This is a digital copy of a book that was preserved for generations on library shelves before it was carefully scanned by Google as part of a project
to make the world's books discoverable online.
It has survived long enough for the copyright to expire and the book to enter the public domain. A public domain book is one that was never subject
to copyright or whose legal copyright term has expired. Whether a book is in the public domain may vary country to country. Public domain books
are our gateways to the past, representing a wealth of history, culture and knowledge that's often difficult to discover.
Marks, notations and other marginalia present in the original volume will appear in this file - a reminder of this book's long journey from the
publisher to a library and finally to you.
Usage guidelines
Google is proud to partner with libraries to digitize public domain materials and make them widely accessible. Public domain books belong to the
public and we are merely their custodians. Nevertheless, this work is expensive, so in order to keep providing this resource, we have taken steps to
prevent abuse by commercial parties, including placing technical restrictions on automated querying.
We also ask that you:
+ Make non-commercial use of the files We designed Google Book Search for use by individuals, and we request that you use these files for
personal, non-commercial purposes.
+ Refrain from automated querying Do not send automated queries of any sort to Google's system: If you are conducting research on machine
translation, optical character recognition or other areas where access to a large amount of text is helpful, please contact us. We encourage the
use of public domain materials for these purposes and may be able to help.
+ Maintain attribution The Google "watermark" you see on each file is essential for informing people about this project and helping them find
additional materials through Google Book Search. Please do not remove it.
+ Keep it legal Whatever your use, remember that you are responsible for ensuring that what you are doing is legal. Do not assume that just
because we believe a book is in the public domain for users in the United States, that the work is also in the public domain for users in other
countries. Whether a book is still in copyright varies from country to country, and we can't offer guidance on whether any specific use of
any specific book is allowed. Please do not assume that a book's appearance in Google Book Search means it can be used in any manner
anywhere in the world. Copyright infringement liability can be quite severe.
About Google Book Search
Google's mission is to organize the world's information and to make it universally accessible and useful. Google Book Search helps readers
discover the world's books while helping authors and publishers reach new audiences. You can search through the full text of this book on the web
at|http : //books . google . com/
I
GENER/tL LIBR/I RY of the
UNIVERSITY OF MICHIG/IN
-PRESENTED BY-
jA\k.
i>'^~yJJi^^
^.
^\;^V c\ \\& \
I-.JI ^
i
it
I
MÉMOIRES
ET
COMPTES RENDUS
DE LA
/ i_
SOCIETE ROYALE
DU
CANADA
SECONDE SERIE-TOME IX
SEANCE DE MAI 1903
EN VENTE CHEZ
JAa HOPE ET FILS, OTTAWA; LA CIE COPP-CLARK (Limitée), TORONTO
BERNARD QUARITCH, LONDRES. ANGLETERRE
1903
PROCEEDINGS
AND
TRANSACTIO. ,,
OF THB
ROYAL SOCIETY
OF
CANADA
SECOND SERIES-VOLUME IX
MEETING OF MAY, 1903
FOR SALE BY
JAMBS HOPE Sc SON, OTTAWA ; THB COPP-CLARK CO. (Limitbd), TORONTO
BERNARD QUARITCH, LONDON, ENGLAND
1908
LIST OF PRESIDENTS
f
LIST OK PRESIDENTS.
1888-*88 Sib J. W. Dawsoit, Kt.
188^*84 L'honorjlblb P. J. O. Chautbau.
188i-'86 Dr. T. Stebby Hvmt.
1886-'86 Sib Daniel Wilson, Kt.
1886-'87 , . . • MoNSiONOB Hamel.
1887-88 Db. G. Lawson.
1888-'89 Sib Sandfobd Fleming, K.C.M.O.
188^*00 L*ABBÉ Casobain.
VSX^Ièl Vbby Rev. Pbincipal Gbant.
1891-92 . . , L*ABBi Laflahme.
1892-*93 Sib J. G. Boubinot, K.C.M.O.
189»-*94 Db. G. M. Dawson, C.M.G.
189i-'95 ... Sib J. Maophebson LeMoinb, Kt.
1895-*96 Db. A. a C. Selwyn, C.M.G.
1806-*g7 . Most Rev. Abchbishop 0*Bbibn.
1897-*98 L'honobablb F. G. BCabchand
1898*99 . . T. C. Kbefeb, C.M.G.
1899-1900 Rev. Pbofessob Clabk, D.O.L.
1900-1901 L. Fbbohette, C.M.G., LL.D.
1901-1908 Pbebident Loudon, LL.D.
1902-1903 Sib Jambs A. Grant, K.aM.G.,
M.D., F.G.S.
1903-1904 Lt.-Col. G. T. Denison, B.0,L.
Fw Rules and BegtUatians of t?u Royal Society of CanadoL^ Revised to May
2901, see beginning of Vol. VI. Trans. R. 8.
\.
\
r '
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Inst of Officers of the Society for 19081904, I
Lièt of Fellows and Corresponding Members 2-4
List of Presidents B
PROCEEDINGS.
List of Fellows present at May meeting I
Report of Council II
1. Printing of Transactions II
Accounts in
2. Early delivery of Papers IV
3. Illustrations V
4. Copies of Transactions sent to the King YI
6. Need of a Home VI
6. Decease of Members — Sir John Bourinoty Dr. A. R. C.
Selwyn, Dr. Douglas Brymner^ Hon. Joseph Royal^
Dr. MacCabe (with portraits) Vin
7. Corresponding Members XI
8. Members of Council XII
9. Election of Fellows XII
10. Associated Societies XIII
11. Champlain Ter-centenary i XIV
12. Bibliographies XV
13. Preservation of Places of Scenic and Historic Interest XVI
14. Time Reckoning XVII
15. Meeting of the International Geological Congress XVIII
16. The British World Telegraph Cable XIX
17. Wireless Telegraphy XX
18. The Transmission and Transformation of Energy XX
19. Triangulation along the 98th Meridian XXI
20. Marine and Lake Biological Stations XXTV
21. Tidal Survey XXIV
22. Ethnological Survey XXIV
23. Archives XXVII
n ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
24. Forestry XXVII
25. Science Applied to Increasing Production XXvill
26. Gommitteeon Geological Nomenclature XTTX
27. Geographic Nomenclature XXIX
28. International Congress of Americanists XXX
29. Map of Canada XXX
GENERAL BUSINESS.
Resolutions adopted XXX
Champlain Celebration Committee appointed XXX
Reports of Associated Societies XXXI, XXXII
Election of Corresponding Members XXXI
Election of Member to Section III XXXI
International Congress Committee appointed XXXII
Election of Member to Section IV. XXXII
Presidential Address .... XXXII
Committee for the Nomination of Officers appointed XXXIV
Geodetic Commission — Deputation appointed to wait on Govern-
ment XXXIV
Telegram to His Majesty XXXIV
Reply XXX7I
Telegram to Duke of Argyll XXXV
Reply XXIVI
Popular Lecture by Prof T. Wesley Mills XXIV
Election of General Officers XXIVI
Report of Committee on Historical Monuments and Sites XXXVII
Votes of Thanks XXXVIII
Report of Champlain Celebration Committee XL
Resolution urging Erection of a National Museum ILI
Condolences to Lady Bourinot ILI
Report of Committee on Proposed Hydrographie Survey De-
partment ILI
Vote of Thanks to Acting Honorary- Secretary XLII
Vote of Thanks to Honorary-Treasurer XLII
REPORTS OF SECTIONS.
Of First Section XXXVIIÏ
Of Second Section XXXIX
Of Third Section XLV
Of Fourth Section XLIII
TABLE OF CONTENTS m
APPENDICES.
A.— Pbbsidbntial Addbsss.
Brain Power ; How to Preserve It. By Sir James Qrant^
M.D., KC.M.G XLIX
B. — Mabinb and Lake Bioloqioal Stations of Canada.
Atlantic Biological Station LXI
éjjake Biological Station LXIY
C. — Survey op Tides and Currents.
Survey of Tides and Currents LXXI
D. — Reports prom Associated Literary and Soientipio Societies
in Canada.
L The Natural History Society of Montreal LXXVII
II. The Numismatic and Antiquarian Society of Mont-
real LXXIX
III. La Société Littéraire de Montréal LXXXII
IV. The Quebec Literary and Historical Society LXXXIU
V. The Ottawa Literary and Scientific Society LXXXV
VI. The Ottawa Field Naturalists' Club LXXXVH
VII. The Hamilton Scientific Association .4 XCI
VIII. The Entomological Society of Ontario XCII
IX. The Natural History Society of New Brunswick ... XCV
X. The Nova Scotian Institute of Science XCVIII
XL The Nova Scotia Historical Society C
XII. The Elgin Historical and Scientific Institute CI
XIII. The Manitoba Historical and Scientific Society CII
XIV. The Royal Astronomical Society of Toronto CIII
XV. The Lundy's Lane Historical Society CIX
XVI. The New Brunswick Historical Society CIX
XVII. The Ontario Historical Society CX
XVIII. TheWomen's Canadian Historical Society of Toronto CXI
XIX. The Niagara Historical Society CXII
XX. The Miramichi Natural History Association CXIV
XXI. The Canadian Forestry Association CXV
XXII. The Women's Canadian Historical Society of Ottawa CXTIII
XXIII. The United Empire Loyalists* Association of Ontario
{Head of the Lake Branch) CXIX
XXIV. 7 he Botanical Club of Canada CXXI
IV ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
TRANSACTIONS.
SECTION I.
LITTÉRATUEB V&ANÇAISB, HISTOIRE, ABOHÉOLOaiB, BTO.
I. Découverte du Missimpi en 1669. Par Benjamin Sulte.... 3
II. Un épisode de Vhistoire de la dîme au Canada {1705-1707).
Par l'abbë Auguste Gosselin, docteur es lettres 45
III. Les Intendants de la Nouvelle France. (Avec portraits et
armoiries.) Par Bbois Bot 65
lY. Mouvement intellectuel chez les Canadiens français depuis
1900. Par Thonorable Pascal Poibieb 109
Y. Le Père Sébastien Basics^ jésuite, missionnaire chez les
Abénaquis, 1657-172^. Par N.-B. Dionnb, M.D.,
LL.D., Bibliothécaire de la Législature de la Pro-
vince de Québec '. 117
YI. Irenna la huronne. Pai: Pamphile LeMat 135
YII. La Fontaine d! Abraham Martin et le Site de son Habita-
tion. (Illustré.) Par P.-B. Casgeain, Québec 145
SECTION n.
ENGLISH history, LITERATURE, ARCHiBOLOQT, ETC.
I. The Evolution and Degeneration of Party. — A Study in
Political History. By Beverend N. Burwash,
S.T.D., Yictoria College, Toronto 3
II. T?ie Lake of the Woods Tragedy (with Map). By Law-
rence J. Burpee 15
III. The Hon. Henry Caldwell, L.C., at Quebec, 1759-1810. By
Sir James M. Lemoine, D.G.L 29
lY. The Death of Dulhut. By William McLennan 39
Y. The Gaelic Folk- Songs of Canada. By Alexander Fraser,
Toronto, Ont 49
YI. Totemism : A Consideration of its Origin and Import. By
Charles Hill-Tout, Hon. Seci*etary Ethnological
Survey of Canada, etc j61
YII. A few remarks on ^^The Siege of Quebec " and the Battle of
the Plains of Abraham, by A. Doughty, in collabora-
tion with G. W. Parmelee ; and on the Probable Site
of the Battle of the Plains of Abraham^ by A. Doughty.
By P. B. Casgrain 101
YIII. Intrusive Ethnological Types in BuperVs Land. By Bev.
Dr. G. Brtoe 135
TABLE OF CONTENTS V
IX. The Second Legislature of Upper Camda.— 1796-1800. By
C. C. JAMI8, Toronto 145
X. Acadian Magazines. By D. B. Jack 173
XI. Latest Lights on the Cahot Controversy. CWith map.) By
Bï. Bbvbuind Bishop Howlbt 205
XII. The Copper Currency of the Canadian Banks, 18$7'1867.
(Illustrated.) By R W. MoLaohlan 217
SECTION in.
I
MATHEMATICAL, PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL SCIENCES.
I. On the Analysis of Cheese. (Diagram.) By Thomas Mao-
FARLANE • 3
II. The Bate of Decomposition of Potassium Chlorate under the
Influence of Heat. (Diagrams.) By S. B. Chadset 15
III. On the Resistance of a Hydrated Electrolyte, and the rela-
tion to the Density 'Concentration Curve. (Diagrams.)
By HowABD T. Babnes, D.Sc., Assistant Professor of
Physics, and J. Gut W. Johnson, M.A., McOill
University, Montreal • 31
IV. On the Radioactivity of Metals Generally. (Illustrated.)
By J. C. McLennan, Ph.D., Associate Professor of
Physics, University of Toronto, and E. P. Burton,
B.A., Fellow in Mathematics, University of Toronto 37
V, The Oxalates of Bismuth. By P. B. Allan 45
VL Researches in Physical Chemistry carried out in the University
of Toronto during the Past Year. Communicated by
Prof. W. Lash Miller 49
VII. Note on the application of Fourier's Series to the determina-
tion of the forms of Cams to fulfil given conditions of
displacement, velocity and acceleration. By E. G.
Cokeb, M.A., Cantab., D.Sc. (Edin.), Assistant Pro-
fessor of Civil Engineering, McGill University, Mont-
i-eal 53
VIII. A Laboratory Apparatus for Applying Bending and Torsional
Moments simultaneously. (Illustrated.) By E. G.
CoKER, M.A., D.Sc, Assistant Professor of Civil
Engineering, McGill University 59
IX. Seismology in -Canada. (Diagram.) By E. P. Stupart 69
X. Numerical Values of Certain functions involving e^. By
W. Lash Miller, Ph.D., and T. B. Bosebrugh, MA. 73
VI ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
SECTION IV.
GIOLOaiOAL AND BIOLOOIOAL bOIINOIS.
I. An Experimental Study an the Effect of the Blood-sera of
Normal and Immunized Goats in Modifying the Pro-
gress of Tuberculous Infection. By Albert Giobob
NiCHOLLS, M.A., M.D., CM., Lecturer in Pathology,
McGill University, and Assistant Pathologist to the
Boyal Victoria Hospital, Montreal 3
II. Notes on Tertiary Plants, (^With plates.) By D. P. Pbn-
HALLOW 33
III. Notes on some Interesting rock-contacts in the Kingston Dis-
trict, Ont By E. W. Ells, LL.D 1
IV. An Attempt to classify Palœozoic Batrachian footprints.
(J/Vith plates.) By Da. G. F. Matthbw 109
V. Mineral and Grown Land Grants in Nova Scotia, By
Edwin Gilpin, Jr., M.A., D.C.L., F.E.S.C 123
VI. Drancis Bain^ Geologist. By Lawrence W. Watson, M.A. 135
VII. A Submerged Tributary to the Great Pre-Glacial River of
the Gulf of St. Lawrence. (With map.) By H. S.
Poole, D.Sci, Associate of the Boyal School of Mines 143
VIII. On the Relation of Moisture-content to Hardiness^ in Apple
Twigs. By Frank T. Shutt, M.A., F.LC, F.C.S.,
Chemist, Dominion Experimental Farms, 149
IX. Bibliography of Canadian Entomology for the Year 1902.
By Bev. C. J. S. Bethune, D.CL 156
X. Bibliography of Canadian Zoology for 1902, exclusive of
Entomology. By J. F. Whiteayes 163
• XL Botanical Bibliography of Canada for 1902. By A. H.
MacKay, LL.D 169
XII. Bibliography of Canadian Geology and Palœontology for the
year 1902. By H. M. Ami, M.A., D.Sc, F.G.S.,
of the Geological Sui"vey of Canada 173
XIII. Some Aspects of the Development of Comparative Psychology.
By Wesley Mills, M.A., M.D., etc.. Professor of
Physiology in McGill University, Montreal, Canada. 189
XIV. Descriptions of some New Species and Varieties of Canadian
Butterflies. (With coloured plate and figures.) By
James Fletcher, LL.D., F.L.S 207
TABLE OF CONTENTS VII
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
PBOCBBDINGS.
Portraits of Deceased Fellows — Sir John Boorinot, Dr. Selwyn,
Dr. MacCabe, Dr. Brymner, Hon. Jos. Boyal VIII
SECTION I.
Seventeen portraits and armouries to illustrate Mr. Boy's
paper on '* Les Intendants " 67 et seq.
Two plans to accompany Mr. Casgrain's *' La Fontaine d'Abra-
ham Martin " 147, 160
SECTION II.
Map to illustrate Mr. Burpee's " Lake of the Woods Tragedy" 16
Map to accompany Bishop Howley's <' Cabot" 207
Four plates to illustrate Mr. McLachlan's ** Copper Currency" 273
SECTION III.
One diagram to accompany Mr. Macfarlane*s paper on
''Analysis of Cheese" 4
Three diagrams to illustrate Mr. Chadsey's paper on '' Decom-
position of Potassium Chlorate" 16 et seq.
Three diagrams to illustrate Messrs. Barnes and Johnson's
paper on "Besistance of a Hydrated Electrolyte" 31 et seq.
Four diagrams to accompany Messrs. McLennan's and Bur-
ton's paper on " Badioactivity of Metals '* 38 et seq.
Four diagrams to illustrate Dr. Coker's paper on '' Torsional
Moments" 60 et seq.
One lithographed diagram to accompany Mr. Stupart's '* Seis-
mology " 72
SECTION IV.
One plate and twenty-nine figures to accompany Dr. Pen-
hallow's " Tertiary Plants" 69 et seq.
Three plates to illustrate Dr. Matthews' "Batrachian Foot-
prints" Ill et seq.
One map to accompany Dr. Poole's " Pre-Glacial Biver of
Gulf of St. Lawrence" 144
One coloured plate and two figures to illustrate Dr. Fletcher's
"Butterflies" 207
THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA.
FOUNDER : HIS GRACE THE DUKE OF ARGYLL, K.G., Ac.,
(WKDf GOTXBMOB-anrssAi. or OAifADA nr UBl)
OKKICERS KOR 1903-1904.
HONORARY PRESIDENT:
HIS EXCELLENCY THE BT. HON. THE EAKL OP MINTO,
G.C.M.G., &c.
Prbsidint— LT.-COL. G. T. DENISON, B.C.L.
Vicb-Prbsidbnt— B. SULTE
Honorary Secretary, DR S. R DAWSON
Honorary Treasurer, DR. JAMES FLETCHER
PFFICERS OF SECTIONS :
SEC. L — French Literature, History, and Allied Subjects.
President, DR. ADOLPHE POISSON
Vice-President, L. O. DAVID
Secretary, LÉON GÉRIN
SEC. II.— English Literature, History, and Allied Subjects.
President, REV. DR BRYCE
Vice-President, W. D. LIGHTHALL
Secretary, W. WILFRED CAMPBELL
SEC. Ill — Mathematical, Physical, and Chemical Sciences.
President, DR. ELLIS
Vice-President,. PROF. RUTHERFORD
Secretary, E. DEVILLE
SEC IV. — Geological and Biological Sciences.
President, DR G. U. HAY
Vice-President, PROF. FOWLER
Secretary, LAWRENCE LAMBE
ADDITIONAL MEMBERS OF COUNCIL: »
DR FRECHETTE, C.M.G.
SIR S. FLEMING, K.C.M.G.
DR S. E. DAWSON.
PRESIDENT LOUDON.
DR DeCELLES
T. C. KEEPER, C.M.G.
SIR JAMES GRANT, K.C.M.G.
^ The Council for 1908-1904 comprises the President and Vice-President of the
Society, the Presidents, Vice-Presidents and Secretaries of Sections, the Honorary
Secretary and the Honorary Treasurer, besides ex-Presidents of the Society during
three years from the date of their retirement, and not more than four members
of the Society who have formerly served on the Council, elected by the CounciL
THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA.
LIST OF MEMBERS, 1903-1904.
I.-LITTÉRATURE FRANÇAISE, HISTOIRE, ARCHÉOLOGIE, ETC.
Bbauchemin, Nérée, M.D., Yamachiche, P.Q,
Bjtom, MoR L.-N., Archevêque de Québec, Québec,
Bbllemarb, Raphael, docteur es lettres, Montréal.
BouRASSA, l'abbjê Gustavb, L.S.T., D.J.O., docteur es lettres, MontrécU,
Casorain, Vabbé H.-R, docteur es lettres, Qylbec (ancien président).
Chapais, l*hon. Thomas, docteur es lettres, chevalier de la légion d'honneur
de France, membre du conseil législatif, Québec.
Charland, Fràre Paul-V., Couvent des Dominicains, Lewiaton, Me., U.S. A,
David, L.-0., Montréal.
DbCazes, Paul, docteur es lettres, Québec.
DbCellss, A.-D., docteur es lettres, LL.D., Ottawa.
Dionns, N.-E., docteur es lettres, Québec.
Fabrb, Hector, C.M.G., officier de la légion d'honneur, Paria, France.
Friîchettb, Louis, C.M.G., docteur en droit, docteur es lettres, chevalier de
la légion d'honneur, Montréal (ancien président).
Gagnon, Ernest, docteur es lettres, Québec.
GéRiN, LÉON, Ottawa.
GossELiN, L'ABBJÊ AuousTE, doctcur és lettres, St-Charlea de BéUechaase, P.Q.
Lbgendbe, Napoléon, docteur és lettres, Québec.
LeMay, Pamphile, docteur es lettres, Québec.
LbMoine, Sir J.-M., Québec (ancien président).
Paquet, Monsionor L. A., Québec.
Poirier, Hon. Pascal, officier de la légion d'honneur, Shediac, N.B.
Poisson, Adolphe, docteur es lettres, ArthaJ>askaville, P.Q.
Prud'homme, Juge L. A., St. Boni/ace, Man.
Richard, Edouard, ArthahaskaviUe, P.Q.
RouTHiER, Juge A.-B., docteur en droit et es lettre;», Québec.
Roy, Joseph-Edmond, docteur és lettres, Lévia, P.Q.
SuLTE, Benjamin, Ottawa.
II.-ENGLISH LITERATURE, HISTORY, ARCHiEOLOGY, ETC.
Bryce, Rev. George, M.A., LL.D., Winnipeg, Man.
BuRWASH, Rev. Nathaniel, S.T.D., LL.D., Chancellor of Victoria University,
Toronto.
Campbell, Rev. John, LL.D., Presbyterian College, Montreal.
Campbell, W. Wilfred, Privy Council Office, Ottawa.
Clark, Rev. W., D.C.L.. LL.D., Trinity University, Toronto (ex-president).
Dawson, S. E., Lit.D., Ottawa.
Dbnison, Lt.-Col. G. t., B.C.L., Toronto.
Drummond, W. H., M.D., Montreal.
Harvey, Arthur, Toronto.
HowLEY, Right Rev. Bishop M. F., D.D., St. John's, Nfid.
LbSueur, W. D., LL.D., Ottawa.
LiGHTHALL, WiLLiAM Douw, M.A., B.C.L., Montreal.
LoNOLEY, Hon. J. W., LL.D., M.L.A., Halifax, N.S.
McLennan, W., Montreal.
Murray, George, B.A., Montreal.
USX OF MEMBERS S
Murray, Rbv. J. Clark, LL.D., MoGlll University, MontrecU.
O'Bribn, Most Rbv. Dr., Archbishop of Halifax, HcUifcuc, N.S,, (ex-president).
Parkin, 6. R., C.M.6., LL.D., Toronto.
Rbads, John, F.RS.L,, Montreal.
Ross, Hon. Gbo. W., LL.D., Prime Minister of Ontario, Toronto.
Scott, D. Campbell, Department of Indian Af&irs, Ottauxi.
Scott, Rbv. Frederick George, Quebec.
Stewart, George, D.C.L., LL.D., D.L., F.R.G.S., Qtiebec.
Watson, J., M.A., LL.D., Queen's University, Kingston.
WiLLisoN, John S., Toronto.
WiTHROW, Rev. W. H., D.D., Toronto.
IIL-MATHEMATICAL, PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL SCIENCES.
Baillairgjê, C, C.E., Quebec.
Baker, Alfred, M.A., University of Toronto, Toronto.
Barnes, H. T., D.Sc., McGill University, Montreal.
Bovey, H. t., M.A. (Cantab.), LL.D., D.C.L., M. Inst. CE, F.RS., McGill
University, MontreaL
Cox, John, M.A. (Cantab.), McGill University, Montreal.
Dawson, W. Bell, D.Sc, Ma. E., Assoc M Inst. CE., Ottawa.
Deville, E, Surveyor-General, Ottawa,
Dupuis, N. F., MA., F.RS.E., Queen's University, Kingston.
Ellis, W. H., M.D., Toronto University, Toronto.
Fleming, Sir Sandford, K.C.MG., LL.D., CE., Ottaum (ex-president).
GiRDWOOD, G. P., M.D., McGill University, Montreal.
Clash AN, J. C, LL.D., Inspector of Public Schools for City of Ottawa, Ottawa.
GrOODWiN, W. L., D.Sc, Queen's University, Kingston.
Hamel, Monsignor, M. a., Laval University, Quebec (ex-president).
Harrington, B. J., B.A., Ph.D., McGill University, Montrecd.
Hoffmann, G. C, F. Inst Chem., LL.D., Geological Survey, Ottawa.
Johnson, A., LL.D., McGill University, Montreal.
EIeefbr, T. C, C.M.G., CE., Ottawa (ex-president).
Loinx>N, J. T., M. A., LL.D., President of University of Toronto, Toronto (ex-
president).
Macfarlane, t., M.E., Chief Analyst, Ottawa.
McGill, A., Assistant Analyst, Ottawa,
McLennan, J. C, Ph.D., Toronto University, Toronto.
Miller, W. Lash, Ph.D., University of Toronto, Toronto.
McLeod, C H., M.E., McGill University, Montreal.
Owens, R B., MSc, McGill University, Montreal.
Rutherford, E., B.A. (Cantab), A.M., McGill University, Montreal.
RUTTAN, R F., M.D., CM., McGill University, Montreal.
Shutt, F. t., M.A., F.I.C, F.CS., Chemist, Central Experimental Farm, Ottawa.
Stupart, R F., Superintendent, Meteorological Service, Toronto,
Walker, J. Wallace, M.A., Ph.D., McGill University, Montreal.
IV.-GEOLOGICAL AND BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES.
Adami, J. G., MA., M.D. (Cantab, and McGill), LL.D., F.RS.E, McGill Uni-
verslty, Montreal.
Adams, Frank D., Ph.D., D.Sc, F.G.S., McGill University, Montreal.
Ami, Henry M., M.A., D.Sc, F.G.S., Greologlcal Survey, OttavKt.
Bailey, L. W., M A., Ph.D., University of New Brunswick, Fredericton,
Barlow, A. E., M.A., D.Sc, Geological Survey, Ottawa.
Bell, Robert, B.Ap.Sc., M.D., LL.D., F.G.S., F.R.S., Geological Survey, OttavxL,
Bethune, Rev. C J. S., MA., D.C.L., London, Ont.
ROYAL 80CIETT OF CANADA
BuBOEBS, T. J. W., M.D., Montreal,
CoLXMAN, A. P., M. A., Ph.D., University of Toronto, Toronto.
Bllb, R. W., LL.D., F.6.S.A., Geological Survey, Ottawa.
Fi^KtOHSEL, Jambs, LL.D., F.L.S., Dominion Entomologist, Ottatca,
FowLEB, Jambs, m. A., Queen's University, Kingston,
Gilpin, Edwin, M.A., F.G.S., Inspector of Mines, Halifax,
Grant, Snt J. A., K.C.M.G., M.D., F.G.S., Ottawa (ez-president).
Hay, G. U., ULA., Ph.D., St. John, N,B,
Harrington, W. Hagub, P. O. Department, Ottawa,
Laflammk, Abbé J. C. K., D.D., M. A., chevalier de la légion d*honneur, Laval
University, Qtubec (ex-president).
Lambb, Lawrbncb M., F.G.S., Greological Survey, Ottawa.
Macallum, a. B., Ph.D., University of Toronto, Toronto,
Magoun, J., M.A., F.L.S., Geological Survey, Ottaw€L.
MaoKay, a. H., LL.D., B.Sc., Superintendent of Education for Nova Scotia
Halifaas.
Matthew, G. F., M.A., D.Sc, St. John, N.B.
Mills, T. Wbslby, M. A., M.D., McGill University, Montreal,
Venhaujow, D. p., B.Sc., McGill University, Montreal.
PooLB, H. S., M. A., C.E., F.G.S., Assoc. Boy. Soc. of Mines, Halifax, Nova Scotia
Pbincb, E. E., B.A., F.L.S., Dominion Commissioner of Fisheries, Ottawa
Saundebs, W., LL.D., F.L.S., Director Dominion Experimental Farms, Ottawa
Taylor, Rev. G. W., Nanaimo, B.C.
Whiteayes, J. F., LL.D., F.G.S., Geological Survey, Ottawa.
Wbioht, R. Ramsay, M.A., B.Sc., University of Toronto, Toronto.
CORRESPONDING MEMBEBS.
His Grace the Duke of Argyll, K.G., K.T., F.R.S., &c.
Berthblot, Marcelin, Sénateur, Secrétaire Perpétuel de l'Académie des
Sciences, Professeur au Collège de France, Paria, France.
BoNNEY, T. G., D.Sc., LL.D., F.R.S., London, England.
Bryce, Rt. Hon. James, M.P., D.C.L., London, England,
Claretie, Jules, de l'Académie française, Paris, France.
Ganono, Dr. w. F., Northampton, Mass.
Gravier, Gabriel, Rotten, France.
Hector, Sir Jabies, K.C.M.G., F.R.S., Wellington, New Zealand.
HiOGiNSON, Thomas Wentworth, LL.D. (Harvard), Cambridge, Mom.
Mbtzler, w. h., Ph.D., F.R.S. Edin., Mathematical Professor, Syracuse
University, Syracuse, N, Y,
Osborn, Dr. Henry Fairfield, New York, N.Y.
Parker, Sir Gilbert, Kt., M.P., D.C.L., London, England.
ScuDDER, Dr. s. h., Cambridge, Mass., U.S.A.
RETIRED MEMBERS. (See Rule 7.)
BouRASSA, Napoléon, iS^. Hyacinthe, P.Q.
Callendar, Hugh L., M.A. (Cantab.), F.RS., London, Eng.
Chapman, E. J., Ph.B., LL.D., London, Eng.
Chbrriman, J. B., M.A., Ryde, Isle of Wight.
Haanel, E., Ph.D., Superintendent of Mines, Ottawa.
Kirby, W., Niagara, Ont.
MacGreoor, J. G., M.A., D.Sc., F.RS., F.R.S.E., Edinburgh, Scotland,
Mair, Charles, Prince Albert, N. W.T.
OsLER, W., M.D., Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Md.
Robbrts, C, G. D., M. a.. New York.
ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
PEOCEEDINGS FOR 1903
TWENTY-SECOND GENERAL MEETING
ERRATUM.
P. 214, Une 20 from top. for ** 32}^% «te," read ** 39>^% etc.
^ vv^ cxicii imiiicb or were present
later during the meeting: —
List of Fellows Present.
President, Sir James Grant, K.C.M.6.
Acting Honorary Secretary, Dr. S. E. Dawson.
Honorary Treasurer, Dr. James Fletcher.
Section I. — Dr. Bellemarc, Abbé Bourassa, Hon. Thomas Chapais,
L. 0. David, Dr. DeCelles, Dr. Frechette, Dr. Gagnon, Hon. Pascal
Poirier, Dr. Poisson, Edouard Eichard, Benjamin Suite.
Section II. — liev. Dr. Bryce, W. Wilfred Campbell, Dr. Dawson,
Col. Denison, Wm. Lighthall, Most Rev. Archbishop O'Brien, D. C.
Scott.
Section III. — C. Baillairgé, Prof. Barnes, Dr. Bovey, Capt,
Deville, Prof. Dupuis, Dr. Ellis, Sir Sandford Fleming, Dr. Girdwood,
Dr. Glashan, Dr. Hoffmann, Dr. Johnson, T. C. Keefer, President
]jOudon, Thomas Macfarlane, A. McGill, Prof. McLeod, Frank Shutt,
R. F. Stupart.
Section IV. — Dr. Adami, Dr. Ami, Kev. Dr. Bethune, Dr. Bur-
gess, Dr. Ells, Dr. Fletcher, Sir James Grant, W. H. Harrington,
II ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
Lawrence Lambe, Prof. J. Macoun, Dr. Matthew, Dr. Wesley Mills,
Prof. Prince, Dr. Saunders, Dr. Whiteaves.
Letters from absent Fellows, regretting their inability to attend,
were received from: —
Section I. — Monseigneur Begin, Dr. Dionne, Abbé Gosselin,
Sir J. M. LeMoine.
Section II.— Rev. Dr. Burwash, Arthur Harvey, Right Rev. Dr.
Howley, Hon. Dr. Longley, W. McLennan, George Murray, Rev. Dr.
Murray, John Reade, Rev. Frederick Scott, Dr. Stewart, Rev. Dr.
Campbell.
Section III. — Prof. Cox, Dr. W. Bell Dawson, Dr. Goodwin,
Monsignor Hamel.
Section IV. — Dr. Adams, Dr. Bell, Dr. Hay, Dr. MacKay, Prof.
Penhallow.
Five newly elected Fellows were introduced and took their seats :
Prof. Prince, Dr. Bellemare, Hon. Thomas Chapais, Dr. Gagnon, Dr.
Glashan.
The Acting Honorary Secretary then read the
REPORT OP COUNCIL.
The Council of the Royal Society of Canada have the honour to
present their twenty-first annual report as follows: —
1. Printing of Transactions.
The eighth volume of the second scries is now complete and copies
ore in the hands of members present. Great delay in commencing
the work of printing was caused by the long illness of the late Honorary
Secretary. Month after month his restoration to health was hoped
for and it was only at the last moment that the council took the step
of appointing the present secretary to act pro tempore until the honorary
secretary should recover; or, in case of his death, until the next annual
meeting. The appointment was miade on October 8th, 1902, under
the provisions of Rule XIII. Very few of the papers were in the
hands of the secretaries of sections and considerable delay and trouble
had to be gone through before they could be got in and sent oflE to the
printers.
The resolution adopted was as follows:
"That in view of the much regretted illness of Sir John Bourinot,
Dr. Dawson be appointed temporary honorary secretary; and that he
be instructed to go on with the preparation of the next volume of
Transactions on the lines adopted by the honorary secretary for the
previous volumes.^'
PROCEEDINGS FOR 1903 ni
In accordance with this resolution the volume has been got out
and is in your hands.
