs, even the mechanical sediments were
calcareous.
In some instances we have indisputable records of the progru-
sive invasion of the land by the sea that subsequently produced
the great calcareous sheet which forms the core and centre of the
deposits of the age. Such a record is fhmished by the Carhonif-
erous limestone in Ohio and Pennsylvania and by the Cfetaceoos
formation of the far West. It was in the study of the latter that
the writer derived his first idea of the explanation now offered
of Circles of Deposition, and whatever may be thought of other
circles, the history of that one is as clear and unmistakable as any
page of print. The proof that the lower Cretaceous sandstone
of the far West is an old sea beach, spread by the advance inland
of shore waves is capable of demonstration. In my mind every
great sandstone formation is of similar origin, and I can conceive
of no other power by which these great sheets of mechanical mate-
rial could have been so widely and uniformly spread.
Remarks on Prof Newberry's Paper on " Circles of Deposi-
tion," ETC. By T. Sterrt Hunt, of Boston, Mass.
Dr. T. Sterrt Hunt, in expressing his great satisfaction at the
exposition of Prof. Newberry, observed that beside the mechanical
deposits from the retreating and advancing seas, and those of the
open ocean, pure limestones, in great part made up of organic re-
mains, must be considered the considerable areas of evaporating
sea-basins giving rise to deposits of magnesian limestone with
gypsum and salt, often destitute of animal life. In this way the
B. KATUBAL HISTOBT. 197
break between the Medina-Niagara fauna and that of the Lower
Helderberg, or what he had spoken of in a recent paper as the
third and fourth faunas, was marked. He showed that the Tren-
ton, the Lower Helderberg, the Comiferous, and the Carbonifer-
ous limestones, marked four periods of oceanic limestone deposits,
and that the gypsum and salt of the Lower Carboniferous indicate
a period like the Onondaga between the Niagara (itself magne-
sian) and the Lower Helderberg. The rocks of the first fauna
show a similar series, but in the Ottawa basin we have but an
incomplete representation of them. The Calciferons sandrock of
that series is however really a magnesian formation with gypsnm
and brines. He showed that this law of cycles, first pointed out
by Amos Eaton, and insisted upon by Hall, had been developed
farther by the speaker in "The American Journal of Science"
for March, 1863 (xxxv, 166), and in an address last year before
the American Geographical Society, and published in the "En-
gineering and Mining Journal" for Jan. 14, 1873, where the de-
pendence of these periods of evaporation upon a climate of great
dryness over eastern North America throughout the palaeozoic
period had been insisted upon.
The connection between evaporating sea-basins and the forma-
tion of magnesian limestones was explained by referring to the
speaker's researches published in 1859, in which it was shown by
him that the formation of the carbonate of magnesia necessary
for the production of dolomite and magnesian limestones requires
the absence of chlorid of calcium from the waters in which it is
deposited, whether this carbonate is generated by the reaction of
bi-carbonate of lime on sulphate of magnesia, with the simulta-
neous production, of g3rpsum, or by the intervention of bi-carbo-
nate of soda. In both cases, as was then shown, isolated and
evaporating basins are indispensable conditions of the deposition
of the magnesian carbonate (Amer. Jour. Sci., xxviii, 170, 365).
The legitimate deductions from this, as to the geographical and
climatic conditions of regions during the formation of magnesian
limestones, were further insisted upon by the speaker in a paper
read before this Association in 1868, and published in t|ie ''Amer.
Jour. Science" for November of that year, xlvi, 361, on ''The
Geology of Southwestern Ontario.
It was not, however, the speaker believed, until 1871 that these
views found recognition among geologists, when Prof. A. C, Ramsay
198 B. NATURAL HISTOBT.
by his InveBtigations of the magneslan limestone of the Permian
in England was led to reject as untenable the notion held by
Sorby (and by others) that this was once an ordinary limestone
of organic origin, subsequently converted into dolomite under con-
ditions not yet explained, and to conclude that the carbonates of
lime and magnesia of which it is composed had been ^^ deposited
simultaneously by the concentration of solutions due to evapora-
tion." To this view Bamsay tells us he was led by physical con-
siderations, and by the depauperated condition of the organic
remains contained in these strata, without being, at the time,
aware that the speaker had twelve years previously announced the
same conclusions with regard to all magnesian limestones, and
established them on chemical grounds. IQuar. Jour, Geol^SoCy
1871, p. 249.]
The Ajcbbioak Musbuk of Natui^ Histobt in Centbal Pabx,
New Yobk ; a sketch of its histobt, includinq a dbscbip*
TION OF THE COLLECTIONS PABTICULABLT USEFUL TO AmEIUCAH
NATUBALISTS, its EXTENT AND PLANS, AND THE CONVENIENCES
IT WILL POSSESS FOB THE BENEFIT OF SCIENTIFIC MEN. Bj
Albebt S. Bickmobe, of New York.
ABSTBACT.
Fob many years a large number of the generous and public-
spirited citizens of New York had felt the need of a museum
and library of natural history that would be on a scale commen-
surate with the wealth and importance of our metropolitan city,
and would encourage and develop the study of natural history,
advance the general knowledge of kindred subjects, and to tiiis
end fhrnish popular amusement and instruction. In 1868 a re-
markable opportunity presented itself of securing a rare collection
that would form an admirable nucleus for such a comprehensive
museum. The most extensive dealer in specimens in the world,
Edouard Verreaux, of Paris, suddenly died, leaving in the hands
of his widow a collection, which, at the rates he was accustomed
B. NATURAL HlflTOBT.
199
to sell specimens, would have brought over 500,000 francs, $100,-
000 in gold. This great collection included the choicest specimens
he had been able to obtain from every part of the world, particu-
larly the £ast Indies and Australia. He had made extended ex-
plorations in Africa himself, and had been aided largely in his
researches by the French Government. Like most naturalists he
found it an easy matter to exchange with his friends and thus
enrich his own museum, but to get the requisite funds for carrying
on his operations he was obliged to borrow of bankers and mort-
gage his specimens. Dying suddenly he left the rich gatherings
of an industrious lifetime seriously embarrassed with debt. This
opportunity it was decided to try to improve, and a subscription
of nearly $50,000 was at once made up as a beginning, and since
that time about $100,000 has been contributed in money, though
the present property of the institution, including the large dona-
tions of specimens which have been steadily coming in, could not
be replaced, nor could other as interesting and valuable specimens
be obtained for less than $250,000. A rare and nearly complete
collection of American birds and many fine birds of paradise and
pheasants were first purchased of Mr. D. G. Elliot. While nego-
tiations were about to be opened for the Yerreaux collections a
second museum unexpectedly became available. Prince Maxi-
milian of Neuwied on the Rhine above Bonn (not the Emperor
Maximilian of Austria and Mexico) died, and the young son in-
heriting the estate had no scientific taste and offered the results of
his father's life-work for sale. The elder J^ince, who formed the
collection, passed 1815, 1816 and 1817 exploring Brazil from Rio
up to Bahia, and of course a large proportion of the great collec-
tions he secured^ had never at that early date been seen by scien-
tific men in Europe before, and were therefore types of new
species.
This collection the American Museum purchased entire. Such
typical specimens are the desiderata the museum is specially ex-
erting itself to secure for the benefit of the scientific students in
onr land. An agreement was soon after made with Mme. Yerreaux
by which all the choice specimens in her cabinet not contained in
the Elliot and Maximilian purchases were selected for the museum,
and all these specimens have been safely received from Europe
and are now on public exhibition in Central Park. Large dona-
tions of shells, corals and minerals have been received, and one
200 B. NATCBAL HI8TOBT.
collection of 20,000 insects. The liberal subscriptions Erst made
induced the principal subscribers to act as trustees for the fand
and property acquired by it, and by a special act of the Legislft-
ture they were created a body corporate — they and their sacces*
sors to have entire and unrestricted control forever over all the
museum property. They have limited their number to twentj-fiye
and the survivors fill every vacancy, thus securing a fixed policy
and stable character to the institution. An arrangement has been
made between the trustees and the Department of Public Parks
in New York by which the city may fhrnish lands and buildings,
while the collections are to be bought and cared for by monej'S
contributed by the trustees themselves and the generous public.
In pursuance of this plan, by which the authorities of the city
and private citizens might cooperate toward the common end of
establishing a large museum, $500,000 was appropriated by the
city to commeuce a suitable thoroughly fire-proof edifice, and the
Department of Parks was authorized to set apart so much of the
public lands under their control as they might deem proper and
necessary for the proposed structure and its future extensions.
In accordance with this law, Manhattan square, situated between
Eighth and Ninth avenues and Seventy-seventh and Eighty-first
streets, and containing over eighteen acres, has thus been set
apart by the Department and accepted by the trustees. Messrs.
Vaux and Mould, architects of the Park, have designed a build-
ing which may be put up in sections, and thus always be prac-
tically complete and yet •ultimately occupy the whole area. (Here
Professor Bickmore explained a number of large and elegant
drawings of the. whole plan, which is three times as great as the
British Museum, the largest institution of the kind in the world
and very properly the pride of ervery Englishman.) The great
object of the museum is twofold. First, to interest and instruct
the masses which already throng its halls and occasionally nuno-
ber over 10,000 in a single day ; and secondly, and especially
to render all the assistance possible to specialists. These wants
are shown to be amply met by the large, palatial saloons for the
public, and over the whole building a high Mansard story, con-
taining spacious and well-lighted rooms with every modem con-
venience, where naturalists from every part of our country may
pursue their favorite studies for any length of time, and be secure
iVom all possible interruptions. The general arrangement of
B. NATURAL HISTOBT. 201
•
cases adopted places them at right angles, and an ingenious device
by Mr. Vaux admits light into the part next the wall by a slit
through the wall. (This was shown in the drawing.) Contracts
have already been matured, which oblige the contractors under
the forfeiture of very heavy bonds to complete the walls, floors
and roof, all except the interior finishing, by the Ist of November,
1874, and the building will undoubtedly be ready for occupation
In the spring of 1875. Professor Bickmore concluded by extend-
ing, in the name of the trustees, a most cordial invitation to the
members of the Association to visit the museum whenever and
as often as convenient, and to avail themselves freely of any aid
it may be able to offer them in their scientific labors.
On the Effects of Certain Poisons on Mollusks. By William
North Rice, of Middletown, Conn.
The experiments referred to in this paper were made while the
writer was employed as one of the assistants on the U. S. Fish
Commission, in Portland Harbor, during the past summer. The
immediate object was to discover some means of killing gastero-
pods in a state of expansion, so as to obtain specimens exhibiting
them in a somewhat life-like aspect. It was believed that, if such
a method could be discovered, it would be of some value for pop-
ular and educational museums. The species chiefiy experimented
upon were Buccinum undatnm, Ilj^anassa obsoleta, Tritia tiivit-
lata, Lunatia heros. Purpura lapillus, and Littonna palliata.
The poisons employed were carbonic acid, sulphate of morphia,
chloroform, chloral hydrate, sulphocyanide of potassium, cyanide
of potassium, hydrocyanic acid, woorara, coniine, quinine, sali-
cine, and santonine. Most of these are well known narcotics, and
were, on that account, selected for experiment. Sulphocyanide
of potassium has been said to act directly upon the muscular sys-
tem, destroying the irritability of the muscles. Several of the
vegetable alkalies were tried, it being kuown that some of that
class of compounds are more fatal to some of the lower animals
^
202 B. NATURAL HI8T0BT.
than to man and other mammalia. The smaller epecies of idoU
Insks were immersed in solations of the poisons employed. In
the case of the larger species, the poisons were generally injected
with a hypodermic sjringe. Carbonic acid was applied by poaring
a bottle of soda water into the vessel containing the spedmens.
Experiments were also tried of leaving the animals to die ia
stale water, of putting them into f^sh water, and of gradnilly
adding alcohol to the sea water in which they were contained.
As regards the immediate object of the experiments, no very
satisfactory result was reached ; and a leading design of this com-
munication is to save others firom spending time and trouble in
fruitless experiments. Perhaps the best results were obtained
with hydrocyanic acid, some of the specimens treated with that
poison dying in a very satisfactory condition. Some experiments
with coniine also succeeded very well. The average results of
the experiments with these poisons were not, however, materially
better than those obtained by the simpler method of leaving the
animals to die in stale water — certainly not enough better to
make it worth while to resort to them. Some specimens of Buc-
cinum undatum which died in stale water, remained quite well ex-
panded, though the majority retracted the foot more or less com-
pletely within the shell. In the case both of the animals which
died in stale water and of those which were poisoned, it was fre-
quently observed that, even when the body in general was consid-
erably contracted, the foot being partly or almost completely re-
tracted, the proboscis or penis or both were quite fiiUy extended.
One specimen of Buocinum undatum, poisoned with hydrocyanic
acid, not only extended the proboscis, but protruded the lingual
ribbon. Fresh water, alcohol (however gradually added to the
water in which the specimens were contained), chloroform, chloral
hydrate, cyanide of potassium, quinine and santonine, produced
complete contraction.
Among the most interesting results of the experiments, was the
observation that certain poisons which act with extreme violence
upon the mammalia, are very feeble in their action on the mol-
lusca. This is especially true of hydrocyanic acid and woorara.
Specimens of Ilyanassa obsoleta, immersed in dilute hydrocyauic
acid on Friday, showed somewhat feeble signs of life on the fol-
lowing Tuesday. A specimen of Lunatia heros into which a
quantity of woorara had been injected, was found the next day to
B. NATURAL HISTORY. 208
show no sign of any injury. Indeed, both of these poisons seemed
to produce death very little sooner than the animals would have
died in stale water. The sudden introduction of a large amount
of carbonic acid in the manner which has been described, seemed
to produce no decided effect. On the other hand, chloral hydrate
seems to be very suddenly fatal, the animals treated with it be-
coming instantly contracted, and not resuming their activity when
kept for a number of hours in sea water. Cyanide of potassium
is similar in its effects, though not quite so instantaneously fatal.
The effects of quininei are similar, though less energetic. Ghloro-
form produces instantaneous contraction, and probably death ; but,
as the animals treated with this poison were not afterwards kept
for a time in pure sea water to give them an opportunity to revive,
it is not certain that they were really dead.
Calvert's supposed Relics of Man in the Miocene of the Dar-
danelles. By George Washburn, of Constantinople.
Communicated bt C. H. Hitchcock.
Sir John Lubbock announced not long ago that Mr. Calvert had
discovered evidence at the Dardanelles of the existence of man
in the Miocene period. He reported that eight hundred feet below
the surface there had been found several flint instruments ; bones
split lengthwise, and especially a fossil bone upon which had been
engraved a picture of a horned animal. The author, in company
with Mr. Forbes, instructor in mathematics in Robert College,
visited the spot last April, 4ind found Mr. Calvert engaged in
mining and ready to aid them. The deposits were found midway
between the Dardanelles and the plains of Troy. The hills rise
abruptly about eight hundred feet above the Straits, and are cut
by deep ravines which exhibit the formation.
The lowest formation exposed at this point is a non fossil-
iferous, argillaceous limestone, nearly white, of irregular thick-
ness, and smooth, like pressed clay, on its upper surface. Above
204 B. NATURAL HISTORY.
this are irregular beds of earth and clay of different colors ; next
is a deposit of white sea-sand five hundred feet thick, which con-
tains, at irregular intervals, pebble beds from one to four feet
thick ; next is a bed of shell limestone at least one hundred feet
thick. These shells are of the brackish water variety. Tchiha-
theff, in his "Asia Minor" calls this Miocene. The fossils and
flints were closely examined, and the investigators arrived at the
conclusion that they were shaped by the action of water. Teeth
of the mastodon and parts of tusks were found. The bones found
were in so small fragments that it was not possible to determine
them. Similar fragments of flint, exhibiting no other action than
that of water, were found in abundance in a pebble formation near
Dardanelles, and it was only a question of selecting Arom piles of
stones those that happened to take a certain shape.
Mr. Calvert has in his collection several bones split lengthwise
with the marrow gone. This cannot be denied. But I doubt if
such bones prove the existence of human beings. We found in
the hole of a Jackal, on the plain of Troy, sheep bones which had
also been split lengthwise, and inferred that if the bones were split
they were the work of beasts. But it is very doubtfUl if the bones
found by Mr. Calvert were broken in this way ; for we found that
when one of the whole bones was dropped it broke lengthwise, and
as all the marrow was gone it resembled the split bones found.
The bone with the supposed engraving is a fragment about eight
inches in diameter, shaped like a flattened sphere, one surface
smooth, the other rough. It has been called the bone of a masto-
don or of a Deinotherium, but is so small that it cannot be deter-
mined. Mr. Calvert has had it about twenty j-ears, but only lately,
since he read Sir John Lubbock's book on bones in France, has be
distinguished the engraving upon it. The smooth surface has
some fifty marks, more than half which are grouped in the centre.
Taken individually they are peculiar and puzzling, but taken to-
gether they can hardly represent a sketch of an animal, or show an
evidence of design. We were unable to account in a satisfactory
manner for the marks, but suggested they might have been pro-
duced by worms when the bone was soft. We found the smooth
upper surface of the underlying stratum of limestone was covered
with exactly similar marks, many groups of which made more
striking pictures than those found on the bone. One specimen is
so marked that a vivid imagination can distinguish the picture of
B. NATURAL BISTORT. 205
a wild boar with a spear in his side, with the Greek letter n most
clearly cut by the side of it. No one would dream of attributing
all the marks upon the rocks to design, and I think it equally
unreasonable to attribute the similar, marks upon the bone to
human agency.
The author reports, therefore, in view of the facts mentioned
above as to the flints, the split bones and the marks upon the fos-
sil bone, that he believes that Mr. Calvert and Sir John Lubbock
(who had never seen the specimens) are mistaken in the conclu-
sions to which they have come ; and that they have not been able
to find any evidence whatever at the Dardanelles in reference to
the antiquity of man.
Geology of the Northwest Part of Maine. By C. H. Hitch-
cock and J. H. Huntington, of Hanover, N. H.
The country alluded to in this communication is bounded on the
east by Moosehead Lake, on the north by the west branch of the
Penobscot River, on the west by the water-shed between the Ken-
nebec and Chaudiere rivers, including the neighborhood of Lake
Megantic ; on the south and southwest by the mountain range of
which Mt. Bigelow is the culminating peak. It is partly Palae-
ozoic, with an abundance of fossils, and partly Eozoic. It is of
special interest because it is the district where the fossiliferous
rocks are limited (in passing towards the White Mountains from
the Gulf of St. Lawrence) by the older strata. It has been sup-
posed by many that these Devonian fossiliferous strata passed by
gradual metamorphism into crystalline rocks and that the gneisses
of New England are to be regarded as altered Palfleozoic. The
sequel will show that this position is not tenable — so far as can
be judged from the rocks of this district.
The fossiliferous rocks of this section were first pointed out by
Dr. Jackson, who studied them particularly in the vicinity of
Parlln Pond.* He mentions a locality half a mile north of Parlin
* Third Annual Reporti p. 44, 1889.
206 B. NATURAL HISTORY.
Pond where he discovered a great number and variety of imprea-
9ions in a bed of Graywacke. He Bpeaks of them as the most
perfect casts of marine fossils that he had ever seen. He seems
to have been led to the discovery by the numerous bowlders that
have been scattered from this formation as far south as the outer
island of Penobscot Bay in the mouth of the Kennebec. Dr.
Jackson passed over Moosehead Lake ; then he followed Moose
River up to the Canada road, which is some thirty miles from
the lake; thence he went southward, after he had explored the
country northward to the Canada line. In passing up Moose
River he crossed the fossiliferous strata diagonally. He noticed
obscure fossils iu the rocks at Lake Brassua and these are the
only fossils he observed on Moose River, or on the lakes that are
expansions of this stream.
In 1861-62, one of us when engaged on the geological survey
of Maine traversed hastily Moosehead Lake, then westward to
the boundary along the west branch of the Penobscot ; and the
Canada road from the Forks to the Chaudiere.* The upper
section showed two Huronian areas overlaid by two bands of clay
slates, the latter most likely of Upper Silurian age ; the other,
the Canada road, exhibited at first strata, most likely Upper Si-
lurian in age (possibly Huronian) overlaid by a band of Oriskany
sandstone — to the west of which appeared first granite ledges,
then the Upper Silurian strata, followed by the Huronian again
extending into Canada.f The numerous fossils obtained at the
first visit were named by Billings of Montreal, who recognized
in them characteristic species of the Oriskany sandstone. Sub-
sequently, the finding of the Fucoides Cauda-Galli made us
believe the representatives of the Cauda-Galli grit appeared on
Moosehead Lake.}
In the hope of gaining some additional knowledge of the -rocks
of this section, particularly in determining their extreme limit, J.
H. Huntington spent a few weeks late last autumn in traversing
the country from Moosehead Lake westward. Standing on the
summit of Mt. Kineo and looking toward the southwest, we see a
high ridge that is almost parallel with Moose River. This ridge
is composed of a rock similar to that of Mt. Kineo. It has been
described as a bluish homstone or flint, but it seems rather to be
• Second Annual Report, p. 848, 1868. f /•'•> P- ^^ t I^-t P- SSI.
B. NATURAL BISTORT.
208 B. KATUEAL BISTORT.
a feUite and although cut by many joints which make the strati-
fication very obscure, yet it appears to have a northwesterly dip.
On the west shore of Lake Brassua, probably two miles from the
southern extremity of the lake, there is an outcrop of a dark
colored shale ; and immediatel}' north, there is another outcrop of
felsite. If we follow the line of the strike of the felsite of Lake
Brassua, four miles S. W. of Parlin Pond, we find Bald Mt. with
the ridges running W. and N. E. to be composed of a rock simihir
to that of Mt. Kineo. So it is possible that the rock may be con-
tinuous between these two points.
The shores about the inlet of Lake Brassua are low, and the
stream is quite sluggish until after you pass the little Brassoa.
Perhaps three-fourths of a mile above this lake the stream
becomes rapid, and outcrops of rock are frequent. The rock is a
ferruginous sandstone cut by numerous joints, and the strata dip
S. 20** E. 10°. The fossils are quite numerous and some of them
very distinct. The following are the genera: Avicula, Modio-
lopsis, Orthis, Leptoccelia, Flabellites, Spirifer, Fucoid. For the
next three miles tl^e rock is a light brown sandstone, very hard,
and in this we did not see any fossils. At the mouth of Stony
Brook, a point some two miles from Long Pond, we found another
fossiliferous band of rock. There the sandstone is compact, but
it frequently contains fragments of slate an inch or more across.
Thus it is evident that this rock is newer than the slates on either
side. The dip of the rock here is S. 31** E. 2**. The fossils are
not so numerous as in some other places, but they seem to be
more generally distributed through the rock. This is the only
locality where the coral Favosites is found. From this point to
Long Pond the outcrop is the same compact brown sandstone that
we had seen in several places between the little Brassua and the
mouth of Stony Brook. Long Pond is nine miles in length, and
is the longest of the numerous sheets of water which are expan-
sions of Moose River. It varies in width from a quarter to a half
mile. The first outcrop of rock on the south shore contains con-
cretions of iron pyrites, but no fossils. About half-way up the lake
the strata run diagonally across, and there are several outcrops
of rock at some distance from the shore. Here there are a few
fossils, but as they are on the perpendicular face of the ledges it
is impossible to obtain specimens by ordinary appliances ; yet it
gives us the means of the exact dip of the strata. Six miles fh>m
B. NATURAL HISTORT. 209
the outlet on the south shore there is quite an extensive outcrop
of rock and an abundance of fossils. The dip of the strata here
is S. 20"" £. 55^ The sandstone is of a lighter, color than that
which is generally found farther east, and the strata dip at a
greater angle. The fossiliferous portion of the rock is more
argillaceous than the non-fossiliferous.
Groing south across the strata to Mountain Brook, a stream
ronning east from Owl's Head, there are a few fossils, but rather
indistinct. The dip of rock here is S. 40^ E. 10°. In the south-
east comer of Long Pond township, near Mud Pond, fossils are
abundant. The dip is N. 8° W. 6**. The rock generally is of a
brownish gray color, and nearly everywhere cut by joints ; so
that where there are no fossils it is difQcult to recognize readily
the position of the strata. Taking the fossil locality where the
rock begins to dip north as the middle of the axis, we have by
trigonometrical calculation the thickness of 2880 ft. for the Oris*
kany sandstone. The rock northwest of the sandstone is in gen-
eral an argillaceous schist, and dips toward the sandstone with
little or no unconformability. If we follow Moose River above
here we shall find a granitic gneiss. The first outcrop is on an
island near the outlet of Wood Pond. The fossils from Parlin
Pond are Strophomena magnifica^ Orthis muscidosa^ Bhynchonella
oUata^ Benssdceria ovoidesj Leptoccdia flabellites, Spirifera arrecta
and pyxidcUa^ ModiolopaiSy Cyrtodontay Avicula^ Murchisonia^ Or-
thoceras and Dcdmanites epicrcUes.
SECTION FROM LAKE HEGANTIC TO LEXINGTOK.
The topography of the country from Lake Megantic to Lexing-
ton, though nowhere very remarkable, possesses some points of
Interest. Historically it is of note as the route pursued by
Arnold in his expedition to Quebec in the autumn of 1775. That
part of the route from Eustis to Lake Megantic is known only to
lumbermen and trappers, and previous to our visit last autumn,
the section, except the western border of Lake Megantic, had
never been studied with reference to its geology. Lake Megantic
is some sixteen miles in length and from two to five and a half
in width. With the exception of a settlement at the east end
there are only primeval forests with some openings made by the
lombermen and accidental fires. In the vicinity of the lake the
hills rise in gentle undulations and are covered for the most part
▲•▲•A. 8. VOL. XXII. B. (U)
210 B. NATUBAL HISTOBT.
with a heavy growth of sprace, fir, maple or birch. Southward
the hills rise to mountain heights. The mountain ridge forms a
water-shed separating the waters of the St. Lawrence f^om those
of the soutli and forming the boundary between the States and
Canada. Two large streams, Victoria on the northwest aod Ar-
nold on the southeast, flow into the lake. The outlet, the Cbao-
diere, is on the northeast, a mile and a half ftom the northern ex-
tremity. On the Arnold River and its tributary, and on the Spi-
der River, the shores are low for several miles. The Spider
widens into broad sheets of water, the most prominent of which
are Rush and Spider lakes. At the head of Spider River the gap
in the water- shed is lower than elsewhere for many miles on either
side. Here was a depot of supplier during the boundary sarvey
in 1844-5. The height of the maple and birch trees on land
cleared then is from twenty to twenty-five feet. The outlook
northward is apparently over an unlimited forest : six or seven
miles southward it is obstructed by a range of high hills. Im-
mediately south of the water-shed we come into Maine to the
head waters of Dead River. Some four and a half miles from the
water-shed are three branches that unite to form this stream.
From Rush Lake passing over the boundary into Maine, not more
than a mile and a quarter from the height of land, is a sheet of
water nearly a mile in length, known as Arnold's Pond ; the out-
let of which is the middle branch. Along the northeast branch,
which rises opposite the mouth of Spider River are several bogs,
one of which is a mile and a half in length. Here the stream
widens so that boating is practicable to within two and one-half
miles of Spider River, where there is sufficient depth of water to
float a " birch." These branches of Dead River with their numer-
ous lakes are included in a great basin, and the stream breaks
through this basin in its southern border at the chain of lakes,
which is an expansion of Dead River some seven or eight miles in
length and at its greatest width perhaps a little more than a mile.
Half-way down the lakes there is a high mountain ridge, much
higher than the mountain sheets between Dead and Spider rivers.
Along the south shore the rocks form precipitous heights, but on
the north the rise is more gradual, yet there are many Jutting
cliffs far up the side of the mountain. At the outlet there is a
high ridge that extends along the south side of the stream ; but on
the north the ridge recedes quite a distance from it. From the
B. NATURAL HISTOKY. 211
chain of lakes the stream, except for a short distance, for sixty
miles, is navigable. At the long falls there is a carry of a mile,
then dead water for five miles to the great falls, and from this
point continuously rapid to the forks of the Kennebec. A large
part of Eastis, Flagstaff and Dead river plantation is included in
a great basin entirely surrounded by mountains. On the south is
Mount Bigelow, a mountain ridge extending ten miles east and
west. When it reaches R. 11 jt sweeps round to the north through
L. 11, the same range. Then the ridge runs west to the long
falls on Dead River.
The rocks on a section from Lake Megantic to Lexington are
as follows : at the north end of the lake there is a dark gray are-
naceous schist that frequently contains iron P3rrites. On the west
side of the lake and south of Victoria River there is a wrinkled
argillaceous schist with a fossil brown slate having small cavities
filled with a yellowish brown powder. The dip is S. 45® E. 70**.
These rocks are referred to the Upper Silurian by Sir Wm. Logan
and they extend down the Chaudiere River to St. Francis. South-
west we have found them in Ditton and on the boundary of New
Hampshire. Their eastern limit is near the head of Perry Stream.
On their southern extension they pass into mica schist. Follow-
ing the road parallel with the lake six miles from Lake Megantic,
the rock changes and we have green chloritic schists, containing
light green epidolitic nodules. The rock here dips N. 35® E. 36®.
Farther up the lake we have line dark gray sandstones. These
rocks were examined by Sir Wm. Logan on the lake shore, and
by him they were referred to the Quebec group, and were supposed
to underlie the wrinkled argillaceous schist just described. This
seems quite probable from their relations elsewhere. We have
the same succession of rocks in New Hampshire in the vicinity
of Connecticut lake, and name the first Coos Group, the second
Huronian. Near the boundary of Quebec and Maine and forming
the water-shed between Chaudiere and Dead rivers, we have a
band of granite, probably eruptive. Following the granite and
extending along Dead Riveir for four or five miles we have a gran-
itic gneiss, the strata of which are apparently horizontal. The
high mountain ridge at the Chain Lakes is an eruptive granite,
and this is followed near the outlet of the lake by a fine grained
gneiss that dips 67® and 70® W., and probably extends two miles
down the river. We then have for a quarter of a mile a granular
talcoid schistose rock that dips 80® N. 20® W. This is followed
212 B. KATUR^I. BI6T0BT.
by an impure serpentine of a very dark green color, often asbest-
iform in the joints and appearing to form a synclinal axis. It is
followed on the southeast by a granular crystalline rock somewhat
coarser than that on the northeast, but otherwise similar. This
rock is so cut by joints that it is impossible to determine the dip,
though the strike corresponds with the granular crystalline rock
northeast of the serpentine.
Leaving the river and following the old road, the next outcrop
is a dark green crystalline rock succeeded by quartzite that dips
63** S. 20® E. This is followed by a breccia composed of greenish
slate, quartzite and serpentine, and also what appear to be red-
dish grains of felsite. The breccia seems to be composed of
rocks found on either side of it. It is followed on the southeast
by a quartzite that dips 75® S. 30® W. At Eustis village, ex-
tending a mile northwest and three and a half miles southeast,
there is a band of tender fissile slate, generally of a greenish
gray color, but having bands of light purple, and southeast of
the village are bands of quartzite. This slate forms a distinct
synclinal axis. On the Megalloway River we have granular schis-
tose rocks, quartzites, serpentine and slate. The similarity of
these to those on Dead River makes it quite probable that the
latter are a continuation of the former. Between Eustis village
and Mt. Bigelow, there is a greenish chloritic rock that seems to
pass into porphyritic gneiss. This rock occupies a lai^e area in
Dead River plantation and Flagstaff; since a similar rock was
seen in Range 6, Lot 3, anct northwest at Attean and Wood ponds,
a continuous band may extend thirty miles northward. There is
a striking similarity in this rock to one found in Northumberland,
N. H., and southward. Here, as at Littleton, N. H., there is a
band of Helderberg limestone containing corals that are remark-
ably distinct. The rock, where the fossils are most abundant, out-
crops on an island in Flagstaff Pond. On the west peak of Flag-
staff Mountain there is a band of limestone, but the fossils are
very obscure. South of the green chloritic gneiss there is a mica
schist or imperfect gneiss that resembles very closely the White
Mountain series. On the west peak of Mt. Bigelow the dip is 50®
N. On the ridge extending from Mt. Bigelow east, where the
road passes over it in Range 11, No. 2, the rock is mica schist.
It dips 60® N. 5® W., and carries an abundance of small crystals
of andalusite. These rocks rest on a porphyritic gneiss that oat-
crops a few rods south of the height of land. This gneiss resem-
B. KATUBAL HI8T0BT.' 218
bles the rock of the basin northwest in the valley, and is followed
on the south in New Portland by a granitoid gneiss that resem-
bles very closely that associated with the gneiss in the vicinity of
the White Mountains.
Adopting the conclusions derived ft*om our study of the rocks
in northern New England, w^ think the porphyritic gneiss south
of Mt. Bigelow is the oldest of all the rocks enumerated. The
gneisses of Mt. Bigelow and the ridges eastward abound in crys-
tals of andalusite, and appear to belong to the White Mountain
series, and to rest upon the porphyritic variety. The series of
chloritic and talcoid schists, (^uartzites and serpentines, appears to
be still more recent and to be allied to the Huronian system.
The granite and gneiss f^om the Lake outlet on the east to the
Megantic basin on the west may be older than the Huronian upon
both flanks.
COKCLUSIOKS.
Four important conclusions may be drawn from the distribution
of the formations in northwestern Maine.
1. The Oriskany sandstone reposes gently upon Eozoic gneisses
— the first bearing scarcely more traces of alteration than the
corresponding group in New York, while the second seems to have
been metamorphosed and elevated before the Devonian formation
was deposited. No further trace of this group has yet been found
towards the White Mountains. It has been followed through
Maine from one hundred and fifty to two hundred miles, and sim-
ilar rocks are described in Nova Scotia by Dawson. It can,
therefore, no longer be maintained with reason that these strata
pass into New Hampshire in a metamorphosed condition.
2. The Oriskany is several times thicker than in its extension
in the interior and farther south in Pennsylvania. The greatest
thickness mentioned by H.D. Rogers is five hundred and twenty
feet, only one-fifth its dimensions in Maine. The greatest ob-
served thickness in New York is only thirty feet.
S. The discovery of new localities of Helderberg limestone
indicates a wide-spread submergence of eastern America in Up-
per Silarian and Middle Devonian times, of nearly fifteen hundred
feet. These fossils have been detected, at Bemardston, Mass.,
Lyman and Littleton, N. H., Montreal, Lake Memphremagog
and other localities to the northeast in Quebec Province, Eustis,
Flagstaff and Spencer Mountain, in the field described above in
214 B. KATUBAL HISTORY.
Maine, and still greater developments in the northern part of
Maine, too extensive to be specially mentioned ; hence,
4. There must have been subsequently to the Helderberg,
a period of elevation to bring New England to essentially its
present position. Possibly this epoch may be indicated in the
later elevating force seen upon Mt. Washington. The highly in-
clined Helderberg strata at Littleton and Owl's Head, P. Q., cer-
tainly bear witness to the exertion of a powerful elevating agency.
Thb outer Cebbbbal Fissures of Mammalia (espeoiallt thb
Carnivora) and the Limits of their Homology. By
Burt G. Wilder, of Ithaca, N. Y.
Naturally, human brains have been most extensively studied,
and chiefly those of adults ; some have compared foetal brains with
those of Quadrumana but the existing doubt and disagreement,*
with the lack of any generally recognized basis for the determina-
tion of fissural homologies, suggest the need of a different method
of study ; and as the main object of this and the next paper is to
throw doubts upon the value of current opinions respecting brains,
it is proper to state the materials upon which my opinions are
based. It will be understood therefore that, unless otherwise
stated, my present generalizations are based upon these materials
only, and are subject to revision when a larger number of speci-
mens is at my disposal.
Where but a single drawing or diagram was made, it generally
represents the outer surface of the left side ; the second usaally
the right side, or the upper (dorsal) surface ; and the mesial and
ventral surfaces were added if their peculiarities required and time
permitted. All of these drawings and diagrams were made by
myself, and most of them were exhibited at the meeting.
The varieties of dogs' brains will be given in the next paper.
On the following page I give a list of original preparations and
drawings of mammalian brains made since July, 1871, and forming
the basis of this and the following paper.
* A good example of this is stated by Ecker who Includes the anterior central lobt
with the Arontal, while Gratiolet and Bischoff include It with the parietal.
This note, with some other matter which delay In publication has permitted me to is*
•ert, should bear date of December, 1873.
B. KATCBAL HI3I0RT.
M»c»cn»
Cynocepbolas
?
CulH Aunlliarls
CiiklB occideoMlie
Tolpes folrus
Fells catns, mr. domeBtlcaB.,
Pelia leo,t>ar. AMcaniia
Felii leo, cor. AalatlcnB
Hjonft TDlgarla
DnnB Amerlcutu
Piocjon lotor
FnloTim NoTebOTBoenalB
fins Kiolk
Eqniu cabaUaB
KqnDS
Boi Uunu
OtU arias
tiapn Kgasma
Capn agagrgs, mr
Carlacna Virglnionas
CuaelnaBoctrlBnug
Uoa dCEonuuias
Hoa miucDliis
Fiber itlNUilcD
Bclnrqi Budionloa
CjnaiiiTf LadoTieiaana... .
HeapvromfB leacopaa
SeotoplUluafasRns....
Did«lphTi Vlrginlana
Ganera, M ; Bp., SS : Var., 10-15.
Wtaitfr-bced India iioakaj..
UoDker
Domeatlc Dog
Gray WoV.
Red Fox
Cat...
Striped HyBQa....
Black Bbbi
UdI«...
Cashinere Goat
Tvo-bamped Camol...
BrafTD Bat
Uoase
Woodchni*^
Uasknt
Bed Squirrel
Prairie Dog.
Deer Hooae
Broim Bat
OpoaBum
216
B. NATURAL BISTORT.
These specimens form part of a collection to illustrate the neu-
rology and embryology of domesticated animals, which Professor
Agassiz* authorized me to make for, and at the expense of, the
Museum of Comparative Zoology in Cambridge.f
It will be seen that the above list of one hundred and eightj-
nine individuals includes about twenty-eight genera, represented
by about thirty-two species, and about forty-five varieties, the
numbers varying according to differing estimate of the Jiaxonomic
relations of the individuals.
The size of human brains, the expense of their preservation in
numbers, the rarity of apes' brains, and especially of foetal speci-
mens, together with the complexity of the fissural pattern which
man and Quadrumana have in common with herbivorous mammals,
are additional reasons for selecting other subjects. A simpler fifr
sural pattern exists with the Camivora. Among these the wild
Oanidce (fox, wolf and fennec) occupy a position midway between
the Viverridce and Mustelidm on the one hand, and the domestic
dogs, the Felidce, UrsidoB and Eycenidce^ on the other. That is,
all the main fissures found in Camivora are present in the fox,
but uncomplicated by contortions and by secondary fissures.
Method op Preparation.!— The present paper treats only of
those cerebral fissures which are visible from the outer side of a
brain properly prepared. Heretofore all brains have been har-
•since this paper was wiltten, he who inspired it has.finished his work in this worid.
AM his student, his assistant and feUow-teacher, I cannot refrain ftom expressing my
sense of bereavement. To me he was not only a jrreat naturalist; he was thb wisest of
teachers and the kindest of fi-iends; whose criticism was a healthy stimulus and his
praise a sweet reward.
t Those who bear in mind that not a single brain was preserved ftom an entin
menagerie which was suffocated in Boston about thirteen years ago, and that no simi-
lar coUecUon exists in this country on account of ItA great cost in time, alcohol and
means of displaying, will appreciate the extent of interest which Prof. Agassis felt la
this special undertalcing; and while, as Professor in one institution, I must regret thst
Jit ^ "''^ **^ "^ "^^""^ ^^"""^^ ^^^^^ ** ^°'' another, yet as it must be yean betore
w^T^T*^'' *"^ ^"'®*' ""««"™ can command the means required Ibr such a special ool-
th« i^-U*^ i^*^"'®^^ ^°'' ***® opportunity of using this material as it came tor
Z«M« ?^^''° ° .™^ students, and by this kind of work, avoiding for a season, the
flnslcui n^ff ?f7 *" ^I" "^^^ ""^ P^'P"^" ^'•^«°« *°d lecturing, to which the existing
sor?contiT.« * " ""^ ^''"^^ °^ '^^ *^^""^« American University compel its Profts-
thrdtwmnn^^^^ '^^^^^^'^ ~^^ ^' ""^^ ^ **^« impairment of Uieir powers, and
^lirtmT^lrJ^^^^ '^"^ Institution to which they would rather devote aU
ineir time, their energies and their enthusiasm.
but I hTvrb^L'«\*J^**^ '*°"*r^' '°**^* ^ ^***^^ ^'^ P'~^ »* *»»• ^^ ^ ^ P^P^I
™ method affects the result," that I wish to submit mine at the outset.
B. NATURAL HISTORY. 217
dened while resting upon their base. They become nnnaturally
flattened, and are then generally figured from above only. Like so
many other methods borrowed from anthropotomy, the common
manner of extracting the human brain is seldom applicable to those
of animals ; the skull, as well as the brain, is more useful if ver-
tically bisected, and this seems to be the only way of insuring the
safety of the olfactory lobes and the appendicular lobule of the
cerebellum ; the former are rarely figured of their full size (as, for
example, in the cat and cheetah. Trans. Zool. Soc, toI. i, pi. xx),
while the very existence of the latter seems often unsuspected
even in those animals where, by extracting the brain after bisecting
the skull, I have found it of great size. In a future communica-
tion, I intend to illustrate this peculiar organ and make some
remarks upon its connections, mode of formation, function and
zoological significance. It is particularly large in the bear but
small or wanting in the lion and in cats ; being often bulbous at
its extremity, the utmost care must be exercised to avoid breaking
the pedicel, and I have found it easier to effect the dislodgment
by throwing air behind it with a small blow-pipe. Figure 1 rep-
resents from below the left appendicular lobule (A L) of a
Chinese dog ;* it seems to be a protrusion of a portion of one of
the horizontal series of convolutions.
I am inclined to think that in most cases, the way to preserve
the entire brain in its natural form is to bisect it either before or
after extraction, and to place each half upon its mesial surface in
a flat-bottomed vessel of alcohol. As it rapidly loses weight in
alcoholf and gains in water, and as handling out of these fluids
is apt to distort it, I would recommend weighing each half of the
head before and after extraction ; the difierence gives the exact
weight of the brain ; but as the apparatus which I employ (a sort
of adjustable *^ Mitre-box") does not as yet enable me to insure
bisection on the middle line exactly, I have not /elt justified in
comparing the two halves of brains together. If both hemispheres
are to be preserved entire, the section should go rather to the left
than the right of the middle line, in order to leave the mesial sur-
face of the right hemisphere uninjured ; but if the right is to be
* This and the oUier figures will be found at the end of next paper.
fThe extent of this loss may be seen fi-om the following cases; a brain weighing
,066. lost one-sixth of its weight in eighteen hours, and one«third in four days ; a brain
weighing ,135. lost one twenty-fifth in sixteen hours and one-half its weight in two
months; of course the rapidity of the loss will vary with the size of the brain, the
amount and strength of the spirit and the frequency of its renewal.
218 B. NATURAL HISTORT.
dissected^ then the mesial surface of the left should be saved by
carrying the section a little to the right ; of course, howeTcr, if
there is certainty of the saw going just between the two, so mach
the better.
The pia mater should be removed before drawing; this is beat
accomplished after the brain has shrunken a little in spirit, using
a pair of fine forceps and fine curved scissors.
If possible, both sides of a brain should be drawn ; but if only
one, the left ; and with all Camivora (although not with all Eer-
bivora), all the outer fissures may be seen in such a view; while
this is not the case in the view from above, even when the brain is
flattened. In drawing, each half should rest upon a slip ruled in
square centimetres ;* if the brain is larger than that of a cat, the
slip may be pinned upon a sheet of cork, and two or more threads
stretched over the brain, coinciding with the lines hidden by it ;
then the drawing may be made upon another ruled slip, with great
accuracy ; the mesial, upper and lower surfaces of the brain may
be drawn in like manner, though less easily ; and large diagrams
may be accurately reproduced, by ruling cloth in squares ten, fif-
teen or twenty times the diameter of the original drawing; the
homologous fissures may be uniformly colored as in the diagrams
exhibited ; Gratiolet, Owen and BischofT have colored homologoos
folds, but it is obvious that the same end is more readily attained
by coloring the fissures ; and that alterations are also more prac-
ticable.
It would certainly be an advantage to possess a cast of the cnr
nial cavity for comparison with the brain; and all comparative
measurements and weights should take into account the shrinkage
of brains, and their loss of weight.f
*I am happy to state that Mr. G«o. Wool worth Colton, the well Imown map-mtker,
and a member of thia Association, has offered to prepare ruled paper of a size sad
quality suited to this and other natural history purposes.
It will be noted ttfat the perspective is ignored In drawings made by the ab0T« method;
each flssuxe is represented as if at a point on a line perpendicular to the sarOlccon
which the brain rests: a drawing in which this line should be perpendfcnlar to the
eonvex turf act of the hemisphere would produce the effect seen in fig. 5, plate la.
t When a brain is once thoroughly hardened in alcohol it may be kept in weaker
spirit or dear water during examination; it rapidly shrinks stiU more in the air; I an
conducting experiments to show how well and how long, hardened brains can be pie*
seryed in a mixture of equal parts glycerine and water; which does not evaporate like
spirit and, by Its greater specific gravity, avoids injurious pressure of the specimens
upon each other or upon the vessel; the best way of keeping many brains fbr study li
in a wide tin box two or three inches deep and cased in wood, with a glass cover; if
each half of a brain is kept on its mesial surface, no injury can result.
B. NATURAL BISTORT. 219
The Cerebral Fissures. — More attention has been given to
the folds (gyri, convolations, or anfractuosities) than to the fis-
sures (furrows or sulci). But, whatever may be the manner of
their formation, the latter really represent the location of the
augmented gray, ganglionic or dynamic tissue more than the for-
mer ; for, as a rule (the only exceptions being the points of oblique
junction of two fissures), the contiguous walls of a fissure are
nearer together than the two sides of either of the folds which it
separates ; a line representing the fissure, therefore, indicates the
location of a much larger bulk of gray matter than a line of equal
width representing any part of the surface of the fold.
Practically too the fissures are by much the easier to describe
and designate, and it would be as hard to designate folds without
first identifying fissures as to describe the countries of Europe
without mentioning its rivers. The sides of a fissure are. usually
near together and parallel, so that the fissure may be described or
figured as a single line of certain direction; but the opposite
borders of any one fold are rarely parallel throughout their whole
extent.
Moreover, the surface, which in one brain forms two folds, with
an intervening fissure, may in another be one continuous fold.
What shall it be called ? Relatively, at least, the surface of a con-
toluted brain is the same as it was before the fissures appeared ;
while the fissures are gradually introduced and are to a certain
extent capable of identification ; and although they may be wholly
due to a vertical elevation of the contiguous folds, yet it is the
fissures and not the folds which can be said to increase, to connect,
or to remain separate. Granting, then, that folds are the ulti-
mate object of our study, fissures are first to be so thoroughly
identified in all animals that when one of them or one of the folds
is mentioned, there can be no doubt of its being recognized by all.
Fissures may be studied in four ways :
First: As to their general nature.
Second: Singly, as to their special peculiarities.
Third: As evidences of zoological afi^nities.
Fourth : As indications of intellectual power.
The last view will be considered in the next paper. According
to the first view, we may at once separate three of Owen's fissures
from the rest. The rhinoL is the line of separation between the
olfactory crus or tract and the cerebrum proper. The median or
220 B. NATUIUX BISTORT*
inter-fiemispheral fissare divides the two cerebral hemispheres;
and although in most Camivora the true fissures seem to be ar-
ranged with some reference to it, and although it has clearly defined
borders, yet neither of these features exists with Herbivora, The
sylvian fissure marks the location of a kind of mound of cerebral
substance, the '^ Island of Beil," and its manner of formation is
somewhat peculiar, as shown Jiereafter.
Formation of Fissures. — No one doubts that all brains, even
the most deeply furrowed, were smooth at an earlier stage of
development. This transformation, so far as the result is con-
cerned, might be compared with the segmentation of an undivided
yolk ; but probably the process is more often comparable with
the formation of the primitive fUrrow ; and although they look
like clefts or depressions in the brain mass, it is probable that the
fissures are the result of a difference in the rapidity of growth of
different parts; certain points or lines remaining relatively sta-
tionary, and becoming the bottoms of depressions or fissures*
Still I canno.t rid myself wholly of the idea that shallow fissures,
at least, may be formed by direct d^reasion; and if Ecker is
rightly translated he seems to have this view respecting all of
them ; ^'Actual convolutions are formed in these districts only
with the further progress of the formation of fissures (p. 14)-
The formation of the convolutions is, of course, entirely depend-
ent on the development of the fissures ; and in the regioaof the
temporal lobe, in which the latter are most variable, the convolu-
tions are so too" (p. 65).
But on page fifteen, in contrasting the sylvian with other fissures
he says that the latter *' originate simply from depressions or folds
of the cerebral cortex." (The italics are mine).
Now, as regards the aspect of the cerebral surface in the adnlt,
it makes perhaps no great difference whether we speak of the fis-
sures as depressions or the folds as elevations ; and the former is
more natural on account of the greater extent of the elevated sur-
faces ; so too in conversation it is easier to say that the sun rises
and sets than that the earth revolves upon its orbit ; but in sci-
entific language it would seem proper to speak according io the
fact rather than the appearance.
Undoubtedly one source of conftision is the indiscriminate use
of terms signifying the transformations themselves and the condi-
B. NATURAL HI8T0RT* 221
tions reached thei^eby ; and we might avoid it by discriminating
between appearance and aspect, formation and conformation,
development and presence or existence, etc.
As a single example of the looseness of our present expressions,
on account of lack of definite information, Huxley (Comp.
Anat. of Vertebrates, p. 492) enumerates among the distinctive
features of the haman brain, ^^the filKng up of the occipito tempo-
ral fissure," as compared with that of apes ; in its most UtercU
sense this would imply that something JUled a previously existing
fissure ; a little less literally, that the bottom of the fissure grew
up to the surface of the adjoining folds, so that a foetal fissure did
not exist in the adult ; and still again, and this would be a per-
fectly legitimate interpretation, it might Indicate the fact, that a
fissure which exists in apes did not exist in man in any stage ;
but even this would be capable of at least two meanings, according
as the readers believed, or not, in actual evolution.
The formation of fissures seems to proceed very rapidly.* I
have traced it in kittens of the same litter, killed at short intervals
beginning at birth ; and even allowing for individual and sexual
differences, it would appear that during the first week, a change
may occur perceptible within six hours ; the most favorable fissure
for this purpose is the frontal.
The large superficial cerebral vessels often lie in the fissures ;
but that this is merely a coincidence, and not a cause, is indicated
by the frequent departure of these blood-pipes from their trenches ;
the slight furrow which marks the course of a large vessel across
a fold has generally a more regular form with better defined bor*
jders. "Where the folds are much contorted as in man and most
herbivora, as compared with their simplicity at an earlier stage,
one can hardly avoid the conjecture that the folds are formed
under pressure, and that the brain behaves much as would a piece
of thick cloth crowded into a cavity. Still more suggestive of
this idea is the lateral contortion of the median lobe of the cere-
bellum in cats ; in the newly born kitten (Fig. 2, K), this is ver-
tical in direction and presents few folds ; in all but one of the
adult cats that I have examined, the median lobe appears, as in
Fi^. 2, C, laterally contorted ; the progress of these remarkable
changes will be fully illustrated on another occasion.f
* As does the ^rolk segmentation wUh Turtles (Agassiz, Cont. Nat. Hist. U.S. 2,028).
t Scker speaks (p. 10) of the ** formation of conTolutions as a necessary coneeqnenco
of certain mechanical processes of the brain and skull/* but it is not clear how much
influence is attributed to the latter by this expression.
222 B. NATT7BAX HISTORT.
Yet while we may recognize a sort of correlation between the
existence of fissures and the need of enclosing a certain amoant
of gray matter within a space which is represented by the cranial
cavity, it by no means follows that osseous walls are the imme-
diate and direct cause of the convolution ; much less does it follow
that the particular direction of the fissures is occasioned by the
ridges upon the inner cranial surface with which they coincide. In
short, we may regard the size of skull and of brain as concomi-
tants of the degree and character of fissuration without attempting,
as yet, to assign to them the relation of cause and effect. It may
not be proper to compare cerebral fissuration with the primitive
formation of the encephalic lobes, but it is certain that this latter
takes place independently of cranial circumscription, especially in
many fishes where the cranial cavity far exceeds the brain mass ;
and it would be interesting to ascertain whether this interspace
exists in any of those fishes which, like ElaccUe^ present some cere-
bral fissuration. At present the matter must be regarded as un-
decided ; and the way to elucidate our own lack of information is
to ask ourselves whether, in total absence of cranial walls, any
cerebral convolution would be developed in the higher MammaUa.
FissuRAL Homologies. — In order to describe the variations of
fissures in different brains, they must first be identified. Although
Owen has (Comp. Anat. of Vertebrates, vol. iii, pp. 114 to 143)
undertaken to homologize the fissures of the higher mammalia
(Oyrencephala) throughout, and has rarely admitted the liability
of error (as on p. 117), yet the very completeness of his determi-
nations throws doubt upon them in view of the lack of reference
to individual peculiarities, and the renunciation of development as
a guide to homology ; and it will be safer to keep in view the con-
clusion of Gratiolet. (Mem. sur les plis cerebraux de I'homme,
p. 10.)
**It is sufficient to compare the brain of an ape with that of a camlTore
or ruminant in order to show that in the different manmialian orders, the
cerebral folds present very different arrangements.
These differences are such that it would be imprudent to establish par-
allel divisions and to search for homologies. In fact that search has no
certain basis, and we do not hope to accomplish it in a moment."
Criteria op homology. — Having no true structural features,
they present, as tests of homology: 1. Powtion in relation to
B. NATURAL HISTORY. 223
internal structure (as the rhincU and sylvian). 2. Position in
relation to other fissures so determined. In connection with this
lattei* test, we must ascertain whether anything like transposition
is possible ; this question will be raised in respect to special fis-
sures. Their connections, branches, length, and general direction
are probably of less value. Great aid is always to be had by
comparison with simpler brains of allied species, or with the brains
of yoong of the same species. The extent of variation in length,
direction and connections, which may exist without invalidating
their homology, is most readily seen by comparing the coitcs*
ponding fissures upon the two halves of one brain (plate 3, figs.
12, 13) ; it appears that a long fissure may be represented by
several short and disconnected ones ; that branches may or may
not exist at either end (these branches are almost invaiiably
dichotomous) ; that two fissures wholly separate in the foatus, and
in other species may unite either directly or by a branch. Good
examples of this are the lateral and coronal fissures, which are
perfectly distinct in the foetus in some adults, and on one side only
of others, but which show a tendency to unite ; a marked con-
stancy in the location and direction of a branch may, as in this
case, indicate the point of union. Finally, with respect to several
fissures, we must either deny a homology which would be other-
wise unquestioned, or admit that in one species or on one side, its
manner TO formation may greatly difier. This will be exemplified
in connection with the special fissures in this and the following
paper; for example the presylvian^ and the ectosylvian. While
insisting, however, upon the provisional nature of many of the
names which authors have given to the cerebral fissures of mam-
mals, it is necessary to adopt some nomenclature in order to be
understood, and in the present paper the names given by Owen
will be employed with some modifications.
Special Fissures. The Sylvian. — This is the most constant
of all fissures ; there is no question respecting its existence or its
name in all brains which are fissured at all.*
Its length, direction, branches and connections vary consider-
*0n this account I have not hesitated to mark this Assure upon all the flipires, $f
bat since there is some doubt respecting the name or the nature of all othei' Assures,
the letters designating them are placed outside of the figure, in order to alio .r revision ;
most of the figures are shown white on a darlL ground; this will allow futuie alteration
in the relative width of fissures in order to indicate their depth or relative constancy.
224 B. KATUBAL HISTOBT.
ably, but, as a rule, in the adult it forms a nearly straight fissure
directed dorsad and backward, never reaching ihe dorsal margin of
the hemisphere, and rarely if ever inclining forward, though gener-
ally nearly vertical in HerbivorU. Its manner of formation is very
peculiar, and may be readily traced in new bom or foetal kittens
and puppies ; in these and also in the foetal wolf (fig. 6), there
appears, where in the adult the sylvian is to join the rAtnd, s
rounded elevation (which is probably homologous with the Insyk
or Island of Reil, of anthropotomy) bounded above and behind by s
shallow trench ; in front this island is apparently continuous with
a narrow area of cerebral substance which still more anteriorlj
broadens into that part which lies just behind the olfactory lobe;
the primitive sylvian fissure is therefore an (3D-shaped depressed
line whose posterior end joins the rhinal, and whose anterior end
is turned upward ; by the gradual projection of the cerebral mass
above this line, it overhangs the depressed tract, so that the ven-
tral part of the curve reaches the rhincd fissure and coincides with
it for a certain distance ; this portion I have ventured to call the
basisylvian (Bs) ; by the growth of the mass before and behmd
the semicircular area now left, and the final approximation of the
walls, the Insula is at length wholly concealed, and the semicir-
cular trench becomes a single fissure ; strictly speaking therefore,
the sylvian is an arched fissure like thos^ which surround it {edo-
sylviariy supersylvian and laJteral),*
Presylvian (Ps.). — The anterior and ascending (dorsad) extrem-
ity of the primitive sylvian seems to correspond with the "ascending
*From a translation (Cerebral Conyolntions of Man) which has Just come into my
hands, I find that Ecker of Freiburg, four years ago, observed the formation of the
$lflvian fissure, and that some of his conclusions upon this and other points are neariy
like my own. I am sure that Ecker will be only glad that another has reached similar
results from different materials, for he employed human brains exclusively , while I
have purposely discarded them for the simpler brains of CanUvora. Certainly he and
all other honorable scientific men would accept the coUeotions and drawings made by
me as evidence of my entire independence in the work; but for the satisftictioo of
others, including the writer of an editorial in " The New York Evening Post" lor Aug.
80, which directly chains me with unacknowletiged borrowing f^m Ecker, I tm com-
pelled to state that to-day, Sept. 8, 1873, for the first time, have I learned the contents of
Ecker's work.
Moreover, while not questioning the correctness of Ecker's statement that in man
" the whole hemisphere curves Itself in an arch, concave below, around the place of ea.
trance of the cerebral peduncle ** (p. 13), it is proper to say that the brains of kittens and
puppies examined by me do not confirm it; nor is it easy to see how so long a fissure
as that of the bear could be formed in that way; it is evident that for the elncidation of
this and many other points, we need a very extended scries of observations upon the
developing brain of many animals.
B. NATITBAL HISTORT. 225
branch" (Ecker, fig. 1, S^') in its manner of formatdon, and
in its relation to the sylvian; but the intervening space in all
brains I have examined is so much larger than the "operculum" of
anthropotomy that I hesitate to affirm it before observing its forma-
tion in many intermediate species. Moreover, in a lion (fig. 18),
there is a small fissure between the sylvian and what I take to be
the presylvian^ which in some respects more nearly resembles the
'*- ascending branch" in man ; while in a bear (fig. 10) and raccoon
(fig. 11) there is a similar one in front of the presylvian^ which
may be only a continuation of the slight upward curve at this
point which the rhinal presents in many dogs. I would suggest the
name presylvian^ at least for the fissure already described in C7ar-
nivora. It is evidently the same which Flower refers to as super-
arbitai (Anat. of Frotdes; Proc. Zool. Soc, 1869, p. 479), but there
seem good reasons for regarding it as ideaUy, at least, a dismem-
berment of the sylvian, I say ideally, for although generally so in
fact, yet occasionally there is no connection whatever, and that
which would in respect to position be called presylvian is an
isolated fissure. This is the case on both sides of a raccoon
(fig. II),* and on the left of an impure tan terrier dog; of the
right of this brain I have no drawing, but think the union is as
usual. This is certainly a point which should be clearly under-
stood before we can be sure of the value of our determination ; at
present I am not prepared to explain it. It will be noted also that
in most d(^s and in the lion, the presylvian is not only very long,
but apparently double, as if a special and independent fissure had
become connected with its dorsal end ; whether this is the case
can probably be decided by sections, for there is reason to think
that an independent fissure is always deepest at its middle where
it may generally be supposed to comnience ; and if the fissure in
question is shallower at the point of suspected junction we may
fairly conclude that it is really a coiiipound fissure.
FROMTALf (F.). This fissure is very characteristic of Camivoraj
being absent, so far as I know, only in Paradoxums figured by
Gervais. (Nouv. Arch, du Museum, tome vi, pi. 9, fig. 2.)
*Bnfc la another specimen the connection seems to exist as nsnal.
1 1 baTe adopted Owen's name as applied originally to the brain of eat and cheekA;
but am not sure that it is homologons with that so called by him in the human brain.
Flow«r has caUed it crucial. P. Z. S., p. 479.
iuA. A.S. TOL. XXn. B. (15)
226 B. NATURAL BISTORT.
The frontal appears from without as a cleft in the mesial mar-
gin; in kittens it begins as a mere shallow depression which
rapidly deepens and narrows ; it is nearly as much a mesial as an
outer fissure, and in some cases joins one of the mesial fissures
so as to appear a continuation of it; as seen from above the
frontal extends outward and sometimes forward (as in fox). As
a whole I have seen it take a backward course, only in a black
bear, both sides, and a skye terrier, right side, although when
curved, its outer end may turn slightly backward. It rarely
branches, or if so but very slightly as on the right of a St.
Bernard (524) ; in some cases, as in right of bull terrier (514) ;
an apparent bifurcation is merely the union with it of a small
secondary fissure. But even such junction is very rare ; on right
of bear (502, fig. 10), it joins another at right angles, bat on
left a considerable space intervenes.
SuPERSTLviAK (Ss.). Next iu independence, in constancy, and in
order of formation seems to come that semicircular fissure which
Owen calls aupersylvian ; perhaps it should precede the frontal in
the above respects, but like so many other points, my present ma-
terial does not enable me to determine this. I am quite certain,
however, that Owen's table (C. A. V., iii, p. 136) does not in all
respects (as its author admits) represent the relative rank of all
the cerebral fissures. It generally divides the surface of the hem-
isphere into two subequal portions ; its usual relation to the
other fissures is seen in the fox (fig. 8) and the fcetal wolf (fig.
6). In this, it forms a nearly regular curve with no branches or
connections ; and whichever we may conclude to be its representa-
tive, in the young terrier (fig. 7) it would appear to begin as a
longitudinal groove about midway of its final extent and nearly
over the sylvian. This is also the case in cats ; but in most brains
its hinder end either branches or joins some small fissure, while, as
a rule, its anterior end bifurcates, the longer arm reaching forward
and ventral often with a slight dorsal turn at the extremity, while
the shorter points obliquely forward and dorsal and often enters
the lateral fissure just outside (as in hysena, fig. 9). ThislitUe
branch so closely resembles the one which is given off at the jnno-
tion of the lateral and. coronal in nearly all cases as to suggest
that it is, like it, due to a union of two independent fissures ; bat
of this there is no evidence. The fact that a similar branch some-
B. IVATURAL HI8T0RT. 227
times leaves the ectosylvian^ as in fox (figs. 8 and 4), suggests a
like constitution for this latter fissure, or else a serial arrangement
of ctrebral foldings which is not as yet accounted for upon any
theory of correlation between mind and brain.
In a lion (fig. 18) the Ss is irregular, with branches and junc-«
tions with other fissures. In a bear (fig. 10) and raccoon (fig. 11)
we have a peculiar arrangement, the explanation of which I for-
bear to suggest until I see foetal brains of these species. The
weasel presents only two fissures where most Camivora have three,
and it is not easy to say which they are ; a similar doubt is ad-
mitted by Owen (C. A. V., iii, p. 117) in comparing the brain of
Coati {Nasua) with that of the stoat ; and I ask no better evi-
dence of the fact that our knowledge of the zoological value of
fissures is as yet incomplete than the comparison between my fig-
ure of the weasel's brain (fig. 8) and Owen's figure of the stoat's ;
for the animals are similar species of closely allied genera, if not,
indeed, members of the same genus (Allen, Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool.,
No. 8, p. 167), or varieties of the same species (Gray, Proc. Zool.
Soc, 1865) ; yet my figure shows two fissures outside of the syl'
vidn, while Owen's has but one which he calls supersylvian.
Lateral (L.). This is usually a curved furrow which divides
the space between the mesial border and the aupersylvian into two
nearly equal parts.* The name was given by Owen, probably in
reference to its approximate parallelism with the mesial border,
which is often quite striking, as in the lion and hyaena ; but its
anterior extremity is inclined to connect with another fissure, the
coronalj so constantly and so smoothly that but for occasional ex-
ceptions and observations of foetal brains, one would incline to
regard the whole as a single fissure with a branch, mesiad, resem-
bling that of the supersylvian ; but a careful comparison indicates
that the lateral generally bifurcates anteriorly, and that the ventral
arm is joined by the coronal; occasionally they miss connection,
as on left side of terrier (fig. 12), shepherd (512), and of another
small dog (540), on right of pointer-shepherd (fig. 14), and on
both sides of skye terrier (503) and young tan terrier (534), on
•This division of the cerebral surfiace into snbeqnal areas by the flssnres wiU be
mentioned in the next paper; of course, as the hemisphere is convex, no figure can
represent the true relative distances of the Assures unless the surface is projected upon
a plane (as is done with a fox's brain, flg. 6) ; it would appear, however, upon a series
of transTerse sections, which I hope to show upon another occasion.