The volume is an unusually large one. It consists of 164 pages
of proceedings and 858 pages of Transactions in the four sections, or
1022 pages in all. Theo:^ are 164 plates, maps and illustrations of
various kinds, so that it will compare favourably with the largest of any
of the preceding issues. The space devoted to bibliography adds appre-
ciably to the cost of setting up in type, for such matter is more expen-
sive to set than plain matter. The accounts have been carefully
audited by experts and are given in the following financial statement: —
Statement of Balance Carried over at Last Meeting.
1902.
May 23 — Amount carried over $ 744 46
June 3 — W. C. Bowles, clerical assistance $ 50 00
Mortimer & Co., illustrations 38 00
Taylot & Clark, printing 39 00
Gazette Printing Co 400 00
Grip Printing Company 177 46
A. Frechette, translation 40 00
$ 744 46
Statement, July 1st, 1902, to May nth, 1903,
Sept. —Government Grant on account $3,000 00
1903.
Feb. 5— Government Grant, balance 2,000 00
$5,000 00
1902. Cr.
Oct. 9 — W. C. Bowles, clerical services, balance
due 25 00
" 11 — Dominion Express Co 4 85
" 11 — Grip Engraving Co., illustrations 20 04
" 20 — Manufacturing Stationers Co., binding
and distribution 846 19
Nov. 24 — George Bristow, typewriting minutes 2 17
" 24 — Grip Engraving Co., illustrations 67 50
" 24 — ^Toronto Engraving Co., illustrations 99 45
" 24— Mortimer & Co., illustrations 52 72
" 28 — Gazette Printing Co., balance of last
yearns volume 65 05
Dec. 13 — Gazette Printing Co., on account 750 00
$1,932 97
«
TV ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
Brought forward $1,932 97 $5,000 00
1903.
Jan. 10 — Grip Engraving Co., illustrations 206 65
" 10— Mortimer & Co., illustrations 33 68
'' 10— Proof Beading— English 60 00
" 10— Proof Beading— French 25 00
" 10 — S. E. Dawson, to pay express charges and
small accounts 5 42
Feb. 2 — Gazette Printing Co., on account 500 00
, Mar. 9 — Mortimer & Co., illustrations and cir-
culars 19 73
9 — Engrossing diplomas 2 50
9 — Express charges 1 00
« 9— C. P. B. Telegraph 65
" 9 — George Cox, stamping and paper 6 00
" 9 — Dominion Express Co 1 00
April 7 — John Bobertson, storage of exchanges, etc 36 00
" 21 — W. C. Bowles, clerical service, current
year 60 00
May 3 — Proof reading, balance in full 60 00
** 6 — James Hope & Co., stationery 3 78
" 6 — M. G. Bristow, typewriting 5 54
" 6 — Manufacturing Stationers Co., Insur-
ance, express, freight on delivery of
Vols. 7 and 8 311 05
" 6 — Gazette Printing Co., on account 800 00
4,070 97
Balance on hand $ 929 03
2. Eauly Delivery of Papers.
The society suffers detriment from the lateness of the publication of
its Transactions, and that is the result of the late period at which the
contributions are sent in. The papers are printed separately for mem-
bers, and if the separates could be got out early it might suffice. The
present volume suffered from the long illness of the late honorary
secretary, and it was October 18 before papers began to come in for
printing. But the difficulty has always existed, and a stricter observance
of the rules is necessary. The regulations provide that the papers shall
be sent, in the first instance, to the secretaries of sections who transmit
them for printing to the honorary secretary as representing the council.
PR0C5EEDINGS FOR 1903 V
It was ordered in fonner years that all papers should be sent in by
August 1st. The printing committee was thus in a position to see what
was before them and could apportion the amount of illustrations. It is
often November or December before any idea can be formed as to the
approximate size of the volume, and sometim^es members* complain if
papers are not accepted in January.
Thi«, however, is not so serious as the fact that the delay in getting
out the volume prevents many good scientific papers from being sent in.
If a paper contains an original contribution to science, or any newly
observed fact, the delay in the issue of the volume imperils the claim of
priority which authors so highly value. Such papers are moet desirable,
but they are frequently sent to the scientific magazines where earlier
publication can be had. If the separate parts could be got out more
quickly their distribution would secure priority, but one paper runs over
into a sheet with another and so a number of papers are locked up
together, and the slowest man to read his proofs sets the pace for the
whole series.
There is little use in making new rules. The rules are suflScient if
they are only carried out, and the council urges upon the members the
necessity of sending in their papers to the secretaries of their respective
sections and of sending them in earlier. The resolution fixing August
1st as the latest date has not been carried out for many years, and the
council recommends that August 1st be confirmed as the limit of time for
receipt of copy for printing. They ask for the co-operation of every
I'ellow in this required reform, for it is vital to the usefulness of the
Transactions as a record of progress. The council will instruct the
honorary secretary to urge this upon the contributors to the new volume.
3. Illustrations.
The number of illustrations is constantly increasing, and mu^t
continue to increase with the multiplication of processes for reproduc-
ing maps and drawings. But every illustration in a volume like the
society's transactions should be original or, if a reproduction of some- .
thing previously published, it should possess some special quality such
as rarity to give it value.
In preparing illustrations reference should also be had to the
requirements of the various processes employed. If a photograph or
drawing is sent in it should be clear and distinct or it cannot be satis-
factorily reproduced. The cost of redrawing subjects from insufficient
originals ought not to be thrown upon the society excepting in cases
of unusual importance.
VI ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
4. Copies of Transactions sent to the Kino.
The distribution of volume 7 was carried out in the usual way, and
copies of volumes 6 and 7 handsomely bound were sent, through His
Excellency the Governor-General, to the King, and His Majesty was
graciously pleased to accept them.
5. Need of a Home.
The society is sadly in need of a fixed home where the volumes
of Transactions may be accessible and where its papers may be kept.
The exchanges and books from kindred societies now fill fifty-two cases,
and are absolutely inaocessible, being stored away in a warehouse on
Queen street. The volumes of Transaictions are mainly in Montreal.
They are in cases and, as a precaution in case of fire, are divided
between two warehouses. The number of volumes so stored is given
in the statement below. The totals are given. Some are in sheets,
some are sewed an-d some are bound. The volumes in sheets are bound
as required. A few volumes on hand are half bound in morocco.
Statement op Volumes on Hand.
Molson's
Middleton*s
Elsewhere
Volume
«
1— First Serles--4to
2 "
None
32
15
56
32
72
25
60
44
20
27
21
11
None
48
40
53
None
25
25
13
48
5
30
60
28
40
30
30
17
None
25
32
53
None
«<
3 "
«<
4 "
«1
««
5 "
6 "
7 "
<*
8 •*
((
9 "
(C
10 "
t(
11 "
tt
Volume
«
12 "
1— Second Seriea^Svo
2 "
•
3 "
None
<4
4 "
t«
5 "
27
«
6 "
33
«
7 ••
73
PROCEEDINGS FOR 1903 VII
6. Decease of Members.
Once more with the recurring season the council has the
melancholy duty of recording the losses whieh the society has sustained
during the preceding year. The honorary secretary, Sir John Bourinot,
the Honorable Josepdi Royal, Dr. Brynmer, Dr. Selwyn and Dr. MacCabe
have passed from among us, and their names must now be entered upon
the honoured record of brilliant men who have left the imprint of their
influence in the records of their country. The names of all deceased
members have in this volume been given at the end of the roll; and,
as they are read name after name and their life labour rises before the
memory, we must feel the high obligation we are under to carry on the
work of literature and science in Canada on the lines they have laid
down and in a manner worthy of such predecessors.
The loss which the society has suffered by the death of the
honorary l&ecretary, Sir John Bourinot, is irreparable. From the organ-
ization of the society in 1882 he was its honorary secretary, and the
>?ociety has had no other. He lived to superintend the publication of
nineteen annual volumes of its proceedings and transactions. When
the twentieth began to be prepared he was too ill to take a pari) ia it
No one can sufficiently appreciate the attention he gave to the society's
business and the interest he took in its work. His zeal was unflagging,
and during the long series of years he had served as honorary secretary
he had acquired such a knowledge of the society's work that the chief
part of its administration had of necessity gravitated to him. He was
personally in friendly relations with all the members and his wide
acquaintance with all the literary men of Canadia was of great assistance
to the society. It will be well nigh impossible to find a successor so
perfectly suited as Sir John Bourinot for all the duties of honorary
secretary. Not 'only did he serve the society in his official capacity,
he enriched its transactions by many monographs of great value. His
wide knowledge of all matters connected with the working of constitu-
tional and representajtive gov^emments is displayed in contributions on
the comparative politics of the great self-governing colonies of England,
and his learning in political science is manifested in his comparisons
of our system with the institutions of other free countries. Such
studies as these may be supposed to follow from his position as clerk of
the House of Commons; but he was also one of the chief scholars of
Canada in all questions of Canadian history. His monograph on Cape
Breton is really exhaustive and leaves no room for any one to follow
him; and that on the builders of Nova Scotia is a model of painstaking
labour and accuracy. No one unfamiliar with the details of the
VIII ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
publication of the Transactionâ can have any idea o£ the amount of
work he put into his contributions.
His industry was incessant^ more so than the requirements of his
health permitted. He found time to write a number of volumes which
have not only been highly valued in Canada, but are much esteemed
abroad. Among them is the history of Canada in the "Story of Nations
Series^' and a volume on Canada under British rule in the " Cambridge
University Series." This was his last published volume, and in many
respects it is his best.
The knowledge of parliamentary institutions which accrued from
his oflScial position was supplemented by indefatigable study. The re-
sult is apparent in the fact that his work on parliamentary procedure is
the authority on such questions throughout the Dominion. It is not
only conclusively quoted in all the legislatures of Canada, but is quoted
as a standard reference in the legislatures of other colonies. On these
and kindred subjects he was frequently invited as a lecturer before
universities and societies in the United States as well as in Canada ; and
wherever he went he did credit to his native country and to its rising
literature. Many years must pass before his place can be filled. We
deplore his loss for the sake of the Royal Society of Canada, and for
ourselves, personally, we lament the loss of a friend.
Dr. A. R. C. Selwyn, one of the original Fellows of the Royal Socie-
ty of Canada^ for twenty-five years director of the Geological Survey of
Canada, for eighteen years previous director of the Geological Survey
of Victoria, Australia, and for seven years previous to that attached to
the field staff of the Geological Survey of England and Wales, died in
Vancouver, British Columbia, on the 19th of October, 1902, the result
of a stroke of paralysis.
At the early age of twenty-one, in 1845, he was appointed to a posi-
tion on the Geological Survey of Great Britain, under Sir Henry de la
Beche. His earliest work on the British Survey was under the imme-
diate supervision of the distinguished geologist, A. C. Ramsay. He
was one of that contingent of stratigraphical geologists under Ramaay
who did so much to lay down the fundamental lines separating the
various formations in th"»t wonderful compendium of geology that
England has proved to be.
In 1869 he was called to succeed Sir Wm. Logan as director of the
Geological Survey of Canada, which position he held for twenty-five
years. He leaves behind him a career full of usefulness to the Empire,
for his work was performed not only in Canada, but in the Motherland
and in two of her most prosperous colonies.
Dr. Selwjn received many honours and occupied numerous dis-
tinguished positions, in his capacity as head of the Geological Surveys
SIR J. G. BOURINOT, K.r.M.O., LL.D., ETC.
A. R. C. SBLWYN. C.M.O., LL.D.. BTC.
J. A. MACCABE, LL.D.
DOUGLAS BRYMNER, LL.D.
HON. JOSEPH ROYAL.
PROCEEDINGS FOR 1903 IX
of Victoria and Canada. In both countries he emphasized the economic
side of the science of geology and did much to encourage those under
him to study and solve the complex problems of geological structure
which presented themselves to him in his official labours.
In 1877 the council of the Geological Society of London, award-
ed him the Murchison medal for his eminent services in the field of
geology, and^ in 1884, he received the Clarke gold medai from the
Royal Society of New South Wales. In 1886 he was created a Com-
panion of the Order of St. Michael and St. George.
Since Dr. Selwyn's retirement in December, 1894, he resided in
British Columbia.
The name of Dr. Douglas Brymner will ever be associated with
the Bureau of Canadian Archives which he organized and, for neariy a
third of a century, administered to the satisfaction of the Government
and the public. Before he assumed the duties of archivist in 1872, he
had been an able and successful journalist. His best work in that
capacity was done in collaboration with the late Honourable Edward
Goff Penny, senator, in the oolunms of the Montreal Herald. As edi-
tor of the Presbyterian, Dr. Brymner championed, during a critical
period of its history, the cause of the Church «of Scotliand in Can-ada.
He was a contributor to various periodicals, not only in prose but in
verse; his translation of some of the Odes of Horace into the Lowland
Scottish dialect having been conceded a high merit by good judges. Dr.
Brymner was for some years a respected member and for a time pre-
sident of the Press G^lery at Ottawa. As a journalist he was sincere-
ly esteemed and honoured by his confrères. He was conscientious,
patient and fair; and, in style, aimed at clearness and strength rather
than brilliancy. For no consideration would he swerve in the slightest
degree from his honest convictions, and no man was more painstaking
in collecting and sifting the data on which his convictions reposed.
Both by character and occupation, therefore, he was admirably fitted
lor the position of archivist.
Only thos-e who have followed his work year by year, from its
inception to its close, can form a just estimate of its value or be aware
of its profound and far-reaching significance. In the presidential
address (Trans, for 1895), Sir James LeMoine gave an excellent résumé
of the contents of the ajchives reports from 1873 until that year. If
we except the special researches of the late Abbé Verreau, of the late
Mr. Joseph Marmette and, after Mr. Mannctte^s death, of Mr. Edouard
Richard, the heaviest labours as well as the supervision of the bureau
devolved upon Dr. Brymner. How grave and difficult was the respon-
ibility imposed upon him by the conditions of his appointment is
known to those who can recall the state of our repositories at that
X ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
time. The defects which his tour of inspection brought to light would
have deterred a less earnest antiquary or a less faithful and energetic
public senant from prosecuting the task. But he persevered. Pro-
ceeding to Europe, he visited the documentary treasuries of the
motherlands and quickly won the confidence of those in charge of
them. In the organization of the bureau, therefore, no needed coun-
sel or help was withheld. It was not long till historical inquirers in
and out of Canada, recognized the worth of the new source of infor-
mation. The yearly reports, at first hidden among the appendices to
the Agricultural Blue Book, were widely sought, even before they had
attained the distinction of separate publication. The correspondence
became more and more voluminous, and Dr. Brymner and his assistants
tried to meet every fresh demand on their time. Long before Dr.
Brymner^s death, the archives report, sold at a nominal price, had come
to be one of the most popular publications of its kind. It was in
as high request in the United States as in Canada, and helped to create
a new and fairer school of American historians. If the work of the
department in future years can be rendered more effectual it will be
cause for felicitation; but it will always remain to the credit of Dr.
Douglas Brymner that he laid the foundation on which others must
build, and that he set up a standard of official duty of which his own
life was the model.
The death of the Honourable Joseph Royal removes from us one
of our most able writers. He was not a writer of books but he was in
the front rank of French journalism. He was a frequent contributor to
La Revue Canadienne and assisted at its foundation. He contributed
also to other periodicals of high class. His first efforts appeared in
La Minerve where so many leading lights in journalism commenced
their careers. He founded UOrdre in 1858, and, thirty years later,
in 1888, he was among the founders of Le Nouveau Monde. Later
still on the opening up of the West he founded Le Metis at St. Boni-
face in Manitoba.
In Manitoba his influence was great and was always exercised in
Ihe direction of peace and moderation. When he went there the fires
of insurrection were scarcely cool. His incessant care whether as pro-
vincial deputy or minister was always to conciliate strife and remove
prejudice. He was a firm believer in the great destiny of the North-
west, for he studied its resources and knew of whait he spoke and wrote.
In 1890 he became lieutenant-governor of the Northwest Territories
RTid in that high office he served for five years with appreciation and
success, for it drew out his genial and conciliating character.
On retiring from office he returned to the province of Quebec and
tu the profession of journalism. His death was unexpected for his natu-
PROCEEDINGS FOR 1903 XI
I al vigour was scarcely touched by age and his many attached friends
had expected a long continuation of his useful life. He had comple-
ted a History of Canada from 1840 to 1865 — ^from the Union to Con-
federation. Thofie who have seen it believe that it will take a high
place in Canadian letters.
Dr. MacCabe's death removes from among us one who had dur-
ing many years been the host of the Royal Society within this build-
ing. The society is indebted to him for the facilities for holding its
meetings which it has long enjoyed; and for countless courtesies to
individual members extending over many years. He was among the
foremost of the leaders of education in the province of Ontario. Both
in Canada as well as in his native Ireland, his life was devoted to teach-
ing. He was trained in the Normal School of Dublin and from thence
he went to the Catholic University. On coming to Nova Scotia in 1869
he vrsLS appointed to the Normal School at Truro and on the opening of
the present Normal School at Ottawa he was appointed as principal. He
was an active participant in many educational and literary associations
in the city and by the older members of the Royal Society his hospat-
able annual welcome will long be remembered.
7. Corresponding Members.
Under No. 8 of the regulations the number of the corresponding
members of the society is fix^d at a maximum of sixteen. The names
of Professor Henry F. Osborn of Columbia University and Professor
W. F. Ganong, of Smith University, Northampton, have been submit-
ted and the council would recommend their election.
Professor Osborn is a graduate of Princeton University, New
Jersey, where he received the degree of Sc.D. Later he studied abroad
at Oxford University and at Heidelberg, returning to occupy the Chair
of Zoology at Princeton. For some years, he has been Da Costa Pro-
fessor of Zoology at Columbia University, New York, and curator of the
Department of Vertebrate Palaeontology of the American Museum of
Natural History, New York, and at present is also chairman of the New
York Zoological Society.
Professor W. F. Q^nong is a Canadian, bom of Loyalist stock at St.
John, N.B. He graduated at the University of New Brunswick as B.A.
in 1884. Went as student to Harvard University in 1885 and gradua-
ted there as A.B. in 1887. He was appointed, first as assistant, andt
then afi instructor in botany. In 1893-4 he studied in Munich and
graduated as Ph.D. from the University of Munich in 1894. The same
year he was appointed Professor of Botany and Director of the Botanic
XII ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
Garden of Smith University in Northampton, Mass., where he now
resides.
Dr. Ganong has contributed a number of valuable papers to the
transactions of the Roycd Society of Canada aa follows: —
Vol. 5.—" Cartier's First Voyage.'^
Vol. 7. — "Cartography of the Gulf; Cartier to Champlain.
Vol. 9.—" Site of Port La Tour."
In the second series he has contributed: —
Vol. 2. — "Place Nomenclature of New Brunswick."
Vol. 3. — "Cartography of New Brunswick."
Vol. 5. — " Historic Sites in New Brunswick."
Vol. 7. — " Evolution of the Boundaries of New Brunswick."
In the present volume is an exhaustive paper on De Monts' and
Champlain's settlement on St. Croix Island in the winter of 1604:-5,
and another paper is announced for the present session which will com-
plete the series of New Brunswick monographs.
Besides the above in Section 2 — he contributed in Section IV. —
Vol. 8 — 1st series, a paper on " Southern Vertebrates on the Shores of
Acadia."
He has also written " The Teaching Botanist," published by Mac-
millan, 1899, and " A Laboratory Course in Plant Physiology," pub-
lished by Holt in 1891.
8. Members of Council.
The time of some of the members having expired, the council, at
a meeting on January 23pd, called Mr. T. C. Keefer and Dr. A. D.
DeCelles to be members under the provisions of Hule 5.
9. Election of Fellows.
Nomination papers were sent out in regular course on March 15.
The forms were in accordance with the rule adopted at last session and
the names of three members only as proposers were attached to each
nomination.
In Section I. there were two vacancies. The following gentlemen
have obtained a majority of the votes of the whole section. There
were only two nominations.
Monsignor Paquet.
Hon. L. A. Prud'homme.
In Section II. there were five nominations but only three vacancies.
Mr. W. D. LeSueur has obtained the votes of a majority of the section.
PROCEEDINGS FOR 1903
XIII
The others did not obtain a majority and the council therefore refers
them back to the section for selection and reconunendaiion.
In Section III. there were three nominations for one vacancy and
none obtained the requisite number of votes. The names are therefore
referred back to the section in like manner.
In Section IV. there were two nominations and only one vacancy,
but as neither name obtained the requisite number of votes the coun-
cil refers the matter back to the section.
10. Associated Societies.
The customary invitations to attend the present meeting and
report on the scientific and literary work of the year, were sent to
the following Canadian societies, which have hitherto co-operated
with the Royal Society:
Society
Natural History Society
Numismatic and Antiquarian Society . . .
Microscopical Society
Historique . . .
Place
Société
Société Littéraire de Monti*éal.
Literary and Historical Society. . ,
Geographical Society
Institut Canadien
Literarv and Scientific Society. . .
Field Naturalists' Club
Hamilton Scientific Association.
Entomological Society of Ontario
Canadian Institute
Natural History Society of St. John, N.B.
N. S. Institute of Natural Science. . . .
Historical Society of Nova Scotia
Natural History Society of B.C
Wentworth Historical Society
Elgin Historical and Scientific Society.
Historical Society of Manitoba
Botanical Club of Canada.
American Folk Lore Society
Historical Society ,
Royal Astronomical Society
Lundy*s Lane Historical Society
New Brunswick Historical Society . .
Historical Society of Ontario
Women's Canadian Historical Society of
Toronto
Niagara Historical Society
United Empire Loyalists' Association of
Ontario
Women's Wentworth Historical Society.
Natural History Association
Peterborough Historical Society
Canadian Forestry Association
Women's Canadian Historical Society. .
Hamilton Ladies' College Alumnae Asso
elation
Natural History and Antiquarian Society
of P. E. Island
Hamilton Astronomical Society
Montreal
do
do
do
do
Quebec
do
do
Ottawa
do
Hamilton
London
Toronto
St. John
Halifax
do
Victoria, B.C
Hamilton, Ont...,
St. Thomas, Ont.
Winnipeg
Halifax, N.S
Montreal
Kingston
Toronto
Niagara Falls. . . .
St. John
Toronto
do ..
Niagara .
Hamilton
Hamilton
Miramichi
Peterborough.
Ottawa
do
Hamilton.
Charlotte town.
Hamilton
Delegate
Prof. T.Wesley Mills
R. W. McLachlan
Rev. J. L. Morin
P. B. Casgrain
H. H. Bligh
W. T. Macoun
Rev. Dr. Marsh
Rev. Dr. Bethune
Hon. Senator Ellis
Dr. Ells
Archbishop O'Brien
Rev. Dr. Bryce
Prof. Macoun
R. F. Stupart
Mrs. Ahearn
E. Stewart
Mrs. S. E. Dawson
Lawr'ce W. Watson
Rev. D. B. Marsh
XIV ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
11. ClIAMPLAIK TeR-CENTENARY.
The council earnestly recommends to the consideration of the
society the following letter received from Dr. W. P. Ganong. The
event to be celebrated is the first settlement on the Acadian shore 300
years ago, for, although the colony spent only one winter on St. Croix
Island it was moved as a body to Port Royal on Annapolis Basin and
even the timber of the building was removed. The event is no less
than the beginning of Canada; for, from that moment, Ohamplain, the
father and founder of Canada, took firm hold of this country and never
ceased to hold it until his death. The settlement to be commemorated
is also the first settlement by Europeans on this continent north of St.
Augustine. It was in 1604, three years before the first permanent
settlement at Jamestown in Virginia and sixteen years before the
landing of the Pilgrim Fathers at Plymouth. It is a date ever to be
remembered in the history of Canada and of North America.
The council recommends that the whole matter be referred to a
committee with instructions to report as soon as possible during the
present session.
Northampton, Mass., April 27, 1903.
Dr. S. E. Dawson,
Acting Honorary Secretary of the Royal Society of Canada,
Ottawa, Canada.
My dear Dr. Dawson: —
If I understand aright, there is a strong movement in St. John, N.B.,
towards a fitting celebration In June, 1904, of the three hundredth anniversary
of the discovery of the St. John River by de Monts and Champlain, and an
important feature hoped for in the celebration is the presence of the Royal
Society of Canada. It is most desirable from every point of view, not only
that this celebration should be well carried out, but that the Royal Society
should honor the city by its presence at that time and I trust both events
will be brought to pass. In view of this possibility, I desire to call your
attention to one possible feature of such a celebration which ought not to
be omitted, namely, a visit to St. Croix— or Dochet— Island, the site of
de Monts' settlement, the Importance of which in Canadian history it is
not necessary here to emphasize. You will recall that de Monts and Cham-
plain on June 24th discovered the mouth of the St. John and two — or possibly
three — days later they reached St. Croix Island and established there the
settlement whose history is the history of the beginning of the permanent
settlement of Canada. It seems to me that a celebration at St. John which
omitted a visit to this island would not only be historically incomplete, but
would cause those interested to miss one of the greatsst attractions such
an event could have. The island lies in a region of great natural interest
and beauty, is easily reached from St. John, either by special steamer
requiring a Journey of about four hours each way, or by rail from St. John
to St. Stephen or St. Andrews and thence by a charming steamer route
of a few miles to the island. There would thus be ample time in one day
to make the excursion which naturally should come on the 26th of June, the
PROCEEDINGS FOR 1903 XV
probable date of its discovery. Furthermore, since the island, although
historically a part of Canada is row politically a part of the United States,
it would seem fitting that the Maine Historical Society, which would natur-
ally to some extent be the host on such an occasion, the Royal Society of'
Canada and the New Brunswick Historical Society, should, if possible, com-
bine in a Joint visit to, and fitting ceremonies upon, the island. I am ven-
turing myself, entirely informally, to call the attention of the officers of the
Maine Historical Society to the approaching anniversary and the desirability
of its celebration upon some such plan, but, of course, a more formal com-
munication between the societies should take place as soon as practicable.
It would form a pleasing feature of such a visit of the societies if some
permanent memorial appropriate to the place could be left, a bronze tablet
upon one of the rock surfaces of the island if nothing more.
In the hope that this matter may seem to you of interest, and that it
may be thought worthy of the attention of the Royal Society of Canada,
I am, very truly yours, '
Wm. F. Ganono.
Since receipt of the preceding letter, the following has been
received from the Secretary of the Natural History Society of New
Brunswick :
St. John, N.B., May 11th, 1903.
b. E. Dawson, Lit. D.,
Acting Honorary Secretary, Royal Society of Canada,
Ottawa.
Dear Sir.
The Natural History Society of New Brunswick extends a cordial invita-
tion to the Royal Society of Canada to hold its session in St. John in June,
1904, on the occasion of the Ter-centenary of the discovery of the Harbour
and River St. John by de Monts and Champlain in 1604.
The date is the twenty-fourth of June, and if the Royal Society could
arrange to hold its meeting on or about that date instead of in May, it
would be more suitable, both on account of the more genial season and in
agreement with the time set for the celebration.
We have the honour to remain.
Yours very sincerely,
John V. Ellis, G. U. Hat,
Président. Hecretary.
12. Bibliographies.
The compilation, by the four sections, of Annual Bibliographies of
all publications issued during the previous year in their respective
departments, has been the subject of many recommendations, and is
now in a fair way to be carried out with regularity. Mr. Burpee has
contributed an exhaustive bibliography of the English literature of
Canada during the year 1901. In such a task it is hard to draw a pre-
cise line, and, while the intention was to omit publications in the sciences,
it is impossible to avoid overlapping in the case of popular books and
articles in which literature and science are inextricably interwoven.
XVI ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
Few can understand the length of time and the amount of patient
labour involved in such a work as this.
In science the division of labour, commenced last year, has been
carried on. Dr. Whiteaves has continued his Bibliography of Canadian
Zoology — excepting Entomology — and the Eev. Dr. Bethune has com-
pleted the subject by a continuation of his Bibliography of Entomology.
Dr. Ami has continued his work on Canadian publications relating to
Geology and Palaeontology, and Dr. A. H. MacKay has done the same
for Botanical science. The mathematical and physical sciences have
not been touched at yet; nor has a commencement been made with the
French literature of Canada. The Council hope that the first section
will do something to bring annually under general notice the large
mass of literature which, year after year, is published in Canada and
not known as widely as it deserves.
Even to one familiar with the literary and scientific work carried
on in Canada, the amount of such work annually done by Canadians is
surprising, when it is seen gathered together and at one view, as in
these laborious bibliographies.
13. Pbeservation of Places of Scenic and Histokic Interest.
The Council are glad to present in the Transactions for this year
tiie first fruits of the Committee on this interesting subject, suggested
by the Council in 1901. The Honourable Senator Poirier, an Acadian
0Î old French stock, has visited the ruins of the old French fortress of
LouisLourg, and written a valuable monograph on the events which one
hundred and fifty years ago attracted the attention of all Europe and
America to that small point on our Acadian coast. It is a place of
supreme historic interest, for thero was played the opening act of the
Titanic struggle of France and England for the mastery of the Ameri-
can continent. After a century and a half of neglect, the harbour is
beginning to resume the importance which it merits, and industrial
suctivity is effacing the scars of old conflicts; but so long as humian
hearts continue to throb at the recital of deeds of noble daring, so long
the memories of the moss grown casemates of old Louisbourg will con-
tinue to be cherished.
The Council have also to express their satisfaction at the defeat
of the attempt made in Montreal to sweep away the old Chateau de
Eamezay. The Legislature of Quebec was too proud of the memories
of the French race in Canada to sanction such an act of vandalism
as to destroy that witness, standing dumb and yet eloquent, of the deeds
and sacrifices of long past years. The Council hopes that it may stand
for many future years, so that when our grandchildren ask what means
PROCEEDINGS FOR 1903 XVII
that quaint old building, they may be told that within its walls the
destiny of Canada was fixed, in those far off days of trial, when their
forefathers threw in, once for all, their lot with the British Crown and
pledged a loyal faith which endures to this day.
14. Time Reckoning.
The completion of the Pacific cable is bringing appreciably nearer
the adoption of one system of world time; or universal time referred
to one meridian. Such a change is too subversive of all our habits of
thought and forms of speech to be adopted, excepting very gradually.
A very important step towards simplification, however, was taken by
the Intercolonial Eailway on its completion in 1876, by introducing
the twenty-four hour day. That system was adopted by the Canadian
Pacific Railway, from its opening in 1886, for all points west of Lake
Superior. It has become familiar to us; for the railways introduced
the system into all the provinces of the Dominion, and it has extended
to all the great transcontinental lines of this continent.
In the same way five meridians of even hours have displaced the
innumerable local times across this continent. That was a most im-
portant step and it is now accepted as a matter of course. The
transactions of this Society for 1886 contain a paper by Sir Sandford
l<leming, setting forth, in detail, the advantages of reckoning by cosmic
time and his presidential address in 1890, before the third section, con-
tinued to advocate that great change, lie had thought it out long pre-
viously and had prepared a paper for the meeting of the British Associ-
ation as early as 1878, but could not obtain a hearing for his proposal;
so visionary and Utopian did it appear to the officers of that influential
scientific body. Change is rapid now, and the world cable brings us
face to face with world time. Our thoughts, and of necessity our
speech, have been moulded upon the isolation consequent upon distance
in space. Rapid transit brought the reduction of all local meridians to
five on this continent, but now a merchant in telegraphic communica-
tion with Australia, will have to think not only of the time of the day
from which his transaction is dating, but of the day itself. Gradually
then, but with increasing rapidity, the change will probably come, mov-
ing from five mieridians to one continental meridian, and at last to one
prime meridian, from which all great transactions shall be dated. One
such meridian has recently been adopted for that part of South Africa
under British influence and, on the 28th of February last, the clocks in
the Transvaal were advanced from 11.30 to midnight, to correspond
with the meridian of 30 degrees East. That is very nearly the meridian
Proc., 1003. 2.
XVIII ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
of Alexandria, the Nile valley and the Equatorial lakes — the meridian of
the tides of civilization advancing northwards and southwards through
the dark continent; so that we probably shall have in Africa the first
instance of a continental meridian and a continental time.
15. Meeting of the International Geological Congress.
The Council has pleasure in announcing that the general secre-
tary of this important association has written to express a wish exist-
ing anuong its leading members to visit the Dominion of Canada and
hold, at Ottawa, its triennial meeting in 1906. The Council has
received the following letter from Dr. Eobert Bell upon the subject :
Geological Survey,
Ottawa, 15th AprU. 1902.
Dear Dr. Dawson: —
Dr. Diener, the general secretary of the organizing committee of the
International Geological Congress, has written me as Acting-Director of
the Geological Survey of Canada, that there is a general desire among the
geologists of Europe, that Canada should send an invitation to the Congress
to hold its next meeting (after the Vienna- meeting next August), in Canada,
That would be in 1906, the meetings being held every three years.
The geologists who attend the Congrress would like to come to this
country very much, as it is so interesting geologically and there is so much
of it.
On receipt of Dr. Diener's letter, I wrote to Sir Wm. Mulock, Acting
Mmister of the Interior, and I now enclose you a copy of my letter. He
has replied that what the Government has done in previous cases was to
grant a bulk sum to be placed in the hands of some organization to be
spent for the benefit of the visitors.
After consulting some of my colleagues and Mr. Macfarlane, who attends
these meetings, we think the Royal Society of Canada would be the proper
organization to take this matter up. As it \a too important a subject to
spring it upon the Society after they have come to Ottawa, I thought the
Council of the Society should be consulted as soon a.=^ possible, so that they
might consider what steps to take. I therefore write you — as Honorary
Secretary— in the meantime, so that you may think it over, and I will take •
an early opportunity to confer with you about it.
I am sure you will agree with me that Canada should not lose this rare
opportunity of inducing this important body of scientific men to visit this
country. It would be a pleasure and an honour to us to have them here,
end their visit would result in great good to the Dominion. The King of
Italy »at the first congress, and the Emperor of Russia at the last one, took
the greatest personal interest in the meetings and so have the great men
of all the countries when the congress have met.
Yours very truly,
Robert Bbu^
Dr. S. E. Dawson,
Hon. Secy. Royal Society of Canada,
Ottawa.
PROCEEDINGS FOR 1903 XIX
The Council warmly recommends the subject to the favourable
consideration of the Society and suggests that Dr. Bell's letter, with
an enclosure of copy of a letter to the Hon. Sir Wm. Mulock, on the
subject be referred to Section IV., with a request to nominate a com-
mittee to take such action as will lead to the meeting of the Congress
being held at Ottawa.
16. The British World Telegraph Cable.
Every loyal subject of the English Crown must feel intense satis-
faction at the successful comfpletion of the Pacific cable from Van-
couver Island to Fiji, Australia and New Zealand. With this feeling,
which they share in common with all British subjects, the Society must
acknowledge some additional pride, inasmuch as a Canadian, and one of
their own colleagues, was the originator and moving spirit of the enter-
prise, and has been continuously identified with its progress until its
final success. The design of this great work presented itself to the mind
of Mr. — now Sir Sandford — Fleming, when, as engineer-in-chief of
the Government Pacific Railway^ he was surveying its route across the
continent. It was a great idea, carried to completion by patience and
perseverance. It was he who supplied the energy, made the calcula-
tions, rallied its friends, overcame the hostility of competitors, inspired
the necessary diplomacy, initiated and directed the essential surveys, and
finally compelled into accord the hesitating Governments of Great
Britain and the interested colonies. The result is that the longest of
submarine cables is at work, and that Canada is not now at the end of
a telegraphic cul-desac, but on a main line of communication. This
is the first ocean cable owned and worked, not by joint stock companies,
but by states', and those all British, while the magic band itself touches
no foreign soil. It is in reality a thread of nervous life, throbbing
round the Empire like the classic morning drumbeat of Britain encir-
cling the world, but outstripping the sun with the speed of thought.
We are familiar with the distances across the Atlantic, but the distances
across the Pacific are l^ss generally known — they are : —
Vancouver Island to Fanning Island 3458 miles.
Fanning Island to Fiji 2043 "
Fiji to Norfolk Island 981 "
Norfolk Island to Queensland 837 ''
Norfolk Island to New Zealand 519 ^^
7838 "
Seven thousand eight hundred and thirty-eight miles owned and
worked by the Governments of Great Britain and her greater colonies.
XX ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
There are few achivements of modern times so great, and few enter-
prises which have been carried to successful completion against the per-
sistent opposition of such powerful competitors, the smouldering
hostility of powerful officials and the steady inertia of powerful
Governments.
17. Wireless Telegraphy.
The success of Mr. Marconi's attempts to send signals across the
Atlantic Ocean without wires is especially interesting to Canada, be-
cause, when he was forbidden to conclude his experiments on the
shores of Newfoundland, our Government, not being bound, as was
cur sister colony, by an unexpired exclusive charter, gave a warm wel-
come and gracious support to the inventor and projector. It was
indeed the first among governments to make a considerable appropria-
tion in aid of what was, at the time, experimental science. The dis-
turbance in space needed to produce effects at a distance must increase
with the mileage between transmitting and receiving stations, but
the sending of news despatches from America to the London Times
is a promise of further extension, and we must hope that neither the
cost of generating the necessary power nor a confusing efEect when
frequent wireless messages are crossing each other will interfere with
t])e development of a system so scientifically interesting. The utility
of wireless telegraphy in connection with lighthouse service and isolated
stations is now fully established, while no steamship on the ocean
need ever be out of touch with one or other shore. The value to
meteorological science of regular and complete data from the mid-
Atlantic, applied to weather predictions for Europe and to storm warn-
ings from America for west-bound vessels, will be high.
While it may, or may not, be true that, in cases of transmission
over great distances, improvements are yet required in receiving cur-
rents feeble from dispersion, we may hope that all such difficulties
will disappear before the advancing march of science.
«
18. The Transmission and Transformation op Energy.
The wonderful advances of recent years in the transformation
»nd transmission of energy bid fair to place Canada in the front rank
of manufacturing countries. The St. Lawrence is a northern river
and its valley cuts transversely to the heart of the continent across
its axis. Nine-tenths of the water flowing through it comes in from
a plateau about one thousand feet above the river level, extending
from Labrador to the height of land between Lake Superior and the
Lake of the Woods. The millions of horse powers which for
PROCEEDINGS FOR 1903 XXI
innumerable ages have been flowing to waste, were the theme of
the Presidential address of 1899, and every year they become more
available by transformation into electrical energy and transmis-
sion to indefinite distances for manufacturing purposes. Through
the kindness of the citizens of Toronto the Royal Society had at
Niagara Falls a grand object lesson. But all along the northern line
of the basin of the great river of Canada are hundreds of small Nia-
garas, sources of wealth which we have hitherto known only as weari-
some portages — and the distance of these breaks in navigation is
never farther than, even now, is within the limits of easy transmission
of power. Such considerations as these, while encouraging and
strengthening faith in our country, should warn us to guard jealously
against any wasteful deforestation which may tend to impair the even
flow of our northern waters. If Providence has held back from central
Canada the gift of coal, with which the provinces of the extreme east
and west are so richly endowed, there is an incalculable and perennial
source of energy at our doors which every advance of science brings
closer to us.
19. Triangulation along the 98th Meridian.
This work has been for several years the subject of much interest
to the Society, and a committee was appointed to urge upon the Gov-
ernment the importance of continuing the line northward through
Canadian territory. A letter from Professor McLeod, at page xiv.
of vol. 8 of the Proceedings, explains the matter fully. The subject
was taken up again at the Toronto meeting and, at the instance of
Section 3, a committee was appointed to press the importance of the
matter upon the Government anew. The report of that committee
is as follows:
To the Council of the Royal Society of Canada,
Memorandum :
The Committee appointed at the last meeting of the Royal Society for
the purpose of ascertaining what action, if any, the Government of Canada
is willing to take in the direction of extending the triangulation system of
the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey into this country, as urged
by the Royal Society in a memorial presented to the Governor-General-in-
Councll in the year 1898, and to again urge the Importance of the work, have
the honour to submit the following report:
In December, 1898, the Royal Society brought to the attention of His
Excellency the Govemor-General-in-Council a proposal by Dr. Pritchett, at
the time Superintendent of the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey,
to measure an arc along the 98th meridian from Acapulco. Mexico, to the
shore of the Arctic sea in Canada. The measurement of the meridian had
been in progress for some time as part of the general survey of the United
States ; the object of Dr. Pritchett in urging its extension through Canada
XXn ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
dnd Mexico was to provide data for the determination of the fl^rure and
dimensions of the earth, and while from this point of view the work would
be purely scientific, the Canadian portion of it would also be of erreat practical
utility in forming the basis of a thorough geographical survey for the Dom-
inion. The Government of Mexico had announced its readiness to undertaJce
its part of the work; the successful execution of the project as a whole
therefore, depended entirely on the co-operation of Canada. It was suggested
by the Royal Society that a limited grant for this purpose would be regarded
as a contribution to aid in the general researches of the nations of the world,
while at the same time it would serve to inaugurate a very much needed work,
and one of great practical importance to the future of the Dominion.
The answer of the Government was that while they fully appreciated the
importance of the project from a scientific and practical point of view, th«y
were not in a position then to recommend the co-operation of Canada in the
suggested work.
During the five years elapsed since this memorial was presented to His
Excellency the Govemor-General-in-Councll, the work has been more than
half completed in the United States and the cost has been reduced to little
more than $50 per mile of progress along the axis of the triangulation, this
very low figure being due to exceptionally favourable circumstances and fur-
nishing a probable lower limit of cost. In Mexico, the work has been pushed
rapidly forward by the Mexican Geodetic Commission. The most difficult
part of the triangulation, across the two main chains of the Grand Cordillera,
has been completed and connected with the National Observatory at Tacu-
baya. A preliminary survey for locating the triangles has been made as far
ne Acapulco on the Pacific Coast, towards the south, and Tampico, on the
Gulf of Mexico, towards the north. Director Angel Anguiano, under whose
skilled guidance the work is being executed, expects to finish the triangrulatlon
from Acapulco to Tampico in little more than a year, leaving only a short
interval from Tampico to a point near Matamoros for completing the whole
of the work in Mexico.
While considering the advisability of again bringing this matter before the
Government, it has occurred to your Committee that the time has arrived
when the larger question of a Geodetic Survey as a basis for systematic
surveys in Canada, should receive earnest consideration. In your memorial
of 1898, it was represented that without such a basis, there is no finality in
results; the same grround is being surveyed over and over again, as is the
case in the Dominion, by the land surveyor, the geologist, the railway or
canal engineer, the hydrographer, etc. For every new object a new survey
has to be made. The labour and expenditure on these surveys would be
considerably reduced and often entirely unnecessary, if we had a system-
atic triangrulatlon carried out 9s in other countries.
This fact has long been recognized in Europe, where every country has
been accurately mapped. Outside of Europe may be cited the United
States, whose triangulation is well advanced: India which offers a striking
instance of extensive and well conducted surveys, the Cape of Good Hope
and Natal, which have executed a joint triangulation of South Africa ; New
Zealand, where triangulation has preceded all other surveys. It must not
be supposed that there were no objections raised in these countries to the
inception of the work; on the contrary, it was frequently opposed by those
who did not understand its practical value, but their opinions changed after
PROCEEDINGS FOR 1903 XXUI
they had been in a position to appreciate its usefulness. Of the Survey
or South Africa. Mr. David Gill, Her Majesty's Astronomer at the Cape,
says : -—
•* The influence of the Geodetic Survey has made itself felt by raising
" the whole tone of survey operations in South Africa^ Strongly as it was
• at first opposed and grudgingly as it waa maintained, its advantages are
•• now fully acknowledged, and by none more warmly than the Survey or-
•* Generals of the Cape Colony, Natal and Bechuanaland."
There are few countries, if any, where the expenditure for surveys per
capita of population is as large as it is in Canada. The Department of the
Interior is subdividing lands in Manitoba, the Northwest Territories and
British Columbia, the Greological Survey Department is surveying and
exploring in all paits of the Dominion, the Department of Marine and
Fisheries is making a hydrographie survey of our navigable waters, a mil-
itary survey of the country is in course of execution under the direction of
the military authorities, the Department of Public Works and the Depart-
ment of Railways and Canals are also conducting extensive surveys. In
these operations, ground already covered by one department is often gone
over again by some other department. The same distribution and duplica-
tion of work is repeated in each province, where almost every department
01' the LfOcal Government and many of the great corporations are making
surveys for some purpose or another. Were this great mass of information
bound and connected together by a triangulation it would become possible
to take a broad and comprehensive view of great questions affecting the
country instead of considering them only under the few aspects presented by
local surveys. That the practical value of accurate maps is not over-
estimated by your Committee is shown by the experience of the British army
in South Africa; millions in money and many valuable lives would probably
have been saved, had accurate maps of the country been availabje. One
of the first acts of the British Government after the war, and even while
it was going on, was to commence an elaborate survey of the country.
The Dominion of Canada, controlling an area surpassed only by that of
Russia, but of which the greater portion is still unsurveyed, would be dis-
tinctly benefited by a triangulation as a means for the extension of further
surveys. The explorations incidental to the establishment of the triangles
would afford an opportunity of collecting information for which any special
demand may arise, such as the height of waterfalls and the volume of water,
for determining their commercial value.
While thus advocating a rational basis for the surveys made in Canada,
your Committee is not blind to the fact that owing to the immense extent
of the country and its sparse population, the question presents peculiar
difficulties. Were it proposed to organize a Geodetic Survey on the same lines
as in the small, thickly populated European states, the cost would probably
De beyond the resources of Canada and the Government might well hesitate
before undertaking a project of such magnitude. It is believed, however»
that a scheme may be devised which, while within the means of Canada, will
give to the country, or at least to its most populated parts, the benefits
ot a Geodetic Survey. For this purpose, it is respectfully recommended that
the Government be asKed to appoint a Commission to collect information,
and to enquire and report upon the subject. With the material furnished
XXIV ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
by the Commission, the Government will be in a position to decide what is
required in the interests of the country and for the development ;of its
resources.
Respectfully submitted,
C. H. McLeod,
Henry T. Bovey,
Sandford Fleming,
E. Deville.
Thos. C. Keeper,
April 13, 1903.
20. Marine and Lake Biological Stations.
As will appear on page xli. of last years Proceedings, the Society
passed a resolution upon this subject and ordered that a copy be sent
t> every member of the Government and of Parliament. The Acting
Honorary Secretary prepared a letter embodying the resolution and
sent it out to the persons indicated. A number of acknowledgments
have been received.
In their report for 1895 the Council while transmitting a letter
from Professor Knight, of Queen's University, invited the special
attention of the Royal Society to the importance of instituting a zoo-
logical laboratory at some place on the lakes or upon the seashore of
the Dominion. The Government established a marine laboratory on
the seashore in 1899 and its success has been recorded in the reports
cf Council every year since then. The Council has now the pleasure
of announcing that a similar laboratory was instituted in 1901 on the
lakes under the supervision of the Dominion Commissioner of Fish-
eries, but under the immediate direction of Dr. B. Arthur Bensley.
The management is entrusted to a committee of members of the scien-
tific faculties of the University of Toronto and the Council is indebted
to Dr. Bensley and the Rev. Dr. Burwash, the chairman of the com-
mittee, for a report upon its progress.
(A report on the Atlantic Station from Professor Prince will be
found in Appendix B. together with the above on Lake Huron).
21. Tidal Survey.
A full report of this service, by Dr. W. Bell Dawson, is given as
Appendix C.
22. Ethnological Survey.
It will be seen on reference to pp. xiv. and xl. of last year's
Proceedings that a Committee was appointed to initiate an Ethnolo-
gical Survey of Canada on lines corresponding to those adopted in
the United Kingdom and to continue similar work which had been
PROCEEDINGS FOR 1903 XXV
carried on siiwje 1884 regai>ding the Northwestern Indians by a com-
mittee of which the late Dr. George Dawson was chairman.
As the nature of this work is set forth at length in the above
indicated pages, the Council need not go over it again. The Commit-
tee has made the following report: —
Report of Committee.
In accordance with resolutions passed at the Toronto meeting of the
Royal Society in 1902, the Committee has taken measures to enlist the
co-operation of the various provincial grovernments who are asked to con-
tribute as follows : —
Dominion $5,000
Ontario 4,000
Quebec 3,000
New Brunswick 2,000
Nova Scotia 2,000
Manitoba 2,000
British Columbia 2,000
Prince Edward Island 1,000
A memorial has been prepared and forwarded to representatives In the
various provinces for presentation to the Premiers. Financial stringency has
operated in two or three cases to delay favourable responses, but the Com-
mittee is prepared to vigorously urge their claims at the flnst favourable
opportunity. The Memorial is as follows : —
Sir :—
We have the honour to present for your consideration and that of your
colleagues, the members of the Cabinet, the following report and resolution
presented at and adopted by the Royal Society of Canada at its meeting held
at Toronto on the 27th of May, respecting the urgent need of some systematic
investigation of the Ethnology of this country, and on behalf of the Commit-
tee of the Royal Society of Canada^ we would also venture to urge upon the
Dominion Government and upon the various provincial governments, the
enactment of such legislation as may be necessary to give force to the sug-
gestions herein set forth.
At the meeting of the RoyaJ Society of Canada, held at Toronto on the
27th of May, the Council made the following report :—
(So far as this report may be found at page xiv. of the Proceed-
ings of last year it is not repeated here. The present memorial then
goes on to say : — )
In vle»w of the presentation thus made by Council, the Royal Society then
unanimously adopted the following resolution :—
That " Hon. J. W. Longley, Sir James Grant, M.D., Dr. T. W. Burgess,
Prof. John Campbell. Dr. George Bryce, Mr. W. Wilfred Campbell, and Prof.
XXVI ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
D. P. Penhallow as Chairman, be appointed as a Standing Committee of the
Society to co-operate with the British Association Committee on an Ethno-
logical Survey of Canada, and that they be empowered to take such steps
as may be necessary to secure from the various provincial srovernments, as
also from the Dominion Grovemment. the adoption of legislation relative
to the establishment of Provincial Museums of Ethnology and the organiz-
ation of a permanent Ethnological Survey of the entire Dominion."
In order to give force- to the resolutions thus adopted by the Royal
Society of Canada, and to provide that the work of investigation may pro-
ceed with as little delay as possible, we would respectfully urge upon your
Government the adoption of such measures as may be necessary to establish
a Provincial Museum of Ethnology ; to appropriate the sum of
annually for the prosecution of Ethnological research within the limits of
3'our province ; to appoint a suitable representative to act as a member of
the Central Con:mittee. who may or may not be a member of the
present Committee of the Royal Society, and to empower the Central
Committee to act on behalf of your Government with respect to : 1st. the
direction and control of all matters relating to the scientific investigation of
the Provincial Ethnology ; 2nd, the proper expenditure of such funds as
may be voted for that purpose, and 3rd, a general oversight of the form-
ation of museum collections under the special direction of such curator as
may be appointed. If these conditions are fulfilled, the Committee would
conduct the Ethnological work on the following lines : —
1. A complete survey of each province would be made with respect to
(a) The aboriginal or Indian population.
(6) The white population.
2. The work of the Committee will Involve the collection of data
respecting :
(a) Vital statistics, and statistics relating to movements and extent
of population.
(6) Physical types of the inhabitants.
(c) Current traditions and beliefs.
(d) Peculiarities of dialect.
(€) Monuments and other remains of ancient culture.
(/) Historical evidences of continuity of race.
3. All Ethnological material will be deposited in the first instance in
the museum of the province from which obtained. Duplicate material will
be used for purposes of exchange, and also deposited in the British Museum
or such other place as may be selected.
In conclusion, we would respectfully refer to the very great energy with
which the ethnology of Canada has been exploited for many years, under
the direction of the Smithsonian Institution at Washington, and the Amer-
ican Museum of Natural History at New York. While wishing to accord
all credit for the admirable and thorough way In which this work has been
done, and to acknowledge the benefit which It must be to Canada, we never-
theless feel strongly that such work should be initiated by ourselves and
that whatever ethnological material of value may be derivable from our
PROCEEDINGS FOR 1903 XXVII
abori^nal people, should find a permanent place in our own museums, rather
than In those of a foreifirn country.
We therefore earnestly pray our petition may be grranted, and ever
remain.
Your obedient servants.
D. P. Penhaluow.
Chairman,
J. W. LiONOLBY,
James Grant, M.D., K.C.M.G.
T. J. W. Burgess, M.D.
John Campbell.
George Brtce.
W. Wilfred Campbell.
It will be for the Society to take such further steps as may seem
advisable.
23. Archives.
The office of Archivist, vacant by the death of the late Dr. Brymner,
has not yet been filled and the report for the year 1902 has not yet
been published. Mr. Edouard Richard, who ha^ been in France for
five years, making researches, has returned and is preparing for pub-
blication the results of his labours. Continuing the detailed report of
1899, he has analyzed the documents he indicated in that report as to
be found in the Ministère des Colonies, to which department all the
documents formerly in the Archives de la Marine have been removed.
Only a few volumes relating to Cavelier de La Salle and the posts on
the Illinois remain to be analyzed.
He found in the Archives Nationales and the Depot des Cartes et
Plans in the Rue de l'Université, a rich collection of documents unex-
plored and almost untouched. He was not eble to obtain permission
from the French authorities to analyze, still less, to transcribe anything
there. There are unsettled questions of diplomacy, rendering it unad-
visable to open up these Archives for the present; but it may yet be
possible, without throwing open these Archives to strangers, to obtain
through the services of ofiScers of the French Civil Service, copies of
many of the documents. Meanwhile, Mr. Richard is preparing for the
press the results of his labours. They will require two volumes o^
about 500 pages each.
24. Forestry.
In the very first volume of the Transactions of this Society is a
paper read, in 1882, by Dr. William Saunders, upon the value of our
forests and the imperative need of taking immediate steps to prevent
XXVIII ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
the deforesting of the country. Since then the Society has always kept
the subject in view. In the last volume of the first series, is a paper
read by Professor Macoun upon the same subject. In the first volume
of the present series, is an earnest appeal from Section IV; and from
time to time, resolutions have been passed and lectures have been
delivered before the Society, urging the question upon the attention of
Government.
Since 1882, the wood-pulp industry has developed with astonish-
ing rapidity, and the manufacture has advanced into the front rank of
industries essential to civilization. The sub-arctic forests of the
northern regions, formerly considered valuel<?ss, have in consequence
assumed importance, and many waste and rocky places, unsuited for
agriculture, are beginning to take on a hitherto unsuspected value, by
their suitability for successive growths of pulp-wood. It is fortunate
for the Dominion, that the trees best adapted for this great industry,
are the spruces and poplars of the northern forests. The possibilities
of the development of this new and promising business are only now
beginning to be evident. It is a promise of wealth from regions
hitherto supposed to be valueless.
The Council has great satisfaction in following the work carried
on in the Northwest by the Superintendent of Forestry, a branch of
the Department of the Interior inaugurated three years ago. The
reports of this officer and his subordinates appear in the annual report
of that department. A million and a quarter trees were this spring
available at the different Experimental Farm stations for transplanting
upon the plains ; and the notices of the fire-rangers are not confined to
the limits of ordinary travel, but are posted all along the valley of the
Peace River and far down the valley of the Mackenzie Eiver. So far,
then, as the infiuence of the Dominion Government extends, strenuous
efforts are being made to extend tree-planting upon the plains. How
to check or prevent forest fires is an exceedingly difficult problem, but
the Dominion and some of the Provincial Governments are alive to its
importance. The whole subject has, within only a few years, sprung
into the first rank of questions of public interest. The Canadian
Forestry Association is doing most useful work by its intelligent scien-
tific discussions and, as its membership extends over the whole Dom-
inion, we may hope for great benefit to the country from its earnest
efforts. Few questions are so important to the welfare of Canada.
25. Science Applied to Increasing Production.
The application of scientific principles and methods to agriculture
proceeds steadily from year to year broadening its field of action. The
work of the experimental farms increases in scientific interest and
PROCEEDINGS FOR 1903 XXIX
practical valus. The reports of its trained officers have been before us
for many years, but familiarity should not blind us to the long and
patient antecedent researches, the practical results of which alone we
are apt to recognize. In addition, we have now in the Dairy Commis-
sion, a movable agricultural college bringing home to our producers,
by object lessons, model factories and lectures, the most approved
methods and submitting them to actual working practice before their
eyes. In this way, and by inquiring into the conditions and require-
ments of distant markets and teaching our farmers to adapt themselves
thereto, the value of our agricultural exports has increased to a sur-
prising degree in the last few years. These results are not the less
scientific because they are practical, and if in eight years the export of
butter from the port of Montreal increased sixteen fold, the improved
processes of production and transportation which caused so rapid a
growth, were applications of scientific principles patiently investigated
end carefully applied.
A movement has been inaugurated and is gathering strength to
introduce into rural schools, a knowledge of these principles. It is a
promising and praiseworthy efifort, for it will tend to enliven with a
new interest, the monotony of rural life and help to counterbalance the
attractions which are drawing the youth into the cities.
26. Committee on Geological Nomenclature.
Referring to pages xxxix and xli of last year's Proceedings, it
will be seen that the Committee on this subject was continued. A
provisional report was then sent in and appears in the Proceedings.
In continuing the Committee, power was given to add to their number.
The Council has reason to believe that progress is being made, but
no further report has been made.
27. Geographic Nomenclature.
The commission on Geographical Nomenclature appointed by the
Dominion Government three years ago continues its useful work. In
the Northwest its functions are most important in settling the many
new place-names which are incessantly being added to the map.
Most of these names are from the Indian languages. They were
given by the Indians because of some marked physical feature which
attracted their observant eyes. Indians are born geographers and the
Commission is doing good service in preserving their significant names
and fixing them on the map in intelligible orthography.
XXX ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
28. International Conobess of Americanists.
The meeting of this body was held in New York last October
and, as its objects are specially within the scope of Sections I. and II.
Section I. nominated MM. J. Edmond Eoy and Léon Gérin and the
society appointed them delegates to attend as representatives of the
Eoyal Society in response to an invitation received. Mr. Gérin was, to
his great regret, unable to attend. The council has been informed that
Mr. Eoy was present, but he has been absent in Europe for several
months and no report has reached the council as yet.
29. Map of Canada.
The Council are glad to be able to report that the need of an
accurate general map of the Dominion, pointed out in their Eeport
of 1898, has been supplied. The Department of the Interior has
issued, during the past year, such a map. It is engraved on copper
in the best style and the work has been completely done in Canada.
It was moved by Dr. Alex. Johnson, seconded by Thomas Macfar-
lane, and carried:
That the report of Council just read be adopted.
It was moved by Professor E. E. Prince, seconded by E. F. Stupart,
and carried:
That the minutes and proceedings of the general meeting of
1902, as printed in Volume VIII. of the Proceedings and Transactions,
be approved and confirmed.
Moved by Dr. Wesley Mills, seconded by Senator Poirier and
resolved : —
That the suggestion of Mr. Wilfred Campbell in'^gard to the
report of the Council be referred to the sections for consiX^^^^^^ *^^
report at this meeting of the» Council.
The meeting adjourned at 12 o'clock, and the sections ]^oceeded
to organize in their respective rooms.
AFTEENOON SESSION. (May 19th.)
The Society re-assembled at 2.30 p.m. '
The following newly elected Fellows were introduced and
their seats: W. D. Lighthall, Dr. W. D. LeSueur, Dr. Adami.
It was moved by Eev. Dr. Bryee, seconded by D. C. Scott :
That the following be a committee to consider the question^
a fitting commemoration of the three hundredth anniversary of
settlement of Champlain and De Monts on the coast of Acadial
PROCEEDINGS FOR 1903 XXXI
1604; together with the advisability of holding the next annual see-sion
of the Society at St. John, New Brunswick, or other place. The
Committee to report as early as possible at the present session.
Hon. Senator Poirier, Mr. B. Suite, Sir Sandford Fleming, Dr.
G. Matthew, Hon. Thomas Chapais.
The following resolutions were then passed : —
Moved by Sir Sandford Fleming, seconded by Thomas Macfarlane,
and carried:
That in accordance with the recommendation of the Council, Dr.
Henry Fairfield Osborn be elected a corresponding member of the
Society.
Moved by Thamas Macfarlane, seconded by Sir Sandford Fleming,
and carried:
That Dr. W. F. Ganong be elected a corresponding member of the
Society in accordance with the recommendation of the Council.
Capt. Deville presented the following report from Section III.:
Ottawa, 19th May, 1903.
Section III. has the honour to report that they have considered
the election of a new member referred to them by Council and they
recommend the election of Dr. J. C. McLennan, of Toronto University.
E. Deville,
Secretary,
Whereupon it was moved by Capt. Deville, seconded by Dr. John-
son, and carried:
That Rule 6 be suspended, that the report of Section III., just
read, be adopted and that Dr. J. C. McLennan be elected a member
of The Society.
Delegates from Associated Societies were then called upon for
their reports. The following were read: (N.B. — The reports of
these Societies are printed together in Appendix D.)
The Natural History Society of Montreal, by Prof. T. Wesley Mills.
Société Litt/éraire de Montréal, par Eev. J. L. Morin.
Ottawa Literary and SKîientific Society, by Harris H. Bligh,
President.
Nova Scotia Historical Society, read by Archbishop O'Brien in
the absence of Hon. J. W. Longley.
Women^s Canadian Historical Society of Toronto, by Mrs. T.
Aheam.
Women's Canadian Historical Society of Ottawa, by Mrs. S. E.
Dawson.
XXXII ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
Natural History Society of New Brunswick, by Hon. Senator Ellis.
The following report from Section IV. was then presented :
That the members of Section IV. of the Royal Society cordially
approve of the proposal embodied in the report of the Council to invite
the International Geological Congress to hold their tenth meeting in
Canada and recommend the appointment of the following Committee;
with power to add to their number, to issue the invitation, wait on the
Government regarding financial assistance and, generally, to make all
the necessary arrangements for the proposed visit:
Sir James Grant, Archbishop O'Brien, Sir Sandford Fleming, Col.
G. T. Denison, Abbé Laflamme, Professor C. H. McLeod, Robert Bell,
Hon. Mr. Longley, R. W. Ells, Mr. Poole, Prof. Adams, T. Macfarlane,
Prof. Coleman, G. W. Taylor, J. F. Whiteaves, W. Saunders, A. H.
MacKay, J. W. Bailey, G. F. Matthew, Hon. G. W. Ross, J. Willison,
Dr. Frechette, Prof. Goodwin, Prof. Bryce, Dr. S. E. Dawson, Mon-
seigneur Begin, President Loudon.
Whereupon it was moved by Thomas Macfarlane, seconded by
Dr. R. W. Ells, and carried:
That the report of Section IV. on the proposed invitation to the
International Geological Congress be approved, and the Committee
named for making all the necessary arrangements appointed as fol-
lows:—
Sir James Grant, Archbishop O'Brien, Sir Sandford Fleming,
Col. G. T. Denison, Abbé Laflamme, Prof. C. H. McLeod, Hon. Mr.
Longley, Mr. Poole, Prof. Adams, Prof. Coleman, President Loudon.
The Secretary, Mr. Lawrence M. Lambe, reported from Section
IV. as follows: —
Section IV. begs further to report the election of Dr. A. E. Barlow,
of the Geological Survey of Canada, as a member of this Society to a
vacancy in Section IV.
At 3.15 p.m the Fellows adjourned to their respective sections.
At 4.30 p.m. the Fellows and Delegates attended a garden party at
the Central Experimental Farm, given by Mrs. Saunders in honour of
the Royal Society.
EVENING SESSION. (May 19th.)
The President, Sir James Grant, K.C.M.G., delivered his presi-
dential address at 8 p.m. in the Convocation Hall of the Normal
School, subject: Brain Power and how to preserve it. The address
was illustrated by a number of lime light lantern slides.
For address, see Appendix A.
PROCEEDINQS FOB 1903 XXXIH
SESSION II.
Wednesday, (May 20.)
The Society reassembled at 10 a.m. and the reading of the re-
ports of Associated Societies was resumed.
Eoyal Astronomical Society of Toronto, by R. P. Stupart.
Numismatic and Antiquarian Society of Montreal, by R. W.
McLachlan.
Hamilton Scientific Association, by Rey. D. B. Marsh.
Historical Society of Manitoba, by Rev. Dr. Bryce.
Entomological Society of Ontario, by Rev. Dr. Bethune.
It was moved by Dr. Fletcher, seconded by Prof. Macoun, and car-
ried : —
That the recommendation of Section IV. be adopted, and that
Dr. Barlow be elected a Fellow of the Society.
The following reports of Associated Societies were presented : —
Literary and Historical Society of Quebec.
Lundy's Lane Historical Society.
United Empire Loyalists^ Association of Ontario — Hamilton
Branch.
Ontario His-torioal Society.
Miramichi Natural History Association.
Elgin Historical and Scientific Institute, St. Thomas.
Nova Scotia Institute of Science.
New Brunswick Historical Society
Moved by Thomas Macfarlane, seconded by Abbé Bourassa, and
carried: —
That the subject referred to in the report of the Numismatic and
Antiquarian Society of Montreal, and the remarks of Mr. Lighthall
regarding the preservation of Canadian hi-storical monuments be
referred to Sections I. and II. of the Society, for such resolutions and
action they see fit to recommend that the Society should adopt.
Dr. James Fletcher then made a verbal report of the work done
during the past year by the Field Naturalists^ Club of Ottawa.
T^e following telegram was handed in by the Hon. J. V. Ellis
and, after being read to the Society, was referred to the Committee on
the Champlain celebration: —
St. John, N.B., May 19th, 1903.
Senator J. V. Ellis, Ottawa.
President Howe and Executive Historical Society desire you to
represent that body in Royal Society. They join in invitation Royal
Society to meet here next year. S. D. Scott,
Proc., 1903. 8.
XXXIV ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
The Committee on the nomination of oflScers was appointed as
follows : —
Moved "by Dr. Gird wood, seconded by Dr. Saunders, and carried: —
That the following be a Committee for the nomination of oflacers
for tEe ensuing year: Sir James Grant, Sir Sandford Fleming, Hon.
Pascal Poirier, Dr. Burgess, Eev. Dr. Bryce, Archbishop O'Brien.
It was moved by Prof. C. H. McLeod, seconded by Capt. Deville,
and carried: —
Resolved — In accordance with the recommendation of the special
Committee appointed to report on the proposal to extend the triangula-
tion of the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey into Canada, that
a Geodetic Commission should be appointed by the Government of
Canada to consider the whole question of a triangulation survey for
Canada, and that a deputation consisting of Sir James Grant, Sir
Sandford Fleming, President Loudon, Mr. Keefer, Dr. A. Johnson.
Prof. McLeod, with power to add to their number, be appointed to
wait upon the Government with a view of urging the suggestion of the
Committee.
The President announced that the Premier, the Right Honourable
Sir Wilfrid Laurier, had consented to receive, at one o'clock, the Com-
mittee of the Society upon the proposed visit to Canada of the Inter-
national Geological Congress.
AFTERNOON SESSION. (May 20th.)
The Society reassembled at 2.30 p.m.
The President reported verbally the result of the interview with
the Premier, which was generally to the effect that further informa-
tion was desirable before any definite reply could be given, and that he
would be glad if the Society would make more detailed representation.
The President read the following telegrams and, the approval of
the Society having been given, he despatched them by cable : —
To His Gracious Majesty,
The Bang.
The members of the Royal Society of Canada, assembled at their
22nd Annual Session, desire to tender their warmest congratulations
en your restoration to health, and that your Most Gracious Majesty has
been crowned and anointed King, over a united and prosperous
Empire.
J. A. Grant,
To the Secretary, President.
His Majesty's Household.
PROCEEDINGS FOR 1903 XXXV
To the Duke of Argyll.
The members of the Royal Society of Canada, asBembled at their
22nd session, desire to tender you their warmest thanks, as founder of
this Society, which has contributed greatly to forward the scientific and
literary interests of this Dominion.
J. A. Grant,
President.
Mr. E. Stewart, Dominion Superintendent of Forestry, addressed
the Society and made a verbal report from the Canadian Forestry
Association.
The following letter from the Mayor of St. John, N.B., was
handed in by Hon. Senator Ellis and referred to the Committee on the
proposed Champlain celebration: —
Mayor's Office, St. John, N.B.,
Hon. John V. Ellis, 18th May, 1903.
President Natural History Society.
Dear Mr. Ellis:—
I understand that the Natural History Society is moving to get
the Eoyal Society of Canada to meet in our city in late June, so as
to hold its annual session here at the date of the ter-centenary of
the discovery of Saint John river and harbour by Champlain.
As Mayor of Saint John, I may assure you that all our citizens
will be very glad, if the purpose which the Natural History Society
has in view, can be accomplished, and that the Royal Society of Canada
will be heartily welcomed to St. John by all classes in our community,
at the date indicated, or at any otlier time they may be pleased to come.
I am,
Yours truly,
Walter W. White,
Mayor.
The meeting then adjourned until the following morning at 10
o^clock.
From 5 until 7 p.m.. Lady Grant held a reception for the Fellows
and Delegates.
EVENING SESSION. (May 20th.)
ProfesBor T. Wesley Mills delivered a lecture at 8 o^clock, in the
Convocation Hall of the Normal School. Subject ^^ A chapter in the
Physiology and Psychology of Music." Musical illustrations were
XXXVI ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
given by Dr. T. Gibson and Mr. D. Heins, and a number of explanatory
lime light slides were shown.
After the lecture an ** At Home ^' of the resident Fellows was held
in the Normal School Building.
SESSION III. (May 21st.)