228 B. NATURAL HI8T0BT.
left side of lion, and in cats generally ; the weasel has no coronal;
the bear and raccoon are peculiar in this as in other respects. In
the joung terrier (fig. 7) the lateral is very short and the union hts
not taken place. The Coronal (C) may be passed over with what
has been said in connection with the lateral. Bat there are two
secondary fissures which are associated with the hinder end of the
lateral; one of them, which generally occurs in cats, has been
called medUaterai by Owen ; it lies mesiad of and usually behind
the lateral and often Joins it, but seems to be an independent
fissure. When there is any fissure mesiad of the lateral in dogs, it
lies farther forward, and is generally interrupted, so that I am not
certain of the homology ; but in some cats (fig. 15) the true medt-
lateral seems to coexist with an anterior fissure mesiad of the lot'
ercU; while in some dogs, greyhound (fig. 16), the lateral is
prolonged backward, as if hj a medilateralj while a separate fis-
sure, apparently a true Ml, lies between it and the mesial border,
and another, El, lies outside between it and the aupersylvian. This
last, which has not so far as I know received a name, may be
called the ectolateraL Flower evidently alludes to its constancy
in Canidoe (P. Z. S., p. 482), as occasioning the bifbrcation of
the posterior limb of the third gyrus (the value of his general-
ization will be discussed farther on).
EcrosTLviAN (£s.). This fissure is in some respects the most pe-
culiar of all, for it presents difiierences not only of adult condition,
but also of manner of formation, which lead us to doubt the value
of this character. Its simplest, and what may be regarded as its
normal, aspect is presented in the young terrier and foDtal wolf, and
in the adult fox, where it forms a curved line of greater or less ex-
tent between the sylvian and the supersylvian (it is probably want-
ing in the weasel, fig. 8) ; this regular form occurs also in somedogs,
as a setter (10) (left side), and St. Bernard (524) (right), where,
however, there are two or more small offshoots from the convexity,
like the single and apparently normal anterior one of the fox ; but
while the above instances would suggest that the ectosylvian is a
simple arched fissure commencing at a point just above the tip
of the sylvian, and increasing at both ends, many others would
incline us to describe it as composed of three independent pieces,
one in front, and one behind the sylvian, and the third connecting
those above it ; as, for example, in the terrier (fig. 25).
B. KATXTBAL HI8TOBT. 229
And that this is a not impossible view of its 'formation is
shown by the fact that in several dogs, as right terrier (511)
(% Id), and left greyhound (fig. 16) and St. Bernard, this top
piece is apparently wanting altogether, leaving the front and hind
posts of the door unconnected. This is apparently the normal con-
dition of things in all Felidce (fig. 17), although the ends may
branch, and, even as in lion, join other fissures. In many dogs, as
the Pomeranian (fig. 20), the posterior upright may be in great part
wanting, or abbreviated and joined with the sylvian; finally, in
Hyasna (fig. 9), the anterior upright seems to be transferred behind
the sylvian; but this involves a very grave general question of
homology which there is no means of solving at present.
A will be understood that the foregoing are by no means offered
as full accounts of the outer fissures, even with respect to my
present materials ; but rather as hints for monographic work upon
them when a larger number of specimens or accurate drawings
shall be available. Let me suggest in this connection, however,
that to be usefal, the original drawings should he made by the anat-
omiaty and that the transfers should be made under his eye ; an
abbreviation or extension of a fissure, which would appear trifiing
to the most conscientious artist, might involve a contradiction of
important generalizations respecting its connections.
But before any final work can be done in respect to fissures, we
need a complete a^xount of the brain of some one mammal, giving
its appearance from all sides, sections and dissections of all parts,
and demonstrations of the relations which may exist between the
fissural pattern and the internal structure ; then a fhll series of
figures representing all the stages of development, both of the
brain as a whole and of its parts; on some accounts the fox
would be the most useful species, but as it is not to be had in
large numbers, and as dogs are ineligible as a standard, from the
breed difibrences as well as from the usual complexity of the fis-
sural pattern, we shall probably find the cat most available for
this purpose ; such a work would form a fitting continuation of
Straus-Durckheim's magnificent monograph of the Osteology and
Myology of that animal.*
Taxonomic Value of the Fissural Pattern. Upon this point
Gratiolet speaks as follows {op. cit. p. iii) :—
*It ie one of the tasks which I wish to accomplish, but trnst this wiU not deter
others from undertaking It.
250 B. NATURAL HISTOBT,
"In like mdnner there is a particular type of cerebral folding in
the makis, the bears, the cats, the dogs, etc. ; in short, in all the
families of mammalia (d'animaox). Each of these has its own
character, its norm, and in each of these groups the species can
be easily combined according to the sole consideration of cerebral
folds."
Gervais* concludes that we may recognize order, family, genus
and even species by the brain (Nouvelles Archives du Museum,
7, vi, p. 152).
Flower says (op. cit. p. 480) : «' For working out all the modlflcatlons of
the brain convolations of the Carnivora, a larger number of speclmeng
would be required than are at present accessible ; but the series In Uie
museum of the College of Surgeons is sufficiently extensive to show ftat
they will ftirnish Important indications of affinity, and that these indica-
tions correspond remarkably with the evidence afforded by the cranium,
digestive and reproductive organs."
While admitting the probability that such a family norm of fis-
suration does exist and may hereafter be designated, yet the care-
ful study of an amount of material greater in some respecte, at
least, than previous wiiters seem to have had, only makes me urge
the importance of Gratiolet's remark, that " the value of any con-
clusions respecting ideal unities has a necessary condition, that of
resting upon a sufficient number of exact observations" (op. «'<.,
p. ill) . The need of this may be seen by an examination of Flower's
generalization, respecting the very groups which we can best illus-
trate (op. cit, p. 482).
*'The dogs {Cynoidea =« Canidoe) are very uniform in their
cerebral characters having always four distinct and regular gyn
surrounding the fissure of Sylvius, which is short and approaching
a vertical direction. The first and second arched g>^ri have the
anterior and posterior limbs equal, the third has the posterior
limb broad and bifurcated."t
"All the other Camivora have only three arched gyri on the outer
surface, the first or lower one of the dogs being either wanting or
concealed beneath the second within the fissure of sylvians. In the
hysena its hinder limb is partly exposed."
"In the Arctoidoe (=C7raidaj, Procyonidoe^ Mustelidoey Jt7ttr«te,
♦But although this author fijrures the brains of eighteen species of CamiTora(M>*
casts of the cranial cavities of these and other species) he seems to Ignore the exifitenw
of indiyidual differences, and gives hut a single brain for each species and noD« wW-
ever from dogs (excepting casts).
tBy what I have caUed the ectosylvian fissure.
B. NATTTBAL HISTORT. 281
Lutra and Enkydra)y the fisdore of Sylvius is rather long and slopes
backwards ; the inferior gyrus has the limbs long, corresponding
with the length of the sylvian fissnre ; the anterior rather narrower
than the posterior (especially with the trae bears) ; the middle
gyms is moderate and equal-limbed ; the upper one large, very
broad in front and distinctly marked off from the second poste-
riorly, as far as near the lower border of the temporal lobe ; except
in the smaller members of the genus Mustela where the sulcus sep-
arating the superior from the middle gyrus is less produced pos-
teriorly than in others of the group. In OcUictia vittata^ however,
the brain is quite a miniature of that of a bear ; but the middle
convolution is united with the upper one at its superior anterior
angle."
"In the JEluroidea (including all other Camivora excepting the
Pinnepedia)^ the sylvian fissure is moderate and nearer to the ver-
tical than in the last group. The gyrus which immediately sur-
rounds it is wide, especially the posterior limb which is generally
twice the width of the anterior and is divided by a vertical fissure,*
well marked in the cats and hyaenas. In the cats the anterior limb
is also partially divided. In the civet both limbs are simple, the
second gyrus is moderate and simple. The superior gyrus is
wide in front but small posteriorly, the sulcus which separates it
from the second not extending quite to the hinder apex of the
hemisphere (the suricate agrees with the hysenas rather than
with the civets in the general character of its brain convolutions)."
Of the Arctcndea^ Prof. Flower mav have had more material than
I, but in the absence of exact enumeration, his characterization of
the fissural pattern seems to me insufiScient at least ; if by dogs,
Prof. Flower includes only the feral CanidtB^ his generalization
may be not far from correct ; although the backward slant of the
aylvian^ in both my own and Gervais' drawings, is generally greater
than in hysena and weasel, and equal to that of cat and lion.
But if the domestic dogs are included the definition would not
apply to many of them ; for the bifurcation of the third gyrus is
often so complete as to constitute two equal gyri, as on left of
terrier (fig. 12), and the outer or fourth gyrus may be likewise
bifurcated, as in left of greyhound (fig. 16), while the first and
second gyri are, as a rule, rendered irregular by the peculiarities of
the ectosylvian ; moreover, the generalization respecting all other
* Which I believe to be the hinder upright of the ectotylvian.
232 B. KATUBAI, BISTORT.
CamifDora involTes a denial of the homology of the complete
ectosylvian of the fox with the incomplete one of the cat, yet this last
is very nearly like those on the lefb of the terrier (fig. 12) and
greyhound (fig. 16).*
Other discrepancies might be pointed out, if it were possible to
present, in this paper, figures of all the brains which I have pre-
pared ; but so long as Prof. Flower makes no reference to the dif-
ferences of individuals of the same species, to variations of age
and sex, or to differences between the right and lefb sides of the
same brain, I shall be obliged to doubt the value of the genenl^
izations.
Lateral Variation. I wish it had been possible to offer here
drawings of both sides of all the brains of the feral, as well as
domestic Camivora. I do not recall a case in which this lateral
variation has amounted to the total absence of a main fissure upon
one side ; it consists rather in a difference of length, depth, brandies
and connection, or of nearness to other fissures ; the minor fissures,
however, present very great lateral variations as to presence and
location. Since most of the examples given are from domesticated
dogs, I do not wish to lay too much stress upon the fact of lateral
variation, but in no work have I seen both sides of an animal's
brain figured or described ; and since no two brains of different
species can be so nearly related as the two halves of the same
brain, it is evident that a carefbl study of lateral variation
will furnish a test of the value of the differences observed among
brains (see platie 8).
Lateral Compensation. Lateral variation is often c^mpenM-
tory. For instance, a long fissure of one side may be repre-
sented by several short ones upon the other, the aggregate length
being equal to the single one ; a straight fissure may represent a
curved one ; or a single one may have as counterpart a shorter one
with a branch ; in one case, the total length of a bifbrcated sylvian
fissure is just that of the longer but undivided fissure of the oppo-
site side.
*The foregoing certainly raisee the question whether we can rightly look ft>T tax-
onomic assistance among the organs of domesticated animals : bnt meantime it seems
proper to include onr canine varieties in any generalization respecting the grovp of
Cynoidea,
B. NATURAL HlffTOBT. 233
The fiinctional significance of this will be alluded to in the next
paper.
CoKCLUSiOK. The foregoing is far fW>m a satisfactory Tiew of
the snbject ; bat it is all I can offer at present. My chief object
has been to point oat the defects of oar methods of preparing and
drawing brains, and the insafficiency of material for making any
generalization respecting that mammalian order whose brains are
most readily obtained and whose fissaral pattern is comparatively
simple. With a single specimen or figare of the brain of FeliSj
Canis^ Hyc&naj Ursus, Mustela^ one might make g^neralizations
as to specific, generic and family fissaral patterns which wonld be
qaite as trae to natare as many which are annaally published upon
this or other departments of Comparative Anatomy, bat they
might be controverted by other specimens or even by the other
halves of the same. The greater complexity, both from secondary
fissares and A-om contortions of the primary fissures, which pre-
vails with the brains of most Herbivora^ is an a fortiori argument
against making the attempt to determine their fissaral patterns
before the Camivora are disposed of. After a pretty careful study
of the specimens and works at my command, I feel justified in
asserting that we cannot as yet characterize the fissural pattern
of any mammalian order, family, genus or even species without
the risk that the next specimen will invalidate our conclusion ;
that our studies in this direction should be based upon the carefhl
comparison of accurate drawings of a much larger number of spec-
imens than now exist in any museum ; that nearly allied forms
of Camivora should be compared ; and that the most satisfactory
results are obtainable from large series of foetal and young brains
of the same species, and, if possible, family and sex, in order to
eliminate minor differences.
Addbkdttm on the Lion's Brain. The kindness of Mr. Lee
Powell* has Just enabled me to prepare the brain of a young
AfHcan lion, seven and one-half months old; the left hem-
isphere is here figured (fig. 19) for comparison with the Asiatic.
The most striking difference is in the great development of the
temporal lobe (the postsylvian region), which not only projects
laterally more than in the other, but also forujard over the region
•or BobinBon>0 Clroos and Menagerie, UUoa, N. Y.
234 B. NATURAL HISTOBT.
jast in front, so as partly to cover it and make the ventral portion
of the ^Zvian coincide with the ventral branch of the edosylvian,
(£s) ; the frontal region is less prominent, and the outline of the
cerebellnm is quite different. In the Asiatic lion the left cowtual
is wholly independent; likewise the right coronal of the Af-
rican ; but the right of the former Joins the latercUj which is the
usual arrangement, while the left of the latter joins the supenyl'
vian in a similar fashion. Other differences faiight be pointed out
both between the two brains and the two halves of each ; bat it
seems to me that these alone are enough to make us hesitate firom
basing a diagram of the fissural pattern of this species upon any
such number of specimens as are likely to be found in any museum ;
while the same peculiarities present almost insuperable obstacles
to a recognition of particular folds as organs of special mental
faculties separated by certain fissures.
[The figures illustrating this paper are given in the plates, be-
tween pages 248 and 249, and their explanation will be found on
page 249.]
Cerebral Varlatiok ik Domestic Dogs, Aia> rrs Bearing ufok
Scientific Phrenology. By Burt G. Wilder, of Ithaca,
N. Y.
The following observations are based upon the careful stady of
thirty-two dogs' brains, representing fifteen to twenty breeds.
There were four of the same family, a mother and three children
of different ages ; two others nearly related to them, and two pair
of brothers of different ages ; the others are not known to be re-
lated ; most of them are supposed to be of pure breeds.*
*Tbe flgnres referred to in this paper are included with those of the precediaff
paper in the plates placed between pages 24S and M8.
B. NATURAL BISTORT.
285
LIBT OF DOQ8' BKAINS PBEPJLSED AND DRAWN BY UB, AND FOBMINO THB
MATERIAL UPON WHICH THIS PAPER IB BASED.
M.C.Z.*
Ko.
1
S
s
4
215
216
092
5U
013
610
#41
6
7
S86
8
020*
686
603
678
9
13
26
u
u
u
4(
Pomeranian or Spits.
«* '^ children of
No. 1, by the
» same father,
bat of 2 Repa*
rate litters.
later children
of mother of
fkther above
, mentioned.
Enff. rat terrier (small
bile, and tan).
Eng, rat terrier brother
of above.
Spaniel | pare.
En^. blk. and tan ter-
rier (small).
Shepherd.
Shep. car (pt. terrier?)
Mexican (Chihnahaa).
Eng. terrier)
> brothers.
" )
Italian greyhonnd.
Ital. greyh^nd impure.
Spaniel (large Impure).
Chinese (hairless).
Skye terrier.
Hound.
Setter (large).
Newfoundland.
Bull and cur.
St. Bernard.
Age.
adult.
6 weeks.
4i "
64 hrs.
8 days.
8 days,
at birth.
24 hours.
at birth.
6 mos.
young.
6 weeks.
17 years 8 mos.
9 mos.
^ yrs.
1 yr.
adult,
adult.
9 mos.
16 yrs.
20 yrs.
12 yrs.
adult.
12 yrs.
old.
Sex
9
Weight
Body, in
grams.t
Weight
ot
Brain.
Ratio,
in thou-
sandths.
8,837.
,068
.007
9
1,816.
,047
.085
9
1,006.
,041
.040
<f
,182.
,006
.060
9
,218.
,010
.047
9
,247.
,011
.044
9
,092.
,006
.064
cf
,081.
,008
.090
9
,221
,007
.030
9
1,820.
,088
.028
d"
1,902.
,066
.028
9
2,228.
,008
.021
<f
2,436.
,050
.020
d"
5,800.
,074
.014
d"
6,800.
,068
.013
<f
6,074.
,067
.011
d"
4,367.
,065
.010
d"
6,158.
,062
.010
d*
7,026.
,074
.010
(f
7,800.
,0T2
.009
d
22,450.
,108
•
.006
e
26,400.
,106
.004
e
88,845.
,120
.003
d't
40,670.
,126
.003
9
40,820.
,096
.002
With seven others the record of which is more or less imperfect.
Fig.
20
21
22
29
24
26
12,18
26
No. 7 was not weighed ; he was slighter in form than No. 6,
bat the weights are assumed to be equal ; the 'Afresh weight" of
the brain is computed by forming a proportion with another brain
«Tbi8 is the number on the Catalogue of preparation^ of Domesticated Animals in
the Masenm Comp. Zool.
t Castrated at about six years old.
X For mifbrmlty, a JkM stop is placed after the number of grams (the unit of weight),
and a comma alter the number of kilograms (1000 grams).
286
B. NATURAL HISTORT.
of nearly equal weight when hardened, bat the fresh weight of
which was also known : as to the weight being greater than that
of the older brother's brain, I can only adduce the greater mental
and physical activity which it displayed.
The brains of dogs are by no means common in museums, and
figures of them are even more rare, partly, perhaps because the
very commonness of the species induces delay in its examination,*
but partly, I am inclined to think, fh)m a notion that since they
are all called dogs, there can be no great anatomical differences
between them. Yet aside fh>m any question of their origin from
different specific forms of feral CanidoBy the fact is patent that oar
various breeds of dogs differ among themselves in respect to size,
color, form and habit far more than would be required for the dis-
crimination of species among wild animals ; and there have not
been, so far as I am aware, any investigations to show whether, or
not, these external distinctions coexist with structural peculiarltiefl.
It had long been my wish to undertake such an inquiry ; and
the liberality of Prof. Agassiz, in authorizing me to make for the
Museum of Comp. Zoology a collection to illustrate the neurology
and embryology of domesticated animals, has afforded me the
means of commencing the investigation.
The table of absolute weights of brain and its ratio in thoa-
sandths to the whole body is mainly confirmatory of the general
rule that young mammals have proportionally larger brains,' and
that the smaller species and varieties in like manner excel the
larger ; but the difference between, for instance, a little tan terrier
and a Newfoundland is something prodigious, as seen by the fol-
lowing selected table, where the large dogs are represented by the
Newfoundland, the medium sized by the English terrier (oonunon
size) and the small and young dogs by the small terrier and young-
est Pomeranian.
No.
Variety.
Age.
Body.
Brain.
Batio.
4
Pomeranian.
54 hrs.
482.
,008.
JM
8
Bng. terrier (Bmall).
6 mos.
1*S»'.
,088.
JOBS
7
*' " (large).
8i yrs.
6|S00.
,089.
.m
Newfoundland. '
adult.
88^115.
,190.
M
*Ab the house fly and moBqnito are seldom among the first captures of the entomol-
ogist.
i
B. NATURAL BISTORT.
287
Greneralizatioiis like the above, and others which might be made
reepecting the ratios at different ages, in the two sexes and in
various breeds, are evidently provisional untU we have a mnch
larger mass of material.
I would add that measurements were taken of the intestines ;
the capacity of the stomach and coecum was recorded and all
viscera were weighed, so that I shall at some future day be able to
present some statistics respecting them, and also respecting the
degree of variation in the form of the stomach and coecom, of
which many specimens are preserved, inflated, either at Ithaca or
in Cambridge. This is the case also with all the other mammals
here mentioned.
TABUB SHOWING THE RATIO OF BRAIN AND BODY WEIOHTB OF A FEW
MAMMALS, GHIBFLT CARKIVORA.
•
*
■
Scfentiilc
name.
Common
name.
Age.
■
Weight
of body.
Brain
•
Batio.
Jaw-
flexors.
677
Macacas?
White fkiced.
6 yrs.
2,939.
,062.5
.028
Valpes fUlYus.
Red fox.
adult.
9
2,918.
,047.
.016
.078
580
Canis lupas.
CanlB fltmillariB.
Gray wolf.
See special
table.
4 days a. p.
^.
,009.
.019
Felis catas dom.
See special
table.
averaffe of
6 adults.
2,847.
,027.
.009
662
FellB leo.
AfHcan lion.
7i mos.
<f
11,230.
,102.
.014
.117
18
Hyaena rnlgaris.
striped hynna.
old.
9
88,770.
,110.
.008
jm
602
UrsuB America-
nus.
Black bear.
lyr.
?
,240.
.560
m
Procyon lotor.
Baocoon.
adult.
<f
6,540.
,044.
.008
.040
0U
Putorius Noye-
boracensis.
Weasel.
nearly
grown.
,100.
,006.
.060
188
Bqans caballns.
Mare. ;
14 yrs.
9
,684.
870
i* u
11
adult.
9
,697.
175
It u
Horse.
adult.
d"
,680.
817
u u
CoU.
at term.
<f
,861.
854
<( It
(«
?
16,988.
,190.
.012
m
Bos tanras.
Durham boll.
2 yrs.
<f
6(;O,000.
,887.
.0006
6B7
Camelas bactria-
nas.
Camel.
?
9
299,818.
,616.
.0026
1.247
In comparing the weight of the brain with that of the flexors of
the lower jaw {temporals and musseters) we find, for instance, that
288
B. NATURAL BISTORT.
the jaw muscles are about eight times heavier in a hyaena, four
times in a Newfoundland, twice in a bear, a fox, and camel, bat
the same weight in a tan terrier, while in the young lion (552)
they are only about two-thirds the weight of the brain, although
this ratio must alter greatly as the animal grows older.
TABLE OF TWENTT-THBSB DOMESTIC CATS.
M*C.Z.
Variety.
Age.
Sex.
Body.
Brain.
Bstio.
8S0
Common?')
17 days.
rf
,180.
,013.
.on
219
« ^same Utter.
««
d"
|262.
,013.
.018
218
tt
9
,250.
,013.
jon
223
it
6 days.
?
,128.
,018.
M
40
41
8 days.
?
,080.
,00i.
M
88
«
at birth.
9
410.
,00S.5
M
S9
« (sister of 87).
86 hrs.
9
,075.
,(N8.6
M3
87
tt
12 brs.
rf
,092.
,003^
M
642
Maltese.
?
<f
,660.
,022.
M
48
tt
23 days.
cf
,809.
,014.
jOSB
25
«• (In part).
?
9
,648.
,021j5
m
24
<( <i * tt
2 mos.
9
,800.
fla.
m
84
.Common.
8 days.
9
,099.
/M.
M
610
Maltese (In part).
?
9
,963.
,033.
S6i
26
tt
?
9
1,770.
,026.
m
82
Common.
adult.
9
1,882.
,025.
jOlS
«
•(
d"
2,091.
,031.
jOU
20
•* (striped gray).
yoong.
9
1,912.
,023.
m
80
Common.
?
9
2,276.
,037.
m
28
«(
adolt.
• 9
2,370.
,OBS.
m
28
M
4(
9
2,978.
,027.
sm
22
Maltese (in part).
tt
<f
4,650.
,031.
•007
21
U M (1
tt
(f
2,712.
,<B5.
1
The following inferences may be drawn, provisionally, firom the
foregoing table.
1. The ratio of brain to body, in the adult cat, is about the same
as in the adult dogs of the medium sized breeds : namely, .007 to
.015.
B. NATURAL HISTOBT. 289
2. In kittens of the same litter (as 218, 219, 220 and 37, 89)
the brain weights are more uniform than the body weights, and
the latter causes a variation in the ratio.
8. Although the increase of the body weight is much more rapid
than that of brain weight, when the whole period of growth is con«
Bidered, yet a comparison of 88, 39, 87, 84 with 218, 219, 220, 222,
48, shows that tl\e brain must grow very rapidly during the first
two or three weeks after birth concomitantly with the increase in
bodily powers and the use of the senses.
A comparison of 2 and 4, among dogs, looks the same way ;
and in both cats and dogs, it will be remembered that the forma-
tion of fissures proceeds very rapidly during the earlier days.
With pigs, calves and colts, on the other hand, I have found the
fissures already deep and numerous long before birth, and it will
be interesting to contrast the relative increase of brain and body
weights in the Camivora and Primates which are bom helpless,
and the Herbivora^ which are in fuller possession of their faculties
at birth.
General Form. — Some dogs' brains are high and rounded, while
others are low, long and narrow in front ; of the latter type are
those of setters, Newfoundlands (Fig. 26), St. Bernards, shepherds
and bull dogs ; in all of these the olfactory lobes are visible for
about half their extent when the brain is seen from above but they
are wholly concealed by the hemispheres in the Pomeranians (Fig.
20), greyhound (Fig. 16) and terriers (black and tan. Fig 12), the
Chinese and Chihanhau dogs ; and between the two groups come
the bull terrier and skye terrier.
In the fox and wolf the brain is narrow and low in front, but
in the lion it is rather high ; while in the domestic cat, though low,
the frontal region is very broad ; evidently, however, it is not easy
to discriminate between the effect of large size of a certain region
and the relatively small size of an adjoining one, and it must be
remembered that in all very young dogs' brains the olfactory lobes
are hidden, but this is probably from their own undeveloped con-
dition.
The greater prolongation of the olfactory lobes and of the ad-
joining region of the cerebrum, in fix>nt of the presylviany which
generally prevails in the larger dogs at least, as compared with
the Felidoe^ might be held to indicate their superior power of scent ;
but this proves nothing respecting any mental faciiUy.
240
B. NATURAL HISTOBT.
M.C.Z.
Animals.
Fig.
Length of
Hemisphere
in millimeters.*
Infh>nt
of Arontal.
Batfo.
18
Bull and Cur.
.000|
.023,
A3
7
Tan terrier.
26
.053,
.010,
.188
U
Pointer and shepherd.
14
.045,
.013,
.288
Cat.
17
.082,
' .003,
.OM
610
Lion.
18
.071,
.013,
J8S
The above table is in no way intended as an index of the zoo-
logical or psychological relations of the several animals, bat as a
single proof of the impossibility of basing generalizations respect-
ing groups upon one or even several individuals ; for in respect to
an element of brain form which might naturally be noted in any
attempt at characterization, there is nearly as much difference
between two dog varieties as between two Feline species, or be-
tween the cat and the terrier.
FissTJBAL CoMPLEXiTT. — Thcrc must be, of course, a limit to
the depth of fissures (or to the elevation of folds), although we
have, as yet, no means of ascertaining the nature of the limitation,
nor whether it is uniform in all brains ; but supposing it to be
equal in two given cases, it is evident that a larger number, or
length, whether of branches or secondary fissures, indicates a cor-
respondingly larger amount of gray matter ; and this, supposing
its quality to be equal in the two cases, indicates a greater amount
of brain power,
1. Now the cerebral mass is capable of expending nerve force
in three directions, which are ideally distinct, at least in their
purpose, but practically linked together in most cases.
1. Physical, \ for ^he individual.
2. Mental, )
8. Sexual, for the species.
At present we have no way of ascertaining ftom the brain alone,
whether its peculiarities relate to greater mental, physical, or
sexual power.
We would naturally account for the more numerous fissnres
of dogs, as compared with- the feral Canidm^ upon the ground of
*A JSM itop is placed after the place for the number of meien (th6 unit of meMore),
and a comma after the millimeters (thousandths of a meter.)
B. NATURAL HISTORY. . 241
their higher mental capacity ; and upon this ground must be ex-
plain<3d the somewhat remarkable fact that the brain of an adult
Pomeranian female (Fig. 20) has fewer fissures than that of her five
weeks old pup (Fig. 21) ; for the father was a trained dog, while
the mother was comparatively unintelligent.
But the wolf, according to Gervais* figure, has more secondary
fissures than the fox, and this must be accounted for by its greater
physical power.
Perhaps this is also the explanation of the great fissural com-
plexity of the young lion, as compared with the adult cats or even
most dogs ; but Professor Agassiz has suggested to me that the
greater power indicated by the condition of the lion's cerebrum
may be connected with its prodigious virility^ tlie complete sexual
act having been performed nine times in an hour, under his obser-
vation, and the same rate having been maintained during at least
two successive nights.
In a young lion's brain (Fig. 19) the depth of the supersylvian
fissure is at least one-half the thickness of the hemisphere at that
point and in its plane ; while in an adult cat's brain the depth
was only one-fourth, and in a dog's about one-third ; all the other
fissures were very deep in the lion,^ and the layer of gray matter
very thick.
I hope to make a careful measurement of several dog's brains,
according to the method adopted by Wagner, with such suggestive
results.
2. There are individual variations among the adults which do
not afiTcct the presence or relative position of main fissures, but
their length, direction, branches, connections and continuity, and,
by inference, the manner of their formation ;' these variations
enable us to recognize any brain and may in some cases approxi-
mate them to other carnivorous families.*
3. The two sides of the same brain present just such variations
as those above described between different individuals.
The few instances cited show to what extent this variation may
exist ; so great is it, indeed, that I do not think it possible to
" mate " two hemispheres by their fissural pattern alone, without
taking into account the similarity of size, or general form.
* The resemblance of the ectoaylvian Assure of certain dogs to that of the cats is re-
ferred to in tlie preceding paper.
Ttie Dumber of specimens is not yet large enough to Justify any inference respect-
ing the sexual peculiarities of brains.
A. ▲• A. s. VOL. xxn. B. (16)
242 B. NATURAL HISTORY.
4. There are resemblances between brains of the same breed,
which lead us to suspect the existence of a uniform modification
of the general pattern for different breeds.
This is noticeable in the Pomeranian series; but in the first
place some other brains show the same tendency of the ectosylvian
to join the sylvian^ and in the second place the near relation-
ship of all the younger dogs to the single adult prevents our
knowing how far the resemblance is one of family and how far of
breeds in general.
The same doubt exists respecting two tan terrier brothers
(6 and 7) whose brains are similar, especially since they do
not particularly resemble those of others of the same breed.
5. All of these dogs* brains are comparable in respect to the
fissural pattern, both among themselves and with the feral Canida,
There is something which leads even the child to call all dogs
by that name, whether they be tenders or St. Bernards, grey-
hounds or bull-dogs, poodles or mastiffs ; just what this feature
is, has not, so far as I am aware, been scientifically described ;
nor have I any suggestion to make ; the 'case seems to be similar
with their brains ; I do not think I should mistake the brain
of a dog for that of any other animal, but I cannot yet say upon
what grounds, and am by no means sure that my diagnosis would
be correct in all cases.
But it is evident that in order to ascertain whether or not there
is any peculiar dog pattern, and. if so, what it is, a much greater
amount of material is required than is now accessible.
If nothing else, I have at least shown that no fissural pattern
involving several fissures can be correctly known from the exam-
ination of a single brain, much less one side of such brain. The
collection at Cambridge is very large as compared with that of
most museums, but far too small for any final conclusions. I
merely venture to express the hope that when we are able to com-
pare say twent3^-five brains of the same breed of dog, we may
be reasonably sure what are its cerebral characteristics, and prob-
ably several hundred specimens will be required to demonstrate
the essential features of the dog's fiissural pattern as contradis-
tinguished from all other Canidce.
The immense cost of such a collection raises the question of
the value of the result, and this is only part of a general question
not sufficiently considered when scientific inquiries are begim.
B. NATURAL HISTORY. 243
If a thing is to be done at all, it can be accomplished far more
completely and economically by one person or one institution
than by several working separately or at different periods. I
would therefore ask members of the Association to bear me in
mind when they have or know of a dog of pure blood and well
known character, which has outlived its usefulness ; a careful
transportation and death by chloroform will obviate distress on
the part of both the animal and its master.
The relation of tuese variations to Scientific Phrenol-
OGT.* — In using the phrase " scientific phrenology" I place myself
between two fires ; for the professional phrenologist claims that
all phrenology is scientific, while many scientists deny the com-
patibility of the terms. Let it be understood then, that I use
phrenology in a general sense, and to avoid coining a new word,
to indicate the study of the brain as an organ of the mind ; and,
farther, that I am not in the least biased by the views of others,
but am trying to learn the truth by a new method of investiga-
tion. In justice to myself also, it is right to state that I speak
as an anatomist and not as a physiologist, much less as a psy-
chologist. With all due respect for the latter classes of investi-
gators, I believe that they have been hitherto building upon very
slight foundations, and that an immense deal of hard work in the
way of anatomical comparison must be done before they can be
sure of the grounds upon which their experiments and conclusions
can be based. Further, I hold that most of the facts already at
hand are not of the right sort ; and that we have begun at the
wrong end and in the wrong way in our efforts to correlate brain
and mind.
Mental associations of parts of the Brain mass.— Four
methods may be employed in order to ascertain the mental associ-
ations of parts of the brain mass :
1. The Phrenological. The skull was accepted as an index of
the form of the brain, and a certain number of cases of corres-
pondence between cranial forms and marked characters was held
to demonstrate the locality of mental faculties and propensities.
♦ This phrase is nsed by GcrvaU (Noiivellce Archives dn Museum, tomoyi, PI. 9,
Tig- 2). This author gives admirable lithographs of mauy brains and moulds of
the craniAl cavity, and suggests tlie value of a comparison of carnivorous brains, for '
the advancement of " scientific phrenology."
244
B. KAT0RAL HISTORY.
That this method is not satisfactory appears from the following
considerations.
a. No definite and constant correspondence whatever exists be-
tween folds and fissures of the brain and the outer cranial surface.
b. Several important faculties are located over the frontal air
sinuses, as pointed out by Dr. Cleland, from whom the accom-
panj'ing figure (Fig. 27) is copied.*
INDIVIDUALITY
SIZE
WEIGHT
c. No phrenologist has ventured to draw the accepted map of
mental faculties upon the surface of the brain itself; and, from
what we have learned, it is certain that what would fit one side
would not fit the other.
d. No allowance is made for the extensive sheet of gray matter
which covers the mesial surfaces of the hemispheres, and which,
so far as has been shown, differs in no wa}'^ from the rest.
e. To all appearance, the gray matter forms a continuous sheet,
which may be more or less folded in the adult but was perfectly
even at an earlier stage. f
/. By the failure (in several cases, though one is enough) on the
part of the most expert phrenologist to determine correctly the
character of an individual by examination of the head.}
2. The Pathological. By comparing cerebral lesions with men-
tal manifestations observed during the life of the individual.
This is at present unsatisfactory, because :
•The lingering nilmirers of Phrenology. Popular Science Review.
t This is perhaps not bo conclusive nn objection as might nt first apiiear; for the
present non-recognition of lines of dcmui^cation is no proof of their uon -existence ;
and the experiments of terrier and others seem to demonstrate something like a locali-
zation of power in respect to muscttlir action; this, however, would not setnm to re-
quire the same circumscription of area as in the case of distinct mental faculties.
X My views in respect to phrenology are given in »' The Tribune Extra," Xo. S. and
my personal experience in •' The Ithaca (X. Y.) Democrat" for Jan. 29, 1873. They will
shortly appear in a republication of the lecture alSove referred to in the " UAlf-Hottr"
series of Messrs. Estes and Lauriafc.
B. NATtTRAL HISTORY. 245
a. It has failed of absolute demonstration in respect to an ap-
parently single organ, the cerebellum, for Dr. Hammond accepts
neither the view of Flourens that it coordinates muscular action,
nor that of Spurzheim that it is connected with sexual feeling,
and concludes that it has no special function.*
b. The large number of- cases in which aphasia coexisted with
lesions of a tolerably definite region of the left hemisphere lias
not yet convinced the highest authorities that the mental faculty
of language is there situated.
c. There is reason to suppose that peculiar mental conditions
may exist when no cerebral lesion is recognizable, and that lesions
may exist without mental disturbance.
d. Finally, Brown-Sequard concludes "from the study of every
symptom of brain disease, that all parts of the brain may, under
irritation, act on any of its other parts, modifying their activity,
80 as to destroy or diminish, or to increase and morbidly to
alter it."t
3. The E^^perimental. This has been introduced by Fritsch and
Hitzig, Beaunis and Nothnagel,J who, by galvanic or chemical irri-
tation or desl/uction of certain cerebral regions of dogs, have
demonstrated the existence therein of centres of action for dif-
ferent sets of muscles. This method promises great results, but,
it may involve injury and abnormal action, and thus far has
♦Quart. Journ. of P«ycli'>log!cal Merlicine, April, 1839.
t On the mechanism of proiluctlon of symptoms of diseases of the brain, Archives of
Scicntiflc and Prartical Medicine, toI. i, p. 117.
In thU connection the following conclusions of Brown-Seqnard (which I have bnt
lately seen in the original, Feb., 1874) are of gieaf significance : " An immense variety
of symptoms in diffierent individuals may bo caused by a lesion in one anil the same
part of tfte brain; and the same symptoms may result from the most various lesions.'*
Archives of Scientific and Practical Medicine. March, 1873, p. 250.
The above, toijethcr with the decided disbelief in the correctness of the generally
accepted views of nervous physiology, which are elsewhere in the same journal ex-
pressed by the same high authority, should lead us to be cautious in our deductions
from any single series of obser\'ations.
X FuiTSCH AXi> Hitzig.— Ueber die electiische Erregbarkeit des Grosshirns. Archiv
fttr Anatomie, Phj'siologie und wissenschaftliche Medicin, 1870. p. 300.
Hitzig. — Ueber die beim Galvanisiren des Kopfes entstehenden Siorungen der Mus-
kelinncrvation. Archiv filr Annt. Physiol, und Avissenschaftlii-he Medicin, 1871, p. 716.
Weitere Untersnchungen zur Physiologie des Gehirns. l>o.. 1H7I, p. 771.
Bbaunis.— Note sur I'application des injections interstitielles a I'etude des fonctions
des centres nerveux. Gazette M^dicale do Paris, 1873, Nos. 30-31.
KomxAGKi.,.— Inierstitielle Injectionen in die Hirnsubcftanz. Ccntralblalt fUr die
med. Wissenschalten, 1872. page 705.
Expei'imentello Untersuchungen Uber die Functionem des Gehirns. Virchow's
Archiv, 1873, p, 184.
The above references are taken from Prof. H. P. Bowditch's excellent report on
Physiology, Boston Med. and Surg. Journal, July 17, 1873, p. 79.
246 B. NATURAL HI9T0RT.
shown only a connection between cerebral snbstance and mttscular
organs, not of brain and mind.
The above method has been later employed by Ferrier,* who,
however, used farad ic instead of galvanic electricity.
Dr. Ferrier's results are interesting in the highest degree, and
it is only to be regretted that he has not at once, published a dia-
gram of a brain, so that all may know to what parts he refers in
his description.
It is worthy of note that in the following expression be jumps
at no conclusions respecting the localization of mental faculties,
'* There is reason to believe thai, when different parts of the
brain are stimulated, ideas are excited, but it is difficult to say
what the ideas are. There is, no doubt, a close relation between
certain muscular movements and certain ideas.''
But the results of such experiments can hardly be accepted as
indicative of the localization of mental faculties in the human
brain, or that of any animal than the one experimented upon,
until it -is shown that homologous folds exist in both ; and even
then the fact that the same faculty, for instance, combativenesSj
is manifested by a dog with its jaws, by a horse with his hind
legs, by a bull with his horns, and by human beings, with hand or
foot, or only with tongue, renders the practical phrenological ap-
plication a very difficult one. The following suggestion was made
by me a year ago (lecture on the brain above referred to).
'* To apply galvanic stimulus to the supposed organs of promi-
nent and distinct faculties, either indirectly, through the skull, or
directly, in cases of accident ; perhaps it is not too much to sug-
gest that the experimenium crucia could be tried, if an enthusiastic
believer would allow himself to be trepiiined, through a few pro-
tuberances. We could then witness the manifestation of friend-
ship or combativeness, as the subject clasped the operator in his
arms or planted a blow between his eyes.
It cannot be denied that trephining is one of the perilous opera-
tions, but a healthy man would have a fair chance ; a criminal
would do well to accept the risk in case of possible slow strangu-
lation, and should he die daring the operation, it would merely
anticipate by a score of years the method of execution, namely,
♦Ferrier.— "Experimental Resenrches in Cerebral Physiologry and Patholofry.'*
British Mcdicul Jonrnal, April 20, 187'i. Also: " A now method with the brain;** read
before British Association for Advancement of Science, 1873, and printed in '* Natoi^.**
and in '* Popular Science Monthly" for Dec, 1873.
B. NATURAL* HISTORY. • 247
by an overdose of chloroform, to which I-believe we shall be com-
pelled to resort, in the interests of decency, humanity, and even
artistic effect."
But while convinced that this method of investigation will
throw great light upon the question of the correlation of brain
and mind, I am by no means confident that it will demonstrate
the localization of mental faculties in certain cerebral folds. On
the contrary, although satisfied that my present material is too
small for final conclusion, I am more and more inclined to think
that a cerebral hemisphere acts as a unit, cither singlyor with its
fellow ; that, other things being equal, a greater number and depth
of fissures indicate a greater mental or bodily power, and that the
actual number of the fissures has only a general fanctioiial signifi-
cance^ analogous to coils of intestine^ or corrugations of mucous
membranes; but that like these, or like the peculiar turns of horns
and the arrangement of turbinated bones, their arrangement in
what is called the fissural pattern may be fairly accepted as indi-
cations of zoological relationship^ more and less remote. The ex-
tent of their value in this regard must be ascertained by much
more extensive comparison than has been made.
4. Cyno-phrenology. The method here advocated is, in theory,
that of the phrenologists, but its practice differs therefrom in two
important respects : a. In employing the brain itself for com-
parison, in using large numbers, in comparing the two sides, and
in keeping the brains for such study as is impossible from figures.
&. In employing not human, but canine brains, upon the grounds
of their simpler fissural pattern, their smaller size, and conse-
quent easier preservation in large number, and the possibility of
an accurate acquaintance with the mental characteristics of the
dogs. At present we are well acquainted with the natures of our
family, our friends, and of public men ; their brains are rarely at
our disposal for scientific investigation ; so we study the brains of
paupers and uiibultivated persons whose characters are known to
US either not at all or very imperfectly. With dogs, the brain and
the mind of the same individual are at our disposal ; while lateral,
epochal, individual and sexual variations, together with those ap-
pertaining to families and breeds, may be more easily observed
and separated.
I have records of the habits and disposition and mental attain-
ments of several dogs, but the material is far too slight for
248 • B. NATURAL HISTORY.
anything like a scientific deduction. I even hesitate to associate
the great width of the supersylvian fold of a bulldog, with his
fighting powers, for his disposition was gentle enough.
Even Distribution op Fissures. — I cannot help thinking that
at least one of tlic elements of the fissural pattern is the sub-
division of the surface into approximately equal areas. This is
best demonstrated by projecting the surface of a hemisphere upon
a plane. But the only brain on which I have as yet done this
is less satisfactory^ than I expected ; and I shall hope hereafter to
offer sections of ti>e hemispheres which will better indicate both
the distance between the fissures and their depth.
If particular folds are the organs of either mental faculties or
distinct groups of muscles, and if as such organs they are circum-
scribed by the intervening fissures, then how can we explain the
following facts?
1. That these folds arc generally continuous around the ends of
the intervening main fissures.
2. That even where '* islands " are formed bv the extension of
branches or by secondary fissures, there was a time when these
surfaces were continuous upon the same level.
3. That no one has j^et demonstrated any structural lines of
demarcation corresponding to the fissures.
4. That there may be differences between the two halves of the
same brain equal to or eveu greater than those which distinguish
individuals or even species.
The zoologist and comparative anatomist would not hesitate to
call attention to the greater or less width of a certain fold, and
would regard it as of possible taxonomic value ; but the cautious
physiologist would certainly shrink from the inference that this
was conclusive proof of the greater or less power of certain mus-
cles or mental faculties ; and he would be "yet more loath to infer
that the apparent obliteration in many dogs of the posterior leg
of the front or lowest fold (which in fox intervenes between the
sylvian and ectosylvian) indicated the absence of cither the mus-
cles or the faculties which the fox exercises through it ; or even to
infer that the apparent transfer of the anterior leg of this fold m
h^^aBua, to behind the sylvian fissure indicated a real transfer of »
mental or muscular *' organ;" although, should the fissural ar-
rangement prove constant, it would be. unhesitatingly accepted as
of great taxonomic value.
■i.
I <
Ptote 1. FoBM\TION AND NOMENCLATURE OF FlSSUKES IN CaKSITORA.
rii. e. FmUl Wolf (O—to necMwrtrtiili
foar tlA7B before blrtb. (IMl)
Fig.S. Fux, y./uleut. i aduU.
riR. 1. Fox, V. /W™». ! (SW-
Fig.7. English TBiTiar : cmodiff- 9 (*■*■'
Kwrty grown. IS«.)
b«UuiB, let u5^' »!"»«*''<*• '*■""
KIk j lle<li*n Inba of CerclislliiB »'
Klllcn (K) anil Cat (tl, "howtng cmMiUm
FI«.S. Fox- Smmea84,projocte<lona|]lBnc. dorftig ETOwUi. timgeMI-)
* [See page lilt, note.)
UiiAiNS or Ui.KNA, Blah asl. Iti-
Fig, 10. na«r: IV.
loy.at. (:i«.J {,•.-■-.
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Vakieties o¥ Dogs.
Flg.M. Fomermnlui dog, $ adptt (1). (Mother of 11. n, n.) ^^
rigai. Pomersnlanpqp, S llvoweeki. i»)
rig. 23, PomsraniKii pnp, rf Dllr-four hours, fi)
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B. NATCBA.L HISTOBT. 249
All the facts indicate that while it is not impossible or even im-
probable that different areas of the cerebral surface may be in
functional relation to either movements or mental operations or
both, yet these areas are not always, if ever, circumscribed by the
fissures; that the fissures merely increase the amount of. gray
matter wherever they are ; their signification being rather quanti*
tative than qualitative.
This question might be decided by Dr.Terrier's method, explor-
ing not only the free surface of the folds but also the hidden walls
of the fissures.
Explanations of Figures.* — With two exceptions (Figs. 10
and 13) the brains are shown from the left side, and all the
drawings are made from specimens hardened, and thereby
shrunken, in spirit. The olfactory lobe is given in outline ; also
the cerebellum and medulla oblongata : but neither the nerve
roots, nor the cerebellar convolutions are indicated. As stated
on page 218, note, each fissure is drawn as it appears to the
ej-'e placed over it perpendicularly to the surface on which the
brain rests.
Figures 3, 4, 20, 22, 25, showing the fissures dark on a white
ground, have been kindly loaned to me by the " N. Y. Tribune," from
those which illustrated the report of my lecture on*' The Brain,
and the present scientific aspect of Phrenology," printed in the
"Tribune" Extra, No. 3 : a few inaccuracies which could hardly
be avoided in the hasty preparation for the press. Lave been since
corrected.
The remaining figures, in which t!ie fissures are shown white on
a dark ground, have been drawn on wood and cut by Mr. Philip
Barnard of Chicago (now a student in Cornell Univ.), to whose
patienc3 and accuracy I gladly bear witness. All the drawings
were made by me from specimens which I had prepared.
The fissures are lettered uniformly throughout.
8— SylWan.
Ba — Basisylvian.
Ps— Presylvian.
K— Rtijnul.
Kr— Ectorhinal.
F— rrontal.
C— Coronal.
£d— £cto8ylvian.
Es'~ Its posterior branch.
£»v— Its ventral branch.
Sa — Snpersyl vian.
Ss'— l\A medial branch.
L — Lntornl.
L'— Its medial branch.
El— Ectolateral.
Ml~ Medilateral.
* The numbers In parenthesis refer to the Catalo^e of the Nenrology and Embry-
olo^y of Domeatioated animals at the Museum of Comparative Zoology.
A. A. A. S. VOL. XXn. B. (16*)
250 b. natural bistort.
Lateral Asymmetry in the Brains of a Double Human Mon-
ster. By Burt G. Wilder, of Ithaca, N. Y.
[The figures form plate 6 at the end of the preceding paper.]
It is generally known that the right and left hemispheres often
present considerable differences in the details of the cerebral pat-
tern ; but veiy rarely do we find figures or detailed descriptions
which indicate the extent of this lateral variation, although its ex-
istence would seem a serious difficulty in respect to phrenology.
As remarked in a previous paper no brains of different individuals
can be so closely allied as those of the same individual, and a study
of these must serve to check our estimates of the zoological value
of fissural variation between species ; next in value for this pur-
pose would usually be ranked the brains of twins or, with animals,
brothers and sisters of the same litter ; but an intermediate stage
of relationship is presented by double monsters, like the one de-
scribed in the next paper, and as their brains are rarely preserved
or figured, I have thought them worth recording.*
The brains were bisected soon after extraction ; each was
weighed and each cerebral hemisphere placed in spirit upon its
mesial surface ; being quite soft, they became unnaturally flattened
in the process ; they were drawn after hardening and the two
right hemispheres shrank while drawing, f^'om evaporation of the
spirit, so as to lessen their area and to expose the island of Reil to
an unnatural extent, as appears in figures 2 and 4. This prevents
the otherwise interesting comparison of the four hemispheres in
respect to the length of the fissures, without reference to their
depth ; and in respect to the total area of the outer surface of
the hemispheres.
But the fissures themselves and their connections are unchanged,
and certainly present some striking differences whether the two
brains are compared together, or the two halves of the same brain.
I have lettered only the sylvian (S), its ascending branch (S'0» ^®
first temporal {t') ; and the fissure of Rolando or centralis (C).
The temporal (f) of the right brain, lefl hemisphere, is in two
portions, the separation occurring at a point corresponding with a
transverse fissure in the other hemisphere; and although Ecker
• I hope on a fhture occasion to present a detailed comparison of the four bemi-
spheres of several double-headed caWes and pigs, which are now in the Maseum of
the Cornell University.
B. KATURAX HISTORY. 251
says nothing of it (op, cit. 62), yet some foetal brains in my pos-
session indicate that there may here be two fissures which origi-
nate separately but usually unite ; the case may be compared with
that of the lateral and coronal in camivora, (See page 227.)
I do not feel sufficiently sure of the correctness of the generally
received designations of the other fissures to compare them indi-
vidually, but it is evident that all the fissures difffer greatly as to
length, direction, branches and connections, and that the smaller
fissures vary considerably in number, giving an appearance of fis-
snral complexity in the following order. 1. Left brain, left hem-
isphere ; 2. Left brain, right hemisphere ; 3. Right brain, right
hemisphere ; 4. Right brain, left hemisphere.
It is worth noting that, excepting with the left brain, right hem-
isphere, this order is inversely to that of the weights, as if by
way of compensation ; also that the two hemispheres of the left
brain present the two extremes of fissural complexity, while the
intermediate conditions are seen in the right brain.
Furthermore, it may not be too much to associate the greater
weight (,024. grams) of the whole left brain over the right, with the
fact that the corresponding part of the double body is larger than
the right, and the median third leg is thrown over toward the right
side, as if it were more fully a right leg of the left child than a
left leg of the right child.
The combined weight of the two brains is ,768. which is to that
of the bodies, 5,000. about as 1 to 6J, which is the average ratio
in females at birth, according to Tiedeman ; that in the male being,
according to the same authority as 1 to 5*85 ; as quoted in Quain's
Human Anatomy, ii, 570. This monster is apparently of the male
sex.
The Papiixary Representative op Two Arms op a Double
Human Monster, with a Note on a Mummied Double
Monster from Peru. By Burt G. Wilder, of Ithaca, N. Y.
The double monster here referred to was still-born, at term^
in March, 1873 ; aside from the malformation it was of good size
and appearance ; the left spine was found to be fractured, and
252 B. NATURAL HISTORY.
it may have died during parturition which was long and difficnlt,
although the mother recovered without trouble.
Having preserved all the viscera (including the brains, which
were described in the previous paper), it 1$ my intention to pre-
pare a detailed account of the case in connection with several
other double monsters in m}' possession, so I will merely men-
tion that it weighed about 5,000. grams (about eleven pounds),
and measured about twenty-two inches when the legs were
extended.
There are two stomachs, symmetrically disposed, as usual in
such cases ; the small intestines continue independently to near
the caecum ; this, the colon and rectum are single, the latter ter-
minating at an imperforate anus, just above (behind) the genitals;
there are two hearts, and two pairs of lungs ; four kidneys and two
bladders ; the sex is apparently male, but the testes have not
entered the scrotum, and I have not yet looked for them among
the viscera.
As seen in the figure, its heads are separate and complete,
the right largei' then the left, as with the corresponding brains ;
the opposite limbs and sides of the compound body are some-
what unsymmetrical, the right child seeming to constitute more
than half of the whole ; the hands and feet are quite well formed
but there is an extra right poUex ; flirther details will be given
hereafter.
So far this specimen nearly resembles that so well described
and figured by Professor Jeffries Wyman in the " Boston Medical
and Surgical Journal" for March 29, 1866.*
There is also a third and median and morphologically symmetp
rical leg coming off from the pelvis, and possessing a partly
double foot with a median primus (great toe) bearing a nail upon
each side, and seven other toes of which four seem to belong to
the right, and three to the left, moiety ; but this left foot belongs
of course to the right child, and the right belongs to the left child
which thus claims four and a half of the eight toes.
The leg and foot are less regular and symmetrical than in
TTj'man's case, and the whole limb is swung out toward the
left as if more under the control of the right child, concomi-
• The flgnre Is reproduced in Dr. S. J. Fisber's essay npon Diptotemtologr, p. 72, and
fiffs. 53 and 51, the description is there qnoted in part, and in full in Prof. J. B. S. Jack-
son's Catalogue of the Warren Anat. Mus. of Harvard University,
B. KATUBAL HI8TOBT.
253
tantly with the greater bulk of the right brain (see preceding
paper).
The point to which I wish to call particular attention is the ex-
istence of a minute papillary representative of the missing arms,
corresponding to the legs which are represented by the fused and
median limb ; this is a papilla about '005, in length and slightly
constricted at the base ; the surface is slightly wrinkled and a
few short hairs spring from the tip ; it is wholly tegumentary, and
its cavity contains only loose connective tissue.
Fig. 1. Dicephalous Monster, Arom behind; 1-6 of natural length.
Its nipple-like appearance, and its location upon the line of
junction of the shoulder regions of the two individuals, suggested
its being the result of a fusion of the left nipple of the right child
and the right nipple of the left child (the other two occupying
their normal positions upon the pectoral regions), but it is tm- '
perforate; and what is conclusive, the real nipples, though small
and hardly projecting from the surface, occupy places upon the
sides of the junction-line, the right one (left of right child) being
254
B. NATURAL HISTORY.
•030, and the left (right of lea child) -025, behind the median
papilla, and at a distance of *025 apart; an elongated mammaiy
gland underlies the left nipple as indicated by the slight elevation
in fig. 2, A, but no such is apparent under the other.
Fig. 2. A. Internment bearing the papillary limb Py and the two nipples A\ S'.
B. Meflian scapula and clavicle ft'om above.
C. The 8ame fVom the side, the scapula divided near the middle line; all of
natural size.
Immediately beneath the integument upon the line of junction
are two bones whose position in reference to the papilla is approx-
imately shown by the dotted outline in fig. 1 ; while their forms
and connections are shown in fig. 2, B and (). The longer bone
is evidently a median and nearly symmetrical clavicle; it is
about '045, in length, is wholly ossified, and presents at its hinder
extremity an appearance of epiphysis, which is attached to the
anterior slope of the scapular elevation by ligaments, witboot
any synovial capsule ; its anterior extremity gives oflf a slender
tendon which bifurcates at a distance of '005, into the tendons of
the two stemo-mastoid ( ?) muscles ; into each side are inserted
two muscles, the cleido-mastoid occupying the anterior, and the
tro/pezius the posterior half. The enclosed spaces C M and T
B. NATURAL. HISTORY. 255
indicate the attached ends of the deido-mastoid and trapezius mus-
cles of the right individual ; the clavicle is strongly cuiTed toward
the left individual, as seen from behind, but as seen IVom the side
its outline is nearly straight, fig. 2, C.
The scapula is a nearly symmetrical disk of bone with a carti-
laginous border which is narrow in front, projects as an angle
upon each side, and is broader behind where it is closely connected
with a transverse bar of cartilage, excepting an elongated gap
upon the middle line ; the scapular disk is convex upon its dorsal
surface, rising near the anterior border into a decided elevation or
tubercle corresponding with a deep pit P, upon the concave deep
surface, as shown in the section C.
I am not prepared to express a decided opinion as to the nature
of the cartilaginous bar ; but have no doubt that the disk represents
the fusion of the inner or vertebral or proximal moieties of the left
scapula of the right child, and the right scapula of the left child,
at a point proxunad of the glenoid cavities so as to leave only por-
tions of the acromial spines to unite and form the elevation against
which the clavicle abuts ; to the various borders of the scapula
are attached muscles, which seem to represent the two rhomboidei^
the serratus magniis^ the levator anguH scapulae^ and the omohyoid;
but as I am still in some doubt respecting the pectoralis major^
and the attachments of the teres major and latissimus dorsi, I will
defer an account of them to another occasion ; when, too, the
absence of a sternum and the apparent anomalous direction of the
clavicle can be accounted for.
In general, however, it is evident that the condition of things is
like that in Prof. Wyman's case, excepting that the separation of
the two individuals at the shoulders is less complete ; or the union
is more so.
The result is to re^luce so far the median and third arm, that
instead of being obviously and unmistakably such it is a mere
papilla which but for its position and its relation to the underlying
bones would never be regarded as a limb, much less as two arms ;
yet it is evident that it is just as much so, morphologically^ as is the
earliest pad-like rudiment of a limb in the developing foetus ; for
it is possible to conceive of a complete series of intermediate
conditions with Wyman's case at one extreme and this at the
o.her.
• It would seem therefore that, in any such system of classifies
256 B. MATCKAL HISTOBT.
tion of monsters as that proposed by Dr. Fisher, out moDster
sbould rafik aa Dicepkcdua, tribrackua tripus; op. «'(., p. 71,
But the question arises whether the name could be retained in
case of a still further reduction, so as to leave no external evi-
dence of a median limb ; and wbile this may be of less practiul
importance in respect to monsters, yet it is akin to the geneial
problem " what constitutes a digit or dactyle " briefly indicated bj
Note ok a Mouui&d Dicephxlds fhou Peru. — Dr. Ches.
S. Swazey of New Bedford has kindly allowed me to bring some
photographs of Peruvian relics, and among them is one of i
human dicephalns, closely resembling our specimen ; but as it
is in a sitting posture and shown fVom in front, the existence
of median limbs is merely to be inferred, the left foot is partly
hidden by the right, and the three tibial (inner) toes of Ihe rigiit
are turned down. It seems, from this, that monsters occurred
among the ancient Peruvians, and that they were not consigned
. to scientiBc investigntion, but duly mumroifled.f
•Intermemtirnl Hamoloftlee. p. 03; Proc. Bout. 8oc. Sat. Illst., vol. 14, im.
tit is eUUrl In Spencer's -DuscHptiTe Soclnlogy" th&t the "Hiiacu,''ar uend
objecu ot Uie PerDvlans included [irlns and in
b. natura.l history. 257
The Habits and Parasites of £p£ira riparia, with a Note on
THE Moulting op jNephila plumipes. By B. G. Wilder, of
Ithaca, N. Y.
The large garden spider with black and 3'ellow abdomen, which
is very common in certain parts of the south, and less abundant
at the north, was first, -so far as I know, described and figured only
by Hentz.*
Although that author's description is very brief, the spider is
readily identified, and it may be better to defer a fuller description
until a male is secured ; at present there are some points in its
economy worthy of investigation, and I will here indicate them,
first quoting in full Ilentz's account of the species.
^^ Jjescription, — Black, cephalo-thorax covered with silvery-white
hairs ; abdomen barred with bright j^ellow spots and dot& ; thighs
usually bright rufous at base, except the first pair. Of a large
size, seldom small.
Observations, — This remarkable species usually dwells on the
margin of w^aters where it makes a web of strong threads, in which
large Libellulce and Melolonthce are often caught. The abdomen
of the female is flat in the early part of the season, and it is not
till August that, being distended with eggs, it assumes the ovi-
form shape. Its cocoon is conical, as large as a small plum, like
a pear hanging down. Whenever opened it was found full of young
spiders instead of eggs. Is it viviparous?
Habitat. —The United States."
During the war I had the opportunity of studying certain
features in. the economy of this species, which ^ at the time, I
imagined to be wholly undescribed, and in ''Harper's Monthly"
for March, 18G7, under the title of "200,000 spiders," I gave
descriptions and figures of the female E. riparia^ of her net and
of the cocoon ; also of presumed ichneumouidian and chalcidian
parasites found therein. And as nothing has since appeared
respecting it, I will here give an abstract of the above mentioned
paper, together with some additional observations respecting the
escape of the young from the cocoon.
* Bo9ton Journal of Nataral History, 1847, v, 468, pi. xxx, flg. 5, under the name of
E. riparia.
A. A. A. S^ VOL. XXII. B. (17)
HATURAI. H13T0ET.
On the 2lBt of March, 1865, on James Island, Just soath from
Charleston, South Carolina, I found suspended in a bush a p«u-
shaped cocoon (fig. 1), like that described by Hcutz. Between
Fig. 1. Cocoon of Epeint rlpaiil; iwt. bIm.
the above dat« asd April 2d, I found in the same locality, »nd
chiefly near a ditch, two hundred and five similar c
Fig. 3. A. Vertical truiaTerse aecHon of coooon of ^Mlro riparla, contiinbf
onlj- the egga of the spider.
B. The same ahowlog the cocoona of the Ichneumon, which de«n>jad
the eggi, ""d which are theinaelves destroyeii by cbaloidlmi.
C. Cocoon of lohnenmon from which the insect hu escaped.
1. Outer, and nsnoll; sl^^d, coat of (he cocoon. S, S, 1. Second, third laA
fourth, or Inner coaUiSepantod from each other. S. Ths pedicel. 8. Loots
interior of pedicel. T. Thickened base of pedlceL 8. SnspeDtorr of the
egE^orer. S. The egg-coTer. 10. The eggs partly exposed by KpanUiBf
the covBrfrom the cup. 11. The cnp. IS. Loose silk anrroiiDding Uieutp.
13. HolemadebyescaplDglchneumon. 11. Ichoenmon cocoon, is. Heleslo
the Ichneumon cocoons made by the ohaloldlmiis. 16. CorrcspondlBg hclM
In the ■plder'a docood.
B. NATUBAL HI8T0BT. 259
The cocoon is nsually pear-shaped, ranging from *015, (15 milli-
meters) to '022, in transverse diameter, and from *025, to *032, in
length. The wall averages '000,5 {^ millimeter) in thickness, and
usually consists of four concentric and clo^ly united coats or
layers of silk, which are nearly equal in thickness and compact-
ness, the outer one (1), however, being usually smoothly glazed
without, 80 as to crackle. like thin paper ; sometimes there are but
three coats, and in some of these cases, the outer one is not glazed
bat soft and velvety ; the coats thin out over the pedicel, but not
by well-defined edges.
At the top of the cocoon is a pedicel or stem (5), hollow and loose
in texture (6) above, but broader and denser below, where it is
concealed by the body of the cocoon, and having its lower surface
or base very firm, like a silken disk (7).
The contents of the cocoon are a mass of loose, reddish silk (12)
attached above, about the base of the pedicel and apparently also
to the inner coat (a special portion of this loose silk, like a
cushion (8) attached to the base of the pedicel) ; a kind of saucer
(9) of • very delicate silk, which is inverted, and suspended by the
cushion above mentioned; a cup (11) of the same delicate silk
suspended to the lower border of the saucer (which thus forms its
cover) by a few fibres of loose silk; a mass of eggs (10), from
five hundred to two thousand two hundred in number, enclosed
within the cup (at the time these were found, these eggs had
evidently hatched, for in their place were found large numbers
of little fragments of broken shells) ; many little round bodied
spiders, never, in the earlier weeks, less than five hundred in
number ; which, when the cocoon was opened, came tumbling out,
each swinging by its own little thread, and ^^ looking like so many
chickens hung by their tails" (HarpeFs Magazine, 1866, p. 452,
and fig. 12).
I have never witnessed the making of a cocoon ; a spider after-
ward taken near Boston, Mass., was just finishing her work at
6 A.M. of Sept. 26, by attaching lines from the cocoon to sur-
rounding objects. But it may be inferred that the pedicel is first
formed, and firmly secured by strong lines in all directions ex-
cepting downward ; that to its lower surface the spider afiSxes the
cushion of loose silk ; and to this the inverted saucer ; the eggs
are now expressed upward into this, while the spider hangs back
downward below it ; the cup is now formed under and about the
eggs ; and then around the whole is spun the loose mesh of silk
260 B. NATURAL HISTORY.
which serves the double purpose of protection to the eggs and the
spiders, and as a primary habitation for the latter before they es-
cape and make nets of their own ; finally, the outer wall is formed
in three or four co»secutive layers, and the cocoon is braced bj
strong lines passing to the surrounding twigs.
From the above account it appears that the cocoon must be
formed and the eggs laid in the previous summer; and that in
South Carolina, the eggs are hatched as early as the 2lst of March;
but although by opening a cocoon every day or two, I satisfied
myself that each of them did really contain from fr\'e hundred to
two thousand living spiders, and although they were kept exposed
to the sun and occasionally sprinkled with water, yet during all
the time I kept them, namely, until June 15, not one of the
entire cocoons was opened by the inmates. On and after the 10th
of May, however, they sometimes came out of holes cut in the
cocoons, or through openings, hereafter to be described. But first
it is important to state that from a single entire cocoon found at
Ithaca, N. Y., the spiders escaped through a hole made by them-
selves near the base of the pedicel, on the 14th of June, 1873 ; so
perhaps, but for an accident which destroyed them, those at the
south would soon have made their wav out.