The Royal Society assembled at 10 a.m
The following telegram was read and referred to the Committee
upon the proposed Champlain celebration: —
St. John, N.B., May 2(>th, 1903.
The President of the Royal Society of Canada,
Ottawa.
The New Brunswick Loyalists Society cordially invites the Royal
Society of Canada to hold annual meeting for 1904 at St. John.
Would suggest that if practicable date of meeting be arranged to
include May 18th, the one hundred and twenty-first anniversary of
landing of Loyalists or June 24th, ter-centenary of discovery River St.
John.
D. R. Jack (Historian)
for OfRcers and Members of New Brunswick Loyalists Society.
The following reply from the Duke of Argyll was also read: —
Inveraray, May 2l8t, 1903.
Congratulations and thanks. Sympathy for sufferers by fire.
Argyll.
The reply from His Majesty the King was received after the meet-
ing closed and is as follows: —
London, May 25th, 1903.
President Royal Society of Canada,
I have the honour of submitting your telegram to the King and I
am commanded by His Majesty to express his warm thanks to the
members of the Society for their loyal congratulations.
Knollys.
The Nominating Committee brought in the following report: —
The Committee beg to recommend the following gentlemen to be
ofiicers for the year 1903-4 : —
President— Lt.-Col. G. T. Denison, B.C.L.
Vice-President — ^Benjamin Suite.
Honorary Secretary — Dr. S. E. Dawson.
Honorary Treasurer — Dr. James Fletcher.
PROCEEDINGS FOR 1903 XXXVH
The President put the names separately to the meeting. The
report was adopted unanimously and he declared the above gentle-
men elected.
Mr. W. D. Lighthall from the Committee upon Historical Monu-
ments and Sites read the following report: —
The first and second sections of the Royal Society of Canada, in
joint meeting, according to the resolution of the Society referring the
subject to them, respectfully beg to recommend as follows : —
1st. That the Society pass a resolution drawing the attention of the
respective governments of the Dominion and the various provinces, as
well as the municipal authorities, to the importance of preserving his-
torical monuments, sites, buildings, archives and relics throughout
Canada in view of the constant and increasing danger of their disap-
pearance; and that the Honorary Secretary be requested to prepare
printed copies of the resolution and cause it to be transmitted to the
various authorities concerned and to the press.
2nd. That the Society also pass a resolution praying the City Coun-
cil of Montreal to apply the principle of the foregoing resolution
specially to the case of the Chateau de Ramezay.
The following resolutions were thereupon passed: —
Moved by Honourable Senator Poirier, seconded by Duncan CL
Scott:—
That the Royal Society of Canada, in annual meeting assembled
at Ottawa, respectfully asks the attention of the Dominion Govern-
ment and of the governments of the various provinces, as well as o£
municipal authorities, to the urgent importance of preserving historical
monuments, sites, buildings, archives, and relics throughout Canada in
view of the constant and increasing danger of their disappearance ; and
that the Honorary Secretary be requested to prepare printed copies
of this resolution and cause it to be transmitted to the various
authorities concerned and to the press.
Moved by Col. Denison, seconded by Benjamin Suite, and car-
ried:—
That a copy of the resolution of the Society relative to preserving
historical monumentô be transmitted to the City Council of Montreal
and that the Society pray the said Council to apply the principle of
the said resolution specially to the case of the venerable Chateau de
Ramezay.
It was then moved by W. D. Lighthall, seconded by Rev. Dr.
Bryce and carried: —
That the council of the Society be instructed to study the subject
of legislation for the protection and preservation of historical build-
ings and objects with a view to the introduction of legislation through-
XXXVITI ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
out Canada on lines similar to that which is in operation in European
countries.
Moved by Duncan C. Scott, seconded by Dr. William Saunders', and
carried : —
That a vote of thanks be presented to Dr. T. Gibson and Mr. D.
Heins for their kindness in assisting at Dr. Mills^s lecture and to
Messrs. Onne for the gratuitous use of a piano for the said occasion.
A copy to be transmitted to the gentlemen concerned.
Moved by Archbishop O'Brien, seconded by W. W. Campbell, and
carried : —
That the sincere thanks of the Eoyal Society be presented to
Principal "White for his kindness in permitting the Society to hold its
meetings in the rooms* of the Normal School Building.
REPORT OP SECTION I.
Mr. Benjamin Suite presented the following report from Section
I. :—
Société Royale, Section I.
21 mai 1903.
La section a Thonneur de faire rapport que durant les séances
des 19 au 21 mai 1903, les membres dont les noms suivent étaient pré-
sents et ont pris part aux travaux: —
MM. Bellemare, Bourassa, David, DeCelles, Frechette, Chapais,
Gagnon, Poirier, Poisson, Richard et Suite.
M. P. B. Casgrain représentant la Société Littéraire et Historique
de Qilébec, et le Révérend J. L. Morin, représentant la Société Lit-
téraire de Montréal, ont aussi assisté à nos séances.
Les travaux lus et recommandés pour l'impression sont les sui-
vants:—
Le père Sébastien Rasle, par le Dr Dionne.
Livres Canadiens- français publiés de 1800 a 1900, par le Dr
Dionne.
Découverte du Mississippi, par M. B. Suite.
Les Intendants de la Nouvelle France, par M. Régis Roy.
La Fontaine d'Abraham Martin, par M. P. B. Casgrain.
La Dime au Canada, par l'Abbé Gosselin.
Le Labrador, par TAbbé Gosselin.
Irenna la Huronne, poëme, par M. LeMay.
L'Acadie en 1749-1752, par M. Placide Gaudet.
Le Mouvement Intellectuel chez les Canadiens-français, par l'Ho-
norable Pascal Poirier.
Monographie de Jean et Sébastien Cabot, par THonorable Pascal
Poirier.
PROCEEDINGS FOR 1903 XXXIX
La Noblesse au Canada et en Acadie, par TAbbS Bourassa.
Les oflBcers élu6' pour Tannée qui commence sont : —
M. Poisson, Président.
M. David, Vice-Président.
M. Gérin, Secrétaire.
Le tout respectueusement soumis,
Pascal Poirier, Président.
A. Poisson, Vice-Président.
Benjamin Sulte, Secrétaire pro tem.
REPORT OF SECTION IL
Mr. W. W. Campbell presented the report of Section II.
Section IL held five meetings. Officers elected: —
President, Rev. Dr. Bryce.
Vice-President, Mr. W. D. Lighthall.
Secretary, Mr. W. Wilfred Campbell.
Printing Committee: President, Secretary, Mr. LeSueur, Mr.
Lighthall, Mr. D. C. Scott.
New Members: This section has elected for membership this
year Dr. W. D. LeSueur.
In conjunction with Section I. this section has appointed a com-
mittee to draft a resolution concerning the preservation of public monu-
ments, etc.
Thirteen papers were presented to the section. Several of them
were read in full at the meetings. Among them was one of unusual
interest: Several Ethnological Types of Rupert's Land, by Rev. Dr.
Bryce.
The other papers were read by title or in part. A complete list
of the papers presented are attached to this report.
W. Wilfred Campbell,
Secretar}'.
List of Papers.
1. Latest Lights on the Cabot Controversy. By Right Rev.
Bishop Howley, D.D., of St. John's, Newfoundland.
2. The Col. Talbot Papers. By James H. Coyne, B.A. Pre-
sented by W. Wilfred Campbell.
3. The Copper Currency of the Canadian Banks, 1837-1857. By
R. W. McLachlan, Montreal. Presented by Dr. S. E. Dawson.
4. The Second Legislature of Upper Canada, 1796-1800. By C.
C. James, Toronto. Presented by W. Wilfred Campbell.
XL ROYAL SOaETY OF CANADA
5. The Lake of the Woods Tragedy. By Lawrence J. Burpee.
Presented by W. Wilfred Campbell.
6. Several Ethnological Types of Eupert's Land. By Eev. Dr.
G. Bryce, of Winnipeg.
7. Evolution and Degeneration of Party in Politics — A Study in
Political History. By Eev. N. Burwash, S.T.D., Toronto.
8. A Few Eemarks on the Siege of Quebec and the Battle of the
Plains of Abraham. By P. B. Casgrain, K.C., of Quebec. Presented
by B. Suite.
9. Lieut. Col. Caldwell, father of Sir John Caldwell. By Sir
James M. LeMoine, D.C.L., of Quebec.
10. A Monograph of the Historic and Physiographic Factors
Determining the Distribution and Nationality of Settlements in New
Brunswick. (Contributions to the History of New Brunswick, No. 6).
By W. F. Ganong, M.A., Ph.D. Presented by Dr. S. E. Dawson.
11. Death of Dulhut. By William McLennan, Montreal.
12. The Gaelic Folk Song of Canada. By Alexander Fraser.
Presented by W. Wilfred Campbell.
13. Totemism. By Eev. Chas. Hill-Tout.
GENEEAL BUSINESS.
The special Committee to which had been referred the letters and
telegrams inviting the Eoyal Society to hold its next annual meeting
at St. John, New Brunswick, on the occasion of the proposed Champlain
ter-centenary, reported as follows: —
That the most cordial thanks of the Eoyal Society be given now
for the St. John, New Brunswick, invitations; and that it would be
very gratifying to the whole Society to accept, provided that satisfac-
tory arrangements can be made — meanwhile that the whole matter be
referred to the Council with power to act as may seem best.
On motion of Honourable Pascal Poirier, seconded by Sir Sand-
fcrd Fleming, the report was adopted by the Society and the matter
WÎIS left in the hands of the Council.
Moved by Abbé Bourassa, seconded by Dr. Burgess:
Tliat thanks be expressed by the Eoyal Society to all those who
on the occasion of this annual meeting liave shown ho&pitality to the
member.-; and that thanks be tendered particularly to the President
and Lady Grant, to Dr. and Mrs. Saunders and to the resident Fellows
in Ottawa. Carried.
Moved by Dr. Ells, seconded by Dr. Ami:
That the Eoyal Society in general session assembled hereby
empower the General Committee appointed by this Society re the Inter-
PROCEEDINGS FOR 1903 XLL
national Geological Congress to make all necessary arrangements re-
specting the proposed visit of said Congress. Carried.
Moved by Dr. Ami, seconded by Eev. Dr. Bryce, and carried:
That the Ethnological Comimittee of the Royal Society be reap-
pointed, with power to add to their number.
Moved by His Grace Archbishop O'Brien, seconded by Rev. Dr.
Bryce: —
That the Royal Society of Canada assembled respectfully and
strongly urge the Government of Canada to move promptly in the
erection of a National Museum for the proper housing of the priceless
collections already existing.
The Royal Society would also suggest that provisions be made for
proper accommodation for the meetings of this Society and of the valu-
able library of the Society. Carried.
Moved by Archbishop O'Brien, seconded by Sir Sandford Fleming,
and carried unanimously :
That the respectful condolences of the Royal Society of Canada
be conveyed to Lady Bourinot on the death of her husband, who for
so many years was its efficient Secretary, and also an expression of its
sincere appreciation of liis services to the Society, together with the
hope that she may be comforted and sustained in her grievous aflSic-
iion.
As some papers remained to be disposed of in Sections III. and
IV. final reports could not be presented before the close of the general
meeting. On motion it was ordered that the reports should be sent to
the Honorary Secretary and included in the minutes of the meeting.
The Honorary Secretary called the especial attention of Fellows
to Rule X. concerning the publication of papers, and pointed out that
the law of the Society is that all papers shall in the first instance be
.handed to the Secretaries of the respective sections, arid that from
them such as are to be printed are sent to the Honorary Secretary.
The Committee on a proposed Hydrographie Survey Department
for the Coasts of the Dominion reported by Dr. Alex. Johnson, as fol-
lows:—
Royal Society of Canada, May, 1903.
Report of Committee on proposed "Hydrographie Survey Depart-
ment for the Coasts of the Dominion."
Your Committee beg leave to report that, at an interview this
morning, they were received most courteously by the Minister of
XLII ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
Marine, and that the result of the discussion which then took place
was most encouraging.
It was pointed out that while the Dominion Government provided
for the hydrography of the waters and rivers, it did nothing for the
coast. The reason for this was that the Government depended on the
Admiralty.
A statement was presented showing on good authority that while
the Admiralty was doing and would do work of an imperial character^
it could not possibly do local work. Its funds were insufficient.
It is obviously difficult to draw a dividing line between what is
imperial and what is local.
The ilinister undertook to communicate with the Admiralty on
the subject so as to settle what Canada must do for itself. The
necessary steps could be determined afterwards. This the Committee
consider a very important step in advance, and very encouraging.
Captain Beriiier, who was present, was able from his personal
knowledge to confirm the statement that the present charts were defec-
tive. It is further encouraging to know that the Marine Department
has purchased a special surveying vessel for the work of the "Tidal
Survey .^^ This is in addition to a new vessel, the "Bayfield," purchased
for the survey of the lakes and rivers.
For Committee,
A. Johnson,
May 21, 1903. Chairman.
Moved by Sir Sandford Fleming, seconded by Dr. Saunders, and
carried :
That the thanks of the Society are due to Dr. S. E. Dawson for
his services in taking up the work of the Society and carrying it on
as Acting Secretary' during the vacancy in the office caused by the
death of the late Honorary Secretary.
On motion of Col. Denison the thanks of the Society were ten-
dered to the retiring President, Sir James Grant, for his services dur-
ing the term of his office as President.
Moved by W. W. Campbell, seconded by Archbishop O'Brien:
That the thanks of the Society are due to the Honorary Trea-
surer, Dr. James Fletcher, for his services during the long series of
years he has filled that office. Carried.
There being no more business before the Society in general ses-
sion, the President declared the twenty-second meeting of the Eoyal
Society to be closed.
PROCEEDINGS FOR 1903 XLHI
EBPORT OF SECTION IV.
Section IV. has the honour to report that five highly interesting
sessions have been held. The maximum attendance was thirteen mem-
bers, with a number of visitors from other sections. Dr. A. E. Barlow
of the Geological Survey, was recommended by the section for elec-
tion to fill a vacancy in this section. Fifteen papers by members of
the section were read by their authors either in extenso, in part or by
title, whilst two papers were submitted by gentlemen not members
of the Society — making in all seventeen papers before the section.
A Committee was appointed to act in connection with the pro-
posed visit of the International Geological Congress to Canada in 1906.
A resolution was adopted, expressive of the desirability of a draft
report of the Council being sent to the members of the Society in
advance of the annual meeting.
The section is unanimously of the opinion that the Government
should be further urged to provide proper building accommodation
for the Geological Survey Department. This matter to be referred
to the general meeting of the Society for its consideration.
The election of odicers for the ensuing year resulted as follows: —
For President— Dr. G. TJ. Hay.
For Vice-President — Prof. Fowler.
For Secretary — Mr. Lawrence Lambe.
All of which is respectfully submitted.
Lawbence Lambe,
Secretary pro tern,
Beport of the Sub-Committee ox the Xomenclatl're of
Geological Fjormations ix Caxada.
Ottawa, May 16th, 1903.
A meeting of the Ottawa members of this Sub-Committee was held
in March last, at which the subject was fully discussed. A circular,
asking for comments on the scheme of Geological nomenclature, ertc.,
submitted by Dr. Selwyn, in 1881, to the Bologna Congress, and pub-
lished in the Report of Progress of the Geological Survey of Canada
for 1880-81-82, was dra\vTi up and sent to each of the specialists of the
Geological Survey staff. The answers to this circular have not yet
been fully considered, but, on the whole, they would seem to show that
there is a general consensus of opinion that the time has come when Dr.
Selwyn's scheme could be advantageously modified in accordance with
the terminology adopted by the International Congress of Geologists.
XLIV ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
At a meeting of the Geological Society of America, held at Wash-
ington in December last, it was arranged between Dr. Bell and Dr.
Walcott, that a special Committee, to consist of Dr. Bell and Dr. F. D.
Adams, for the Canadian Geological Survey, and another Canadian
geologist yet to be selected, but not a member of the Geological Survey
staff, to represent Canada, Prof. Van Hise and Dr. Keith, for th«
United States Geological Survey, and Prof. Seaman, to represent the
United States, be appointed to consider the nomenclature and classi-
fication of the Pre-Cambrian rocks of North America.
Signed on behalf of the Sub-Committee,
J. F. Whiteaves.
The following papers were read: —
1. Eesults of some Experiments with Fertilizers on Important
Farm crops during the past 15 years. By Dr. William Saunders.
2. Bibliography of Canadian Geology and Palaeontology for the
Year 1902. By Dr. H. M. Ami.
3. Canadian Geological Chronograph: or the succession of Geolo-
gical Forniaitions in Canada. By Dr. H. M. Ariii.
4. Memoir of the late Dr. A. E. C. Selwyn, C.M.G. By Dr. H.
M. Ami.
5. An attempt to classify Paleozoic Batrachian foot-prints. By
Dr. G. F. Matthew.
6. Notes on Tertiary Plants. By Professor D. P. Penhallow.
7. A submerged tributary of the great pre-glacial river of the
Gulf of St. Lawrence. By H. S. Poole.
8. Notes on some interesting Rock-contacts in the Kingston Dis-
trict, Ont. By R. W. Ells, LL.D.
9. Francis Bain, the Prince Edward Island Geologist. A sketch
of his life and of the work accomplished in the study of the rock for-
mations of his native province. By Lawrence W. Watson. Presented
by Dr. R. W. Ells.
10. Presidential Address to Section. Some aspects of the Evolu-
tion of comparative Pathology. By Professor Wesley Mills.
11. An experimental inquiry into the effects of the blood serum
of normal and immunized goats upon tuberculous processes. By Albert
George NichoUs, M.D. Presented by Dr. J. G. Adami.
12. The complex pharyngeal teeth of Poronotus, with notes on
the development of pharyngeal teeth in fishes generally. By Professor
E. E. Prince.
13. Description of two rare cases of Meristic Variation in the
large claws of the lobster — illustrated with specimens. By Professor
E. E. Prince.
PRCX^EEDINGS FOB 1003 XLV
14. Bibliography of Canadian Entomology for the year 1902. By
Keverend C. J. S. Bethune, D.C.L.
15. Bibliography of Canadian Zoology for 1902, exclusive of Ento-
mology. By Dr. J. F. Whiteaves.
16. On the relation Of Moisture-content to hardiness in Apple
Twigs. By Frank T. Shutt.
17. Descriptions of some new species and varieties of Canadian
Butterflies. By Jam^s Fletcher, LL.D.
REPOET OF SECTION lU.
The third section held five meetings, the following members being
present: C. Baillairgé, Dr. H. T. Barnes, Prof. N. F. Dupuis, E.
Deville, Dr. W. H. Ellis, Sir Sandf ord Fleming, Dr. G. P. Girdwood,
Prof. J. C. Glashan, Dr. G. C. HoflEmann, Prof. A. Johnson, T. Keefer,
President J. T. Loudon, T. Macfarlane, Prof. C. H. McLeod, Prof. P.
T. Shutt, R. F. Stupart.
The election of a new member having been referred to the section
by Council, Dr. J. C. McLennan, of Toronto University, was selected
and his election confirmed by the Society.
Eighteen papers, of which a list is appended, were read and dis-
cussed before the section.
The officers elected for the ensuing year are as follows: —
President. Dr. W. H. Ellis.
Vice-President. Prof. E. Rutherford.
Secretary E. Deville.
E. Deville,
Secretary.
Papers Read before Section III.
1. — *' On the Resistance of a Hydrated Electrolyte, and its Rela-
tion to the Density-Concentration Curve." By H. T. Barnes, D.Sc,
and J. Guy W. Johnson, B.A.
2. — '" Description of Apparatus by the late Dr. Rudolph Koenig,
of Paris, for the Projection of various Wave Movements." By President
J. Loudon.
3.— "The Radioactivity of Ordinary Metals." By Prof. J. C.
McLennan, and E. F. Burton, B.A. Presented by President J. Loudon.
4.—" The Formula of one of the Natural Sulphides." By Prof.
E. J. Harrington.
6. — " On the Radiation Correction in Methods of Calorimetry."
By Howard T. Barnes, D.Sc.
XL VI ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
6.—" The North Pole of the Earth/' By C. Baillairgé, M.A., CE.
7.—" The Oxalates of Bismuth/' By Dr. F. B. Allan. Presented
by Prof. W. Lash Miller.
8. — "Numerical Values of certain I "unctions Involving 6'*-"
By Prof. W. Lash Miller and Prof. T. K. Roseburgh.
9. — "Researches in Physical Chemistry carried out in the Uni-
versity of Toronto during the past Year." By Prof. W. Lash Miller.
10. — " The Application of Fourier's Series to the Determination
of the Forms of Cams to effect given Displacements, Velocities and
Accelerations." By Dr. Coker. Presented by Dr. Henry T. Bovey.
11. — "A Laboratory Apparatus for applying Bending and Tor-
sional Moments Simultaneously." By Dr. Coker. Presented by Dr.
Henry T. Bovey.
12. — " On the Analysis of Cheose." By Thomas Macfarlane.
13.—" Seismology in Canada." By R. F. Stupert.
14. — ^^^The Climate of the Canadian Northwest Territories." By
R. F. Stupart.
15.—" A Compensated Air Thermometer." By H. M. Tory, M.A.,
D.Sc. Presented by Prof. Cox.
16. — " Composition of Coal from the Crow's Nest Pass." By W. H.
Ellis.
17. — " A Study of the Decomposition of Potassium Chlorate by
Heat." By S. E. Chadsey. Presented by Dr. W. H. Ellis.
18. — " Note on an Apparently Accidental Formation of Frazil Ice
in a Cryophorus. By Prof. John Cox.
APPENDIX A
BKAIX POWER; IIOW TO PKKSKRVIi] IT
By Sir James Grant, M.D., K.C.M.G.
President Royal Society of Canada
PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS
I am confident I am expressing the sympathies and feelings of this
large audience in the Capital of the Dominion of Canada, when I say,
that we, one and all, rejoice that His Most Gracious Majesty, King
Edward has been restored to health, and annointed King over a loyal
and united Empire.
Twenty-one years ago, at a meeting held at Government House,
Ottawa, this Society was determined upon by Lord Lome, now Duke
of Argj'll, and shortly afterwards called into action, with the late Sir
William Dawson as first President. Since that date, the meetings with
few exceptions, have been held at Ottawa, and the present records of
the Society point to a widely diversified line of work, in its various
departments, all of which gives undoubted evidence of intellectual
development, of which any colony in the Empire might justly feel
proud. The duty, which by the kindness of the Council of this Society,
I am called upon to perform, I regret has not fallen into other hands.
In accepting the task, 1 feel confident of the sympathy of my audience.
It is a matter of satisfaction to know that the success of such meet-
ings, does not depend on the occupant of the presidential chair, but is
chiefly due to the eminent workers in the various sections of the
Society.
The energy and marked ability of the late General Secretary, Sir
John Bourinot, who since the incipient stage of development of the
Society, brought to light facts of the greatest moment, as to men and
measures, in all parts of our Dominion, redounding greatly to the
credit of one, who by his painstaking research and scholarly attain-
ments, has left an imperishable record on this continent. Edward
Gibbon charmingly expressed the idea, that diligence and accuracy, are
the only merits, which an historical writer can ascribe to himself. So
in scientific research, like qualifications are cardinal qualities. To
decide on the true significance of data, springing daily from the vast
sources of scientific investigation the result of observations and experi-
ments, a well balanced mind, and careful reflection are necessary, to
winnow out the practical and useful, from the doubtful and uncer-
tain. Investigation and experiment are widespread, and as to results,
fortunately, there is greatly increased reliance. Doubt, says
Thackeray, is always crying pshaw.
Proc. 1908. 4.
L ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
We must not begin by doubting, but by doing, and then sifting. A
thousand doubters would not make a Lister, a Pasteur, or a Koch.
Aristotle says, if you doubt you must doubt well, but to doubt well,
you must first work well. I feel confident that one of the highest
aspirations of this Society, is that its observations, from year to year,
may fructify and extend into all lands, and the reciprocity of feeling
and action aroused, strengthen the scientific and literary ties of the
world. In this prospective development we must all endeavour to assist.
The flame of science must burn within as a vestal fire. Drudgery.
and long waiting for opportunity, are truly discouraging, but the
Divine Spark will not disappear, while the investigator is true and
honourable, and keeping such in view for pure purposes. As a rule
lecturers are teachers in a sense and their work lives after them.
Voltaire says of Virgil, that he was Homer's greatest achievement.
Dante was Virgil's greatest light. In science we find precisely the
same. The man passes away, but his work remains after him, and so
in the records of our Society, we trust an influence will be exercised
such as will redound to the credit of this Association.
Our annual meetings present a feature of great interest in the
reports of the Allied Scientific Societies throughout the Dominion. It
is needless to say how welcome are the representatives, and how much
we value their taking part in our discussions, and thus stimulating, in
a most encouraging manner, the interchange of thought, which widens
the area of scientific research.
The subject which I have chosen for the present occasion is
*^ Brain Power and How to Preserve It." In the days of the Ancient
Greeks, the composition of the human body was in a measure defined
b} Aristotle, as being composed of parts, diiTering from each other
in form, consistency, colour and texture. In these diversified parts,
brain and nerve tissues, are exceedingly important factors. Not, how-
ever, until the concluding years of the last century, was an impetus
given to anatomical research by the Hunters of England, the Meckels
if Germany, as well as Cuvier and St. Hilaire of France, by whose un-
tiring researches, the minute structure of animal tissues was placed on
a more defined and uniform basis. In the past century, great light was
thrown on the entire subject of general anatomy by Xavier Bichat, one
of the most accurate observers in all France in the Napoleonic Era.
The most remarkable advance, however, was made in the third decen-
nium of the past century, by improving the methods of examining
minute objects, by compound lenses. For more than a half a century,
microscopes have extended the domain of biological science, as to bring
within our comprehension, a clearly defined basis of human structure,
such as could not fail to convey a tolerably correct idea of functional
APPENDIX A LI
activity in the human system. In 1831, the celebrated botanist, Eobert
Brown, announced for' the first time, that an aureola or nucleus was
seen in many plants, and that this circular spot, wais present in each
cell. In 1839, Theodore Schwann discovered that there was one uni-
versal principle of development in the elementary part of organisms,
consisting in tho formation of cells. This great advance in biological
science is undoubtedly the most important feature of the past century,
and one which has given an impetus to physiological investigations, of
vast moment to th(î entire human race owing to the intiuence, tlius exer-
cised on the progress of practical medicine.
John Goodsir, the great anatomist of Edinburgh, announced iu
3843, that the nucleus is the reproductive organ of the cell, and that
new cells are formed from it, in fact, that an organic continuity existed
between the mother cell and its descendants, through the nucleus.
Virchow in his Cellular Pathology, 1858, maintained that in patlio-
logical structures, there is actually no cell development de novo:
Where a coll is found, there must have been a cell before, in fact,
cell development is continuous by descent.
In 184^3 John Goodsir established the principle that cells are
the ultimate secreting agents. A nerve cell is not a secreting cell,
however, like the general glandular cells of the system. Nen'o cells
through the remarkable changes which take place in them, generate
tl^at form of energy, known to exist as a special outcome of a nervous
system and defined as '" Xerve Energy " or " Nerve Force." A nerve
fibre is actually an essential part of the cell with which it is continuous,
and the cell and nerve fibre associated make up what is termed a
neuron, now known to play so important a role in the entire nen^ous
system.
The brain, like other parts of the body, may be in a state of
activity, or of fatigue. When active, the nucleus increases in size,
and when fatigued, the neucleus diminishes, and finally shrivels up,
becoming in fact, useless, as far as functional activity is concerned.
It is very remarkable that nerve cells have not the power of repro-
ducing their kind, their especial power bemg closely connected with
the evolution of nerve energy. This is a point on which I desire to
place particular stress as once a portion of tha brain, or other nerve
centre is destroyed, new brain material or a new nerve centre, cannot
le produced, to replace the injured parts, as takes place in other por-
tions of the human frame, where bones, tendons, and such like are
injured, nature comes to the relief, by new tissue in every respect
analogous to the part destroyed. This forms the key note to the
subject matter in hand, and demonstrates beyond doubt, with what
care and watchfulness, nerve tissue should be guarded, to retain
LU ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
intact, normal mental vigour and ordinary nerve power. Passing now
from minute cellular facts to general principles, I am confident you
will agree with me in the statement that " brains rule the world and
the individual." The great problem of the present day, with which
cur educationists as a whole, have to deal, in the midst lof |^ varied
practical experience, is "how to build the best brains out of the
material at our disposal." Not for men only but for women as well.
The best possible brains for both sexes, is the surest way of strength-
ening the fabric of our generation. As a good brain is required for
the management of the home, as the guidance of the State, as in both
sexes, the force evolved, more than any other force in the system,
enables men and women, by interdependence and normal aptitude,
to bear the burdens of life, and perform their duties and responsibil-
ities with dignity, grace and home spun individuality. These are
the peculiarities which make a people, and crown with success their
cilorts in life. The great social problem of the present day, is " The
Building of a Brain," and the influence exercised in this direction,
devolves largely on our teachers, the very pioneers of our educational
system. It must be built up with careful attention to the rest of
the body, as no perfect brain, crowns an imperfectly developed body.
As the brain furnishes the physical support of mental activity, it is
reasonable to expect this will vary with the precise condition of thia
organ. Excessive brain work tends to exhaust nervous energy, and
at the same time lower mental power and efficiency. In children
where the stock of brain vigour, is in proportion to structural develop-
ment, the indications of fatigue, crop out much sooner, and it is
exceedingly important, that brain energy should not be overtaxed,
but rather in proportion to the normal supply. As Herbert Spencer
has charmingly expressed it, " the development of the higher mental
faculties is only safe, and in fact normal, when a firm basis of physical
strength and well being has been laid down." To force on the func-
tions in advance, is likely to endanger the very structure of the brain,
and in time diminish seriously intellectual activity. Fabre tells us
tliat " childhood is a time of endless learning," not of " endless cram-
ning," and fortunately this view of the subject is gaining ground
rapidly. Beecher said, the power of "doing, is education, not how
much a man knows, but how much he can accomplish by putting his
faculties into operation. Many know, and know, and know, and actu-
ally keep on knowing until they have lost the power of doing; and so
with eating, some go on eating and eating, until it takes the entire
strength of the system to carry them along." So by excessive know-
ledge, the mind is liable to grow stupid and fat. True education,
sound brain culture, is the faculty of turning it to practical account.
APPENDIX A LUI
How absolutely useless is the man who knows everything and can do
nothing perfectly , the very common sense being educated out of him.
This is in fact almost a diseased state of mind, not likely to result
in the highest achievements of either mental or physical development.
This is a progressive age, an age of specialty, and when the
natural bent of the youth's mind is known, greater excellence will
be attained in the future life of the child, by directing education to
meet natural capacity. As Gorst has well and ably expressed it, " The
aim of education should be to get the best out of each individual, and
not to obtain an average of mediocrity,'* " and that the enormous expen-
diture of public money upon the production of machine made human
automata, is sheer waste." Fortunately, a marked change for the
better is now in progress in educational matters. Norman schools,
manual training schools, such as introduced into Canada by Sir Wil-
ham McDonald, and technical education as advocated by Andrew
Carnegie all have their places, and exercise prudently, their power
and educational influence. The kindergarten system, at the ages
of six and seven years, as advocated by Fraebel and successors, in the
primary grades of out public school system, is accomplishing much
good, and safe educational work, intellectual and physical development,
keeping pace with each other.
Dr. Newsholme, Health Officer for Brighton, England, has recently
pointed out, the lower a^e limit of children for school attendance.
(Public Health Eecord, 1902.) Ihe chief plea is that children under
five years of age should be excluded from public elementary schools.
On the roll of infant schools in England and Wales, between the ages
of two and three years, and four and five years, constituted in 1900,
about 10-9 per cent of the total scholars of all ages in elementary
schools, chiefly owing to the fact that many mothers engaged in other
daily work, seek this method of being relieved of the charge of their
children, for four or five hours daily. The occasional advice of school
teachers, that the sooner children are sent to school, the better, leads
to the same result. Premature school attendance is most decidedly
ijijurious and gradually saps brain vitality, and followed, in time, by
both mental and physical deterioration. Doubtless the first seven
years of life are for growth, rather than for elaboration of structure
and function, and by far the most important point is that a large pre-
ventable loss of life is the result, of school attendance at ages under
five years, the difficulty in the great proportion of the deaths com-
mencing by the overstrain of the brain, in the very formative process
oi thought. The important point is the death rate from communicable
diseases under five years of age, is greater and the fatality more than
in ages higher. Physical training and the cultivation of obser\'ation
LIV ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
and discipline are precedent in the young child, but any serious attempt
a*, intellectual education, before five years is contraindicated by the
present knowledge of brain structure and function.
Fortunately in Canada children rarely attend school before five
cr seven years, and every degree of care and prudence are exercised,
to guard the gradual development of intellectual activity.
Nowadays we really want our young people trained, so as to
become in every possible way, useful mcmb-Ts of society. Right
judgment is only developed by discipline, ail of which springs from
riethod and study. Xo educational trainiiiji, no turning over of the
pabulum of thought, the brain, will at once fit a lad for any particular
calling in life. The chief test of education is the outcome of bis
life at maturity. This constitutes the practical examination of life,
ard the practical verdict is the outcome at the period of manhood.
Here we have the very process of development, and the result attained.
This training is the actual building of a brain. It is difficult to give
even an outline of the extremely delicate and complicated operation of
the human brain, of which there are not two alike, in the entire human
family, and yet we frequently expect equal results of brain power,
contrary to the very gifts of natural capacity. Tlie school of life is
the .one for which our young generation has to be fitted, and as Bishop
Creighton, of London, has ably expressed it, the chief teacher is the
actual experience which one undergoes. The best built brain is that
which arouses some interest which will follow through life, and lead
I'» results of a practical and telling character. Thus the mind becomes
equipped so as to enable it tQ grapple succesjifully with the emergen-
cies of life. This is, in fact, the ver}' basis of technical education,
so much in keeping with the progress and general advancement of the
iage. The indispensable object of education is to build a brain, and
if possible, to build one strong and vigorous, guarding carefully sur-
rounding circumstances, so that strength of body and strength of brain,
may constitute the balance, so requisite for a useful and practical
c?lling.
In brain weights and intellectual capacity, according to Esquiral,
no size or form of head is incident to idiocy or to superior talent. The
largest weight of brain known, is that of the Russian novelist,
Turgenieif whose brain weighed, at the time of his death, (65 years of
age) 71 ounces. The following celebrated group: — Jeffery, Thackeray,
Cuvier, Combe, Spurzheim and Sir James Simpson, had brain weights
from 54 to 58-6 ounces. A second important group of men of rare
genius and marked ability, Hubert, Grote, Babbage, Leibey, Gull and
Gambetta, had an average brain weight from 40 to 49 ounces. Colder
climates appear to favour large l)rair.?, which may in a measure account
APPENDIX A LV
for the marked intellectual activity of our Canadian people. The table
of average brain weights of various nationalities, from Topinards and
Manouvrier's Anthropological publications, produce evidence of greater
brain weights in colder climates*. As proof of such, it is known that
the colder air of the United States, produces larger brains in the
negroes than the warm air of South Africa. Weighing the brain is
the only certain method of settling its exact proportions. The fluid
inside the skull, known as the cerebro-spinal, may occupy considerable
space, in the cranial cavity, and a small brain may b^ present. It is
not usual to find large brains, with small minds, in proof of which Dr.
Sims (Popular Science Monthly, 1898) records 125 persons of ordinary
or weak minds, whose brains were larger than those of many dis-
tinguished and well-known men. Daniel Webster, Agazziz, Xapoleon
I, Lord Byron, Baron Dupuytren and General Skoboleff of Eussia,
world renowned men, whose brains weighed less than 53 ounces. In
fact the prefccnt impression is, that very intelligent men do not differ
greatly as to brain weights from the less gifted. Dr. Oliver Wendell
Holmes, the well-known author of " The Professor at Breakfast Table^^
and a celebrated anatomist said " the walls of the head are double with
a great chamber of air between them, over the smallest and most
crowded organs. Can you tell me how much money is in a safe which
has thick walls* by kneading the knobs with your fingers? So when a
man fumbles about my head and talks about the organs of individuality,
size, &c., I trust him as much as I should if he felt over the outside of
my strong box, and told me that there was a five dollar bill under that
rivet.'' Again, larger and complicated brain convolutions are by some,
supposed to be associated with superior mental power. In the lower "
animals such is not borne out. Rodents, such as beavers, rats and mice,
have little brain and no convolutions and the beaver particularly
exhibits great mechanical skill in the construction of dams and storing
of food for the winter. The sheep has numerous convolutions in the
brain with well marked evidence of great stupidity. Wagner of Got-
tingen, states he has never seen examples of highly complicated con-
volutions, even among eminent men whose brains he examined. Spe-
cial mental gifts have not so* far been proved to be the result of many
convolutions.
Again, we know that exercise and training strengthen the brain
and inicrease its weight and size in man, of which Gladstone was a
remarkable instance. All things considered, the prospect is that brain
will still go on developing towards marked increased activity, and
practical usefulness, in the genus homo.
The physical aspect of the brain power presents many points of
interest. We can observe and study the brain and determine upon
LVI ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
what conditions this complicated organ acts, vigorously or otherwise?
Is a good brain likely to accompany a good physique? It has been
most conclusively pointed out that brain or marked ability in any par-
ticular line of thought and action, is superior in size, weight and com-
plexity of structure, to the ordinary brain. A popular idea is that
brain must be developed at the expense of muscle and vice ver&a. Such
views fortunately are not borne out by either science or history. Pro-
fessor Beard's views on the longevity of brain workers is an important
document. Take members of the cabinets of England and Canada, or
the congress of the American Republic, the average in height, weight,
girth and physical development generally, is most remarkable. The
law of the dependence of mental activity, is in fact, closely allied to
physical vigour. Lincoln, Conkling and Gladstone retained a quantum
of physical power, each in a particular line, rail splitting, boxing and
tree felling, and so with Tennyson, Beecher, Huxley and Webster, each
had his day of physical training as well as of mental culture. With
such evidences, is intellectual greatness the only thing worth striving
for and physical prowess a matter of secondary consideration ? Gorging
the brain in ordinary schools from six to nine hours daily, with only
one to three hours* each day, in the open air, is really not likely to bring
about such results as frequently sought after. With many years of
practical observation on this point, I feel conifident the intellectual
development and physical growth of the young generation around us,
will be greatly promoted by four hours of exercise in the open air, and
four hours of study, and the final results better in every particular, than
by the system ntow in operation. The facts noted by Chadwick of
England, of factory children are most valuable. The "half time
system '' giving four hours of regular work in the factory, and four
hours of study have been followed by remarkable results, in fact the
progress in education is more marked than with children who spent the
eight hours in study. The leaders in brain work in both England and
the continent to-day, give three to five hours daily to the desk or
laboratory. Such data point to the necessity of an equal exercise of
mental and physical capacity, in order to build up successfully mental
and physical power. The most precious truths, like the most precious
mletals are in small space. All are agreed that the problems of the
universe, so far as physiologists have been able to define them, are
really locked in " the cerebral cell.'' This is an interesting time in the
new life of our Dominion and the sports and games of university men,
and young people generally, are such that we cannot agree in the idea
that the reign of bone and muscle is over, and that the reign of brain
and nerves, is taking its* place, even with the cerebral cell under lock
and key. Many suits of armour in the tower of London, would not fit
APPENDIX A LVn
our youths of 18 to-day, and it is a well-known fact, that the stone cof-
fins, sarcophagi, are fully half a head too short for our average Canadian.
As to feats of physical prowess, such as football, hockey, running and
leaping, our young athletes hold first rank, and such developed activity
has not lessened their mental culture. Under such circumstances the
brain is not a silent receptacle, but a " copious promptuary '' of learn-
ing and device. Games, says Sir James Paget, are admirable, in all the
chief constituent qualities of recreations, but besides this, they exercise
a moral infiuence of great value in business or in daily work. Professor
Sir Michael Foster in two recent Eede Lectures to the Eoyai Society,
London, tells us, that even in muscular work, the weariness of the
brain, like the work of the muscles, is accompanied by chemical change;
that the chemical changes, though differing in detail, are of the same
order, in the brain " as in the muscle/' " If there be any truth in
what I have laid before you, (says Foster) the sound way to extend those
limits, is not so much by rendering the brain agile, as by encouraging
the humbler help-mates, so that their more efficient co-operation, may
defer the onset of weakne&s.^' Games not only keep a man healthy,
but encourage his work and give him a better knowledge of his
associates. The Duke of Wellington truly said, the Battle of Waterloo
was won in the playfields of Eton. Let games in the proper sense, be
the recreation and not the business of life. Thus will brain power
gain full force, and conduce to the success of the varied duties of life.
After all, a young man with nothing but brains would be a poor
object in life. It is the battle of ideas we require, and he who is
not up to the mark, must eventually take a back seat. A combination
of brain and muscle won the battle of Paardeberg which has placed
Canada to-day in an honoured position throughout the civilized world.
I have presented to you on the present occasion the known ground-
work as to the best and safest means of preserving brain power, and
^\ the same time, to so guard the complicated nervous machinery of
the human system, as to preserve health and strength, and develop the
pabulum of thought, to meet the wants and requirements of an exact-
ing age. Owing to the progress in brain knowledge within the past
thirty or forty years we look forward with great hopes to the outcome
of this twentieth century, during which many of the principles pre-
spnted on the present occasion will doubtless be established, on a sound
and substantial basis. Throughout let that idea guide and direct
our efforts with the hope that the charming words of Wordsworth
L ay be fully realized : —
** In the unreasoning progress of the world,
A wiser spirit is at work for us,
A better eye than ours."
APPENDIX B
MARINE AND LAKE BIOLOGICAL STATIONS OF CANADA
MAEINB AND LAKE BIOLOGICAL STATIONS OP CANADA
Atlantic Biological Station.
The Marine Biological Station of Canada remained at Canso, N.S.,
for a second season, in accordance with the decision of the board of
rranagement at their meeting held in June, 1901, at Canao. It was
apparent to the board that a single season spent at a new location
vas not sufficient to allow either of a thorough investigation of the
biological features of the adjacent waters, or of the completion of
icscarches carried on by the scientific staff of the station in each newly
selected locality. Hence, as was found to be desirable at St. Andrews,
Kew Brunswick, where the station commenced its important work, so
at Canso, the location next chosen on the coast of eastern Nova Scotia,
it was regarded as essential that the fishery investigations and cognate
work should be continued a second year, before the removal of the
Station to a new site was discussed and decided upon. The operations
at Canso have been in the highest degree important and successful,
and a second series of reports is almost ready for publication which
>\ill embody more material, and be of no less practical significance
than the first series published in 1901, and entitled " Contributions to
Canadian Biology, being studies from the Marine Biological Station of
Canada, 1901.^'
Unfortunately the early months of the season were unusually
stormy, and most unfavourable for pursuing investigations in the
v/aters off Guysborough County and the Island of Cape Breton. The
Director of the Station (Professor E. E. Prince) was, moreover, pre-
vented by urgent departmental engagements from attending as usual,
end aiding in carrying out the scheme of work which has been planned
for the year. Fortunately, Professor R. Ramsay Wright, Assistant
Director, was able to arrange for a lengthened stay and, indeed, spent
the summer at Canso. Under his skilled and energetic guidance, a large
amount of eminently successful and productive work was done. The
laborious ^* Plankton '^ investigations commenced by Dr. Wright during
the season of 1901 were assiduously continued until the close of the
Station's operations last fall. The minute floating forms of marine
life, which contribute so largely to the sustenance of young fishes in
the sea, and which constitute the wonderfully varied and varying Plank-
ton, have formed the subject of extensive and exhaustive studies in
other countries, in Germany, France, Norway, the United States and
LXII ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
the British Islands; but no systematic work of this kind has been
attempted before in the Atlantic waters of Canada. Professor Wright's
leport, now neariy ready for publication, will form a new and impor-
tant contribution to fishery science and biological research on this
continent. Again, the investigation conducted by Professor Knight,
Queen's University, Kingston, Ontario, into the effects of sawdust and
other pollutions in waters frequented by fish, wliich has been com-
nienced at St. Andrews in 1900, were continued during the past year.
The early portion of the work was carried on upon the seacoast adja-
cent to the station; but in order to render the scope of the investigation
as complete and inclusive as possible. Dr. Knight found it advantageous
to pursue his further researches, upon these matters, in certain inland
localities. He did not, therefore, occupy his accustomed table in tlie
laboratory of the Biological Station during the season. The results
cl his further experiments and observations in Ontario waters will
form a desirable and necessary complement to the work carried in the
preceding seasons at the station. That these results are of the highest
public valuo and interest, it is hardly necessary to remark, and they
sufBciently indicate how directly scientific work conducted by the staff
cf the Station bears in: an economic and commercial sense upon ques-
tions of vital moment to the state and the public at large. Of similar
practical importance are the results of Professor Knight's able and
laborious investigations on the effects of dynamite and similar explo-
sives on fish life in the sea. The recent adoption of a method of
killing fish by means of dynamite, especially in Bay of Fundy waters,
renders Professor Knight's experiments extremely valuable, as the
question is one of widespread and, indeed, international importance.
Dr. Joseph Stafford, of McGill University, who has been untiring
in his zealous work each season was again appointed to act as curator
and general scientific aid in the station. In addition ix) pursuing
\arious lines of zoological work Dr. Stafford continued his faunistic
studies which has largely occupied him during the two previous years,
and his preliminary list of species observed is ready for publication,
while his report on some interesting parasites found upon fishes, etc.,
examined at the station has also been completed. Professor A. B.
Macallum, University of Toronto, has followed upj his elaborate
researches on the chemistry of Medusae and other marine animals in
relation to their salt-water environment. Dr. Maeallum's report which
is about ready for publication will be a notable scientific contribution
in a difficult and profound field of investigation. Dr. A. H. MacKay,
of Dalhousie University, Superintendent of Education for the Province
cf Nova Scotia, again, occupied a research table for a portion of the
season, and devoted special attention to those interesting inshore
APPENDIX B LXin
organisms known as the •* land Diatoms." His very thorough and
masterly study of the Canso Diatomacoœ, shows that no less than
seventy-three species are embraced in the collection made at the station.
The f'tation welcomed several new workers, including Mr. F. R.
Anderson, Mount Allison University, Saekvillc, N.B., and Mr. C. B.
Kobinson, Pictou Academy, Pictou, N.S. Much valuable work was
done by these gentlemen and by Mr. C. McLean Fraser, B.A., Assistant
in the Biological Department, University of Toronto, and by Mr.
George A. Cornish, B.A., Science Ma.ster, The Collegiate Institute,
Niagara, Ont. The last named member of the staff has completed
a descriptive account of the '* Fishes of Canso," and of those remark-
ably interesting invertebrates, the marine Polyzoa, of which a variety
oi" species occurred in the ncighbourjinod «»l' CvUi-o. Mr. Fraser devoted
special attention to the llvùrozoa. ami ^Ir. Aiuleison studied the Hal-
carids. Mucli collectin-r wa.< (l<»ne bv all, both insiiore work, and
dredging in the open waters at various depths.
Professor James Fowler, Queens University, Kingston, has pre-
pared a report on the Flora of Canso, based on tlie observations and
collections made by him during the station's first year on the Gu}-»-
borough coast, while Professor Prince has ready for publication an
account of the larval and post-larval stages of the Gaspereau or Ale-
wife. This last report, and several others above-mentioned will pos-
sess additional interest from the original drawings and illustrative
pîates accompanying the descriptive text.
The work of tho station would have been immensely aided if the
staff had had at their disposal a small steamer suitable for marine bio-
logical investigations. The lack ol' such a vessel adapted for dredging
and deep-sea researches has considerably hampered the staff. It is
hoped that such a vessel will be sanctioned by the Government and
made available before the close of the coming season. In connection
with this suggested vessel the advice and aid of tho Prince of Monaco
las been sought. Plans and specifications were prepared last fall
undier the instrumentality of Professor Ramsay Wright and in order
that the steamer might be a^ well adapted as possible for marine
n searches the advice of the Prince of Monaco is eagerly anticipated by
the board of management on account of the Prince's unrivalled practical
and scientific experience in deep-sea investigations in various parts of
the world.
It may be added that, early in 1903, it is intended to change the
location of the station, and by moving it from Canso to Richmond
J>ay, Prince Edward Island, open up a new and important fishery
area. A suitable site inshore has been selected adjacent to the famous
Malpeque oyster beds, and it is anticipated that the oyster and other
LXIV ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
fishery problems presented in this new area will afford the scientific
staff increased opportunities for achieving practical results. The
pioblems offered for solution are unquestionably of the utmost value
to the country, as the oyster and lobster fisheries are of prime impor-
tance. The fishery operations referred to, carried on in this portion
of the Qulf of St. Lawrence are conducted in the waters close to the
selected site on the north shore of the Gulf of St. Lawrence.
'.I'he Biological Station at the Mouth of the Qo-Home Eiver —
Qeorgian Bay.
This Station was established, under the sanction of the Dominion
Government in 1901, by Sir Louis Davics, at that time Minister of
Marine and Fisheries, with a grant of $1,500 per annum for equipment
and maintenance. Its management is entrusted to a committee of
members of the scientific faculties of the University of Toronto, of
which the President of Victoria College is chairman. The work is
under the supervision and approval of the Dominion Commissioner of
Fisheries, Dr. Prince.
The headquarters of the station is a permanent building located on
Island 121 in Go-Home Bay. The floor space is divided into a large
laboratory and four smaller rooms. The small rooms are used as
director's room, store room, photographic room and museum. The
large room is provided with work tables for biological investigation and
for the plotting of the hydrographie survey and will furnish accom-
modation for ten workers. The centre is occupied by a large table
with zinc tray and sinks at either end, and aquaria of various sizes con-
structed of glass and zinc. The station is also furnished with boat
house, dock, boats, fishing and plankton nets, and also microscopes,
glassware, reagents, and other apparatus for scientific investigation.
A large hatching pond very favourable for the propagation of the
small mouthed black bass has been prepared, and a large number of
adult fish placed therein, whose habits are being «tudied during the
spawning season of the present year. Other ponds are in course of
construction and when complete will afford opportunity for the study
of the more important species of fishes of commercial value.
The primary object of the station is scientific work, but beyond
^ts scientific value it is of great general value as a means of obtain-
ing knowledge available for economic purposes. For the pursuit of
this object the location affords unusual advantages. We have swamp
and inclosed lake formations, with abundance of aquatic vegeta-
tion in the inner waters, there being on one of the islands no
less than seven small lakes. There are several inlets with clear water
and sandy or gravelly bottom. A large number of outer reefs
APPENDIX B LXV
afford every variety and depth of rock bottom. Two large bays a mile
or more in diameter, give ns quiet and deep interior waters, similar in
character to the Muskoka Lakes, while the channel of the river gives
us deep flowing water. As a foundation for accurate scientifie work,
a preliminary hydrographie survey of the entire bay is being made, and
meteorological observations are made and recorded. The survey, when
complete, will give a full account of the depth of water, nature of bot-
tom, currents, quality of water and lake tides, between island 108 and
Split Bock, in front and eastward to the coast of the mainland and the
mouth of the Go-Home river. The meteorological observations are
also being extended to cover the whole year. The hydrographie work
is under the direction of Professor C. H. Wright, B.A.Sc, of the
Faculty of Applied Science, and the meteorological observations under
the direction oi Prof. W. J. Loudon, M.A., of the Department of
Physics of the University of Toronto.
The biological work is under the direction of B. Arthur Bensley,
B.A., PkD., of the Biological Department. Dr. Bensley has had the
advantage of experience of this branch of laboratory work both in
England and Germany, and his ability as a scientist and his broad
grasp of the conditions and possibilities of the work, give the committee
great confidence in the future success of the station. Dr. R. Ramsay
Wright, the head of the Biological Department and Vice-President of
the University of Toronto, has given most valuable assistance by his
advice at the foundation of the station. Dr. Bensley has also been for-
tunate in the choice of his subordinates. Mr. Anderson and Mr. Carr
are enthusiastic scientists, with decided talents for the practical part of
the work and a good deal of experience in field work in natural history.
Mr. John Fenton, the caretaker, is a fisherman of more than ordinary
intelligence and long experience in these waters.
Thé following summary of the work already done or planned for,
is furnished by Dr. Bensley.
The biological work was directed towards the collection and identi-
fication of the fishes of the region, this work being preliminary to the
investigation of the various problems of a more economic bearing, and
designed to be the subject of the first report. It is hoped that by the
end of next season the collections will be complete, or nearly so, and
the work will doubtless be of interest, not only to ourselves, but to the
museum men of New York and adjacent states who are interested in
the distribution of fishes.
Last simmier what nets we had available were operated so as to
get the specimens from as many environments* as possible, without
reference to their value as food fishes. The same plan will be followed
Proc 1903. 5.
APPENDIX C
SUKVBY OP TIDES AND CUBREaiTS IN CANADIAN WATBES
SUKVBY OP TIDES AND CURRENTS IN CANADIAN WATERS
This Survey, under the direction of Dr. W. Bell Dawson, F.R.S.C.,
continues to make important contributions to the knowledge of our
tides, both on the Atlantic and Pacific coasts of Canada. The prin-
cipal tidal stations in the St. Lawrence and on the Atlantic, have been
maintained in operation, and some progress has been made in the
reduction of the results, as far as means have pennitted.
On the Pacific coast, good progress has been made, both in the
improvement of the tide tables through the analysis of further tidal
record from the principal stations, and also in the establishment of
addit^'onal tidal stations, to extend the information available. Obser-
vations are being continued at Vancouver, and two new stations have
been erected, one in Barkley Sound on the outer side of Vancouver
Island, and the other at Port Simpson. It may be noted that on the
Pacific coast, there is not only a large diurnal inequality, but also an
annual variation. Hence, to make satisfactory comparisons, it is
necessary either to have six months of continuous observation at any
t\i'o localities, or to take four months at the four quarters of the year.
The stations for which tide tables are calculated are Victoria, in Fuca
Strait, and Sand Heads in the Strait of Georgia; and these are well
situated for purposes of comparison.
The SL Lawrence. — An important step in advanee has been m^de
in the information supplied to aid navigation on the St. Lawrence
route. A part of the tidal record from Father Point has been sub-
mitted to harmonic analysis which enables tide tables to be calculated
directly for that locality. The advantage of this step became appa-
rent from the tidal observations of 1900 on the Lower St. Lawrence;
as they showed that both tide and current in the open estuary below
the Traverse, could better be referred to Father Point than to Quebec.
So far, the Father Point tide tables have been calculated indirectly
from Quebec, by means of a double series of variable differences. This
elaborate method was devised to save the expense of analysis at an
additional station. But it has now been ascertained that the com-
plicated relation between the two places, is chiefly due to the river
influence at the upper end of the run of the tide near Quebec; while
the tide in the open estuary itself is vevy irregular. Hence, the tide
tables calculated from the analysis, in conjunction with the other data
which has been secured, will enable the turn of the strong tidal cur-
LXXII ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
rents of the estuary to be readily and accurately known from the tide
tables.
Northumberland Strait, — In the present report of progress all the
information yet obtained is summarized with regard to the tide and
current in Northumberland Strait, and its relation to Cabot Strait,
where the Gulf of St. Lawrence opens to the ocean. The levels of
datum planes, heights of extreme tide, and the effects of wind dis-
turbance, have also been carefully and fully worked out. These are
of primary importance with relation to works of construction in the
harbours of the Strait, «as well as for uniform reference levels in any
future observations.
St. Paul Island is the principal station to which the tides on the
south-west side of the Gulf of St. Lawrence and in the region of
Northumberland Strait are referred; and comparative observations
were taken on the two sides of Cabot Strait, to see whether a sufficiently
constant relation could be established with St. Paul Island to enable
either of these localities to be used to replace it as a reference station
for the regions above referred to. The extreme exposure of St. Paul
Island makes the gauge usually liable to accident; and once already
it has been carried away, and twice afterwards it was partially wrecked
by winter storms.
The endeavour was first made to obtain comparisons with Sydney
harbour and Port aux Basques on the two sides. The tide at Sydney
has so unusual a character, with large secondary undulations, which
are often one-third the height of the main tide, that it was quite
unsuitable for comparison with St. Paul Island. After one complete
nK)nth was secured at Sydney, the gauge was removed to Neil Harbour,
a point on the Atlantic side of Cape Breton Island, as near to its nor-
thern extremity as practicable. At Port aux Basques the unusual
result was found that the two tides of the day are alternately earlier
and later than at St. Paul Island when the moon^s declination is high.
Accordingly, these observations brought out in the clearest light the
pre-eminent advantage of St. Paul Island over the other localities in
Cabot Strait, as a station to command the whole region under con-
sideration. This advantage must depend largely upon its being situ-
ated in deep water; the 100-fathom line being within three miles of the
eastern shore of the island, on which the tide gauge is situated. It
emphasizes also the importance of choosing strategic points as principal
stations, whatever the exposure and the difficulties in maintenance may
be, in preferenee to sheltered harbours where the tide itself is more
irregular, owing to the shallower water or greater local interference.
Current in Northumberland Strait, — Observations were taken on
the north shore of Pictou Island, which is centrally situated in the
APPENDIX C LXXm
eastern end of this strait. It was found that the variation in the
difEeren<re of time between the turn of the current and the tide is
large; as the turn may take place as much as two hours before high
water or after low water. The greater part of the variation follows
the change in the moon's declination; as this has been found from
the first to be the ruling element in this region. This is very con-
fusing to the mariner, as the turn of the current in relation to the
tide is out of accord with the moon's phases, and has thus no fixed
relation to the spring and neap tides. The greatest apparent irregu-
larity is when the moon's declination is at its maximum; and this
occurs sometimes at the spring tides and sometimes at the neaps. The
ordinary navigator takes refuge in the conclusion that the currents
are chiefly influenced by the wind. But these observations show that
the apparent irregularities can be reduced to definite laws, which
although complex, are strictly astronomical in character.
Further observations, — Five summer tidal stations were erected last
season with the object of obtaining tidal data as a basis for the inves-
tigation of the current at the entrance to the Bay of Fundy, and in
the bays on the south coast of Newfoundland. One of these was
placed at Trepassey Bay, within sixteen miles of Cape Eace, the ex-
treme south-eastern angle of Newfoundland.
Levels and Datum planes, — This survey, as a branch of the Depart-
ment of Marine, has for its primary object the determination of the
time-relations of the tide, and the turn of tidal currents, for the infor-
mation of mariners. The determination of levels is thus quite collateral
to the object which the department has in view, but it was very evi-
dent that a large amount of important information could be secured by
taking more complete levels, and by establishing bench-marks at all
tidal stations at which recording instruments were placed, even for a
few months. The additional work involved was therefore undertaken
from the outset. Eventually, as the observations are continued, the
value of mean sea level, extreme tide levels, and other factors of
importance, are determined with reference to this bench-mark. Such
factors are of the highest value in city drainage works and harbour
improvements. In certain rare instances, bench marks have been
established by the Admiralty, which define the lower water datum of
the charts. These are always taken advantage of, where they exist.
When the height of the tide is referred to this datum level, it shows
the depth available in addition to the chart soundings.
A paper has been contributed to the Canadian Society of Civil
Engineers, by Dr. W. Bell Dawson, entitled " Tide Levels and Datum
Planes in Eastern Canada," in which values for mean sea level are
given for Halifax, St. John, and Quebec, based upon several years of
LXXIV ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
continuoufl observation in theee harbours. The height of extreme high
and low water, and other tide levels, are given with reference to bench-
marks, for a number of localities along the St. Lawrence, in the Bay
of Fundy, and elsewhere. Although there is as yet no general system
of levels in Canada, these results are of value locally in the meantime;
and they also furnish a basis for any more extended geodetic levelling
which may be undertaken.
APPENDIX D
REPORTS OP ASSOCIATED SOCIETIES
REPORTS OF ASSOCIATED SOCIETIES.
I. — From The Natural History Society of Montreal, through Prop. T.
Wesley Mills.
The ^Natural Histor}' Society of Montreal has the honour of submit-
ting to the Royal Society the following report : The society's work
during the past session has been of a very satisfactory character. The
meetings have been better attended than usual and the papers read
have been of more general interest.
The monthly meetings were as follows : —
1902.
Oct. 27. — " Some of the Mushrooms of Montreal, Edible and Poison-
ous.^* (Specimens exhibited.) By the Rev. Robt. Camp-
beU, D.D.
Nov. 24.—'' Studies in the Life History of the Sea Urchin." Illustra-
ted with lantern slides.) By Prof. E. W. MacBride,
M.A., Sc.D.
1903.
Jan. 26. — " Reptilia of the Island of Montreal.'' (Illustrated with
lantern slides.) By J. C. Simpson, Esq. (of McGill
Zoological Laboratory.)
Feb. 19. — " Trematode Parasites of Man and the Other Vertebrates.*'
(Illustrated with lantern slides.) By J. Stafford, M.A.,
Ph.D., Lecturer in Zoology, McGill University, and
Curator of Canada's Marine Zoological Station.
Mar. 30.— "The Lichens of the Island of Montreal." Rev. G. Col-
bome Heine, M.A.
Apr. 24. — ^^* Native Arsenic discovered in Montreal." Prof. Nevil
Norton Evans, M.A.Sc.
" Some Rare Nova Scotia Plants. Rev. Robert Campbell,
M.A., D.D.
Seven new members elected.
The donations to the museum were not as numerous as usual. But
the contributions to the library were more numerous than ever; so
LXXVni EOYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
much 80 that it is contemplated to use a part of iihe basement and fit
it up as a library and for other purposes.
The visitors to the museum are increasing by leaps and bounds,
and it is a matter for regret that we are not in a position to spend
more money on it so as to make it more worthy the growing city and
a credit to our numerous visitors.
The Somerville Course of Lectures were of a medical character,
which, as usual, appealed to good and attentive audiences.
The following is the list :
1903.
Feb. 19. — ^** General Structure and Functions of the Human Body,^^
- by A. T. Bazin, M.D.
IdLar. 6. — ^^* Microscopic Structure of the Human Body,^* by Walter
M. Fisk, M.D.
Mar. 12.—" Food and Digestion,'' by J. L. Day, M.D.
Mar. 19.—" The Blood and Circulation,'* by A. H. Gordon, M.D.
Apr. 2.—" Senses of Man," by E. A. Kerry, M.D.
Apr. 9. — ^* Germs in Health and Disease," by J. A. Williams, M.D.
The Saturday afternoon talks to children were as popular as ever.
The attendance proves that the subjects chosen have proved acceptable
and should be the means of adding to the membership roll of the
Society in the future.
The following is the list of subjects and lecturers : —
1903.
Feb. 28.—'' Why we Sneeze, Cough, Wink, etc" Wesley Mills, M.D.
Mar. 7.—" Ants and th^ir Ways." J. G. McKergow, Esq.
Mar. 14.—" The Earliest Spring Flowers." Rev. Robert Campbell,
D.D.
Mar. 21.—" Plant Fly Traps." Carrie M. Derick, M.A.
Mar. 28.—" Some Sociable People." C. T. Williams, Esq.
April 4.—" Story of a Frog's Life." J. C. Simpson, Esq.
April 11. — " Transportation." George Hodge, Esq.
Saturday afternoon rambles have commenced under the direction
of Rev. Robert Campbell, the Witness having offered prizes for botany.
Annual excursion to Piedmont well attended, but rained all day
which rendered collecting impossible.
Taken as a whole, the year's works may be considered as advancing
and satisfactory. But we have to reiterate the fact that the good work
is hampered by want of funds and space in the museum and still more
so in the library.
APPENDIX D LXXIX
The Record of Science is still published, and, as far as possible, with
original communications. This publication enables us to keep in touch
witti kindred societies and is the means of adding to the library by
exchange.
The following are the present oflBcers:
Patron — His Excellency the Governor-General of Canada.
Hon. President — ^Lord Strathcona and Mount Eoyal.
President— E. W. MacBride, M.A., Sc.D.
Vice-Presidents— Frank D. Adam:?, Ph.D., F.R.S.C.; Rev. Robt.
Campbell, M.A., D.D.; B. J. Harrington, Ph.D., F.R.S.C.; A. Holden,
J. H. Joseph, Dr. T Wesley Mills, Prof. D. P. Penhallow, Hon. J. K.
Ward, Hon. Justice Wiirtele.
Hon. Recording Secretary — F. W. Richards.
Hon. Corresponding Secretary — J. A. U. Beaudry, C.E.
Hon. Treasurer — Chas. S. J. Phillips.
Hon. Curator — A. E. Noms.
Members of Council — C. T. Williams, Chairman; J. S. Buchan,
K.C., B.C.L.; S. Finley, Joseph Fortier, John Harper, Edgar Judge,
H. McLaren, J. G. McKergow.
Superintendent — Alfred Griffin.
Mr. Alfred Griffin has proved himself the same efficient and oblig-
ing Superintendent as in years past.
II. — From The Numismatic and Antiquarian Society of Montreal,
through R. W. McLaohlan.
The Numismatic and Antiquarian Society of Montreal has the
honour to report as follows: —
The delivery of lectures and papers has been interfered with by
the important building operations rendered necessary as hereinafter
mentioned. However, at the regular meetings of the Society, which
"were continued in a most interesting manner, and at which were read
papers entitled:
il. — ^^ Comments on an unpublished memoir written in 1837 by R.
Carter on the miserable state of the currencies of the North
American Colonies," by R. W. McLachlan.
2.—" Les Décorations Pontificales,'' by P. 0. Tremblay.
3. — ^^ Conmients on an unpublished deposition, made in 1838 by J. B.
H. Brien, relating to the later phases of the Rebellion of
1837,'' by Hon. Justice Baby.
LXXX EOYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
The additions, during 1902, to the Society's collection were:
To the Museum:
Indian Antiquities 10
Other Antiquities, mostly Canadian 120
Coins and medals 20
150
To the National Gallery:
Canadian Portraits 10
Canadian Views 10
Canadian Maps 10
Foreign Views, etc 90
120
To the Library:
Books, a large part Canadian 1000
Pamphlets 1500
Documents 30
2530
2800
A grand total of twenty-eight hundred items. But, besides this
the Society has secured on loan a fine collection, numbering over five
hundred pieces of Indian antiquities found in the South Western States.
Many of them similar to those found in our own North- West.
Last fall the east wall of the Elgin Gallery having been declared
to be unsafe, had to be rebuilt. This is no part of the Château de
Bamezay proper, but simply an annex, the superstructure of which
was built under the administration of Lord Elgin. As this wall was
being pulled down by the city's contractors the whole superstructure
collapsed, and the Gallery had to be entirely built anew. The accident
proved to be by no means an unmixed evil, for the Society has been
able to remodel the building so as to make it more conformable to the
use to which it was assigned, and now our portrait gallery has a most
attractive home; and is one of the best of its kind on the continent
'of America; with its well on to three hundred portraits of people all
in some way or other connected with the history of Cana<la.
This spring the Council made a demand for the concession of a
piece of land in the rear for some civic purpose, offering in exchange
a piece on the west side, together with a sum of .money for necessary
repairs. This exchange has made it necessary the pulling down of
another recent annex known as the court room. By this arrangement
we expect to remove the library, now occupying the walls of the salon
APPENDIX D LXXXI
and other rooms, upstairs which will set free much space for displaying
our Canadian veins.
During the last session of our provincial parliament, an amendment
was introduced into a bill for revising the charter of the City of Mont-
Teal, which, by ordering the removal of all buildings, within certain
limits, for the enlargement of the Bonsecours Market, involved the
destruction of the Château de Eamezay, as it is well within the area
mentioned. As this amendment passed the lower house without much
opposition, the Society felt it to be necessary to oppose its enactment
as far as the château was concerned. A deputation was therefore sent
to Quebec to present the ca6« before the private bills committee of
the Legislative Council. This presentation proved so eminently suc-
cessful, that a clause was inserted in the charter exempting the Château
de Eamezay from the proposed market extension.
But the Society deeply regrets to state that a spirit of vandalism
is abroad and that there are those who are filled with the desire to
tear down anything old and historic simply because it is old; and to
erect in its place some hideous modem monstrosity.
The whole incident suggests action in the line of such a law as
is in force in many European countries, for the preservation of all
important historical monuments; making it a criminal offence to deface
or destroy any thing that. may be declared to be of national interest.
This Society would ask the Royal Society of Canada to take up this
matter and have a bill presented to the proper legislative authorities
on the lines of the best European law on the subject; and this Society
pledges its active support in helping on the good work. If this be not
soon done few, if any, historical buildings will be left in this country
to save.
The following are the officers of the Society for 1903 :
President — Hon. Justice Baby.
Vice-Presidents— R. Roy, K.C.; Judge L. W. Sicotte; W. D. Light-
hall, F.R.S.C.; Dr. Louis Laberge, and Chas. T. Hart.
Hon. Treasurer — George Dumford.
Hon. Curator — R. W. McLachlan.
Hon. Recording Secretary — C. A. Harwood.
Hon. Corresponding Secretary — S. M. Bayles.
Hon. Librarian — Gonzalve Desaulniers.
Members of Council — P. 0. Tremblay, J. B. Vallée, James Reid,
Lewis Skaife, Eugène Lafontaine, K.C.; Ludger Gravel, J. C. A. Heriot,
J.W. Domville, and G. N. Moncel.