The fact, however, remains that the young of Epeira rfparia
live together for many weeks in a confined space, and with no
food excepting one another.* That they do eat each other is cer-
tain ; first, because in cocoons opened later in the season, the
spiders were found to be fewer in number, but larger in size ; and
second, because they were seen to do it, even when out of the
cocoon and supplied with other food (as blood) which they seemed
to relish. There never was any fighting, however ; the smaller
and weaker seemed to understand that for the good of the species
(pro bono jmblico) they must be devoured by the larger and
stronger, who performed their part " doucement et sans cholere."
It is evident that here is an opportunity for noting the working
of " natural selection," upon a large scale ; for out of the five
hundred young who are hatched, comparatively few can reach
maturity, else the country would soon be overrun with them ; the
fact being that although the species is widely distributed, yet I
•Three cocoons of this species were brought to me Feb. 26, 1874; and the yoonf
spiders are hatched; without speculating as to the time that may hare already elap^
since the hatching, this gives us nearly four months during which the young remain
confined ; and it wiil appear that the cocoon itself must keep out the cold as effleieotlj
as the egg shells, pupa cases and cocoons of insects which appear later in the stasno.
B. NATURAL HISTORY. 261
never focmd them in snch abundance in other parts of the south,
and saw only eight cocoons between Charleston and Eutaw Springs,
South Carolina, searching the woods bordering the road both going
and returning.
Of the four hundred and six cocoons obtained on James Island
in the spring of 1865, only one hundred and thirty-four were en-
tire^ and presented no opening whatever. My notes state that
one hundred and ninety of the others were pierced, but by what
is not mentioned and I do not now venture to conjecture ; but no
spiders came out of these before May 10, although the openings
were certainly similar to those made by the spiders in the cocoon
mentioned on page 260.
Of the remaining eighty-two cocoons, fifty-nine were torn, in
one or more places, and through the rents projected loose silk ;
having once ^' seen a little bird about the size of a sparrow, fly at
a cocoon hanging in a tree, make one or two. quick pulls and then
retreat," I am inclined to 4hink all these rents were so caused ;
and as these attacks would usually open the cocoon without in-
jaring the inmates, I drew the inference that this might be a pro-
vision of Nature, like the fertilization of flowers by insects, by
which the invasion of the cocoon should really permit the contin-
uance of the species ; that this is not the only means of egress
has been since shown in the case mentioned upon page 260.
Parasites. — The remaining twenty-three cocoons presented
openings of one, and usually of two sizes ; the larger about *001,
and the smaller '000,3 in diameter. Some of these cocoons con-
tained a few spiders, but usually only empty shells ; while the origi-
nal contents were in all cases crowded to one side and upward by
a mass of small oblong cocoons (14) of a whitish silk, and more or
less firmly united by threads. In one spider's cocoon, some of the
smaller cocoons were empty with a hole in one end corresponding
in size and locatiop with the larger holes in the spider's cocoon
(13) ; three were entire and each contained fragments of a single
insect, apparently an ichneumon, of which I have at present no
fragments which can be specifically identified. The small cocoons
in all the other twenty-two cocoons in this series presented no
large holes but instead, many small holes like pin-pricks (15)
corresponding to the smaller holes in the spider's cocoons (16) ;
and in all these pierced cocoons were fifteen to twenty little black
insects, some motionless (pupce), others crawling actively about
262
B. NATURAL BISTORT.
{imagines)^ which are undoubtedly chalcidians, but as yet unde-
termined ; all such cocoons contained also the empty pupa skiDS
of the ichneumons, which, having destroyed the spiders before or
after hatching, had been themselves devoured by the chalcidians.
The chalcidians range from •001, to '002, in length. The ich-
neumons range from '005, to "006, in length. Their pupa skins
from -006, to -008, and their cocoons from -007, to -010, in length
and '003, to '004, in diameter.
In the article above quoted, are given figures and descriptioifs
of these parasites and some suggestions as to the manner of their
entrance to the cocoon ; but it is evident that a careful investi-
gation will be needed in order to elucidate fully the histoiy of
this spider and its enemies.
Note upon the Moultino op Nephila plumipes. — Mr. Black-
wall * has clearly described the moulting of Epeira ccUc^hyUa^ and
Figs. 3, 4. Moulting of Nephila plumfpes.
called attention to the fact that the first separation of the integ-
ument occurs along the border of the cephalo-thorax and not upon
the median line. Having witnessed this very often with NephUa
•Trans. Linn. Soc, vol. xvl, p. 473, and spiders of Gr. Br., p. 7.
B. MATDBAI. BI8T0BI. 263
plumipes, I am able to conflrm his descriptioD ; nod as no illua-
trations of the process are known to me, I offer here two repre-
sentations of 2^epkila drawn by me fVom the same individual, while
partly extricated (fig. 3), and while hanging and drying prepara-
tory to mounting to her net (fig. 4) ; the position must assist the
flow of fluid fVom the abdomen into the limbs and cephalo-thorax.
I have "bi<^aphies" of several individuals of this species which
were isolated and watched for a greater or less length of time, in
a. few cases from soon after hatching to the adult condition ; and I
have observed remarkable differences of disposition and habit,
quite comparable to those commonly ascribed only to human
beings and the higher animals ; there seem to be truly psycholog-
ical individualities even among spiders.
Tlg.e. HephIl>plDinlpaB,afi9Wdar>oM:>>t>ti]nlalzeaiidenIarsei].*
ng. fl. Cocoon of MephlU plumlpea, or loou B[lk atUcbed to the lower anrAca
of B leaf.
•ThlB, with flB». S, 4 and 8, and flg. I of the fbllowing paper, are elentrolypes of coti
In my anlnle " Memolra of a Cripple," In "Our Toang Folka" for Sept., 1966, ftiniiibed
me at coat bj Uessra. J. R. Oegood ft Co.
264 B. NATURAL HISTORY.
The Nets of Epeira, Nephila and Hyptiotes {MUhms). By
B. G. Wilder, of Ithaca, N. Y.
Most Epeiridce ("garden" spiders or "geometrical" spiders)
construct a net in the form of a nearly circular disk which is sus-
pended at various angles, but probably never quite vertical or
horizontal, although the former position is generally predicated
of the ordinary species, and the latter of Tetragnatha and some
species of Epeira. The net consists of a spiral viscid line laid
upon a framework of dry radii which converge to a point which
apparently coincides with the centre of the disk, but may vary a
little therefrom, and, according to Emerton,* is usually nearer
the top than the bottom. In some cases, and perhaps in all, the
radii are first connected by a primary spiral dry line at greater
intervals than the secondary viscid line ; this is begun at the
centre and completed at the periphery, and according to Emerton
(op. ciY., 479) is removed as the viscid line is laid on (it is per-
manent in Nephila) ; the viscid line is begun at the peripliery and
completed near the centre ; the spider takes position at the centre
upon the lower surface of the net, and always with its head down-
ward. The net of E, vulgaris is figured by Emerton (Am. Nat.,
vol. ii, PI. 2), that of E, riparia by me (Harpers* Magazine,
March, 1867, p. 463), and those of several British species by
Blackwall, in his great work, "Spiders of Great Britain and
Ireland." The net of Nephila plumipes t consists wholly and in-
variably of a series of looped viscid lines, laid upon radii which
gradually increase in length from the upper to the lower region
of the net so that the "centre of radiation" is very much nearer
the upper than the lower margin, and is, in fact, more nearly
in the upper of the two foci of the elliptical net ; the radii are
very numerous and closely set ; secondary radii are placed in the
wider intervals commencing at various distances from the centre ;
and the primary dry line is looped like the viscid line, and is re-
tained; the necessity for this extra support being evident from
the great size of the nets, which range from one to four feet in
diameter, and are strong enough to hold a light straw hat.
The free radii are in the same plane with the others, are always
^American Naturalist, 1868, p. 478.
t As described and figured by ine in " How our new Acqaaintanees Spin," Atlanlic
Monthly, August, 1866, from which flg. 1 is taken.
265
in the upper region of the net, and occupy about | of itsrarea;
they are more irregular than the others, and crossed by irregular
lines so as to merge gradually into the outer scaffolding, and are
crosaed by neither the dry nor the visoid looped lines.
In nature, the free radii, as above described, occupy about J of
the area ; but the web of Which a figure is given was made upon
a wire ft-ame ; the limits of irbich seem to have interfered with the
extension of the loops above the level of the centre of radiation.
Hyptiotes (of Ithaca, N. Y.). — The spider, whose web will
now be described, no doubt belongs to the genus Hyptiotes
W'alck, (afterward and more generally called Mithras) ; of which
there have been described at least two species, H. paradoxus
and H. Jlavidus, fVom Europe, the former having been lately
found in Great Britain.*
I refrain fiom giving a specific name, because if there prove to
be only one species in the limited states, we may have to retain
the name cavata which Hentz applied to the species found by him
in Alabama, and to which he gave a new generic name Cyllopodia ;\
Hentz, however, states decidedly that it baa but six eyes (whereas
•It is my iDleatlon to imbllsh Bhortlf ■ full dee<:rli>t<on of (he spiaer. wLtli refer-
cncw io the iijaoajtoj kindly ruralshecl me by Meeara. BlackwKll and Cambridge of
Eaglind, and Win. Holdea or MurietM, Oblo.
IBoM. Jonrn. of Nat. Ant. 1847, vol. r, p. W«.
206 B. NATURAL HISTOBT.
my specimens have eight), and his descriptions, both generic and
specific, are hardly full enough for identification : he knew nothing
of the net. Mr. Emerton has a few specimens of both sexes, taken
in Massachusetts, which I have not yet examined critically, but I
have not heard of its discovery in other parts of the country.
•I have not been able to find specimens of Hyptiotes earlier than
the middle of September, and they seem to disappear about the
middle of November ; I have never seen young specimens, but
certain little cocoons are very numerous in the same localities,
BO I suspect them to be made by them.
These cocoons sometimes contain about a dozen egg-shells;
in which case the spiders have evidently escaped by pushing up
the base of one of the guy lines, which seems fitted like a trap
door ; sometimes the cocoon is empty, and then the outlet is a
ragged hole at one side ; and in one I found remains of some
winged insect, dipterous or hymenopterous, evidently a parasite
as with the Epeira riparia (see preceding paper), which may
account for the ragged holes in the other specimens.
In some cocoons there are eggs as yet unhatched, and I may
succeed in rearing the young.
The cocoons are about -002, in diameter; and those which
contain entire eggs include also some loose silk.
It will be seen that the habits of Hyptiotes^ and the form of its
net, with its mode of construction, are sufiSciently peculiar to ob-
viate any danger of confounding it with other genera ; I have not
yet seen the work of Ausserer in which Mr. Holden thinks the
net of the European species is referred to, and do not think any
extract from it has appeared in this country, so that a full des-
cription of the net may not be out of place.
Specimens of Hyptiotes were first found by me in the woods
bordering Cascadilla Creek in Ithaca, N. Y., in the latter part of
September, 1870 ;* their dull color, their small size (about -003,5
in length) and their habits of remaining fixed against the hemlock
twig, to which the net is attached, may account for their having
escaped observation during the two previous years when I col-
lected in that locality.
This species seems usually to construct its net just before day-
break, and I have only twice observed the process ; on the 4th of
* Of about fifty speolmens then taken, aU proved to be females, nor did I find anj
males until the 28th of Sept. 1873; these are smaller and fewer in number and make no
net, being generally found near that of some female. In this as in prorions papers I
haye added notes since the time of presentation.
B. MATDRAL BISTORT.
267
October, 1870, 1 saw the last cross-line (that nearest the apex)
finished, and four years later, Sept. 28, 1873, I witnessed the
formations of the fine lesser lines : as the process was identical
in the two cases, there seems good reason to regard it as normal.
Some account of this and of the habits of the spider was given at
a meeting of the Cornell Univ. Nat. Hist. Soc, for Oct. 10, 1870,
when also specimens of the female were shown. The male was
exhibited on the 10th of Oct., 1873, at a meeting of the same
society.
Fig. 2. Net of Hyptiotes " upon the stretch."
BB, base line. A, apex.
O, origin of apex Une. R""" "" the four radii.
A. L., apex line. y> n »» ^^^ ^ viscid lines.
S' " '" "" Points of attachment of the yiscid lines upon the
radii ; forming little steps upon the latter.
SI. Slack'line between the first and fourth legs.
This is better shown In the enlarged lower llgare, where only the legs of the right
•ido are represented. In the upper figure the spider is shown rather large and the net
rather small ; the base-line should also be more extended before attaching to the branch
at either end. i
The net is triangular in form, and consists of four radii, never
more or fewer, crossed by several (6 to 10) independent viscid
lines ; the centre of radiation is prolonged into a single nearly
268 B. NATURAL HISTORT.
«
horizontal strong and short line which is attached to a branch or
twig ; the outer ends of the radii are attached to a second strong
line more or less nearly vertical and nearly at right angles with
the first.
The radii and base line probably involve no unusual process;
but the entire independence of the viscid lines contrasts strongly
with the spiral or looped lines of Epeira and XejMla.
At the time of the second observation above mentioned, the
spider had completed the base line, B. B , the four radii (R' '' "'
"")» and the four viscid lines nearest the base V " '" *''), she was
just then passing along the upper radius (R') from the direction
of the apex (A) ; having reached the viscid line (iv) last com-
pleted it turned about, seemed to make some rough measure-
ments of distance with its body, and then, by drawing its spin-
ners along the radius for a short distance (about .002,) formed
thereon the same kind of attachment of a new line which I
have described and figured in the net of Nephila, and which,
though not alluded to by authors, is perhaps generally adopted
as much more secure than contact at a single point. The spider
then allowed her abdomen to fall away from the radius, hang-
ing therefrom by the first and second pair of legs, and braced
away from it by the third pair, she began to move the fourth
pair simultaneously to and from the mammulse, so as to ex-
tract therefrom a very viscid and elastic line which had a faint
yellowish tinge ; doing this, she at the same time moved slowly
toward the apex, to a point where the interradial spaces were
narrow enough to permit her to cross to the second ; this she did,
ceasing at the same time to draw out the line, which, as she now
returned toward the fourth viscid line, contracted considerably,
so that it was nearly of the proper length when she attached it
to the second radius at a point about as far from the fourth vis-
cid line, as it had been begun upon the first radius ; again turning
and making the extended attachment as before she repeated the
drawing process so as to carry the viscid line to the third radias,
and from this to the fourth.
She then ceased drawing the line, and returned to the first
radius by way of the crossing (C), began a sixth viscid line, and
afterward a seventh, eighth and ninth, all in the same way and at
about the same distances apart.
The rapidity of movement of the fourth pair of feet is very
B. NATURAL HISTORY. 269
great ; by considerable effort I could move one hand at about the
same rate, and found it to average, at leasts five times in a second,
or three hundred in a minute ; about ten minutes were required to
complete these five viscid lines, the time spent in returning being
very short ; and as the other four and longer lines must have
taken at least fifteen minutes, our spider may be estimated to
move her hind legs definitely and nearly without cessation about
7500 tinaes in less than half an hour ; an estimate which is cer-
tainly far within the facts.
I have not yet satisfied myself respecting the exact nature of
this viscid line,* beyond the exceeding viscidity and elasticity al-
ready alluded to ; but I do not think that it is "curled" like that
of the Clnijlonidce, as described by Blackwall (op, ciY.,p. 139),
and figured by Miss Stavely {op, cit,^ p. 114).
[For the rest of the description the present tense is applicable,
since it applies to the often witnessed proceedings of many differ-
ent individuals.]
As soon as the net is completed, the spider takes her position
on the apex line (A L) at about an inch from the point of attach-
ment (O) with her head toward the net ; seizing the line between
the first and second pair of feet, she walks slowly backward, "foot
over foot" with the fourth pair, until she reaches the point of at-
tachment (O) ; into which, or into the line near it, she fixes the
fourth pair of feet ; this proceeding puts the whole net upon the
stretch, draws the second and third radii toward the apex, and thus
alters the direction of the base line ; the slack line (SI.), which has
now accumulated between the points upon the line gi-asped by the
first and second, and the fourth pair of feet, is held away from the
body by the third pair, as seen in the lower figure (only the legs
of the right side are phown).
I have not yet measured the strain put upon the net, but it
is evidently considerable, yet these spiders remain immovable
for hours, like a set spring ; so motionless are they, and so com-
pactly placed are the legs, that they look more like projections
of the wood than living creatures, and no insect would ever mis-
trust danger from them. But when the web is struck by an
insect, the spider shows that though quiet she is watchful ; loosing
her fourth feet, the strain is relaxed and the whole net regains its
original condition with a sharp snap, which causes the elastic
*An aocount of this and of tbe parts concerned in its production will be given
hereafter.
270
B. NATURAL HISTORY.
lines to vibrate in all directions and generally entangles two or
more of them upon the insect ; should this first attempt fail, the
spider, which has been carried sharply forward with the line, but
which has retained her equilibrium by means of the third pur,
again walks backward and again -lets go; this is sometimes
repeated six times in quick succession ; when satisfied that her
prey is entangled, she advances a few steps at a time, apparentij
feeling her way (as do the Epeiridae generally), and approaches
the quarry by the nearest radius ; the subsequent operations are
essentially those of the Epeiridse, and need not be here described;
but in some cases, while advancing toward the prey, she cuts the
line with her jaws between her front and hind legs, which allows
the net to collapse somewhat ; the spider, however, has attached
a new line in her rear, so that the continuity is not wholly broken ;
by repeating this, and cutting all the radii, she is enabled at last
to gather the entire net within her front legs and to throw it, like
a blanket, upon the stniggling prey, which is thereby hopelessly
entangled ; in such cases, therefore, and, in fact, generally, an
entire net is destroyed in making a single capture.
Farther account of its habits would be here out of place, but
there are some points to be noted in respect to the plan of the net
and the mode of its formation.
1. Unlike both Epeira and Nephila the number of radii is em-
stant; in the hundred or more nets which I have examined, there
have been always four radii.
2. But the distances between them, the number of viscid lines
and their intervals, like the several dimensions of the net, vary
considerably, as shown by the following table.
TABLE OF DIMENSIONS OF THE NET OF HYPTIOTE8 IN MILIJMETERB;
TAKEN FROM TEN NETS.
Length of
apex line
(excluding slack).
f-li
Width of net
at longest
viscid line.
ength of space
included oy
▼Iscid line.
h
M
Maximnm
.150,
.210,
.180,
.160,
li
Mean
.035,
.010,
.150,
.100,
.110,
.140,
.110,
.075,
10
7
Minimnm
B. NATURAL BISTORT* 271
In fact, the net of the spider, like the cell of the bee, as demon-
strated by Wyman, is never the model of geometrical precision
which we have been led to believe by superficial examination. I
have never yet seen the net of any spider in which the eye alone,
unaided by instruments, could not discover irregul&rities, which,
if they existed upon a like scale in human workmanship, would
be regarded as serious imperfections. But when it is remembered
that insects measure spaces in much the same way that we do, by
the eye or the limbs, the only wonder is that metaphysicians and
theologians ever ascribed to their work an exactness which men
attain only through exceeding care and delicate mensuration.
3. Like the nets of Epeira and NepMLa^ and probably all others,
the net of Hyptiotes is not vertical but inclined at an angle which
varies greatly but is generally more than 46**.
4. So too, the inclination of the longitudinal axis of the net
varies greatly. I have never seen the apex-line inclined upward
from its origin, but have occasionally seen it sjope downward at
about 45^ ; usually the angle is between this and the horizontal.
5. The independence of the viscid lines is very striking, but it
is evident that the ^' drawing out " method of this spider would
not permit the formation of viscid lines from below upward, with-
out risk of entanglement.
6. The '' drawing-out" may impart to the viscid line an elas-
ticity which enables it to shrink to the proper length, after having
been long enough to enable the spider to pass from one radius to
the next near the apex ; it being forced to do this on account of
its small size as compared with the interradial spaces ; the alter-
natives would be either — 1. To make a larger number of radii,
which, however, would increase the resistance to the strain, and
lessen the vibrations of the viscid lines : 2. To spin a series of
primary cross^ines, not viscid, equal in number to the secondary
viscid lines, and to use the former as means of crossing while
spinning the latter in the ordinary way, then cutting them away
as described by some Epeiridoe; at present we may hardly conjec-
ture the causes which led to the exclusion of these hypothetical
methods, but meanwhile it is to be noted : —
7. That the series of viscid lines must be commenced at the
larger and concluded at the smaller extreme, because otherwise
either — 1. Each succeeding line would have to be engineered by
its predecessor which would be between it and the crossing : or,
272 B. NATUBAL BISTORT.
2. If the spider chofse to effect her cro8lsing at the base line, then
the shorter lines would have to be carried and stretched the
greater distance, and vice versa; whereas now, that distance de-
creases with the length of the viscid lines themselves.
8. The net is triangular, the section of a circle, unlike that of
any other genus ; and, in idea at least, may be regarded as filling
the vacant space in the net of Nephila as compared to that of
Epeira; so that we may sa}' in mathematical language, yephHa-\-
Ilyptiotes ■=. Epeira ; in more homely phrase the net Epeira is a
whole pie, that of Nephila is a pie lacking one-sixth, while that
of Ilyptiotes supplies the missing piece.
Fig. 2. Diagram representing the forms of nets of NephUa AT., ffffptiotes
JT., and Epeira E.
Zoological relations. — The above comparison of the net-
patterns of Epeira, Nephila and Hyptiotes is suggestive, but by no
means conclusive ; and we need to know much more concerning
all of them, especially their embryology, before venturing an opin-
ion respecting their zoological relations : particularly since our
highest authority is now inclined to place Il3'ptiotes among the
Cinflionidce (Blackwall Ann. and Mag. of Nat. Hist. 1864, p. 436).
It is worth noting, however, that the gnp between the continuous
spiral net of Epeira and the returning loops of Nephila may be
regarded as lessened b}' the following considerations.
1. Mr. Blackwall states that E, calophylla " usually employs a
radius as a means of communication between its net and a small
tubular cell of white silk which constitutes its retreat ;" . . . and
on reaching this radius it retraces its steps until it reaches a point
on the opposite side of the radius, and by repetition of this the
net is made to consist of a series of looped-lines, "arcs of circles:"
it does not appear that this "free radius" is always in the same
region of the net, although it is probably one of the upper series,
as seen in the figure by Miss Stavely (British spiders, p. 246).
2. In several nets of a small species which is common in Ithaca,
N. Y., I have (Sept. 28, 1873) seen the addition of four looped
lines (like those of Nephila) to the lower border of the net ; and
in May, 1871, I found a deserted net built in an angle which
B. NATURAL HT8TOBT. 278
consisted of fourteen turns of the spiral line which formed the limit
of the net upon the side toward a fence post, but on the other
three sides (the top, the bottom, and the right side), the net was
extended by ten looped lines: this augmentation of the lower
region of the net would leave the centre of radiation above the
geometrical centre, as Emerton states to be the case (Am. Nat.,
II, 478) with E. vulgaris^ but without explaining whether it is due
to the addition of independent lines or of loops or the increase of
the spaces between the spiral lines.
Now since all these spiders hang flrom the lower surface of the
inclined net, and always head downward^ it is evident that, for
the larger ones especially, it must bl very much easier to reach
even a distant point below their level, or even at one side, than to
turn and ascend ; and if it shall prove, upon closer scrutiny than
has yet been given, that the true Epei/ridtB may, upon occasion,
and under any circumstances, construct a part of their nets of
looped lines, it might be conjectured that a habit thus formed would
become confirmed, intensified and transmissible ; NephUa might in
this way be regarded as a derivative from Epeira,*
The simple triangular net of Byptiotes^ with its uniform number
of radii and small number of cross lines, might be regarded per-
haps as a further specialization fh>m that of NephUa^ the circle of
the Epeira being now reduced from five-sixths to one-sixth of its
area, and the dry space above the centre in the net of NephUa^
represented by a single radius, the apex line ; but in some respects
it is easier to compare the net of Hyptiotes with that of Epeira
calophyUa; the apex line would then represent the single free
radius. The ordinary Epeiridfz^ as well as NepMla^ are accustomed
to vibrate their nets, when touched by insects, and this habit may
be the basis of the remarkable method by which Hyptiotes en-
tangles its prey.
Bbpaib of NBT8. — It is known that the Epeiridce renew the entire
net occasionally, and they have been seen to chew it, for the pur-
pose, apparently, of extracting the gum. In most cases, the
Ifephila renews only one-half of its net, which varies from one to
* ▲ oompaTison of their fbrms looks the same way ; for the young NephUa is roaod
bodied like the TheridioHf and makes at first a similarly inregalar net of lines crossing
in all direcfilonfl ; later it passes through the more elongated form of the ordinary BpHra
sad flnaUy attains the almost cylindrioal outline proper to ttsgenos. See preTiout
piqier.
A. A. A. 8. VOL. XXn. B. (18)
274 B. KATDBAL HI8T0BT.
three feet in diameter ; it cats the net in two yertically, and staffs
the mingled silk, gam and dust between its Jaws, chewing it for sey-
eral hours, and finally rejecting a black and very hard pellet which .
seems to consist almost entirely of dust ; the half of the net thus
destroyed is then renewed by looped lines necessarily; the next
day, the other half may be renewed in like manner.
It would appear that most Epeiridce renew the entire net at once ;
bat it will be worth while to notice whether the larger species do
not, like NephUa, renew only one-half at a time, for if so, thej
mast employ looped lines instead of a continuoas spiral.
As stated above, the entire net of SypHates is usually destroyed
in the capture of a single^ insect; and as the rejected pellet is
quite dry, we may infer that the -spider appropriates the viscid
portion of the net enveloping the prey.
I shall probably propose the name AmerxcoMius for this spicies
of ffypHotea; for although this may be the species referred to by
Uents as GyUopodia cavota, yet his description and figure are in-
suflScient for identification.
The Need of jl Uniform PosmoN fob Anatomical Figotis.
By BuBT G. WiLDEB, of Ithaca, N. Y.
The convenience of a uniform position for anatomical figures is
sufficiently evident to all ; and the neglect of such uniformity is a
source of delay and even misinlbrmation to beginners. The posi-
tion with head to the left is advocated partly because it is more
natural, in dissection and drawing ; partly because the only author,
Professor Agassiz, whose figures are uniformly placed, many years
ago chose that position, as may be seen in the ^'Poissons fossiles."
The figures in Huxley's and in Owen's Comparative Anatomy of
Vertebrates are often scarcely intelligible, on account of reversed
positions, and the larger number of authors aeem to regard the
matter as of no importance whatever.
B. NATUBAL HISTOBT. 275
LaTEBAL P08ITtON OF THE VeNT IK AmPHIOXUS AKD IN THE LaBYA
OF Raka Pipiens. By Bubt G. Wildeb, of Ithaca, N. Y.
The posterior opening of the alimentary canal in Amphioc/sus
lanceokUus has been so variously described and figured that a brief
historical sketch is here given.*
HiSTOBiCAL SKETCH. — It does not appear that Pallas or Costa or
Yarrell remarked any peculiarity in the cloacal region, and I have
not seen the earlier papers by Retzius and Miiller. Couch (4
(1838) 382) merely states that ^^the vent is at the length of one-
third of the body ft'om the tail," but as in all my specimens the
*Tbe following list probably includes all the important original papers upon this
geoos ; in the text they will be referred to by their numbers as here arranged ; the last
number will indicate theiK^e and the middle one, when it occurs, the volume; the list
of general works in which Amphioxus is mentioned occurs upon page 278.
BiBXJOORAFHT (special papers).
1. Pallas, Spicilegia sooloc^ca, fasc., xt, p. 19, fig. 11., t.
5. Costa, Annuario zoologico, 1834.
8. YarreU, History of British Fishes, 18S6, p. 468 (find ed. ii, p. 618, 8rd ed. i, p. 1.)
4. Conch, Mag. of Nat Hist. 1888, p. 881.
6. Couch, Fishes of Brit islands, p. 415, pi. 948.. (date ?).
6. Costa, Fauna del regno di Napoli, 1839.
7. BetziuB, Monatsbericht der Academie der Wissenchaften, 1839, p. 197.
8. Bathke, Bemerkungen fiber den Ban des a, /., 1841.
9. Sundeyall and LOven, Forhandl. Skand. Naturf. tod mflde, EjObenh. 1841, p. 280.
10. Goodsir, Trans. Boy. Soc. Edinburg, xr, p. 1 and Ann. of Nat. Hist.-vli. 346, 1841 :
also Anatomical Memoirs, toI. 1.
11. Miiller, Ueber den Ban und die Lebenserscheinungen des a. I. Abhandl. Ak. Wiss.
Berlin, 1842, pp. 7»-116, Taf. l<-5.
IS. KSlliker, Ueber das Geruchsorgan yon A, Archly fllr Anat. 1843, pp. 82-35, Taf.
11, Fig. 6«
18. Qnatrefl^^es, Comptes rendus xxi, p. 619, 1845.
14. Qnatrefliges, Snr P Amphioxut^ Ann. des Sciences Nat. 1845, pp. 197-248, PI. x-xlii.
15. Gray, A. belcherit Proc. Zool. Soc. 1847, p. 85.
16. MOUer, Monats. Akad. Wissen. Berlin 1851, p. 474.
17. Snndeyall ( BraneMostoma ekmgatumj Oeftiers, Vet. Ak. FOrhandl. 1889, p. 147.
18. Snndeyall (B.earOKeumJ Op. eU.y 1853, p. 11.
19. Max Schultse, Yertaandl. Natnrhist. Vereins preuss. Bheinl., xix. Sitzungsber.
p. 197. Also in Siebold's and Kolliker's Zeitsehrift iy, 1862, p. 416, taf. 18, flgs. 6 and 6.
10. Kroyer, Danm. Fisk, Ul, p. 1,067 (date ?).
21. Steenstrup, Oeftiers. Dansk. yid. Selsk. FdrhandL (1868) 1864, p. 288.
98. Mareusen, J., Comptes rendus, 1864, pp. 479-488. Also In Ann. and Mag. of N. H.,
1864, ziy, pp. 151 and 819. Also in Bey. et Mag. Zool. 1864, xyl, p. 79.
23. Kowalewsky, Mem. Ac. Sc. St Petersb., 18R7, xi. No. iy, pp. 16, 8 pi. abstract of
same in Bibl. Uniy. Art. 25, 1866, Bull. Sci. pp. 193-196, transl. in Ann. and Mag. of Nat.
Hist 1867, p. 68.
24. Bert, Comptes Bendu 1867, p. 864 or Ann. and Mag. of N. H., xx, p. 802.
25. Owsjannikow, Bull, de la Ac. Impe. des Sci. de St Petersb., tome ziii, No. 4. pp.
287-802,1868.
26. MoreaUyObs. snr la struct, de laoorde dors. Comptes rendos. May, 1870, p. 1006.
27. Morean, Note snr la region oranienne, Comptes rendus, May, 1870, p. 1189.
276 B. HATUKU. HI8TOBT.
pott veniie region forms only f or ^ of the whole length, Condi
probabl3r referred to the "abdominsl pore." It is worthy of note,
however, that Couch's figure, though mde and in some respecti
inaccurate, rightly indicates the fact, apparently overlooked by ill
other observers before and since, that tbe ventral border of U>e
left mnsonlar mass retreats a little at the cloacal region (as shown
in my flgnres) so as to expose the mesial surface of the ri^t
mnscnlar mass or the cloaca itself when distended.
Gioodsir (10 (1841) 882) saya "The anus is in the form of*
longitudinal slit," as appears also in all hia figures, one of whidi
is reproduced herewith (Fig. 1. G). These ftgures have the loca-
tion of the vent nearly correct in proportion to the length of Uw
body, but the aathor states t^t the " anal fin is intermpted at the
anus,'' 875, whereas it is asually, if not always, widest at that
point. It must be remembered, however, that Goodsir's obsem-
tions were confined to two individuals, and hia dissections to bat
one of these, and while correcting his errors, we are more inclined
to wonder at the amount of asm information whi^ be obtained
ft'om 80 scanty material.
rig. l.G. Hlndrapfcrtof Jw|>»*oM*froni below; copied from Qooari]-, PI, l,Fl»i.
M, The Mtno, from the left ilde; copied ftvm UBUer, IL TiJ. 1. Ft^.l.
Q. Tb«lune,ftomMMltll>ld«; oopledftom QnUreAweB, PI. xlll. Fig. I.
From his second paper (11, 1842) it appears that Muller had
plenty of material ; he rightly locates Uie vent opposite the broad
part <yt the caudal fin (as seen in Fig. I, M) making the intestine
project slightly as a narrow tube with ovd orifloe ; bia deacriptiM
is as follows (translated): "The vent lies on the left side of
the abdominal fin ; this anomatoos position of the vent npon one
aide of the anal fin recalla a similar peculiarity with iepidorirea ,-"•
both figure and description show therefore that MiiUer supposed
the vent of Amphioxns to dlflfer fVom that of most vertebrstas.
merely in its lateral position, and no allusion is made to tiie peod-
iarity in tiie concluding general remarks.
B. K1.TURAL BUTOKT. 277
In the Bomevhat extended paper of Qaatrefi^es (14) it ia not
easy to separate his own obHervations ttom his summary of pre-
ceding ones ; as seen in Fig. 1, Q, the vent ia the oval orifice of a
simple tn be which opens far in advance of the expanded candalfin,
which also is shown rather shorter than is natural ; as in Uiiller's
flgnre, however, the vent is correctly shown to the left of the
"abdominal segmented canal."
Qnatreti^es' description (translated) is as follows: "The anna
lies at a point where the membranous border enlarges into a lancet
form, it opens upon the left side of the abdominal surface of the
body, close to {tout auprha) a membrane which occupies the
median line." p. 201.
Later obeervers seem to have overlooked the " anomalous loca-
tion of the vent," referred to by Miiller and Quatrefages.
The formation of the anus, by a gradual constriction of the
borders of the "seoondaty cavity" is described by Kowalewsky
(23, pages 8, 4, 6, 7) ; the figures of the earlier stages indicate that
the anas is median ; some of the later ones show it as if on the
left and others as if on the right side ; but the text nowhere refers
to any unsymmetrical position, which is the more noteworthy be-
cause attention is called (10) to the unsymmetrical character of
the orai aperture.
We may conclude that our author, while no doubt well aware of
the general opinion respecting the vent of the adult, did not under-
FIs.3. (copied tram Kowilewskj. Botwlak. du At^Morati the oandal Mglon of
(he tsBtiTjot ■bown Id Hg. la, n and tS, oarrespODdlns to A, B tad C, reapMtiT*!;.
A. Aa embrro of ilxteoi boon, wen from abOTs, Bhowlng tb« ontlfne of Um Intel,
tine wbloh Dumws and open* at tbe uu* a apparenUf upon th* Oornl raglon of tlie
bodf, wiUi a ilDsle wtIm of oUlated epithelial oatla beblnd it.
The letter! B and L are added better to daelgnate the raUtlTe poeltloa of parti.
B. Ad embryo of twantr-ftnir honn, seen from Ibe rtgU i a, the anni wbloh appear*
W the exact poiltion of the orlilce.
278 B. NATUKiiL HISTOBT.
take to elucidate the manner in which this condition was reached ;
although, had he so chosen, his opportunities and the skill else-
where displayed, would have enabled him to clear up the obscurity
which now rests upon it.
Most systematic works and zoological text-books* published
since the discovery of Amphioxus include more or less complete
accounts of its structure ; but as their authors have not published
separate papers upon the subject, one can only conjecture the
extent of originality in their descriptions. *
The recent and very complete work of Glaus (51) states that
the ^'vent is somewhat laterally placed;" and further (p. 830)
that the development (according to Eowalewsky) involves "strik-
ing asymmetry with respect to the month, vent,'' etc.
Schmarda (52, 802, fig. 501) gives a somewhat altered copy of
the figure ft*om Quatrefages, but no reference to the vent.
Huxley (55, p. 117) says that the "anal aperture is a little to
the left of the median line," yet his figure, apparently copied from
Miiller, is reversed so as to bring the vent upon the right of the
anal fin.
Troschel (59, 284) says that "the fin passes to the right of the
vent."
Owen (56, 1, 81, fig. 28) gives a purely diagrammatic figure of
the organs of Amphiaxun^ in which the intestine opens on the
median line, and the text contains no allusion to a peculiarity in
that region.
Clark (60, fig. 226) copies Owen's diagram without comment;
and Gegenbauer (58, 788), in like manner, copies Quatrefages,
merely saying (p. 799), "Die Cloaken bildung fehlt bel Jm-
phioxus,'*
Haeckel offers a figure (61, Taf. xiii), which mainly resembles
• 8T8TEHATI0 WOBK8 (arranged in no Bpeoial order). *
61. Clans, Gmndznge der Zoologie, 1872, 8S8.
62. Schmarda, Zoologie, 902, fig. 601.
53. Gegenbauer, Vergl. Anat., 1870, 778, flg. 266.
64. Rolleston, Forms of Animal Life, 1870, Ixzziv.
66. Huxley, Anat. of yert. animals, 1871, 116, figs. 28 and 29.
66. Owen, Comp. Anat. and Phys. of Yei-t. 1, 81, flg. 28.
67. AgasBiz and Gould, Principles of Zoology, 1848, 181, flg. 168. (Showi wmeOf
the position of vent.)
68. Vander Hosyen, Hand book of Zoology, 66, 1868.
60. Troschel, Handbneh der Zoologie, 1871.
60. Clark, H. J., Mind in Nature, 1866.
61. Hieckel, NatUrliche Schdpftingsgesohite, 1872.
62. Gunther, Catalogue of Fishes in the British Mnsenm, toI. tIH.
B. NATURAL HI8T0BT. 279
that of Quatrefages ; and Grunther (62, 513) enumerates, among
the generic cjiaraeters, ^^ a low rayless fin runs past the vent ;"
80 far as I know the point is not alladed to by other systematic
writers.
It appears therefore that to many the lateral position of a nor-
mally median primary opening seems to require no mention, and
that when the asymmetry is alluded to, it is not certain whether
the vent is lateral and the fin median, or the reverse.
The reception of a large number (about one hundred and fifty)
of specimens, well preserved in spirit,* and the subsequent oppor-
tunity of examining sixty specimens Arom the coast of Florida,
belonging to the Museum of Comparative Zoology ,t have enabled
me to investigate this point quite fully.
Nothing of the exact structure of the vent t can be made out
with the naked eye ; in addition to the dissection of many indi-
viduals under the lens, I have made about two hundred micro-
scopic sections of the cloacal region ; and the following account
is based upon their carefVil and prolonged comparison.
It would be more amusing than instructive to enumerate the
many and different opinions successively formed in the course of
this investigation before the present conclusion was reached, and
while admitting the possibility that the true condition of things is
not yet known, I shall ask of the critic to state the amount of
material upon which his contrary opinion is based. I am well
aware of the insufficiency of both figures and description, espec-
ially in respect to the minute anatomy of the tissues ; upon some of
these points I have nearly made up my mind ; but as all of them
are more or less involved in the general structure, and some of
them are quite differently represented by different authors, it seems
*CoUected at Naples and sent by mail by mj friend and former student, W. S. Bar-
nard, S. tf., Fb. D.
t Jast as this paper is going to press, Prof. Putnam has kindly loaned me two sped*
mens from the Florida coast which agree so entirely with the specimens belonging to
the Mas. of Comp. Zoology, and are so immediately distinguishable from the Nsples
specimens. In form and in the proportions of the regions, that I feel almost assured of
the specific distinctness of the Amphioxtu from the two localities ; but, as win be ex*
plained fiirther on, no conclusion upon this point can be regarded as reliable unless
based upon the accurate measurement of many specimens, and the enumeration of
the s^ments composing their different regions : this will take time, but will be done
as soon as possible.
JThe terms cloaea and vent are here used provisionally ; at present, notwithstanding
all that is known of the different morphological and physiological relations .of the aU-
mentary, urinary and generatiye outlets in yertebrates, as briefly stated by Huxley, |
100, 131, 13S, the above terms are not clearly discriminated from rectum and anut, \
280 B. KATUBAL filSTOBT.
better to defer a discussion of them until the completion of the
stady which I am now making of the entire organi^tion of this
lowest, and in most respects, anomalous vertebrate. This paper
may be regarded as a preliminary notice of a single part of the
subject.
lig. 8. A. ^mpMoxttf f seen ttom tha left, natural size; V, the Tent;
A P. The abdominal pore.
B, C, D. TransTerse seotiona at middle of bod7 to show dUiBBent eondi^
tions of yentral wall in dilTeront indiyldnali.
B. A croBs-Bection of the body at the middle of Its length, showing the
" abdominal groove."
C. The same of a Florida speoimen, in which fhe abdomen is flat, or but
slightlj convex.
D. The same of a Naples specimen, ttJH of eggs. In which the abdominal
groove it obliterated.
The simplest presentation of the subject will be an explanation
of the figures.
Fig. 3 shows an Amphioxus (fh>m Naples) of the natural siie,
head to the left ; no details of structure are given, but there is no
question respecting the existence of an expanded vertical fin around
both ends of the body; the notch V indicates the location of the
vent, and the notch AP the location of the abdominal pore.
Most of the Naples' specimens present the abdominal groove
described and figured by Miiller as formed by two lateral folds of
the integument extending from the mouth to the abdominal pore
(Fig. 3, B) ;* a specimen sent from Naples by Prof. Panciri to the
Museum of Comparative Zoology is distended by the enlarged re-
productive organs, and these folds are tohoUy obliterated^ together
with of course, the groove (Fig. 3, D) ; and most of the Florida
specimens (taken in May), in which the reproductive organs are
less bulky, have loose ventral parietes, as if regaining the grooved
condition during the gradual discharge of the reproductive pro-
ducts (Fig. 8, C) ; so it is quite possible that the folds and grooves
are periodical appearances for the accommodation of the repro-
ductive development.
Position op the Vent. — ^The position of the vent with respect
to the fin and length of entire body is very difiTerently represented
*▲ similar grooye exists in the male plpe-flsh iSyngmUhuM) but is located MUstf
B. KJlTUBAL mSTOBT.
281
by Miiller and Qaatrefages ; in all my Naples specimens the vent
18 as in Miiller's figure opposite that part of the fin which first
gains its greatest depth, passing fh>m before backward or just
before it begins to decrease in depth, passing ftrom behind for-
ward.*
In one of the lai^er specimens fh>m Naples .045, in length
(about two inches) the vent is .005, from the tip of the tail, and
the abdominal pore .009, in front of it, or .014, from the tip ; the
latter opening is therefore about one-third of the length from
the tip and the former one-ninth. Or, assuming the length of
the body to be 100, the post poral region is .31 and the post
cloacal region .11.
Miiller's figure yields the following ratio, post poral region .18,
post cloacal region 4, while according to Quatrefages' figure the
post poral region is .41 and the post cloacal .23. But as one of
the Florida specimens, .043 in length, gives the same regions as
.25 and .9 respectively, we may infer the existence of considerable
variation. It is my intention to present a large series of accurate
measurements of specimens from various localities as one element
in the determination of specific or variety differences.
XABUB or PBOPOBTIONS OF AHFHIOXUS, A0 DIBITBD TBOM 8FK0DIEHS
WBOU NAPLES AND VLOBIDA, AND niOH THE FXOUIUM OF
MOlLBB and QUATBEFAOEB (in mLLIlfXTBRfl).
Naples
Florida
Mmier...:..
Qnatrafages
•
From rent to
tip of tail.
Ratio to
whole length.
From abdom.
pore to tip
oftaU.
.046,
.006,
.11
.000
.043,
.00
.04
.28
If
,85
,18
,41
Tbb vent and the fin. — ^Leaving out of view for the present
the absolute position of the vent with respect to the median line,
•In many alcoholic specimens, especially those ttom Naples, the fln is canted to the
left and as it were wrapped over the entire cloacal region (as indicated in the Fig. 6 C)
and this in connection with the peculiarly protected oriilce of the Tent, the sharpness
of the tail, and the suspected existence of a caudal sense organ suggests the possibU.
ily of occasional retrograde locomotion.
282 • B. MATtTBAL BtfiTORT.
it is desiiable to conBrm the geoeral opiniun that it lies to the left
of the abdominal (caudal or anal) Jin.
I first selected, at random, fifty specimeDS fh>iii the Naples lot,
and carefully introduced a black bristle into the vent. The naked
eye can hardly detect a difference between the two sides of tite
cloacal region, bat the bristle would never enter the right side,
while, by a little preliminary movement to the right (the necessity
for which will appear farther on), it readily entered upon the left
Bide of the fin.*
Forty more of the same lot were examined in other ways either
by section or dissection, with the same result. All of the sixlj
Florida specimens were afterwarde examined, and the vent bund
to open always upon the left of the fln-t
L. We may fairly conclude from these one hundred and fifty speci-
mens, that in the Amphioxua of the Mediterranean and of the
Florida coast, the vent opens to the left of the abdominal fin ;
and that exceptions will probably be as few as are tiie cases
of transposition of viscera with men, and not to be compared
with the exceptions to the rules as to "blind sides" among
l^uronecHdce.
*In onler to aTold loniB anron Into trhioh I wai led, I woDld add tbat ipadmDi *•
traatvd, bowflTer care/oily, arenotfltledfOnectlDniortiarmlQateezaDiltiaUoD ot HM
oloacal region ; tbe cloacal lalTS i> mptlobe ruptaredor dLelorl«d, audtbc preuimaf
the bristle anaalanllr prolODSs Cbe cloacal notcb.
t TbBW ipeclmeai &n lasi well preaerred tban the other*, and either from thli caaM,
or (Tom « difference la thenUurml iridthorthe bad;(lDto which I ihall inqnire wtct a
Tie* [a poaalble apeolflc dlSbrenu), It la MUler to «•• tbe putt with the naked aye i*
B. NATURAL HISTORY.
288
The following explanation of the lettering applies to all the
figures of Amphioxus.
Ao— Aorta.
AC— Abdominal cavity.
AF>-Abd. flu (anterior to oandal expan-
sion). •
AFo—Abd. folds.
AG — Abd. groove.
AL — Abd. lamina (lateral).
AM3— Abd. median septum.
AR— Abd. ridge.
AS— Abd. segmented canal.
AP — Abd. pore.
B— Basement membrane.
CI —Cloaca.
CIR— Cloaca! ridge.
CIN—Cloacal notch.
CIS— Cloacal stnus.
CIV— Cloacal valve.
CIA— Cloacal aperture or vent.
CF— Caudal fin.
CR— Caudal fin rays (only three shown
above and below).
CNe — Caudal nerves.
CC— Central oanal of spinal cord.
a— Cilia.
OF— Dorsal fin (anterior to caudal expan-
sion).
DR— Dorsal ridge.
DFi— Dorsal (posterior) fissure of spinal
cord.
DS— Dorsal segmented oanal.
F— Feces.
HNA— Hypemeural arch.
HNC— Hypemeural canal.
I — Incedtine.
IC — Inner (mucous ?) coat of intestine.
IS — Intermuscular septum.
ICC — Inner (mucous ?) coat cells.
M — Mesentery.
MC — Middle (muscular ?) coat of intestine.
My — Muscular mass.
N — Notochord (the thick wall of the tube).
NS — Notochordal sheath (of connective
tissue).
Nli — Notochordal laminae (contents).
N A — Neural arch.
NC — Neural canal.
Nu — Nucleus.
P— Peritoneum, lining abd. cavity and
covering intestine.
PG — Pigment grannies of cord.
PC— Posterior aspect of cloaca.
8C — Spinal cord.
8M— Sphincter muscle of oloacal valve.
T — Integument.
T C — Tegumentary cells.
V— Vent or cloacal aperture.
Z ~ Supposed caudal sense organ.
1, S, S, 4, 5, etc. Caudal myocommata or muscular segments beginning with that
which first abuts upon the cloaca.
Fig. 4 represents the caudal region magnified about ten diam-
eters ; it is in part diagrammatic, so as to include more features
than could be really seen upon a single specimen without dissec-
tion. The Notochord (NN) is shown in its whole length, tapering
gradually backward. Only the hinder end of the spinal cord (SC)
is shown, but its course is indicated by the pigment granules (P6) ;
which form a double row upon the sides of the median line
throughout the whole length of the body excepting near the head
(as shown by Miiller and Owsjannikow) and near the posterior
extremity ; none of my specimens show them beyond the point
where the muscular segments seem to cease, mainly about .000,5
from the tip of the cord ; as shown by Owsjannikow, the granules
are not generally opposite each other, or at regular intervals, in
my specimens.*
Three spinal nerves are shown (CNe) of which the most anterior
*The cord is shown ending in a simple and f^ree manner but I have several prepara-
tions which indicate some connection between its extremity and what appears to be a
Amnel-shaped canal leading ft-om the snrfaee at the point Z. I shall make this a matter
of special investigation hereafter; Quatrefages describes the tip of the oord as enlarged,
but is not certain of the constancy of that peculiarity.
The precise histology of this, as of all other parts, can only be determined and illus-
trated by very numerous preparations in different aspects and by much enlarged
figures.
^S^ B. KATURAL BISTORT.
has a ventral as well as a dorsal division. (Compare QuatiefM H^
pi, xii, fig. 1).
Excepting in very small specimens, the nerves can be seen only
after carefully stripping off the integument, and the same is nec-
essary in order to see the caudal Jin rays (CFR).
CAUDAt FIN BATS. — I am quitc sure, from numerous observations
upon small specimens from which the skin was removed, that the
rays whose cut ends appear upon vertical section of the caudal
region arise in a continuous series along the doraal ami ventral
borders of the body, at least as far forward as the vent and ran
forward almost horizontally. Several sJiort rays are represented by
Miiller (11, Taf. 1, Fig. 3 and p. 88) rising near the tip of the
Wl and inclining slightly forward. I am certain that these rays
continue uninterrupted, and without branching over several s^-
ments ; but I have not yet assured myself of their precise distri-
bution, nor in what way they are accommodated in the narrower
fin in front of the vent : I venture therefore to show only three
rays above and below.
As represented by all authors, the myocommata (muscular seg-
ments) incline backward at their dorsal and ventral extremities
BO as to form a pretty regular curve the greatest convexity of
which lies just opposite the notochord ; the ventral moiety is the
longer (excepting near the tip of the tail) and seems to extend
farther back than the dorsal ; but there seems to be no secondaiy
dorsal and ventral curve as in ordinary fishes.
But there are dorsal and ventral longitudinal structures, which
have been so variously described that, at present, I prefer to des-
ignate them merely as the dorsal ridge (DB) and abdominal ridge
( AB) and their cavities as dorsal and abdominal segmented canal
(DSC and ASC).
Whatever may be the precise nature and ftmctions of this struc-
ture, however, it is in direct relation with the root of the fins and
will form an element in the question of the position of the fins
and the vent in respect to the median line. The dorsal ridge
extends backward upon the median line almost to the final myo>
comma (this is shown in any lateral view, but I have not yet car*
ried sections into that region). The abdominal ridge, in like
manner, is median from the abdominal pore (not shown) backward
upon the median line, to where the abdominal fin expands into the
B. NATURAL BISTORT. 285
oaadal; here it decreases in size more rapidly than the dorsal
ridge does at a corresponding point (although the interspaces are
not shorter) and wholly disappears frovn, the lateral view at the
commencement of the cloacal region (its continuation will be seen
in the sections) nor does it appear again in the post doaeal region,
contrary to the iQigures of all authors.
The oloaoal region. — As first figured by Couch (4. p. 381),
though not described and apparently not understood by him, and
overlooked by all subsequent obsen^ers, tljie cloacal region is dis-
tinctly marked upon the left side by the failure of three or four
myocommata to reach the level indicated by the corresponding
myocommata of the right side.
In most of the specimens examined by me, the condition of
things is represented in Fig. 4.* *
The ventral extremity of the myocomma marked (1) is very
slender and just fails to gain the level of the myocomma next in
front ; its successor (2) ceases at a still higher level and the next
two (8 and 4) at higher and higher so that their ventral borders
form an oblique outline from below, backward and upward ; the
greatest height of the space so uncovered being about .000,8 from
the normal level, or about one-seventh of the depth of the body
at that point ; this line forms the antero-dorsal boundary of the
cloacal region ; the corresponding postero-dorsal boundary is
formed by the antero-ventral border of the next myocomma (5)
which reaches its normal level, as do its successors ; the back-
ground of this space is formed by the mesial surface of the corre-
sponding right myocommata, and its ventral outline is a pretty
definite ridge (CIR), the nature of which will appear upon the
sections.
The posterior fourth of the cloacal region is vacant and may be
called the cloacal notch (CIN) ; (it is this which is liable to unnat-
' * There is considerable dlscrepanoj In tbe number of mnsonlar segments (myooom*
aata) both tot the whole body and ft>r separate regions ; In the specimen flgnred (Fig. 4)
I find that tbe ventral ends of four segments abnt upon the cloaca, the most anterior
Tery sUglitly, the fifth segment passes the cloaca and forms the dorsal and posterior
boundary of the notch and there are sixteen more caudal segments, but In other speci-
mens fjrom Naples and also Arom Florida, there seem to be no more than fifteen post
cloacal segments ; there is reason to belieTC that the number varies with age but it it
quite possible that the comparison of a large number firom various localities may indi*
cate a constant numerical difference serving to distinguish geographical variettet,
and even, perhaps species ; there Is certainly a considerable diiforenoe In the height and
thlokneM of the bo^, between ttie epectmena irom Naples and ftom Florida.
286
B. NATURAL HISTORY.
ural extension backward bj the introduction of the bristle, as
mentioned on page 282). The remaining three-fourths is usually
occupied by the cloaca (CI) excepting a slight interval between it
and the background and ridge, which may be called the cloacal
sinus (CI S).
The Cloaca. — In most small specimens and many of the larger
ones f^om Naples, all which are strongly contracted by the spirit,
the elongated triangular space (cloacal region) above described is
empty ; but the tegumentary cells may easily be traced over the
rounded borders and also upon the deeper level of the background,
from the surface of the fin, which is here connected wTioUy with the
right half of the body.
But in other of the Naples specimens, and in all of those from
the Florida coast, which, so far as this region is concerned, seem
to be in a more nearly normal
condition, the anterior three-
fourths of the space presents a
semi-cylindrical elevation of in-
tegument with a curved posterior
outline. Its surface is continu-
ous dorsally with the slightly
overhanging margin of the my-
ocommata ; posteriorly with the
contiguous surfaces of the clo-
acal notch; while the ventral
surface is slightly separated
from the underlying cloacal
ridge, and extends across the
middle line as will be shown
in Fig. 5. It will be noted that
this surface is smooth and pre-
sents no orifice whatever, and
that we cannot therefore admit
that the vent opens toward
the left side of the body; this
however by no means contradicts
the statement that it opens to
the left of the abdominal Ad.
Fig. 6. Diagrammatic views of oloaoal region Itom below (A, B and C) and ftom
right iido D; aU more or less enlarged.
B. NATX7RAL HI8T0BT. 287
Fig. 5, A. View of the cloacal region from belaw^ and still more
enlarged than in Fig. 2. The caadal fin (CF) is turned over
toward the right, bat not distorted ; its base is upon the mtdian
line^ as seen at both ends of the section, and its exposed border
therefore lies a little to the left of that line; the hidden border of
coarse, to the right ; upon each side of the anterior section is seen
the abdominal ridge (AR) which is soon hidden apon the right,
by the deflected fin, bat continues backward apon the left to the
cloaca where it seems to cease, bat, in reality (as seen in B and in
Fig. 4), is only narrowed and deflected dextrad of the median line
so as to pass the cloacal region ; the five cloacal myocommata are
numbered 1-5, and the succeeding one 6.
It will be noted that owing to the fact that the base of the
caadal fin preserves its true longitudinal coarse over the cloacal
' region, a little less than one-hoXfof the latter is visible; the curved
dotted line indicates the location of the vent; which is really
dextrad of the median line, although practically, the outlet or
pseudo-vent is a little sinietrad of that line, namely around the
border of the base of the fiu.
Fig. 5, B, is the same as A, excepting that the caudal fin Is
removed down to its attachment, so as to expose nearly the whole
cloacal region ; the attachment itself is deflected like the abdom-
inal ridge, but remains visible around and behind the cloaca,
where it again comes upon the median line ; the cloacal notch is
shown as a triangular black spot at the posterior extremity of
the cloacal region, and the vent itself as a dark line upon the
right posterior border, somewhat oblique, so as to be nearer the
median line behind, but not reaching it.
In C, the cloacal region is still farther enlarged so as to show
the relation of the parts to the median line; the dotted line
indicates the limits of the exposed portion of the end of the
intestine ; the posterior extremity is s^en to be rounded and the
Vent is a valvular aperture.
D shows the same from the right side, and diagrammatically ;
the border of the valve should be represented as slightly thick-
ened and rounded.
I hope at some fhture time to give more detailed figures of
this region, but these sufficiently indicate the morphological rela-
tions.
288 8. HiTDHAL HISTOBT.
In Sgare 6 are given enlarged diagrammatic represenUtiong of
transverse sectiona made at seven different points as indicated hy
the corresponding capital letters upon Fig. 4 ; all are as viewed
fVom behind. As already stated, tbese figures indicate the resalts
of a carefbl and prolonged comparison of several faundi«d eec-
tions made npon manj- specimens between the points A and G.
ris- 0. SeBllona of cloacal reKtan (ventni] h
A <■ Jiut tn ttoM of the cloUB Wid Q Jub( li«blu
Iddiewtd br (be Uaet in Fig. (.
A is Jast in fh)nt of the cloac»l region and Q Is Just behind it;
both of tbese are, therefore (or shontd be), symmetrical figures;
all the others are more or less asymmetrical on account of tbe
deflection of the abdominal ridge, and the attachment of the fln,
and the location of the vent. itself upon the right aspect of the
cloaca.
The sections of coarse included the whole animal, but as tbs
present paper concerns only the cloacal region, and several parts
of the general anatomy of the dorsal region are in donbt, I pre-
fer to show only what I am pretty certain of.
The lettering is uniform and explained elsewhere (p. 2^3).
The general arrangement Is best seen In A. The lower half only
of the notochord (N) is shown, and Its oontenU are omitted frota
B. NATURAL HISTORT. 289
doubt of their exact nature ; as in Petromyzon^ etc., the noto-
chord is surrounded by a sheath of connective tissue (N S) from
which are given off the various intermuscular septa (IS) which
separate the myocommata (My), and the abdominal laminoe (AL)
which line the abdominal parietes. The a^rta (A) lies between
two laminae ; below the abdominal cavity the laminse join the con-
nective tissue walls of the abdominal segmented canal (AS) which
constitutes the abdominal ridge; to the sides of the latter also,
are joined the corresponding subcutaneous fascia (S F) which
envelops the tegumentaiy surface of the muscular masses ; to the
lower border of the abdominal segmented canal also are attached
the subcutaneous fascis of the caudal fin, which are only partly
shown in the series A-G, but much enlarged in A^ The fin
itself is wholly shown only in A, where its depth is slight ; but
its relative depth in the other sections may be judged by compar-*
ison with Fig. 2, which is magnified only half as many diameters.
In this too are shown the cut ends of the caudal fin-rays (C FR),
already described ; they seem to be usually oval in section, and
sometimes composed of* two lateral pieces ; but their structure
mast be more minutely investigated.
Within the abdominal cavity is seen the cut end of the intestine,
which, at A, contains a fsecal mass F. All authors state that the
alimentary canal is ciliated throughout, but give no figures of
either the cilia or the cells to which they are attached and leave us
to suppose that no muscular or peritoneal coats exist.
As all these are points of minute anatomy which can be best
determined upon living or fresh specimens, I hesitate to offer a
description or figure of the parts, and must ask that both be re-
garded as provisional. As might be expected, so delicate a tissue
as the peritoneum was rarely left uninjured in a section, but I
think it exists in several specimens in the relation which is nor-
mal with vertebrates, and which is diagrammatically indicated in
the figures (P), of course the parietal and visceral layers are
really in contact with each other above (forming the mesentery M)
and with the connective tissue and alimentary canal elsewhere.
The existence of an inner or mucous or epithelial coat is cer-
tain, also that, in the intestinal region, at least, it consists of
columnar cells which give a striated aspect to the section ; these
cells are from .001 to .002 of an inch in length, and seem to be
longer in the anterior than in the posterior part of the intestine,
A. A. A. 8. VOL. XXn. B. (19)
290 B. NATURAL BISTORT.
giving d corresponding variation in the thickness of the mucooB
membrane (IC) ; traces of cilia appear in several of the sections,
but I do not feel sufficiently sure of their uniform presence or
their character to include them in the figure.
As said above, no muscular coat is assigned to Amphiaxus by
previous describers, nor have I seen any structure answering to it
in the anterior part of the intestine, but in its posterior part and
especially in the cloacal region, so constant is the appearance of
a second coat outside of the mucous coat that I venture to insert
it, provisionally, in the figure ; very often it is somewhat separated
from the mucous coat ; its thickness is about the same but its
structure is granular and not at all striated ; prior to the investi-
gation of this point upon fresh specimens, I would only suggest
that perhaps the muscular coat is needed near the cloaca for the
periodical expulsion of the fasces which are brought back by the
constant action of the cilia, which may possibly exist only in the
anterior (branchial) region of the alimentary canal.
B presents nearly the same appearances, but as it is a section
just at the anterior angle of the cloacal region, it presents an in-
dentation upon the left side of the base of the caudal fin, while
the abdominal segmented canal (AS) is deeper in position and
thrown to the right of the median line, like the fin attachment
In C this change is more marked, the section being through the
middle of the length of the cloaca, the AS is thrown far to the
right and the base or attachment of the fin likewise, but the lat-
ter soon regains its normal position upon the median line, giving
rise to two important features of this region the ridge and the
sinus.
The cloacal ridge (OR) is the sudden angle formed by the verti-
cal and median blade of the fin with its deflected basal part ; it
forms the outline shown as a single line in fig. 2 and appears in
fig. 3 A as the sinister border of the fin.
The cloacal sinus (CS) is the space between the sinister surface
of the deflected basal part of the fin and the ventral surface of
the cloaca itself. The dotted line represents the fin in the condi-
tion already alluded to (p. 286) as thrown across and upward upon
the left side so as to enclose and protect the cloacal sinus and the
already concealed vent.
In D we have a section directly through the vent and exhibiting
its peculiar features. As might be inferred from the other figures
B. NATURAL HISTORY. 291
(4 and 6 C) the integumeDt may be traced from the left surface
of the body upon the ventral surface and across the median line
to a point where, in C, it becomes continuous with the integument
of the fin-base, but in D it remains distinct and presently returus
upon itself so as to form the mucous lining of the cloaca and the
inner surface of the doaccU vcUve (CIV) which itself is merely the
ventral wall of the cloaca, free upon its right border for the
extent of the vent.
I have not represented the musculi^ and peritoneal coats in this
section for I am not quite certain as to their points of commence-
ment ; neither a peculiar striated structure which appears in this
part of the valve and which may be a special muscle for opening
or closing the vent.
At £ the section is made just behind the cloaca, so as to present
its posterior rounded surface (PCI) which is continuous with the
integument in all directions. The height of the cloacal cavity,
which had somewhat decreased in D, is here little more than half
what it was in A and the sub-aortic union of the abdominal lami-
nae here forms an abdominal median septum (AMS) the connections
of which are as in all excepting A somewhat asymmetrical. The
AS is rather larger and nearer the median line; the sinus and
ridge occupy their usual places.
At F the section is through the vacant space, or notch (CIN)
already described in fig. 2 and fig. 3, B, C, D, as a trihedral de-
pression from the left side at the base of the fin; the median
septum is still deeper, and the AS C nearer the median line.
In 6, we find a return to the symmetrical arrangement of parts,
bat with the absence of the alimentary canal; the septum is
median and its connections regular. In fact, in some respects it is
easier to describe and study the sections in the reverse order be-
ginning with G ; which presents the simplest structure.
But although the arrangement above described may be required
for protection of the cloacal outlet, especially during backward
locomotion, yet it is quite possible that in order to avoid such
circuitous exit for the faeces, the animal may flex its body strongly
ventrad, to such an extent as to allow the deflected basal part of
the fin to hang more directly from its attachment, and so expose
the true vent at the moment of deflection ; this must be determined
by observation of living individuals. But this does not affect the
morphological position of the vent upon the right of the median
292 B. NATURAL BISTORT.
line, but to the left of the abdomlDal fin, whose basal part is here
deflected and attached wholly to the right half of the body.
I foresee one possible exception to the above interpretatioD of
the morphological relations of the vent ; upon the ground that the
abdominal ridge and the fin are normdUy median organs like the
similar dorsal structures, it may be urged that since the cloaca
lies to the left of them, t^ is lateral in position, and to the left of
the median line, and that perhaps the vent itself, if distortion were
removed, might perhaps be regarded as median in its position, or
nearly so.
This view would be strengthened by reference to the manner
in which the abdominal' median septum (AMS) maintains its con-
nection with the abdominal segmented canal (ASC), as it is
traced in the series of sections from G to A.
For a long time, while studying the sections under the micro-
scope, I felt anxious to see that the median septum consisted of
two lateral sheets which separated below so as to receive the ali-
mentary canal ; but there is no good evidence of this, any more
than in the other fishes, where thi6 septum consists of fibres inter-
laced in all directions, with no reference to a median division ; and
in F and £ the septum seems to be defiected fW>m the median Une
and to pass wholly to the right, leaving only a branch to go to the
left.