Proc. 1903. 6.
LXXXII ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
III. — Rapport de la Société littéraire de Montréal par le
Rev. J. L. Mobin.
^ Notre Société, qui a terminé ce printemps sa dix-septième anné^
d'existence, continue à rallier dans ses rangs des Canadiens, des Fran-
çais, des Suisses et même des Anglais qui tous sont dévoués au culte de
la langue française et essaient d'en cultiver la littérature.
Pour mieux y réussir on a eu l'idée cette année de changer un peu
le programme de nos travaux. Jusqu'ici on choisissait, selon les caprices
du sort, deux membres pour lire à chaque séance des études de leur cru
et sur des sujets de leur choix, ou quelques pages d'un auteur favori. A
cet article de notre programme nous avons ajouté un sujet général, qui
doit être traité en collaboration, sur lequel chacun est appelé à exprimer
ses opinions personnelles ou à faire connaître celles de quelque autre.
Ces sujets généraux sont choisis dès l'automne et inscrits au programme
de toute l'année avec les noms de deux ou trois membres qui sont chargés
d'ouvrir la discussion.
Victor Hugo nous dit dans Les Misérables que quelqu'un s'étant
imaginé de substituer la gomme de laque à la résine dans la fabrication
des jais anglais, ce tout petit changement opéra toute une révolution dans
cette industrie de la petite ville de Montreuil-sur-Mer. La révolution
n'a pas été moins grande dans notre société par suite d'un changement
•de nature différente, mais qui de prime abord ne semble pas plus impor-
tant.
Grâce à cette modeste innovation, notre petit cénacle s'est livré
presque à chaque séance à des discussions générales pleines de vie et
•d'intérêt, toujours animées d'ailleurs du meilleur esprit. Des voix se
«ont fait entendre qui, jusqu'alors, étaient restées muettes, et nombre
d'entre nous se sont livrés* à des études qu'ils n'auraient pas entreprises,
n'eut été ce nouveau système.
Il va sans dire que nous comptons y rester fidèles.
Voici quelques-uns de ces sujets dont la discussion a défrayé plu-
:sieur8 de nos soirées pendant l'hiver d'une manière aufe*si utile qu'a-
^gréable :
1. — Le féminisme a-t-il contribué au bonheur de la femme?
2. — Est-il désirable d'adopter une langue universelle?
3. — Quel rôle joue l'enfance dans la poésie?
4. — Les femmes ont-elles fait preuve de supériorité dans le style épisto-
laire ?
S. — Quels sont les chefs et les principes de l'école parnassienne?
6. — La comédie de mœurs comporte-t elle des enseignements utiles ?
Les pays neufs ont-ils une artistocratie ?
7. — Appréciation de l'œuvre poétique d'Alfred de Musset.
APPENDIX D LXXXIII
Les travaux suivants ont aussi été lus devant notre société :
'* La Musique en France/^ par Mad. Cornu.
" Un Conte de Noël/' par M. Marc Sauvalle.
" La phonétique," par M. le prof. Walter.
" Etude sur Mad. de Maintenon," M. Morin.
** Alfred de Musset, Fhomme et le poète," Mad. Sauvalle.
**Le théâtre, au point de vue moral," M. le prof. Coussiiut.
'* Les aventures de LuUi," par M. Em. Sandreuter.
" Etude sur Max O'Eell," par M. le pasteur Duclos.
" L'enfance dans la poésie," par M. Robert Smith.
*' L'Aristocratie ancienne et nouvelle," par M. le pasteur Lafleur.
IV. — ^From the Quebec Literary and Historical Society, through
P. B. Casqrain.
The year just closed has been an uneventful one for the Society.
As recommended by the Council of the preceding year, applica-
tion has been made to His Honour the Lieutenant-Governor-in-Council
for leave to change the rules requiring the stated meetings of the
Council and Society to be held at fixed hours, in order that all CouncE
general or annual meetings, may in future be held at such hours as
may be found most convenient for the time being.
The finances of the Society are improving. In addition to the
generous donation of $100 by Mr. Wm. Price, mentioned in last year's
report, we have to acknowledge an oflfering of $100 from Lt.-Col. P.
Tumbull and Mrs. Turnbull and $50 from Mr. Archibald Campbell.
The Society has to deplore the untimely death, amongst others,
of two of the oldest associate members, the Hon. R. R. Dobell, whose
earnest and cheery voice was more than once heard in our rooms. He
was closely followed by his partner, Mr. Thomas Beckett, a firm sup-
porter of our association.
A special meeting was called a few months back to meet our
Honorary President, Dr. James Douglas, LL.D., of New York, then
on a visit to this city. Dr. Douglas took occasion to urge the Society
to continue the publication of some of the invaluable MSS. in our
archives, such as was the practice when he had the honour to preside
over the Society. He suggested that an appeal be made to Col. Surgeon
H. Neilson, grandson of the late Hon. John Neilson, as custodian and
proprietor of the valuable Neilson papers; measures have been taken
to carry out his views.
Two highly instructive lectures were delivered in the rooms of the
Society during the year just expired : Capt. Geo. D. O'Farrell, of the
Marine and Fisheries Department at Quebec read a paper " Notes
LXXXIV ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
on the Lighthouses of the Province of Quebec/* which was illustrated
by photographic views, and Dr. I. P. Whitney, Principal of Bishop's
College, Lennoxville, delivered a scholarly lecture. Subject: "A
Prophet of Imperialism, Sir John Seely.*'
A patriotic idea has just taken form and has met with the approval
of the Society: indicating to strangers by bronze tablets with suitable
inscriptions spots rendered memorable by feats of arms and historical
events, such as Sault-au-Matelot street, where Colonel Benedict Arnold
was routed on the 31st December, 1775, and Pres-de- Ville, where his
chief, Brigadier-General R. Montgomery, met death and defeat on the
same day.
The Society is indebted to Major William Wood, Past President,
for a copy of Messrs. Doughty and Parmelee's elaborate work on the
days of Wolfe and Montcalm, and to Lt.-Col. C. V. P. Townshend, of
London, for a handsome copy of the Life and Letters of his distin-
guished ancestor. Marquis of Townshend, who signed the capitulation
of Quebec on the 18th September, 1759.
The Society has to report a large addition of valuable works on
history and science on the library shelves, which has materially increased
the attendance of members.
The winter course of lectures was duly organized. Mr. J. G.
Scott, of the Quebec & Lake St. John Railway, an authority on Cana-
dian railroads, lectured before the Society on : ** The Trans-Canada
Railway," and the Rev. Frederick George Scott, P.R.S.C, read a paper
on Milton.
The financial statement showed the Society to be in a good
financial standing.
Officers for the ensuing year : —
President — Sir James M. LeMoine (re-elected).
Vice-Presidents — Messrs. J. Theodore Ross, Peter Johnston,
Major W. Wood and Cyrille Tessier.
Treasurer — ^Mr. James Ceggie.
Corresponding Secretary — ^Mr. A. Robertson.
Recording Secretary — Mr. J. F. Dumontier.
Council Secretary — Mr. W. Clint.
Librarian — Mr. F. C. Wurtele.
Additional members of Council: — Mr. P. B. Casgrain, Mr. Arch.
Campbell, Mr. D. H. Geggie, Mr. Simeon Lesage.
APPENDIX D LXXXV
V. — From The Ottawa Literary and Scientific Society, through
H. H. Bliqh.
Having heen appointed delegate of the Ottawa Literary and
Scientific Society as its representative at the present session of your
body, I have the honour to submit the following report: —
During the past year our Society has continued its operations
in the usual manner, and although it has not made any conspicuous
departure nor added anything very remarkable to iîs history, the pro-
gress has been satisfactory, the work has been continuous and regular,
and the results have been sufficient to make us hopeful as to the future.
Some of our members have felt the desirability of increasing the
annual contributions to the funds with a view to the enlarging the
work and scope of the Society, but up to the present time this advance
has not been considered favourably by the majority. It has been con-
tended, not unreasonably perhaps, that such a course would diminish
our numbers owing to the inability or unwillingness of some to pay a
larger fee, even though this should most certainly ensure larger, better
and more satisfactory results. We are, therefore, for want of more
funds obliged to continue our operations on practically the old and
well established lines, not having the means to enlarge the scope of
our efforts to that degree of efficiency and development that the mem-
bers and friends of our Society most ardently desire.
In addition to our yearly membership fee, I should not forget
to mention the handsome grant of four hundred dollars annually from
the Ontario Government and also the several considerable donations
by prominent gentlemen who in the past have so kindly come to our
assistance.
The establishment of a public library in this city which has now
become a settled fact, is a matter of most special interest to us as a
Society. How far this will interfere with our future success remains
to be proved. I have the boldness to submit that it should not inter-
fere in the «lightest degree. It may as well be admitted, however,
and it would be useless to deny that one of the most conspicuous phases
of our Society is its library, and that one of the most prominent
features of our library is its lending department. It may, therefore,
be hastily argued, that the chief purpose of our Society will be supplied
by a public library. I do not hesitate to say in this connection, that
no public institution should detract from the interest in and welfare
of our Society. Let it be kept in mind that our Society is a private!
association, and that our librar}' is a private enterprise. Consequently,
the difference between a public library and what we offer our mem-
bers is so real and so clear, that the two objects can never be unified
and need never conflict. They are distinct and separate. There is
: XXVI ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
room for both in the same locality, and I shall be greatly disappointed
if we are not able to hold our own in the future as in the past. Instead
of being injured or annihilated, or absorbed by the public library, 1
rather incline to the hope that the directorate of that institution will,
if need be, give us their aid and offer us every encouragement, and
judging from the personnel of the board of management, one of whom
is our worthy librarian, I feel that my hope in this regard is more
than justified.
Let me also add, that although we have learned to depend so much
on the attractions of our library for increase of membership and
sustenance, it is not by any means the only element of our existence or
claim to support, and if the time ever comes when our library, from
any cause, should receive less attention and consideration than now,
we could give more prominence to what may fairly be considered the
real functions of a literary and scientific society, that is to say, in the
words of one of my predecessors, "Such a Society should stimulate
mental activity, original thought and independent research."
Our lecture course for the year was as follows: —
1902.
Nov. 21.— A Study of " The Man from Glengarry," Mr. 0. J. Jolliffe,
M.A.
Nov. 28.— " Purification of Drinking Water," Mr. A. McGill, B.A.,
B.Sc, F.E.S.C.
" Original Poem," Mr. W. W. Campbdl, B.A., P.R.S.C.
"Primitive Poetry; A Comparative Study," Mr. W. W.
Edgar, B.A.
Dec. 12. — "The Development of the Canadian Type of Character;
Rev. S. Goldsworth Bland, B.A.
1903.
Jan. 16.— "Social Settlements" (Illustrated), Mr. W. L. M. King,
M.A., LL.B.
Mch. 6. — " The Development of Responsible Government in Canada,"
Mr. W. D. LeSueur, B.A., LL.D.
Mch. 20. — "The Poetry of Matthew Arnold," Mr. Benjamin Russell,
LL.D., M.P.
Mch. 27.—" The French Treaty Shore," Prof. Jean C. Bracq (Vassar
College.)
The Hon. Chas. Pitzpatrick, K.C., was pre\'ented through pres-
sure of work, from delivering his promised lecture on Lord Russell of
Killowen.
»
APPENDIX D LXXXVn
Transactions No. 3 for 1901-02 have been recently published, and
consists of 97 pages with an introduction by Dr. Morse the President,
and the following valuable and interesting papers : —
Metrology — Otto J. Hotz.
Canadian Novels and. Novelists — Lawrence J. Burpee.
Medem l^pes of Danger Warnings on the Sea-Coast — W. P.
Anderson.
The Impeocancy of the King — Charles Morse.
These transactions have been distributed to more than 200
societies and public institutions, from which a large number of valu-
able publications have been received in exchange and added to the
library.
The following oflBcers were elected by our Society at its last annual
meeting, 24th April, 1903 :—
President— H. H. Bligh, K.C., M.A.
1st Vice-President— 0. J. JoUiffe, M.A.
2nd Vice-President— Prof. E. E. Prince, P.E.S.C.
Secretary — W. Hague Harrington, F.R.S.C.
Treasurer — A. H. Whitcher.
Librarian — 0. J. Klotz.
Curator — Charles Morse, D.C.L.
Committee— W. D. LeSueur, LL.D., Thos. Macfarlane, F.R.S.C.,
James Ballantyne.
VI. — From The Ottawa Field Naturalists' Club, through
W. T. Macoun.
The Ottawa Field Naturalists^ Club, unlike many scientific organi-
zations which thrive for a short time and then die from lack of enthus-
iasm among its members, or from some other cause, has been in existence
for twenty-four years and is in better condition now than it ever was.
With 262 members, a considerable number of whom take an active in-
terest in the club, it has been again possible during the past year to do
good work in the various branches of science which the club undertakes
to investigate.
Winter Soirées.
Following the custom of other years, soirées were held during the
winter months and the programme as arranged was as follows : —
1902.
Dec 16. — ^President's Address : " The Functions of a Geological Sur-
vey,'' by Eobt. Bell, M.D., LL.D., Sc.D. (Cantab.), F.R.S.
Address of Welcome, by the Principal of the Normal School.
LXXXVin ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
"Some Ottawa Butterflies and Moths/^ by Dr. James
Fletcher, illustrated by coloured lantern slides.
Conversazione, with exhibition of Natural History objects
and miscroscopic slides.
1903.
Jan. 13. — "The Scenery of the Bocky Mountain Region/' illustrated
by lantern slides, by Dr. R. A. Daly, of the Geological
Survey.
Report of the Geological Branch.
Jan. 27.—" The Wood-pulp Industry of Canada," by Professor D. P.
Penhallow, McGill College, Montreal, illustrated by
lantern slides.
Feb. 10. — "Nature Study in American Universities," by Dr. S. B.
Sinclair, of the Normal School, Ottawa.
Report of the Entomological Branch.
Feb. 24.— "The Summer Climate of the Yukon and its Effects on
Vegetation," by Professor John Macoun, of the Geological
Survey.
Report of the Botanical Branch.
Mar. 10. — " Whales and Whale Hunting," illustrated by lantern slides*,
by Professor E. E. Prince, Commissioner of Fisheries.
Report of the Zoological Branch.
Mar. 17. — (a) Annual Meeting. Reports of Council, Election of
Officers, etc.
(&) "Additional Notes on the Geology and Palaeontology of
Ottawa," illustrated by lantern slides and specimens,
by Dr. H. ^F. Ami, of the Geological Survey.
All the lectures were delivered as arranged with the exception of
the last two. Owing to the illness of Prof. Prince, his place was taken
by Mr. Andrew Halkett, who used Prof. Prince's slides. On account of
Dr. Ami being absent in England, his lecture was cancelled. The course
throughout was very satisfactory and the audiences as a rule were good.
Excursions.
During the spring and summer of 1902, two general excursions
were held to Chelsea, P.Q., at which 250 and 200 persons attended. Six
spring sub-excursions were arranged for but owing to wet weather only
four were held. Several autumn sub-excursions were also made by
members of the l)otanical and entomological branches. At these ex-
cursions, addresses were usually given by leadors of the various branches.
It is thought that such addresses given in the field, and relating prin-
cipally to specimens collected, prove very helpful to the members.
APPENDIX D LXXXIX
Work of the Branches.
The work of the club is divided into seven branches relating respec-
tively to geology, botany, entomology, conchology, ornithology, zoology
and archaeology, and for each of these branches leaders are appointed
every year. These leaders. are expected to do most of the field work of
the club and to render as much assistance as they can at the excursions
to those who are beginning the study of natural history. The botanical
and entomological branches have been most active during the past year.
Several new species of plants were discovered and many insects. Fort-
nightly meetings of these branches were held during the winter and are
still continuing. These meetings at which many interesting plants and
insects have been examined and talked about and work outlined for the
future, have proven very enjoyable. Good work was also done during
the year by the geological, ornithological and zoological branches. The
members of the zoological branch are working especially on the smaller
mammalia and fishes.
The Ottawa Naturalist.
In March, 1903, Volume XVI of the Ottawa Naturalist, the official
publication of the club was completed. During the year twelve num-
bers were published containing 248 pages and four plates. Uncolourcd
copies of the geological map of the city of Ottawa and vicinity were
purchased from the Geological Survey Department for distribution with
the December number to all Canadian members of the Club. The
Naturalist was again edited last year by Mr. J. M. Macoun.
The following are some of the more important papers published
during the year :
Birds of Sable Island, N.S.; Canadian Hummingbirds, by W. E.
Saunders.
Five Xew Ranunculi; New Northwestern Plants, by Edw. L.
Greene.
Marl Deposits of Eastern Canada, by R. W. Ells.
On the Nepheline Rocks of Ice River, B.C. ; Dr. Alfred R. C.
Selwyn, C.M.G., F.R.S., Director Geological Survey of Canada, 1869-
1894, by A. E. Barlow.
On the Genus Arctophila, by Dr. Theo. Holm.
Notes on some Fresh- water and Land Shells ; Description of a Fossil
Cyrena; On the Genus Trimerella, by J. F. Wliiteaves.
Notes on the Arboretum and Botanic Gardens, Central Experi-
mental Farm, by W. T. Macoun.
Notes on some Canadian Birds, by Wm. H. Moore.
Nesting of Some Canadian Warblers (two parts) by Wm. L. Kells.
XC ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
Field Notes on the Geology of the country about Chelsea, Que., H,
M. Ami.
Observations on Animals Native in the Algonquin Park, by Andrew
Halkett.
The Educational Value of Nature Study, by A. E. Attwood.
Notes on the Size of Hawks' Eggs, by J. E. Keays.
Contributions to Canadian Botany No. XVI, by James M. Macoun.
Ottawa Satjrrinœ, A. E. Richard.
Besides these there are numerous short papers on scientific sub-
jects, reports of soirées and excursions and of the work done by the vari-
ous branches of the club, and reviews of scientific books.
At the annual meeting of the club held in March, 1903, the follow-
ing officers were elected for 1903-1904 :
Patron — ^The Right Honourable Earl of Minto, Governor-General
of Canada.
President — W. T. Macoun.
Vice-Presidents — A. E. Attwood, M.A., Andrew Halkett.
Librarian— S. B. Sinclair, B.A., Ph.D.
Secretary — W. J. Wilson, Ph.B. (Geological Survey Dept.).
Treasurer — A. Gibson (Central Experimental Farm).
Committee — Dr. Jas. Fletcher, Mr. W. H. Harrington, Mr. F. T.
Shutt, Miss M. McK. Scott, Miss A. Matthews, Miss R. B. McQueston.
Auditors — J. Ballantyne, R. B. Whytc.
Standing Committees of Council — Publishing — J. Fletcher, Miss
M. McKay Scott, F. T. Shutt, W. J. Wilson, A. E. Attwood.
Excursions — S. B. Sinclair, Andrew Halkett, W. J. Wilson, A. Gib-
son, Miss Ruby B. McQueston, Miss Annie L. Matthews.
Soirées — W. H. Harrington, J. Fletcher, A. E. Attwood, Andrew
Halkett, Miss M. McKay Scott, Miss Ruby B. McQuesten.
Leaders — Geology — H. M. Ami, W. J. Wilson, 0. E. LeRoy.
Botany-nJ. M. Macoun, C. Guillet, D. A. Campbell, A. E. Att-
wood, S. B. Sinclair.
Entomology — J. Fletcher, W. H. Harrington, C. H. Young, A.
Gibson.
Conchology— J. F. Whiteaves, R. Bell, F. R. Latchford, J. Fletcher.
Ornithology — John Macoun, A. G. Kingston, C. Guillet, Miss G.
Harmer.
Zoology— E. E. Prince, Andrew Halkett, W. S. Odell.
Archaeology — T. W. E. Sowtcr, J. Ballantyne.
APPENDIX D XCI
VIT. — From Hamilton Scientific Association, through
EeV. D. B. ilARSH.
The Hamilton Scientific Society takes pleasure in presenting the
following report:
During the session just closed papers were read before the general
Association on the following subjects: —
1. — ^In his inaugural address the President, Mr. J. M. Dixon, treated
of the "recent advancement made in chemical and physical
science.'^
2. — ^'^ Wireless Telegraphy,^' by Dr. Merchant, of London Normal
School.
3. — " Beminiscences of Nome and Romance of Placer Mining," by Mr.
E. C. Murton, of Hamilton.
4.— "The Mackenzie River District,''. by J. W. Tyrrell, CE., D.L.S.,
of Hamilton.
6. — "Education versus Educational Theory," by S. A. Morgan, B.A.,
D. Paed., of Hamilton.
Twenty new members were added during the year and the Asso-
ciation is in a most flourishing condition. Our youngest section, the
Astronomical Society, Adam Brown, Esq., honorary president; Rev. D.
B. Marsh, B.A., ScD., president and founder, has been most active,
having held fifteen meetings at which papers were read, of which the
following are som© : —
" Weather Forecasts," by R. F. Stupart, F.R.S.C, Director of
Meteorological Bureau, Toronto.
"Kelvin's theory of Ether as applied to the Stellar Universe,"
by Mr. J. R. Collins, Toronto.
" The Moon," by G. P. Jenkins, F.R.A.S., of Hamilton.
" Determining the length of light waves," by Professor C. A. Chant,
M.A., Ph.D., of Toronto University.
" The Planet Jupiter," by Rev. R. E. Brady, Hamilton.
" The Determination of Time and the Transit Instrument," by
Mr. F. L. Blake, O.L.S., D.L.S., Toronto.
" Looking Up and Looking Down," by Mr. J. M. Williams, Ham-
ilton.
" The Planet Saturn," by Mr. William Bruco, Hamilton.
" The Planet Neptune," by Rev. Dr. Marsh, Hamilton.
"Is the Moon a Dead World?" by Mr. J. E. Maybee, F.R.S.C,
Toronto.
The attendance of the public at these meetings has been most
encouraging and this section \has done decidedly good work.
XCII ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
The Camera Section, Mr. James Beirtram, president, continues to
do active work. On May 24th last, the club held a pleasant outing
to the Forks of the Credit. The members were divided in groups
during the year, A. B. C. D. for the purpose of competition. The club
contributed to the American Lantern Sade Exchange, a large and very
fine set of slides. An annual exhibition and competition was held
in March and was most successful. Frequent meetings were held at
winch the attendance was large. The membership has continued to
increase and interest in the work of the club is sustained.
The Geological Section has quietly continued its good work 'of
past years in the collection and distribution of fossils, and though small
in numbers, its work is most permanent in character.
Vin. — From the Entomological Society of Ontario, through the
Bev. C. J. S. Bethune, D.C.L.
In giving a report of the doings of the Entomological Society of
Ontario for the past year — the thirty-ninth since its foundation — ^it
will not be necessary to recount the various forms of work undertaken
by its members, as these were fully described last year and no impor-
tant changes have since been made in its methods of procedure. It will
be suflScient to give some particulars respecting its publications and a
brief account of the annual gathering of its members at the headquar-
ters in London.
The " Canadian Entomologist,*' the monthly magazine of the
Society, is now in its 35th year of publication. The volume for 1902
contains 339 pages, and is illustrated with three full-page plates and
twelve figures from original drawings. The contributors number forty-
seven and represent Canada, the United States, Germany and Bussia.
The principal articles may be grouped as follows : — Descriptions of
new genera, species and varieties in Lepidoptera by Prof. J. B. Smith,
Dr. H. G. Dyar, Mr. Henry Bird, Prof. A. B. Grote and Mr. A. G.
Weeks; Orthoptera by Messrs. E. M. Walker, A. N. Caudell and J. A.
G. Behn; Hymenoptera by Prof. T. D. A. Cockerell, Messrs. W. H.
Ashmead, E. S. G. Titus, Charles Bobertson, J. C. Crawford, W. H.
Harrington, H. L. Viereck, and J. C. Bradley; Hemiptera-Hom optera
by Prof. T. D. A. Cockerell, Messrs. E. D. Ball, G. B. King and E. M.
Ehrhorn; Ncuroptera by Prof. J. G. Xeedham and Mr. X. Banks;
Coleoptera by Prof. H. F. Wickham, and Mr. W. D. Pierce; Diptcra by
Messrs. D. W. Coquillet and C. W. Johnson, and Prof. Cockerell; and
Acarina by Mr. N. Banks. Forty-one new genera are described, 176
new species and 12 new varieties and subspecies.
APPENDIX D XCni
Papers an Classification and Systematic Entomology; Notes on
Lepidoptera by Mr. H. H. Lyman, Dr. H. G. Dyer, Professors Grote
and J. B. Smith, and on the genus Catocala by Prof. 6. H. Frendh ; the
Wasps of the Super-family Vespoidea by Mr. W. H. Ashmead; Ontario
Acrididœ by Mr. E. M. Walker; Cocidœ by Mrs. Fernald; Bombidae by
Prof. Cockerell; Halictinse by Mr. C. Robertson; Orthoptera by Mr. J.
A. G. Behn; and an article on the scientific name of the Cherry Fruit-
fly by Prof. M. V. Slingerland.
Life histories are given with more or less completeness of the
following insects : The Variable Cut-worm {Mamestra Atlantica)y by
Dr. Fletcher and Mr. A. Gibson; Arctia virgo and phalerata and Pen-
thina hebesana by Mr. Gibson ; several species of Hydrœcia, illustrated
by a beautiful coloured plate, by Mr. Henry Bird ; Lycœna Scudderii
by Mr. H. H. Lyman; C urethra Brakeleyi by Prof. J. B. Smith; Lyda
fasciata by Mr. R. F. Pearsall; the egg of the Water-scorpion (Ranatra),
by Mr. R. H. Pettit; and the larva of a Datana by Dr. Kunze. Collect-
ing notes, containing observations of much interest, are given by Mr. E.
F. Heath on Manitoban Lepidoptera; Mr. W. H. Harrington on Coleop-
tera; Mr. E. D. Harris on Cincindclidœ; Mr. Geo. B. King, on Coccidae
and the Rev. Dr. Fyles records the capture near Quebec of a Tortoise
beetle new to Canada.
Among the miscellaneous papers may be mentioned a discussion on
Labels for specimens ; " What is a genus ?'' by Mr. H. H. Lyman ;
" The Formation of Generic Names," by Prof. J. M. Aldrich ; " The
Ecology of Insect Sounds," by Mr. Frank E. Lutz ; and an account of
the changes in the Insect Fauna of Northern Illinois, by Prof. F. M.
Webster.
The thirty-ninth annual meeting of the Society was held in Lon-
don at the end of October last. Its proceedings were opened by a con-
ference on the Destructive Pea-weevil which has caused an immense
amount of loss in the Province of Ontario during the last few years.
The discussion was opened by Dr. Fletcher, who gave a full description
of the insect and the ravages it commits, its distribution and the best
methods of controlling it; other speakers were Prof. Lochhead, Mr.
Pearce, Mr. Fisher, and Prof. James, Deputy Minister of Agriculture
for Ontario. Resolutions were adopted regarding the diffusion of infor-
mation among the community and requesting the Provincial Govern-
ment to send a competent staff of men to the rural districts of the
country whose duty it should be to give the farmers practical lessons in
the best methods of eradicating the pest.
Mr. George E. Fisher, the Provincial Inspector of Scale Insects,
gave a report on the insects of the year in the Niagara and Hamilton
XCIV ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
districte^ and described his experiments with the lime and sulphur
wash for the destruction of the San José scale, and their successful
results.
At a public meeting in the evening the Rev. Dr. Pyles read his
presidential address on " Insect Life/' illustrated by a series of beau-
tiful coloured diagrams that he had himself prepared; -and Prof. Loch-
head gave a lantern lecture on " Some noted Butterfly-hunters and
some common Butterflies.^'
The proceedings at the several sessions of the meeting and the
papers read are given in full in the thirty-third Annual Report of the
Society, which was published by the Ontario Department of Agricul-
ture in March last. It consists of 132 pages illustrated with 108
engravings in the text and photogravure portraits* of Mr. E. Baynes
Reed, one of the original members of the Society and for many years
one of its most active oflScers, and of Mr. W. E. Saunders the present
energetic Secretary. Reports are given from the various ofiBcers and
sections and the branches at Montreal, Quebec and Toronto, and also
from the North- West (Canada) Entomological Society.
Among the papers read may be mentioned the valuable reports on
the insects of the year in their districts by the directors, Messrs. C. H.
Young, Ottawa; J. D. Evans, Trenton; E. M. Walker, Toronto; G. E.
Fisher, Hamilton and Niagara; and J. A. Balkwill, London. These are
supplemented by further notes on the season by Messrs. C. Stevenson,
J. A. Moffatt, Prof. Lochhead and Dr. James Fletcher. Mr. Lyman
•contributed a paper on the remarkable habits of the Archippus butter-
fly and the points in its history on which further information is
required. Dr. Fyles furnished an article on the Paper-making Wasps
of Quebec; Mr. A. Gibson on *^ Some interesting habits of Lepidop-
terous larvœ,** and an account of Semiophora Youngii, a new enemy of
tamarac and spruce trees; Mr. Harrington, " Notes on Insects* Injurious
to Pines ;^' Prof. Lochhead an illustrated "Key to Orchard Insects ;''
Mr. Moffat, " A Talk About Entomology;'' and Dr. Fletcher and Mr.
Harrington the very valuable " Entomological Record for 1902.'
Officers for 1902-1903.
President — Professor William Lochhead, B.A., M.S., Ontario Agri-
-cultural College, Guelph,
Vice-President— J. D. Evans, CE., Trenton.
Secretary — W. E. Saunders, London,
Treasurer — J. H. Bowman, London.
Directors — ^Division No. 1 — C. H. Young, Hurdman's Bridge.
Division No. 2— C. E. Grant, Orillia.
APPENDIX D XCV
Division No. 3 — ^E. M. Walker, M.A., Toronto.
Division No. 4 — G. E. Fisher, Freeman.
Division No. 5 — J. A. Balkwill, London.
Directors Ex-ofl5cio — (Ex-Presidents of the Society) — ^Professor
Wm. Saunders, LL.D., F.E.S.C., Director of the Experimental Farms,
Ottawa; Eev. C. J. S. Bethune, M.A., D.C.L., F.E.S.C, London; James
Fletcher, LL.D., F.E.S.C, F.L.S., Entomologist and Botanist of the
Experimental Farms, Ottawa; W. H. Harrington, F.E.S.C., Ottawa;
John Deamess, Normal School, London; Ilenry H. Lyman, M.A.,
F.B.G.S., F.E.S., Montreal; Eev. T. W. Fyles, D.C.L., F.L.S., South
Quebec.
Librarian and Curator — J. Alston Moffat, London.
Auditors — ^W. H. Hamilton and S. B. McCready, London.
Editor of the Canadian Entomologist — ^Eev. Dr. Bethune, Lon-
don.
Editing Committee — Dr. J. Fletcher, Ottawa; H. H. Lyman,
Montreal; J. D. Evans, Trenton; W. H. Harrington, Ottawa; Professor
Lochhead, Guelph.
Delegate to the Eoyal Society — Eev. Dr. Bethune, London.
Delegates to the Western Fair — J. A. Balkwill and W. E. Saund-
'Crs, London.
Committee on Field Days — The Chairmen of the Sections and Dr.
Woolverton, Messrs. Balkwill, Bowman, Law, Moffat, Eennie and Saun-
ders, London.
Library and Eooms Committee — Messrs. Balkwill, Bethune, Bow-
man, Deamess, Moffa/t, and Saunders, London.
IX. — From the Natural History Society of New Brunswick, through
Hon. J. V. Ellis.
On behalf of the council and members of the Natural History
Society of New Brunswick, I have the honour to present the following
report: —
The work of this Society, during the year 1902-03, has been char-
acterized with considerable vigour, especially along the lines of original
investigation, in which some very satisfactory results have been attained.
The main lines upon which the work of the Society has been car-
lied on are as follows: (1) Investigations of its members in the various
departments of work; (2) Lectures during the winter months on sub-
jects based on the results of these investigations; (3) The publication
of an Annual Bulletin, in which original papers and the results of these
researches are published; and (4) Supplementary work of a more ele-
XCVI ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
mentary and popular character during the winter, such as a course
of elementary lectures designed for young people, a course of after-
noon lectures, under the auspices of the Juadies* Association; and the
opening of the Societ/s museum during three afternoons of each week
during the year for general visitors and the instruction of the pupils
of the public schools.
The enrolled membership of the Society is 170, embracing all
classes of members. A modest income derived from the fees of mem-
bers, interest on an investment, and a small yearly grant from govern-
ment is suflBcient for the current expenses of the Society.
Ten regular meetings have been held during the year at which
the following papers were read:
1902.
June 3. — '^ Reports of the Meeting of the Royal Society at Toronto,'*
by G. U. Hay and G. F. Matthew.
Oct. 7. — "Batrachians of the Carboniferous Age and their Tracks
at the Joggins mines, N.S.,'' by G. F. Matthew, D.Sc.
Nov. 4. — ^^* Mushrooms; their Structure, Habits and Uses (to be fol-
lowed by a list)," by G. U. Hay, D.Sc.
Dec. 2. — " Notes on the Geology of the Northern Highlands of New
Brunswick,*' by Prof. L. W. Bailey, Ph.D.
1903.
Jan. e.—{a) " The Parasite,'' Geo. G. Melvin, M.D.
(b) " Some Rare Plants and their Habits," H. F. Perkins,
Ph.B.
Jan. 20. — Annual Meeting. President's Address. Election of Officers.
Feb. 3. — (a) " The Borderland between Insanity and Crime," Hon. H.
A. McKeown, M.P.P.
(6) ^ Notes on New Brunswick Fishes," Chas. F. B. Rowe.
Mar. 3.— (a) '' Wintering of Plants," J. Vroom.
(6) " Notes on the Violets," J. Vroom.
April 7.—" The Structure of the Common House Fly," W. H. Mowatt.
May 5. — (a) " Birds and their Structure," A. Gordon Leavitt.
(6) " Birds and their Nests," J. W. Banks.
In addition to the above a valuable series of papers was contributed
by Prof. W. F. Ganong on the " Physiography and Natural History of
New Brunswick."
The elementary course embraced talks and discussion on minerals,
plants, birds and insects.
APPENDIX D XCVn
The Thursday afternoon lectures before the Ladies' Association
proved of great interest and attracted large audiences. The following
were the subjects treated and the lecturers:
1903.
Jan. 15.—" Thoreau/' Mrs. E. S. Fiske.
22. — "Reminiscences of the American Museum," Mrs. G. F.
Matthew.
29.— Children's Day. " A Talk on Insects," Mr; Wm. Mcintosh.
Feb. 5.— "Wordsworth; A Nature Poet," Mrs. G. A. Hamilton.
12. — " Coloiir in Nature," Miss A. Jack.
19. — " A Prohisloric Mound in Ontario," Miss A. L. Hunt.