But to this must be said — 1. That the various septa forma
continuous sheet of connective tissue, which is thicker in some
places and thinner in others ; that naturally the larger part of the
median septum would retain its connection with the fin and the
abdominal segmented canal which is evidently associated there-
with : and, 2. That although the septum, and the abdominal seg-
mented canal and the fin are all normally median organs, yet the
latter two are peripheral parts^ and hardly entitled to serve as
criteria for determining the morphical position of a comparatively
central or axial canal like the intestine ; and although the septum
consists of sclerous tissue, and might be ossified, and so become
a part of the skeleton, to which all other organs are generallj
referred for their location, yet it must be remembered that the
morphological value of the spinal axis arises not from its being of
osseous or sclerous tissue, but fVom its primary appearance upon
the line of the primitive furrow ; in like manner the spinal cord
and aorta and alimentary canal are all median and primary and
B. NATURAL HI8T0BY. 293
permanent organs ; and their right to be so considered is not to
be denied on accoant of the appearances presented by accessory
prolongations of connective tissue, or by peripheral and transitory
organs like the fins.*
RECAPrruLATiOK. — 1. The abdominal folds and the ftirrow be-
tween them extending ft'om the oral aperture to the abdominal pore
are periodical appearances, according to the condition of the
reproductive organs.
2. The cloaca is usually about one-ninth (or .11) of the total
length from the tip of the tail, and, including the four myocom-
mata which abut upon it, there are 20-25 myocommata behind it ;
both the ratio and the number, however, are probably variable.
^. The caudal fin contains very long and delicate anteverted fin
rays.
4. The caudal fin is continuous with the dorsal and abdominal
fins; and the cloaca lies opposite the point where the greatest
depth of the fin is acquired, passing from before backward.
5. On the left side three or four myocommata fail to reach the
general level of the ventral border of the body and so expose the
cloaca.
6. The dorsal ridge is always median and is visible to near the tip
of the tail ; but the abdominal ridge is defiected to the right of
the cloaca, and does not reappear behind it, although it regains
the median line.
7. The abdominal fin likewise loses its connection with the left
myocommata and is attached wholly to the right side, but regains
its median attachment behind the cloaca.
8. Nevertheless the blade of the fin always occupies the median
line, and, at its junction with the deflected basal part, presents a
distinct ridge, which forms the abdominal margin of the psevdo*
verii. •
9. The true (or morphological) vent is an oblique elongated
opening upon the right side of the cloaca and considerably to the
rigJu of the median line.
10. But the basal part of the fin underlies this orifice and extends
downwards to and slightly across the median line so as to bring
*For a brief dlscnsBlon of the qneetion as to the morphical yalaes of parts and c.hai>
•cten, tee my paper,— Intermembral Homologies, Proc. Bot. Soc. Nat. Hist., 1871, toI.
XlT.
294 B. NATURAL HI8TOBT.
the blade upon that line, and therefore, although the vent is to
the left of the fin, yet,
11. Not only is the trae vent invisible from either the right or
left side, but the CBBces in order wholly to leave the body, must
pass to the left from the true vent and escape at a point which is
really upon the left of the median line.
12. This complex protection of the vent, in connection with
other appearances, suggests that backward progression of the
animal is often resorted to.
But we must conclude, with Goodsir, that to "complete the his-
tory of the lancelet, an examination of it when alive in seawater
must be undertaken. In this way only can certain points in its
structure be explained and light be thrown on the economy of one
of the most anomalous of the vertebrated animals."
Fig. 7. Cloacal region of Protoptertu annectent ; n&inn,\6\ze; drawn fromatpee-
imen in the Museum of Comp. Zoology, L the left side; B the right side; CG Clie
caudal groovot a furrow upon the median line which divides the edge of the fln into
two thin laminsB.
The tent in Pbotoptebus and Lepxdosiren. — Miiller's refer-
ence to the asymmetrical position of the vent in Lepidasirm
(Protopterus) annectens has been quoted (page 276) ; Quatrefages
follows Miiller in comparing it With Amphioxus^ but as shown in
the above figure (which does not differ essentially ft*om the figures
and description of other authors),* the structural arrangements
are quite unlike, for in Lepidosiren and Protopterus the vent is a
distinct circular orifice wholly upon one side of the median line
opening upon a sort of fusiform papilla or raised surface which,
however, projects less from the suiface of the body than the thick-
*Owen, Linn. Trans, ziriii; BischoJf, Ann. Des. Sci. Nat. 8rd series, U, Petei*.
Mailer's Archiv fUr Anatomie, 1846; Vander 'Hoven, Handbook of Zoology, and Giui-
ther'8 Catalogue of Fishes.
B. NATURilL HISTORY. 295
ened fin-base ; this latter extends forward to between the roots of
the skelea (hinder legs) ; for some distance behind the vent (in the
specimen here figured) the thin border of the fin is in two laminse
with a groove between. The side of the fin-base opposite to the
vent projects somewhat like the vent papilla, and all authors agree
that the vent opens sometimes upon one and sometimes upon the
other side. Without sections of the body at this region and the
study of the embryonic condition of the parts one cannot be sure of
what is their morphological relation, but they appear as if the
vent, a normally median organ, opened itself upou one or the o.ther
side of the fin-base and that the two mutually crowded each other
a little from the median line ; perhaps the blade of the fin is deeper
in the young individuals.
In Ceratodus. — In a large specimen of Ceratodus Forsteri at
the Museum of Comparative Zoology the fin ceases considerably
behind the vent, and this is apparently a median opening, although
slightly asymmetrical in form, perhaps on account of distortion in
the spirit. Giinther makes no mention of a peculiarity of this
region.
The VENT IN Mtzontes (marsipobranchii). — Whatever maybe
their precise zoological relationship,* there is no doubt that the
Myzontes are the group of vertebrates next above Amphioxus^ and
it is therefore desirable to ascertain the character of the vent in
the three genera now constituting the group.
In Myxine glutinosa the vent is a longitudinal median slit be-
tween what might at first seem to be the divided moities of an
abdominal fin. I have not as yet made the sections which would
probably decide the matter, but am inclined to think that the true
fin lies wholly behind the vent, and the slight cutaneous fold which
lies in front of and behind it is not in the strictest sense a fin
like that which exists in Amphioxus.
* Of late jears the opinion has gained ground that the peculiarities of Amphioxu*
are such aa to entitle it to the rank of a sub-class or class or even sub-kingdom; with
this, however, I have never sympathized. I hesitate to express a contrary opinion
without more extensiye knowledge than I now possess, but it may not be improper to
state that last summer (at the Anderson school of Nat. Hist. Penikese Id., Aug., 1873),
after a lecture in which 1 contrasted diagrammatic views of the branchial apparatus in
AmpMoaeua, Myzine^ BdeUostoma and Petromyzony Prof. Agassiz announced his belief
that these four genera would prove to be the representatives of four groups which he
woQld regard as orders of the class Myzontes (or marsipobranchs). This opinion
might and wiU hereafter, be confirmed by many other considerations which I now
refirain ftom presenting.
296 B. NATURAL HIBTORT.
In BdeUostoma polytrema the body is deeper in firont of than
behind the vent, which is thas caased to look backward as well aa
ventrad, between two folds which seem to be equal or if unequal,
not so in any uniform manner ; all the specimens examined by me,
(from the Mus. Comp. 2k)ol.) are in poor condition.
In Fbtromtzon. — It so happened that the three representatives
of this genus first examined by me were a large P. Amerieanu$ 9 ,
and two small specimens from Cayuga Lake of a species which I
do not yet regard as satisfactorily determined ; the first named
presented a sort of notch in the right half of the body just at the
vent, which gave the latter a decided sinister aspect; the two
smaller specimens were a 9 and ^ ; and in one the vent looked
to the right, in the other to the left ; and I imagined this peculi-
arity might relate to convenience in copulation ; but of seventeen
specimens of P. Americantis since examined, no such condition of
things exists ; a much larger number of specimens must be exam-
ined before any generalization can be made. I am inclined to
think, however, that the very early larvsB of the Myzontes may
present an ^mp^toaru^-like structure of the cloaca.
The vent in the larv2b of Rana pipiens. — ^An examination of
fifteen larvae of Bana pipiens^ taken in the same stream in June,
1873, showed that in every case there was a decided asymmetiyin
the cloacal region. The median caudal fin is continuous firom the
tip of the tail to the abdominal integument. In the specimens
with small skelea (hind-legs) the connection between the abdomi-
Fig. 8. A lanra of Rana pipiens, partly dissected, Seen Arom below ; B, the persiitoot
left branchial orifice; most of the Intestinal coil has been removed, I being the cotead
of the pyloric portion, and C the cut end of the last coil; B the rtoNan lying cJom
against the left side of the abdomen, before crossing to the median Une to opea st V
the rent between the two moieties of the fln (A), of which the right Is mneh thinaer;
S, the left skelos or hind leg.
B. NATURAL HISTOBT. 297
nal skin and the fin proper is a broad fold, which becomes reduced,
apparently by absorption, as the skelea increase, until in those
farthest advanced it forms a mere ridge upon the middle line.
Fig. 0. A transverse section of the root of the tail ofthe same larri^ of Sana pipient
made in a plane indicated by the line S in fig. 8. S, the cut end of the left skelos ; L,
the thicker left moiety of the fin which is continuons with the caudal fln ; the thinner
right moiety ceasing at a point Just behind the section. ^ ^
Now the vent seems to divide this into two laminee of which the
left is always the larger and thicker, while that upon the right of
the orifice is thinner and in the specimens with largest skelea, has
nearly disappeared; the vent must therefore be described as
wholly or in part on the right of the median fin in these larvae.
But the fact that the vent is to the right of the caudal fis, and
that the latter is not as is usual among vertebrates, wholly inter-
rupted by it, does not necessarily enable us to say that the vent is
dexlrad oftlie median line; on the contrary, I am inclined to think
that the vent is really upon the median line, in the larva as in the
adult, and that the laminse of the anal fin are divaricated unequally
according to their different thickness, giving the apparently lateral
position of the opening as already described.
We ought perhaps to discriminate between the real vent as it
exists in both stages of growth and the orifice of the short tube*
between the deciduous laminae, which orifice certainly looks to-
ward the right.
It is obvious that a more extended examination should be made
of the larvae of different Batrachians ; and the purpose of this
paper is mainly to call attention to a peculiarity which, so far as I
am aware, has not before been observed.
The condition of things is more like that of Bdellostoma than
Amphioxus; and a curious contrast exists, from the fact that while
* Alluded to by Owen (C. A. Y., yol. i, 628) as the " tegumentary and transitory olo-
aoal canal at the fore-part of the subcandal fln."
298
B. NATURAL H18TOBT.
the latter form gains a caudal prolongation beyond the vent, Sana
loses the tail in the course of development ; and the adult cloacal
aspect is not unlike that figured by Kowalewsky in the Amphioxtts
of sixteen hours.
WEIGHTS AKD MEASUREMENTS (IN OKAMS A.ND MILLIMETERS) OF l^ARYM
OF RANA PIPIENS, MADE WHILE SPECIMENS WERE FRESH,
JUNE 16, 1873.
No.
•
Length of
Skelea
(hind
legs).
Body (muzzle
to vent).
Tail
(fVom
vent).
Total
length.
Alimentary
canal fVom
mouth to bight
of intestine.
From bight
to vent
Total.
1
,013.
.003,5
.041,
.076,
.117,
2
,013.
.OOi,
.oa,
.074,
.115,
3
,015.
.004,
.087,
.070,
.113,
,413,
,350,
.7«S,
4
,016.
.001,
.012,
.076,
.118,
,500,
,365.
«.
5
,015.
.005,
.0i2,
.078,
.120.
8
,013.
.005,
.011,
.076,
.117,
7
,014.
.008,
.041,
.060,
.121,
8
,020.
0
.013,
.016,
.086,
.132,
9
,019.
.013,
.013,
.087,
.130,
,4e5,
,380,
Ji5,
10
,022.
.037,
.015,
.097,
.142,
11
,021.
.038,
.048,
.098,
.146,
13
,020.
.040,
.046,
.098,
.144,
13
,026.
.048,
.047,
.089,
.186,
,780,
,613,
1.273,
14
,028.
.046,
.045,
.100,
.145,
15
,025.
.051,
.046,
.091,
.137,
Haying arranged the specimens according to the increase in
length of the skelea, we see :
1 . A general increase in the weight and total length ; and, with
the four measurements given, in the length of the alimentary canal ;
but none of these increments are constant.
2. The skelea of 10 are nearly three times as long as those of
9 ; but the increments of length and weight of body are gradual.
8. The comparison of 13 with 9 indicates that the shortening
of the alimentary canal, which is said to occur at a later stage,*
has not yet commenced.
•Owen, C. ▲. v., i, 024.
B. NATURAL HISTORY. 299
Addendum. — Through the kindness of Prof. Theodore Gill I
have to-day (April 29, 1874) received a copy of Stieda's " Studien
uber Amphiozns lanceolatus," read before TAcademie imp. des
Sciences de St. Petersbonrg, Sept. 5, 1872, and published in March,
1873 ; its presentation and publication thus antedating those of
my paper by about a year.*
Although the foregoing paper was already in type, room was
kindly made for the present note respecting Stieda's paper. It is
chiefly histological, with historical and critical remarks ; embrac-
ing only seventy pages, and .yet touching upon the whole structure
it is necessarily very brief in many respects.
Of the twenty-five figures, seven are magnified sections of the
entire animal, at the following points : in front of the mouth,
through the mouth, through the anterior part of the respiratory
cavity, through its posterior part, at the vent and behind the vent.
A review of most of the points of general structure must be de-
ferred to another occasion ; in some respects my observations con-
firm his, in others I am not prepared to make a positive assertion,
but in a few I am sure he is incorrect. The only reference to the
position of the vent is on page 5 : — "Hinter dem Porus abdomi-
nalis, im Bereich der eigentlichen Afterfiosse, befindet sich, an der
linken Seite, die nur kleine afterofinung." (Behind the abdominal
pore, in the region (line ?) of the true anal fin, lies the very small
anal opening).
I give a copy of the lower half of his figure representing the
section at the vent ; it is reversed for convenience of comparison
with my own, since his is as if viewed from in front, while all
mine are as if viewed from behind.
With regard to the minute structure of the intestine which he
describes as presenting in addition to the peritoneum, an outer
thinner coat, a middle or thicker coat, and an inner or epithelial
layer which, at the vent, gradually merges into the ordinary cuticle,
Prof. Stieda's reputation as an histologist deters me from positive
counterstatement at this time ; but as to the morphological rela-
tions of parts to each other and to the middle line, I am obliged
* Foreign scientists wiU hardly be able to believe that a memoir upon so interesting
ft subject, and in a periodical which doubtless is at once receiyed in every tmiyersity
library of Earope, shonld so long be unknown to a worker in the same field here and
even then be first learned of through the " scientific record'* of a popular magazine,
"Harpers' Monthly;" but my American brethren will understand the case, for they
know that, excepting only at Boston, New York, Philadelphia and Washington, they
are always liable to do over what has been already done a year or more belbre, and to
rediscoTer things which are already familiar.
300 B. SATURAh BISTOBT.
to differ with him, and trust that he nil), npoa receptioD of m;
paper, reexamine this point, as I shall this and others in the light
of big researches.
I am enabled to oCTer the following additions to the bihli<^raph7
fh>m the complete list of works at the end of Stieda's paper.
CoMft, CeunI looloitfcl obbIs deaeiizlane lommuia di ulnae apeoie aaon ill ululL
Hapoll, 1834.
Natlcs «iir le BnoctiiOBtome, domptee rendui T.. xlll, p. ST3. ISJI.
NoUc« Bor le Brarcbloetome. I/tnstltut, I, Beet. Ii, »o. tOT, p. MS, 1941.
Frunmentl di ADatomlii comparUa, Fuo[c. I, Sporla e NatomiB del BibucIiIob-
lomaiD labrlcuni. Napol), 1843 fol.
Ueber Br«aRtilo$tonia. Uls. p. 708, 1846.
OflrTBieel vanBenedea, Zoologle mMlcale.T. I.p. S8T, ISGB.
GoodBlr. An. Nb(. HtaE. Tii. p. 348.
Boten, VerTBia«UnKTanbei'lgtenoT«TAniphlDia«l. TJJdBChrift toot natOil. GeacUt'
dsDle, D, Till (3 AM.], p. 73, 18(1.
Hartlns. Leerboek Tan de Gronbeglnselen der Distkaade, n, D. I. ATd. 4, Vliwibtii,
Tiel, H. G. A. Caiapagne, isno,
Hazle;, Eiamtaatlpn or the CorpuaoleB of the Blood of AmphloiaB, TrUB. Biit.
AB90C.. p. U, 1847.
"KoBaNeBCEI.-;, NcTOpla paSNTlH," AmphloniB 1., 18tS.
Lindaay, On Amphioias 1. An. Nat. Blet., S 8av., tdI. ta, p. 33S, 1B3T.
Leockart and Pagenitteoliet',Ualsr9U0li, ueber uied Seethlere Amphioiai I.VSlln'i
ArobiT, 1808. p. ses.
Hartlno, Bull' aaslomla del BranobioMama 1. QloroalB dell InBtltato LombsTd,T.Tli,
p. ITX, as, Mtlano, 1IU6.
WUh. UULlor, Beobaoht, des pattiol, InellCutB ii
Ban derCborda dorsaUB. In der Jenaisc!
Ti, p. 187, 18S7.
Belohert, lur Anst. dea BranchlaBtoma 1, Reiohert'B ArcbiT, ISTO, p. IH.
B. NATCRAL HISTOBT. 801
Oh TH8 Composition of the Carpus in Doos. By B. G.
Wilder, of Ithaca, N. Y.
In a paper "On the composition of the carpus of the dog,"*
Prof. Flower describes and figures the right carpns of a dog about
six weeks old in which the "so^jalled dcapho-lunar bone, though
well ossiQed consists not onl; of a perfectly distinct scaphoid and
lunar but also of a third piece, evidently corresponding to the oa
centTcde of the typical carpus," p. 64 ; and regards this as "proving
that in the dog at least neither the radiaie (scaphoid), intermedium
(lunar), nor the centraXe are suppressed, bnt they are alt developed
independently and afterwards coalesce to form the so-called
scnpho-lunar bone."
Fig. 1. Tbe Tight oarpaa of an Aelillc Uon, botmi rnoDthe old [lirgegt flgnre), of B
■faeplierd pnp, uid of s new'bora Etigl[sh black nod Mn niC terrier (rmalleBl Bgiin):
all are draim (Tom abovB and ot natural Blze. Tbe lettatlng Ik niilforni. P. PoUrx;
I, tndei: M, Uediua; A, Anniilorle; Ml, Hlntmui. p, jiitifonA i z, radial luamoid,
■ oarCllBginoDs Dodnle attacheil to ibe radial border of the scaphoid; •«, Bcaphold or
radiaie i I, lunar oi intennediom : oi, etntraie i «, cnnelfonn or tiinare i (m, Inipe-
lium; 111, trap«zaldi ■>, mugnuiD; ti, UDCITonu.
Wishing to confirm the above statements upon other specimens
I examined the parts in question upon two young dogs and a yonng
Asiatic lion, carefully removing thin slices of the cartilaginous
carpi; the figures show that:
1. In this lion seven months old, the 8caj>Ao-Iunar Is asingle carti-
lage, containing three centres of ossification, which undoubtedly
*Bead *t the Bntlah Auoclatloa Aug. T. 1S71, and pubUilwd la Ui« Joomal of
Anatamy and Pbjalotogy, Not., 1811, p«g« n.
802 B. NATURAL BISTORT.
correspond to the three elements, scaphoid^ lunar and centrak
and which would probably, at a later i^e, coalesce into one bone.
2. In the shepherd pup (age unknown) the single scapho-laDar
cartilage contains but two ossifications ; the radial one, boweyer,
is so large as to allow the supposition that it represents the already
coalesced scaphoid and centrale.
3. In the new-born terrier, the cartilage presents no trace of
ossific deposit, though sections were made in all directions ; it is
moreover single and undivided, as in the other cases, but as it ar-
ticulates with the cuneiform and uncifoitn on the one side, with the
trapezium on the other, and with the magnum and trapezoid by its
distal border, it must be held to represent the 8capho4unar just as
much as do the partly ossified cartilages in the other two cases.
A similar appearance is presented in a foetal gi*ay wolf the
mother of which died four days before the expected time of birth,
and in a young red fox, whose eyes were just opening..
From the above facts we may conclude that :
1 . The carpal element centrale which Gegenbaur holds to enter
into the composition of the typical carpus,, but which he found
distinct only in Qu^drumana and in some Eodentia and Jnsecliv-
ora^* exists as a separate centre of ossification in a young lion,
and is probably represented in the young shepherd dog and the
terrier ; as in the young dog described by Flower.
2. But in the three cases described by me the cartilages of these
three elements are probably connate^ and the osseous formations
coalesce; while in Flower*s example there seems to have been
neither connascence nor coalescence of either cartilage or bone ;
for even if we suppose that in that case a single cartilage after-
ward divided, yet it is certain that no such change occurs in the
lion ; and since the shepherd pup presents only two ossifications,
we must either conclude, as above that a coalescence of centrale
with scaphoid has occurred, or that in this kind of dog the centrale
is wanting.
3. It is easier to imagine that the Camivora may vary among
themselves and that the dogs in particular, which in so many other
respects present striking differences, may vary in regard to the
manner of formation of carpal elements and even perhaps as to
their existence.
4. It is evident that any generalization respecting dogs shoald
specify the breed, age and sex.
* Carpus and Tarsus, p. 60.
B. NATURAL BISTORT. 803
Present Aspect of the Question of Intermehbral Homolo-
gies. By B. G. Wilder, of Ithaca, N. Y.
Attention is called to the apparent unconsciousness of English
and Continental anatomists that there exists, chiefly in the United
States, an opinion respecting the homology of the anterior and
posterior limbs, totally at variance with their own ; and it is sug-
gested that if each party will yield a part of its present position,
a reconciliation may be effected. I hope, by means of embryology
and the study of Amphioxus to demonstrate the existence of a
true "meketropy" (antero-posterior symmetry) within the verte-
brate branch. I hold that if the same methods of comparison and
of deduction which are employed in studying the limbs of different
animals are used in comparing the anterior and posterior limbs of
the same animal, there can be no escape from the conclusion that
the anterior digit (thumb) is the true homologue of the posterior
dactyl (little toe) ; and that the little finger is in like manner the
true homologue of the great toe. To this opinion are now in-
clined the following anatomists : Wyraan, Agassiz, Dana, Coues,
Foltz, and the writer ; all others now living, and those who have
written on the subject since 1774, hold the contrary opinion.*
Variation in the Condition of the External Sense Organs
IN F<ETAL Pigs of the same Litter. By Burt G. Wilder,
of Ithaca, N. Y.
In comparing foatal mammals of unknown age, it is natural to
estimate their relative age, partly according to the degree of
closure of the lids, and the direction of the pinnse ; since it is
known that the former are at first mere folds above and below
the uncovered balls, which are gradually covered by them ; and
that the pinnae are first formed as little triangular folds behind
the meatus, which at first project directly forward, and then, as
•A blstorical sketch of the question, with a fhll bibliography is given in a paper
lately pabUnhed by me, Intermembral Homologies; Proo. Boat. Soc. Nal. Hist., 1S71.
304 B. NATURAL HI8TORT.
they increase in size, gradually rise to the erect position, and only
later are retroverted upon the nepk.
While forming a collection of foetal pigs at the large abattoir
of J. P. Squiers in East Cambridge, Mass., during the sammer
of 1872, I compared the individuals of the same litter, carefally
avoiding any artificial displacement of the parts.
y^
d ^ "^a?
8
Fig. 1. A. Head and series of pinnae fk'om foetal pigs (Nob. 886 to SOO, M. C. Z.)
of the same litter.
B. Head and series of eyes trom foetal pigs of ttie same litter (Nos. 903
' to 309).
In the five pigs of the same litter * having an average length
from vertex to anus of '067, mm. and an average weight of ,0175
grams, the direction of the pinna ranges ft'om a slight but decided
dnteversioTij to an almost complete retroversion. Figure 1, A.
In the seven pigs of another litter f averaging *040, in length,
the lids range from folds covering slightly the upper and lower
margins of the ball, to complete closure. The sizes and degrees
of closure do not exactly coincide. It would be interesting in
both these cases to know the relative position of the individuals
in the mother's uterine cornua ; but these facts indicate the need
of far more extended comparisons than have been made.
I have also observed some striking changes in the form of the
nostril in foetal pigs ; it is in its earliest condition a notch, whose
lower margins then come together forming a hole ; this elongates
laterally and is indented above so as to become more and more
crescentic; but at or before birth the circular form is regained
and retained through life ; illustrations of these changes will be
presented upon another occasion.
* Marked 896 to 800 on the Catalogue of Neurology and Embryology of Domettioated
Animals at the Museum of Comparatiye Zoology, Cambridge, Mass.
t Marked 303 to 808 in the same catalogue.
B. KATUBAL HISTOBT. * 305
The Pectorai. Muscles op Mammalia. By Bust G. Wilder,
of Ithaca, N. Y.
The following is a provisional abstract of results based npon
the dissection of the pectoral group of muscles of twenty-two
genera of mammals, representing all of the usually recognized
orders, excepting the Solipedia, Hyracoidea^ Cetacea and Sirenia.
Before publishing in detail and with figures from the drawings*
which I have made of all the dissections, I wish to examine sev-
eral other genera (particularly Lutra^ Phoca, Delphinus) and also
other individuals or species of the species and genera here
enumerated.
Homo* Man.
Troglodytes^ Chimpanzee.
PUhecus^ Orang.
Macacus^ Monkey.
Oalago, Lemar.
Telis catusy Cat.
Felis leot Lion.
Canis occtdentaliSj Gray wolf.
Canis familiaris (see next paper), .... Dog.
UrsuSf Bear.
JProcyon, Raccoon.
Putorius, Weasel.
Mephitis, Skunk.
Scalops, Mole.
Condylura, Star-nosed mole.
Pteropus, Bat.
BradypuSf Sloth.
Myrmecophagaf Ant-eater.
Cyclothurus, Little ant-eater.
DasypuSj Armadillo.
Mus, Bat.
Arctomys, Woodchnck.
JBos, Cow.
Cervus, Deer.
•These drawings were shown at the meeting.
A. A. A. 8. VOL. XXn. B. (20)
306 * B. NATURAL BISTORT.
The investigation began in an effort to reconcile conflicting
statements respecting the existence of the Pectoralia minor in the
cat and some other Mammalia. Strauss-Darckheim denies its
presence in the cat ; and Cuvier and Meckel in some other camir
vora; while others (Haughton), mention its presence without
comment.
In nearly all Mammalia the main pectoral mass is naturally
separable into an outer and an inner layer ; these are respective! j
homologous with the FectorcUis major and P. minor of man ; for
convenience and in order to avoid the ascription of less constant
attributes than relative position, they may be called respectively
ectopectoralis and entopectoralis ; as the buttock muscles are now
called ecto-^ meso- and ento-glutoeus.
The usual origin of the ectopectoralis is the middle line of the
sternum, and a median raphe anterior to it ; its insertion is into
the outer tuberosity of the humerus, and distad therefrom npon
the same bone ; the usual origin of the entopectoralis is from the
anterior angles of the costal cartilages and sternum, and from
the contiguous borders of these parts ; its insertion is upon the
outer humeral tuberosity and outer margin of the bicipital groove,
covered more or less by the insertion of the ectopectorol. But
there is nearly always a small but distinct tendon which is at-
tached to the coracoid process or to the tubercle representing it
in many quadrupeds ; this is interesting in view of the fact that
in Quadrumana often, and in man usually (but by no means so
generally as is supposed), the entire attachment npon one or both
sides is upon the coracoid process.
This coracoid insertion is perfectly distinct in all the Canida
and Felidce dissected by m^ ; but Strauss-Durckheim, not recog-
nizing the entopectoraH as such on account of its great size,
describes the tendon of the sterno-trochiteiHen in the cat (which
he regarded as a dismemberment of the P, major ^ as sending a
slip to the supra spincUus; teleologically it might as well be so,
but morphologically there is every reason for its attachment to
the rudimentary coracoid. The above, by the way, is the only
error in description which I have found in that admirable mono-
graph ; but errors of homological interpretation are by no means
uncommon.
The ectopectoralis tends to separate, especially anteriorly, into
superimposed laminae ; while the entopectoralia tends to form fascl-
B. NATURAL HI8T0RT. 807
cali, corresponding to the number of coBto-sternal articulations
involyed in its origin.
The ectopectorcUis has generally an outward direction, and acts
therefore as an adductor humeri; the entopectoralis has an oblique
direction from within, forward and outward, and acts chiefly as a
retractor omou (retractor of the shoulder). The entopectoralis is
generally much the larger, the exceptions being man, the higher
quadrumana, the bear, the skunk and the bat.
In addition to the main pectoral mass, there are generally
foand one, two or more smaller muscular elements, whose rela-
tions are variable with the thorax and armus, with the main pec-
toral mass, and with certain other muscles {latissimua dorsiy
dermo humeralis, rectus CLbdomimis and obliquus extemus. It is
probable that these are differentiated portions of the main pec-
toral mass, but a more extended comparison is needed.
There is need of more accuracy in the dissection, delineation
and description of muscles ; since at present there is great con-
fusion respecting the nature of true muscular integers, and the
basis of muscular homologies ; as a provisional opinion, it may
be stated that size, form and function are much less reliable than
origin, relative position and insertion, and that origin is the most
reliable basis for muscular homology.
The most profitable work will be the careful comparison of
nearly allied species and genera. At present, so little are we
agreed upon the basis of arrangement that each new '^ myology"
is in great part useless in the present and a burden upon the
future ; in fact, we should do well to avoid publication of dissec-
tions made of a single specimen of a species, and a single species
of a genus ; and of all dissections by beginners. My own experi-
ence has proved the risk of fallacies resulting from the too sparing
or too persistent use of the knife, and the overlooking of points
which may have no teleological importance, but great morpho-
logical significance.
808 B. NATURAL mSTORT.
Variation in the Pectoral Muscles of Domestic Dogs. By
Burt G. Wilder, of Ithaca, N. Y.
abstract.
I HATE made drawings* of my own dissections of the pectond
muscles in nine breeds of domestic dogs (Canis famUiaris), as
follows: English terrier, skye terrier, spaniel, greyhound, spitx
or Pomeranian, setter, Newfoundland, St. Bernard and shepherd.
Like that upon the brains of dogs, this investigation was begnn
in order to ascertain whether among our domestic dogs there exist
internal and structural differences comparable with those of habit
and external appearance, which are greater than would be held to
characterize distinct species of wild animals.f
Deferring publication in full until a greater number of breeds
have been examined,! and until the general homolc^y of thejwo-
torales is determined, I would say here that so far there has been
great uniformity in the main pectoral muscles, ectopectoral and
entopectoral ; certainly no such differences as might be inferred
from the external appearances of the breeds. Among the minor
outlying members of the group referred to in the preceding paper,
there is some variation, but usually not more than might be attrib-
uted to mere individual peculiarity.
The stomachs and cseca of these and several other dogs are pre-
served, inflated, in either Ithaca or Cambridge. I hope at some
time to present superposed outlines of these for exact comparison.
On the Embryology o** Terebratulina. By Edw. S. Mobse,
of Salem, Mass.
abstract.
•
At the last meeting of the Association I presented a few ob8e^
vations on the embryology of Terebratulina, in which the segmented
character of the^ embryo and its free swimming state were noticed.
•These were shown at the meeting.
W^nt^ remarked on page 242, eyen the child recognizes them aU as dog9,
dUsTCtt ^^*^ <*^« *»d a Mexican (Chihuahua) dog are among the Bpecimens awaltinf
B. NATURAL HISTOBT. 809
Lacaze-Duthier had noticed a similar stage in Thecidiam, bnt
DOthing had been done to close the wide gap existing between this
free annulated stage and the early stages in which the adult char-
acters are conspicuoas, as shown in my paper on the early stages
of Terebratulina.
This spring I have had the good fortune to make plain the his-
tory of the development of the dorsal and ventral areas, the pe-
dancular attachment, and the relations the different parts of the
mature animal bear to the embryonic segments, as well as to pre-
sent some new features in the early stages of the species. (As my
paper has since been published in full, with illustrations in the
Memoirs of the Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., vol. ii, p. 249, I need
only give here a summary of the stages presented in the develop- '
ment of the embryo.)
The development of the embryo presents a series of well defined
stages. In the first stage the embryo becomes widened at one end.
The segments are barely indicated, the posterior end is the widest,
the anterior portion is ornamented with a conspicuous tuft of long
cilia, so peculiar to the embryos of many worms. The embryo is
also clothed with vibratile cilia, and in this condition slowl}"* moves
along the bottom of the dish without rising from it, or remains
quiet. In the second well marked stage the embryo is divided
into two prominent segments; these expand and contract upon
each other slightly, and the cephalic segment has the power of
partially bending from side to side. In this stage the embryo is
most active, swimming rapidly in every direction and turning
abruptly about. The oesophagus also becomes dimly defined. In
the third stage the peduncular segment is developed and projects
from the posterior portion of what can now be called the thoracic
segment. At this stage the embryo either remains immovable
upon the bottom of the dish or slowly moves about. In two cases
delicately barbed setae to the number of thirty-five projected di-
rectly backward from the peduncular segment. In the fourth stage
the embryo becomes attached by means of its pe^luncular segment.
The embryo is still clothed with cilia, though the long pencil of
cilia has disappeared. The head is closely drawn to the thoracic
segment, which becomes wider in transverse diameter, so as nearly
to hide the peduncle. In the fifth stage the thoracic ring com-
mences to fold, or turn upward upon opposite surfaces of its cir-
cumference, so as gradually to enclose the head ; one fold being
810 B. NATURAL HISTOBT.
made slightly in advance of the other represents the larger <ff
ventral valve. In this stage appear clusters of barbed and decid-
uous setae upon the anterior margin, and in a later portion of this
stage the first hardened areas of the dorsal and ventral plates
make their appearance, and the cirri appear as blunted papills
about the mouth. In the sixth stage the shell becomes rounded,
the peculiar scaled structure makes its appearance, and the forooA-
tion of tubules perforating the shell and permanent sets takes
place.
On the Genitalia of Brachiopoda. By E. S. Morse, of Salem,
Mass.
ABSTARCT.
A CAREFUL study of Terebratullna, made this summer, shows the
sexes to be distinct, while some specimens revealed the vascalar
sinuses filled with eggs, and even where the eggs had escaped by
dehiscence the scars could be seen ; in others the sinuses showed
no traces of eggs, but on the contrary were filled ?rith a creamy
mass, slightly granulated, the borders of these masses being
highly ciliated and when crushed or separated under the compres-
sor, bunches of spermatozoa and single ones were revealed. This
probably represents the oviparous mass of Hancock. In several
females examined the eggs were attached in clusters to the genital
band, and in such masses and so close to the segments organ that
the accessory vesicle of Huxley was obscured by them. The
masses of spermaries adhering to the genital band, and floating
freely in the perivisceral cavity, presented some curious features.
They assumed the shape of long filiform masses, attached by
common centres to the genital band, and surrounded by an almost
imperceptible cellular mass.
The threads widened gradually to their distal extremities where
they ended bluntly, and were capped with a few large brownish
cells.
B. NATURAL HISTORY. 811
The spennatozoa were thickly clustered in blunt fbsiform
masses at the extremities of the threads forming a sort of brush.
The same brownish granules appeared in the sinuses, and like-
wise tipped the clusters therein contained, only these clusters were
not supported on long threads, as in those which sprang ftom the
genital band in the perivisceral cavity. The glandular portion of
the segmental orgau in the male appeared much darker than in the
female.
From examinations of Lingula, Discina and Rhynchonella, I
believe the sexes will be found separate in all Brachiopods.
(As I have treated this subject more fully in a paper entitled
Systematic position of the Brachiopods, Proceedings Boston Soc.
Nat. Hist., vol. xv, p. 346, the reader is referred to that paper).
Ok the Rate of Ikcreasb of the Human Race. By Chas.
Whittlesey, of Cleveland, Ohio.
If we could determine the number of people existing upon the
earth at several periods of time, widely asunder, the general rate
or ratio of increase could be obtained. This would constitute
a mathematical series, diminishing backwards, till it would termi-
nate at the. period of man's origin, on the supposition that there
was but one pair of progenitors.
This was the object I proposed to myself in this investigation.
It is not an uncommon occurrence, that investigations made to
sustain a theory lead to results quite different from our anticipa-
tions. Instead of finding a rapid and regular increase of popu-
lation throughout the earth, the indications are that from the
commencement of the Christian era, to the beginning of the' pres-
ent century the rate of increase was very small. This conclusion
is not capable of a complete demonstration, because the ancient
enumerations are not now to be found. I have not discovei*ed a
thorough census of any nation prior to the year 1800.
<12 B. NATURAL HI8TOBT.
Any government, having an organization sufficient to raise a
permanent army and enforce a general tax, must have had record
evidence of the number of its people, and of the amount of their
property. There are numerous references to such enumerations
among the old monarchies, but the statistics which they collected
are nearly all lost. In the Grecian States, as early as 600 b.c,
it was the praetice to take a regular census. From at least 500
B.C., the same was done in Italy and the Roman Empire as often
as once in five years. Only a few of the items, however, have
come down to us.
The earliest record of a census which we have is that of the
males who were able to bear arms under Moses, when the Israel-
ites came out of Egypt, 1491 B.C., and this was not a Aill enumer-
ation of the people, but only of the military force. The two
subsequent numberings were a little more fhll, but the entire
population is nowhere given, and is obtained only by deduetiOD,
in a mode I will discuss under the head of the Jewish tribes.
There are numerous instances in history, where the number of
persons inhabiting a city at different times is given. The strength
of armies is more frequently found on record, from which the
strength of a nation may be deduced. Where two countries are
at war a long time, with nearly equal forces and success, it may
be inferred that their resources and numbers are nearly equal.
The revenues collected from a people are indicative of their
numbers. With all these considerations in view, I have endeav-
ored to arrive at the population of this planet near the time of
Christ, and thus make a comparison between that period and the
beginning of the present century. To facilitate the comparison,
I shall give details of what I have gathered in reference to several
ancient nations, although a portion of the details have not a direct
bearing upon the question, wJien man first appeared vpan the earth.
The developments of the past ten years throw the epoch of the
cave dwellers back, to the closing out of the glacial period. Any-
thing which may help to fix this period, in a historical or chrono-
logical form, is worthy of attention.
Thd census of a single people, no matter how complete, or how
much time it embraces, forms only one item in the calculation ;
for all nations have their rise, progress, culmination and decline.
It requires a consolidation of all people, through long periods of
time, to throw much light on the problem of the antiquity of man.
B. NATURAL HISTOBT. 818
Before I close, I will present a recapitulation of the information
within my reach, the tendency of which is, like that of the cave
relics ; to put the origin of man very far back in the history of the
earth.
ITALT AND THE ROMAN EMPIRE.
Geographical Italy now supports about twenty-four millions of
people. Of the number at a period near the Christian era, we can
do little more than conjecture. The propensity of mankind to
congregate in towns and cities is the same in all ages, and thus
the proportion of the rural to the city population, in civilized
countries, mu^.t be nearly constant. There is reputed to have
been three hundred and twenty towns and cities, in the Italian
peninsula in the days of Augustus Csesar, a time wheuvthat coun-
try was in its most prosperous condition.
In the United States about twelve per cent, of the population
live in towns of ten thousand and upwards. In England and
Wales there were, in 1851, five hundred and eighty cities, the
average population of which was 15,500, twenty-five of which
were above 52,000. As this represents a dense manufacturing
country, embracing the capital of vast possessions abroad ; the
urban population is exceptionally large. In France (1855) there
were thirty-two cities exceeding 40JOOO people. These contained
nine per cent, of the empire. Prussia had fifteen cities larger than
82,000, which represented seven per cent, of her population.
If the 320 towns and cities of Italy had an average of 10,000,
they embraced 3,200,000. The city of Rome in the days of Clau-
dius is estimated by Hume at 1,200,000, and by Gibbon not less
than 1,000,000, or nearly one-third of 3,200,000. If we regard
this as representing only seven per cent, of the rural population we
have 22,400,000 people, in geographical Italy at that time.
About 200 years before Christ, the city of Carthage, according
to Strabo, while she was a rival of Rome, fighting under Hannibal,
contained 700,000 souls. Carthagena, in Spain, was not long
after regarded as nearly the equal of Rome.
In the campaigns in Spain, before the defeat of the Carthage-
nians, the Romans had destroyed 317,600 lives. During twenty-
five years prior to 180 B.C., they had killed and captured in Ci&-
Alpine Gaul, which corresponded to the valley of the Po, 250,000.
814 B. NATUBAL HI8T0RT.
The city of Padua was able to raise an army of 120,000 men.
Before Christ 212, the island of Sardinia contained 1,000,000,
and so much of Sicily, as was dependent on Syracuse, 600,000.
When all these indications of a dense population are considered,
the census of Italy might well have reached twenty-three or
twenty-four millions, at the era of the greatest power of Rome ;
which is about the same number as at present.
The kingdom of Carthage must have embraced as many more,
or she would not have been so much hated and feared as a rival.
The Numidians alone, at one time during the long contest between
Rome and Carthage, were able to raise 800,000 soldiers, each of
whom, probably, represented ten persons. For the Roman Empire
in Europe, Asia and Africa, in the reign of Augustus, the esti-
mate of Mr. Gibbon is 120,000,000. At the present time the
population of the same area is not far ft'om 170,000,000. Gibbon
fixes the population of Italy in a.d. 1781, less than an hundred
years since, at 10,000,000 ; but this does not include all of the
territory of the Italy of the Caesars.
THE JEWISH NATION.
There are three enumerations on record, of the men of war in
the twelve tribes of Israel, but no complete census of the people.
The first was taken at the time of their exodus from Egypt, which
is reasonably well fixed at 1491 B.C., and the second near their
entrance into Canaan about 1453 b.g. Again in the time of
David, about 1015 or 1017 B.C., a third and last military cenaas
was taken. Although these three enumerations go only a little
way towards the establishment of a reliable ratio of increase, I
refer to them with more detail, because they are more fuU and
more ancient than those of anv other nation.
Among chronologists, there is a wide difference in regard to the
time which elapsed, between the migration of Jacob and his family
to Egypt, and their fiight to the deserts of Arabia. By the Vol-
gate or Douay Bible it is 215 years ; by Josephus and the Samar-
itan text, 210, and by the Jewish traditions, 812. The apostles
Paul and Stephen speak of it as lasting 400 and 480 years. Lep-
Bins places the exodus in 1314 b.c, which would add 117 years to
their stay in Egypt, beyond that given in our Bibles and by Jose-
phus.
1
B. NATUBAL HISTORT. 315
It is also impossible to determine how many persons composed
the family of Jacob. At least seventy-five are mentioned in the
Septuagint, and seventy in oar version ; but the wives of his sons
are not included, who might extend the family to one hundred
persons. Assuming this to have been the number, I have taken
the case of the black rdce in the United States, as an instance of
rapid multiplication ; and have estimated the rate of increase of
the Jews on thdt basis, during their stay in Egypt. Both people
were in a state of servitude, and lived in regions where food was
abundant. In the case of the Israelites, their family pride, their
customs and their religion, placed them in a state of nearly perfect
isolation. There is no instance of a people, who have adhered
more rigidly to separation from the rest of mankind, and to purity
of blood. The black race in the United States, since 1810, was
not strengthened by importation, and thus it presents the best
modern instance, of computing the rate of a purely natural in-
crease. Between 1810 and 1860 inclnsive, a period of fifty years,
the census of the United States shows this rate to have been, a
fraction over twenty-six per cent.<f compounded every ten years^ or
one hundred per cent, in about thirty years. On this ratio the
family of Jacob, counted as one hundred persons, would require
four hundred years, to reach the number of 1,034,713. The two
enumerations in the wilderness, which were less than forty years
apart, differ very little. According to Josephus, the number of
men over twenty years of age, able to go to war, was 601,630.
The largest number given in the Vulgate, and in our version, is
603,550; differing only by 1,950 men. None of the Levites are
included. The proportion of able bodied men, to the entire popu-
lation, varies in different countries. In 1860 in the United States,
the number of enrolled militia, between eighteen and forty-five
years of age, was about one in nine. In England and France it is
materially less. For the purpose of arriving at a surmise of the
Jewish population, based upon the military census, I assume their
fighting men each to represent eight people, the Levites excepted ;
and their number to have been in round numbers 600,000, at the
exodus, 1491 b.o. '
On this basis there should have been in the wilderness of Sinai
4,800,000 people. The natural increase of the black race in the
United States, commencing with 100 persons, would reach only
about one-quarter of this number, in a period of 400 years ; or
816 B. NATURAL HISTORY.
nearly double the usually received period of the stay in Egypt.
If the negro rate should be doubled, the numbers indicated by
their military strength, as above given (4,800,000), might have
been reached in about 250 years. It evidently requires a longer
period than 210 to 217 years, the 312 years of tlie Rabbis, or even
893 years, as intimated by Lepsius ; unless there was a larger
number of progenitors than 100 in the family of Jacob.
Everything is thus too vague, to derive a reliable ratio. Among
the tribes, whose men able to draw the sword are recorded in the
second registration, there is a great difference in their numbers.
Judah could raise 75,500 and Simeon but 22,200, fighting men.
The date of the third and last census, under King David, has
been the subject of little discussion, the differences being only a
few years. It occurred between 1017 and 1015 B.C., and therefore
about 440 years after the last enumeration in the wilderness. Bat
a large discrepancy exists between the returns, as given in n
Samuel, chap. 24 and I Chronicles, chap. 21. There is no
reasonable room to doubt that both refer to the same enumera-
tion, but in the recorded results there is a difference of 270,000
fighting men. The Levites and the tribe of Benjamip are not in-
cluded, and as the whole thing was distasteful to Joab and his
captains, to whom the business was intrusted, little care was prob-
ably taken with the work. By the lowest figures, there were in
Judah 500,000 fighting men, and in Israel 800,000, making a total
of 1,300,000. If the tribe of Benjamin could be added, it
would somewhat reduce the discrepancy of 270,000 ; but the text
does not warrant this, and even then the numbers would not be
sufiQcient to harmonize both accounts. Assuming the same pro-
portion as before, of eigJU people to one soldier^ there should have
been in David's time 10,400,000 ; besides Levites and Benjamites.
Whether this is near the truth or not, the comparison between the
time of Moses, and that of David, on the same biisis of fighiing
men^ cannot be far wrong. During more than 400 years of pros-
perity the soldiers and the people had little more than doubled in
numbers. When this is contrasted with the enormous increase
from Jacob to Moses, requiring a rate of more than fifty per cent
every ten years, it is apparent, that we are as yet unable to draw
satisfactory conclusions. Probably the chronology is at fault as
to the stay in Egypt.
It was not long after the close of David's reign, before civil and
B. NATURAL BISTORT. 317
foreign wars led to a rapid destraction and dispersion of the Jews ;
from which they have not yet recovered. In the next 400 years
the nation was disintegrated.
Mr. Smith, the author of the Dictionary of the Bible, estimates
the number of Jews in Palestine, in the time of Jehoshaphat, about
900 B.C., at 6,000,000. From the numbers who were slain or cap-
tured, in their wars/with the Romans, the nation must have been
numerous during the reign of the emperors, who succeeded Augus-
tus. From the .siege of Jerusalem under Titus, a.d. 79, to the
time of Caligula, more than 2,000,000 were slain or captured.
An estimate made a.d. 1858, in'cludkig Jews in all parts of the
earth, gives but 4,658,000 persons. Their strength does not differ
materially now, from what it was 3,000 years ago ; and therefore
no law of development can be derived from them.
Since the year a.d. 1800, when the European nations began
to take a more full and exact census of their people, there has been
found to be a more rapid and regular rate of increase in population
than ever before, but the ratio of Europe is far below that of the
United States.
ENGLAND AND WALES.
According to English statisticians, there was very little increase
from the time of the Norman conquest, to a.d. 1337; a period
of 271 years. In 1337 they fix the population at about 2,300,000.
In 1696, 359 years afterwards, it had about doubled; the esti-
mates then made with great care, showing about 5,500,000.
Again in 1801, at the first complete census, there were about
9,000,000, or very near double, covering a period of 105 years.
At the census of 1861, the population fell a little short of 100
per cent, over 1801. In England and Wales, the rate of increase
has been little affected by emigration or destructive wars.
The average decennial increase, derived from exact returns
since 1801, through a period of 60 years, is (14.3) fourteen and
three-tenths per cent,^ under which the people double in numbers
in about that time. In France the decennial rate is a trifle less
than (5) five per cent.<, requiring about (150) one hundred and
fifty years, to double the population.
The above data, with some additions, are here repeated in a
more condensed form in the following table.
318
B. NATURAL flISTOBT.
O
O
CO
CO
GO
§
P
o
<J
m
o
00
O
5!
O
1^
Q
5^
B. NATURAL HI8TORT. 819
Tlie foregoing, like all statistics of ancient populations, show
many incongruities, but they are also of sufficient value to show
that nations have not progressed in numbers with regularity.
All of them have experienced diminution as well as increase.
Their decadence is a rule as much as their progress ; and if it is
a rule of nations, it must tend to diminish the ratio of increase
of the population of the earth. The wars of the ancients, carried
on by swords, spears, arrows and clubs, used in hand-to-hand
combats, were much more fatal than those of our day. Their
wars were also much more prolonged, and every way more ex-
hausting. Within three hundred years the expectation of life
has about doubled.*
The ancients had very limited means of transportation, espe-
cially for heavy articles, such as constitute the food of man. On
large rivers and along the shores of oceans, it could be done ; but
only in a limited way, compared with modern commerce. Their
mode of cultivation soon exhausted the soil. In countries which
were interior, and thus cut off from supplies, horrible famines
were common, such as we have recently known in Persia. But in
favorable regions, especially where the climate is genial, the
ancient population frequently exceeded the modern, in territorial '
density.
There is in all parts of the world evidence of .people who lived
prior to any historical records. In Ital}', the Etruscans had built
structures of respectable size, which were ancient and in ruins,
when Rome was founded. Of the early nations which inhabited
this continent, we know very little.
The Peruvians, of the era of the Incas, were preceded by a race
whose architectural remains and whose character were a mystery
to them.
In Central America there were people of more antiquity than
the Aztecs or Toltecs, whose monuments still exist.
It is the same in the valley of the Mississippi, where the mound
builders once lived. Back of them all, in Europe, are the relics
of the dwellers in caves ; the earliest type of mankind. Between
Ezion Geber on the Red Sea, along the old route to the valley of
* In Geneva accurate registers have been kept of the yearly average of life since
lfi60, which was then 22 years and 6 months ; in 1833 it was 40 years and 6 months.
Thus, in less than 300 years the average duration of life has nearly doubled. In the
fourteenth century the average mortality in Paris was one in 16; it is now about one in
aa. In England the rate of mortaUty in 1000 was one in 88.
7
320 B. NATURAL H1ST0BT.
the Jordan, there are inscriptions on the rocks, in languages that
are otherwise unknown.
AMERICA.
In North America there was, in the valley of the Mississippi,
the race of the mounds ; at least as ancient as the era of Christ.
On the waters of the Pacific were the Pueblo Indians, who erecteii
large edifices of stone.
In the more northerly parts of North America, and along the
Atlantic coast, were the red, or copper colored tribes ; which, how-
ever, were never very numerous, because they were always hunters ;
not cultivators of the soil. South of the United States, there was
probably as large a population two thousand 3'ears since, as there
is now, which is shown in the following table :
South America, in 1851 (unciyilized Indians excepted) 19,192.090
West Indies 3,500.000
Central America (wild Indians excepted) 2,019,000
The Indians of the United States, 1850 89i,ll3
Mexico (1857) 7,859,564
Mound builders, a numerous people, say 500,000.
Pueblo and other Indians, say S00.00O
Total 33,064,697
Forty millions would be a large estimate for America in the
first century of our era.
ESTIMATED POPULATION OF THE EARTH ABOUT THE CHBISTIAN EBA.
COUNTRIES.
Roman Empire, including Europe west of the Neimen and the Dnieper.
Asia Minor J Palestine and >iorth Africa, according to Gibbon
Asia, south of the Himalayas, including Hindosian, Persia, the Mdiay
PeniMuktt and the Islands of Oceanica (conjecture)
China and Japan (conjecture)
Tartars, north of the Himalayas, Scythians and Teutons, north of Eu-
rope, say
Central and South AArica, say
Americ4ij say
Total
KUMBEBS.
seo.000,000
150
120,000,000
100,000.000 ^
50,000,000
M.00OUXiO
S5»000,00O
40,000,000
The United States has been so much affected by immigration,
that its rate is no guide in the pursuit of the ratio of natural in-
B. NATURAL HISTOBT. 321
crease; neither is the low rate of periods prior to the present
century a guide in predicting for the future. There are now so
many causes in active operation to increase the human family, to
prolong and to preserve life, that no calculations for the past can
be based upon our present condition.
The figures I have presented only show that a very long period
must have elapsed between the first appearance of man upon the
earth, and the earliest historical records.
If the human race were no more prolific prior to the Christian
era than it has been since, the day of its origin can readily be put
back to the close of the glacial period. If we admit that the
Creator originated species as soon as the earth was in a fit condi-
tion for their self-existence, the period of the genesis of man
must have been at least as early as that last change in the condi-
tion of the earth.
All the facts within my reach, and all the estimates worthy of
consideration, are embodied in the annexed table, constructed on
the basis of the periods occupied in duplicating the population of
nations.
On the Relations op the Niagara and Lower Helderberg
Formations, and their Geographical Distribution in
the United States and Canada. By James Hall, of
Albany, N. Yf
In proceeding to the discussion of this subject, I propose in
the first place to cite a paper read by Mr. A. H. Worthen at the
Troy Meeting of the American Association, and published in the
Proceedings under the following title :
^^ Remarks on the Relative Age of the Niagara and so-called
Lower Helderberg Grroups, By A. H. Worthen, of Springfield,
Illinois:'
"Recent investigations have developed certain facts, bearing
upon the question of the relative age of the above named groups,
A. A. A. 8. vol. ZXU. B. (21)
322 B. NATURAL BISTORT.
which we desire to present in a brief manner for the consideration
of those who are especially interested in stratlgi-aphical geology.
In northern and western Illinois, from the mouth of the Illinois
River northward to the Wisconsin line, the Upper Silurian divis-
ion of the palffiozoic series is represented by buff, gray, or yellow-
ish-gray dolomites, sometimes in remarkably even beds, as at
Joliet and Grafton ; and at other localities by concretionary
masses, with but faint traces of stratification, as at Bridgeport,
near Chicago, and at Port Byron and Leclare, at the head of the
Upper Rapids on the Mississippi River. They range in thickness,
from seventy-five to three hundred feet, and directly overlie the
shales and argillaceous limestones of the Cincinnati group of the
Lower Silurian series. These dolomites are quite fossiliferous,
and afford many characteristic Niagara species, among which we
may mention Pentamerus oblongtis, Spirifer radiatus^ Calymene
Blumenbachii^ Caryocrinus ornatus^ Orthoceras undulatum^ etc.
From the Bridgeport locality alone, nearly one hundred species of
fossils have been enumerated, a large number of which are specif-
ically identical with those found in the Niagara beds of New
York and Canada ; and, so far as we are aware, all Western geol-
ogists are agreed in considering these dolomites to be the strati-
graphical equivalents of the Niagara group of New York.
In southern Illinois we find these dolomites replaced by a series
of silicious and argillaceous limestones, forming a group two
hundred and fifty feet or more in thickness, which, like the dolo-
mites of northern Illinois, rest directly upon the Cincinnati group,
and are immediately succeeded by Devonian strata. At the base
of this group of silicious limestones there are some reddish mot-
tled beds, from ten to twenty feet in thickness, that in color bear
considerable resemblance to the Medina sandstone of New York;
and these mottled limestones pass gradually into the buff and
gray silicious beds that constitute the upper and main portion of
the group. Fossils are rare in the lower portion of the group
here ; but the mottled limestones contain some Orthoceratites^
and joints of large Crinoidea^ while the middle and upper por-
tions are locally quite fossiliferous, and have afforded many ol the
characteristic species of the so-called Lower Helderberg group,
among which are the following ; OrtJiis subcarinata^ 0. Mata^
Ccelospira subcarinata, C imbricata^ Spirifer per-lamelloms^ and
Platyceras spircde of Hall, aud Acidaspis hamatus of Conrad,
together with species closely resembling, if not identical with,
Merista princeps, , Platyceras pyramidatum^ P. unguiforme^ P, in-
ctZe, and P. multistriatum of Hall.
In the first volume of the 'Report on the Geological Survey of
Illinois,' these silicious limestones of the southern portion of the
state, and the dolomites of northern Illinois, were regarded as
the stratigraphical equivalents of the Niagara group, and were in-
cluded together as representing a single division of the Upper
B. NATURAL HISTORY. 323
Silarian series ; but, subsequently, in a corrected section of the
Illinois strata, published in the introduction to the second vol-
ume, we were induced, fl*oni the dissimilarity of the fossils from
the different sections of the state, to regard the silicious lime-
stones of southern Illinois as the representatives of a higher geo-
logical horizon, and therefore placed them above the dolomites of
the northern part of the State, as the equivalents of the so-called
Lower Helderberg group. We are now, however, fully satisfied
from a further examination of these Upper Silurian strata, over a
more extended region, that our first conclusion was correct, and
that these silicious limestones and dolomites represent the same
geological horizon, and that the difference in the specific char-
acter of their fossil contents is entirely due to the changes in the
oceanic conditions under which they were deposited, and not to
the different ages of the sediments themselves.
South of the Ohio River, these Upper Silurian strata are found
well exposed in Tennessee, in the counties of Wayne, Perry and
Decatur, on the Tennessee liiver, outcropping over a wide area
and affording numerous species of fossils in a fine state of preser-
vation. The base of the group here consists of reddish and mot-
tled limestones, verv similar to those in southern Illinois, and
contain Orthoceras undulation^ and joints of large crinoids in great
abundance. These red limestones are succeeded by a series of
greenish-gray shales, and shaly argillaceous limestones, contain-
ing Can/ocrinus ornatns, Calymene BhimenhachiU Sphcerexochua
mirus^ Platyceras Xiagarense^ Fentamerus ohlonguSy Orthis hyhrida^
0. elegantida^ etc., associated with such Lower Helderberg forms
as Pentamerus galeatus, Spirifer per-lamellosus^ JS. macropleura^
Merista IceviSy lihynchonella ventricostiSy and many others, showing
that the fossils of these so-called groups are here intermingled
through the same strata, confirming what we had already assumed
to be true in Illinois, that the Upper Silurian beds of the West
constitute but 'a single group, and consequently that the term
Lower Helderberg, as applied to a group distinct from the Niag-
ara, is superfluous. We recollect that, on visiting the locality of
these so-called Lower Plelderberg limestones in the Schoharie
Valley some years ago, we observed these limestones resting im-
mediately upon undisputed Lower Silurian beds there, and, in
explanation of their occurrence in this apparent abnormal posi-
tion, we were told that the Niagara group was supposed to liave
thinned out to the eastward, and that these Lower Helderberg
limestones took their place. But is it not quite as probable that
' there has only been a change in the lithological character of the
beds in their eastern extension in New York, resulting there, as
in Illinois, in a decided change in the specific character of the
fossils which they contain, and that the tFpper Silurian beds at
Schoharie are the exact equivalents of the Niagara shales and
limestones in the western part of the State ?
824 B. NATURAL HISTORT.
To recapitulate, then, the facta as they are presented in the
West; we find that the dolomites of northern Illinois contain
only Niagara fossils, and the silicious limestones of the southern
portion of the State contain only those considered characteristic
of the Lower Helderberg group ; while the beds in Tennessee,
occupying the same stratigraphical position with the dolomites and
the silicious limestones of Illinois, have Niagara and Lower Hel-
derberg fossils intermingled indiscriminately through the strata.
Hence we conclude that the so-called Lower Helderberg group
has no real existence as a distinct group of Upper Silurian strata,
and that the name, being superfluous, should be dropped from the
nomenclature of the American rocks."
It is here proposed, in an article of less than three pages, to
discard entirely from the geological series and geological nomen-
clature a well recognized group of strata ; well known and clearly
defined for more than one thousand miles in extent of country,
spreading diagonally over nearly or quite fifteen degrees of lati-
tude, while its undulating and repeated outcrops, owing to anti-
clinal erosion, add some hundreds of miles more to its known
exposures.
The result of tedious and careful field investigations in the
working out of hundreds of sections in various parts of the coun-
try have been supplemented by the stud}' of large collections of
numerous species of fossils, and the final comparison of aU these
fossils, from the far northeast on the St. Lawrence to Tennessee
on the southwest — from the Mississippi valley' on the west, from
the states of Iowa, Illinois, Wisconsin, the Islands of Lake Huron,
and Canada West (or Ontario), together with the more critical
study of the rocks and fossils within the limits of the state of
New York — are all to be set aside, and a simple assertion^ un-
supported by sections, by fossils, and I may say by a single fact
of importance, is to be substituted for all the labors of thirty
years.
This assertion comes from a gentleman holding the important
and responsible position of State Geologist of Illinois, whose
name is associated with so much of the geology and paleontology
of the West as to give currency, if not authority and authenticity,
to what he may say : — and certainly he ought not, without good
reason and authentic data, make such assertions nor put such a
paper before the American Association for the Advancement of
Science.
But will the geologists of the United States accept this so-called
B. NATURAL HISTORY. 825
determiDation of the identity of the groups of strata known as
the Niagara and the Lower Helderberg?*
But Mr. Worthen is not original in this view of the relations of
the two groups of strata. He has merely revived an old and dis-
carded error. The same assertion was long ago made in the Geo-
logical Reports of Pennsylvania and elsewhere ; and was at one
time the generally accepted belief among geologists. Professor
Rogers, in a paper upon Niagara Falls published, I believe, in
1832, takes this view of the relations of these formations, and in-
cludes also the limestone of Black Rock under the same desig-
nation. It is not surprising that at that period, when no critical
examinations had been made, when we had no knowledge of pale-
ontology as a guide in the more obscure and difficult points, that
great surface features should have been taken as guides in the
determination of geological formations. It happened in this case
that the great escarpment of the Niagara at Lcwiston and Queens-
town was regarded as the extension of that of the Helderberg
and the south side of the Mohawk valley. The limestone of
Black Rock, though so far separated from Niagara, was regarded
as a part of the same ; the features in the West being more sub-
dued, as was supposed.
This in brief was the condition of our knowledge and belief
regarding these formations at the beginning of the New York
Geological Survey, and for some time afterward.
The one horizon which above all others was at that time re-
garded as fixed beyond question was that of the salt-bearing
strata. This formation, at its base bearing a great thickness of
red and mottled shales and marls, succeeded by gray, ash or drab
colored beds of similar characters, and finally hard beds of lime-
stone, was regarded as clearly defined from Saltspringville in the
Mohawk valley, by way of Syracuse, Montezuma, and thence
westward along the base of the Limestone Terrace from Rochester
to Lewiston.
Throughout this entire extent salt springs had been discovered,
and brines of varying and different qualities were known to exist.
No doubt of the nature, age, or identity of the formation, from
*0f late years, in certain quarters, it has been only necessary to contradict what
has been done in ttie State of New York, or by persons in her employ, both in geology
and paleontology, to have the statement accepted on bare assertion. I might instance
examples too numerous to be creditable to the acumen and good sense, to say nothing
of the scientiflc ability, of those who propose or accept such conclusions.
826 B. NATURAL BISTORT.
Herkimer county to the Niagara River at Lewiston, had ever been
expressed, or, so far as I know, entertained by any one. Now,
though this may seem irrelevant to the question before us, it
nevertheless lies at the foundation of the error then prevalent,
regarding the Niagara and Helderberg formations ; and is inti-
mately connected with fhe greater error now sought to be revived
in th^ paper under consideration.
It was not until the close of the field work of 1838 that this
question came before the assembled members constituting the
Commission of the New York Geological Survey. The youngest
member of that body had asserted, as the result of his investiga-
tions, that the rocks at the base of the Niagara Terrace, consist-
ing of red, gi*ay and mottled marls and sandstones^ were not the
continuation of the salt bearing beds of Onondaga, and elsewhere
to the eastward, but a lower formation ; that the Niagara lime-
stone, so largely developed at Niagara and Lockport, was not a
continuation of the limestone of the Helderberg, but a distinct
formation ; having its greatest development towards the west, and
gradually thinning to the eastward ; and that instead of lying
above the Salt formation it lay beneath it : that the Salt forma-
tion, extending westward from Syracuse, passed to the sonthwtfd
of the Niagara Terrace, and formed the broad belt of flat countiy
to the south of the range, which is so marked a feature from the
Genesee River south of Rochester to the Niagara River at Tone-
wanda ; thus separating, by a distance of several miles, the lime-
stone of Niagara and that of Black Rock.