2G.— Children's Day. "A Talk on Birds," Mr. A. Gordon Leavitt.
Mar. 5.—" The Scientific Basis of Art," (illustrated). Miss M. Barry
Smith.
12. — "A Eamble in Switzerland," Miss Christine Matthew.
19. — ^^ Nature Study in the Public Schools," Miss G. Murphy.
2G. — Eeunion of Members.
The following are the officers and committees of the Society lor
the present year:
Patron — His Honour the Lieutenant-Governor, Honourable J. B.
Snowball.
Council for 1903— President, Hon. J. V. Ellis, LL.D.; Vice-
Presidents, G. F. Matthew, H. G. Addy, M.D.; Treasurer, A. G. Leavitt;
Secretary, G. U. Hay, D.Sc; Librarian, W. L. Ellis, M.D.; Curatora,
S. W. Kain, J. W. Banks, Wm. Mcintosh; Additional Members, J. Eoy
Campbell, James A. Estey, W. P. Hatheway.
Associate Members' Branch — ^President, Mrs. G. F. Matthew; Vice-
Presidents, Mrs. G. U. Hay, Mrs. H. G. Addy; Secretary-Treasurer, Miss
Edith McBeath.
Standing Committees — Archœology, S. W. Kain, Dr. A. C. Smith,
Miss Jack; Botany, G. TJ. Hay, Prof. W. F. Ganong, John Brittain,
James Vroom; Entomology, Wm. Mcintosh, A. G. Leavitt; Finance,
A. G. Leavitt, J. Eoy Campbell, W. F. Hatheway; Geology, Dr. G.
F. Matthew, Prof. L. W. Bailey; Lectures, Dr. G. U. Hay, Dr. H. G.
Addy, Dr. G. F. Matthew; Library, Dr. G. U. Hay, Wm. Mcintosh,
Dr. W. L. Ellis, Mrs. G. U. Hay, Mrs. W. F. Hatheway, Mrs. G. A.
Hamilton; Microscopes, Dr. W. L. Ellis, Dr. G. G. Melvin, W. H.
Mowatt; Ornithology, A. G. Leavitt, Wm. White, J. W. Banks; Press,
G. XT. Hay, A. G. Leavitt, Wm. Mcintosh; Publications, Dr. G. F. Mat-
thew, S. W. Kain, G. U. Hay, A. G. Leavitt; Rooms, Dr. H. G. Addy,
Mrs. G. F. Matthew, Mrs. G. U. Hay, Mrs. W. S. Hall.
Procl903. 7.
XCVIII ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
Among the progressive measures that the Society has in view for
the ensuing year are the following: (1) A scheme of affiliation by which
natural history societies now in existence, and which may in future
be formed in the province, may affiliate with the Natural History Society
of New Brunswick as the parent society; (2) to join heartily in the
movement to celebrate the ter-centenar}' of Champlain's discovery of
St. John, and invite the Hoyal Society of Canada to meet here on that
occasion; (3) to conduct a summer camp, or hold field meetings in
places where profitable and interesting work may be carried on; (4) to
urge upon the New Brunswick Government the desirability of marking
the bounds and laying out the park and game preserve in the Tobique-
Nepisiguit region.
The Annual Bulletin which the Society has just issued, and which
I have the honour to present to the Royal Society, contains a very full
record of the results of the original work carried on by the Society
during the year.
X. — ^From the Nova Scotian Institute of Science,
through Dr. R. W. Ells.
The Nova Scotian Institute of Science, through its delegate, begs
to submit to the Royal Society of Canada, a report on its proceedings
during the past session of 1902-3.
The following were elected officers for the year 1902-3 : —
Presideni>— Henry S. Poole, Esq., A.R.S.M., F.G.S., F.R.S.C. ex-
officio F.R.M.S.
Ist Vice-President— F. W. W. Doane, Esq., CE.
2nd Vice-President— Prof. E. McKay, Ph.D.
Treasurer — W. C. Silver, Esq.
Corresponding Secretary — A. H. MacKay, Esq., LL.D., F.R.S.C.
Recording Secretary — Harry Piers, Esq.
Librarian — Harry Piers, Esq.
Other Members of Council — M. Bowman, Esq., B.A.; W. L. Bishop,
Esq.; Martin Murphy, Esq., D.Sc. ; W. McKcrron, Esq.; Prof, S. M.
Dixon, B.A., B.A.I. ; Edwin Gilpin, Esq., LL.D., F.R.S.C; Alex. McKay,
Esq.
Auditors — Roderick McCoU, Esq., CE., and J. B. McCarthy,
Esq., B.Sc.
Parts 3 and 4 of volume X. of the proceedings and transactiona
have been published and distributed during the year.
The King's County branch of the Institute, Wolfville, N.S.,
organized May 29, 1901, under the presidency of Prof. E. Haycock,
APPENDIX D XCIX
of Acadia College, has been actively working during the session and
a number of papers were read at its various meetings.
Meetings were held from November until May, 1903. The
following papers were communicated during the session: —
1.—" Presidential Address," by A. U. MacKay, Esq., LL.D., F.E.S.C.
2. — '' Middleton Fungi, with general Kemarks," by li. E. Gates, Esq.,
of Mt. Allison University.
3.—" Nova Scotian Fungi," by A. H. MacKay, Esq., LL.D.
4. — " Gunfi and Gunnery," by Major English, R.A.
5. — "The Swim Bladder of Fishes, a Degenerate Gland," by Prof.
E. E. Prince, Commissioner and General Inspector of
Fisheries, Ottawa.
6. — " Colours of Animals, their nature and meaning," by Prof. E. E.
Prince, Ottawa.
7. — " The Meso-Carbonif erous Age of the Union and Riversdale For-
mations of Nova Scotia, and their equivalents the Mispec and
Lancaster Formations of New Brunswick," by Henry M. Ami,
Esq., D.Sc, Ottawa.
8. — "Note on Didyonema wehsteri/^ by Henry S. Poole, Esq., F.G.S.,
F.R.S.C.
9. — " Exhibition and description of three abnormal specimens recently
received at the Provincial Museum," by Harry Piers, Esq.,
Curator Provincial Museum.
10.— "The Mira Grant," by Edwin Gilpin, Jr., Esq., LL.D., F.E.S.C,
Inspector of Mines.
11.— "The Yellowstone National Park," by Prof. J. E. Woodman,
D.Sc, School of Mining and Metallurgy, Dalhousie College.
12. — "Note on a Lichen-mimicking Caterpillar," by C. B. Eobinson,
Esq., B.A., Pictou Academy.
13._« Wireless Telegraphy," by Parker E. Colpitt, Esq., City
Electrician.
14. — " Is there Coal under Prince Edward Island," by Henry S. Poole,
Esq., F.G.S., F.E.S.C.
15._« Geology of Moose Eiver Gold District, Halifax County, N.S.,"
by Prof. J. E. Woodman, D.Sc, School of Mining and Metal-
lurgy, Dalhousie College.
16. — " Analyses and Sections of Nova Scotian Coals," by Edwin Gilpin,
Jr., Esq., LL.D., F.E.S.C, Inspector of Mines.
17. — *^ Phenological Observations, Canada, for 1902," by A. H. MacKay,
Esq., LL.D., F.E.S.C.
18. — '' Botanical Notes," by A. H. MacKay, Esq., LL.D.
C ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
19. — ^^Distribution of Fucils serratus in Nova Scotia/' by C. B.
Robinson, Esq., B.A., Pictou Academy.
The following papers were brought before the King's Couniy
branch of the Institute during the session : —
1. — "Objects and Aims of the King's Oounty Branch of the N.S.
Institute of Science," by Prof. Ernest Haycock, Acadia
College, Wolfville.
2. — " Principles of the Dynamo," by Prof. F. R. Haley, Acadia Cdlege.
3. — " Modem System» of Electric Lighting," by D. R. Munro, Esq.
4. — " Adolph Loring and his specialty," by A. DeW. Barss, Esq., M.D.
5. — " Coastal Erosion at Long Island, King's County, îf .S.," by Prof.
E. Haycock.
6. — " Ice-borne Sediment in Minas Basin, N.S.," by J. A. Bancroft, Esq.
7. — " Teaching Material in Mineralogy recently added to Acadia College
equipment," by Prof. E. Haycock.
8.— "The Life History of the Bud Moth," by Prof. F. C. Sears, N.S.
School of Horticulture.
XI. — From the Nova Scotia Historical Society, through
the Hon. J. W. Longley.
This Society has had a flourishing season, no less than six papers
on important historical topics having been read, as follows:
November. — "Hon. Alexander Stewart," by Hon. Judge Townshend.
December. — " Voyages of John Cabot," by Hon. Senator Poirier.
January. — " Halifax during the Revolutionary War," by Miss Emily
Weaver.
February. — " Howe as an Imperialist," by F. Blake Crofton, Esq.
March. — " Journalism in the Maritime Provinces," by D. R. Jack,
Esq.
April. — " Mr. John Wiswall," by Rev. E. M. Saunders, D.D.
The ter-ccntennary of the settlement of Port Royal is to be cele-
brated in 1904 at Annapolis Royal, the arrangements for which have
been entrusted to this Society. Invitations are to be sent to the gov-
ernments of Great Britain, United States, France and Canada, to
participate in this celebration, and to all historical societies in Canada
and the United States.
The officers of the Society for the year are:
President— Hon J. W. Longley, F.R.S.C.
Vice-Presidents — Hon. L. G. Power, Hon. Judge Town^^hend, A.
H. McKay, LL.D.
Corresponding Secretary — F. Blake Crofton, Esq.
APPENDIX D CI
Eecording Secretary — ^W. L. Payzant, Esq.
Treasurer — E. J. Wilson, Esq.
Council — J. J. Stewart, Esq.; A. McMechan, Ph.D.; Eev. Dr.
Saunders, and A. Frame, Esq.
XII. — From the Elgiti Historical and Scientific Institute, through
Dr. S. E. Dawson.
This being the centennial year of the Talbot settlement, thei
members have been chiefly engaged in preparing for the celebration
to be held in St. Thomas, May 21st to 25th inclusive.
The co-operation of the citizens generally has been secured and a
general committee formed, with the Maj-or of the city as chairman.
The chief event of the 21st of May, the day Colonel Talbot, the
founder of the settlement, landed at Port Talbot, will be a banquet,
to be held at the Grand Central Hotel in St. Thomas, under the auspices
of the Institute, to which all members of the Dominion and Provincial
Parliaments who represent any part of the original settlement, wardens
of counties, and mayors of cities and towns within the same area are
invited, as well as the councils of the county of Elgin and city of St.
Thomas, and other guests.
Subsequent days will be devoted to the opening of a new collegiate
institute and armouries, pioneer and military processions, old boys'
gathering, band concerts, illuminations, etc., and the erection of a
cairn composed of stones representing each of the 29 townships em-
braced in the original settlement, to be placed in position by the reeves
and engraved with the names of the townships. This cairn is intended
to form a permanent historical feature in the recently acquired muni-
cipal park of St. Thomas. On the intervening Sunday, sermons appro-
priate to the occasion will be preached in all the churches. About
1,000 militia from Toronto, Chatham and St. Thomas take part in
the celebration.
On June 3rd and 4th, the Ontario Provincial Historical Society
hold their annual meeting at St. Thomas, when a drive to the South-
wold Earthworks and Port Talbot form part of the programme.
The Ladies' branch has been active as ever and has planned a
celebration in connection with the centennial celebration in St. Thomas,
one interesting feature of which will be the entertainment of a gather-
ing of the octogenarian ladies of the settlement. At the numerous
meetings of the branch the following among other papers have been
read:
Papers on the six pioneer families of the Talbot Settlement.
Papers on the different denominational churches.
on ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
Papers on Governor Simcoe, Laura Secord, M. de Verchères.
The chief work accomplished by the Society during the past year
is the refitting of their vast and commodious apartments. They are
handsomely and tastefully decorated and can compare favourably with
any rooms of the same nature in the province.
The officers of the Ladies^ Auxiliary are :
President, Mrs. J. H. Wilson; 1st Vice-President, Mrs. James H.
Coyne; 2nd Vice-President, Mrs. 0. Shea; Secretary, Mrs*. S. Silcox;
Assistant Secretary, Charlotte S. Wegg; Corresponding Secretary, Mrs.
E. W. Gustin; Treasurer, Mrs. E. H. Caughell; Assistant Treasurer,
Miss F. McLauchlin.
Elgin Historical and Scientific Institute officers:
President — C. 0. Ermatinger, Esq.
Vice-President^-S. Silcox, B.A., D.Paed.
Secretary-Treasurer — W. H. Murch, Esq.
Assistant Secretary, Charlotte S. 'Wegg.
Curator — ^Mrs. St. Thomas Smith.
Editor — ^Frank Hunf, Esq.
Council — Mrs. Gustin, Mrs. Cormack, Mrs. Griffin, Mrs. Jackson,
Mrs. Wilson, Mr. Oakes, Mr. Coyne, Mr. McKay, Mr. Stewart.
XIII. — Report of The Manitoba Historical and Scientific Society,
through the Eev. Dr. G. Bryce.
The Manitoba Historical and Scientific Society has now entered
upon the 25th year of its history. During this quarter of a century,
while it has witnessed the marvellous settlement of the province and re-
markable growth of the city of Winnipeg, it has also sought to preserve
the records and doings of the unique civilization which grew up under
the care of the fur companies, to examine the ethnology of the Indian
races of the west and to link harmoniously the new with the old.
Ito arrangement with the city of Winnipeg by which it co-operates
with the city in managing the Public Library and in opening its fine
Reference Library of 10,000 volumes for the use of the citizens, still
continues. At present the quarters are in the City Hall.
During the past year, however, the city has purchased a suitable
site for the new Carnegie Library, and during the present month
accepted tenders for the erection of a commodious and handsome build-
ing. This building to be erected at once will supply excellent accom-
modation now denied in the City Hall.
The Society has during the past year had a number of papers read
by its members, among the more important being an elaborate account
by retired Chief Trader McLean, of the Hudson's Bay Company, of the
APPENDIX D cm
celebrated captivity of himself and his family for a number of weeks by
the Fort Pitt Indians under Chief Big Bear in 1885. This will no
doubt be published and will supply an interesting and comprehensive
account of that portion of the North-West Rebellion.
Another paper of importance was a collection of letters (1821-55)
found in New York State, of the late Sheriff Alexander Ross, one of the
original landholders of Winnipeg and whose family names are to be
seen in a number of the names of Winnipeg streets to-day. A valuable
paper on the " Perching Birds," of the neighbourhood of Winnipeg was
^Iso read before the Society. In this connection it may be said that a
Natural History Society has been started with much energy which will
develop more fully that side of the societ/s work.
In the printed annual report of the Society for the year, the practice
is followed of giving short biographical sketches of members of the
Society, or old settlers of note of the country, who have passed away.
One of the most noted of this year is that of a past president of the
Society, the late William Cowan, M.D., a distinguished Scottish phy-
sician, who some forty years ago came in the service of the company to
the posts on Hudson Bay. On being removed to the interior Dr. Cowan
was given the important position of Master of Fort Garry. He was
occupying this position in 1869, when Louis Riel, with his Metis fol-
lowers seized Fort Garry. Dr. Cowan was a man of high character, of
excellent parts, and held the respect of all the people. He was one of a
sturdy band, of traders fast passing away — not we fear to have successors
of the same type.
In the enormous growth of the city, the Society is keeping in view
the preservation of such memorials of the past as can be spared, and looks
forward to decorating the eight or ten parks scattered through the city
for which it is becoming famous, by busts or when possible, statues of
such men as Sieur de la Verendrye, Sir A. Mackenzie, Lord Selkirk, Sir
Geo. Simpson and others who have been famous in the history of the
North- West. The finances of the. Society it may be stated are in excel-
lent condition.
XIV. — ^From the Royal Astronomical Society of Toronto, through
R. F. Stupart. •
At the twelfth annual meeting of the Society, which was well
attended, the retiring President for the former year, G. E. Lumsden,
F.R.A.S., delivered an address entitled, " Astronomical Notes of the
past year in which he referred to observations of Nova Persei, the new
star that had been first observed by Dr. Anderson, of Edinburgh, to
blaze out in the constellation Persius in February, 1901. The star
CIV ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
though faint, was still visible in a large telescope and the character of
the nebula that surrounded it presented problems not easy for the
theoretical astronomer to solve. Allusion was also made to the sun,
including the results of the observations of the total eclipse on the
18th of May; to the continued discovery of asteroids, and to the work
which had been done upon Eros; to the Leonid showers of meteors,
which, though not seen to advantage in Toronto, had evidently been
well obfeerved at Winnipeg and at Echo Mountain, California; to the
Cape Comet, the brightest which had appeared since 1882, to Encke's
Comet; to the success achieved at Flagstaff Observatory in photograph-
ing the Zodiacal Light; to the synchronism of auroral displays at the
north and south poles, and to the investigations of Prof. K. A. Fessen-
den, in regard to Gravitation.
Referring to this, Mr. Lumsden said Prof. J. J. Thomson was able
to show. Philosophical Magazine, April, 1881, that electrical charges
increased the inertia of bodies. And, in Phil Mag,, Dec., 1899, that,
linder special conditions the atom could, apparently, be split up into
numerous parts called " corpuscles,'' the number in the hydrogen atom
being of the order of at least 1000, and the corpuscles were electrically
charged. With these two experimental results before him, Thomson
then undertook a mathematical investigation to determine whether the
" corpuscular '^ charges would be sufficient to account for the entire
inertia of bodies, but was unable to make out corpuscular spaces and
surfaces enough to accommodate more than a portion of the requisite
charges. Here, Prof. Fessenden took up the work, and assuming the
corpuscles to be vortices of a special form and orientated in a special
way, appears to have found surfaces and spaces enough for electric
charges sufficient to account entirely for the property known as " iner-
tia'^ of bodies ; at the same time, he undertook to show thai these
minute corpuscular charges would produce a change of density of the
ether surrounding each particle, an effect akin to, though diflfering
from, a magnetic " field '' extending outward indefinitely in all direc-
tions and decreasing inversely as the square of the distance — producing,
in a word, the effect known as gravitation, the velocity of which would
be many times greater than that of light, viz., 10*°, but it may be asked.
Does not^n electric charge need to be explained itself? Recent inves-
tigations along these lines seem to point towards the conclusion that
an electric charge, apparently, consists of a specialized strain, tension or
pressure of the ether that may be isolated or stored on the surface of
bodies or the particles of which bodies consist, the energy of which
strain cannot be communicated to the normal ether except it be in a
special condition.
. APPENDIX D CV
Mr. Lumsden also made reference to a communication from Mr. G.
W. Bitchey/, optician at the Yerkes' Observatory, on the subject of
constructing large telescopes, chiefly for photographic work. Mr. Bit-
chey looked forward to the construction in the near future of a large
reflecting telescope ten or twelve feet in aperture. Such an instrument,
of fifty or sixty feet focal length, could, he contended, now be success-
fully made, '^ without the slightest danger of failure," which, in a fine
climate, would give results immeasurably beyond any attainable at
present, adding that " in many kinds of work the two-foot reflector
(of the Yerkes Observatory) usually surpasses the forty-inch refractor.''
This being so, he asked, " What would a ten or twelve foot do ?"
At the meeting of January 15th, J. A. Brashear, F.B.A.S., Chan-
cellor and Professor of Astronomy in the University of Western Penn-
sylvania and Honorary Fellow of the Society, delivered a lecture on
** The making of a Great Telescope." From the standpoint of a practical
optician. Dr. Brashear explained the various methods of " figuring "
and mounting the modern telescope and the difficulties to be encoim-
tered and overcome in the work.
Professor DeLury, of Toronto University, under the auspices of
the Society gave a series of popular lectures in the University buildings
on " The Cosmos as understood by the Ancients," " The development
of the Copemican theory," " The Newtonian advance to Physical As-
tronomy,'' " Special consideration of the Solar System," *' La Place's
Nebular Hypothesis and Stellar Evolution." These lectures were
uniformly well attended by the public and evidently appreciated by
all who heard them.
At the meeting of February the 25th Mr. J. E. Maybec presente<7
sketches of regions of the moon s surface made by him at the telescope
on February 19th, including Aristarchus, Herodotus and Sehroeter's
valley. Attention was called to the observations of Gruithensen and
Dr. Kline, who both claim that the region surrounded by the valley
or rill is strongly green in tint.
Eev. Bobt. Atkinson contributed a paper on "the Planets," illus-
trating his remarks with lantern slides, and drawing attention to the
features of particular interest from an observational standpoint.
March 25th, Mr. A. F. Miller contributed a paper on " The
Spectroscope in Astronomical Research." A description of the various
methods of reaserch in this line was given. The investigation of sun
spots, facula, and the corona were touched upon, and the value of the
spectroscope in determining stellar motion in the line of sight, and for
detectii^ certain binary-st^rs, a class of bodies which, but for the
Bpectroscope, would probably have never become known.
CVI ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
April the 8th, a communication from Prof. Campbell, director
of the Lick Observatory, was received, relating to the method employed
by Perrine to determine the non-polarity of light from condensations
in nebula of Nova Persei, observed a few days before this date. It was
explained that Perrine had interposed a double prism 3 inches in front
of the photographic plate, and had rotated the prisms without getting
polarization effects which should have shown if the light was reflected
«nd not directly radiated.
The paper of the evening was by Prof. G. F. Hull, of Dartmouth
College, on " The Pressure of Light in its application to Astronomical
Problems.^' It was pointed out that Maxwell had shown that according
to the electro-magnetic theory of light, light should exert a pressure
on unit surface equal to the energy of one unit of volume, divided
by the velocity of light. This magnitude, as calculated by him, was
BO small that little hope was held out of it ever being experimentally
observed. Receat experiments by Dr. Hull and Professor Nichols
Tiad given d-ecisive demonstration of the existence of this minute force,
th« actual force observed agreeing with the calculated result to within
5 per cent. A brief description of the apparatus was given. It was
shown that on a body sufficiently small, the pressure due to the light
of the sun would be greater than gravitative attraction, but there is a
limit to this smallness. It was also remarked that velocity due to
light pressure might be great, but it coul-d not equal the velocity of
light itself.
At the meeting of the 22nd April, Mr. Arthur Harvey made a few
remarks regarding the value of the hand method of mapping the con-
stellations. The President reported that the seismograph at the observa-
tory had recorded a severe earthquake shock, accompanied by a sharp
electrical disturbance on April 18th, at 4.38 p.m. The origin of the
disturbance was afterwards found to be in Guatemala, the shock tak-
ing place there about eleven minutes before it was recorded in Toron-
to, and as the distance separating these two points is about 1,800
miles, 11 minutes would represent a velocity of 2 J miles per second
approximately. John A. Paterson, M.A., K.C., presented a paper
•dealing with *^ The Apex of the Smrs way.'' The dilTorent methods of
determining the direction of the Sun's motion in space were comment-
ed upon and the most modern results presented, indicating apparently
that the solar system is moving towards the vicinity of Vega, a bright
star in the constellation Lyra, at the rate of about 10 miles per second.
May 6th, Mr. F. L. Blake, of the Observatory staflf, described the
transit instrument, also the chronograph and other instruments in
use at the observatory for measuring and recording time. It was
remarked that the mercurial pendulum is in use at the observatory in
APPENDIX D CVII
Toronto. Mr. Arthur Harvey spoke of " Solar Radiation/^ and appears
to have been the first to establish the fact that the aurorae synchronize
at the north and south simultaneously.
May 21«t, Mr. 6. E. Lumsden read a paper on the subject of " Lunar
Ring Plains.'' Attention was called to the fact, that on some por-
tions of the moon, ring-plains occur with greater frequency than at
others, and there appear to be vast differences in time as to the periods
of their formation, some showing a perfect formation, whilst others
are broken and worn away as if by the action of water or some other
fluid at an earlier period of the moon's history.
June 3rd, W. B. Musson read an exhaustive and carefully pre-
pared paper on " Variable Stars," in which he drew attention to the
main points of difference between variables of short and long periods
and also stars of the Algol class. While there was little doubt that
the variability of the latter class is caused by the eclipse of one body
by another, the fluctuations of long period variables is still much of
a mystery. It was mentioned that Prof. Chandler had confirmed his
theory advanced in 1888, that Algol and its companion moved in an
orbit about a third body.
Mr. A. F. Miller spoke of his observations of the star (Y) Vir-
ginus which in 1837 was known as a double not very far apart. Mr.
Miller's observations had shown the components to be considerably
separated now and their angular positions also greatly shifted. The
components are now equal in brightness and colour though they have
been known to vary in both particulars.
September 9th, Mr. Andrew Elvins contributed a paper on " The
cause of the 25-day period in the magnetic ' curve.' "
September 23rd, Mr. J. H. AVetliorby contributed a paper entitled
^' Astronomical Work for the Autumn."
October 7th, Mr. Elvins and Mr. Miller rqwrtcd observations of
comet "Perrine." The latter had examined its spectrum and had
found it to be that of a hydro-carbon incandescent gaseous lx3dy.
The paper for the evening was by J. R. Collins on ^' The Applica-
tion of Kelvin's Theory of the Ether to the Stellar Universe." The
necessity for supposing the ether to be rather of a continuous nature
rather than consisting of discrete particles was pointed out and Kel-
vin's theory of vortices in this continuous substance was applied to a
finite universe and some interesting deductions dra\\Ti from the results.
The ether of a finite universe of this kind would be expected to have a
definite surface and bundles of vortices which would be conceived as
forming matter, rushing against its interior surface would be thrown
backward with the velocity with which they came. It was said that
CVIII ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
while any hypothesis dealing with the ultimate nature of ether and
matter is put forth provisionfilly, Kelvin's concepts of it seem to have
met with the most favour because of its simplicity and the facility it
offers for explaining otherwise as yet unsolvable phenomena.
October 21st, G. E. Lumsden presented his views relative to
*' Ancient Lunar Coast Lines/' illustrated by numerous lantern slides.
November 4th, W. P. King, CE., chief astronomer, Ottawa, con-
tributed a paper on '^ Astronomy in Canada,*' dealing with the outlook
for the work here and having especial reference to the new Government
Observatory at Ottawa.
November 18th, C. H. Chant, M.A., Ph.D., explained very fully
the "New Developments in Wireless Telegraphy," with illustration of
the different systems developed from their inception to the present
time in connection with this interesting subject. Dr. Chant is some-
what of an expert, having been engaged in investigating the nature of
phenomena presented from a physical standpoint and hopes shortly to
be able to demonstrate with some approach to precision the precise
nature of the etherial disturbance taking place when a wireless mess-
age is being transmitted.
December 2nd, Mr. Arthur Harvey under the heading of " Vagaries
of the Mariners' Compass," presented curves which he had plotted from
records obtained at the observatory, showing apparently that the motion
of the North Magnetic Pole is irregular and not uniform as ha^ gen-
erally been supposed.
December 12th, Mr. A. P. Miller read a paper on "Stellar Motions,"
the purport of which was to show in what way the various apparent
motions might be so analyzed as to indicate the true movements of the
stellar bodies in space.
December 30th, election of oflBcers for 1903.
List of Officers.
Honorary President — The Hon. Bichard Harcourt, M.A., LL.D.,
K.C., M.P.P., Minister of Education.
President— Mr. E. P. Stupart, P.R.S.C., Director of the Toronto
Observatory and Superintendent of the Dominion Meteorological Ser-
vice.
First Vice-President— Mr. C. A. Chant, M.A. (Tor.), Ph.D. (Har.),
Lecturer in Physics*, Toronto University.
Second Vice-President — Mr. W. Balfour Musson, 37 Yonge street,
Toronto.
Treasurer — Mr. J. Edward Maybee, M.E., 103 Bay street, Toronto.
Secretary — Mr. J. B. Collins, 131 Bay street, Toronto.
APPENDIX D CIX
Eecorder— Mr. John E. Webber, 6 Sultan street, Toronto.
Librarian — Mr. Alfred McParlane, M.A., Canadian Institute.
Curator— Mr. Robert Duncan, 516 Ontario street, Toronto.
Council — The above officers, with the following members, con-
Ptitute the Council of the Society :— Mr. A. F. Miller; Professor A. T.
DeLury, B.A., and Mr. George Ridout, elected by the Society, and the
following past pre&idents: Mr. Andrew Elvins, Mr. Larratt W. Smith,
K.C., D.C.L., Mr. J. A. Paterson, M.A. (Tor.); Mr. A. Harvey, F.R.S.C,
Honorary President and Director of La Institutio Solar Internacional
Monte Video, Uruguay; and Mr. 6. E. Lumsden, F.R.A.S., and Membre
de la Société Astronomique de France.
XV. — From the Lundy's Lane Historical Society through
James Wilson.
I beg leave to report that in July, 1902, the Lundy's Lane His-
torical Society published the fifth volume of "The Documentary
History of the Campaigns on the Niagara Frontier in 1812-14 '' (pp.
326), covering the period from January to June, 1813, collected and
edited for the Society by Lieut.-Colonel E. Cruikshank. This volume
contains nearly three hundred contemporary letters, documents and gen-
eral orders transcribed from the original manuscripts preserved in the
Archives of Canada, Great Britain and the United States, or in the
possession of private individuals in these countries, who have generously
permitted them to be copied for this purpose, and very few of which
have appeared in print before. The sixth volume of the series, bring-
ing the narrative down to 15th August, 1813, is now in the press and
will be in readiness about July 1st, 1903.
The Society desires to express its hearty satisfaction at the trans-
fer of that portion of the Ordnance Lands Reserve upon which the
ruins of Fort Erie are situated (rendered memorable in the annals of
Canada by the siege operations in August and September, 1814), by
the Government of Canada to the commissioners of Queen Victoria
Niagara Falls Park to be suitably maintained by them.
XVI. — From the New Brunswick Uistorical Society, through the
Hon. J. V. Ellis.
As delegate of the New Brunswick Historical Society, I have the
lionour to present the following:
Papers read during the winter session :
1902.
Nov. 25. — ^Mr. Jonas Howe read a paper on the " Loss of the Birken-
head," and the brave death of Lieut. Hàre, son of Capt.
ex ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
Charles Hare, R.N., of this city, who was one of the officers
of the ill-fated vessel.
Dec. 30. — ^Rev. Dr. Raymond read a paper on the " St. John River," —
the ''Coming of the White Man."
1903.
•Jan. 27. — S. D. Scott read a paper on " Cobbit's Ldfe in New Bruns-
wick," with many interesting particulars of his life while
stationed with his regiment at Fort Howe, St. John, N.B.
(Feb. 24. — Mr. Scott read the conclusion of his paper on " Cobbit^s Life
in New Brunswick."
Mar. 31. — Clarenqp Ward read a paper on the " First Common Council
of St. John, N.B., with extracts from the account book of
George Leonard, the first Chamberlain of the city.
For a considerable period the Rev. W. 0. Raymond has been engaged
on behalf of the Society in arranging and editing a large amount of cor-
respondence of the Hon. Edward Winslow, who was Muster-Master-
Qeneral of the Loyalist forces during the Revolutionary War. These
letters commencing in 1776 in New York and terminating in New
Brunswick in 1820, contain an immense amount of valuable and inter-
esting information, concerning the emigration and settlement of the
great number of Loyalists who came to New Brunswick and Nova
Scotia on the termination of the war.
The industry, learning and research given to the work by Mr. Ray-
mond is beyond all praise.
The whole correspondence has now been published by the Society in
a volume of 800 pages, and is a most valuable contribution to the history
of the time.
The Society was aided in the publication of these letters by a grant
from the Legislature of New Brunswick, and a contribution from the
Winslow family.
XVII. — From the Ontario Historical Society, through
David Boyle.
The last annual meeting of the Ontario Historical Society was
held in the towns of Petorboro and Lindsay on the 4th and 5th of
June, 1902, and was well attended by representatives from various parts
of the Province and from Manitoba. Valuable papers were read during
the sessions by Mrs. Fessenden " On the Monument that Failed ''
(Montgomery Monument at Quebec), by Judge Dean of Lindsay on
'^ Local Scenery and Historical Associations," by Miss Farmer on the
"Fall of Acadia," by Mrs. Holden on the subject entitled "In the
Heart of the Battle," by Mr. Hampden Bumham on "The Feud of
APPENDIX D CXI
the Huron-Iroquois, and by Mr. Yeigh on "Historic Land Marks in
Ontario.'' Mr. James H. Coyne, who had been President since the
foundation of the Society, retired, much to the regret of all the mem-
bers, and was succeeded by Mr. C. C. James, Deputy Minister of
Agriculture for Ontario. Members were conveyed by steamer from
Lakefield, near Peterboro, to Lindsay, through the beautiful waters
known as the Kawatha Lakes. In both times the inhabitants mani-
fested considerable interest in the Society's work, and several new
members were added to the roll.
At the Easter meeting of the Ontario Educational Association the
Society held a highly successful joint meeting with the Historical
section of that Association. During the year the Society has seen
the completion of the first volume of the Galinee Journal, translated
and edited by James H. Co}-ne. Copies of these have been sent to
all the members of the Society, and the outside demand has been
lively. The Society has also to congratulate itself on the completion
of the Simcoe statue, a work which had been hanging fire for several
years until the Society undertook to see it completed. This statue
will be unveiled in the presence of the Governor-General, Lieutenant-
Governor, the Premier of Ontario, and other distinguished gentlemen
on the 27th of this month. The membership of the Society numbers
two hundred and eighty, including six honorary members, six corres-
ponding members, and sixteen ex-ofhcio members. This membership
extends from Halifax to Dawson, and is represented in all the terri-
tories as well as in all the provinces of the Dominion.
XVIII. — From the Women's Canadian Tlistorical Society of Toronto^
through Mrs. Ahearn.
During the past year, the Society has held its regular monthly
meetings, at which the following papers have been read :
" Indian Summer in Prose and Poetry/' Miss Sara Mickle.
" The Fall of Acadia," Miss E. Yates Farmer.
"The Coronation Scenes in England," Miss M. A. Fitz-Gibbon.
" Laying the Foundations of Ontario," Mr. C. C. James.
"Lachine," Miss Blanche Macdonell (of Montreal).
"The Visit of the Canadian Teachers to Winchester," Mrs. S,
G. Wood.
The Victoria Memorial Hall Fund has reached the sum of $2,676,
and it is earnestly desired by all the members that steps should be
taken towards securing a permanent place of meeting, where suitable
tablets and records might be placed. It ia confidently expected that
next year will see some satisfactory advance in this movement.
CXII ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
Acting in concert with nearly all the historical and kindred
societies throughout Canada, the Women^s Canadian Historical Society
joined in protesting against the erection of a monument to General
Montgomery, in the city of Quebec. Petitions were prepared by a
committee appointed for that purpose and forwarded to His Majesty,
to His Excellency the Governor-General, and to the Mayor of Quebec.