The conditions which originally led to this misapprehension of
the relations of the different formations, are, the flat marshy coon-
try from the outlets of Seneca and Cayuga lakes to the northward,
k
which has obscured the outcrops, and beyond this, in Wape
county, the great accumulation of drift, which has deeply covered
the rock over a large area. If to these we add, that in the ear-
lier geological explorations the line of the Erie canal was that
principally travelled, — that the passage from the red and gray
marls of the Onondaga region to the red and mottled marls of
the Medina Sandstone at Rochester and westward of the Genesee
River was through an alluvial or drift country which concealed
the underlying rock formations, — the supposed identification of
the two formations is not surprising.
That such views should prevail before continued and connected
B. NATURAL HISTOBT. 827
observations had been carried on, we are prepared to understand ;
but after nearly forty years of observation, and after the relar
tions of all these rocks have been fully understood for thirty years
or more, I submit that it is not worthy of the credit of the Amer-
ican Association to allow such a paper to pass into its publicar
tions without serious consideration. Personallj' I may be inter-
ested in this question more than others, since I have published a
volume principally upon the paleontology of the formation or
group here proposed to be discarded as having no separate or dis-
tinct existence in the series; but the science of geology, and
those who pursue that science, have an interest in this question
far superior to one of mere personality.
Geological relations and geographical extension of the groups in
question.
Starting from the typical locality of the Niagara group, where
we have of the shale and limestone a thickness of something more
than two hundred feet, and tracing the outcrop in an easterly direc-
tion, we find a very gradual but pretty constant thinning of the
beds of the formation, so that at a point one hundred miles east
of the Niagara River, it has a thickness of scarcely one hundred
feet. Farther east, in Oneida county, the formation is still thin-
ner, and in some places has become in part or almost entirely a
brecciated and concretionarj' mass, with few or no fossils.*
Going eastward it becomes still further attenuated, but can
still be traced both in its physical aspect and outcrop, and by its
fossil contents. In the neighborhood of Schoharie, Cobleskill,
Cherry valley, etc., it is known as the Coralline Limestone, from
its abundance of corals. These are principally identical with the
corals of the Niagara group in western New York ; and most of
the species of Brachiopoda which occur in a condition to be recog-
nized, are similar or identical with Niagara forms, while there are
several Species quite distinct from those of the Niagara group in
the west. The upper limit of Halysites catemdatus^ so far as
known in New York, is in the Niagara limestone ; and this fossil
occurs in the coralline limestone at Schoharie and at Litchfield in
Herkimer county.
I have given in vol. ii. Pal. N. Y., p. 321, more at length my
*In that part of the state the formation Is so insignificant, that it was originally re-
garded by Mr. Vanuxem as a subordinate member of the Protean or Clinton group;
and was only recognized by him as a distinct Tormation in 1839; after the investiga-
tions in the western counties had shown its true relations and impoiliance.
828 B. NATURAL HISTORY.
reasons for regarding this coralline limestone as the easterly con-
tinuation of the Niagara group ; and since the time of that publi-
cation, I have made numerous observations upon the relations of
the coralline limestone, all of which have tended to confirm the
views there expressed. This coralline limestone in its attenuated
form may be recognized in the valley of the Hudson River under-
lying the water-lime formation at numerous localities.
Now returning along this line of outcrop to the Niagara River,
and following the formation to the northwest, we find it expand-
ing in thickness and area through Canada West to Cabot's Head ;
appearing in the islands along the eastern and northern side of
Lake Huron, and stretching across the peninsula from St. Joseph's
River to the outlet of Green Bay^ ; thence occupying the principal
part of the peninsula between Green Bay and Lake Michigan, it
expands to the southward beyond the southern limits of that lake,
and thence trends to the west and northwest through Illinois and
Iowa. From the Niagara River westward, the formation is chiefly
a magnesian limestone, and in many localities carries an abuD-
dance of fossils ; both the physical and paleontological evidence
leave no doubt as to the age and relations of the formation.
Returning again to the eastward and southward, we find that
the anticlinal movement, which elevated the islands in the western
part of Lake Erie, has brought up the Niagara formation in the
adjacent parts of Ohio, where it is marked by the presence of a
greater or less proportion of its characteristic fossils. Here it
stretches in a low axis for miles to the south of the lake, and
thence spreads and outcrops on either side of the rocks of the
Hudson River and Trenton age, which form the central or lower
visible portion of the Cincinnati axis.
Following this direction it extends through Kentucky and Ten-
nessee, everywhere carrying its characteristic fossils.
Throughout all this extent, until the formation reaches Tennes-
see, there is no question raised as to the identity and purity of
the Niagara group. Here, it is said that the fossils of the Niag-
ara are mingled with those of the Lower Helderberg group. And
again, on the Mississippi River, in Illinois and Missouri, we are
told that this mingling of the fossils of the two periods occurs.
But before proceeding to discuss this part of the question, let
us for a moment give attention to what is termed the Lower
Helderberg group in its typical localities.
B. NATURAL HISTOBT.
329
In the Helderberg Mountains in Albany county, and in Scho-
harie along the valley of the Schoharie Creek, and in the Cobles-
kill valley, we find everywhere a series or group of limestones, of
which we distinctly recognize four members ; these are known, in
the ascending order, as Tentaculite limestone. Lower Pentamerus
limestone, Shaly limestone and Upper Pentamerus or Scutella
limestone. There is in some places for miles in extent a mass
of Stromatopora limestone between the Tentaculite and Lower
Pentamerus limestones. These together constitute the Lower Held-
erberg group, forming in Albany county the base of the Helder-
berg mountains, and everywhere succeeded by the Oriskany sand-
stone, Cauda-galli and Schoharie grit and Corniferous limestone,
and these, in the summits of the hills by the arenaceous shales of
the I^amilton group.
This group of limestones is everywhere characterized by the
presence of fossils, often in immense numbers, and specifically,
with very few exceptions, quite unlike the fossils of the rocks
above or below this horizon . From the Helderbergs, and the val-
ley of the Schoharie, we are able to trace the formation to the
westward through the northern part of Otsego, and the southern
part of Herkimer and Oneida counties; and, according to Mr.
Vanuxem, it is recognized in the eastern part of Onondaga coun-
ty, by the presence of some of its peculiar fossils. From the
Helderberg mountains the group gradually thins to the westward ;
«and in Herkimer county the divisions of the several members are
scarcely recognized, the entire mass becoming more completely
calcareous but still charged with an abundance of the character-
istic fossils of the group. West of Onondaga county the place of
the formation is often recognized by a stratum of hard, compact
limestone lying beneath the Oriskany sandstone.* It is quite evi-
dent that the force of the entire group diminishes in a westerly
direction.
Returning to the point of departure in the Helderbergs, we are
able to trace the rocks of this group, in their clearly defined and
unmistakable characters, through the eastern counties of New
York to the limits of the state of New Jersey. In the north-
west part of that state the formation has been distinctly recog-
nized by Professor Cook. The same has been fully described
*In Bome former Reports on the Geology of the western counties, this rock is de-
scribed as worn or eroded previous to the deposition of the Oriskany sandstone.
330 • B. NATURAL HISTORY.
as the "Limestone formation, No. vi" in the geological survey
of Pennsylvania, where it appears in numerous outcrops, and
extends thence through the western part of Maryland and through
Virginia, along the Appalachian range into Tennessee.
Nowhere throughout this extent of country, as far as Vii^nia,
has any one shown, or attempted to show, the mingling of lower
Helderberg and Niagara forms among the fossils. In the large
collections which I possess from Maryland and Virginia, I have
never observed the least evidence of such mingling ; and in Mary-
land and the adjacent parts of Virginia I can speak from personal
observation that the formation is as well defined physically as in
any part of New York.
Let us now look to the northeast, where the geological survey
of Canada has traced the lower Helderberg formation from Mon-
treal to Gaspe. Having examined large collections of these
fossils from the Gaspe region, and others from near Montreal,
I have never seen the least indication of a mingling of any other
forms with those characteristic of the lower Helderberg.
We have now traced this formation from the forty-third par-
allel in the state of New York to about the thirty-fiflh parallel
of latitude in Tennessee, and over the greater part of this extent
we have no knowledge of a mingling of the fossils of the two
groups or formations. Again, from the vicinity of Montreal to
Gaspe, a distance of some seven hundred miles, the formation
wherever known carries its characteristic fossils.
This group is likewise recognized in the state of Maine, where
it is characterized by numerous well known fossils ; and it is not
improbable that it may be equally so in the eastern townships of
Canada and in the belt of limestones extending tlux>ugh Vermont
to the northern part of Massachusetts.
Having thus hastily sketched the ground occupied by these two
groups of strata, we may now consider their relations to each
other, and the evidence of the mingling of the fossils which
would render it necessary to relieve the nomenclature of geology
of one of these names, heretofore adopted, and in general use
wherever geology is written or spoken.
I will here cite a single sentence from the paper referred to:—
"We recollect that, on visiting the locality of these so-called
lower Helderberg limestones in the Schoharie valley some years ago,
we observed these limestones resting immediately upon undisputed
B. NATURAL HISTORY. 831
lower Silurian beds there ; and, in explanation of their occurrence
in this apparent abnormal position, we were told that the Niagara
gi*oup was supposed to have thinned out to the eastward, and
that these lower Ilelderberg limestones took their place."
Fortunately or unfortunately there is n'o evidence given as to
the authority or by whom "tee tvere told*' that the Niagara . group
had thinned out to the eastward. In the first place let us inquire
as to the fact of the lower Ilelderberg "limestones resting imme-
diately upon undisputed lower Silurian beds there" or elsewhere.
Having been familiar with the Schoharie valley, and having made
numerous sections, and explored long lines of outcrop in that
valley, in the Cobleskill valley and in the Helderberg, I have
never been able to see the lower Helderberg limestones resting
upon lower Silurian rocks. On the contrary, the section of strata
everywhere shown is the following, as given on the diagram, from
the sandstones of the Hudson River group to the Oriskan}' sand-
stone : —
Oriskany sandstone.
' Upper Pentamerus limestone.
Lower Helderberg J Shaly limestone.
group. I Lower Pentamerus limestone.
i Tentaculite limestone.
Water-lime formation.
Niagara group = Coralline limestone.
Green shales with Iron pyrites.
Lower Silur'an I Sandstones and shales of the Hudson
I River group.
Everywhere the lower member of the lower Helderberg group
is unmistakably separated from the sandstones of the lower Silu-
rian age by three distinct and usually well marked members of
the series.
Tracing the lower Helderberg formation from this point for
sixty miles westward, we have the following section : —
Oriskany sandstone.
Lower Helderberg ( * Shaly and lower Pentamerus limestones,
group. \ Tentaculite limestone.
*The upper Peotamems limestone 1b not developed as a dUtinct member of the
group.
332 B. NATURAL HISTORY.
Water-lime formation.
Onondaga salt group=Red and gray marls.
Niagara group=Coralline limestone.
Green shales and sandstones with calca-
Glinton groupi= -{ reous bands containing interstratified
beds of red hematite.
Medina sandstone.
Lower Silurian := Gray and bluish-gray sandstones and
shales of the Hudson River group.
Everywhere the lower member of the lower Helderberg groap
rests upon the water-lime formation ; and the latter is always
present, separating the former from the coralline or Niagara
limestone. At a distance less than one hundred miles farther
west, in a line from Seneca or Ontario to Oswego county, we
have a section showing the following formations : —
Oriskany sandstone.
Lower Helderberg group f Compact grayish-blue limestones io a
represented by ( band of a few feet in- thickness.
Water-lime formation.
Onondaga salt group with salt springs
and gypsum beds, more than 1,000
feet in thickness.
Niagara group.
Clinton group.
Medina sandstone.
Hudson River group.
At this point the Niagara group is separated fVom the contin*
uation of the lower Helderberg group by strata of more than
1,000 feet in thickness.
Everywhere throughout New York the lower Helderberg group
is underlaid by the water-lime formation ; and the same is true in
New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Mar^iand and Virginia; and eveiy-
where throughout New York and Canada West, and in Wisconsin
and Iowa the water-lime formation lies above the Niagara group,
J
B. NATORAL HISTORT. 833
or its representative, the coralline limestone.* In no case do
these two formations come together except where the water-lime
formation is absent.
Certainly these formations are widely enough separated to con-
stitute distinct groups over the areas named.
It is suggested in the paper cited that the difibrence between the
fossils of the lower Helderberg group in eastern New York, and
those of the Niagara group in the central and western part of the
state, is due to '^a change in the lithological character of the beds
in their eastern extension."
In the western part of the state,- the Niagara group is com-
posed of calcareous shales and dolomites. The lower Helderberg
group in the eastern part of the state consists, in its lower part,
of thick and thin bedded dark or black limestones, with shaly
partings, and sometimes with thicker intercalated shaly layers ; to
these succeed the heavy bedded limestone with Pentamerus galea"
tuSy which by the intercalation of shaly matter becomes thin
bedded, and passes by almost insensible gradations into the
" Shaly Limestone," and finally to a silico-calcareous shale, f The
higher member, in many localities, is the thin bedded Upper Pen-
tamerus limestone, while at Bccrafb's mountain and in the Helder-
berg the upper member is a heavy-bedded encrinal limestone
sometimes known as the Scutella limestone, from the presence of
great numbers of the bases of Aspidocnnus. The shales of the
Niagara group and their contained bands of limestone, which are,
the most highly fossiliferous portion of the group in New York, ,
are not dolomitic ; and it seems a most extravagant supposition,
that the slight lithological differences in the composition of the
strata could produce an entire change in the fauna ; presuming the
deposits to be of the same age.
We now come to the cbnsideration of the last paragraph of
this remarkable paper, in which we have the following summary : —
** To recapitulate, then, the facts as they are presented in the
West ; we find that the dolomites of Northern Illinois contain only
Niagara fossils, and the siliceous limestones of the southern por-
tion of the State, only those considered characteristic of the lower
*It is true that over a considerable part of the lake region, the water-lime and
Onondaga salt group have been eroded from above the Niagara formation ; the place
of these soiter formations being occupied by the lakes. See Foster and Whitney's
Report on the Lake Superior Land District.
tThe physical aspect of this portion of the group is preserved La the * tiliceom
Umutonea* of this age in the southwest.
334 B. NATURAL HISTORY.
Helderberg group ; while the beds in Tennessee, occupying the
same stratigraphical position with the dolomites and the siJiceoas
limestones of Illinois, have Niagara and lower Helderberg fossils
mingled indiscriminately through the strata. Hence we conclude
that the so-called lower Helderberg group has no real existence
as a distinct group of upper Silurian strata, and that the name,
being superfluous, should be dropped from the nomenclature of
the American rocks."
The value of this conclusion will be best appreciated from the
fact that in southern Illinois and adjacent parts of Missouri
the limestones holding the characteristic Niagara fossils lie be-
neath those containing the characteristic lower Helderberg fossils ;
and that we never " have Niagara and lower Helderberg fossils in-
discriminately mingled through the. strata;" unless it be in the
debris along the outcrop ; and I assert this from my own obser-
vation. The same is true of the beds in Tennessee ; and though
the collections of fossils made on the outcrops and among the
debris do contain fossils of the Niagara and lower Helderberg
formations mingled together, this is not tnie of the rocks in situ.
In this opinion I do not rest alone ; and it is only necessary to
consult the report of Professor Safford to show that he finds both
the rocks and fossils of the lower Helderberg formation distinctly
separated from, and lying above, those of the Niagara group.
In some localities Professor Safford asserts that he finds fossils
of the two formations mingling along the line of contact^ which, in
the absence of all intervening beds, may very well happen. And
this fact, so far from proving the identity or synchronism of the
formations, is a very important proof of their distinction in order
and in time.*
In reviewing the facts, and considering the known range and
extent of the Niagara aod lower Helderberg groups, their dose
approximation or actual contact over large areas, and their wide
separation in other places, we are compelled to the conclusion
that there are no two groups, of similar composition, in the en-
tire palaeozoic series, which are so clearly distinct and which can
be unmistakably traced over so wide an area of country, both in
their phj'-sical and lithological character, as well as in their con-
tained fossils.
That there are designations among some of the formations
•We may inquire also whether it may not be inferred that the liviDg organipms of
the lower Helderberg period were spread over a sea bottom covered with the dead
organisms of the preceding period and became mingled m this manner.
B. NATURAL HISTORY. 335
which are saperflaous, we are willing to admit; bat the propo-
sition to drop from the system one of the most widely distributed
formations of the country, whose geological position and relations,
and the fossil contents of which are so well known, is scarcely
the proper mode of improving " the nomenclature of the Amer-
ican rocks."
Notes on Liparis, Cyclopterus and their Allies. By F. W.
Putnam, of Salem, Mass.
ABSTRACT.
Having mj' attention directed to this group of fishes by the
specimens collected b}' the United States Fish Commission under
Prof. Baird, I commenced an examination of all the specimens of
the group which could be obtained. I have long known of the
existence of a species of Liparis on the coast of Massachusetts,
specimens having been collected as long ago as 1856 and exhibited
at that time in the Aquarial Gardens of Boston. The same species
was afterwards obtained by several persons during the winter
months, and I have several times dredged it during the summer
in Salem harbor, but it was not until my recent examination that
I satisfied myself that we have two species of the genus Liparis
on our coast which are identical with the two found on the northern
coast of Europe. They are the Liparis lineata (vulgaris) and the
Liparis Montagui, The former, L. vulgaris^ which with Gunther
and Liitken I consider the same as the lineatus of Lepechin, is thus
far only known, by me, from the American coast by specimens
dredged by Dr. Packard and Prof. Verrill while connected with the
U. S. Fish Commission. These were obtained in several localities
off the New England coast at about fifty fathoms depth.* The
Liparis Montagui appears to be the more common species on our
New England coast, many specimens having been found in Port-
* Since the meeting of the Association I have obtained a specimen of the striped
variety, collected in October, by Mr. .J. H. Sears, in Salem harbor. This specimen was
taken near Baker's Island in about six feet of water, and obtained by drawing np the
kelp, to a root of which it was attached.
336 B. NATURAL HISTORY.
land harbor, Maine, by Mr. Chas. Fuller. Specimens have also
been collected by Prof. Verrill at Eastport, Maine, and by Mr.
Cutting, Mr. Sanborn, Mr. Alex. Agassiz and myself along the
coast of Massachusetts, especially at Nahant and Salem. Dr. J.
Bernard Gilpin has also sent me drawings of the same species
collected at Halifax, Nova Scotia. Both species are mentioned
as occurring in Greenland.
The external differences between the males and females of spe-
cies of Liparis have not yet been pointed out, but on examining
the large number of specimens of L. Montngui collected by Mr.
Fuller at Portland in February or March, 1871, which were evi-
dently spawning among the seaweed at the time, I found a marked
difference between the sexes, the males being readily distinguished
from the females by having the first . six rays of the dorsal fin
greatly prolonged and quite fleshy' , while in the females the cor-
responding ra3's were not so produced. The males were also quite
covered with granulations extending over the greater part of the
body and on the dorsal and anal raj^s. I noticed that these gran-
ulations glistened like minute specks of silver and, on using a
lens, they proved to be composed of very fine hair-like scales,
which were easily detached ; so that we have in this group some-
thing akin to the development of the granulations or tubercles on
the head and fins of Catostomus, some Cyprinidae and other fishes,
during the time of greatest sexual development.
There seems to be the same diversity of coloration in L. Mon-
tagui as in L. lineata (vulgaris), as Mr. Fuller informs me that
when alive, the specimens he collected v^ere mottled and marbled
with several colors, though in alcohol they are all of a uniform
brownish color. In a large number of specimens of Z. lineata
kindly sent to me by Mr. T. J. Moore of the Liverpool Museum,
which were collected on the coast of England, I found many
specimens that were simply light brown, without markings of any
kind, while others showed the longitudinal lines to a greater or
less extent, which led Lepechin to name the species linexUus,
In regard to the aflinities of the group generally known under
the name of Discoboli, my investigations especially in regard to
the osteological characters, lead me to assign the several repre-
sentatives of the old group somewhat differently than has yet been
proposed. Dr. Giinther has already removed the Gobiesocidie
proper {Gobiesox, Lepadogaster, and their allies) from the groop
B. XATURAL HISTORY. 837
and thoagh Prof. Gill has, while considering them a distinct
family, retained them as one of the three families of his group of
Gobiesocoidae, I should, with Giinther, put the family of Gobie-
socidae far away, at least a suborder off, from the Cyclopteridse
and Liparididfe, which are far more closely united to the true Cot-
tidae, represented by Coitus and Hemitripterus^ than to either the
Gobiesocidse proper or to the Gobies and Blennies. In fact Lipa-
ris has as close affinities, as shown by its skeleton, with Coitus and
Hemitripterus as with Cydopterus^ and we have in the three groups,
represented by Cottus, Liparis and Cyclopterus, well marked fami-
lies of the same suborder. The only character by which the Cj'clop-
teridce and LiparididiB are closely united consists in the peculiar
formation of the ventral disk by the union of the ventral fins, but
as this structure is simply brought about by the modification of
the rays in a manner common to the several genera and not by
any marked anatomical difference in the structure of the same fins
in Cottus, I can only look upon it as a generic character common
to the known representatives of both families of Cyclopteridse and
Liparidida3, and the discovery of a representative of either family
with ventral fins of the ordinary form would not necessitate the
establishment of a family for its reception, as in that case we
should simply consider the structure as of generic value.* The
various modifications of the ventrals in the different genera of
Gobiidse confirm this view.
It is singular that Prof. Cope does not mention either C^'clop-
tenis or Liparis in his recent classification, but from the characters
he has given of his group Scyphobranchii, in which he includes the
Uranoscopidse, Gobiidse, Blenniidse, Gobiesocidse, and Cottidse, it
is probable that he would have placed the families in the group had
he not omitted to mention them. But while they would find their
natural position here by the side of the Cottidse I am not at
present .willing to admit any such close afiSnities between them
and the other families there given.
The study of the large amount of material in my hands, for
which I am especially indebted to Professor Agassiz, has enabled
me to draw a few conclusions as to the characters assigned to
the genera and species of Liparididse, and among them I may state
* Under tbe name of Fsychrolutes, Dr. Gflnther has described a peculiar flsh which
he conaiders as forming the type of a new family. Many of the characters given indi*
cate its affinities to be with Liparis, as Dr. GUnther states, though the ventrals are
composed of bat two rays each, and do not form a sacking disk.
▲. A. A. 8. VOL. XXn. B. (22)
838 B. NATURAL HISTOBT.
that no generic, and hardly a specific value, can be placed on the
character of the nostrils, for they are very nearly alike in ail
the species that have passed under my revision ; neither is the
character of the union of the dorsal and anal fins with the caudal
of generic importance, as I find that there is no difiference in the
structure of the last vertebrae of the tail, and that even in LiparU
pulcheUvrSj which has the most eel-like tail of all externally, the
skeleton shows the last vertebra with its expanded spines the
same as in L, Montaguiy where the caudal is more distinctly sepa-
rated from the other fins. These differences are simply of a spe-
cific value and the slight variations are constant with each species.
The union of the suborbital chain into one long bone reacluDg
from the maxillary to the posterior edge of the preoperculum, and
the long slender ray-like interoperculum overlying the branchiosp
tegal rays are marked characters of the Liparididse.
The geographical distribution of the two families of Cyclop-
teridae and Liparididsd is very nearly the same and offers some
interesting considerations. The following list gives the distri-
bution of each of the, at present, recognized species of the two
families. The localities from which I have seen specimens are
indicated by an asterisk.
Cydopterus lumpus. — Greenland (Me.,* Mass.*) to New York,
Iceland,* England,* Northern Europe.
Cydopterus apinoaua. — Greenland to Eastport,* Me., Iceland,
Spitzbergen.
Cydopterus orbis. — Esquimault Harbor, N. W. C. of America.
lAparis ReinJiardtii. — Greenland.
lAparis gektHnosus. — Kamtschatka.
Liparis caLlyodon. — Kamtschatka.
Liparis cydopu8. — Esquimault Harbor and San Francisco.*
lAparis pulchellus. — San Francisco.*
lAparia mucosus. — San Francisco.*
Liparis major. — Greenland.
Liparis arctica. — Greenland.
Liparis i^aftricti.— Greenland, Spitzbergen.
Liparis 2mea«a.— Greenland to Massachusetts,* Spitzbergen,
Northern Europe, England.*
Liparis -afonfo^ui. — Greenland (Me.*) to Massachusetts,*
Northern Europe, England.
B. NATURAL HISTORY, 839
Lipana AgassiziL^ — Saglialien,* Channel of Tartary.
Liparis antarctica.X — Eden Harbor* (coast of New Chili, about
latitude 48° south).
From this list it will be noticed that of the two families, five
species are common to both sides of the North Atlantic Ocean,
and that their limits are from the Arctic regions of Greenland,
Iceland and Spitzbergen, south to about latitude 41^ north on
the American coast (New York, Cyclopterus) and to about 50®
north on the European coast (British Channel, Cyclopterus and
Liparis). Three other species are confined, as far as known, to
the Greenland coast. In the North Pacific, two imperfectly
known species have been described from the sea of Kamtschatka,
and I have added another from the Channel of Tartary, while
four other species are found on the northwest coast of America,
extending only as far south as San Francisco {Liparis) ^ or about
latitude 37® north. But one species is as yet known from the
southern hemisphere and that is from Eden Harbor, about latitude
48® south. Until this addition to our knowledge of the distribu-
tion of the group, which is one of the results of the recent Has-
slcr expedition, it was supposed that the representatives of the two
families were limited to the northern and temperate regions of the
Atlantic and Pacific oceans. The newly discovered species is,
however, true to the habits of the group, and comes from the cold
waters of the extreme south, while no intermediate forms have
yet been found in the wide space between Eden Harbor and San
t LiparU AgtuHztL I have Introduced this specioB into the list since the paper was
read before the Association. Two specimens of this large and very distinct species
were recelTed by Professor Agassiz from Messrs. Peirce and Smith from Sagtialien,
Channel of Tartary. The species will be frilly illustrated and described in Part I of
the '^Catalogue of the Agassiz Collection of Fishes," now in preparation, and I there-
Ibre simply indicate its characters here.
Total length, 10 inches. Head contained 4| times in total length. Interobital space
eqaal to distance from snout to posterior margin of the eye. Dorsal and anal united
to the caadal. Anterior portion of dorsal and anal enclosed In the skin, so that only
the rays of about the posterior half of each fln are seen without removing the skin.
Bays, counted after taking off the skin, as follows : D. IX, 83; A. 1, 33; P. S6; C. 1, 10, 1.
Color brownish, with yellow and light mottlings.
X LiparU aniareUca, This species will be fhlly illustrated and described in the
'^Catalogue of the Agassiz Collection of Fishes." It is represented by the single speci-
men obtained at Eden Harbor. Total length. 1^ inches. The head is contained slightly
more than four times in the total length, and equals the height and width of the body.
Th# Interorbital space is equal to the distance fh>m the eye to point of the operculum.
The dorsal and anal flns are covered by a thick skin anteriorly, the rays being dis-
tinctly seen only as they approach the caadal fln to which both dorsal and anal are
united. Color in life was deep yellow; in alcohol it is of a uniform light brown.
340 B. NATURAL DISTOUT.
Francisco, though it is probable that other species will be discov-
ered in the cold waters of the South American coast. The repre-
sentatives of the group are lovers of cold waters as shown not
only by their distribution, but by their habits, for though in the
more temperate countries where they are found, as on our own
coast, they come to the shore in the cold winter months to leave
their eggs, they afterwards retire to deeper and colder waters and
in the summer have only been taken on the coast of Massachu-
setts and Maine by means of the dredge, which is now doing so
much in the hands of careful observers in increasing our knowl-
edge of animal life in all its forms.
In relation to the distribution of the Cyclopteridfls and Lipa-
rididte it is interesting to note the distribution of the family of
Gobiesocidse, so long confounded with them, but now separated
as a family not only removed from the others on structural grounds
but also by its general distribution. While the Cyclopterida
and Liparididffi have their greatest development in and towards
the Arctic regions, the Gobiesocidte have theirs in and towards the
tropics, being found throughout the tropical and temperate regions
of the Pacific and Atlantic, and having but one genus with one or
two species only extending from the Mediterranean to the British
and Scandinavian coasts.
Explorations of Casoo Bat by the U. S. Fish Comxissiok, ts
1873. By A. E. Verrill, of New Haven, Conn.*
m
Since the appointment, in 1871, of Prof. S. F. Baird, U.S.
Commissioner of fish and fisheries, he has considered it essential
to investigate the invertebrate animals of our coast, with especial
reference to their habits, distribution, and importance as food
for fishes ; to this end extensive dredging operations have been
•An abstract of this paper is pabUshed in the *' American Journal of Science,^
volB. yi and vii, Dec, 1873 to Feb., 1874.
B. NATURAL HISTORY. 341
undertaken at his request, and with his cooperation, during the
three summers, by the writer and several other volunteers, in con-
nection with his investigation of the fishes and fisheries.
In 1871, our operations were carried on in Vineyard Sound and
the adjacent waters. The results of the extended operations of
that season have been published in the first oflicial report of Pro-
fessor Baird, with numerous illustrations. In 1872, the head-
quarters of the Fish Commission, with its large party of volun-
teers, were established at Eastport, Maine. The adjacent waters
of the Bay of Fundy were pretty thoroughly examined with the
dredge and other apparatus, and a very large collection was made.
In the same year Mr. S. I. Smith, Mr. Oscar Ilarger, Dr. A. S.
Packard and Mr. C. Cooke, made important dredgings in behalf
of the Fish Commission, on Saint George's Bank, and in the deep
waters to the north and east of that bank, and off the coast of .
Nova Scotia, while on the U. S. Coast Surve}^ Steamer, "Bacbe."
Preliminary accounts of the results of these explorations were
published in the " American Journal of Science."
This year, the party, which has been quite large, located at
Peak's Island. This island is situated at the entrance of Portland
Harbor, and about four miles from the city. This has proved to
be a very favorable localitj*, on account of its central position,
allowing us to dredge in all parts of Casco Bay and the connected
bays and fiords, and to visit any of the numerous islands for which
Casco Bay is so famous, without too great loss of time ; and to
take advantage of favorable weather for longer trips to the deeper
waters outside the bay. The littoral animals of the island itself,
owing to the diversity of the shores and purity of the water, have
also proved to be numerous and interesting.
The fishes and the investigations more immediately connected
with the fisheries have been attended to by Prof. Baird, aided by his
secretary, Mr. Rockwell, Prof. Theodore Gill, Dr. Edw. Palmer,
Mr. G. Brown Goode, Mr. Spencer Biddle and others. The
dredging operations, the examination of the food of fishes, and
all investigations concerning the invertebrate animals generally,
have been in charge of the writer and Mr. S. I. Smith, aided by
Prof. Wm. N. Rice and Mr. Goode, of Wesley an University ;
Prof. J. E. Todd, of Tabor College, Iowa; Prof. H. E. Nelson, of
Ohio Wesleyan University ; Mr. J. H. Emerton, Salem, Mass. ;
]Vli\ J. K. Thacher, of Yale College ; Mr. Franklin Benner,
342 B, NATURAL HISTORY.
Astoria, N. Y. ; and for a short time by Dr. P. P. Carpenter, of
Montreal ; Mr. C. B. Fuller, of Portland ; Dr. J. B. Holder, of
New York, and several others.*
Much of the success of the expedition is due to the interest
taken in such scientific researches by Secretary Robeson, who
caused a small U. S. steamer, the ^'Blue Light" to be specially
fitted out for our dredging operations, under commander L. C.
Beardsley, U. S. N. This steamer was provided with a steam
windlass for hoisting the dredges and trawls, and with other con-
veniences, which greatly facilitated our operations, and enabled
us to make much longer excursions to the outer waters and to do
much more work during the summer, than otherwise would have
been possible. Captain Beardsley has taken gi*eat interest in
our investigations and has done all in his power to aid us in vari-
ous ways. His constant endeavoi* has been to make the steamer
as useAil as possible to us. Our thanks are also due to Mr. Cooke,
the executive ofiScer, and to all the other ofi^cers and men for the
hearty goodwill with which they have cooperated in our work
and executed all our plans.
Ample wharf privileges were found at "Trefethen's Landing,"
and a building upon the wharf was speedily converted into a
rather rude but comfortable laboratory. An excellent set of
apparatus was provided by the Fish Commission, including a
large assortment of dredges, rake-dredges, tangles, trawls, tow-
ing-nets, seines, sieves of various kinds, and all other kinds of
apparatus and improvements which our past experience had proved
useful or desirable. Sets of the apparatus such as were used by
the English expeditious, on the "Porcupine" and "Challenger,"
were also imported by Prof. Baird, but were not found to oflfer
any advantages over those which we had used in previous years.
* In consequence of the liberal co&peration of Prof. Pierce, Baperintendent of the
U. S. Coast Survey, and other officers of the Surrey, the U. S." Coast Survey steamer
Bache was despatched, during tlie month of September, on several dredging expedi-
tion e to the deeper waters and distant banks off the coast of Maine, which we could
not well reach with the " Blue Light." The dredges and other apparatus necessary
for this work were provided by Prof. Baird, and the dredging on the ^'Bacbe" was undtf
the superintendence of Dr. A. S. Packard, of the Peabody Academy of Science, Salem,
Alass., aided by Mr. Caleb Cooke, also of the Peabody Academy, They were very
Bucces^ftil in these explorations, and made several collections of great interest A
brief account of the results of their investigations has been published in the " Ameri*
can .Journal of Science," for April and May, by the writer. Another account of theie
expeditions was published in the '^American Naturalist," vol. viii, p, 145, March, 1874,
by Dr. Packard,
B. NATURAL HISTOBT. 343
The English "accumulator" we found no occasion to use in our
work, for a simple "check-stop," devised by Capt. Beardsley,
proved equally efficient and far more convenient and simple, as
well as quite inexpensive.* This was found to answer every
purpose in dredging or trawling at all depths down to 100 fath-
oms, and undoubtedly would do equally well at far greater depths.
With a larger vessel, in heavy weather, or at very great depths,
the rubber accumulator would doubtless prove* advantageous, but
it is quite superfluous for working in less than 500 fathoms,
in moderate weather. Therefore, any party undertaking such
dredgings as can be carried on with small vessels off our coast,
need not encumber themselves with this expensive piece of appar-
atus, for which a few fathoms of small or weak rope, applied in
the form of a " check-stop," may be substituted.
Deep-sea thermometers, water-bottles for obtaining samples of
the bottom-waters, and other phj'sical apparatus, were also pro-
vided and frequently used.
Mr. Emerton was employed to make drawings of the more in-
teresting new and rare animals, from life. These drawings are
remarkably accurate and life-like, and number nearly three hun-
dred. They constitute one of the most valuable results of the
expedition. As Mr. Emerton had drawn large numbers of our
common marine animals for us during the two previous years, a
considerable portion of his time has been devoted during this
season to the free-swimming larval stages of Crustacea, etc., and
to the smaller and less known species in various classes. The
Bofb parts of many species of moUusks have also been well figured.
To Mr. S. I. Smith I am specially indebted for the identification
of most of the Crustacea mentioned in this article, and for other
assistance.
Much attention was paid to the determination of the temper-
ature of the water, both at the surface and bottom, in many of
the localities where dredgings were made. The more important
of these are given in the following tables.
*Thi8 arrangement and the dredges, tangles, trawls, rakes and other apparatna
used by us, were described and Illustrated in several letters to the Kew York Tribune
by Mr. Wni. G. Wyckoff, one of the editors, who spent some time with us at the island,
and accompanied us on several excursions. These letters are brought together in the
*< Tribune Extra,'' No. 10, Scientlflc Series, In connection with the doily reports of the
meetings of the aasociation.
844
B. NATUBAL HISTORY.
TBMFERATUBE8 TAKEN IN AND NBAS GA80O BAT, IN FIVE TO 8BTENTT-VITE FATBOfVS.
DAfB
LOCALITT.
Weath-
er.
Hour.
Tide.
Tesiperatube. F.
Depth'
in '
fsth-
onis.
Nstareor
Air.
Sur-
face.
Bot-
tom.
bOCtOB.
July
SI
Off Cape Elizabeth.
1211.
2h.ebb
61'
443-
24
Gnrefly.
sa
Off Upper Flag I.
Clear
llAJC.
1 "
67
60
16
SandT.
l(
Broad Sound.
i(
1P.M.
8 "
62
48
34
GrsreL
24
Luckee's Sound.
it
10.40 A.M.
6 h. flood
W
664
464
124
Mnddy.
(«
Broad Sound.
L.CPds
12.10 P.M.
Ih.ebb
84
62
494
164
Fine Etnd.
(t
Off Eagle Island.
«
2 P.M.
3 "
80
65
454
31
GrsTeL
86
Broad Sound.
Clear
11 A.M.
5 h. flood
68
564
474
164
Sand.
28
Off Fort Gorges.
65
59
63
114
Maddj.
80
Broad Sound.
67
60
494
22
GnTdAfii*:.
(( •
« u
66
60
53
94
GniTd.
II
« «
66
60
63
17
SandiibeOi.
81
Off Portland Light.
Cloudy
5 P.M.
Ih.ebb
69
584
494
W4
Sandj.
Aug.
2
Off Crotch Island.
11
11.35 A.M.
1. w. slack
71
61
47
11
Mnddv.
M
Mericoneag Sound.
0.50 P.M.
1 h. flood
68
634
45
124
M
«
Near Cow Island.
44
2.30 P.M.
3 "
67
62
W4
9
GrareL
4
N. E. of Cow Island.
Clear
10.25 A.M.
3 h. ebb
70
65
61
12
ii
CI
Kear Inner Green I.
44
11.40 A.M.
41 **
73
63
484
124
U
li
Off Halfway Bock.
44
11.55 A.M.
5 "
76
62
464
19
Sindj.
«l
Off Eagle Island.
4<
1.30 P.M.
1. w. slack
74
60
484
184
GrsTeL
6
West Cod Ledge.
If
11.15 A.M.
72
64
46
13
SaadArockt.
u
15 m. off C. Elizabeth.
44
2.00 P.M.
65
64
894
48
ModdT.
6
14 « (1 (1
44 .
12.00 M.
69
64
38
644
a
(1
15 «« " «
14
3.00 P.M.
72
64
874
48
Mud i rocks.
ii
yj i« «< ii
L.Cl'ds
4.16 PJf.
684
66
36
64
Muddj.
7
Chambers' Cove.
Cloudy
2.20 P.M.
4h.ebb
70
59
64
7
«.
11
Broad Sound.
Clear
12.00 M.
4 h. flood
65
57
474
25
Grard.
«
Luckse's Sound.
If
2.20 P.M.
h.w. slack
65
554
45
15
Maddy.
12
West Cod Ledge.
II
10.00 A.M.
63
61
47
13
Sandr.
if
20 m. off C.Elizabeth.
14
0.45 P.M.
64
624
88
68
Maddy.
18
Westof Seguin Island.
44
11.00 A.M.
1 h. flood
64
52
47
12
Sandy.
(1
6 m; E.S.E. of Seguin I.
L.crds
0.35 P.M.
2| "
64
67
414
S3
Sand it ro^
14
Main channel.
Cloudy
12.15 P.M.
62
67
654
9
Muddj.
u
Off Clapboard Island.
1.10 P.M.
64
554
54
9
u
20
em.S.S.E. ofSegufnI.
II
11.35 A.M.
62
59
88
75
u
f(
6 m. S. E. of Seguin I.
44
1.40 P.M.
65
68
884
40
Sand4gn»*
Sept.
1
Off Witch Rook.
44
11.00 A.M.
6 h. ebb
68
54
50J
14
Becky.
8
Off Pole I.,QuahogB.
Clear
11.45 A.M.
44 "
63
504
63
6
Muddy.
«
i< 11 «
44
12.16 A.M.
5 "
63
59
644
6
ti
B. NATURAL HISTORY. 345
FAUNA OF THE OUTER WATERS ON MUDDY BOTTOMS.
One of the most interesting regions examined was in the deeper
waters outside of Casco Bay, 15 to 30 miles southeast from Cape
Elizabeth. To this region we made several excursions, and
dredged at depths varying from 40 to 95 fathoms, the depth grad-
ually increasing with the distance from the shore. In these local-
ities the bottom was generally of soft mud, with more or less
numerous, scattered bowlders. On one occasion we brought up
in the trawl from 65 fathoms an angular bowlder, estimated to
weigh over 500 lbs. These bowlders were probably transported
from the adjacent coast b}^ shore-ice in spring. They were usu-
ally covered with sponges, bryozoa, ascidians, hydroids, Terebrat-
uZt7ia, etc. The bottom temperature of these waters was remark-
ably low, varying from 36° to 40° F., while the surface was
usually between 60° and 65°, or even higher. The temperatures
obtained here are quite as low as those that we obtained in the
deeper parts of the Bay of Fundy last year, and the fauna proved
to be correspondingly, arctic in character, and agrees pretty
closely with that at the mouth of the Bay of Fundy, and also
with the dredgings made last year, in 85 to 150 fathoms, near St.
George's Bank. In fact, these three regions may be regarded as
distant parts of one great basin, referred to in a former article as
"St. George's Gulf," but named "Gulf of Maine" on some of
the Coast Survey charts, and this region is throughout its whole
extent bathed in cold water of nearly uniform temperature, at
corresponding depths. The deepest parts of this gulf seldom
exceed 150 fathoms, and are perhaps nowhere more than 200
fathoms deep. "Whether the nearly ice-cold water filling the
deeper parts of this cold area can be regarded as constituting a
definite current, or offshoot from the great arctic current, flowing
southward along our coast in deep water off shore, or whether it
be a portion of the great body of cold water filling the ocean
basin at great depths, which is brought into this partially closed
basin by the powerful tidal currents, is still uncertain. But it is
important to have established the fact that this bod}'^ of cold
water approaches so closely to the coast of Maine as to manifest
itself most distinctly within 12 or 15 miles of Cape Elizabeth,
both by its highly arctic fauna and its icy temperature, even in
midsummer. Moreover, there can be no doubt but that the con-
846 B. NATUBAL HISTORY.
stant admixture of this cold bottom water with the warmer sur-
face waters, by means of the strong tides and local wind currents,
causes the remarkably loW temperatures observed, both at the
surface and bottom, in the shallow waters of these shores,* and
even in the smaller bays and harbors along the entire eastern
and northern coasts of New England. The surface water in
Casco Bay, among the islands, where the water is quite shallow,
was usually found to be colder than it was on the same days, out-
side the bay, where the water was deep. It is also evident that
a strong wind blowing from the shore for some time will have the
effect to cause an ascending current of cold water along the sub-
merged slope of the shore, to supply the place of the surface-
water driven seaward by the wind ; while an easterly wind will
force the warmer surface water toward the shore, and cause a de-
scending current along the slope, partially forcing the cold water
away from the shallows. Our observations, both in Vineyard
Sound and Casco Bay, show that such an action does take place,
and that the temperature of the water near the shore is rapidly
lowered by a westerly or off shore wind, and is as quickly raised
by an easterly wind, independently of the temperature of the air.f
But the effect is often somewhat masked, in summer, by reason of
the much higher temperature of the westerly winds, which quickly
warm the water close to the surface. Observations made early in
the morning, before the effect of the direct heat of the sun be-
comes apparent, are the best for detecting the influence of tidal
and wind currents.
Among the species obtained on these bottoms, in 50 to 94 fath-
oms, were several fishes, among which JRaia Icevis^ Sebastes vivip*
arusy Pomatopsetta dentata, and a species of Phycis were the most
common. Among the more interesting Crustacea were numerous
large and fine specimens of the rare Pandalus borealis^ some of
which were eight or ten int^hes long, dredged in several localities
in 50 to 68 fathoms ; Sdbinea septemcarinata^ a rare shrimp,
dredged in 68 fathoms, and not obtained before on our coast,
except in the deeper parts of the Bay of Fundy ; Byblis Oaimardii
* The temperature of the bottom-waters in the deeper channels among the islands,
in 15 to 25 Aithoms, was nsually A-om 4S* to 52* F.; while the sorfAce was nsnaDj
between 62* and 82' In July and August.
t See the Report of the U. S. Fish Commission for 1871, p. 4S6, for a ftiUer discnssion
of this subject by the writer. Eev. J. W. Chickering also informs me that he has
made series of obserratlons at Hampton Beach, N. H., which establish sach a coin-
cidence. The change sometimes amounts to 10* F. in a few hours.
B. NATURAL HISTORY. 347
and numerous other Amphipods ; two species of Lemeeans, para-
sitic on Annelides, etc. The Annelides were very numerous, and
among them were many rare and interesting species, some of
which were undescribed, and others new to our coast. Among
the more interesting of the Annelides, are Eunoa nodosa Malm-
gren, which was dredged in 68 fathoms, and subsequently by Dr.
Packard on Jeffrey's Ledge in 33 fathoms. It differs from the
more common E. (Erstedii^ in its broader body, with broadly reni-
form scales, on which there are only a few rounded tubercles, near
the margin ; Lmtmonice JUicomis, a large, oblong, scaly worm,
allied to Aphrodita, but with the large thin scales more or less
exposed, with fewer and stouter setee, and with long slender an-
tennce; Antinoe Sarsii^ a scaly worm with long slender setae in
the lower rami; Enipo gracilis V. (Plate 5, fig. 8), a new and
very slender species of scaly worms ; Nephthys ingens Stimpson
(Plate 2, fig. 2), which is very common on all the muddy bot-
toms along the whole New England coast, in 5 to 150 fathoms.
It is easily distinguished not only by the peculiar head and pro-
boscis, but by the wide separation and great elongation of the
upper and lower rami on the posterior half of the body, by the
squarish form of the body posteriorly, and by the blackish color of
the setae. Ninoe nigripes V. (Plate 3, fig. 6), Goniada mamlaia^
Anthostoma acutum V., Chcetozone setosa Malmgren, Ammotryparie
Jimbriata V. (Plate 2, fig. 3), Notomastus latericeus Sars, and
several species of Amphitrite^ were frequently met with ; Nothria
opalina V. (Plate 4, fig. 4), Pista cristata Malmgren, Melinna
cristata M., and TerehelUdes Stroemi were common on all the deep-
water muddy bottoms. Orymcea spiralis V. (Plate 5, fig. 5), a
new species remarkable for its curious tube, composed of sand
firmly cemented in the form of a double spiral, the two halves
coiling in opposite directions, occurred in both 64 and 94 fathoms,
and had previously been dredged by us in the Bay of Fundy, off
.Grand Menan. Rhodine Loveni Malmgren, and Axiothea catenula
M., are new additions to the American fauna. Among the Sipun-
culoid worms Pliascolosoma ccementarium and P, tubicola V. were
common ; P. boreale 9 w&a rather rare in 64 fathoms, but was after-
wards dredged in abundance on Cashe's Ledge by Dr. Packard ;
Chcetoderma nitidulum Loven (Plate 6, fig, 6) was not uncom-
mon in 48 to 64 fathoms.
A remarkable new genus of Nemerteans, was represented by a
848 B. NATURAL BISTORT.
specimen eight feet long, of a bright orange color. This is the
Macronemertes gigantea V. (Plate 2, figs. 5, 6). Among the mol-
lusks there were many interesting species, though but few that
were new to our coast. Crenella decussata, apparently perfectly
identical with European specimens, and very distinct from C.
glandula^ was not rare. Necera arctica Loven, of large size, oc-
curred sparingly in most of the deeper dredgings. Yoldia thraci-
fomiis was common in all the deeper localities, and some of the
living specimens were unusually large. Area pectunculoides and
Dacrydium vitreum occurred in the 94-fathom localit}', about thirty
miles off Cape Elizabeth ; the last is a new addition to the fauna
of the United States. Scaphander pnncto-striatuSj of good size,
and Philine quadrata were not uncommon in most of the deeper
hauls. Dentalium occidentale occurred in the 94-fathom locality,
and with it a species occurred which much resembles Entalis
striolatay but in the character of the animal (see Plate 1, fig. 3)
it agrees better with the Dentalium agile of G. O. Sars. Apor-
rhais occide7italis^ Neptunea curta (Jeff, sp.), N, pygmcea (Gould
sp.),* Turritella erosa^ Pecten Islandicus, and many other decid-
edly northern shells were not uncommon. Octopus Bairdii V.
(Plate 1 , figs. 1 and 2) occurred only once, in 68 fathoms ; it
had been dredged previously only in the deeper parts of the Bay
of Fundy, in 1872. Among the Ascidians were fine specimens
of Glandula fibrosa Stimpson, and Eugyra pilularis V. ; a large,
soft and rather flabby species, Ascidia mollis V. (Plate 1, ^g. 5),
occurred in abundance, associated with several other more com-
mon species. A bright purple Botryllus was once met with in 64
fathoms. On the scattered bowlders there were several fine spe-
cies of Br3''ozoa, such as F lustra solida Stimpson, Tubidipora
crates Stimpson, etc., associated with ver}'^ large specimens of
Terebratulina septentrionalis^ and numerous sponges.
Of Echinoderms the most abundant species was the starfish,
Ctenodiscus crispatus, of which we obtained about a thousand in
* An examination of the dentition of this and the preceding species shows that they
are true Bucclnidre, and quite different from tlie Tritonium Islandieum of Loren (=
FuMks BernicieriiU, t. Jeffrey!*), which has been rcganled as the type of Sipko. Our
American shell, n8ually called ItUtndicus, but which has been named JF\uum curlu* by
Jeffreys, is a genuine Xeptunea cloBcly allloil to X. deaptctay etc. The pygmaa differs
considerably in its dentition from the typical forms of Xeptunea^ as well as in harin^ t
woolly epidermis, and ought to be separated as a distinct gentis, or sabgena^i, which I
have elsewhere described under the name of X^tuntlla. (See Report of U. S. Fish
Commission, for 1871, p. 639).
B. NATURAL HISTORY. 349
one haul with the trawl, but Ophioglypha Sarsii and 0. rdbuata
were also abundant ; the little Ophiuran, AmpJdpholis tenuispina
Ljung., occurred in 68 fathoms ; this is a new addition to the Amer-
ican fauna ; Hippcisteria phrygiana occurred twice ; OpJiiacantha
spinulosa and Schizaster fragilis were not rare ; Thy one acabra V.,
Mblpadia oolitica and several other interesting species also oc-
curred ; Corymorpha pendula was abundant in 95 fathoms ;
among the Anthozoa were Cerianthus borealis V., Edwardsia fari"
nacea V., Urticina nodosa Fabr. sp. (=? Tealia digitata Gosse),*
Bolocera Tuedioe Gosse, very large and fine. The last species had
not been known from the American coast before, except from a
few detached tentacles dredged last year near St. George's Bank,
and 17. nodosa had not been previously found, except last year,
when it was dredged by Mr. Smith, east of St. George's Bank, in
430 fathoms, and by Mr. Whiteaves in the deeper parts of the
Gulf of St. Lawrence. The specimens obtained this year are
much larger, some of them being 6 inches high and 4 in diameter.
Of sponges, several very interesting species occurred ; among them
a large specimen, two feet broad, of PhaJcellia ventilahi-um Gray
(the Halichondria ventilabriim of the earlier English writers) ;
a species apparently belonging to the genus Trichostemma of G.
O. Sars ; and over twenty specimens of HyaXonema longissimum
M. Sars, some of them of unusually large size ; these were all ob-
tained in 95 fathoms, about 30 miles east-southeast from Cape
Elizabeth. This last species had not been dredged before on the
American coast, with the exception of a single specimen dredged
last year by Messrs. Smith and Harger, off St. George's Bank, in
430 fathoms.t
With the Hyalonema an allied species often occun'ed, consist-
ing of small irregular, elongated, fVisiform, compact, white sponge-
masses, connected by capillary stolon-like stems, made up of
slender spicules twisted together. This species creeps over the
bottom, but does not stand erect, like the former.
Several calcareous sponges were also met with ; among these
was a large and handsome species of Grantia, externally hispid,
'^It Beema to mo rery doabtf\il whether the Actinia digUcUa of MUUer was actually
the species that commonly bears that name in recent European works. The descrip-
tion would apply better to the Bolocera Tuedia of Gosse. The species referred to above
is certainly the A, nodosa of Fabricius, who weU described it in 1780, as ft-om deep
water oflT the Greenland coast.
fMr. Whiteaves writes me that he has also dredged it in the Gulf of St. Lawrence
this summer; and it was also subsequently obtained by Dr. Packard.
350
B. NATURAL HISTORY.
with long slender spicula, and with an elegant crown of very long
spicules around the terminal orifice. It most resembles G. arctica
{Sycandra arctica Hseckel), but may be an undescribed species.
At another locality, about nine miles south-southeast from
Seguin Island, in 75 fathoms, the same kind of bottom was found
and the fauna was nearly identical with that described above.
At this place the finest specimen yet observed of Cerianthu$
borealis V. was obtained in good condition, and was kept alive
several days, until a colored drawing could be made by Mr. Emer-
ton. This specimen, in extension, was about 20 inches long, and
the expanse of its tentacles was over six inches. The color of
its body was deep olive-brown. This species was not discovered
until last year, but it was met with at several different localities
this year, and seems to be not uncommon on muddy bottoms in 20
to 100 fathoms, though seldom obtained of full size by the dredge,
owing to its living deeply buried.
LIST OF SPECIES FROM OFF CA8C0 BAT, MAIKE, INHABITIXG
MDDDT BOTTOMS, IN 50 TO 95 FATHOMS.
In the following list the species with an asterisk (*) prefixed
belong more properly to the hard bottoms, but occur more or less
frequently on the muddy bottoms, adhering to scattered stones, or
among broken shells.
The figures aflSxed to the names give, in fathoms, the greatest
depths at which the species have been dredged on the New Eng-
land coast.
ARTICULATA.
Nymphon giganteum, 82.
Pycnogonida,
♦N. grosslpes (?), 65.
Crustacea.
♦Hyas araneus, 72.
♦H. coarctatus, 150.
♦Eupagurus pubescens, 150.
♦E. Kroyeri, 480.
♦E. Bernhardus, 150.
♦Hlppolyte spina, 72.
♦H. Fabrlcil, 64.
Pandalas borealis, 68, 114.
•P. annulicorDis, 430.
Sablnea septemcarlnata, 68.
Thysanopoda, large sp., 142, 480.
Mysis, sp., 68.
Diastylls quadrisplnosa, 68.
H^rn^UlPJl*^!^''^ cataphricta.
Harpina ftislformls, lio.
PhoxuB Kroyeri, 60.
CEdiceros lyncens, 90.
^Melita dentata, 430.
Byblls Gaimardl, 79.
Haploops, sp., 105, 114.
Aiupelisca, sp., 142.
Ptilocheiras plngais, 150.
♦Unciola irrorata, 430.
Dulichia, sp., 60.
*Caprella, sp. with spines, 142.
^ Pranlza cerina, 68.
Asellodes alta, 90.
Anthura brachiata, 110.
Lerncean, on Eunoa CErstedll, 68.
Lemaean, on Terebellides
Stroemi, 68.
*Balanas porcatus, 150.
B. NATUBAL BISTORT.
351
Annelida.
Aphrodita aculeata, 72, 90.
LstmoDice filicornis, 150.
*£auoa CErstedll, 72.
*£. nodosa, 68.
*Haniiotho@ imbricata, 64.
Antinog Sarsil, 110.
Enipo gracilis V., 80.
Pboio6 minata, 68.
Kephtliys ingenSi 142.
N. ciiiata, 114.
Phyllodoce, sp., 110.
•P. Groenlandica, 90.
Eteone dupressa, 1 10.
•Nereis pelagica, 142.
Nereis, sp. 68.
Gattiola, sp. 68, 90.
•Leodice vivida, 480.
Nothria opalina, 150.
•N. conchy lega, 430.
NinoS nigripes, 114.
Lambriconereis fragllis, 480.
Goniada maculata, 150.
Rbyncliobolus albus, 110.
Scalibregma iullatam, 150.
♦Travisia, sp., 95, 106.
Brada, sp., 90.
Tecturella flaccida, 90.
Troplionia aspera, 150.
Oplielia, sp., 107.
Ammotrypane fimbriata, 114.
Sternaspis fossor, 142.
Scolecolepis cirrata, 150.
Anthostoma acutom V., 64.
Anthostoma, sp.*
Chastozone setosa, 106.
•Dodecacerea concharam, 90.
Maldane Sarsii, 150.
Rhodine Loveni, 50.
Axiotliea catena! a, 54.
Praxilia gracilis, 114.
P. prsetennissa, 114.
•Nicomaclie lumbricalis, 110.
Ammocliares, sp., 142.
Notomastus latericeus, 110.
Aucistriacapillaris v., 117
*Cistenides granulatus, 90.
Ampliarete gracilis, 106.
A. Fiumarchica, 110.
Ampliicteis Guuneri, 110.
Amage auricula, 150.
Samytha sexcirrata, 110.
Melinna cristata, 150.
Terebellides Strqemi, 142.
Pista cristata, loO.
Grymea spiralis V., 95.
•Theiepus ctncinnatus, 142.
•Amphitrite cirrata, 95.
A. Jolinstoni, 64.
A. Grcenlandica, 68.
A. intermedia, 94.
Poly cirrus, sp., 110.
•Potamilla oculifera, 90.
Sabella zonalis, 107.
Clioue, sp., 95.
Euchone elegans V., 106.
Myxicola Steenstrupii, 72.
♦Protula media, 90.
♦Vermilia serrula, 106.
•Spirorbis lacidus, 114.
Ichthyobdella (on Raia laevls), 68.
Oepkyrea.
♦Phascolosoma boreale (?), 64, 90.
p. csmentariam, 480.
P. tublcola v., 110.
Priapulus, sp., 60.
Chsetoderma nitidalam, 110.
Nemertes affinls, 110.
MeckeUa larida Y., 110.
Turbellaria.
Macronemertes gigantea Y., 68.
Ophionemertes agilis Y., 90,
UOLLUSCA.
Cephalopoda.
Octopus Bairdii Y., 106.
352
B. NATUBAL HISTORY.
Gastropoda,
Bela decassata, 64.
B. cancellata, 430.
B. pleurotomaria, 107.
B. turricula, 117.
Admetc viridula, 150.
Neptunea curta, 68.
N. dccemcostata, 107.
Neptuiiella P3'gni8ea, 430.
Buccinum uudatum, 52.
Natica clausa, 430.
Lunatia Groenlandlca, 430.
L. immaculata, 430.
♦Tricliotropis borealls, 80.
♦Velutlna zonata, 150.
♦V. laevigata, 110.
Aporrhai8 occidentalis, 150.
Turritella erosa, 106.
Scalaria Groenlandlca, 85.
Rissoa exarata, 95.
♦Margarita obscura, 430.
*M. ciuerea, 150.
* Call! OS to ma occidentale, 82.
*Diadora uoacliiiia, 430.
♦Lepeta csca, 110.
Scaphander puncto-striatos, 150.
C} lichna alba, 150.
Utrlcalas pertenais, 114.
Philine quadrata, 110.
P. lineolata, 64.
♦Polycera Lessonii 60.
*Doris planulata, 142.
^TrachydermoD albus, 150.
Stimpsonlella Emersouii, GO.
*llanlcia mendicaria, 80.
Dentalium occidentale, 150.
Entails strlolata, 150.
E. agilis ?, 95.
La mellihrancli iata.
♦Zlrphaea crispata, 80.
Mya arenaria (young), 64.
Neaera arctica, 150.
N. pellucida, 142.
♦Saxicava arctica, 114.
Panopaea Norveglca, 116, 118.
Thracia rayopsis, 160.
T. tnincata.
Perlploma papyracea, 109.
Macoma sabalosa, 142.
Cyprlna Islandica, 72.
Cardiuin pinnulatum, 150.
C. Islandlcum, 117.
Cryptodon Gouldll, 110.
C. obcsus, 430.
Luciua filosa, 142.
Astarte lens, 430.
A. undata, 117.
A. quadrans, 160.
Cyclocardia borealls, 107.
C. Novanglite, 90.
Nucula tenuis, 142.
N. proxlma, 60.
N. delphlnodonta, 68.
Leda tenuisulcata, 150.
Yoldia obesa, 160.
Y. thraciformis, 142.
Y. sapotlUa, 117.
♦Area pectunculoides, 150.
♦Modiolaria nigra, 107.
♦M. dlscors, 90.
M. corrugata, 105.
Crenella glandula, 110.
C. decussata, 60.
Dacrydlum vitreum, 95, 107, 142.
♦Pecten Islandlcus, 114.
♦P. tenuicostatos, 110.
♦Auomia aculeata, 150.
Tunicata,
♦Ascidla mollis V., 107.
♦Ascldlopsis complanatusi 110.
♦Ciona tenella, 64.
Molgula pannosa, 64.
•M. retortlformis, 68.
Eugyra pilularis, 106, 114.
Glaudula fibrosa, 96, 106,
♦G. arenicola, 160.
♦Cynthia echinata, 64, 80.
♦C. carnea, 64, 80.
♦Botryllus, sp., 64.
♦Amaroecium glabrum, 64.
♦Leptocllnum albidum, 72.
Brachiopoda.
♦TcrebraluUna septentrlonallsi 160.
B. NATURAL HISTORT.
353
Polyzoa.
*Crlsia eburnea, 117.
*Hornera lichenoides, 150.
*Discoporella verrucaria, 150.
*Idmonea prainosa, 118.
*Discofascigera lucernaria, 110.
•Flustra solidu St., 64.
^Membranipora pilosa, 64.
Gemellaria loricata, 142.
*CelIularia ternata, 150.
*C. scabra, 95.
C. Peachll (?), 160.
BugDla, soft sp., 95, 480.
*B. fastigiata, 150.
Bugula Murrayana, 480.
Caberea Elllsii, 150.
*Anarthropora borealis, 150.
*CeIlepora scabra, 150.
*C. ramulosa, var., 150.
*Alcyonidiam, sp., 64.
RADIATA.
Echinodermata.
•Lophotburfa Fabricil, 110.
*Psolus phantapus, 72.
Fentacta assi mills, 95, 430.
Thyone scabra V., 110, 150.
Stereoderma UDisemita, 142.
*Thyonidiam productam, 80.
•T. hyaliiium. 80.
Molpadla ooiitica, 95.
Schizaster ftagilis, 480.
*£chinaracbuias parma, 480.
*8trongylocentrotus Drdbachien-
Bis, 430.
*Leptasterias compta, 90.
*L. tenera, 65, 142.
*Cribrella sanguinolenta, 90.
*Hippasteria phrygiana, 60, 90.
Ctenodiscus crispatus, 114.
Ophioglypha Sarsii, 480.
O. robusta, 118.
O. affinis, 105, 118, 150.
*Amphipholis elegans, 105.
A. tenaispina, 105.
*0phlopholi8 aculeata, 104.
Ophiacantha spinulosa, 150.
Acalephce.
*Campanalaria verticillata, 480.
*Sertalaria cupressina, 150.
^Sertularella polyzonias, yar., 142.
*S. tricuspidata, 430.
*LafoSa gracillima, 480.
*£adendriuin ramosam, 480.
*Tubalaria indlFisa, 480.
Corymorpha pendala, 95.
Anthozoa.
'^Comnlarlella modesta V., 106.
'^Urticina nodosa (Fab. sp.), 480.
*U. crassicornis, 480.
'^Bolocera TaedliB, 150.
Edwardsia farinacea Y., 95.
E. sipuncaloides, 106.
Cerianthas borealis V., 150.
Protozoa {Spongice).
'^Grantia arctica (?), 95.
Hyalonema longisslmam, 95.
*Folyma8tia sp., 117.
*Phakellia ventllabrum, 68.
*ReDiera, soft sp., etc.
FAX7NA OF THE HARD BOTTOMS DC THE OUTER WATERS.
Very few localities of "hard" bottom have been met with in
more than 25 fathoms of water ; and consequently we have not
A«A.A.B. TOL. XXn. B.
(23)
854
B. NATURAL BISTORT.
obtained so complete a knowledge of the fauna occupying such
bottoms, at greater depths off this coast, as of that inhabiting the
soft muddy bottoms.* But a considerable number of species be-
longing properly on rocky bottoms came up attached to the bowl-
ders, already referred to, which we frequently brought up even from
the softest mud. Other inhabitants of such bottoms were obtained
from the stomachs of fishes, freshly caught. From these and
other sources we can now compile a pretty full list of species be-
longing to the hard bottoms in depths between 50 and 125 fathoms,
off the coast between Cape Cod and Mount Desert.
Two of our dredgings, off Seguin Island, in 83 and 45 fathoms
respectively, belong to the series of outer and deeper dredgings,
rather than among those made in the bays. They are, however,
somewhat intermediate in character.
The first named locality was unusually rich in species. I there-
fore give the entire list obtained at that place, so far as they have
been identified. The bottom was generally hard, and in places
rocky, but some patches of mud were evidently encountered by
the dredge, and. consequently there was a considerable number of
true mud-dwelling species mixed with those belonging to the hard
bottoms. Only one haul of the dredge was made at this locality,
owing to unfavorable weather, but over 125 species of animals
were obtained.
CONTENTS OF A SINGLE HAUL OF THE DREDGE MADE AUG. 13, 1873,
ON HARD BOTTOM, WITH SOME SPOTS OF MUD, IN 33 FATHOMS ;
LOOALITT, SIX MILES EAST OF SEGUIN ISLAND.
ARTIOULATA.
Pycnogonida,
Nymphon, sp.
Hyas coarctatas.
Eupagurus Kroyeri.
Fandalus annulicornis.
Hippolyte pasiola.
Crustacea,
Hippolyte spina.
Unclola Irrorata.
Cerapus rubricomis.
Monoculodes, sp.
Metopa, sp.
Caprella, sp.
Praniza cerina.
* This has, however, been remedied to a considerable extent by some of tbe sabc^
qnent dredgings made by Dr. Packard, when on the Bache.
B. NATURAL HISTOBT.
855
Harmothoe imbricata.
Phyllodofce catenula V.
Nothria conchilega.
Lumbriconerels ftagilis
Kino@ nlgripes V.
Anthostoma acatnm V.
Gattiola, 8p.
Nereis pelaglca.
Annelida.
Nicomache lambricalis.
Ancistrla capillaris V.
Cistenides granulatus.
Ampharete gracilis.
Ampharete, sp.
Melinna cristata.
Thelepus clnclnnatus.
Amphitrite GroBnlandlca
Sclone lobata.
Chone, sp.
Potamilla oculifera.
Sabella, sp.
Spirorbis lucidns.
Vermilia serrula.
Gephyrea.
Phascolosoma cssmentariam. | Phascolosoma tubicola V.
Turbellaria,
Nemertes affinis.
Admete viridula.
Bela tarricala.
Bel a harpalarla.
Bela violacea.
Bacclnam undatam.
NeptuDca decemcostata
Neptunella pygmsea.
Saxicava arctica.
Macoma sabulosa.
Cardium Islandicum.
Cardium pinnulatum.
Cyprina Islandlca.
Astarte undata.
Ascidiopsis complan-
atus.
Glandala arenicola.
MOLLUSC A.
Gastropoda,
Astyris zonal is Y.
Trichotropis borealis.
Aporrhais occidentalis.
Velutina laevigata.
Lamellaria perspicua.
Lanatia Groenlandlca.
Turritella erosa.
LamelUbranchiata,
Astarte elliptica.
Astarte lens.
Cyclocardia borealis.
Crenella glandula.
Modiolaria discors.
Tunicata,
Molgula pannosa.
Leptoclinum luteolum.
Leptocliuam albidum.
Lepeta cseca.
Calliostoma occldentale
Margarita cinerea.
Diadora noachina.
Doris planulata.
Hanleia mendlcariaCarp
Entails strlolata.
Modiolaria cormgata.
Leda tenuisnlcata.
Nucula tenuis.
Pecten Islandicas.
Anomia aculeata.
AmaroBclum glabmm.
Llssocllnum, sp.
,Brachiopoda,
Terebratulina septentrionalis.
Tubnllpora crates.
Idmonea pruinosa.
Discofascigera lacema-
ria.
Polyzoa.
Crlsia ebnrnea.
Caberea Ellisii.
Geroellaria loricata.
Flustra solida.
Cellnlaria temata.
Cellepora scabra.
Cellepora ramulosa.
356
B. KATUBAL HISTOBT.
Lopbotharia Fabricii.
StroDgylocentrotas
Drobachiensls.
Solaster endeca.
Asterias vulgaris.
BADIATA.
EchinodermcUa.
Stepbanasterias albala
Verrill.
Leptasterias compta.
Cribrella sanguinolenta.
Opbiacantba spinolosa.
Ampbipbolis elegans.
Opbiopbolis aculeata.
Opbloglypba Sarsli.
Opbloglypba robosta.
Lafo^a ftratlcosa.
LafoSa dumosa.
Harecium maricatmn.
Acalephce.
Grammarla abietlna.
Sertularia argentea.
Sertolaria latiascula.
Sertularella polysonias.
Eadendriam capillare.
AntJiozoa.
Urtidna crassicornls. | Coniulariella modesta Y., new genas and sp.
PROTOZOA. *
Spongioe.
Renlera, sp.
Tethya bispida.
Halicbondria, several sp
Grantia ciliata.
Foraminifera.
Numerous species.
ALGJB.
Laminaria longicmris. | Agarum Turner!.
Desmarestia aculeata.
The 45 fathom locality was about five miles southwest from
Seguin Island. At this place we dredged many of the species ob-
tained at the place last named, together with a number of addi-
tional ones, among which were the following :
Hlppolyte aculeata.
Ptilochelrus plnguls.
ABTICUI^TA.
Crustacea.
Diastylisquadrispinosa.! Balanus porcatus.
Anndida,
Nepbthys ingens.
Rbyncbobolus albus.
Tropbonla aspera.
Ammocbares, sp.
Terebellides Stroemi.
Myzicola SteenstmpiL
B. NATURAL HISTOBT.
857
Bela decassata.
Natica clausa.
Scalaria GroBulandica.
MOLLUSCA.
Margarita obscnra.
Cylicbna alba.
Toldla thraciformls.
Engyra pilularls.
AmarcBcium pallidum.
RADIATA.
Cerianthus borealls V. |
I Eudendrinm ramosam.
Farther to the west, off the mouth of Casco Bay, and about two
to three miles south of Half-way Rock, in 27 fathoms, we made
another haul, very similar to the one in 33 fathoms, described
above. The bottom was here composed of coarse sand and gravel,
pebbles, small stones, and broken shells, with some mud. A large
proportion of the species given in the list for the 33-fathom local-
ity also occurred at this place, with many additional ones, among
which were the following : .
Enpagurus Bernhardns.
Crangon vulgaris.
Hippolyte Fabricii.
Nephthys ingens.
Ammochares, sp.
Crustacea.
Cninacea, two sp.
(Ediceros lynceus.
FtUochelras pingals.
Annelida,
PraxIUa zonata V.
Ampelisca, sp. with red
dorsal spots.
Ampelisca, small sp.
Anthura brachlata.
Pista cristata.
Terebellides Stroeml.
Bela decussata.
Scalaria GroBnlandlca.
Natica claosa.
Gastropoda.
Lunatia Immaculata.
Margarita obscura.
Cylichna alba.
Fhiline angulata.
Crjptodon Gooldii.
Cyclocardia NovangUffi.
LamelUbranchiata.
Astarte quadrans.
Yoldia sapotiUa.
Modiolaria nigra.
Echinodermata.
Hlppasteria phrygiana, one large specimen.
A- number of dredgings were made on and near East and West
Cod Ledges, several miles off Cape Elizabeth. The shallower
parts of these, in 10 to 15 fathoms, are very rough and rocky, so
858
B. NATURAL BISTORT.
that in some places the dredge could not be used, and even the
tangles suffered seriously by the iron frame becoming caught and
jammed among the rocks so firmly that it could not be extricated
without using force sufficient to bend and twist the stout iron cross-
bar. At somewhat greater depths, in 20 to 30 fathoms, farther away
from the crests of these ledges, the bottom was generally stony
and gravelly, though often rough, and the dredges were used with
good success. Most of the species from these localities have been
enumerated in the two preceding lists, and need not be repeated
here, but a considerable number of additional ones occurred. The
roughest parts of the ledges, in 10 to 15 fathoms, are overgrown
with red algae, and among these the reddish variety of cod, known
as " rock-cod," abounds. Here also a large number of interesting
Crustacea were obtained, most of them having red colors, evidently
adapting them for concealment among the algse.
Several of these occurred also in the previous lists, but are re-
peated here to show more fully the peculiar character of the fauna
of these rough ledges. We ascertained that the cod-fish caught
here feed chiefly on these Crustacea, their stomachs often being
filled with crabs, shrimps, and smaller species named below, to-
gether with more or less numerous Mollusca, Holothurians, Ophi-
urans, etc. The Ophiopholis aculeata was a common and impor-
tant part of their diet, and several specimens of a large Tltyoni-
dium were taken from the stomach of a cod, at this place, though
we did not dredge it at all, either here or elsewhere.
Among the species that occurred on the Cod Ledges, are the
following :
Pycnogonida,
Phoxichilldium femoratum. | Nymphon, sp.
Hyas coarctatns.
Cancer Irroratus.
Eupagurus Kroyerl.
E. pabescens.
E. Benihardns.
Hippolyte Fabricll.
H. aculeata.
Eunoa CBrstedii.
Lepidonotus squamatus.
Harmothog imbricata.
Phyllodoce catennla.
Crustacea,
H. spina.
H. Phippsil.
H. pusiola.
Cranjyon boreas.
Pandalus annuHconils.
Paramphitho€ palchella.
Annelida,
Euphroayne borealis.
Amphitrite cirrata.
Sclone lobata.
Thelepus cincinnatus.
Amphitho€, sp.
Cera pus rubricornis.
Unciola Irroraia.
Caprella, sp.
Praniza carina.
Balanos porcatas, etc.
Potamilla oculifera.
Spirorbis lucidns.
S. qnadrangularis.
Vermilia serrula.
B. NATURAL BISTORT.
859
Trophon scalarlformls.
Baccinam undatum.
Neptanea curta.
Trichotropis borealls.
Oastropoda.
Menestho albula.
Margarita obscara.
M. cinerea.
Lcpeta cseca.
Boris planulata.
Trachydermon ruber
Carp.
T. albas Carp.
Tonicella marmorea
Carp.
Saxicava arctica.
Cardium plnnulatum.
Astarte audata.
Lainellibranchiata.
Cyclocardia borealis.
C. NovangliflB.
Modiola modiolus.
Modiolaria discors.
Anomia aculeata.
Ascidiopsls complaa-
atus.
Tunicata,
Cynthia pyriforrals.
Amarodcluin glabrum.
Leptoclinum albldum.
L. luteolum.
Brachiopoda.
Terebratulina septentrionalis.
Alcyonidium, red sp.
Crista eburnea.
Polyzoa.
Tubulipora patina.
Caberea Elllsii.
Lepralia, several sp.
Lophothnria Fabricii.
Thyonidium, sp.
Strongylocentrotus
Drobachiensis.
Lucemariaquadrlcornis
Obelia genlculata.
Campanularia volubilis.
C. Integra.
Echinodei'mata,
Asterias vulgaris.
Leptasterias, sp.
Stephanasterias albula
Verrlll.
Acalephce,
Calycella syriuga.
Laro(3a dumosa.
Sertularia pumila?
S. argcntea.
Cribrella sanguinolenta.
Ophiopholis aculeata.
Ophioglypha robusta.
Sertularella poly zonias.
S. tricuspidata.
Halecium muricatum.
Tubularia indivisa.
Also species of Grantia, Polymastia, Hallchondria, Tricho-
stemTna and numerous other sponges, not determined.
ALGiE.
The following occurred in 12J^ fathoms :
Agarum Turneri.
Delesserla sinuosa.
D. alata.
Calliblepharis ciliata.
Euthora cristata.
Ptilota serrata.
Callithamuion P^'laisaei,
witli tetraspores.
Corallina officinalis.
Lithothamnion poly-
morphum.
860 B. KATURAL HISTORY.
FAUNA OF CASCO BAT, IN SHALLOW WATER.
In Casco Bay, among the islands, in moderately shallow water,
there is great diversity in the character of the bottom, and here a
large amount of profitable dredging has been done.* Most of the
species are decidedly boreal and arctic forms, which we had pre-
viously dredged in the Bay of Fundy, and farther north. The
depth varied from 3 or 4 to about 30 fathoms. Some of the best
localities on hard bottoms were found to be in Hussey Sound ; off
Cow Island ; off the northern end of Peak's Island ; off Witch
Eock ; off the Green Islands ; off Whaleboat Island, in Broad
Sound ; and in the main ship-channel, off Fort Preble, etc. In
these localities the bottom was composed of gravel and small
stones, and occasionally of rough rocks with broken shells, gravel,
etc., overgrown by an abundance of coarse massive sponges,
among which were several species of Reniera^ Halichondria^
Suberites^ Polymastia,, Tethya hispida Bowerbank, etc., together
with more delicate species belonging to Chalina^ laodictya, etc.
Several species of calcareous sponges also occurred, among
which there were two or three species of Orantia {Sycandra
HaL'ckel), a small species of Leucandra^ on algae ; and a species,
apparently undescribed {Leucosolenia canceUata Ver.), which forms
small rounded or irregular cerebriform masses, usually less than an
inch in diameter, consisting of an intricate net-work of slender
anastomosing tubes, which give the surface a cancellated or pitted
character. This is not uncommon on rocks and shells. Another
peculiar and elegant species occuiTcd once off Witch Rock, at-
tached to Terebratulina ; this forms deep goblet-shaped or cam-
panulate cups, with a wide opening and smooth acute rim at the
* Numerous dredgings had also been made previous to our Tisit in the shallower
waters of Casco Bay, by Mr. C. B. Fuller and others, during several years. A large
and valuable collection of the shells and other marine invertebrates, mainly collected
by Mr. Fuller, contained in the Museum of the Portland Society of Natural Hlstoiyt
was burned in the great fire of 18G0. Since that time lie has accumulated for the So-
ciety another valuable collection, in which there are some species not obtained by oar
party. Dr. J. W. Mighels many years ago made a large collection of the shells of Caseo
Bay, chiefly fVom the shores and ttom flsh-stomachs. This collection became the prop-
erty of the same Society, and was destroyed by the previous Are, in which all its col-
lections were lost. He published a catalogue of the shells of Casoo Bay, etc, in the
*' Boston Journal of Natural History ,'' vol. iv, p. 108, 1843. Professor E. 8. Moise also
made a choice collection of the shells of Casoo Bay, mostly from the shores and shal-
low waters, previous to I860. His collection Is now in the Museum of Comparmtire
Zoology. In this paper no attempt has been made to compUe ttom these and other
sources such species as we did not obtain. All the results given, anless otherwise
stated, are based on our own observations, made for the most part this season.
B. NATUBAL BISTORT. 361
top. In our specimen there are two cups, partially united at the
base, nearly an inch high and about a third of an inch in diamefjer.
The surface is even, minutely porous, and but slightly hispid ex-
ternally. This appears to be a new species of Leticandra Heeckel,
which I propose to call L. cyathus.
Among the more interesting Crustacea dredged on such bottoms
were numerous beautifully colored shrimp, belonging to six species
of Hippolyte and the common Pandaliis annulicomis; also several
peculiar Amphipods, among which the Acanthozone cuapidata is
conspicuous, on account of its numerous spines. An undeter-
mined species of My»i8 is not uncommon. Of Annelides several
new and many rare forms occurred. Among the new species are
Enipo gracilis (Plate 5, fig. 3), remarkable among the scaly worms
for its slenderness and the small size of the scales, which only im-
perfectly clothe the anterior part of the back ; the Stephanosyllis
picta (Plate 4, fig. 1), a small but handsomely colored worm, be-
longing to a genus hitherto known only from the Mediterranean ;
Procerea gracilis (Plate 3, fig. 2), another allied species of small
size but very active in its movements ; Praxilla zonata (Plate 5, fig.
4), conspicuous on account of the bright red bands which surround
the anterior part of its body. Other interesting species are EukUia
pistacia V. (Plate 4, fig. 2), which is usually of a bright epidote-
green color and very lively and graceful in its movements ; Phyl'
lodoce catenula^ quite as lively as the last, and more slender, with
three rows of brown spots along its back ; Cirratulus cirratus and
Scione lohaJta M., which have not been recorded previously from
our coast; Vermilid serrula Stimpson (Plate 4, fig. 3), remark-
able for the two lateral chambers added to its tube when mature.
Numerous interesting Ascidians also occurred, among them the
rare Ohelyosoma geometricum Stimpson (Plate 1, fig. 6), hitherto
found only in the Bay of Fundy. This was dredged off Witch
Rock, in 18 fathoms. Echinoderms are abundant and are repre-
sented by several interesting species, among which are two species
of TJiyonidiumj and Pentacta calcarea^ which were rather rare;
Pentacta frondosa was only occasionally met with, of large size ;
good sized specimens of Lophothuria Fabricii were occasionally
dredged, and the }''Oung were not uncommon ; Ophiopholis acule*
ata^ Asterias vulgaris^ Cribrella sanguinolenta and Strongylo*
centrotus Drobachiensis were abundant, but Solaster endeca and
Pteraster militaris were comparatively rare and of small size.
362
B. NATURAL HI8TUHT.
The Astrophyton Agassitii^ so abundant in the Bay of Fandj,
and also in some parts of Massachusetts Bay, was not met with.
Hydroids of many kinds were abundant, and among them there
are quite a number of species new to our coast. The beautiful
Campanularia Integra occurred in profusion on the fronds of Agar
rum Tumeric with Obelia geniculata. Campanularia angulata aod
(7. fragilis, Calycella pygmcea, and Hakcium teneUum are other
interesting additions to our fauna.
«
LIST OF SPECIES INHABITING HARD BOTTOMS OF CASCO BAT,
IN SHALLOW WATER.
The following are some of the more characteristic species dredged
on the hard bottoms, in 8 to 30 fathoms :
Cancer Irroratas.
C. borealls. '
Hyas coarctatus.
H. araneus.
Eupagurus Bernhardas.
E. Kroyerl.
E. pubescens.
Crangon vuljrarls.
Hippolyte spina.
H. Eabricil.
H. aculeata.
H. pusiola.
ARTICULATA.
Crustacea.
Hippolyte g^bba.
H. Ptiippsii.
Pandalus annallcornis.
Mysis, sp.
Diastylis, sp.
Moera Danse.
Melita dentata.
Vertumnus serratus.
Acanthozone cuspidata.
Paramphithoe cata-
pbracta.
Podoceros fticicola.
Cerapus rubricornis.
Ptilocheiras piDguis.
Unciola irrorata.
Caprella, sp.
Praniza cerina.
Idotea Tuftsii.
I. phosophorea.
Balanus porcatus.
B. crenatos.
Lepidonotus squamatas.
Ennoa CSrstedil.
Harraothog imbricata.
Enipo gracilis V.
Cryptonota citrina.
Phyllodoce catenola V.
Eulalia pistacla V.
Nereis pelagica.
Stephanosyllis picta V.
Procerea gracilis V.
Autolytus comutas.
Autolytus, sp.
Nothria conchylega.
Polydora, sp. (Insliells)!
Annelida,
Cirratulus cirratns.
Dodecacerea concha-
rum.
Praxilla zonata V.
Nicomache lumbrlcalls.
Trophonia aspera.
Tecturella flacclda.
Brada granosa.
Stcrnaspis fossor.
Cistenides granulatas.
Tiielepus clncinnatus.
Scione lobata.
Ampliitrite clrrata.
A. intermedia.
Polyclrrns, phosphores-
cent sp.
Myxicola Steenstrupii.
Potamilla oculifera
(Leidy).
Sabella zonalis Stimp.
Chone, sp.
Euchone elegans V.
Spirorbis lucidus.
S. naatlloides?
S. quadrangularis St.
Vermilia serrula.
Filigrana impleza.
Gephyrea.
Phascolosoma csementarium. | Phascolosoma, sp. nov.
B. NATURAL BISTORT.
363
Cosmoccpbala Stlmp-
soni V.
Turhellaria.
Nemertes affinis.
Leptoplana elUpsoides.
Bcia harpularla.
B. decussata.
B. turricula.
B. plearotomaria.
Admete yiridula.
Trophon clathratas.
Baccinum undatuni.
Neptunea decemcostata.
N. curta (Jeffreys* sp.)-
Neptnnella pygmsea V.
Trltla trlvittata.
Astyris zonalis V. (dis-
similis St.).
A. rosacea.
Trlchotropis borealls.
Lacuna viiieta.
L. neritoidea.
Natica clausa.
MOLLUSCA.
Gastropoda.
LuDatia heros.
S. GroBnlandlca.
L. imrnaculata.
Crucibulum striatom.
Velutina zonata.
V. IflBvigata.
Lamellaria perspicna.
Menestho albula.
Scalaria Grosnlandica.
Margarita obscara.
M. Groenlandica.
M. cinerea.
M. helicina.
Calliustoma occidentale
Diadora noachina.
Lepeta cseca.
AcmseatestudlnallSyVar.
Cylichna alba.
Terglpes despectus.
^olis Mananensis.
DendroDotus arbores-
cens.
Doris planulata.
Ouchidoris pallida.
Polycera Lessonii.
Doto coronata.
Tonicella marmorea
Carp.
Trachydermon albus
Carp.
Trachydermon ruber
Carp.
Hanleia mendicarla
Carp.
Stimpsoniella Emer-
sonii.
Saxicava arctica.
Thracia trnncata.
Mya arenaria (young).
Crprina Islandlca.
Cardium pinnulatum.
C. Lslundicum.
Cyclocardia borealls.
Bol tenia Bolteni.
Cynthia pyriformls.
C. echinata.
C. camea.
Ascidiopsis compl&n-
atus.
Lamellibranchiata.
C. Novangliae.
Astarte uudata.
A. quadrans.
Crenella glandula.
Mytilus edulis.
Modiola modiolus.
Tunicata.
Ciona tenella.
Chelyosoma gcometri-
cum St.
Mplgula pannosa.
M. retortiformis.
M. papulosa.
Modiolaria nigra.
M. dlscors (laevigata).
M. corrugata.
Pecten Islandicus.
P. tenuicostatus.
Anomia aculeata.
Amaroecium glabrum.
A. pallidum.
Lissoclinum, sp.
Leptoclinum albidum.
L. luteolum.
Brachiopoda,
Terebratulina septentrionalls.
Idmonea pruinosa.
Crista eburnea.
Tubulipora crates.
T. flabellaris.
Discoporella yerrucosa.
Alcyonidium (red sp.,
on shells).
Polyzoa,
Caberea Elllsii.
Bugula Murrayana.
B. fastiglata.
B. avicularia.
Cellularia ternata.
Gemellaria loricata.
Flustra papyracea ( ?)
Membranipora pilosa.
M. lineata.
Lepralia Pallasiana.
Lepralia, several sp.
Discopora coccinea.
Cellepora scabra.
C. ramulosa.
864
B. NATURAL BISTORT.
Pentacta ft>ODdosa.
P. calcarea.
P. mlnuta.
Lophothuria Fabricil.
Psolas plantapus,
young.
Thyonidium productum.
RADIATA.
Echinodermatq,
T. hyalinnm.
Strongylocentrotus
Drobachiensis.
Asterias vulgaris.
A. littaralis (St.).
Leptasterlas, sp.
Stephanasterias albula.
Cribrella sangulDoIenta.
Solasterendeca (small).
Pteraster militarls
(small;.
Ophiopholis aculeata.
Ophioglypha robusta.
Amphipholis elegans.
Lucemaria quadrlcomls
Obelia genlculata.
O. loDgissima.
Odichotoma.
Gonothyrea hyallna.
G. gracilis.
G. Lovenl.
Campaoularia flexuosa.
C. volubilis.
C. neglecta.
C. Integra.
C. callculata.
C. Hincksil.
C. verticillata.
C. angulata.
Metridium marginatum.
Urticlna crassicornis.
Acalephce.
C. iVagilis.
Clytia Johnstonl.
Calycella syringa.
C. pygmaea.
Halecium muricatum.
H. tenellum.
H. Beanil.
H. halecinum.
LafoSa fruticosa.
L. dumosa.
L. graciUima.
Fllellum serpens.
Grammarla abietina.
Opercularella lacerata.
Antenuularla antennina.
Anthozoa.
Alcyonium rubiforme.
Sertularla argentea.
S. cupressina.
S. latiuscnla.
Dlphasla fallax.
D. rosacea.
Sertularella polyzonias.
S. tricnspldata.
Hydrallmanla falcata.
Copplnia arcta.
Thamnocnida tenella.
Tnbularia Indlvisa.
Acaulls primarias.
Eudendrlum capillare.
E. ramosura.
Hydractinia polycliiUL
Alcyonium cameam.
Grantla cillata.
Grantia coronata. [V.
Leucosolenta cancellata
Leucandra, sp.
L. cyathus V.
Polymastia robusta?
Bowerbank.
PROTOZOA.
SpongicB.
Polymastia, new sp.
Tethya hUpida (Bow^
erbank).
Halichondria, sp.
H. pannosa.
Reniera, several sp.
Suberltes, sp.
Cliona, sp.
Isodictya, sp.
I. lobata (Esper sp.)*
I. infUndtbuliformls.
Chalina ocnlata.
Besides the species enumerated above, there were many others
that have not yet been identified. Many that occurred less fre-
quently on the hard bottoms than on sandy or muddy ones have
also been omitted from the list.
Very few genuine sandy bottoms were met with, and these were
generally of small extent, so that the sand was nearly always
mixed with gravel, pebbles, or mud, when brought up in the dredge,
k.
B. NATURAL BISTORT. 365
and there was, necessarily, a corresponding mixture of the animals
inhabiting these different kinds of bottoms. Most of the species
found on such bottoms are included in the preceding list. A num-
ber of species occurred, however, on sandy bottoms more frequently
or in greater abundance than elsewhere. Among these were the
following :
Crangon vulgaris^ Unciola irrorata^ Idotea Tuftsii, Epelys man-'
tosus Harger, Praxilla zonata V. (Plate 5, fig. 4), ClymeneUa tor^
quota v., Cistenides granulxUus^ Tetrastemma^ sp., Ophioiiemertes
agilis V. (Plate 2, ^g. 4), Lunatia heros^ Meneatho albula^ Utriculus
pertenuis^ Cochlodesma Leanum, Clidiophora trilineata^ Lyonaia
hycdinay L. arenata^ Mcbctra polynyma (ovalis Gould), Astarte caa-
taneay A. quadransj Cyprina Islandica^ Echinarachniua parma.
FAUNA OF THE MUDDY BOTTOMS IN SHALLOW WATER.
Muddy bottoms of various grades, and at all depths to 40
fathome, were frequent in Casco Bay, especially in the sheltered
coves and channels among the islands, and in the several branches
or fiords into which the northeastern portion of the bay is divided.
There is considerable diversity in the character of the fauna in
the different parts. The deeper localities have a very northern
fauna, similar in many respects to that of the muddy bottoms of
the deep outer water ; while the shallow localities, especially in
the inner harbor of Portland and in Back Cove, have a less north-
em fauna, and even yield a few decidedly southern forms, such as
Libinia canalicidata, lAmulus Polyphemus^ etc.
In the table on page 344 the temperatures of the water in many
of these localities are given.
The following table contains a series of temperatures taken by
Commander Beardsley, at the anchorage of the steamer, in ^^Blue
Light Cove," between Peak's Island and Hog Island, which will
serve to give a good idea of the average temperature of the shal-
low waters among the islands in Casco Bay.
366
B. NATURAL BISTORT.
TB1IPERATUBB8 TAKEN IV SHALLOW WATER IN <*BLUS UOBT COTE.'*
w^ . — ^
s Locality.
Weath'
er.
Hour.
Tide.
Temperattrb.
ii
XatBieof
DAT]
Air.
Sur-
face.
Bot-
tom.
bonoB.
July
27
Blae Light Cove.
Rainy
8 a.m.
1 b. flood
61-
69*
ser
Muddy.
it
<« t<
t(
8 p.m.
4 "
00
59
56
M
28
Off ETergreen
Landing.
Clear
12 M.
4 "
60
60
56
U
(4
Blue Light Cove.
ti
8 A.M.
1. w. Black
65
60
56
ii
<t
(4 ti
a
8 P.M.
1. w. Black
06
62
58
u
29
it l<
ILilnj
8 A.M.
0 h. ebb
60
68
56
11
u
u
u n
a
8 p.m.
5i «
66
60
57
u
80
« «
8 a.m.
4 "
68
64
60
M
<4
U *l
8 p.m.
41 «
70
66
61
II
81
l( tl
Clear
8 a.m.
8i "
71
62
58
u
(t
(< « 1
it
8 p.m.
8 "
66
62
59
u
Aog.
1
<i «t
Cloudy
8 a.m.
2i "
62
60
56
u
2
<i l<
it
8 p.m.
2 "
68
63
57
u
8
« (1
it
8 a.m.
14 «
66
61
67
u
4
« li
Clear
8AJi.
1 "
71
68
56
u
«
t< <l
If
8 P.M.
U "
70
62
58
u
6
<l u
»<
8 a.m.
68
68
57
M
"
ti n
«
8 a.m.
68
62
59
fl
it
« l<
it
8 p.m.
64
61
57
«
7
n tt
Cloudy
8 a.m.
65
61
58
u
U
U it
*<
8 a.m.
60
58
66
u
19
ti it
Rainy
8 a.m.
61
58
67
u
24
tt It
«
8 a.m.
68
61
60
u
(«
it it
Clear
8 p.m.
62
58
67
u
25
it u
<i
8 AJf.
61
68
56
<l
27
« i<
II
8 a.m.
60
68
67
u
29
(1 «
4i
8 a.m.
66i
61
67
u
B. NATX7RAL BISTORT.
867
LIST OF SPECIES INHABITING THE MUDDY BOTTOMS OF
CASCO BAY, IN 2 TO 40 FATHOMS.
NjmphoD, sp.
Pycnogonida,
Pallene, sp.
Phoxlchilidiam femora-
tarn.
Lib i Ilia canalicolata.
Hyas coarctatus.
Kupagurus Kroyerl.
£. pubescens.
£. Bernhardus.
Cranffon vulgaris.
Pandalus aunulicornis.
Hip poly te Gaimardii.
H. pusiola.
H. Fabricli.
Mysis Americana.
Crustacea.
M. stenolepis Smith.
Diastylis sculpta.^
D. quadrispinosa.'
Eudorella hisplda.
CEdlceros lynceus.
Unciola irrorata.
Cerapus rubricornis.
Ptilochelrus pinguis.
Byblls Gaimardii.
B. serrata.
Phoxus Kroyeri.
Coropliium cylindricnm.
Pontoporeia, sp.
Haploops, sp.
Ampelisca, with red
spots.
Orchomene, sp.
Limnoria terebrans, in
wood, 10 fathoms.
Idotea phosphoreaHarg.
Epelys montosus Harg.
Limulus Polyphemus.
Annelida and Gephyrea,
Aphrodite aculeata.
HarmothoS Imbricata.
PholoS minata.
Nepthys ciliata.
N. ingens St.
Phyllodoce catenulaV.
Phyllodoce, sp.
Eulalia pistacia V.
Eteone pusilla.
Kereis pelagica.
Ninoe nigripes V.
Lambriconereis ob-
tusa V.
L. fragills.
Goniada maculata.
Kbynchobolus albus.
Polydora, sp., in shells.
Scolecolepis cirrata.
Splo, sp.
AnthoMtoma acutum V.
Trophonla aspera V.
Ammotrypane flm-
briata V.
Oterlia, sp.
Sphenaspis fossor.
Chsetozone setosa.
Cirratolus cirratns.
Clymenella torquata.
Rliodine Loveni.
Nicomache lumbricalis.
Maldane Sarsli.
Praxilla, sp.
P. zonata V.
P. gracilis.
Amraochares, sp.
Ancistrla capillaris V.
A. acuta V.
Areniella filiformis V.
Cistenides granulatus.
C. Gouldii V.
Am ph arete gracilis.
A. Finmarchica?
Amphicteis Gunneri.
Melinna crista ta.
Amphitrite brunneaV.
A. intermedia.
A. cirrata.
Scione lobata.
PolyciiTUS, sp.
Chone, sp.
Euchone elegans V.
Ichthyobdella versipel-
lis Dies (on Cottus).
Chietoderma nitidulum-
Phascolosoma csemen-
tarium.
Cosmocephala, orange
sp.
C. Stimpsonii V.
Turbellaria.
Ophlonemertes agllls V.
Tetrastemma, sp.
T. vittata V.
Meckelia lurlda V.
Leptoplana ellipsoides.
368
B. NATUBAI. HISTORY.
Bela harpularia.
B. turricula.
B. pleurotoinarla.
Baccinum undatum
(young).
Neptunella pygmsea.
Tritia trlvittata.
Lanatia heros, var.
L. immaculata.
Oastropoda.
L. Grcenlaudica.
Aporrhais occidentalls.
Yelutina laevigata.
Trichotropl8 borealls.
Rlssoa cariData.
R. exarata.
R. (?) eburnea.
Scalaria GroBDlandica.
Turritella erosa.
T. acicala.
Margarita obscnra.
M. cinerea.
Utriculus pertennis.
Cyilchna alba.
Pbiline qnadrata.
P. lineolata.
Entaiis striolata.
Zirphsea crispata (in
wood).
Cyrtodaria siliqaa,
'young.
Nesera pellucida.
My a areuarla (young).
Saxicava arctica.
Lyonsia byalina.
Thracia Conradi.
T. myopsls.
T. truncata.
Periploma papyracea.
Ensatella Americana.
Macoma sabulosa.
M. fragilis (Aisca).
LamelUbranchiata,
Calltsta convexa.
Cyprlna Islandlca.
Cardlum pinuulutum.
C. Islandicum.
Serripes Groenlandicus.
Lucina fiiosa.
Cryptodon Gouldii.
Solenomya velum.
Cyclocardla borealls.
C. Novanglise.
Astarte lens.
A. undata.
Leda tenuisulcata.
Yoldla sapotllla.
Y. myalls.
Y. limatula.
Y. tbraciformls.
Y. obesa.
Nucula tenuis.
N. delphinodonta.
N. proxima.
Crenella glandula.
C. decussata.
Modiolaria nigra.
M. dlscors (laevigata).
M. cormgata.
Mytilus edulls.
Pecten tenuicostatus.
Tunicata.
Molgnla pannosa. | Eugyra pilularls.
Asterlas vulgaris.
Ctenodlscus crispatus.
Echinodermata,
Ophioglypha Sarsii.
O. robusta.
Ophiopholis acoleata.
Corymorpba pendula.
Hydractinia polyclina.
Hydroidea.
Sertnlaria argentea
(on shells).
Sertularella tricaspl-
data (on shells).
Metridium marginatum
(on shells).
AntJiozoa,
Edwardsia farinacea Y.
£. slpnnculoldes.
Cerianihas borealls Y.
FAUNA OF THE SHORES.
The shores of the islands and of Cape Elizabeth afford excel-
lent collecting grounds at low-water, owing to their diversified
character. Many parts of these shores are abrupt and rockj,
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B. NATURAL BISTORT.
369
and often formed of broken and precipitous ledges of hard meta-
morphic slates and thin-bedded giits, or altered sandstones, in
some places passing into gneissose rocks, and generally dipping
at a high angle. Tide-pools are of frequent occurrence, and often
of large size, and afford excellent opportunities for obtaining the
shallow-water and littoral species of animals, and many beautiful
algae. One very large pool on Ram Island Ledges is especially
rich, and was visited several times with profit. In this pool young
lobsters of all sizes are verj'^ abundant beneath the stones. Two
species of Chitonidse also occurred here, together with many other
species not usually to be found at low-water mark. Hydroids and
Bryozoa, of many species, are abundant in this and other similar
pools. The shore species obtained upon the islands and outer
shores of the bay are nearly all boreal or arctic forms. In the
harbor of Portland, on the piles of the wharves, etc., a few more
southern species are met with, though the northern ones predomi-
nate even there.
Several insects are met with between tides. Among these are
Chironomus oceanicus^ and the larvae, about two inches long, of a
fly, probably an EristaliSj which live in small tide-pools, under
stones, and extend their long tapering tails^ up to the surface ; the
pupse of a fly allied to Ephydra; a species of Bledius, and several
other beetles. A Phoxichilidium and two or three species of mites
were also collected between tides. In a pool of brackish water,
at high-water mark, among the ledges of Cape Elizabeth, several
species of water beetles, the larvae of a species of mosquito (Cu-
lex) and other dipterous larvae were obtained. This pool was filled
with green marine algae (EnteramorpJia).
LIST OF SPECIES INHABITING THE SHORES OF CASCO BAT,
BETWEEN TIDES.
^ Crustacea.
Cancer borealls.
C. Irroratus.
Hippolyte pasiola.
H. spina.
Crangoo vulgaris.
Eapagurus Bernhardas.
E. Kroyeri.
Gammains omatus.
Gammarus marinus.
Hyale littoralls.
Talorchestia inegaloph-
thalma Smith.
Orchestla agilis Smith.
Calliopius Iffiviusculus.
Amathella angulosa ( ?)
Fontogcnla Inermis.
Amphitho6 raaculata.
Ccrapus rubrlcornls.
Corophlum, sp.
Unclola irrorata.
Jsera copiosa.
Idotea Irrorata.
I. phosphorea Harger^
Erichsouia filiformis
Hanger.
Balanus balanoides.
A. A. A. 8. VOL. XXn. B.
(24)
870
B. NATURAL BISTORT.
Lepidonotas squamatus
Harmothoe imbricaU.
EiMioa (Erstedll.
Nephthys cceca.
Eulalia plstacia V.
Eteone, sp.
Phyllodoce eaten ula V.
Lumbrlconerels fragUis
StephanosylUs ornata
Verrill.
Autolytas cornutas.
Nemertes vlridis.
N. soclalls.
Borlasia, sp.
Tetrastemma, three sp.
Annelida,
Procerjea gracilis V.
Nereis virens.
N. pelagica.
Polydora, sp.
Antliostoma fragile Y.
Rhynchobolas dlbran-
chiatus.
Cirratulos cirratas.
Nlcomache, sp.
Clyinenella torquata V.
Notomastas luridas V.
Turbellaria.
Cosmocephala Stimp-
sonl! V.
Monotus spatnlicauda.
Monocelis agilis ?
Cistenides grannlatns.
Amphitrite broDneaV.
(St. sp.).
Polyclrnis, sp.
Myxicola SteenstrapiL
Fabricia Leidyi V.
Potamilla ocaliferaV.
Spirorbis borealis.
Cliteliio irrorata V.
HalodriUas littoralisY.
Dinophilas borealis.
Fovia affinis.
Leptoplana ellipsoides.
MOLLUSCA.
The shore MoUusca are decidedly northern, and the species are
not very numerous. Among the most characteristic are the fol-
lowing :
Purpura lapillus.
Buccinam andatum.
Ilyanassa obsoleta.
Tritia trlvlttata.
Lunatia heros.
Littorina littorea.
L. rudis.
L. palliata.
Lacuna vincta.
L. neritoldca.
Kissoa aculeus.
Llttorinella minnta St.
Skenea planorbis.
Acmsea testudinalis.
Trachydermon ruber.
T. albus.
iEolis papulosa.
Tergipes despcctus.
Deudronotus arbores-
cens.
Doto coronata.
Polycera Lessonli.
Doris, sp.
Saxicava arctica.
My a arenaria.
Teredo, sp.
Zirphsea crispata.
Macoma fragilis.
Turtonia minuta.
Mytilus ednlis.
Modiola modiolos.
Ascidiopsis compla-
natus V.
Amaroecium glabrom.
Crisia eburnea.
Alcyonldium hispidum.
A. hirstttam.
Bngula turritaV.
Membranipora pllosa.
M. lineata.
Strongylocentrotus
Drdbachiensls.
Aster ias vulgaris.
A. littoralis.
Aurelia flavidula (stro-
bUa).
RADIATA.
Obelia geniculata.
O. dlchotonia.
Campanularia flexuosa.
C. fragilis.
Opercularella lacerata.
Sertularia pumila.
Sertularia argentea.
Sertularella rugosa.
Clava leptostyU.
Metridium marginatom.
Bunodea stella.
Several species of sponges are also common between tides.
On the sheltered muddy bottoms, from just below low-water
mark, to the depth of about two fathoms, the eel-grass, Zostera
B. NATUBAL BISTORT. 371
marina^ grows in abundance, and in many places it was thickly
covered with delicate Hydroids, among which Ohdia dichotoma was
the most abundant. Among the eel-grass many species of Crus-
tacea, worms and moUusks find congenial abodes, and furnish
abundant food for the fishes that frequent such localities. Some
of these are somewhat southern in character.
Among the Crustacea from the eel-grass were: — Hippolyte
Gaimardi; Crangon vulgaris; My sis stenolepis Smith ; M. Amer-
icana Smith; Calliopius Iceviusculus ; a new genus with ver}' large
epimera, allied to Metopa; a new species of Munna, a genus of
isopod Crustacea, new to the American coast ; Idotea irrorata^ etc.
From the piles of the wharves at Portland we obtained a great
variety of sponges, hydroids, bryozoa, etc. The slender branched
sponge, Chalina oculata^ is here particularly abundant and fine ;
also the common large sea-anemone, Metridium marginatum; a
beautiful Tubularian, in large clusters ; and the compound Ascidian,
Amaro&cium glahrum V., with many other northern forms. The
Limnoria lignorum was found in abundance, destroying the piles
and timbers.
Among the more interesting littoral species obtained on the
shores of Casco Bay and vicinity are Littorina littorea and the
Cancer borealis. The latter is a large crab which has hitherto
been very rare in all collections, and but imperfectly known ; this
we found in large numbers on the ledges at the northern end of
Peak's Island and Pumpkin Knob, in tide-pools, or clinging to the
sea-weeds in more exposed situations, but never concealed beneath
the rocks with the Cancer irroratus, which was there abundant.
The carapaces and claws of the former were also found in abun-
dance at considerable distances from the shores, whither they had
been carried by the gulls and crows. Owing to the exposed situa-
tions in which they live, they must fall an easy prey to rapacious
birds. We obtained eighty-five specimens in one morning. The
Littorina littorea o.ccurs sparingly at various localities on the
islands, but was found in great abundance at Scarboro, on the piles
of a bridge, by Dr. Edw. Palmer. It has been supposed by several
writers that this shell has been recently and accidentally intro-
duced from Europe ; but Dr. Dawson informs me that he collected
it more than thirty 3'ears ago in the Gulf of St. Lawrence. It is
abundant at Halifax, and we have other specimens from Kenne-
bunkport, Me., Hampton Beach, N. H., and Provincetown, Mass.
372 B. NATURAL HISTORT.
There is really no sufficient evidence that it was not an inhabitant
of our shores before the advent of Europeans, but local in its habi-
tats. It may have become more diffused in recent times, by com-
merce, or it may have been overlooked formerly by collectors.
EXISTENCE OF SOUTHERN COLONIES, AND OTHER EVIDENCES
OF FORMER CHANGES OP CLIMATE.
One of the localities, most interesting zoologically, that we
visited, is a small shallow and sheltered cove, at the upper end of
Quahog Bay, about thirty miles northeast from Portland. This
place is well known to be inhabited bj- the round-clam or " Qua-
hog" {Venus mercenaria)^ which is not found living elsewhere on
the coast of Maine, so far as known to me. Indeed, this southern
species is rare everywhere north of Cape Cod, on the New England
coast, and is probably not to be found living north of Massachu-
setts Bay, except in the coves connected with Quahog Bay. It is
also absent from the Bay of Fundy, but reappears in the southern
and shallow parts of the Gulf of St. Lawrence. This anomalous
distribution would be curious, even if it happened only in the case
of this one species ; but our investigation of this locality shows
that there is quite a number of other southern species associated
with the quahog, which have the same remarkable distribution,
being absent along the rest of the northern coast of New England,
and reappearing in the Gulf of St. Lawrence. There is, in fact,
at this place a genuine colony of southern species, completely iso-
lated from their co-species of the southern coast of New England,
and surrounded on both sides by more northern forms. Several
of these southern species, like the Venus me7'cenaria^ Crepidula
convexa, Urosalpinx cinerea^ Enpagurus langicarpuSj Gummarus
mucronatus, Epelys trilobus Smith, Nereis limhata^ Meckelia ingens
Leidy, Asterias arenicola^ etc., were not even met with among the
islands and coves of Casco Bay ; while others, such as J/yana^a
ohsoleta^ Crepidula fornicata^ C. plana ^ Limidus Poli/phemus^ etc,
occurred more or less freqliently in the most sheltered and shallow
waters of Casco Bay, though they are not found on the more ex-
posed shores of Maine and New Hampshire, farther to the south
and west, but have their true homes south of Cape Cod. Native
oysters also occur, in a similar way, farther eastward than Quahog
Bay, near Damariscotta, though it is not probable that they are
indigenous elsewhere on the New England coast, north of Cape
B. NATURAX HISTORY.
373
Cod, — as they certainly are not north of Massachusetts Bay, —
yet they reappear in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, with the other
southern forms.
In fact, the southern part of the Gulf of St. Lawrence, from the
Bay of Chaleur to Prince Edward Island and Cape Breton Island,
is a region of shallow water, occupied by another southern colony,
but a much larger one than that of Quahog Bay, and containing,
perhaps, a few southern species that do not occur in the latter
locality ; though owing to the fact that we could spend but a few
hours at this place, our collection is doubtless quite incomplete.
On the other hand, we have, with the exception of the shells, very
imperfect lists of the southern species inhabiting the colony in the
Gulf of St. Lawrence, so that a complete comparison cannot be
made, at present, except with the shells ; these agree very closely,
according to the lists given by Dawson, Bell and Whiteaves.
As the existence of these isolated southern colonies has an
important bearing upon the question of former changes of climate
on our coast, and as other facts, to be mentioned farther on, are
intimately connected with them, I give here a list of the species
obtained by us, in the cove referred to, so far as they have been
identified.
LIST OF SPECIES COLLECTED AT LOW-WATER IN A SMALL C0\'E ,
AT THE UPPER END OF QUAHOG BAY.
Those with an asterisk prefixed are decidedly southern species,
belonging properly to the region south of Cape Cod.
Cancer irroratus.
*Eupaguru$ longlcarpus
Crangon vulgaris.
♦Mysis stenolepis Smith
Ganomams ornatus.
Lepldonottts squamatus.
Nephthys ingens.
Ealalia, sp.
Autolytus comutns.
♦Meckelia ingens,
Tetrastemma (green
sp.).
ARTICULATA.
Crustacea,
♦G. mueronatus.
AmphithoS, sp.
♦Epelys trilobus Smith.
Idotea irrorata.
Llmnoria lignoraro.
Annelida,
Nereis virens,
♦Nereis limbata.
Fabricia Leidyl.
Turhellaria.
Neraertes viridis.
♦Nemertes socialis.
♦Planocera, sp.
♦Argulus, sp., on Fun-
dulus pisculentus.
♦Limulus Polj'phemus.
Balanus balanoldes.
Spirorbis borealis.
♦Rhynchobolus dlbran-
chiatus.
Procerodes Wheat! andl
♦Bdeloora Candida (on
Limulus).
374
B. NATURAL HI8TOBT.
•Urosalpinx cinerea.
Purpura lapillas.
*Iljanassa obsoleta.
Tritia trivittata.
Natica heros.
Saxlcava arctica.
Mya arenaria.
♦Venus mercenaria.
Tottenia gemma.
MOLLUSC A.
Gastropoda.
♦Crepldula conveza.
*C. fornicata.
♦C. plana (with ova).
Littorina rudis.
L. palliata.
Lamellibranchiata .
Macomafra^ilis.
♦Petrlcola pholadl-
formis.
Lacuna vincta.
Rissoa aculeus.
Llttorinella minuta St
Acmsda testudinalis.
My til us edulis.
♦Modk>la pHcatnla.
Anomia acoleata.
Bryozoa.
Alcyouidium hispidum.l Alcyonidium hirsutum.| Veslcularia, sp.
RADIATA.
Echinodermata»
*Asterias arenicola.
Sertularia pumlla.
S. argentea.
Hydroidea,
Obeli a geniculata.
Clava leptostyla.
Hydractinia polyclina.
Anthozoa.
Metridium marginatum.
Although the species in this list, that are not marked as
southern, have a continuous range northward to the Gulf of St,
Lawrence, and many of them to the Arctic Ocean, North Pacific,
and northern Europe, they all extend as far south as Long Island
Sound, and several of them even to North Carolina. Most of
them are, therefore, northern species having a wide distribution,
and their presence in this particular locality has no special signifi-
cance.
In Quahog Bay itself we found the bottom composed of soft
sticky mud, and in this we dredged, in four to six fathoms, a
great number of large and fine specimens of Yoldia Umatulc^
Macoma sahulosa^ Nephthys ingens^ and a number of other com-
mon species.
B. NATT7RAL HISTORT. 375
EVIDENCES OF CLISiATIC CHAKOES.
That the Quahog Bay colony has formerly, and within the
human period, been more extensive than at present, is shown:
1. By the fact that the quahogs have evidently been, at one time,
more numerous and more generally diffused than now, for their
shells are abundant In the mud, in places where no living ones
could be found ; 2. By the occurrence of 05'8ters, in great quan-
tities and of large size, in the ancient Indian shell-heaps of this
region, and also near Damariscotta, while at present the oysters
are found only at the latter place, and are few and small ; 8. By
the occurrence of the shells of the quahog, of large size, in the
Indian shell-heaps on many of the islands in Casco Bay (these
heaps consisting mainly of the shells of the " long clam," Mya
arenaria^ with a few bones of fishes, birds and mammals).
That at a more remote period, the marine climate of this region
was still warmer,* and the southern species were more abundant
than during the period when the Indian shell-heaps were formed,
is shown by the occurrence of great beds of oyster-shells a few
feet beneath the mud in Portland Harbor, where they are associ-
ated with quahogs and several other southern species, among
which are Callista convexa^ Turbonilla interrupta and Pecten irror
dians. The latter is not known to live, at present, north of Cape
Ann, on the New England coast. It is absent, apparently, from
the colony in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, as well as from that of
Quahog Bay. It is very rare north of Cape Cod.f
The Callista convexa is still found' sparingly in shallow, shel-
tered localities in Casco Bay, and rarely at Eastport, ]Me., but
it is more common in the colony of the Gulf of St. Lawrence,
and very common south of Cape Cod. But the oysters {Ostrea
Virginiand) and " scollops " {Pecten irradians) had apparently
become, extinct in the vicinity of Portland Harbor before the
period of the Indian shell-heaps, for neither of these species occurs
in the heaps on the adjacent islands, while the quahogs lingered
on until that time, but have subsequently died out everj^where
*Tbe evidence here giyen is probably applicable chiefly to the temperature of the
warmer months, or more properly to the reproductive season of the molliisks referred
to, for the climatic distribution of most marine animals seJms to depend mainly on the
temperature of the season at which reproduction takes place. <
fWilUs includes this species in his nominal li^t of Nova Scotia shells, bnt without
mentioning the special locality. It may, perhaps, occur in some of (he sheltered local-
ities near HaliDtix, where another southern colony exists.
376 B. NATURAL HI8T0RT.
in this region, except at Quahog Bay. The oysters have survived
only in the locality near Damariscotta, though far less abundant
there than during the Indian period.
The beds of dead shells of oysters, Pectens^ etc., were found
in making excavations in the harbor with mud-digging machines.
These beds extend up to or above low-water mark, and are of
great extent. Mr. C. B. Fuller, who has made a good collection
of these shells for the Portland Natural History Society, informs
me that the farmers have, in some instances, found it profitable
to cart away these ancient shells for fertilizing purposes. The
position of these beds indicates that no important change in the
relative level of the land and water can have occurred in that
region since they were formed. These beds are, of course, easily
distinguished from the much more ancient Quaternary deposits
that occur abundantly in the same region, but extend back several
miles from the coast, and occur at all levels, from low-water mark
to about 200 feet above high-water mark. The latter are char-
acterized, in that region, by a more arctic assemblage of shells
than that now inhabiting the adjacent waters, though most of the
species still survive, in deep water, off the coast of Maine.
The facts above presented indicate : 1 . That in the Post-plio-
cene or Champlain period the coast was at a lower level, and
the marine climate of Casco Bay was colder than at present,
probably about like that of the present Newfoundland and Labra-
dor coasts ; 2. That at a subsequent period, when the coast had
attained nearly or quite its present level, the marine temperature
was considerably higher than at present ; 3. That the tempera-
ture of these waters has gradually declined, but was still some-
what higher at the period when the Indian shell-heaps were
formed than at present.
That the existence and chsu'acter of the southern colony in
the Gulf of Saint Lawrence point to the same conclusion is saffi-
ciently obvious. The survival of the southern species in that
region is undoubtedly due to the great expanse of shallow water
in that part of the gulf, which becomes well warmed up by the
heat of the sun, in summer ; and to the absence of tides sufS-
ciently powerful to mfcc up thoroughly the very cold waters of the
northern and deeper portions of the gulf with the warm waters of
thS southern part. Tides like those of the Bay of Fundy and
coast of Maine would undoubtedly diminish at once this contrast
B* NATURAL HISTORY. 377
in the temperature of the different parts of the gulf, and greatly
lessen the temperature of the southern part, by reason of the far
greater volume of the cold water.
The origin of the southern species in the gulf is a totally
different matter. I can explain .their presence there in no other
way than to suppose that they are survivors from a time when
the marine climate of the whole coast, from Cape Cod to Nova
Scotia and the Bay of Fundy, was warmer than at present,
and these species had a continuous range from southern New
England to the Gulf of Saint Lawrence. At that time there may
have been a direct shallow passage from the Bay of Fundy across
to the Gulf of St. Lawrence, for the land is there narrow and
low; but of this we have no direct evidence. A deep channel
there would act like the Straits of Belle Isle, and admit the cold
arctic current to the coast of Maine ; this may have been the case
in Quaternary times.
The causes of such changes in the temperature of the water may
have been entirely local, and due to changes in the relative level
of the land and water, in adjacent regions. Thus a rise of the
land in the region of Saint George's Bank, to the extent of 250
feet, would produce an island quite as large as the State of
Massachusetts, and would thus very materially alter the climatic
conditions of tfie "Gulf of Maine," between it and the New
England coast. And it would add a great body of land, now
represented by Le Have Bank, etc., to the southern part of Nova
Scotia, and thus greatly narrow the channel between those banks
and St. George*s, as well as make it more shallow; this would
doubtless greatly modify the tides, and greatly diminish their
force and height on the northern coasts of New England, and in
the Bay of Fundy, for the *'Gulf of Maine" would then have
much resemblance to the Gulf of Saint Lawrence in form and in
the character and position of its main channel, and, therefore,
its tides would also be similar; the small tides would allow
greater differences between the temperatures of the shallow waters
and deep waters, and would thus* favor the southern species in-
habiting shallow water. A rise of the land, of about the same
amount, in the region of Newfoundland, w^uld lay bare a great
part of the Grand Banks, close up the Straits of Belle Isle, and
more than double the size of Newfoundland, which would doJbt-
less produce great climatic changes on the New England coast,
as Professor Dana has suggested. ^
378
B. NATURAL HISTORY.
FOOD OP FISHES.
The stomachs of a large number of fishes of various kinds,
recently caught in many different localities, have been exam-
ined by us, during this and previous seasons, in order to ascer-
tain the precise nature of .their food.
In this way a great amount of valuable information has already
been accumulated. This subject is not, however, by any m^ans
exhausted, for since fishes do not feed upon the same food, in
different places and at all seasons, it will be necessary to greatly
multiply these observations in many different localities, in order
to understand properly the character of their food. The task of
identifying the various soft-bodied creatures, taken . from the
stomachs in a more or less digested condition, is by no means an
easy one. Such contents can be best preserved for final exami-
nation by placing them at once in strong alcohol. The stomach
should be opened as soon as possible after the fish is caught, for
digestion goes on very rapidly, even after the death of the fish.
Special attention has been paid to the food of the cod, haddock
and mackerel this season.
DESCRIPTIONS OF SOME OF THE NEW, OR RECENTLY DESCRIBED
SPECIES, FOUND IN CASCO BAY.
ANNELIDA.
Enipo gracilis Verrill. (Plate 5, figure 8.)
American Journal of Science, vol. vii, p. 407, 1874.
Body long and slender, quite narrow, the anterior part of the
back only partially covered by small oval, smooth, translucent
scales. Head rather elongated, tapering ; eyes four, conspicuous.
Setee of the lower rami stout, with the terminal portion broad,
short cuspidate, and armed with oblique rows of strong, sharp,
ascending, unequal spines ; tips naked, acute, curved, the lower
ones most so. Length 50°^ to 60"™ ; breadth 3°*" to 4"™.
Casco Bay, 15 to 20 fathoms ; Jeffrey's Bank, 80 fathoms.
Step7ia7W8ylli8 omata V. (Plate 4, figure 1.)
American Journal of Science, vol. vii, p. 132, Feb., 1874.
Body moderately slender, thickest near the middle, tapering
slightly anteriorly, and rapidly posteriorly, the caudal portion
acuminate, with two slender caudal cirri. Antennae and tentao-
B. NATURAL HISTORY. 379
ular-cirri long, slender, and tapering, slightly and irregularly
annnlated, or transversely wrinkled ; median antenna longest,
reaching back to about the tenth segment ; lateral antennsd about
equal to the upper tentacular cirrus, or reaching to about the sixth
body-segment ; lower cirrus about half as long ; dorsal cirrus of
the second segment very long and slender, equalling or exceeding
the median antenna ; dorsal cirri of the third segment as long as
those of the first, or longer, more than twice the diameter of the
body ; those of the fourth segment less than half as long ; those
farther back unequal in length. Head rounded in front and
behind, broad, the anterior pair of eyes larger and wider apart'
than the posterior ones; "epaulets" conspicuous, lanceolate, ex-
tending back to the fourth segment. Color, in life, pale green,
especially beneath and on the sides above ; back, bright orange-
red, with transverse lines of green at the articulations ; setigerous
lobes whitish ; lateral cirri pale greenish white ; antennae and
tentacular-cirri pale salmon, often tipped with pink; epaulets
orange, oentred with green, and bordered by a line of white, and
with a red line along the edge ; head pale yellow ; eyes black.
Length, 12"»" ; breadth, 0-75'»°».
Casco Bay, 6 to 20 fathoms, stony ; and in tide-pools at low-
water.
Procercea gracilis V. (Plate 3, figure 2.)
American Journal of Science, vol. vii, p. 132, 1874.
Body very slender, elongated. Head subcordate, longer than
broad, rounded in IVont, posteriorly extending back in two short
rounded lobes, not reaching beyond the buccal segment ; anterior
eyes considerably farther apart than the posterior ones. An-
tennae and upper cirri of the first two segments very long and
slender, faintly annulated ; the median antenna is very much
elongated, considerably longer than the lateral ones, and about
equal to the dorsal cirri of the second segment; the lateral
antennse are about as long as the upper tentacular-cirri, or about
five times the diameter of the body ; the dorsal cirri of the third
segment are about twice as long as the diameter of the bod}' ; the
cirri on the succeeding segments are about half as long as the
breadth of the body. Color, in life, pale greenish, with a narrow
median dorsal line of dark brown, and a less distinct one on each
S80 B. NATURAL HISTORT.
side, at the base of the lateral appendages ; eyes black. Length,
about 25™°» ; breadth, 1™", or less.
Casco Bay, 10 to 20 fathoms ; and in tide-pools.
Eulalia pistacia Verrill. (Plate 4, figure 2.)
First Report of the Commissioner of Fish and Fisheries, p. 584.
Body moderately slender, depressed. Head convex, shorter
than broad ; in preserved specimens, sides well rounded, posterior
margin slightly emarglnate ; median odd antenna small, slender,
considerably shorter than the head. Eyes large, brown. Tentac-
ular cirri moderately long ; the four posterior ones considerably
longer than the others. Branchise narrow lanceolate anteriorly ;
ovate and leaf-like on the middle segments ; longer and lanceolate
posteriorly. Proboscis long, more or less clavate, smooth, bat
often showing longitudinal striations, and sometimes with a few
very minute scattered papillse toward the end ; the orifice sur-
rounded by a circle of numerous minute papillse. Color bright
yellowish green (cpidote-green or pistachio-green), often with
obscure darker markings posteriorly, and at the base of the ap-
pendages. Length up to 40""; breadth, 1-5"™.
Vineyard Sound, 6 to 12 fathoms, among compound ascidiaDS ;
off New Haven, 4 to 5 fathoms, among hydroids ; Casco Bay, 8
to 20 fathoms.
Phyllodoce catenula Verrill. (Plate 8, figure 1.)
Op. cit., p. 587.
Head somewhat longer than broad, slightly cordate posteriorly,
with the posterior angles well rounded, and the sides full and
convex ; front broadly rounded, and with a slight emargination
in the middle. Eyes large, dark brown, placed on the dorsal sor-
face of the head ; antennae rather long, slender. Tentacular cirri
long and slender, the two posterior much longer than the otliers.
Branchiae of anterior segments broad ovate, with rounded tips;
farther back larger and longer, ovate, leaf-like, with acuminate
tips. Proboscis with twelve rows of papillae on the basal portion,
which are prominent, somewhat elongated, obtuse, seven or eight
in the lateral rows, those in each row close together. Color of
body and branchiae pale green, with a median dorsal row of dark
brown spots, one to each segment ; and two lateral rows, in which
B. NATURAL HISTORY. 881
there is a spot at the base of each "foot ;'* head pale, or greenish
white. Length up to TS""" ; breadth about l-S"*".
Watch Hill, Rhode Island, in 4 to 6 fathoms, among rocks and
algae, and in tide-pools ; Wood's Hole, at surface, evening, July
8. Casco Bay, 8 to 30 fathoms ; very common in the Bay of
Fund}', from low-water to 50 fathoms.
This species is closely allied to P. pulchella Malmgren, from
northern Europe, but differs somewhat in the form of the head,
which is shorter and rounder in the latter ; the branchiae also dif-
fer in form. It is a very active species, and secretes a large
quantity of mucus.
Nothria opalina Verrill. (Plate 4, figure 4.)
American Journal of Science, vol. v, p. 102, 1873.
Body long and slender, narrowed anteriorly, much depressed
and of nearly uniform width throughout most of its length ; the
five anterior segments much longer than the others. Palpi infe-
rior, rather large, hemispherical ; antennae small, ovate, close
together, on the front of head. Three central tentacles veiy
long and slender, tapering; acute, the basal portion regularly
annulated and thickened for a considerable distance, beyond
which the surface is smooth, with an occasional distant annula-
tion ; the central odd one is somewhat shorter and more slender
than the two adjacent ones, which reach to or bej'ond the 10th
segment ; outer pair much shorter, being less than half the length
of the central ones. Tentacular cirri small and very slender.
Lateral appendages or "feet" of the first six setigerous segments
similar in structure but more prominent than the following ones,
from which they also differ in having the ventral cirrus well devel-
oped, long and tapering, but shorter and thicker on the first seg-
ment than on the five following. Those of the first pair have a
stout stalk, which terminates in a small, bluntly rounded setigerous
lobe, with a long, slender, subterminal cirrus-like lobe above,
longer than the stalk ; dorsal cirrus arising from near the base,
longer and more slender than the terminal cirrus ; branchial fila-
ment simple, long and very slender, about equalling the dorsal
cirrus and united to it above its base ; ventral cirrus ovate, taper-
ing, blunt, arising from near the base. The second pair of feet
are similar to those of the first, except that in the largest speci-
mens there are two branchial filaments, and the ventral cirrus is
882 B. NATURAL HISTORT.
longer and more slender. The 3d, 4th, 5th and 6th pairs have
essentially the same structure, but the ventral cirrus becomes
gradually longer to the Gth, where it is longer than the stalk aod
nearly equal to the terminal cirrus. The succeeding feet are
much shorter ; the ventral cirrus is a mere conical papilla, which
soon disappears ; the terminal cirriform lobe becomes smaller and
disappears after the 10th pair; the branchial filament becomes
larger and longer to the middle region, where it exceeds in length
half the diameter of the body, while the dorsal cirrus at the same
time becomes smaller and shorter, until it is less than one-fourth
the length of the branchia.
The setae of the anterior feet consist of slender, acutel}' pointed,
curved ones, mixed with much stouter, blunt pointed compound
ones ; farther back there are two fascicles of more slender acute
setae, and in the lower bundles a few long, stout, bidentate hooks,
with a thin, rounded, terminal expansion.
Color, in alcohol, pale yellowish white, but everywhere very
brilliantly iridescent with opaline lustre and colors.
Length, 3 to 6 inches ; diameter, -10 to -15 of an inch* (2*5"" to
4"").
Near St. George's Bank in 110 and 150 fathoms, common; off
Casco Bay, 30 to 94 fathoms, common ; Jeffrey's Bank, 79 to 105
fathoms. Abundant at all the localities, on muddy bottoms, in
deep water, in the Gulf of Maine.
The name "Nothria" was substituted for NoHhia (Johnston) by
Malmgren for reasons that are scarcely sufficient The latter
name was, however, previously in use for a genus of shells (Gray,
1847), and must be rejected on that account.
Nino'inigripea Verrill. (Plate 3, figure 5.)
First Report of Commissioner of Fish and Fisheries, p. 595.
Body elongated, slender, broadest a short distance behind the
head, at the middle of the branchiferous segments. Head de-
pressed, elongated, conical, blunt at end, about twice as long as
broad. The branchise are represented on the first two setigerous
segments by a short, flattened lobe, arising from the outer and
posterior face of the setigerous lobe. On the two following seg-
ments the lobe is divided into two or three parts ; on the fifth
there are usually three, more elongated, round, and more slender
branchiae, which increase in number and length on the succeeding
B. NATURAL HISTOBT. d68
segments until there are five, six, or more long, slender branchial
filaments, which arise from the posterior face of the setigerous
lobe, and diverge, forming a somewhat fan-shaped or digitate
group ; at about the twenty-fourth segment the number rapidly di-
minishes, and after the twenty-seventh or twenty-eighth there re-
mains but one small branchial process. The setigerous lobe is
prominent, obtuse, turned forward. The setae are numerous on
the branchial segments, and rather long, of various shapes, but
mostly bent, with an acute lanceolate point ; posteriorly they are
shorter and fewer, and mostly slender, mai*gined uncini, with
hooks at the spatulate end. Body flesh-color; the setae dark,
often blackish; branchiae bright red. Length of broken speci-
mens, 20"^ to 50"" ; breadth anteriorly, 2'"" to 3"".
Vineyard Sound and Buzzard's Bay, and waters outside, in
eight to twenty-nine fathoms, mud ; Casco Bay, ten to sixty-eight
fathoms ; off the coast of Maine, at various depths to 107 fathoms.
lAimbriconereis obtusa Verrill, sp. nov.
Body slender, terete, tapering posteriorly, strongly annulated.
Head nearly as broad as the body, obtusely rounded at the end.
Lateral appendages prominent, bilobed, the posterior lobe longer
and tapered; the anterior one is short and obtusely rounded.
Near the posterior end the appendages are longer than the rest.
The first twelve to fourteen segments bear fascicles of rather long
setae of three forms ; those of the first three being shorter and
less developed ; on the fourth to twelfth segments the fascicles
contain four to six setae, of which the two or three upper ones
are three or four times as long as the appendages, long, lance-
olate, bent and flattened in the middle, with a long tapering tip ;
two are long slender uncini, narrowly margined and bent toward
the end ; and one is long and slender, with a very slender seti-
form tip. From about the fourteenth to about the twenty-fourth
segment, the fascicles consist of one long slender seta, with two
or three uncini, which are shorter and have more broadly margined
tips than those of the preceding segments. On the succeeding
segments the slender setae disappear and two or three uncini re-
main, similar to the preceding ones, but gradually decrease in
length posteriorly. Color of skin bright light green, the interior
bright orange-red, showing through the integument. Length
about 1 inch ; diameter '03 of an inch (•75"").
Casco Bay, three to ten fathoms, muddy and sandy bottoms.
4 B. NATUBAX HIRTORY.
Anthostoma acutum Verrill.
Op. cit., p. 599.
Body long and quite slender, tapering raost toward* the head,
and very gradually posteriorly. Head very acutely pointed, with
two rather indistinct reddish spots above, resembling imperfect
ocelli. The branchiae commence at the eleventh setigerous seg-
ment as small dorsal papillae, and become prominent on the
thirteenth ; on the succeeding segments they become long and lig-
ulate. Anteriorl}' the feet are represented by an upper ramus,
consisting of a very small tuft of setae, with a very small papil-
liform Ipbe above it ; and a lower ramus, consisting of a small
prominent papilla, with a fascicle of slender setae, much larger
than the upper one. On the fourteenth and succeeding segments
the dorsal cirrus of the upper ramus becomes longer, more slender
and ligulate. On the fifteenth segment a small, short, rounded
ventral cirrus appears on the lower ramus, and farther back it be-
comes larger and more prominent, and the setigerous lobe becomes
bilobed. Anal segment rounded, obtuse ; cirri long and slender.
Color light red. Length up to 40"*" ; diameter, 2-5""*.
Off Gay Head, nineteen fathoms, soft mud; also from the
deeper parts of Vineyard Sound ; Casco Bay, eight to thirty fathoms.
Praxilla zonaXis Verrill. (Plate 5, fig. 4.)
American Journal of Science, vol. vii, p. 505, plate vi, fig. 2,
May, 1874.
Body composed of about twenty-five segments, exclusive of the
cephalic and anal ; of these twenty-two bear fascicles of seta ;
two ante-anal seggients are destitute of setae, and each of these
is more or less distinctl}' biannulated, so as often to appear like
three or four distinct segments. Cejjhalic lobe with a rather low
and broad median ridge, prolonged in front of head ; the end
depressed, tapering, obtuse ; narrow, lateral, parallel fossae boand
the median ridge ; the head is bordered by a thin moderately ele-
vated fold, continuous on each side, or with a very slight, scarcely
distinct notch, behind the middle ; a slight posterior notch, where
the two lateral lobes unite.
The first three setigerous segments are, in ordinary states of con-
traction, about equal in length, rather longer than broad, tapering
backward ; the next four are nearly cylindrical, biannulated, in pre-
served specimens often as broad as long, more elongated when
living; the seven succeeding ones are more elongated, nearly
Plate fi
Fig. 8.
B. NATURAL BI8T0BT. 885
cylindrical, and all similar; the following ones become smaller,
more elongated, and more or less constricted anteriorly ; the last
two setigerous ones are shorter than those that precede them.
The first three setigerous segments bear an upper fascicle of slen-
der setffi, and a single small, spine-like seta below, on each side ;
the succeeding segments bear a larger upper fascicle of slender
setae, and a row of numerous uncini below. Anal segment more
or less fVinnel-shaped according to the state of expansion, bor-
dered by a circle of sixteen to twenty slender, subequal papillae,
with one on the ventral side longer, and sometimes nearly twice
as long as the rest ; occasionally smaller papillae alternate irreg-
ularly with the larger ones, and the ventral papilla may be but
little longer than the rest. Color, generally light orange-yellow,
slightly iridescent anteriorly, and with bright red vessels ; an ill-
defined band of dark red covers the fourth, and the posterior part
of the third segment ; more clearly defined bands of bright red
occupy the posterior half of the fifth, sixth and seventh segments,
the last being twice as broad as the two preceding ; posterior to
this the surface is more or less specked with red, and the convo-
luted bright red dorsal vessel is very distinct ; uneigerous lobes
pale yellow, centred with yellowish brown or reddish brown.
The eggs are pale yellow, regularly oval or elliptical. They were
discharged* July 29th. Length about two inches, or 50°^ ; diam-
eter about 1-25"^.
Casco Bay, eight to twenty fathoms, sandy and muddy bottoms.
Ancistria capiUaris Verrill, sp. nov.
Body long, very slender, terete, thickest anteriorly, composed
of numerous segments. Head small, sub-conical, composed of
two segments, depressed, the tip bluntly rounded and slightly
turned up. A small proboscis is sometimes protruded forward
from the mouth. The first four segments bear fascicles of several
slender, acute, curved setae, above and below; the succeeding
ones bear transverse fascicles of elongated uncini, broadly mar-
gined on each side ; farther back these become shorter and less
distinct.
Body flesh-color, with red markings due to the circulating fluid.
Diameter 0-25"»~ to 0-60™» (-01 to -02 of an inch).
The tubes are long, capillary, unattached, tough, flexible, cov-
ered with firmly adhering grains of fine sand.
A. A. A. 8. VOL. ZXn. B. (25)
886 B. NATURAL HISTORY.
Gasco Bay and off the coast of Maine, in thirty to one hundred
and fifty fathoms ; abundant on muddy bottoms.
Ancistria acuta Verrill.
American Journ. Science, vol. vii, p. 505, plate vi, fig. 3, May,
1874.
Body elongated, terete, slender, but stouter than the preceding,
thickest anteriorly, composed of numerous short, distinct segments,
of which the anterior ones are biannulated. Head conical, acate.
The seven anterior segments bear fascicles of several long, slender,
acute, bentaetoe, both above and below. The succeeding s^ments
bear fascicles of elongated uncini. Diameter of body, 0*5"™ to
nearly I—.
Broad Sound, Gasco Bay, fifteen to twenty fathoms.
Areniella Verrill, gen. nov. •
Head acute, conical, mouth beneath. Body slender, terete,
composed of numerous similar segments, without any marked di-
vision into distinct regions. The upper fascicles on all the seg-
ments contain slender, acute, bent setae, usually mingled with
some of different forms anteriorly. The lower fascicles contain
shorter, mostly simple setaB anteriorly, and bidendate uncini farther
back.
' Areniella JUiformis Verrill, sp. nov.
Body long, slender, filiform, terete, of nearly uniform width,
but sometimes thicker anteriorly, composed of numerous biannu-
lated segments. Head small, acute. Mouth cre8cent-8h^[)ed,
bordered posteriorly by the swollen buccal segment. The first
seven segments bear three or four short, stout, obtuse setas in the
lower fascicles; in the upper fascicles, much longer and acate
setae, shortest and fewest in the anterior segments ; part of these
are long, slender, curved and tapering toward the tip, about one-
third as long as the diameter of the body; and others are
stouter, and only about half as long, spine-like, bent and mostly
acute at tips, but sometimes bidentate ; these are usually the
lowest in each fascicle, but sometimes alteniate with the longer
ones. The eighth setigerous, and many succeeding segments, hare
upper fascicles nearly like those of the preceding ones, but with
longer and more numerous setae ; the lower fascicles mostly con-
sist each of two elongated, curved, obtuse, bidentate uncini. Pos-
B. NATURAL BISTORT. 887
teriorly the sete of the upper fascicles become mnch longer and
more slender, often exceeding the diameter of the body, and the
fascicles are larger. Diameter about -01 of an inch (0-25"™).
Gasco Bay ; twenty to forty fathoms, mud.
Grymoea spiralis Verrill. (Plate 5, figure 5.)
American Journal of Science, vol. vii, p. 407, fig. 1, and plate 5,
fig. 4, April, 1874.
Body long and slender, spirally coiled, composed of over 150
segments, of which about 120 bear fascicles of slender setae.
Branchiae long filiform, two or three times the diameter of body,
arising in three clusters on each side, easily detached and often
partially absent. Setae on the first six or seven segments a little
longer than the following ones. General color dark red. Tube
composed of firmly cemented mud and sand, coiled in a double
spiral, the two halves revolving in opposite directions.
Off Casco Bay, in ninety fathoms, mud ; off Grand Menan I.,
sixty fathoms ; Jeffrey's Bank, eighty fathoms.
Gephtrea.
JPhascolosoma boreale Eeferstein (?), Beitrage zur Anat. und
syst. Kentniss der Sipunculiden, p. 206.
This species is rather short and thick, obtuse posteriorly, nearly
smooth to the naked eye, and destitute of both hooks and distinct
suckers, but the skin is minntelj' wrinkled transversely, and cov-
ered with almost microscopic slender papillae, and is minutely
specked with dirty yellowish brown ; the retractile portion is more .
distinctly granulated anteriorly. The tentacles are rather numer-
ous, small and simple.
Off Casco Bay, sixty-four fathoms; Cashe's Ledge, fift}'^ to
seventy-two fathoms ; near St. George's Bank, 110 fathoms ; Gulf
of St. Lawrence (Whiteaves).
JPhascolosoma ecementarium Verrill.
First Report of U. S. Gomm. of Fish and Fisheries, p. 627,
plate xviii, fig. 92, '
Sipunculus coementariua Qaatrefages, Histoire Nat. des Annel6s, vol.
li, p. 628, 1866. This is the Sipunculus Bernhardua of American writers,
but not of Forbes. P. hamulatum Packard, Mem. Boston Soc, 11, p. 29Q,
1867, may be the same species. It is perhaps identical also with Sipun-
culus capUatus Rathke, Fauna Norwegens, p. 143, plate vi, figures 20-23,
1848.
888 B. NATDBAL HISTORY.
Very common on the coast of New England, from Yineyaid
Sound northward, in 5 to 430 fathoms, in dead univalve shells.
Phascolosoma tuhkola Verrill.
American Journal of Science, vol. v, p. 99, 1873.
Body versatile in form ; in contraction short, cylindrical, oval^
or fusiform, *5 to one inch long, *10 to *15 in diameter; in full
extension the body is more or less fusiform, gradually tapering
anteriorly into the long, slender, nearly cylindrical retractile por-
tion, which is longer than the rest of the body and bears, near the
end, a circle of about ten to sixteen, simple, slender tentacles, be-
yond which the terminal portion is often extended into a short pro-
boscis, with the mouth at the end ; below the tentacles there is some-
times a dilation, but this is without special spines or granules, and
like the rest of the retractile portion in texture. The posterior
end of the body is bluntly rounded, and the skin is transversely
wrinkled and rough, and covered with small, round, somewhat
raised verrucae or suckers, to which dirt adheres, and at the end
nearly always bears from 3 to 8, small, but prominent, peculiar
bodies, having a slender pedicel and a clavate or globular head ;
their nature is doubtful (they may be sense-organs, but should be
examined on living specimens). At about the posterior third of
the proper body is an irregular zone of numerous, dark brown, bard
chitinous hooks, arranged in several rows, broad triangular in
form, with acute points directed forward ; among the hooks are
also a few suckers; the middle r^on is covered with small*
round, slightly raised suckers, which become much more prom*
inent and crowded at the anterior end toward the base of the
retractile portion, and have here the form of small, suboonical,
elevated warts, to which dirt usually adheres firmly ; the retractile
portion is covered throughout with minute conical verruciB or
papillae, most pipminent toward the base.
In many respects P. ccemerUarium agrees very closely with this,
but it has the posterior end much smoother, and with less conspic-
uous suckers ; the hooks are not so numerous, less acute, and
lighter colored ; the anterior part of the body has smaUer and less
prominent suckers or verrucse ; the skin is lighter colored, thinner,
and more translucent, and there is a zone bearing several rows of
minute, slender, acute, chitinous spinules, a little below the ten-
tacles.
B. KATItBAL BISTORT. 889
Off Casco Bay, sixty to ninety-four fathoms ; near St. George's
Bank, eighty-five to one hundred and fifty fathoms.
TURBELLARIA.
Ophionemertes agilis Verrill. (Plate 2, figure 4.)
American Journal of Science, vol. vii, p. 45, plate vii, fig. 1, 1874.
Allied to Tetrastemma. Body slender, slightly depressed, with
the sides well rounded, thickest in the middle, tapering gradually
to the slender, obtuse, posterior end ; head somewhat separate
from, and wider than the anterior part of the body, changeable in
form, often oval, sometimes sub-triangular, generally longer than
broad, narrowed anteriorly, obtuse or slightly emarginate, with a
terminal orifice. Eyes numerous, forming a long, crowded lateral
row or group along each side of the head ; the rows are simple and
oonvergdht anteriorly, posteriorly they become broad and double.
Back of the eyes there is a curved transverse groove or furrow,
crossing the back of the head. No lateral fossae were observed.
Color pale ochre-yellow ; the intestine slightly reddish ; the inter-
nal lateral organs lighter yellow, giving a reticulated appearance
to the sides. Length 25™ to 40"»" ; 1-5™ to 2™" in diameter.
Casco Bay, twenty to sixty-five fathoms ; Bay of Fundy, forty
to ninety fathoms^
Tetrastemma vittata Verrill. (Plate 2, figures 7, 8.)
Op. cit., vol. vii, p. 45, plate vii, figs. 3, a, b, 1874.
Body short and stout, obtyse at both ends, well rounded, little
depressed; head not distinct from the body, obtusely rounded.
Eyes four, small and not very distinct, the two pairs widely sepa-
rated, the anterior ones near the anterior end, and nearer together
than the others. A well-marked transverse groove or fold is sit-
uated between the two pairs of eyes, and extends around to the
ventral side; proboscis-orifice terminal. Color of body dark
olive-green, greenish brown, or greenish black, often with a light
longitudinal dorsal stripe; head greenish, marked with six lon-
gitudinal white stripes or vittte, which radiate fVom the terminal
orifice and extend backward to the transverse furrow, which is
bordered by a transverse band of white, often forming a whitish
ring around the head ; two of the vittse are dorsal ; two ventral ;
and one lateral, on each side ; a less distinct median ventral one
is sometimes visible. Length, 25™" to 40™" ; diameter, 4"*" to 7"™.
Casco Bay, three to twenty fathoms, on muddy bottoms.
390 B. NATDBAL BISTORT.
Macronemertea gigantea Verrill. (Plate 2, figares 5, 6.)
American Journal of Science, vol. vi, p. 439, pi. vii, figs. 2, a, b,
1873.
Body much elongated, subterete, a little depressed, thickest
anteriorly, gradually tapering posteriorly, becoming very slender
toward the end. Integument very soft, secreting a large quan-
tity of mucus. Head not distinct from body, obtusely rounded in
front, with a terminal pore ; upper surface with two longitudinal
fossae ; below with two rather indistinct transverse grooves, or
fossae, in advance of the mouth. Ocelli numerous, arranged in six
clusters ; a pair of large clusters on the anterior lateral border of
the head ; a pair of smaller lateral clusters farther back ; and a
pair of small clusters on the dorsal surface, between the longitu-
dinal fossae. Color, when living, bright orange-red above, flesh-
color below. Length, about eight feet, in extension; diameter,
anteriorly, -30 of an inch (7°™ to S'^).
Off Cape Elizabeth, sixty-eight fathoms, soft mud, Aug. 12.
TUNICATA.
Ascidia mollis Verrill. (Plate 1, fig. 5.)
American Journal of Science, vol. vii, p. 409, fig. 2, 1874.
Body large, hemispherical or subglobular, attached obliqnely
by the left side; integutnent rather thin, soft and somewhat
translucent, with the surface nearly smooth, but more or less
wrinkled. Color, pale olive-green. Branchial aperture near
one end, large, slightly elevated, surrounded by eight obtusely
rounded lobes ; anal orifice placed to one side of the middle of
the body, little elevated, relatively small, rounded in ordinary
expansion. Diameter of body usually one to two inches.
Common in forty-eight to one hundred and seven fathoms, at-
tached to bowlders in many localities off Casco Bay ; off Man-
heigan I. ; at Jeffrey's Bank ; Cashe's Ledge, etc.
ANTHOZOA.
Cornulariella modesta Verrill. (Plate 6, figs. 2, 3.)
American Journal of Science, vol. vii, p. 40, plate viii, figs. 1, 2.
Allied to Comularia and Telesto, Polyps tubular, rising from
creeping stolons ; the lower part of the polyp-bodies has the walls
thickened and stiffened by large numbers of spicula, having inter-
locking branches or projections, and is more or less eight-ribbed
B. NATUBAL HISTOBT.
891
in contraction ; upper part of body hour-glass shaped, flexible,
translucent, whitish, with fewer white spicula, retractile into the
lower part, the eight internal lamellsB showing through. Tenta-
cles large, expanding about 6°^, lanceolate, gradually tapering
to the acute tips, flat above, with the short thick pinnae arranged
along the upper edges on the distal half ; the lower side of the
tentacles is rounded and more or less swollen toward the base.
Color of stolons and base of polyps dirty yellowish or brownish ;
flexible part of polyps and the tentacles translucent white; the
latter with central rows of white spicula. Height of polyps, 6"™
to 18™" ; diameter, 3™ ; distance between polyps, 6°*°^ to 25°™ ;
breadth of stolons, about 3"™.
Casco Bay; Bay of Fundy, eighty to one hundred fathoms.
Gulf of St. Lawrence, in 220 fathoms (Whiteaves).
Cerianthus borealis Verrill.
Op. cit., vol. V, p. 5, January, 1873.
Bodj^ much elongated, tapering gradually to the abactinal open-
ing, the surface smooth but more or less sulcated longitudinally.
Marginal tentacles very numerous and unequal, the inner ones
longest, in the largest specimens 2*25 inches long, and *12 in diame-
ter at base, gradually tapering, acute ; the outer ones 1 inch and
less in length. Oral tentacles numerous, crowded in several rows,
in the largest specimens about 1 inch long, slender, acute. Color
of body olive-brown or dark chestnut-brown, sometimes pale bluish
just below the tentacles ; disk pale yellowish brown ; space within
the oral tentacles, around the mouth, deep brown, with lighter
4
radiating lines ; oral tentacles pale chestnut-brown ; marginal
ones deep salmon or yellowish brown, the longest usually barred
transversely with six to eight dark reddish brown spots, each
spot partially divided along the median line into two lateral ones.
The two largest specimens, dredged in twenty-eight fathoms,
east of Grand Menan, by the writer, measured 5 inches across the
disk and tentacles, but their bodies were mutilated. Entire ones
of much smaller size were dredged by Dr. Packard and Mr. Cooke
in 110 and 150 fathoms, soft mud, near St. George's Bank. The
largest of these was eight inches long, and like other species of the
genus, inhabited a thick, tough, felt-like, muddy tube.
Casco Bay, seven to ninety-four fathoms ; off Seguin Island
seventy-five fathoms, of large size (18 inches long, 1*5 in diameter,
and 7 inches across the tentacles).
892 B. NATURAL HEBTOBT.
SPONOIJE.
Leucandra cyathus Verrill, sp. nor.
Sponge deep cap-shaped or goblet-shaped, with a short, tiiidc
pedicel and a wide terminal opening, surrounded by an e%'en, acute
rim; walls of the sponge rather firm, moderately thin, finely
porous; external surface even, sparingly hispid, with the short
projecting points of scattered flisiform and tri-radiate spicnla;
internal surface finely porous, and roughened with small, short
points of'spicula, directed upward. The external wall is filled
with an intricate net-work of moderately large, mostly tri-radiate
spicula, part of which are sagittate, with a straight shaft, and two
long, slender, widely divergent, slightly curved branches ; partly
regular, with the angles nearly equal ; all have long, moderately
slender rays, tapering regularly to a sharp point ; in some, one
ray is considerably longer than the others. A few straight, fusi-
form spicula, with acute tips, project from the surface ; they are
about as large as one of the branches of the tri-radiate ones.
The walls of the irregularly divided radiating tubes are supported
by the long, straight shafts of tri-radiate sagittate spicula, having
their branches widely divergent, curved and mostly imbedded in
the outer or inner walls, and usually about half as long as the
shaft. The inner wall is supported by tri-radiate spicules, similar
to those of the outer wall, and by quadri-radiate sagittate spiculat
mostly smaller, and with unequal curved branches, the apical one
short, projecting slightly beyond the inner surface, and directed
upwards. Height of sponge, 20™" to 25"°* ; diameter of cups, 8""
to 10"™. Color pale yellowish white.
Casco Bay, off Witch Rock, fifteen fathoms.
Ascortis ClarJcii Verrill, sp. nov.
Sponge forming long, slender, regular, subcylindrieal tubes,
either simple or sparingly branched, with smooth thin and delicate
walls ; terminal orifice usually small and simple, or surrounded by
a short fringe of small spicula. The walls are composed of a
close, irregular net-work of slender tri-radiate spicula, which are
regular, with long, slender, tapering, subequal, acute rays ; usually
the angles are nearly equal, but some are more or less sagittate m
form, with two of the rays widely divergent and slightly curved.
Among the tri-radiate spicula there are many small, very slender,
acute, fhsiform ones, which are mostly less than half the diameter
B. NATUBAL HISTOBT. 898
of one of the rays of the former, and from one-third to two-thirds
the length. Length of the sponge-tabe, 15™» to 25™° ; diameter,
0-60™ to 0-80"*". Color pure white.
Quahog Bay, at low water, abundant.
This is the most delicate species of calcareous sponges found
on our coast and is so translucent as to display very readily the
form and structure of the minute zooid^, like those figured by the
lamented t^ofessor H. J. Clark in a closely related species (A.
fragilis, var. bifida HaBckel). These can be easily made out even
in alcoholic specimens, and are large enough to be visible with a
one-inch objective. This species is readily distinguished f^om A.
fragUis, both by its long, even, sparingly branched tubes and by
having regular spicula instead of the irregular ones characteristic
of the latter.
Leucosolenia (AsccUtis) cancellata Verrill, sp. nov.
Sponge massive, pyriform, hemispherical, subglobular, or irreg-
ular, consisting of an intricate mass of small anastomosing tubes,
which are more or less coalesced ; surface variously cancellated,
consisting of small, irregular, mostly angular, deep depressions or
pits, separated by thin rounded ridges. The thin walls of the
tubes are supported by a net-work of rather small, regular, tri-
radiate and quadri-radiate spicula, the two sorts about equal in
size. The tri-radiate ones mostly have the rays and angles nearly
equal ; the rays being nearly straight, long, and tapering but little
to near the ends, which are somewhat obtusely pointed ; some of
the spicula are broadly sagittate, with wide spreading branches.
The quadri-radiate spicula have a small, short, acute, straight or
curved apical ray, many times shorter than the others, which are
similar in size and form to those of the tri-radiate spicula. Diam-
eter of the sponge mass 6""" to 30"°; diameter of component
tubes 0'5"™ to 1°*°. Color yellowish white to brownish yellow.
Casco Bay, ten to sixty-four fathoms ; Cashe's Ledge, fifty-two
to seventy fathoms.
This species belongs to the genus Ascaltia of Hseckel, which
contains the typical species of the old genus Leucosolenia.
894 B. NATURAL HISTORY.
EXPLANATION OF PLATES.
PLATE 1.
Fig. 1. Octopu8 Bairdii V., male ; profile view, natural size.
Fig. 2. The same, dorsal view.
Fig. 8. Entalis agilis? G. O. Sars; lateral view of the soft parts, in
extension, enlarged about four diameters.
Fig. 4. Entails striolata ; several views of animal, with the foot in dif-
ferent states of expansion ; enlarged about one and a half diameters.
Fig. 6. Ascidia mollis VerrlU ; natural size.
Fig. 6. Chelyosoma geometricum Stimpson ; natural size.
[The drawings are by J. H. Emeiton.]
PLATE 2.
Fig. 1. Gattiola cincinnata Verrill; dorsal view; enlarged about five
diameters.
Fig. 2. Nephthys ingens Stimpson; dorsal view of anterior part of body
and proboscis ; enlarged.
Fig. 3. Ammotrypane flmbriata Verrill ; ventral view ; natural size.
Fig. 4. Ophionemertes agilis Verrill ; dorsal view ; enlarged about two
diameters.
Fig. 5. Macronemertes gigantea Verrill ; anterior part of body and head;
ventral view ; natural size.
Fig. 6. The same ; dorsal view.
Fig. 7. Tetrastemma vittata Verrill; anterior part of body and head;
dorsal view ; enlarged about four diameters.
Fig. 8. The same ; front view of the head.
[Figures 5 and 6 were drawn by the author, the rest by J. H. Emerton.]
PLATE S.
Fig. 1. Phyllodoce catenula VerrlU ; dorsal view of anterior part of
body and head, and of the extended proboscis ; enlarged about four di-
ameters.
Fig. 2. Procercea gracilis Verrill ; dorsal view of head and anterior por-
tion of body; enlarged about six diameters.
Fig. 3. Nereis pelagica, male and female ; natural size.
Fig. 4r. The same; one of the lateral appendages of the 54th segment;
enlarged about ten diameters.
Fig. 5. iVi'noS nigripes Verrill ; one of the lateral appendages ; greatly
enlarged. '
[Figures 8 and 4 are copied from Ehlers; the rest are by J. H. Emerton, from natare.1
B. NATURAL HISTORY. 895
PLATE 4.
Fig. 1. SUphanosyllU omata Yerrlll ; anterior and posterior portions ;
enlarged eight diameters.
Fig. 2. JSulalia pistacia Verrill ; anterior and posterior parts of body ;
enlarged aboqt four diameters.
Fig. 3. Vermilia serrula Stimpson ; anterior part of tube and expanded
branchiffi of an immature specimen ; much enlarged.
Fig. 4. Nbthria opalina Yerrlll ; anterior portion ; enlarged about five
diameters.
[The figures were drawn by J. H. Emerton.]
PLATE 5.
Fig. 1. Nereis virens; head and anterior segments; slightly enlarged.
Fig. 2. The same ; lateral appendages ; enlarged four diameters ; a,
appendage from the 56th segment ; &, from the 80th segment.
Fig. 3. Fnipo gracilis Verrill ; set® enlarged 175 diameters ; a, one of
the inferior setsB of the lower ramus ; b, one of the superior setsB of the
lower ramus ; c, one of the setse of the upper ramus.
Fig. 4, Praxilla zonalis Verrill ; anterior and posterior portions ; en-
larged about three diameters.
Fig. 5. Grymcea ^iralis Verrill ; lateral view of anterior portion ; en-
larged about three diameters.
Fig. 6. Liimhriconereis fragilis ; anterior part of body and head, dorsal
Tiew ; enlarged about six diameters.
Fig. 7. Nephthys ciliata ; one of the lateral appendages ; enlarged ten
diameters.
[Figures 1. 2 and 7 are copied f^om Eblers; figure 8 is ft'om nature, by the author;
the rest were drawn from living specimens by J. H. Emerton.]
PLATE 6.
Fig, 1. Edwardsia farinaceaY^Tr\\\\ lateral view; enlarged about three
diameters.
Fig. 2. Cornulariella modesta Verrill ; two of the zooids, one in con-
traction ; enlarged about four diameters.
Fig. 3. The same ; some of the spicula Arom the integument of the
body; enlarged.
Fig. 4. Alcyonium caraeum Agasslz ; three of the polyps ; enlarged
about ten diameters.
Fig. 5. Oligotrockusvitrens G. O. Sars ; two of the plates from the Integ-
ument of the body of a specimen dredged in 79 fathoms near JeflTrey's
Bank ; enlarged 140 diameters ; a, a wheel with the rim not ftilly devel-
oped, but continuous ; b, a wheel with the rim flilly formed.
Fig. 6. ChcBtoderma nitiduhim Loven ; with the branchisd retracted ;
enlarged about five diameters.
[Figure 6 was drawn by J. H. Emerton; the others by the author.]
896 B. NATtTRAL HI8T0BT.
On the Obioik op Species. By G. C. Swallow, of Colombia, Mo.
A large number of the cultivators of science have believed in
the integrity of species. They have based their investigations on
the hypothesis that certain organic beings are alike in all their
essential characteristics ; that each had a well defined beginning,
will produce its kind, and that each series will maintain its iden-
tity indefinitely to the end. They have at the same time admitted
that individuals may be somewhat changed by various causes,
such as climate, food and habits, and that such changes may be
fostered and transmitted, especially by man's care ; that Tarieties
with marked variations may be produced by special causes, but
that when these causes cease and the original conditions are re-
stored, the variations will rapidly disappear, and that the varying
series will return more or less perfectly to the original stock.
But at the beginning of the present century, Lamarck, St.
Hilaire, and a few other distinguished savans, were led by numer-
ous facts 'to adopt and promulgate a theory of Development ;
that inorganic matter is developed into the lower orders of or-
ganisms, and these in turn are developed into higher orders until
man is produced. Thus all species and orders of organic beings
were brought into existence and developed by natural laws with-
out the intervention of final causes.
The promulgation of this theory created a profound sensation,
though the world was then absorbed by the most important politi-
cal events of modern times. But Cuvier and others so success-
fully defended the immutability of organic forms, that nearly all
scientific men continued to believe in the integrity of species, not-
withstanding the rudimentary organs and other facts adduced by
Lamarck in support of his development theory.
About the middle of this century the "Vestiges of Creation"
appeared, reannouncing the Theory of Development and extending
it far beyond the limits indicated by Lamarck. The work pre-
sented a formidable array of facts, carefully collected from all
departments of natural science. This work led to many able and
often repeated discussions of the theory, in which its opponents
seemed to have a decided advantage in the argument, and the
belief in the immutability of species held its position in the sci-
entific world, though some doubted and entered upon a more
careM examination of the subject.
B. KJlTUBAL histobt. 397
Some ten years later, Mr. Charles Darwin and Mr. AlAred
Wallace promulgated a theory accounting for the origin of species
by variations produced in several ways, but more especially by
natural selection. Mr. Darwin has sustained his theory by several
very able works in which he has collected a vast multitude of facts
from all parts of the world and from all departments of natural
science. So strong has he made his position, and so profound
has been the impression upon men of all classes, that most scien-
tific men have more or less examined the theory in its new rela-
tions, and a great many naturalists have given to what is called
^^ Darwinism" their tacit assent, and many others their active
support. But Mr. Darwin wisely limits the effects of his theory.
He admits the creation of primoidal beings, thus avoiding the
weakest parts in the theories of Lamarck and the author of the
^^ Vestiges," by leaving the little known region along the bound-
aries of the organic and the inorganic kingdoms out of the
discussion. Meanwhile other diligent students of nature have
pushed their investigations so far into these unknown vegions as
to become fully satisfied of the production of organic beings by
natural laws.
Mr. Crosse announced the generation of new animals, the Acarua
Crosaii^ by the agency of galvanism ; though the force of his declsr
ration was neutralized when others recognized, in the mites, which
came trooping up the conducting wires, an old acquaintance, the
Acarus korridua. But when Drs. Bastian and Child, and Prof*
Haeckel, Mr. Herbert Spencer, and others, declare that the evi-
dence of evolution covers the whole space ftrom inorganic matter
up to man, it becomes a matter of more serious import. We find
the bases of our applied logic disappearing, and the old and long
trusted dicta of scientific investigation swept away.
Harvey's declaration Omne vivum ex ovo is giving place to the
opposite, Nihil vivum ex ovo; and the oft used dictum, 'Hhere is no
beginning or change of existence without a <^use," which has so
often come to our aid when we came to the end of our knowledge,
is rapidly becoming obsolete before the universal dominion of law.
When we had a million species and a long list of inorganic sim-
ples and a countless multitude of stars, the logician had a flbae
field for his final causes, but now when all are swept away, and all
things fire developed by natural laws, save the primoidal star dust
or fire mist, that alone in all the. wide universe admits the need of
898 B. NATUBAL BISTORT.
final cause. But, doubtless, some ingenious yankee will soon make
a telescope sufficiently powerful to dissolve all nebulse and dissi-
pate all evidence of fire mist and star dust, leaving nothing for
all things to be developed from, and instead of proving ex nihil
nihil esty we shall be compelled to adopt again the old faith ex
nihil omnes sunt.
Few men, I apprehend, adopted the theory of Comte's Positive
Philosophy, but if the views above quoted be correct, science will
have demonstrated the principles upon which it is based, ^Uhe
fundamental law of the development of the human mind." If, as
Comte says, ignorance alone admit a necessity for final causes,
and if the mind, when it arrives at a perfect knowledge of truth,
will admit no final causes, and if this be the highest stage of
man's development, the last end of the series which commenced
with mere jelly speck or protoplasm, we must conclude we are
fast approaching the end of our development, man's most perfect
state. For the tendencies of the age to ignore final causes, simply
because we see few necessities for them, must satisfy Comte him-
self.
Now all this sadly interferes with our long cherished views of
science, and gives us many a sad twinge of heart-ache to part
with -the principles instilled into our minds by our teachers, the
venerated fathers of American science, Cleaveland, Silliman,
Hitchcock and Torrey.
But the votaries of science are not the only class who have had
their most cherished opinions seriously jostled by zealous investi-
gators who fearlessly express their honest convictions. We are
now prepared to sympathize with the students of Homer who
looked upon the Iliad as the greatest Epic, when Wolf and Heyne
declared their model Iliad a mere patchwork, made up of the
songs of strolling minstrels; and the votaries of Shakspeare,
since Judge Holmes and others haVe proved Shakspeare was not
written by Shakspeare, but by a disgraced jurist, who had small
gift of poetry.
But we submit, and are ready to follow wherever the facts
lead. It is, however, as Mr. Darwin says, difficult for us old men
to give up our long cherished views, and it must not be deemed
strange that we have difficulties still, and some points upon which
we need more light.
It is my object, having presented the proposition as I understand
B. NATURAL HISTORY. 899
it, to state some of these difficulties without stopping to discuss
the issues, for, as Mr. Darwin has well said, there is scarcely a
subject upon which he relies to sustain his theory that does not
furnish arguments for both sides of the question. I am thoroughly
impressed with the idea that the innumerable facts adduced to
establish this theory, save in a few cases, lead to no definite
conclusions but to a mere balancing of probabilities. It also
appears that the question at issue has not been stated with suffi-
cient precision, and that the different parts of it have not been
so carefully analyze<^ as to give a clear view of what changes are
necessary at each stage of the progress from molecules to man.
A change which can be produced by merely enlarging a muscle
is very different from a change which requires the addition of a
new muscle, and one which requires the addition of a new bone to
an osseous system is radically different from one that necessitates
the giving a bone where none previously existed.
The fact that we can develop a race of long-tailed dogs into a
race of bob-tails is no evidence, whatever, that the bob-tails can be
changed into the long-tails, since one is effected by losses and the
other must be by additions. It is far easier to lose than it is to
gain.
Again, a change involving a modification of organs or properties
already possessed can give no logical relations to one demanding
the introduction of new organs and new faculties. The change
of the reasoning powers gives no presumptive evidence that we
can create the moral powers.
Between the lowest organism and man, there seem to be two
very serious barriers ; one of which appears utterly insuperable.
As the animal is higher than the plant, according to the theory
plants must be transmuted into animals. But there are certainly
no facts to show such a change possible. If we are referred to
the lower orders where the plants and animals are so nearly alike
and say the change may there occur, it leaves the affirmative with-
out proof, and my objection still remains in full force. '
We have* facts to show we may change things, quality and prin-
ciple, but none to show we can develop new ones. How you are
to give a plant a nervous system and mental power does not
appear. But it is said that we have proved so many changes to
support the theory, you must accept it as a whole if there are
some obscure parts. But the argument proves too much for Mr.
400 B. NATtTKAL HI8T0BT.
Darwin, as it would proTe the deyelopment of matter into organ-
isms as well as plants into animals. It is as easy to give life to
molecules as it is to give mental powers to a plant.
As we have no facts to prove the development of a new faeolly,
so the facts cannot support a theory which covers such changes.
The fact that you can change one animal into another only sup-
ports a theory of the change of animals, and not of plants into
animals.
The other, and to me Insuperable barrier, is the change of the
lower animals into man. So far as the physical nature is con-
cerned it might be possible, but in the highest degree, improbable,
as no changes so radical have been observed. But when you say
the intellectual powers of a monkey are developed into the human
mind, the facts adduced have no relevance to the case. As was
said before, the facts which prove the change of an animal into an
animal, are no proof of a change of a brute into a human, nor of
any theory which covers such a change. Y^hat powers of the
monkey will give the moral powers of man?
Some will say that a savage has no more moral sense than a
monkey. Then he is not a man, and the impassable barrier is
between the savage and man, and not between the monkey and
the savage. Somewhere you must add the moral power, if the
theory be made to cover the human race.
Man also has a religious or superstitious element, as it is called
by some, which is radically and totally different from any mental
faculty in a brute. Hence there can be nothing in a brute to
be developed into this faculty of man. But some say the religious
element is a product of education. Comte, however, declares the
exact contrary, the more ignorant the more superstitious. Cer-
tainly no intellectual state is more universal. Hence in making a
man it must be provided for. I can conceive it possible to make
a prophet out of a man,, or a monkey, if need be, for he luis mental
powers that give him a knowledge of future events, and those
faculties may be so improved as to comprehend all ^ the future
which is dependent upon fixed laws. But when we attempt to
make a monkey recognize and fear the unknown, I find no germ or
spark of an intellectual faculty in all the brute creation to b^^
with or to work upon. Take the. intellectual senses, the powers
of perception and conception, and develop them until they are as
perfect in the monkey as Milton supposes them to be in the highest
B. NATURAL HISTOBT. 401
Archangel, and they will still give no intimation of the unknown.
I have found no facts to indicate that such a change is possible.
We have a tolerable history of man ever since he has occupied
the earth, and we may date his introduction near the close of the
Tertiary or the beginning of the Drift period. Since then there
has been time enough for any possible departure fh>m original
types. The advocates of the development theory admit the time
since man's appearance to be not less than 240,000 or 500,000
years.*
That man lived in the Tertiary period is scarcely possible ; for
if his implements and remains were not obliterated by the pow-
erful agencies of the Drift, there can be no reason why they should
not have been preserved in the quiet times of the Tertiary, in
which we find the remains of so many thousand plants and ani-
mals. We may safely conclude then that in the Drift we have
man's earliest history. From this history we have a tolerable
view of his form, habits, implements, habitations, burial-places,
altars and sacrifices. And yet no one has claimed that we find
any more evidence of the monkey among these primeval men than
we do among the present races. The evidence on this point is
conclusive. The oldest skull as yet found in Europe, about which
there has been no doubt that it belonged to the age of extinct
mammalia, the oldest of human remains, is simply a good Cau-
casian skull, and Prof. Huxlej' says, "there is no mark of degra-
dation about any part of its stimcture. It is a fair average human
skull which might have belonged to a philosopher."
Again the oldest skull found in America, so far as I know,
about which there can be no question that its possessor was con-
temporary with the early mound bunders, the elephant and mas-
todon, was found in a large mound in New Madrid county,
Missouri, inclosed in an inverted earthen pot, resting upon the
ancient dirt floor in an apartment of the mound which contained
the altar and the charred remains of many victims. The mouth
of the jar was ^so small the skull could not be removed whole.
This skull was taken out in the presence of several gentlemen,
from a depth of thirty feet below the undisturbed surface of the
mound which was covered with a vegetable soil some two feet
*Mr. CroU, ft'om astronomical calculations, makes the drift 240,000 years old. and
Its duration 160,000 years ; Lyell from geological data makes the duration of the period
above 224,000 and the age of drift at least 500,000 years.
A.A. A.S. VOL. XXn. B. (26)
402 B. NATURAL HISTORY.
deep, and on which were growing the older trees of a primitlTe
forest, and stumps and fallen logs still older, were decaying.
This precious relic of the earliest Americans is small, perfectly
preserved, thin, of fine texture, oval rather than elliptical. I
desired to show you this skull, but did not dare to risk its trans-
portation. This mound was built on a second bench of the Mis*
sissippi, and about six feet of alluvial matter has been deposited
since it was deserted. In the bank of a creek near, and appar-
ently in the same formation that had been deposited around the
mound, was found the tooth of a mastodon.
We opened another small burial mound near the one just de-
scribed. It gave the same indications of antiquity. In it we
found that many bodies had been deposited on the ground floor,
several feet below the surrounding surface, but nothing re-
mained save a dark stain and some gray calcareous powder,
showing where dust turned to dust, and some enamel of the teeth.
In this mound we also found a great many carious earthen
vessels ornamented with plastic representations of animals and
women. Of the latter some fev represent the whole body, others
the head and bust, and others the head only. These heads and
faces represent a race as highly developed as the average Mon-
golian or the best developed Indian tribes.
I will assure you there is nothing in all these representations
of humans and animals to remind you of the monkey but the arms
of one of the women, and even they, though very different from
the arms which art has given Mother Eve, are still a very exact
representation of the long lean arms of the Malaysian women.
Other skulls of inferior structure and great antiquity have been
found, but absolutely nothing to show that man was less de-
veloped then than now.
The historical record then gives. us no indication of man's phy-
sical development from the monkey even during the 500,000
years he is supposed to have lived upon the earth.
But Mr. Darwin appeals to the illimitable geological cycles.
But if a monkey is to be developed into a man, and we find that
man has made little progress and the monkey less, during the
vast periods of the Quaternary and recent ages, how long will it
take to fill the wide gap between them ?
Prof. Huxley has well but modestly answered this qnestion.
The advocates of progressive development must look for man's
B. NATURAL HISTORY. 403
primoidal stock in an epoch more distant fl*om the tertiary than
the tertiary is from the present, and that will carry his beginning
beyond all monkeys and beyond all mammals, and he will be
compelled to start from a reptilian or a fish. As mach therefore
as we gain in time we lose by beginning lower on the develop-
ment scale.
There are therefore, two insuperable objections to the develop-
ment of the monkey into man.
1st. The monkey had no rudiments of a moral sense or any-
thing kindred to it, which could possibly be developed into man's
moral nature.
The whole theory of development by natural selection is based
upon like producing like. No natural selection ever could have
produced a race of Retrievers had not some dog learned to re-
trieve, that he might be selected to propagate that race.
There is therefore no possibility of making a moral being out
of a monkey by natural selection, unless some monkey with a
moral sense can be found upon which to operate. Without this
not a step can be made by natural selection.
2d. The facts in man's vastly long history fail to show even
the slightest probability that the physical monkey was developed
•into the physical man.
If then, as scientific men, we follow where the facts lead and
nowhere else, man must be dropped from the scries before the
theory can be accepted as time.
Like Mr. Darwin we must also admit organisms to start with.
Again the theory will be relieved of a serious difficulty by not
requiring the change of plants to animals. It is quite as simple
to suppose each comes from its own peculiar primoidal germs.
With some few modifications of this character, the develop-
ment theory is relieved of its most serious difficulties.
Mr. Darwin has much confidence in the changes produced by
domestication to establish his theory. His book is rich in inter-
esting and instructive facts, but the facts do not carry the same
convictions to all candid reasoners.
The facts incident to domestication are, in some respects, very
valuable, since much greater changes are produced by the aid and
skill of man than in the state of nature. Yet these changes can-
not have the same value in determining the question at issue,
since nearly or quite all the species have been produced in a state
404 B. NATURAL HISTORY.
of nature and under very different influences. Even if we give
these changes all the force of natural developments, they still
fall short of any conviction stronger than possibilities ; as no
species has been produced in all the thousand years of the trial.
Cuvier's argument, from the animals and plants found embalmed
in the ancient Egyptian tombs, more than neutralizes all the con-
victions from modern changes. Add to this the argument tliat
is coming down from the prehistoric ages, and the negative be-
comes very strong. If in these many cj'cles man, with all his
skill, aided by all climates, soils, food and varied habits, has not
produced a species, when will he be able to do it?
Then, again, the universal tendency to return to original forms,
when left to nature, makes it very improbable that such changes
would occur in nature. It shows at least that there is no strong
tendency to depart from original types.
The hog has been greatly changed by domestication, and yet
when left to himself, he soon returns to the original t^'pe.
During the late war many hogs, some of the most improved
breeds, were turned loose and left to shift for themselves. Three
years after I found them possessing all the ph3'8ical characteristics
of the wild boar of Europe. This was especially true of the
younger members of the herds. •
Since such is the tendency with all animals and plants, it seems
to indicate a natural stability of original types.
The American bison furnishes a very interesting example of
changes produced by the physical structure of the regions they
occupy. There are several well-known herds which range in cer-
tain wooded and high regions of the Rocky Mountains. These
herds never come down to the plains. They leave their peculiar
haunts only when driven down b}'' excessive snows. They then
remain among the foot-hills until the snow permits their return to
their mountain fastnesses. How long these herds have occupied
these places no one can tell, but long enough to produce such
changes as well-known laws would indicate. They are smaller,
have finer hair and darker color, and have more activity and
sprigiitliness than their kindred of the plain. But it would be
safe to predict a rapid disappearance of all these variations, should
they be driven out to feed in the broad level prairies. The
changes in these mountain bison are as great as the laws lead ua
to suspect, should they remain in their present homes indefinitely.
B. NATUBAL HISTORY. 405
Should they migrate, they can find no possible location that would
increase their variations ; each new place would turn them back to
their normal types. There are some important facts pertaining
to the distribution of the American bison, showing he has limited
capacities for migrations. All the facts known of the above-
named mountain herds show they confine themselves to very
limited areas. They never go beyond the limits of a cluster of
spurs or a range of peaks, and hunters seldom fail to find them
in a single day.
Benton says that " Buffaloes are the best engineers." They show
great skill in selecting routes and unflinching perseverance in fill-
ing up chasms and quagmires with their own bodies. But thej'
seldom cross the Rocky Mountains, though his trail leads hard by
passes over which, unimproved, one could drive his carriage. The
numerous skulls whitening along the Deer Lodge Pass, and down
the valleys of the Silver Bow and Deer Lodge towards the Colum-
bia, show that multitudes once crossed and perished. Why?
Their annual migrations north through the Bad Lands, and across
the Missouri, are obstructed by obstacles a thousand-fold more
formidable so far as we can now see. There can be then no topo-
graphical reason why they may not cross the Rocky Mountains,
and there must be some cause not as yet understood. The skulls
over the Deer Lodge Pass, and beyond in the Silver Bow, prove
that they did cross once at least, and that thousands of them per-
ished and have left no representatives on the western slope.
These, and other facts connected with the American bison, show
his migrations to be limited, and that nothing but the great Yellow-
stone Park can save him from extinction. There is no hope of a
new species even from the mountain variety. In this connection
we may ask why the elephant and mastodon died out on this con-
tinent during the terrace period? They had a genial climate,
abundant forage, and none to make them afraid, and yet they
perished miserably, putting an end to the most important dynasty
on the continent.
Hybrids have played an important part in the discussion of this
theory. Those produced in cultivation are made most prominent ;
whereas those occurring in the wild state ought to give us more
reliable data for deductions. The fact that the wild hybrids are
comparably few should caution us against giving the artificial
ones too much prominence. Hybrids arc very closely connected
with our theory by two recognized facts :
406 B. NATURAL BISTORT.
Ist. As a rule hybrids are barren, especially those produced in
the natural state.
2d. The few fruitful hybrids usually manifest a tendency toward
one or the other of the parent species.
We have a good illustration among our American oaks.
The Bartram oak was doubtless a h^'bnd of Q. phello8 and Q.
tinctoria or Q. coccinia. This oak was fruitful, and all the trees
known as grown from its seeds are, according to Nnttall, well
marked Q. phelloSy showing an entire return from a variety so
marked as to be pronounced a species by Micheaux, in the first
generation.
•Another hybrid called Lee's. oak, and similar to Bartram's, was
discovered near Cincinnati, and still another by myself near Boon-
ville, Mo. These are doubtless hybrids of Q. imbricaria and Q.
tliictoria or Q. coccinia. These hybrids must be very rare, though
the parent species grow together over vast areas of our oonntry.
The hope of a species from the interesting Bartram oak, or even a
healthy variety, has been destroyed by the death of the founder
of the line, and the return of the offspring to one of the parent
species. We may expect Lee's oak and my own to perish in their
efforts to found a dynasty.
I once discovered the most beautiful of Trilliuma. It was new,
and it was my first chance for immortality. I named it Cleat^and-
icum^ and sent it to Dr. Gray and all the botanists. But Dr.
Gray's science detected the pretender, melted the wax firom my
wings, and let me down into the sea of despair. The shock gave
resolution. The plants were distributed to the best cultivators.
I watched over them, determined to make a species, with as much
care as Darwin would over a hybrid between a Chimpanzee lady
and a Bushman. All in vain. That species died out too.
My experience in wild hybrids is not such as to give me much
confidence in their ability to found species.
The theory implies development in the. ascending rather than in
the descending scale — up from a Protozoan to man — contrary to
the common opinion that the downward is the easy sliding scale.
Among all animate things, the changes are as often downward as
upward. This is especially true of cultivated species. The
cereals, fruits, dogs and horses, all deteriorate, unless special
efforts are made to keep them up.
Of fossil species, where we can trace them from the b^Inning
B, NATURAL HISTORY.
407
to the end, it is doabtfhl whether they improve. Genera, families,
natural orders, and classes in the animal kingdom do as a whole
improve for a time and then degenerate and perish miserably.
The genus Cyrtia is the only exception remembered. It terminates
with one of its noblest species. Lingvla^ Terebratula and Rhyn-
choneUaj which have lived firom the lower silurian to the present,
all improved through long cycles and thence deteriorated down to
the present.
The same law seems to have pertained in the human family.
Races, nations, clans, and families rise and fall according to the
same law. The examples are too numerous and too familiar to
need specifications. The only important exceptions are such as
have had important external aids, or such as have not yet com-
pleted the usual destined courses. Yet, in nearly all, the indica-
tions of decline are obvious, while the others are showing no im-
portant departures from the normal stock.
TITLES OF COMMUNICATIONS.
The following titles of papers read in Section B include those
accepted by the committee for pablication in full, bat of which
the authors have failed to send copy, as well as those which the
committee decided should be printed by title only :
Abchitectube of the Americak Aborigines. Section I, Archi-
tecture OF THE Northern and partiallt Village In-
dians. Section 2, Architecture of the Village Indians
.of New Mexico, Mexico, and Central Aiceriga. ByL.
H. Morgan, of Bochester, N. Y.
Relation of Dentauum. By Edward S. Morse, of Salem,
Mass.
On the Age and Structure of the Cincinnati Anticlinal.
By J. S. Newberry, of New York, N. Y.
On some Pal£Ozoic Fishes from the Rocks of Ohio. By J.
S. Newberry, of New York, N. Y.
Zones of Parallel Lines of Elevation in the Earth's Crust.
By Angus Ross, of Halifax, Canada.
On the Marble Deposits of Pottsford, Vermont. By J. S.
Newberry, of New York, N. Y.
ExHiBmoN OF Crystals of Sapphire from Ceylon, with brief
REMARKS ON THEIR FORMATION. By A. C. HaMLIN, of BaOgOr,
Me.
ExmBmoN of a Oollection of Gems, with brief remarks. By
A. C. Hamlin, of Bangor, Me.
The Salt Deposits of Ontario. By T. Sterry Hunt, of Boston,
Mass.
Means of determining the Stratigraphical Order of Seams of
Coal in Ohio, Kentucky, etc. By E. B. Andrews, of Lan-
caster, Ohio.
(iOS)
B. NATUBAL HISTORY. 409
Concerning Htalonema. By Samuel Lockwood, of Freehold,
N.J.
One means of Distinguishing between Vegetable and Animal
Life. By T. S. Lambert, of New York, N. Y.
Natural Features of the United States National Park in the
Rocky Mountains. By Josiah Curtis, of Washington, D. C.
AnimajL Organology. By Theo. C. Hilgard, of St. Louis, Mo.
Some Botanical Contrasts of Portland with New York City.
By James Hyatt, of Stanfordville, N. Y.
On Spiders. ' By W. L. Coffinberry, of Grand Rapids, Mich.
Exhibition of Marl Fossils from New Jersey, near the coast.
By Lewis Feuchtwanger, of New York, N. Y.
EXECUTIVE PROCEEDINGS
OP
THE POETLAND MEETING.
HISTORY OF THE MEETING.
«
The Twenty-second Meeting of the American Association for
the Advancement of Science was held at Portland, Maine, com-
mencing on Wednesday, August 20, 1873, and closing on the
following Tuesday.
One hundred and ninety-five members signed the register,
but this does not represent the full number in attendance, as it is
known that many members who were present and paid their as-
sessments neglected to sign the register. One hundred and ten new
members were elected, of whom ninety-seven have paid the admis-
sion fee and assessment for the meeting, and their names have
been incorporated into the list of members. One hundred and
fifty-seven titles of papers were entered on the general list: of
these, three were afterwards withdrawn by their authors ; eight
did not pass the Standing Committee, owing to the non-compli-
ance of the writers to the rule requiring either the paper or an
abstract to be sent in; two papers were referred to be read in
General Session ; sixty-nine were assigned to Section A, and
seventy-five to Section B. Most of the papers referred to the
sections by the Standing Committee were allowed a place on the
daily programme.*
*Tbe committee refused to accept for publication a few of the papers read, on the
ground that they had already been printed. The committee would be relieved of
some unpleasant work if it were more generally known that the publication of a
paper in any form, before presenting it to the Association, would be considered
under precedent, though not under rule of the Association, as practically excluding
H A'om the consideration of the committee.
While mentioning the papers read before the Association I wish to call attention to
the great loss whieh is annually experienced Arom the present inability of the Asso-
ciation to employ official phonographic reporters to yvrite out the discussions which
(411)
412 EXECUnVE FROCEEDIKGS.
The rooms in the City Building, placed at the disposal of the
Association by the City Government, were very convenient and
furnished, under one roof, all the accommodations desired for
general and sectional meetings and committee rooms.
The Standing Committee held its preliminary meeting on Toes-
day evening, the 19th of August, and during the session regular
meetings were h^ld from nine to ten o'clock, A. M. daily. Two
special meetings of the committee were also held.
The Twenty-second Meeting was regularly organized in Gen-
eral Session at ten o'clock, A. M., on Wednesday, August 20th.
In the absence of President Smith, and Vice President Winchell,
Professor Levering, the President elect, took the chair. After a
few remarks by the President, prayer was offered by the Rev. Dr.
Hill of Portland, who afterwards addressed the Association in
behalf of the Committee on Reception.
President Lovering then addressed the Association as follows :
Gentlemen and Ladies of the American Association for the
Advancement of Science:
I know that you must regret that the distinguished member from
Kentucky who presided over your deliberations, last year, with ex-
ceeding grace and dignity, is now absent in Vienna, serving science
and his country in another capacity, instead of being present with
us on this occasion ; and certainly no one can regret his absence
BO much as I myself do. Were he with us, I am sure that he
would heartily and happily discharge the duty, which, of late years,
has been assigned to the retiring President, of congratulating the
members of the Association on another of their annual gatherings,
and organizing the business of a new meeting. I am no orator
as he is : and you may sadly miss the ready and persuasive words
which you have been accustomed to hear from the chair.
In fully surrendering, as I have now done, the office and the
duties of your Permanent Secretary, which I have sustained dur-
take place, many of them of great importance and often placing a paper that has been
read in a different light ft-om that In which it appears when printed without the dis-
cnssione, and It is greatly to be hoped that the means may soon be secured by which
this very desirable end may be accomplished. Mr. Wheildon has alluded to this and
other matters in a communication which he has sent to the office of the Permanent
secretary since the meeting, and as it contains views on a number of points olr interest
^^!!?«?" ^^ *^® Association, it is at his request printed as an appendix to this his-
tory of the meeting, -
EXECUTIVE PROCEEDINGS. 413
ing fourteen meetings of the Association, I feel a great burthen
removed from my shoulders which pressed heavily upon them not
only at the time of our annual meetings, but during the whole
year, and which has prevented me from contributing as largely as
I could wish to the scientific wealth of the Association. Never-
theless, my heart compels me to say that my old office brought me
into intimate relations with the. members, of so agreeable a nature
that I have been slow to relinquish them, and your kindness and
forbearance, uniformly extended to me, have made my yoke easy
and ray burthen light. To the same kindness and forbearance I
am indebted, and not to any scientific merits which I can
claim, for the opportunity I now enjoy of retiring from the posi-
tion which I held so long, through that dignified and ornamental
portal over which is inscribed President of the Association; and
which has been trodden by illustrious predecessors. I can sin-
cerely congratulate you on the opening of a new era in the business
of the Association, now that the duties of Permanent Secretary
are transferred to 3'ounger and stronger shoulders, full of hope
and vigor, and eminently fitted to bear even their multiplied
weight.
I remember on this occasion that if the age of this Association
is to be measured by the number of its meetings, it is twenty-
one years old. It has survived the feebleness of infancy ; it has
outlived the perils and the inexperience of youth, and is of age.
Now that it has become a man, we may demand of it that it put
away chirldish things, if there have been any such in its former
proceedings. We fondly trust that its past career has not been
useless and we hope that it may exhibit in the future a still severer
science and a higher wisdom. May the years of its manhood be
begun and continued in such a way that its old age and decline
will never come !
We have listened, with great interest and satisfaction, to the
statements which have been made by the Rev. Dr. Hill, in behalf
of the Local Committee and the citizens of Portland, and -we
deeply feel that the disinterested zeal displayed b}' them in pro-
viding for our comfort and pleasure, and in anticipating all our
wants, while exciting our heartfelt gratitude, can only be repaid
by an equal zeal and disinterestedness on our part in the cause
which has brought us together and which can alone justify the
trouble which we have given to them.
414 EXECUTIVE FROCEEDIXOS.
The usual business was then accomplished, including the report
of the General Secretary, the election of six members to the
Standing Committee, and the election of new members.
The Permanent Secretary read brief notices of the following
members, information of their decease having been received since
the last meeting.
Prof. John B. Perry, of Cambridge, Prof. John F. Frazer, of
Philadelphia, Dr. Henry C. Perkins, of Newburyport, Prof. James
Henry Coffin, of Easton, Pa., Dr. John Torrey, of New York,
Miss S. L. Blatchley, of Chicago, Prof. Wm. S. Sullivant, of
Columbus, Ohio, Judge Thomas Belden Butler, of Norwalk, Conn.
Col. John Wells Foster, of Chicago, Dr. Gr. A. Maack, of Cam-
bridge, Mr. Mark Fisher, of Trenton, N. J., Mr. Isaac Ferris, of
New York, Mr. J. O. Noyes, of New Orleans. Of these, the names
of Torrey, Foster, Coffin, Frazer and Perkins will be found en-
rolled as original members, and Professor Torrey and Colonel
Foster as having been honored with the highest gifts of the
Association.
On the recommendation of the Standing Committee, a com-
mittee was appointed to report on a revision of the Constitution.
The Session then adjourned to meet in Sections. The sections, A
and B, were at once organized and several papers were read.
In the evening a formal reception of the Association by the
citizens took place in the City Hall ; the Hon. Greorge P. Westcott,
Mayor, in the chair. The Hon. Benjamin Kingsbury, Jr., £x
Mayor and chairman of the Local Committee, gave the following
address of welcome :
Mr. President, Ladies and GENTLEaiEN of the Association for
THE Advancement of Science:
The agreeable duty of tendering to you this public expression
of the cordial good will of the citizens of Portland towards you
personally, and your distinguished organization, has been assigned
me by his honor, the Mayor, and the Local Committee.
During the long period of your existence as an Association one
emphatic word has been the key-note of your reception wherever
you have held your sessions, and that word is welcome. I would
that I could find some other equally expressive word to indicate the
sentiment of our citizens. But though our grand and flexible and
copious language ordinarily affords a broad field of expression,
EXECUnVE PROCEEDINOS. 415
I am nevertheless remanded back to that old fashioned and time-
worn word.
I therefore, Mr. President and Ladies and Grentlemen, extend
to yon in behalf of Portland, its citizens, its women as well as its
men, its old men and children, its young men and maidens, a
cordial welcome to our city, in no formal and perAmctory sense,
but genuinely from our hearts.
We deem the assembly of your body, in our city, composed as
we know it to be, of the profoundest students and best educated
men of our country, as among the highest honors ever conferred
upon Portland, and we now and here thank you for it.
The work of your Association is not unknown to us. You have
remodelled and are remodelling the text books of science and
making them enticing to youthful minds as well as to those of
more maturity.
You are, by your straightforward and diligent searches after
truth, wherever it may be found, and thrusting aside preconceived
ideas and ancient traditions, working a wholesome influence
upon the thought of all classes of society, thereby banishing the
haughty pride and self-satisfaction of prejudice, and making men
humble with the humility, not of superstition, but of true wisdom.
You are opening their minds to the reception of divine knowl-
edge, thus enabling them to make right progress over paths
which will not have to be retraced.
You are doing even more than all this. You are vindicating
the "Ways of God to man." You are opening the book of nature,
sealed heretofore with seven seals, written within and without, and
exposing to view its heavenly teachings ; showing to timid souls
that occult natural law, the better it is understood, but exalts the
more " Him who is all in all."
One. of the incidental uses of your admirable Association is its
influence upon the young men and women of our land. You
popularize science, so that those who are coming after us will
more and more feel the force of your example and more and more
will follow it.
We are not unmindful of the fact, Mr. President and Gentlemen,
that Portland has been indebted to members of your Association
more than once for important services. We have in mind an illus-
tration directly to the point, which I beg leave to state. A com-
mission, consisting of Prof. Pierce (Superintendent of the United
416 EXECUnVB PROCEEDINGS.
Coaat Survey), and Professors Mitchell and Whiting, chiefs of the
departments of Hydrography and Topography, respectively, have
just completed an important scientific work on our harbor, of the
greatest consequence to our city, and to such other sections of
our country as are benefited by the use of and interested m the
preservation of that harbor in its present capacity. From a sys-
tern of observations upon its currents, and a careful inspection of
the material which constitutes its banks and bed, they have told
us precisely what we must do to be saved from its deteriorauon or
destruction as a first-class port. The problem they have worked
out is one purely scientific and the preservation of our harbor, if
we follow their instructions, becomes a certainty. Every foot of
water territory and of flats, that it is safe to occupy and turn into
productive real estate, they have given us, reserving the rest for
the benefit of commerce, thus harmonizing the interests between
land and water without waste or sacrifice to either. Here is a
direct utilization of the highest kinds of science, such as your
Association are pursuing.
We have welcomed you to Portland with somewhat of excusable
pride in its harbor, its bay, its islands, its surrounding mountains,
and its free and healthful air ; an excusable pride because we
show it to you as God, the author of all beautiful things, made it,
and not we ourselves. You have come to a state which borders
the eastern extremity of the continent, and is known more by its
loca.tion and its limited productions, than by historical renown.
Yet, let me remind you, ladies and gentlemen, that Maine was
originally a part of Massachusetts, and whatever of honor belongs
to that ancient commonwealth belongs in part to us. We have
absorbed much of her ideas of religion, education, law and morals,
improving thereon, we hope, as occasion might offer.
Maine presents the largest water power, probably, on this con-
tinent. Its bosom is laden and almost^ bursting with mineral val-
ues. Its soil is rich, and its fields team with cereal wealth ; and
the time is rapidly approaching when we shall be able to satisfy
the most skeptical that Plymouth Rock has no just claim to its
historical eminence, but that* on the shores of Maine, people of
England landed and settled years before the keel of the Mayflower
was cut from the forest.
Mr. President, I renew the words of welcome with which I com-
menced. I assure you that the citizens of Portland will do all in
EXECDTIVE FBOCEEDIKGS. 417
their power to make yoiir visit agreeable, and I trast that when
you leave us it will be only with pleasant memories.
President Lovering replied in behalf of the Association as fol-
lows :
Mr. Mayor: The stupendous pendulum of this Association,
weighted with its heavy load of members, in its annual oscillation
backward and forward over the continent, from Canada to South
Carolina, from the rock-bound shores of New England to the
western prairies, has at last in its ever-lengthening swing ^reached
the most easterly state of the Union ; and the day may not be
very remote, when, in one of its westerly movements, it shall
touch the Pacific. After cooling ourselves one year with th5
bracing air of the Atlantic, or the refreshing breezes of our
northern lakes, we have gained courage to bask under the hot
skies of some western city ; but we have always found there one
thing warmer than its burning sun, and that was the great heart
of the people by whom we were welcomed and entertained. For
the present, wq congratulate ourselves that by the kindness and
hospitality of the citizens of Portland, prompt to second the
wishes of the Association and of its Standing Committee, we are
assembled in this polished and elegant city, and in a neighborhood
which has no rival, if indeed it has its peer, for natural scenery of
mountain and sea-view, of rocks and beach, of lakes, rivers and
sea-girt islands.
The circular of your Local Committee has given us a foretaste
of the rich and varied banquet which has been prepared to feed
our intellects and to gratify our tastes. We are within easy reach
of mountains of unutterable grandeur, the glacier scratchings upon
whose backs neither time nor any convulsion of natui'e can oblit-
erate, and which will charm us all equally, though in a different
way, whether we go to them with the hammer of the geologist or
'vithout it. A few hours* journey, by sail or steam, over waters
themselves phosphorescent with wonderful life, will bring us to
spots where we may examine for ourselves the dredgings of the
deep sea, as they arise fresh from their home in the waters.
Should we have time to venture farther from our place of meet-
ing, we may visit that wonder of nature, Mt. Desert, where moun-
tains nearly 2000 feet high dip almost into the sea ; where ocean
and mountain scenery mingle in strange confusion, and ocean and
A. A. A. S. VOL. ZXII. B. (27)
418 EXECUTIYE PROCEEDINGS.
mountain breezes mix every year an exhilarating draught for a
thousand delighted visitors. To crown all the beauty and sublim-
ity of the spot, the aurora, with almost arctic frequency, shoots up
its tinted beams from the northern horizon or springs a bow of sil-
ver ligbt across the sky from east to west. The circular of the
Local Committee informs us that ample provision has been made
for excursions, by land or water, to many of these interesting
places, more even than the time allotted to one of our meetings,
and the other objects of the Association, may allow us to enjoy.
I said, the other objects of this Association. Let me add that
this Association has but one object, and that is proclaimed upon
the title-page of its Proceedings. It is the Advancement of Sci-
ence in this great country. The Association now comprises a
constituency of more than 500 members. Few of us can aspire
to the honor of being discoverers of the laws of nature, in the
high sense of that . phrase. But no one, however humble his
capacities, or however limited his opportunities, who labors for sci-
ence, will fail to advance it and be rewarded by it. We meet
together from year to year, the veterans In science, with the
younger aspirants for distinction, and many more who long to
catch the earliest tidings of the last word which science has to say
in regard to the earth under our feet or the stars above us ; a few
to speak but many more to listen, but each doing his part to ad-
vance science, either by active research or encouraging sympathy.
Our brief meetings allow us no leisure to listen to what is old or
to what may be read in books, or to glittering generalities or fngen-
ious speculations on the universe, unsupported by evidence and
individual investigation. But any new fact, however microscopic,
any new investigation, whether it concerns a planet or an atom,
any new experiment by which a law of nature is made more palpa-
ble and convincing, finds with us a ready welcome.
We leave to other Associations the business of diffusing knowl-
edge among men. The press, with its thousand arms and its mil-
lion tongues, can do it better than any Association. Neither do
we concern ourselves with the utility of the truths which are com-
municated at these meetings. If they have no immediate practical
application it is sufficient for us that they are true and reveal the
plans of the Creator. If they have any commercial value there
are men enough in the community to profit by them. It is impos-
sible for the man of science to serve two masters, the Kingdom of
EXECUTIVE PROCEEDINGS. 419
Nature and Mammon. It is a dangerous thing* for him to be think-
ing of the utility of his discoveries or of the pecuniary profit which
may be made out of them. The study of the money market unfits
him for communion with nature. When Faraday found that allur-
ing avenues were opening before him by which he could easily
amass a fortune, he abandoned all semi-scientific avocationa, and
surrendered himself, unreservedly, to his high calling. In this
way he made science honorable and honored. Thus he was able
to hold an imperial sway over the hearts and intellects of his gen-
eration, and when he bade a final farewell to the laboratory of the
Royal Institution of Great Britain, on the 20th of June, 1862, his
relinquishment of active scientific work was followed b}'- one uni-
versal pang of grief throughout the world of science. We can
sympathize with the sentiment of Tjmdall in giving his reluctant
consent that the narrow quarters and restricted appointments of
this Institution, made sacred, as they were, by the labors of Young,
Davy and Faraday, should be dismantled, even though they were
to be renovated and enlarged in order to provide material accommo-
dation for that vast horizon of truth which his revered predecessors
had done so much to open up to the human mind.
Eripint fulmen cceli.% sceptrumque tyrannis is a fine phrase to
catch the public ear. But it is not the lightning-rod which has
made the name of Franklin immortal in science, but his experi-
mental researches in electricity, and the theoretical conclusions
which he built upon them. Davy's device to protect the copper
sheathing of vessels, and even his safety-lamp, may be for various
reasons of doubtful utility ; the studied and almost theatrical elo-
quence with wiiich he expounded his discoveries before fashionable
audiences in London may be forgotten ; but the solid contributions
"which he made to our knowledge of physics and chemistry will be
remembered as long as human language shall be read and under-
stood.
I would not say a word to depreciate the merits of the men who
are striving to render science subservient to the conveniences and
elegances of life, and to make the homes of the poor more com-
fortable and even more luxurious than were formerly the palaces
of princes. All honor to the inventors of the human race who
have followed close upon the heels of the discoverer, and have
harnessed the forces of nature, gravity, chemical action, light,
heat, electricity and magnetism, to their curious and multiform
420 EXECUTIVE PROCEEDINGS.
machines. But their merits are sure, sooner or later, to be recog-
nized. For all the labor of their brains, for all their anxious
waiting and watching, for all their long delay and disappoint-
ment, they have their exceeding great reward. The benefits which
they confer upon mankind are too obvious to be overlooked, and
too marketable to be underestimated. But the foundation of all
these manifold inventions is laid, under ground and out of sight
perhaps, in scientific investigations into the laws of nature.
While we admire the height and beauty of the pinnacle, let us
not forget the corner-stone, however old, or unhewn, or unsightly.
There never could have been a Morse, a Wheatstone or a Stein-
heil, unless there had first been a Henry, a Faraday, a Volta and a
Franklin.
In this country, where fortunes are so rapidly made and so pro-
fusely spent, where material splendor dazzles and bewilders, where
the discoverer of comets and planets must look to the King of
Denmark or to the French Academy, and not to his own country,
for the laurels which he wears, the temptation is strong to forsake
the uncompensating labors of severe investigation for the cash
payments of practical science. Nevertheless, there are men
among us, and they are more numerous than the remarks of Mr.
Tyndall ki New York would seem to imply, mathematicians,
physicists, chemists, geologists, botanists, zoologists, who pursue
science for the love of science : and these men are the pride and
glory of this Association. What was said of one such man may
be said of all of them. " The world hears but little of them at
the time, they neither strive nor cry in the streets, but their labors
remain as imperishable as the genius which inspires them."
Because the Association is dedicated to this high object, because
a goodly portion of its members devote their lives to the disin-
terested pursuit of truth, and because the results of their re-
searches not only ennoble their authors, but react upon the com-
munity to elevate its tone of thought and to enlarge the compass
of its knowledge, this Association has been received with open
arms by the best men in every community which it has visited.
And, Mr. Mayor, the welcome which has now been extended to
us so cordially and so gracefully by your predecessor, Judge
Kingsbury, and the hospitalities which have been so lavishly prof-
fered to us,, we receive as a recognition of the nobilit}^ of our
alms, however frequent our shortcomings in practice, and also as
EXECUTIVE PROCEEDINGS. * 421
a stimulus to the better fulfilment of our mission in the future.
The enterprise of your citizens, displayed not merely in building
railroads and establishing lines of ocean-steamers, but also in
founding schools and colleges ; the magnificence of your harbor,
rivalling, if not surpassing, those of London or Liverpool ; the
fame of your judges and lawyers, of your phj'sicians and clergy-
men ; the reputation of your men of science and literature, of
your statesmen, orators and historians, is well known to us. And
this grand greeting w^hich we have just received assures us that
there are also here an intelligent appreciation of high pursuits
and an exalted public spirit, which fires have not been able to bum
out nor many waters to quench.
We of Massachusetts, who are present at this meeting, expected
to find ourselves at home among you. We remembered the words
which a Governor of Massachusetts uttered when Maine first
sprang into independent existence and took her place at the head
of the roll-call of the States, and which have been repeated in
substance in the address of welcome : — Is she not bone of our
bone and flesh of our flesh? And I am sure that those of our
number who have come from very distant abodes, and from beyond
the limits of the Union, will feel before they leave you that there
are no aliens in science : that those who live the farthest apart
may be the nearest in their intellectual aspirations : that we are a
united people in our love of truth as we now, happily, are also in
our institutions.
Remarks were then made by Hon. J. H. Drummond of Portland,
Hon. L. H. Morgan of Rochester, Dr. J. W. Dawson of Montreal,
Prof. James Hall of Albany, Mr. W. W. Wheildon of Concord,
and others.
At the daily general sessions considerable business was trans-
acted, and on the recommendation of the Standing Committee
several resolutions were passed, and special committees appointed,
as elsewhere given. * The committee on a revision of the constitu-
tion reported and were discharged. Their report was accepted,
and the Permanent Secretary was ordered to print the same and
distribute a copy to each member of the Association.
At a general session on Thursday evening, the paper by Mr.
Hough on the Preservation of Forests, and that by Mr. Morgan
422 EXECUTIVE PROCEEDINGS.
on the Architecture of the American Aborigines, were read by
special assignment.
The general session of Friday evening was especially assigned
for the delivery of the Address of the retiring President, but on
opening the session President Levering read the following letter,
announcing the donation of one thousand dollars from Mrs.
Elizabeth Thompson of New York : —
•Portland, Aug. 22, 1873.
Mrs. Elizabeth Thompson of New York City, to-day elected a
member, sympathizing with the purposes of our Association in
the advancement of science, and seeing the new crop of young
and industrious scientific investigatoi's who are to form the future
basis of this Association following in the footsteps of the vet-
erans of science who founded it, and being aware of the financial
difficulties which often beset the path of those noble men of sci-
ence who labor more for truth than for profit's sake, wishes to
place at the disposal of the Permanent Secretary the sum of one
thousand dollars, to be used according to the directions of the
Standing Committee, for the promotion and publication of such
original investigations by members of the Association as may be
accepted by the said Standing Committee, to be published by
means of this special donation.
[Signed] P. H. Van der Wetde.
To the Standing Committee of tlie American
Association for the Advancement of Science.
The President, after alluding to this first considerable donation
to the Association, ofiiered, in behalf of the Standing Committee,
the following resolutions : —
Besolved : That the thanks of the Association be presented to
Mrs. Elizabeth Thompson, of New York City, for her noble gift of
one thousand dollars, and equally for her well expressed sympathy
with the grand object of this Association, viz., the encouragement
of original investigations into the laws of nature, and the publica-
tion of their approved results.
Prof, Alexis Caswell, in seconding the resolution, referred to the
need of science for such assistance — science, whose benefits know
no limits of race, locality, or religion. He spoke of the arduous
labors of scientific investigation, and the advantages of the combi-
nation of endeavor to promote it by the Association. This dooa--
tion is a stimulus to renewed effort, purely for the love of truth ;
it is sowing the seed which shall bring forth sucli a harvest.
EXECUTIVE PROCEEDHVOS. 428
Prof. James Hall in endorsing the resolution related the early
history of the Association, and stated how such aid, as was now
for the first time bestowed, was -needed by the Association (o
^ encourage the members in their work. He hoped that the day
was not far distant when the American Association would be able,
like the British Association, to announce that thousands of dollars
were received for the promotion of original research. He was
gratified that a lady had set the example here, and that we were
able to welcome a lady as the first patron of the Association.
Appropriate remarks were also made by Dr. Van der Weyde, who
acted as Mrs. Thompson's agent, and the resolution of the Stand-
ing Committee, thanking Mrs. Thompson for her generous dona-
tion, was adopted with much enthusiasm.
The following letter was read by General Secretary White : —
To THE Members of the American Association for the Ad-
vancement OF Science :
It is with deep regret tiiat I find m^'self forced by circumstances
to be absent from you on this occasion, and consequently to be
deprived of tlie honor of meeting my fellow associates in Portland,
whose hospitable people have assured to us so hearty a welcome
in their midst.
I must say, however, though absent in the body, I am present
in the spirit, whether in your serious sessions, your social gath-
erings, or while engaged in unfolding that m3'sterious compound
of AlgcK cum Mya are nana ^ called a clam-bake.
I hope to be engaged in the pursuit of science on the other
side of the Atlantic, only a cable's length from you, and if at any
time the Standing Committee desire to consult me I am at their
service at a moment's notice. •
I accompany this communication with an address, which I have
requested the Secretary to have read to the Association.'
With many good wishes of a profitable meeting and many
thanks to the gentlemen and ladies of Portland, especially the
latter,
I remain yours respectfully,
J. Lawrence Smith, President.
Mr. F. W. Putnam, by request of the Standing Committee,
then read the address of President Smith, which is printed in
full in the usual place in this volume.
On Saturday Section B resolved itself into two subsections and
closed its sessions on Tuesday morning. Section A also formed
424 EXECUTIVE PROCEEDINGS.
a subsection on Monday and closed in the evening. It is
greatly to be regretted that the closing days of the meetings are
generally characterized by a "rash" to get through with the
papers and the consequently ^apid organization of subsections,
not always done in strict accordance with the rules of the Asso-
ciation.*
At the close of the sessions of Section A, an informal meeting
was held by the chemists to consider the matter of a proper organi-
zation of a chemical subsection at the next meeting, and reso-
lutions were adopted to be presented to the Standing Committee
at the Hartford Meeting.
Much interest was also evinced by the entomologists present at
Portland, and several informal meetings were held for the pur-
pose of devising means for securing attendance of a much larger
number of entomologists at the future meetings. After due con-
sideration, the following^ memorial and resolution were formed,
signed by all the entomologists present, and received the en-
dorsement of the Standing Committee of the Association : —
We, the undersigned, entomologists, assembled at the twenty-
second meeting of the American Association for the Advance-
ment of Science held in the city of Portland, in August, 1873,
hereby respectfullj^ petition the American Entomological Society
of Philadelphia, and the Entomological Society of Canada, to ap-
point yearly meetings of their members to be held at the same
times and places with the annual meetings of the American Asso-
ciation for the Advancement of Science. The undersigned are
moved to this memorial from the consideration that such pro-
spective action on the part of the American and Canadian Ento-
mological Societies would ensure the annual assemblage of a large
*If the Sectional Conimittees, after a careAil surrey of the list of papers placed in
their hands, would report on the second day regarding^ the organization of such sub-
sections for the following days as they think will be necessary, in order to allow aU
tlie papers to be duly read and discussed, they would have time to prepare their pro*
grammes properly, and members and others interested in special papers would be
able to ascertain the time and place of their delivery, which are the principal objects
in printing the daily programmes. Should the new Constitution, as propoiFed at
Portland, be adopted it is believed th^^ much confusion will be avoided at future
meetings, especially if the members of the sections will bear in mind Uie importance
of the Sectional Committees. Tliese Committees are, in fact, the safeguardii of the
Association, and to them is intrusted the arrangement of the programmes of the sec-
tions and subsections, and they alone are responsible for the proper order of the
business and of the scientific reputation of the sections. With these grave respoB>
sibilitiea, it is certainly of the most vital importance for the welfare of the ARC^ocia-
tion that the Sectional Committees should be most carefblly selected ttom those
members who can remain throughout the meeting.
EXECUTIVE PROCEEDINGS. 425
number of entomologists, resident over a wide extent of territory,
and also practically enlarge the sphere and increase the usefulness
of the societies.
[Signe<l by J. L. LeConte, Chairman, P. R. Uhler, Secretary,
and fourteen other entomologists, members of the Association.]
Resolved: That the American Association for the Advance-
ment of Science hereby endorses the accompanying memorial,
and invites the American and Canadian Entomological Societies
to call 3'early meetings of their membe)*s in accordance with the
request therein contained.
Adopted by the Standing Committee^ August 26, 1873.
C. A. White, General Secretary.
During the week of the meeting, and for several days after
the adjournment, a number of Entertainments and excursions
were given for the benefit of the members of the Association.
These entertainments are always productive of much good fellow-
ship between members and the citizens with whom they are thus
brought in immediate social relations, and they produce the best
of results, not only to the Association but to the citizens of the
place, while they inji'ariably furnish the means • of obtaining
practical information on many scientific points.
The lunch given by the ladies of Portland on Friday noon was
a very enjoyable entertainment, and had it come at an earlier
day in the meeting, it would have added still greater pleasure to
the members by the longer continuance of such pleasant acquaint-
ance as was then made with so many of the 61ite of the city.
On Tuesday afternoon a very pleasant, and to many of the
members a very novel, entertainment was furnished by the excur-
sion to Old Orchard Beach with its accompanying clam-bake.
This excursion was very largely attended, nearly every member
and a very large number of citizens enjoying the hospitalities ex-
tended by the Local Committee.
On Saturday afternoon a large number of members accepted
the invitation for an excursion in Casco Bay, in the United States
Revenue Steamer McCulloch. After the adjournment of the meet-
ing, several more extended excursions were enjoyed by members
and citizens. On Wednesday, by invitation of the Portland
and Ogdensburg Railroad Company, nearly all the members
present made a trip to the White Mountains, going as far as
426 EXECUTIYE PROCEEDINGS.
Upper Bartlett. The majority returned to Portland at nigbt,
but very liberal arrangements having been made by the Local
Committee for those who wished to remain and make the ascent
of Mt. Washington, some sixty members availed themselves of
the opportunity and returned to Portland on Thursday night.
On Friday the Revenue Steamer was again placed at the dis-
posal of members for a dredging excursion to be conducted under
the management of the gentlemen connected with the U- S. Com-
missioner of Fisheries, and a very instructive lesson in deep sea
dredging was obtained.
During the meetins: of the Association and for the week follow-
ing the adjournment, frequent visits were made by individual
members to the head-quarters of Prof. Baird, the U. S. Commis-
sioner of Fisheries, which were located for the season on Peak's
Island, and were easily accessible by steamer from Portland.
These visits, in connection with the Aquaria maintained with
much labor by Mr. Charles B. Fuller in the rooms of the Portland
Society of Natural History, enabled the naturalists residing at a
distance from the sea-coast to become acquainted with a large
number of forms of animal life that they had never before seen
in a living state, while the collections that^had been made by the
Fish Commissioners, and the finely arranged local collection in
the Portland Society of Natural History, must have furnished
many members of the Association with their fii-st sight at very
interesting marine forms.
The excursions were closed by the extended one to St. John
and Fredericton. On Friday night some fourteen members
under the charge of T. C. Hersey, Esq., President of the Inter-
national Steamship Company, took the steamer for St. John,
where they arrived on Saturday night. On Monday morning,
by invitation of the Messrs. Lunt, the party went to Frederic^
ton, and returned to Portland on the following Thursday after a
very pleasant trip for which they were deeply indebted to their
kind entertainers.
On Tuesday morning, August 26, the sections having finished
the business before them by early sessions of the subsections of
Section B, the general session was called to order. On recom-
mendation of the Standing Committee the invitation conveyed in
the following letter, which was read by President Lovcring, was
accepted.
EXECUTIVE PROCEEDINGS. 427
Portland^ Aug. 25, 1873.
Prof. Joseph Lovering, Pres'4; Am. Scientific Association.
Dear Siy : I am requested by the Hon. Henry C. Robinson,
Mayor of the city of Hartford, Conn., to extend to this Associa-
tion an invitation to hold its next Annual Meeting in that city,
and I most cordially join with him in extending the invitation.
Respectfully yours,
J. M. Allen.
It was then voted to hold the twenty-third meeting of the Asso-
ciation at Hartford, Conn., commencing on the second Wednesday
of August, 1874.
The following officers were then elected for the next meeting :
President, J. L. LeConte, of Philadelphia ; Vice President, C. S.
Lyman, of New Haven ; General Secretary, A. C. Hamlin, of
Bangor ; Treasurer, William S. Vaux, of Philadelphia.*
Votes of thanks to various parties to whom the Association was
specially indebted were then adopted, with appropriate remarks
from members, and at 11 o'clock President Lovering closed the
meeting in the following terms : —
Gejitlemen and Ladies of the Association : — ^The hours of this
meeting are rapidly passing and the time which remains can be
counted in minutes. It is fit, therefore, that I should detain you
with the fewest possible words at parting. Allow me to congrat-
ulate yon on this large and prosperous meeting as now a fact ac-
complished. I think that you will all be willing to supplement,
at least in your memory and your hearts, the formal expression of
thanks which have been voted, by a grateful though silent recog-
nition of the favor conferred on the Association by those eminent
naturalists who have left their work in the field, at this precious
season of the year, and have hurried hither at the call of this
meeting. For myself, I feel that we owe a large debt of grati-
tude to our great mathematician in that he has not excused himself
from attendance on our annual gathering in consequence of his
numerous, and heavy responsibilities as Superintendent of the
United States Coast Survey, but has lent us his inspiring voice
and intellect. We thank the distinguished Secretary of the
Smithsonian Institution for his commanding presence with us
before our adjournment. Especially, do we thank our friends
*Tho Permanent Secretary holds office from bis former election for two years.
428 EXECUTIVE PROCEEDINGS.
from Canada for the intellectual strength they have given to this-
meeting. Others in both Sections, whose names will readily ocear
to you, we could have wished to hear ourselves and to introduce to
the citizens of Portland, if they had found it convenient to be
present on this occasion.
While we thus honor our great men among the living, both
present and absent, we will not forget our illustrious dead.
Genial faces like that of Foster will no more gladden our hearts
at these meetings. Eloquent voices like that of Perry will never
again be heard in our sections. Venerable forms, like those of
Coffin and Torrey have disappeared and will be seen no more on
earth to excite our emulation and awaken our reverence. But we
will not be discouraged ; much less will we despair. Rather will
we seek the symbol of this Association in the heaven of stars,
where, indeed, sun after sun doth- continually sink below the
western horizon, to be replaced, however, by a whole galaxy of
light which is rising in the east. Can we not expect, may we
not demand, of the young men of the Association, that for every
single luminary which we lose, a double, triple, and even sextuple
star shall arise to make the firmament of science even brighter
than it was before ?
I am not unmindful of the generous votes of thanks which you
have passed to the officers of the Association : very flattering in
my case, but fully deserved by your secretaries. I have had the
easy work of pulling the little ropes at the helm, while the^' have
worked the laboFing oars, and must now handle the heavy cable
which shall give the Association a safe anchorage during the in-
terval between this meeting and the next.
There is always one word harder than all others to speak and
that is the last word. But our hour has come : our work has
been done as best we could do it, and it onlv remains for me,
after wishing you a safe return to your friends and your homes,
and a reappearance, when the Association, without loss of material
or brightness, makes its next perihelion passage, to pronounce
this meeting at an end.
EXECUTIVE PROCEEDINGS. 429
RESOLUTIONS ADOPTED.
Hesolved, That the American Association for the Advancement of Sci-
ence has leaiiied with high satisfaction that the Congress of the United
States, at its last session, in accordance with a recommendation of the
President -of the United States in his Inaugaral Message, has extended
to the International Statistical Congress an invitation to hold its
next session in this country, and this Association hereby expresses its
earnest hope that the invitation thus cordially extended will be accepted
by the Permanent Committee of the Congress.
Jiesolvedf That a Committee be appointed by the Association to memo-
rialize Congress and the several State Legislatures upon the importance
of promoting the cultivation of timber and the preservation of forests,
and to recommend proper legislation for securing these objects.
WhereciSj The object of this Association is the general advancement of
Science, and as one of the most powerAil means of promoting it is the exten-
sion and increased efficiency of scientific education ; and as, moreover,
there is a growing interest in this subject on the part of teachers and edu-
cational boards, and much embarrassment and many inquiries as to the
best methods of attaining the object ; and as, furthermore, a deliberate
expression ftom this body in relation to the question would have great
weight with those asking for guidance ; therefore
Jiesolved, That a Committee be appointed by the Chairman to take this
subject into consideration and report at the next meeting of the Associa-
tion upon the most desirable methods of scientific study for primary,
common and high schools ; pointing out the sciences that are most desir-
able to be studied in those institutions in their actual phenomena, the
time that should be allotted to them and the order In which they should be
pursued, and making such other recommendations regarding the subject
as in the opinion of the Association will be conducive to the general in-
terest of science.
430 EXECUTIVE PROCEEDINGS.
VOTES OF THANKS.
jResolvedf That the thanks of this Association be presented to the Chair-
man, Hon. Benj. Kingsbury, Jr., his honor Mayor Westcott, the Secre-
tary, Rev. Charles W. Hayes (whose labors have been indefatigable and
unremitted in our behalf) and all the members of the Local Committee,
for their especial and successful arrangements and efforts in behalf of the
Association at its present meeting in this city ; regarding these as not
simply complimentary to the members of the Association, but as indica-
ting their appreciation of its high purpose, the Advancement of Science.
Hesplved, That the thanks of the Association be specially tendered
to his honor the Mayor and members of the City Council for the f^ree
use of the admirable and very commodious apartments of the City Hall
for the use of the Association during its present meeting; .and to the
citizens of Portland generally for many attentions and kindnesses ten-
dered and bestowed upon its members.
Resolved, That this Association recognizes with pride and satisfaction
the interest which the ladies of Portland, as of the whole country wher-
ever our Association has held ii^ meetings, have manifested in the advance-
ment of science ; and to them belongs, by the thoughtfulness and gener-
osity of one of tlielr sex, the distinguished honor of making the fiwt
substantial contribution to its means, and laying the foundation of its
permanency and continued useftilness.
liesolved, That our especial thanks are hereby tendered to the ladies
of Portland for their elegant and hospitable reception and lunch given
to our members and ladles at Congress Hall, on Friday, 22d insu,
the pleasure and social enjoyments of which were so much enhanced by
their presence, their generous welcome and unwearied attention.
Resolved, That the thanks of the Association be tendered to Mr. C. B.
Fuller, the curator of the Portland Natural History Society, for his cour-
teous and unwearied attention to the wants of the members in accommo-
dations rendered in connection with the Museum of which he has charge.
EXECUTIVE PBOCEEDINOS. 431
Resolved, That the thanks of the Association be presented to the mana-
gers of the Portland and Odgensbnrg Railroad for their invitation to visit
the White Mountain region at Upper Bartlett and return. Also to the
Boston and Maine Railroad, the Eastern Railroad, the Grand Junction
Railroad, and other railroads mentioned in the circular of the Local Com-
mittee, for reduction of fares in favor of the members attending the
meeting of the Association. Also to the Portland Steam Packet Com-
pany, the Maine Steamship Company, the International Steamship Com-
pany, and the proprietors of the New England and Nova Scotia Steamships
for similar privileges— all in behalf of the objects of this Association.
liesolved, That the thanks of the Association be presented to Ex Gov.
Israel Washburn, Collector of the port, Lewis B. Smith, Esq., Deputy
Collector, and to Captain Treadwell, commander of the Revenue Cutter
McCulloch, for the tender and use of that vessel in our very delightful
and invigorating excursion in the harbor and through Casco Bay, on Sat-
urday a^emoon, 2dd lust., which proved so pleasant and gratifying to all
our members and the ladles accompanying them.
liesolved, That the thanks of the Association be tendered to the Super-
intendent of the Coast Survey, and to the Commander of the U. vS. Coast
Survey Steamer **Bache" for their courtesy in offering a deep-sea dredg-
ing excursion to the members.
Jiesolved, That the thanks of the Association be tendered to Ex Gov-
ernor J. L. Chamberlain, President of Bowdolu College, for his polite
Invitation to visit that institution.
Eesolvrd, That a vote of thanks be presented to the reporters and pro-
prietors of the press for their untiring efforts In presenting the labors of
the Association before the public.
Jiesolved, That the Association tender to the retiring President the
expression of Its sincere thanks for the ability, courtesy, impartiality
and uniform urbanity with which he has presided over and conducted the
deliberations of the Association.
liesolved, That the thanks of the Association be given to the retiring
General Secretary, Prof. C. A. White, for the ability, courtesy, and diligence
with which he has performed the duties of his office.
432 EXECUTIYE FBOCEEDINGS.
FINAL REPORT OP THE RETIRING PERMANENT SECRETARY.
This report covers the interval of time between the first day of
the Dubuque meeting (August 14, 1872) and the first day of the
Portland meeting (August 20, 1873).
During the meeting of the Association the time of the Perma-
nent Secretary is fully occupied, and, after the adjournment, the
correspondence foreign and domestic, the collection of assess-
ments, the preparation of the Proceedings for the press, the ex-
amination of proof-sheets, the distribution of the volumes at home
and abroad, and the arrangements for the next meeting, all make
a constantly recurring cycle of duties, only finished to be begnn
again. After I had completed the printing of the Dubuque Pro-
ceedings, the edition was delivered into the hands of my suc-
cessor, Mr. F. W. Putnam, by whom it was distributed. The
arrangements for the Portland meeting, so far as the Permanent
Secretary is expected to assist in them, were also made by Mr.
Putnam. The other duties of , the office were discharged by me
until the first day of the Portland meeting. I cannot but repeat
my regret that the reputation of the Association, especially before
the commonwealth of science in Europe, suffers greatly from the
failure of man)'' of the strongest members of the Association to
furnish a copy of their valuable communications for the printed
Proceedings. On this account our publication is a very inadequate
exponent of the scientific resources of the Association.
The financial condition of the Association was never before so
prosperous as at the present time.
Between August 14, 1872 and August 20, 1873 the income of
the Association was twenty-one hundred and six dollars and ten
cents ($2,106.10).
Of this amount, fifty-six dollars and sixty cents ($56.60) ac-
crued from the sale of the printed volumes, and the remainder
from the admission f^es of new members and the annual assess-
ments. •
EXECUTIVE PROCEEDINGS. 433
The expenses of the Association during the same interval
amounted to nineteen hundred and nine dollars and twenty-nine
cents ($1,909.29), which may be divided thus :
Cost of paper, printing, and binding for the Dubuque
Proceedings, . . . • $1,109.07
(.-harges connected with the Dubuque meeting, 1 14.95
Salary of the Permanent Secretary, . . . 500.00
For circulars, stationery, express, and postage, 3 35.72
Expense of removing stock to Salem, . . 49.55
The particular items inaj'^ be found in the cash account of the
Poruianeut Secretary which is herewith submitted as a. part of his
report.
The balance in favor of the Association amounts, at this date,
to nineteen hundred and eighty dollars and twentj'-seveu cents.
Of this sum one thousand dollars was paid over to the Treasurer
on Oct. 2:], 1871, and has been on interest since that time. Five
hundred tlollars more was paid over to the Treasurer on August
2(3. iv^7;», and has been put out to Interest. The remaining por-
tion of the balance, amounting to fom* hundred and eighty dollars
and twenty-seven cents, has been passed, by order of the iStauding
Committee, to my successor, Mr. F. W. Putnam.
When the undersigned entered upon his duties at the eighth
meeting of •the Association, it had an annual income of only a
few hundred dollars and was dependent upon the generosity of
the cities where it met for the publication of its Proceedings.
Since that time it has been able to pay all its expenses, owns a
valuable stock of Proceedings, aud i)ossesses a cash balance
amounting (with interest) to' more than two thousand dollars.
Its present financial prosperity is due to that change in the Con
stitution by which new members are required to pay an admis-
sion fee in addition to the annual assessment.
Joseph Lovering,
Retiring Peitnanent Secretary.
ParOand, August 20, 1S78.
A. A. A. S. VOL. XXn. B. (28)
484
fiXBCUnVE PBOOSBDIlfQS.
CASH ACCOUNT OF THE
Dr.
AMBRiC-vif Association xh
E. D. Cook's bill as assistant secretary
Printing circulars .....
Tclegrapli to Portland flrom Dubnqne
Postage and discount on draft
Woodcuts for Dubuque volume, &c.
Printing of Dubuque << Proceedings" .
Binding of Dubuque << Proceedings"
Expense of distributing Dubuque ** Proceedings"
Sawin, for freight .....
American Naturalists' Agency for Dr. Hunt's extras .
Charges for removing stock to Salem
Salary of Permanent Secretary
Stationery ......
Paid to the Treasurer .....
Paid to the Treasurer ....
Paid to F. W. Putnam .....
Paid to P. W. Putnam ....
$30 00
9 75
995
64 29
80 00
1,008 07
44 10
57 04
90 54
26 00
49 55
600 00
600
•1,909 29
1,000 00
500 00
372 00
108 27
$3,889 56
XXBCUnVX PB00SBDINO8. 435
PERMANENT SECBETABY.
Aooomrr -with Joseph Lotxbino. Cr.
Balance £rom last account ... • f 1,782 46
Assessments ttom 785 to 1192 inclosiTe (inclnding money re-
ceived for sale of Proceedings) .... 2,106 10
Error in cash account of Aagast, 1868 ... 1 00
(8,889 56
43%
EXECUTIYE PROCEEDINGS.
STOCK ACCOUNT OP THE PERMANENT SEOBETAEY.
The present Permanent-Secretary has received, from his prede-
cessor in office, the stock of volames of Proceedings, the Library,
and various documents belonging to the Association, and they
are now most conveniently arranged and safely stored in a room
on the first floor of the Museum building of the Peabody Academy
of Science. This room is in charge of a special assistant and is
devoted to the use of the Association as the office of the Perma-
nent Secretary.
The volumes, parts of volumes, and pamphlets, forming the
library belonging to the Association, have been catalogued and
arranged.
The total number of copies of Proceedings, including the vol-
ume of '^Transactions of the American Association of Geolo-
gists and Naturalists," and the twenty-one volumes of the '^ Pro-
ceedings of the American Association for the Advancement of
Science" received from the retiring Secretary, amounted to eleven
thousand two hundred and eighty-two.
Five hundred and sixty-two copies of the Dubuque volume and
fifty-seven copies of preceding volumes have been distributed to
members who were entitled to them. Fifty-nine copies have.been
distributed by votes of the Standing Committee to American
Institutions, and one hundred and twenty to Foreign Societies
and Institutions in exchange for their publications. The list of
Foreign Societies published in the Dubuqtie volume was, with
a few changes, followed in sending out the volume. Two hun-
dred and fourteen copies of various volumes have been sold, leav-
ing a balance on hand at this date of ten thousand two hundred
and seventy copies.
F. W. Putnam,
Permanent Secretary,
Saiem, September 1, 187S.
TO THE
HISTORY OF THE MEETING AT PORTLAND,
BY
WILLIAM W. WHEILDON OF CONOOBD, MASS.
The meeting of the American Association at Portland forms an era in
its history, not so much from the flEict that it had then completed its
twenty-first year of active life, but rather that measures were there inau-
gurated for its permanent legal existence and a foundation laid for the
enlargement of its purposes and more extended useftdness.
When we look back at the organization of this Association in 1848, by
gentlemen deTOted to the study and pursuit of a single branch of sci-
ence, and that branch comparatively new, we have great reason for con-
gratulation in view of its continued prosperity and its present acknowl-
edged position. It has gone on from year to year in increasing useftilness,
gradually drawing into its ranks gentlemen of intellect and energy, of
learning and genius, in every branch of science and natural history ; and
includes to-day an ample membership to sustain its position and worthy
of its high purposes. Of the original members of the Association of Geol-
ogists who formed the nucleus of this Association at Philadelphia, only
three now remain to witness its prosperity, and of these only one. Prof.
Jambs Hall of Albany, was present at Portland. The meeting, however,
was largely attended and many members contributed interesting and val-
uable papers at its sessions. The evening sessions in the City Hall
were very ftilly attended by the citizens of Portland, and were eminently
successftil in entertainment and in interest. The general sessions and
those of the sections during the day were always well attended, and the
discussions which followed the reading of many of the papers were in-
teresting and attractive.
Scientific Discussions.— At some of our recent meetings it has been
spoken of as a matter of regret that these discussions were not properly
reported for publication in connection with the papers which called them
forth, and there is a general desire that this deficiency may be provided
for in the ftiture meetings of the Association. Scientific discussions,
although sometimes exciting and earnest, are rarely personal and stUl
more rarely discourteous or unseemly. Dilferences in opinion often arise
and as they are supposed to be based upon evidence or reason, they are
(487)
438 APPENDIX.
not readily given up; and as cvklence itself is seen In dliTerent ligbt
nnder dLOTerent circumstaoces, with divers powers of generalization, or
with certain convictions and preconceived notions, it is not sniprislng
that opinions, however adverse, should be adhered to with considerable,
and it is to be hoped, considerate pertinacity. Yet whei5c troth alone is
the object, however mnch opposing parties may desire to establish their
own opinions, when that is reached and made manifest, the triumph is a
gain to science and not to either party. The veiy differences may and it
is almost certain must have been instrumental in reaching the result
attained, so that it is not unreasonable, nor In flict undesirable, that Af-
ferent opinions should exist in the consideration of scientific problems,
so that they be well considered, courteously maintained and kept subordi-
nate to the great purposes of science. In this way and in this way only,
can harmonious action be preserved and the best results attained. It is
gratifying to be able to say that these sentiments have prevailed a* all
the meetings of our Association.
BxcuBSiOKs OF THB AssocaATtOK vx lowA. — Several very Interesting
scientific excursions were made by members of the Association daring
the meeting at Portland. These at a distance have been the anbject of
remark and sometimes spoken of in the ordinary sense of excursions
of pleasure ; but this is incorrect. They are not simply pleasure trips,
but quite the reverse and have an eminently practical and oseftil pur-
pose, and this Is never lost sight of, nor the advantages aflbrded for
observation and collection ever overlooked or omitted. Take for ex-
ample the excursions of the meeting preceding this, ttom Dubn^foe,
which were eminently scientific. They weve first to the lead mines and
were truly laborious ; only redeemed from unpleasantness by their sci-
entific character. The excursion up the Mississippi River to McGregor
was prominently for scientific as well as social purposes; and one of the
most interesting objects ever visited by the members of the Association
was the remarkable sandstone rift on the western shore of tlie Upper
Mississippi ; and at the same time the Wisconsin shore was visited in
order to obtain botanical specimens peculiar to that locality. These
things, in fkct, were the attractive objects of the excursion, and while
they were amply compensating, the public entertainment provided by
tiie ladies of McGregor crowned with pleasure and festooned with
delightfhl recollections, one of the most satlsfuctory excursions ever
made by the Association.
So also of the much longer excursion which followed, across the
State of Iowa, which was participated in by some forty members. It
was fdll of scientific purpose and accomplishment, and In both respects
yielded ftiU compensation to science as well as recreation. Nor are the
benefits of such an excursion as this confined to the excursionists, or
even to those with whom they come in contact. By reference to the
narrative of the excursion spoken of it will be seen, not only what <^por-
tunities the party ei^oyed for scientific observation and exploration, hi
APPENDIX. 439
yarlons departments of natural history, bat also what service they ren-
dered in answering numerous inquiries, in discussions, and comparisons,
and yet more prominently in public lectures given by the members before
crowded and interested audiences. It is not too much to say that in
all the communities where stops were made and in all the places visited,
there was a mutual benefit between the people and the excursionists and
a clear gain for science. Science as a pursuit or science as a recreation
was almost unknown, if not in fact unheard of, in some of the remote
settlements visited by this party ; and it was a new thing to see gentle-
men and ladies collecting specimens of rocks, coal or other minerals,
and catching insects, searching the prairies for plants, seining the rivers
for fish, and carefully preserving these in boxes and bottles. Interest
was everywhere excited in the party and its movements, and especially
in Its acquisitions ; and it is very certain that the lesson afforded by these
things was not lost in a scientific sense, and the visits and explorations
made were eminently successftil in their social aspects.
Excursions fbok Portland.— We might refer to other excursions
made by the Association and its members, in order to show their scien-
tific character and purpose ; those fh>m Portland especially, which are
spoken of in the present volume. The first one in Casco Bay was ex-
tremely interesting, and especially so to a number of members firom the
* tea west who on this occasion made their first acquaintance v^th salt
water and the sea, and who were specially enthusiastic over the beauty
and mfOesty of the blue ocean, the tossing waves, the rolling breakers,
the long beaches and what they fbund there in their native habitats.
There was also scientific interest as well as novelty in the modem
" clam-bake," on the magnificent beach at " Old Orchard," with its his-
torical associations and present attractions. We need scarcely to speak
of the excursion to the White Mountain region — so ftiU of interest to all
the party; or to that made by sea to St. John, N. B. ; or to the dredging
expedition, so kindly profl'ered by the coast survey, along the coast — for
these all commended themselves in behalf of science as well as pleasure.
This feature of our Association is neither to be discarded or held in light
estimation. It has its purposes, not alone in the advancement of science
and in popularizing the work of the Association, but also in its varied
social aspects. No higher compliment can be bestowed upon the Asso-
ciation than the tender of opportunities and facilities in the interest of
its pursuits, made by persons who appreciate them and who thus manifest
their respect for those who labor for their advancement.
Proposition of Incorporation.— But the most Important proceedings
of the Association, at Portland, were those which relate to its ftiture
organization, its permanent legal existence and its enlarged means of
nseitilness. Having sustained itself for twenty-one years by the annual
contributions of its members, and the kindness of the people among
whom its meetings have been held, the members were surprised and
440 APPENDIX.
gratified by the generous donation of Mrs. Thompson in aid of the
objects of the Association, and it has been intimated that other gifts may
be expected.
Next to this in importance, and in fact made necessary by it, was the
proposition to obtain an act of incorporation, in order that the Afisodft-
tion may hold property and manage its financial aflhirs in a safe and legal
manner. The possession of such an act will affect indirectly bat largely,
the interests and useftilness of the Association, giving tait the dignity
of law, the right to receiye and hold property for the purposes of the
voluntary Association, and other rights and privileges of an incorporated
body. The matter of obtaining the charter was placed in the hands of
a committee and their report will be presented at the meeting at Hart-
ford.
Mkmbkbsbip. — An interesting subject incidental to the fbture prosperity
of the Association Is that of membership, which has to some extent been
made a topic of remark in print, and in one case "the absence of any
definite test of qualification for membership" is deplored. The American
Association for the Advancement of Science, like its British compeer, is
distinctively a popular institution, and to a great extent leaves the pro-
priety and utility of membership to be decided by the good sense, the
Judgment and intentions of the applicant. No doubt certain classes are
properly described by Dr. Dick when he says —
'* Some persons are disposed to consider science and natural history
merely as genteel studies ; others apply their minds to such subjects vrith
the view of bearing a part in the conferences of men of learning. Some
again prosecute such pursuits for the purpose of making collections of
scarce and valuable curiosities, and of displaying a degree of knowledge
and taste superior to those of their neighbors ; and the greater part of
mankind consider such studies as only amusement or a relaxation of mind
from the fatigues of their daily avocations." *' But the study of nature
and science," he adds, *<is highly dishonored by such grovelling and con-
tracted views. The prospect of the universe was exposed to our view
for more noble and exalted purposes — to make us wiser and better men;
to expand our views of the perfections of our Creator, and to inspire us
with a grateful sense of all the blessings we daily receive fh>m his boon-
tiltil hand."
It has never been deemed necessary in acting upon applications for
membership for this Association to enter upon the consideration of
motives, beyond those which are manifested by the application, or doubt
that they are proper and Justifiable. It is sufficient for it that the
candidate has the endorsement of at least two present members— a
measure necessary to bring his name before the Standing Committee.
It may or may not be found necessary to change these provisions ; but
at present they appear to be all that is necessary on the part of the Asso-
ciation and cannot be objected to on the part of applicant.
But there is another consideration ; it is not merely the scientific man,
APPENDIX. 441
bat the Mend and lover and patron of science that may claim member-
ship nnder oar rules. These are desired and desirable. Those who,
even in middle age, are giving their minds to science, may hope to be
aided by Joining our Association in the pursuits and investigations
which interest them. It may be asked in what way can the Association
promote its great purpose — the Advancement of Science — which will
be more promising or which is more efficient? It accords with its pop-
alar character as it does with its purposes, and is rather a feature to be
encouraged than omitted or restricted.
There is another class of members, the accession of which the Asso-
ciation may appear to have encouraged and to some extent has done so.
It has at least flacilltated the process by allowing membership for one»
two or three years ; a right, however, practically available to all members
by simply neglecting to pay the annual assessment. This class of mem-
bers is composed of those not pursuing scientific studies and not inten-
ding to do so, and who Join the Association sometimes doubtless upon
the invitation of friends ; from a desire to aid the Association by a small
contribution to Its ftinds; Arom mere curiosity or from personal con-
siderations of no importance to the Association. These persons. may
find it convenient to attend one or more of the meetings of the As-
sociation, and very probably then drop off. In this case, which has
no doubt frequently occurred, the member may have gained something
as well as the Association, and so far both parties are benefited. The
practical question In this matter Is, Shall the custom be allowed to
continue ? It may be thought that a large membership will be embar-
rassing to the business of the meetings ; but no inconvenience of this
kind has ever been experienced and probably will not be hereafter. Or
it may be thought that membership should be confined to persons of sci-
entific attainments, or at least to those who will become active mem-
bers^and this Is the question of vital Interest to the Association. For
ourselves we should regard such a restriction as very unwise ; as fatal
to this Association in its popular character, and as a measure entirely
adverse to the advancement of science, which Is the object of Its for-
mation. It needs no argument to show that the adoption of such a
rule, which seems to have been looked upon as practicable, will be
equivalent to an abandonment of the legitimate purposes of the Associa-
tion. Such members are unquestionably an advantage to the Association,
not merely by their annual contribution to Its ftinds, but In other bene-
ficial ways. They give to It the weight of numbers, much of personal*
character and Infiuence, aiid link It very closely with society wherever
the Association holds Its meetings, and give It public Interest and an
audience.
Still, there are those who think some discriminations, other than
those existing In regard to membership, are desirable, and would be
beneficial to the cause of science. We think differently ; the wisdom of
the original rule commends Itself to our Judgment, and we do not believe
any others, beyond the proper enlargement and expansion of this In the
442 APPEKDIX.
new constitution, are requisite. The provision for life membersliip is
deserving of especial commendation. Under this clause gentlemen of
means and appreciation will have an opportnnlty to contribute to the
purposes of the Association without the annoyance of yearly payments,
and may avail themselves of all the privileges of membership at any of
its meetings. They may thus add to its character and useAilness and
give their approbation to its popular element.
There is also another class— not thorough scientists, but*Btudents, de-
voted it may be to some special department or branch of science — and
these may naturally seek the aids which are afforded to them by mem-
bership of our Association. We may not look to these fbr the higheat
scientific work ; but they are pretty sure, sooner or later, to contribute
something towards the advancement of science. They are generally
young men, on whom higher duties will soon devolve and Arom whom
higher services are to be expected. It may be that they are hereafter to
become the leading members of the Association, prepared to sustain its
character, advance its growing interests and make international Its repu-
tation.
Our WoREma Members. — The Association, of course, will know how
to appreciate Its working members, for to their labors, their skill and
their sacrifices, are we to look for the advancement of science. It may
well say of them, "These are my jewels," for to their care, interest and
effort, is intrusted the scientific character of the American Association,
and to some extent that of the country which it represents. So also will
it know how to appreciate those Mends and patrons of science who are
disposed to give their aid to the purposes of the Association, although
they may not participate actively in its labors. They are essential to its
well-being, necessary to its success, promotive of all its interests, and
give to it its distinguishing characteristic as the popular scientific asso-
ciation of the country.
In the broad and popular character of the American Association as
we have spoken of it, it is not the rival of any other body, either in
purpose or practice, but the helper and co-worker for the promotion of
science. It does not pretend to be composed of accomplished scientists
only, with a limited number of members ; such a claim would be adverse
to its principles, an abandonment of its popular character and an im-
peachment of Its usefulness. It still proposes to be open to all, to foster
* genius, to advance science, to pursue the onward way in the paths It
has opened and in fields yet only partially explored.
Conclusion.— So that, upon a consideration of all these things, we
may not only regard the Portland meeting as forming an era in the his-
tory of the Association ; but after an experience of twenty-one years, we
may look back with interest upon its history and re-afflrm the principles
and great purposes of its founders. It is in accordance with the spirit
of our government and the age, having all its inspiration and sympathies
APPENDIX. 448
flrom the people in its popular character. We say very distinctly let the
Association adhere to its purposes and pursue them as heretofore with
unabated interest. It is undoubtedly on the high road to prosperity and
eminence, and so long as it shall continue in the wisdom of its founders
it will be safe ttom imbecility and indifference. Pursuing a similar
course and policy as the British Association, we shall be able to say, as
President Sedgwick said before that Association :
'* Our meefings have been essentially harmonious only because we have
kept within our proper boundaries, confined ourselves to the laws of
nature and steered clear of all questions in the decision of which bad
passions could have any play. But if we trespass our proper boundaries,
go into provinces not belonging to us, and open a door of communication
with the dreary wilds of politics, that instant will the foul Demon of
Discord find his way into our Eden of Philosophy."
INDEX
Address of Ex President Smith, 1, 423.
Adjournment of Portland Meeting, 428.
Allen, H. Q., Title of paper read, 176.
Allen, J. M., Letter from, 427.
Amphioxus, Lateral Position of Vent in,
B275.
Analyses of Mississippi Soils, 71.
Soils and Clays, 54.
Anatomical Figures, A Uniform Position
of, B274.
Andrews, Edmund, New Theory of Geyser
Action, 115.
Title of Paper read, B408.
Antennal Characters in the Lepidoptera,
BllO.
Anticvclonlsm and Cyolonism. 102.
Appalachians, Economic Mmeralogy of
the,Bll3.
Arctic Begions, 118.
Barnard, J. G., Relation of Internal Flu-
idity to the Precession of the Equi-
noxes, 36.
Title of paper read, 177.
Bickmore, Albert S., American Museum of
Natural History in New York, B198.
Boyd, MTm., Title of paper read, 176.
Brachiopoda, Genitalia of, B310.
Bradley, L., Title of paper read, 177.
Brains, Lateral Asymmetry in, of a Double
Human Monster, B250.
Bnfo Americanus, Note on, b23.
Burial Ground, Ancient in Swanton, Yt.,
B76.
Casco Bay, Explorations in, b840.
Cash Account of the Permanent Secretary,
438.
Caswell, Alexis, Remarks on donation by
Mrs. Thompson, 4i2.
Catalpa, Movement in the Stigmatic Lobes
Oi b7^ *
Cerebral, Fissures of Mammalia, B214.
Cerebral Variation in Domestic Dogs, B234.
Chase, Pliny Earle, A Chord of Spheral
Music, 105.
Chemists. Meeting of, 424.
Clarke, F. W., Title of paper read, 177.
Climate of the Arctic Begions, 118.
Closing Session, 426.
Cofinberry, W. L., Title of paper read, 409.
Committee, Local, Portland, xl.
— — — on Constitution Appointed. 414.
— on Reception, Address in behalf of,
412.
Standing, 412.
Committees, Special, xii.
Communications, Section A, Titles of those
read but not printed, 175.
Section B, Titles of those read but
not printed, B408.
Comstock, M. L., The Tornadoes of Illi-
nois, 112.
Constitution, xvil.
Committee on, 414.
ColJrdinates in a Plane, 27.
Cope, E. D., Extinct Types of Homed
Perissodactyles, B108.
Copper Matte, Chemical ComT>08ition of,
143.
Cretaceous Strata of Long Island. B131.
Curtis, Josiah, Title of paper read, B409.
Curve, New, 30.
Curves, Lissajou's, 106.
Cutting, Hiram A., Direction of Wind in a
Local Thunder Storm, 60.
Cyclonism and Anticydonism, 102.
Oydoptems, Notes en, b335.
Dana, J. D., Slates of the Taoonic Moun-
tains, b27.
Staarolite Crystals and Green Moun-
tain Gneisses, b25.
Dardanelles, Supposed Relics of Man in,
B203.
Dawson, J. W., A new Sigillaria showing
Scars of Fructification b76.
Geological Relations of the Iron
Ores of Nova Scotia, B138.
Deceased Members, List of, xlii.
Notices of, 414.
Devonian Limestones in Ohio. BlOO.
Diamond, Origin and Properties of B104.
Dissipation of Energy, 46.
Dogs, Cerebral Variation in. B284.
Dogs, Composition of the Carpus in, B301.
Dogs. Variation in the Pectoral Mnscles of,
B30e.
Dolbear, A. E., Attachment tbr projecting
Lissajou's Curves, 108.
Convertibility of Sound Into Elec-
tricity, 110.
Earth, Internal Fluidity of, 85.
Electrici^, 110.
Elephant's Tooth, Fossil, B112.
Elliott, E. B., Titles of papers read, 176, 177.
Ennis, Jacob, Title of paper read, 175.
Entertainments. 425.
Entomologists, Meetings of, 424.
Resolution by, 4SU.
Entomology, Economic, BlO.
Epeira. Nets of; B264.
liparia. Habits and Parasites of, B257.
Equations, 31.
Evaporator, Automatlo Registering and
Printing, 92.
Excursions, 4SSi,
Feuchtwanger, Lewis, Remarks on Glass-
making, 88.
Title of paper, b409.
Fish Commission, Explorations by, b340.
— -» Fauna of Massachusetts, Additions •
to, B34.
Foote, A. E., Modifloation of the Vacuum
or Filter Pump, 141.
Forests, PreservaUon of, Bl.
General Sessions, 421.
(446)
146
Qeoloffy of tlio Appatachluis, BUS,
)— _-ltartbwe>t Fait of Maine, bMS.
Fortlund, Bios.
SoDthBm New Bniniwlolt, B118,
GaTSBr-scUon, Sew Theorv of, IIB.
GUI, Theodora, FacllltMlon of Mnaaom
AdmlnlBtrntloa, b37. , .,
AddtUons to the Fi»h Fauna of Maa-
sacbnaetta, bU.
Speclei of Die Ganns UloropCsitii,
GnSiaea of fee Green Hoant^,^.
Goods, G. Brown, " Do Snake* Swallow
tbeli Young P BITS,
Grarlock Bango, bST.
Green MouabOn Gnetasea, bSS.
GroW.A'LB.Ki.OtWijof
Green Mouati
-rote, Aug. LM,«..e;- ",
Antsnnal CharacUn t
and UotfaB, BliO.
Gtystea, 8peolo« ol; b».
. the BatterBlea
Indian ISurial Gronnd it Bmaton.Tt,, t/lt.
InsecW, Origin of, BllO.
■— imembnU HonurioBi«fc,BS(B.
Ore*, Geologtoal BelaOons of. In Son
Hill, Thoroaa. A Mew Cnrro, SO.
w^^ Four Equations, 81.
Note on Bofo AroericanuB, MS.
WaMon'B Co«rdln»teB in a Plane, 27.
Hitchcock, C. H,, CretooBona Strata ol
Long lelBJid, B131. „. , ,
Geoltijoai History of WlnnlplBcogee
GeologT of the Northwoat Part of
Maine, ^«. , ^ ,„
Gaoiogy of portlandjBlffl.
Holley, W. W, Proilmalal^loie of KUg-
-fritie of paper read, 178;^
HomologleB, Intormemhra], HOB.
Hongb,!-.- ..— ., i:..-.... =t
Hongh, Q
Printing ETaporaloi
■ DBBoriptlon of a Printing THer-
mom^T, So.
Tltleof paperiead, 176.
Hook, H™. G. T?., Title of paper read, 1
HoTey, Edmund O., I^rgeel JobbII Klfr
Jbant'a Tooth yet Deecribsd, BllS,
«on KiTBT Group, Taconio Slato*. MT.
Human Monitor, Mummied, (Mm Pern,
' PapUlaiy Bepreeentatlve of two
Human Baco, IncreaBe of, B311.
Hunt, T. Bto^, Broaka m the Amerioftn
FaleOEOlo Seriea, BllT.
-~~ Cbemioal CompoaltloD of a Copper
HBtte,US.
Hnnt, T. Sterry, Gealogy «nd
Ulneralogy of the Sonthaaat.... ^rr-
laohiana, BllS.
- Geology of Sonthoni New Bnma-
wick, BllS.
~ Metunorpblsm of Bocka, BlIS-
— Bemacka on Prof. Newberry's P^er
an "Clrclea o< DeposltioD," bIsS.
-, Title of paper read, bUB.
HuoUngton, jCH.. Geology of the Noitt-
waat Part of Maine, ifUS.
Byatt, Jamet, A Stroke of Ljgtitning. with
UlntB KB to Immunity, lOS.
Title of paper read, BUS.
HyptiolSB, Neta of, BSBt.
Ulinola^oni ad oe
of, 113.
ake Snperlor, Ci
Level of, b«. , ,_
ambert.T.H., Title* of papen nad,lTI,
Langley, S. P^The Solar PliotoBphire, liL
LeCon&, John L., Hlnu for the Promotlin
of Eoomnnlc KntomolOKy, ElO.
Lepldopten, Antenna] Characten tn,BllO.
Ll^cntng, A Stroke of, IM.
Llmnlna.lBmbiTology of, and Ita AflnUet,
bSO.
Llparie, Hotea on. BSSa.
LlBBtlJon'B CUITOB, lOi.
Local Committee, HartiUrf MeatlDg, »T,
Portland Meeting. iL
Lookwood, Samuel, Title of paper read.
Long Uland, CretaceouB Strata of, bISL
imongSedlmentaobtahied
oy'sm AnJOyBti, «l. ^ , . ,, ^
: Inlluenoe of Strength of Add and
nme of Dlgeetlon In &e EzlrBction of
LoTerlng, Joacvh. BemaA* liy , 41T, IM, W-
Hep-^ "V'° Permanent SeoraUiT.
Bepoit of Caah Aooeunt, lU.
Maine, Geology of, IMS.
HammsUa, Pectoral Mnaclee of, USS.
Han, Supposed Bellca of, &X.
Muancbasetls Flahea, bM.
Medldne, Metric Syslf- *-
"— ' — '^■"jmas, B
^Movement In tbe SUgmatio Lal>M
of Catalpa, Bit.
Meeting Ormuilied, US.
Meetingg of the Aasocialion, rri.
Membera elected at Foitlaod, xll.
of t^e Asaodatlon, List of, zXT.
present at Portland, 4U.
Metric SyBWm In Hedieine. M.
MlBslasippi Valley, Deeoent of SiTera In,
Morgan, L. H., Tltlo of pw "^ ■•"■
INDEX.
447
Morse, E. 8., Apparatae for Illnstratiiig
Yariatlon of Wave Lengths, 159.
Embryology of Terebratullna, b806.
Genitalia or Brachiopoda, bSIO.
Title of paper read, B406.
Moantain Chains. Origin of, b51.
Mosenm Administration, Facilitation of,
BS7.
-, American, in New York, B190.
Musical Flow of Water, 46.
Music, Spheral, a Chord of, 106. .
Kephila, Nets of, B964.
plnmipes, Moulting of, 8267.
Nets of Epeira, Nephila and Hyptiotes,
B264.
Newberry, J. 8., Circles of Deposition in
American Sedimentary Rocks, b186.
Titles of papers read, B408.
New Brunswick, ueolotrv of, B116.
New York, Museum of Natural History in
Central Park, B196.
Niagara and \Lower Helderberg Forma-
tions, Relations of, and their Qeo-
graphical Distribution, b321.
Niagara, Proximate Future of, BU7.
Niles. W. H., Eicpansions, Movements and
Jractures of Rocks observed at Mon-
son, Bl66.
Nova Scotia, Geological Relations of the
Iron Ores of, b188.
Officers for Hartford Meeting, elected, 427.
of Hartford Meeting, xiv.
^— - Portland Meeting, Ix.
— Sections, x.
Ohio. Devonian Limestones in, BlOO.
Origin of Species, BS86.
Packard, A. S.. Jr. Embrrology of Limn-
Ins, with Notes on its Affinities, B80.
PaliBozoic Series, Breaks in, b117.
Papers read in Section a, but not printed,
176.
presented, 411.
Peirce, Benjamin, Title of paper reail, 176.
Perissodactyles, Extinct Types of Homed,
B108.
Perkins, George H., Ancient Burial Ground
in Swanton, Yt., b76.
Permanent Secretary, Cash Acoount of,
4W.
Report of, 432.
Stock Account of, 496.
Photosphere, Solar, 161.
Pigs. FoBtal, Sense Organs in, b808.
Portland, Geolosry of, b103.
-~— Meeting, Executive P
411.
HiPtory of; 411.
—— — Officers Of, ix.
Precession of the Equinoxes, 86.
Prei'ident, Address by, 1, 412.
■ Closing Remarxs by, 427.
President's Opening Address, b419.
Remarks on Donation by Mrs.
Thompson, 422.
Reply to Address of Welcome, 417.
Retiring Address read, 428.
roceedlngs of,
Printing Thermometer, Description of,
90.
Pump, Yacunm or Filter, 141.
Putnam, F. W., Notes on Liparis, Cydop-
tems and their allies, b836.
Report, Stock Account, 486.
Quartzite of Williamstown, b87.
Rain Gauge and Evaporator, Automatlo,
92.
Rana pipiens, Lateral Position of Vent in
Larvr of, b27.'^.
Reception by Citizens of Portland, 414.
Resolutions adopted ai the Portland Meet-
ing. 429.
Permanent, xxiii.
Rhus, Hermaphrodltit m in, b78.
fUce, W. N.. Effect of Certain Poisons on
Mollnsks, B201.
Rock$>(Cii*cle(> of Deposition in, Bl86, B1B6.
Expansion of, BliSC.
Metamorphism of, Bll6.
Rogers. »V. A., Titles of Papers read, 176.
Roos, Angus, Title of Paper read, B406.
Sectional Committees, Importance of, 424.
Section A. 1 'apers, 27.
Titles of Papers read, not printed,
176.
Section D, Papers read, Bl.
— Titles of Communications read but
not printed. B106.
Sections Organized, 414.
Sense Organs, Yariation in Festal Pigs,
BS08.
Shell Heaps of Fresh-water MoUusks,
B13S.
Sigillaria, New, Showing Scars of Fmcli-
flcation, b76.
Silt Analyses of Mississippi SoUs, 7L
of Soil 8 anil Clays, 64.
Sediments in, 80.
Silurian. Green Mountain Gneisses, BS6.
Slates of the Taconic Mountains, B27.
Smith, J. Lawrence, Address of .
— ^ Address read, 428.
Letter lh>m, 433.
Snakes, Do they Swallow their Young?
B176.
Soil Ingredients, 80.
Soils, Analysis of, 64. 71.
Influence of Strength of Acid and
Time of Digestion in Extraction of, 88.
Solar Photosphere. 161.
Sound, Convertibility ol^ into Electricity,
110.
Special Committees, xil.
Siiecies, Origin of, b396.
Spheral Music, 106.
Spiders, Habits and Moulting of, BS67.
Nets of, Ba64.
Staurolite Crystals, b26.
Stock Acoount of Perm.'uient Secretary, 486.
Subsections of A and B, 428.
too hastily organized, 424.
Sumac, Hermapnrooitiem in, b7S.
Swallow, G. C, Origin of Species, B886.
Taconic Mountain Slates, b27.
Tenndy, Sanborn, Quartzite of WllUama-
town, and Structure of the Graylo<^
Range. bS7.
Terebratulina, Embryology of, B806.
Thanks voted, 427.
Thermometer, Description of a Printing,
00.
Thompson, Mrs. Elizabeth, Letter flrom,
422.
Resolutions on donations from, 4tt.
Toad, Note on, B23.
Tornadoes of lUinois, 112.
Transatlantic Longitudes, 144.
Uhler, P. R., A Remarkable Wasp's Nest
Found in Maryland, bS2.
448
INDEX.
Vacnnm Pnmp, 141.
Van der Weyde, P. H., RemarkB on dona-
tion by Mrs. Thompson, 428.
Titles of papers read, 176, 177.
Verrill, A. E.. Explorations of Casco Bay-
by 17. S. Fish Commission, B340.
Votes of Thanks, 480.
Walker, J.. B., Title of paper read, 176.
Wallinff, H. F., Musical Flow of Water, 45.
. lielation of the Dissipation of Energy
to Cosmical Evolution, 46.
Want, R. H., TitlH of paper read, 177.
Wardwell, G. J., Title of paper read, 176.
Washburn, George, CalverTs Supposed
Relics of Man in the Miocene of the
Dardanelles, B203.
Wasp*8 Nest, Remarkable. b82.
Water, Musical Flow of, 4.5.
Watson's Coordinates in a Plane, 27.
Wave Lengths, Illustration of their Varia-
tion, 159.
Wheildon, William W., Appendix to Hist-
ory of Portland Meeting, 487.
Arctic Regions, 118.
Title of paper read. 177.
White, C. A., Artificial Shell Heaps of Fresh
Water MoUusks, b133.
Whittlesey, Chas., Cause of the Transient
Fluctuations of Level in Lake Superior,
B42.
Descent of Rivers in the Mississippi
Valley b47.
■ Or^fln of Mountain Chains, b51.
Rate of Increase of the Human
Race.BSll.
Wilder, B. G., Cerebral Variation in Do-
mestic Dogs. B284.
— Composition of the Carpus in Dogs,
B301.
Wilder, B. G., Habtta and Paraaites of
Epeirft riparia, Note on the Moulting
or Nephlla plumipes, B257.
IntermembralHomologiea, B308.
Lateral Asymmetry in Braina of A
Double Human Monster, D350.
m Lateral Position of the Vent in Am-
phioxus and in Larva of Bana pipiens,
Need of a Uniform Position for
Anatomical Figures. B274.
Nets of Epeira, Nephila and Hyp-
tiotes, ^64.
Outer Cerebral FisBxtrea of Mam-
malia and Limits of their Homologies,
B214.
Papillary Representatives of two
Arms of a Double Human Monster.
Note on a Mummied Doable Monster
Arom Peru, B251.
Pectoral Musdea of Mammalia,
B805.
Present Aspect of Intermembral
Homologies, 803.
Variation in the Condition of the
External Sense Organs in Fcetal Pigs
of the same Litter, bWZ.
Variation in the Pectoral Muscles
of Domestic Dogs, bSOS.
Wiley, H. W., Introduction of the Metric
System into Medicine and the UniAca-
tion of Doses, 94.
Title of Paper read, 177.
Winchell, N. H., Devonian F^imestonee in
Ohio. BlOO.
Wind, Direction of, in Thunder Storms, 50.
Winniplbeogee Lake, Geological Histoiy
of, B120.
Toung, C. A., Titles •f Papers read, 175.
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