The Society has to deplore the loss by death of two of the most
influential and important of its honorary members — Sir John G.
Bourinot, K.C.M.G., F.R.S.C., and Dr. Douglas Brymner, to both of
whom we have been indebted at various times for invaluable help and
suggestions freely given.
In the death of Miss Seymour, late of Ottawa, the Society has
lost one whose interest in historical work was great. She was, we
"believe, the only one left who remembered the taking of York by the
^American forces in the war of 1812. At the time our first Transaction
was published, she was the only survivor of those who had worked
the historic banner which it described.
During the year fifteen new members have been added to our list.
While something of real historic work has been accomplished by
our Society in the past, we are hoping for more thorough and wider
effort in the future. Especially do we hope for the establishment of
a vigorous and enthusiastic national historical association.
The following are the officers of the Society:
Hon. President — ^Miss Mowat.
President — ^Mrs. Forsyth Grant, 30 Nanton Crescent.
1st Vice-President — Mrs. John A. Paterson.
2nd Vice-President — ^Mrs. Willoughby Cummings.
Treasurer — Mrs. C. D. Cory, 21 Prince Arthur Ave.
Cor. Secretary — ^I^Iiss Jean Graham, 22 St. Mary Street.
XIX. — From the Niagara Historical Society, through
Miss J. Carnochan.
In presenting the report of the Niagara Historical Society we have
to record a year of progress, steady if not rapid. Each year seems to be
marked by some special feature of growth. While our last report
chronicled the placing of seven markers for historic spots, this year's
record shows that a greater number of papers have been read at our
meetings and that we have published two historical pamphlets instead of
one as usual. No. 9 and 10 have been issued since our last report and
when it is remembered that we arc only in the eightli year of our exist-
ence, this may be taken as no mean record.
APPENDIX D CXm
Seven meetings were held from October to May, and the following
original papers read:
" A Wife's Devotion/* a Niagara heroine of 1837, by the President.
" Value of an Historical Boom," by Eev. J. C. Garrett.
*^ Two days in Quebec in 1838 and a day at the Falls in 1860 on the
occasion of the King's visit," by W. Kirby, F.R.S.C.
'"The Vicissitudes of the Niagara Library for Fifty Years," by the
President.
The number of members has slightly increased, numbering over
fifty, more than half non-resident. We have published during the year
No. 9 Diary of W. H, Merritt, Journal of Col. Glaus and letters of
Chief Norton, by Col. E. Cruikshank, and No. 10, Inscriptions and
graves in the Niagara Peninsula by the President.
During the year a visit was paid to our Historical Room by permis-
sion of the Minister of Education by Mr. David Boyle, Superintendent
of Educational Museum, who gave many valuable hints and much help
in classification. His report speaks of the great value of our collection
and the impossibility were it destroyed of duplicating the articles, em-
phasizing strongly the necessity of a good building, fire-proof, and easily
accessible for a collection which is now of provincial value. On the 17th
September, we paid our usual visit to the grave yards of the town as well
as Butler^s to decorate the graves. Our collection is increasing, the room
is open weekly and during the summer months, sometimes daily. Several
interesting photographs of groups of articles were taken by Mr. Walker
and Mr. Sherk, of Toronto. Many letters have been received asking
information which we have frequently been able to give from our papers,
documents^ etc.
A tablet was placed on the Court House showing that it was built
in 1847 for the United Counties of Lincoln, Welland and Haldimand.
We exchange with twenty societies and have distributed six hundred
of our publications during the year. In closing we would refer to the
condition of the Military Reserves in Niagara. While Queenston Heights
and Fort Erie have been placed in the hands of the Niagara Falls Park
Commissioners for beautifying and preservation, we feel that the same
is necessary with regard to Fort George, Navy Hall and Fort Mississagua,
where soldiers of the King lie buried, where the first Parliament was
held and the slave made free ; all lie neglected and falling to decay, other
buildings have been burned, notably the Military Hospital and Com-
mandants House. Navy Hall Inn destroyed. Powder Magazine in
ruins, log buildings of Fort Mississagua removed, Navy Hall falling to
pieces. It is earnestly hoped that all will unite to preserve what we have
Procl903. 8.
CXIV ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
left of historic interest, in ground drenched with the blood of the heroes
of the past, who so nobly stood for King and country.
The following are the officers for the ensuing year : —
Patron— W. Kirby, F.R.S.C.
JVosidonl — Mrs. Carnochan.
Yicc-President — H. Pafford.
Secretary — A. Ball.
Treasurer — Mrs. Manning.
Editor and Curator — Miss Carnochan.
Committee — Rev. J. C. Garrett, R. L. Barron, B.A., Rev. N. Smith,
Mrs. T. F. Best, W. J. McClelland.
Mon. Vice-Presidents — Mrs. Roe, Mrs. Clement, C. F. Ball.
XX. — From ithe Miramichi Natural Historical Association, through
6. B. Fraser.
Another year of sustained interest and satisfactory progress has
l)een added to the life of this young society. Thongh the list of mem-
bers was somewhat reduced by removals, some new ones were added, so
that the total membership remains about the same as it was last year,
namely eighty-four.
During the nine months comprising the Association's ye<ir, reguLr
monthly meetings, and ten additional ones in the lecture season, were
held, all of which were well attended.
The growth of the museum has kept pace with the general pro-
gress of the Society. Among the more prominent additions to the
Department of Zoology, were mounted specimens of the cow moose,
A, americanvs; Seal, F. vitulina; and Bldck Porpoise, P. communis.
The list of mounted birds was enlarged, and several mounted fishes
and a number of alcoholic specimens of reptiles, fishes, and various
invertebrates were added.
A largo collection of plants was made during the year, to be
mounted when opportunity offers from time to time, and placed in the
herbarium cabinet.
Some interesting objects in archaeology were secured, and others
donated, especially aboriginal stone implements of which the collection
is quite extensive. A reference to the list of donations in Bull. No.
III., published this year and a copy of which accompanies this report,
will show the interest being taken in the work of the Association, by
the public in general. Some of the articles in the Bulletin bear evidence
of the original work being done by members of the Association in the
study of algae, protozoa, and comparative zoology. Indeed the Asso-
APPENDIX D CXV
ciation has every reason to feel encouraged by the energy and earnest-
ness its members arc showing.
It is fitting that reference be again made to the death of the late
patron of the Association, and perhaps the very words of the Coun-
cil's report in Bull. No. III., best express the feelings of this Society.
To quote : — " In presenting its third biennial report of the proceedings
and condition of the Association, the Council would refer to the irre-
parable loss that, in common with other scientific institutions in Cana-
da and elsewhere, it sustained in the early and lamented death of its
<]istinguished patron. Dr. G. M. Dawson, late director of the Greological
Survey of Canada. The honour he conferred on the Association by
-accepting the position was even exceeded by the warm helpful interest
he took in its welfare ami progress; and hence its loss is more direct
and personal than that of many institutions. He was one of Canada's
most distinguished sons, into the short span of whose life was crowded
a wealth of scientific research and labour, a harvest of patient investi-
gation and discovery which would have done honour to the longest life.
While the Association then mourns the death of its patron and will
miss his guiding, inspiring, and generous spirit, it finds some consola-
tion and no little pride in enrolling among its early friends and sup-
porters, one whose memor}' will be ever dear to the scientific heart of
Canada."
The following are the oflScers for 1903 : —
Patron — His Honour Lieutenant Governor Snowball.
President— Philip Cox, Ph.D.
Vice-Presidents — D. Ferguson, J. D. B. F. MacKenzie.
Secretary — G. B. Fraser,
Corresponding Secretary — Dr. J. McG. Baxter.
Treasurer — George Stothart.
Librarian — Miss Bessie M. Creighton.
Curators — Geoffry Stead, James Mcintosh, Mrs. E. Flanagan, Miss
Sutherland, Miss M. Flood.
Additional members of the Council — J. L. Stewart, Miss Ida Havi-
land. Miss K. J. B. McLean.
XXI. — From the Canadian Forestry Association, through
E. Stewakt.
I have the honour in behalf of the Canadian Forestry Association
to preeent the following report of the Association for the past year :
This Association, which was organized in March^ 1900, has jkïw
a membership of 450, of whom 17 are life members.
CXVI ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
The work of the Association is apparent in the increased interest
shown not only by the public, as evidenced by the attention given
to forestry by the press of the country but by direct legislation for
the better preservation of our natural forests. The directors recognize
that they are dealing with a subject of vast importance to Canada and
they look with confidence to the future for greater attention and
assistance on the part of the people in their work.
In the last report reference is made to the setting aside of certain
areas as timber reserves in the Railway Belt in British Columbia.
These consist of the Long Lake Reserve southwest of Kamloops, and
the Yoho Park in the Rocky Mountains. Tne Rocky Mountains Park
has also been greatly enlarged and now embraces an area of about
£,880,000 acres and. includes the whole of the upper valley of the Bow
River. Reference is made to the good work resulting from the em-
ployment of forest fire guardians as shown by the comparatively small
loss of timber from fire where the system is in operation as compared
with the destruction from this cause where such means are not adopted.
The report refers to the work of co-operation with the farmers in
forest tree culture on the treeless prairies of Manitoba and the North-
West Territories which was started a couple of years ago by the Forestry
Branch of the Department of the Interior. This work is assuming
large proportions. Within the past two months over 900,000 trees^
and about 700 pounds of tree seed have been distributed to farmers
ïn all parts of the country who had prepared their land to the satis-
faction of inspectors employed by the department who had examined it.
Mention is made of the growing interest in forestry, as evidenced
by the recent action of the University of Toronto and of Queen's
University at Kingston, looking towards the establishment of chairs»
of forestry in those institutions.
The last annual meeting of the Association was held at Ottawa
bn the 5th and 6th of March last, at which papers on the foUowing^
subjects were read:
" The Forests of New Brunswick,'^ by His Honour the Lieutenant-
Governor of New Brunswick.
'^A Report on the Conditions of Lumbering and Forestry in
Western Nova Scotia," by F. C. Whitman, Annapolis Royal, N.S.
" Forest Fires,'^ by W. A. Hendry, formerly Deputy-Commissioner
of Crown Lands, Halifax, N.S.
" History and Results of the Fire Ranging System in Ontario,''
by Aubrey White, Deputy Commissioner of Crown Lands, Toronto, Ont.
"Forest Protection in the Railway Belt, British Columbia," by
James Leamy, Dominion Crown Timber Agent, New Westminster, B.C.
APPENDIX D CXVn
" The Forest Fires of 1902," prepared by instruction of the Asso-
ciation.
" Tree Planting in Mimitoba/' by A. P. Stevenson, Nelson, Man-
itoba.
" The Growth of Forest Trees in the Forest Belts and Arboretum
o£ the Experimental Farm," by W. T. Macoiin, Horticulturist at the
Experimental Farm, Ottawa.
"Forestry Education," by Professor W. L. Goodwin, School of
^Mining, Queen^s University, Kingston, Ont.
" The Effect on Fish Life of Sawdust in Rivers," by A. P. Knight,
Queen^s University, Kingston, Ont.
On the evening of the 5th, an illustrated lecture on " Forest Trees
iand Their Uses" was given by Professor E. C. Jeffrey, of Harvard
University, Cambridge, Mass., in the Assembly Hall of the Normal
School.
The officers for the ensuing year are :
Patron — ^His Excellency the Eari of Minto, Governor-General.
Honorary President — William Little, Westmount, P.Q.
President — Hiram Eobinson, Ottawa.
Vice-President — Aubrey White, Deputy Commissioner of Crown
Ijands, Toronto, Ont.
Vice-Presidents for the Provinces and Districts — Ontario, J.^B.
licWilliams, Peterborough, Ont.; Quebec, Hon. S. N. Parent, Premier
of Quebec, Que. ; New Brunswick, His Honour J. B. Snowball, Lieuten-
ant-Governor of New Brunswick, Fredericton, N.B. ; Nova Scotia, A. H.
MacKay, LL.D., Superintendent of Education, Halifax, N.S.; Prince
Edward Island, Rev. A. E. Burke, Alberton, P.E.I. ; Manitoba, Major
Stewart Mulvey, Winnipeg, Man.; Assiniboia, J. S. Dennis, Commis-
fiioner of Irrigation for the Canadian Pacific Eailway Company,
Calgary, Alta.; Saskatchewan, P. G. Laurie, Battleford, Sask.; Alberta,
William Pearce, Calgary, Alta.; Athabasca, F. D. Wilson, Fort Ver-
milion, Atha.; British Columbia, Hewitt Bostock, Ducks, B.C.; Yukon,
The Commission-er, Dawson, Yukon; Keewatin, the Lieutenant-Gov-
ernor of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Man.
Secretary, E. Stewart, Dominion Superintendent of Forestry,
Department of the Interior, Ottawa.
Assistant Secretary and Treasurer — B. H. Campbell, Department
of the Interior, Ottawa.
Directors — Wm. Saunders, LL.D., F.R.S.C, Director of Experi-
mental Farms, Ottawa; Prof. John Macoun, F.L.S., F.R.S.C., Assistant
Director of the Geological Survey, Ottawa; Thos. South worth, Director
of Forestry, Toronto, Ont.; C. Jackson Booth, Ottawa; J. R. Booth,
CXVIII ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
Ottawa; E. G. Joly de Lotbinière, Quebec, Que.; John Bertram,
Toronto, Ont.
XXII. — From the Women's Canadian Historical Society of Ottawa,
through Mrs. S. E. Dawson.
The following is a report of the work of the Women's Canadian
Historical Society of Ottawa for the year 1902-1903.
During the past year there have been eight executive and six gen-
eral meetings.
At the opening meeting in October last in place of the historical
paper for that month Mrs. Aheam, the treasurer, consented to give the
Society her impressions of Egypt gathered during a recent visit to that
land.
In November while the memories of the Coronation were still
fresh in our minds the Society wished to have the pleasure of hearing
an account of it from one who had actually witnessed the great proces-
sion to Westminster Abbey and Mrs. J. Lyons Biggar gave a bright and
graceful account of what she had seen, touching on many most interest-
ing incidents the result of her own personal observation.
The subject for December last was " Aylmer,^* a paper read by
Miss Eead, showing much careful preparation and full of historical
interest.
At the January meeting a very clever and scholarly paper was
read by Miss Whiteaves on " The Women Workers of Ottawa,^' acquaint-
ing us with many interesting facts.
It was with intense interest that we listened in February last to
Madame Pigeon^s paper on the " Indians of the Ottawa Valley,'^ full of
poetic description of the Ottawa River scenery, aboriginal Indian cus-
toms, characteristic legends, and history, /the fruit of many months of
careful study and preparation.
In March Mrs. D. H. Mcljean prepared and read the first of a
series of articles on Canadian men of note. The subject of her sketch
was the life of Sir James Macpherson LeMoine, D.C.L., a paper which
gave us a very clear insight into the life, character and work of one of
the most prolific writers on Canadian life and history.
The Society intends to have these papers printed in the noxr
volume of its Transactions so that the members as well as those
interested in the Society and its aims may have the pleasure of reading
jkhem.
A most enjoyable drawing room meeting was held in January last
at the residence of Mrs. Aheam, at which Dr. Drummond read a num-
APPENDIX D CXIX
ber of selections from his book of poems " The Habitant/' affording
great pleasure to all who had the good fortune to be present.
The Scrap Book Committee carries on a record of current history
which in future years will be of much interest.
The work has been progressing slowly during the year. The three
books of the committee are the " Local Events " in Miss Masson's
charge; ^' The Canadian Events/' in Miss Eva Read's care and the one
devoted to *^ Ottawa/' that is the growth and improvement of the city
itself, is kept by Miss Horsey.
Clippings are all dated, the name of the paper from which they
are taken insc rted, and they are kept safely in large envelopes until
pasted in the books.
Our President has during the past year kept the diary of " Cur-
rent Events" which will be a record of the greatest interest a few
years hence. In January last, Mrs. Kirwan undertook this work for the
present year.
Among the Society's treasures are the originals of the South
African letters of Mr. Edward Holland, V.C, which he kindly present-
ed to the library of the Historical Society.
XXIII. — From The United Empire Loyalists' Association of Ontario,
Head of the Lake Branch, through H. H. Kobertson.
Your committee report that the progress of this branch of the U. E.
L. A. of Ontario has been gratifying, the total moml)ership of the branch
including families now being fifty-nine, exclusive of associate members.
Changes have been made in the constitution of the general association in
the past year as follows: — Amendment to article II, to add after the
word " Members/' " Provided that branches may also choose an honor-
ary president, second vice-presidents, a secretary and an assistant secre-
tary, an executive committee of not more than six members, and a ladies'
committee of not more than twelve. The presiding officer of the ladies'
committee may also be a member of the executive committee.'' " Also
that no person coming to Canada from the United States after the year
3796 shall be considered a^' a U. E. Loyalist ancestor unless it can be
clearly demonstrated that he or she was entitled to be so considered."
A form of opening and closing meetings, and reception of members
has also been adopted by the association all of which will be set forth in
the forthcoming number of the Transactions now in the prcFS.
The officers elected at the first meeting have remained for the year.
During the year addresses have been delivered as follows : —
On March 11th, by the President, " Reminiscences of the War of
1812."
OXX ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
On April 8th, by the Secretary, " The Narrative of John Peters/'
On May 13th, by Mrs. Powell, " À diary, descriptive of a canoe trip
from Montreal to Detroit in 1783/*
On June 13th, by H. H. Robertson, "Burgojme's Campaign and
Loyal Americans." (Illustrated by lime light views.)
On December 9th, Miss N. M. Clarkson, Honorary Secretary, read
a paper by T. S. Arnold, entitled, " The Battle of the Thames and the
l>eath of Tecumseh.*'
On January 14th, 1903, by J. H. Smith, " History of Hamilton. ''
It is the desire of your committee that every member of the associa-
tion should furnish a paper in furtherance of its objects, "to preserve
the history and traditions of the Loyalist families before it is too late.*'
This can be done by every member contributing the narrative of his or
her TJ. E. Loyalist ancestor, and it is to be hoped that the ensuing year
will see additional contributions in this direction.
Early in the year a complete set of the Transactions of the Associa-
tion was donated to the Hamilton Public Library, and through the in-
strumentality of the Association, copies of " The Settlement of Upper
Canada," by Dr. Canniff ; " The History of the County of Dundas," by
Croil, and of " Lunenburgh," or " The Eastern District," by the late
Judge Pringle, of Cornwall, dedicated to the descendants of the U. E.
Loyalists, were obtained and placed in the Hamilton Public Library.
The importance of maintaining the historical branch of the
Museum begun at Dundum is impressed upon the members of the As-
sociation, and if an amalgamation of the various small collections oould
be made at this central point, a really good museum would result. Steps
should be taken to bring this about, and the good will of the Parks Com-
mittee of the city obtained to that end.
Officers for 1903 :—
Honorary President — J. E. O'Rielly.
President — His Honour, Judge Snider.
Vice-President— S. F. Lazier, K.C.
Vice-President— W. A. H. Duff.
Honorary Secretary-Tre^asurer — H. H. Robertson.
Committee— A. C. Beasloy, J. H. Smith, J. M. Dingwall, Edwin
Mills, Justus Griffin, W. G. Moore.
APPENDIX D CXXI
XXIV. — From the Report of the Botanical Club of Canada for the
Year 1902-S.
By the General Secretary, A. H. MaoKay, LL.D.
The phenological tables compiled from the numerous reports of
observers are this year more extensive than usual. Those who want
fuller information, therefore, on such subjects as the officers, objects
and (constitution of the Club, the schedules of objects for observation
and the directions for observation and compilation, are referred to the
report of last year, and of previous years.
The first table contains the observations of the following members
of the Club on the dates of the first appearances of the phenomena
briefly indented only in the table, although precisely specified in the
schedules for recording them. Their addresses and stations are as
follows, in the order of the table :
T. A. Good, Woodstock, New Brunswick ; J. M. Duncan, Charlotte-
town, Prince Edward Island; John MacSwain, Charlottetown, Prince
Edward Island; Dr. Cephas Guillet, Ottawa, Ontario; Mrs. Frank E
Webster, Beatrice, Muskoka, Ontario; Dr. J. H. Elliott, Gravenhurst,
Musfcoka, Ontario; T. E. Donnelly, Pheasant Forks, Assiniboia; Percy
B. Gregson, Blackfalds, Alberta ; J. K. Henry, B.A., Vancouver, British
Columbia.
The first column is the average of about 350 schedules of observa-
tions made by as many of the public schools of the Province of Nova
Scotia, and other active members of the club among whom -the fol-
lowing have been sending in reports: Eev. James Eosborough,
Muequodoboit Harbor, Halifax Co.; Miss Louise MacMillan, Sydney
Mines, Cape Breton; Mrs. 6. Ormond Fqfrsyth, Pori; Hawkesbury,
Inverness Co. ; and Miss Janet Keith Bruce Kelley, Yarmouth.
The last column is the average of scattered observations from
about ten observers in different parts of the south of British Columbia,
five being from Vancouver Island or the coast, two from the dry belt,
and three from the mountain belt. These observations were made on
the schedule prepared and published by the Natural History Society
of the Province, and were communicated to me by A. J. Pineo, Esq.,
B. A., of Victoria.
A more detailed summary of the observations in Nova Scotia and
British Columbia are given in the two succeeding tables. As the Nova
Scotian phenochrons are based on about 350 schedules, it will be
observed that, as a rule, a good many schedules are averaged for each
of the ten meteorological or biological regions of the l:'rovince. The
individual schedules are annually bound up into a volume which can
OXXII ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
be utilized by weather students in the future with every facility. There
are already a number of such volumes in existence. And those of the
last years have, to a considerable extent, been analyzed and compiled
by a staff of specialists so as to give the phenochrons of the coast, low-
land and highland belts of each county. These sheets are likewise
being bound up in annual volumes. The Nova Scotian table published
here is merely the most generalized average of averages.
A close study of the tables showing individual observations, will
create the impression that observers are not always in a position to note
the phenomena of the seasons when they first appear. In this respect
the observations conducted by the public schools are more accurate.
For they are made by a large number of individuals travelling nearly
every day to school and radiating from this central point of the com-
munity for a distance generally of about two miles. As the teachers
stimulate " observing " by noting the first one who brings evidence of
the first appearance of a flower, etc., there is a great deal of com-
petitive observation on the part of the young people. This not only
makes the travelling to and from school more interesting; but is found
to be a great aid to general "nature study." Accuracy is assured by the
bringing of the specimen to the school room when practicable.
But even in schools mistakes may occur through accident in
recording, and sometimes from lack of sufficient knowledge of the
natural history of the locality. In order to discover such mistakes,
and to enable directions to be framied in order to minimize them, as
well as for the purpose of studying and compiling regional phenochrons,
the observation schedules filled in by the teacher of each school is sent
to one of a staff of specialists. Their criticisms are annually puUished
in the Journal of Education of Nova Scotia^ which also contains the
names of observers and number of observations made in each of the
fcchools reporting. Under the advice of the staff several changes were
inade in the schedules issued after 1902. Next year this schedule
may be given in full in my report, the observations contained in it being
based on the same list
The names and addresses of the Nova Scotian Phenological staff
at present are as follows:
C. B. Robinson, B.A., Science Master, Pictou Academy.
E. J. Lay, Principal, Amherst Academy.
J. E. Barteaux, Science Master, Truro Academy.
Antoinette Forbes, B.A., Windsor Academy.
Burgess McKittrick, B.A., Principal, Limenburg Academy.
Minnie C. Hewitt, Limenburg Academy.
G. R. Marshall, Principal, Richmond School, Halifax.
APPENDIX D CXXin
Stanley C. Bruce, Principal, Shelbume Academy.
A. W. Horner, Principal, Public School, Yannouth.
In the western province western species or varieties have sometimes
been observed instead of those of the schedule which is eastern in its
complexion. In the most of these cases the western species is indicated
by an index letter referring to a footnote under the tables.
The oflBlcers of the Club are the same as last year. The exchange
and determination of species can be most effectively made for members
of the Club by James A. Macoun, M.A., Curator of the Herbarium,
Geological Survey of Canada, Ottawa, to whom parcels of plants go
tfree of postage.
The address of the General Secretary of the Club is : A. H.
MacKay, LL.D., Halifax, Nova Scotia.
Blank schedules for the recording and repori;ing of phonological
observations will be sent free to anyone making application. It is
Tccommended that the observer keep the original schedule, sending
the Secretary a true copy of it — ^at the latest by the end of the year.
CXXIV
ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
PfiBirOLOOIGAL OBSERVATIONS, OANADA, 1901.
OasBBTATioir STATion—WHBv ViBtT Sbbv.
1
Day of the jear 1909 oorre-
tpondlng to the lm»t day of
each month.
Jan 81 July.... 919
Feb 69 Aug 948
March 90 8«pt.....978
April... 190 Oct 804
May.... 161 Not 884
Jane. ...181 Dec 866
Si
Is
5
«
M
S
1
3
1
o
— ^^ —
K
»
o
1
«1
ê
•
s
i
a
i
1
•
a
M
6
1
4
1
-<
1
Ainu» inoana, WUld
Popolni tramnloidai, Ms.
Epig»a rapena, L
Viola cnonllatai Gray .. .
V.blanda, Willd
93.6
108.6
94.9
119.1
llff.9
117.1
181.8
199.4
119.8
180.8
117.4
198.8
117.ff
168. •
141.9
998.1
141.0
907 1
147.9
166.3
166.9
148. U
147.4
168.4
160.6
138.8
194.0
168.6
903 8
166.1
23?. 7
•96
•109
•109
•109
•116
116
76
117
117
191
198
197
107
198
97
96
•108
189
190
96
87
•99
♦110
•119
•110
d»
dl08.7
i
99
114
103
107
187
186
8
4
A
187
140
198
e97
100
6
Aoer rabnua, L
7
Hooatonia osndaa, L
Sqaiietom arTeua, L, . . . .
Erythroaiom Amar., Key.
Hepatica triloba, Chaix.. .
GopUi trifolia, Saliab
Fragaria Virginiana, Mill
" (fruit ripe)..
Prunai Pennayl., L.
" (fruit ripe)..
Vacciniam Penn., Lam.. . .
•• (fruit ripe). .
Banunculua acrii, L
B. repena, L
A
104
109
106
86
190
111
161
197
•149
•196
•142
•149
•161
80
9
199
•199
190
180
119
111
87
198
190
188
196
10
11
19
•148
196
18
14
147
188
197
188
147
166
900
143
298
219
170
gll6
1098
168.
16
148
146
^•188
188
Iff
982
17
119
•916
•156
198
•130
196
128
18
186.1
19
90
149
161
166
127
140
164
168
190
119.8
91
(3Untonia borealia, lUf . . . .
Trillium erjthrocarpujn. . .
Trientalii Ameri., Purah
Cypripedium acaule. Ait.
OaUa paluatris, L
Amelanchier Canadeniia
*• (fruit ripe)
Bubua atrigoaui, Michx...
(fruit ripe)...
Bubua rilloaus, Ait
" (fruit ripe). . .
146
138
141
142
99
•148
196
137
137
164
120
•130
•163
♦166
•126
98
146
A124
94
bl70
fcl91.8
6
96
97
147
191
144
cl48
906
180
910
C198.6
98
161
•166
•211
•166
•222
IM
170
•69
149
•141.8
99
1M
80
IM
in6
1
31
..'.".'.
* When becoming common. a Boaa blanda. h Cypripedium hirantum.
c a. alnifolii. d Alnus rubra. « Viola paluatris. / a. macrophyllum.
g Prunus emarginata. h Trientalis Earopasa. • Uubus apeoUbilia. j Bosa. k Oalypao.
APPENDIX D
CXXV
PHRNOLOOICAL OBSERVATIONS, CANADA, 1902.
OBSKBVATioir STATion — Whxit F1B8T Suit.
1
9S
«pvDdïag tatim lAitâfti of
ABch moDth-
Jua Si Jvl;..... JlS
F^b S9 Ad«. ., 3i9
itinslL... B» Sep* 373
ApTiL....liO Oot 3^4
M»r 1^1 Ndï .... ss*
Jane.,., l&l Bec.,.- Ut
il
r
le
-g
Q
1
M
pi
1
S
g
IH
i
0
1
1
4
0
1
0
i
1
1
d
(à
>
>
«S
3ï
ai
»
SET
KjdiuU gUtieft, Ail
R. HTlgaitïfolÎAi Ij....,,.
(friîit ripe). „ ,
SiijHnGhiym «nguvtifol
LinDBft boTHtlii, ti, ..**..
Lintit» CanadflD., Dum, ,
HblDBiilIiai CrlitUpBiUlî, L
BrunoUp vaïgarÎB, L ,. . . .
fioHluddii, Ehrh,
Hfpvnfimn perforstuip, Ll
Trnnuft CAn»Btii {flultiï.)
" (fraitrlpft),...
0»t«gai Oirm^aatbi, L.-
0. cooclnei^ |j« . , . ,. , * , , , ,
lfil.4
143.7
]».«
laa.fi
17X.»
UO.fi
m, 5
IBl 5
170.0
i6«.e
143,3
m.s
18S,B
166 s
14fi.4
147 «
lAfi.B
ltl,9
l«».ï
iia.9
ao7.î
IW.B
iâfi,9
177.9
1*7
ITl
171
m
146
100
17(1
171
IM
•me
*iua
•]7«
•iga
*310
1«
181
•12a
1*7
ÏÏB
1«0
117 S
8S
17(J
IBl
aïoe
186
»..,..
40
41
4a
43
44
4fi
41
4f
lOft
100
90a
•171
lOi
le»
17i.7
in,
1«6
Ut
:4fi
■■-
4f
1(17
1*7
160
11^1
i«a
1D4
140
m
133
•153
LU
lU
»
fil
Ai
FTroA milita ffltilt'd) êfti-Ij
*i l*t&..
HibM mbram (eullif .ted)
(fridtrip*) ...
E, BignuQ (eoltiTftled) ....
'* Cfnittrîi^ej....
Soliuiam tubarotum, L, . . .
Pblaam pîktQUir, L..
TrifollQm Mpenj, L, ,
•i«
131*
69
•lai
....
144
fi
113,»
H
H
193
•13*
m
sa
ini
U9
19A
146
laa.fi
141
iw
300,
leo
IXO
lis
133
itîfi.â
I7fl.4
5B
197, fi
m
143
lAl
144
Ul.B
11
■ *" ■ "
)fi«
160.
* When becoming common.
i
a Bosa bland».
l c« nutftAllii.
CXXVI
ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
PHENOLOOICAL OBSBBYATIONSf OANABA, 1902.
Obkbtatiom Statioits— Whbv First Sxkh.
1
Day of ihe year Jflna eorrfl-
»poodhiA lo the lui day cf
Jaa .... 31 Julj. ....ais
K^b. S9 Auff,,.. 343
April,,,. 120 t>ct., !i«4
Mftj 1^1 Nov..,..,3«
Juuti ...,161 Dec...., SeA
<
1
IS
1
*-*
M
ê
d
1
1
o
1
O
1
i
1
1
t
^ i
te
t.
i
<
î
1
s.
1
h d,
£ g
62 Tritiaurn TalfTAFfi. 1. .
206.0
tiii)
63
Avstift latlvai Ij
m.7
2()&
64
.,,.
177
192
»
•6»
ïlarJii'it f^ll Iflafing of ine
137, fi
...,
....
140
....
•Rh
Latflit
16&.3
104 6
lil
07
66
90
*13t
67
iir.a
li4l
112
m
97
.,,.
68
FgLato-plauitti^ **
iifl 1
im
•i;Mt
147
lis
.. .
69
t2S,b
lew
•m
162
1T4
70
Haj^uttjng *■
GralDHiCiittiDff **
IflS s
9K1«
100
71
MI.O
231
332
224
i*u
Ti
Potato-diggtng i-
Opeaing of rt^^e** "
25J9 3
293
arg
78a
-3 7
A
67
1»
If*
101
7Sb
Opening of lake ■ *^
7i fi
......
....
....
....
ia^>
74a
T««t mow to wbiUn gr'ad
1(J« IÏ
ia.1
....
148
.....
..,
lU
M. a
74b
" tq fly in air .,
123. a
»2
148
....
us
m
7fta
Lakt »firLDg frciRt— h ■»!«.,
boar
i4o ^
]9I
149
144
m
76b
154.0
.^..
Ht
1-M
144
m
76a
Water ib itfeamp— hlghait
BJS.i
Sit
....
...
im
,.,.
76b
** ■* Id weal
216. (J
., .
.. .♦
...
1W
. ,.
ta«
77a
Uni autiiuiD fiott^boAr. .
afl4.7
36»
2«1
..
*f
>li
au«
.,•..
77b
'* ** banl,.
3*Û 3
S8fl
»...
*,,
144
16«
sn
78a
Pint mow to fly Id mlr. „
2U3-4
**.H ,*
9^
..,,.
2Û6
2V9
310
78b
*' whlt#n ground.
ais,i
,...
298
....
ao7
2M
alO
79»
CloiingoflakM
" rl«t*,
B4i,a,
364. s
346
S44
llï
«fi
—
79b
..!!
8lB
WJ1ddu£ktmïgï*tlnBiN.
*' a.
Tf 3
84)
97
83
81b
»&.l
. . ,.
, ..«
«M
ftuO
83a
*' geeie "■ N..
76J
73
ai
6^
M
9«
S'î
82b
** " 8h
21 It a
263
»19
SUT
irtO
SS
Meloipiia raaolala, Tfoftti,
Bi 4
S8|
DO
r<
Uit
* Wbcn becoming oommon.
APPENDIX D
CXXVII
PHENOLOGIOAL OBSEBYATLOXS, CANADA, l»oa.
Obskbvatxok Stations — Whbh Fxbst Sxsy.
s
flponding to the iMt dky of
each aionth.
Tan 31 July. .. ai2
Feb 5î> Ang...„ 243
March .. 90 Sept. ....UTA
April ...120 Oct .SM
May. 161 Nov.-, S34
Jun*-. ...181 Deo 3B5
1
1
M 1
a"
»
s
S'
i
i
i
m
M
D
1
Si
U
1
1
m
M
O
5
i
Cl
à
S'a
84
8A
Turd us migratoriui, North
Jnnco hiemalia * ^
Actitie maonlaria <'
Stumella magna ^'
Dendrœca coronata •'
D.satira
Zonotrichia alba
Troehilua colubria "
Tyrannus Caroline diIi ^'
Dolyohonyx oryzivomi.
Sùrth
Spinis tri«tii <
Setopbaga mticilla ''
Ampclis cedrorum **
Chordellfls Viginianui '*
Firtt piping of frog*
Firtt app«aranoe or inaki^i
7«.3
7U 1
134.0
X07 P
121^3
i;j7.2
140.3
103. Û
146.1
133.7
laa «
m S
127 7
13fi 7
11. 1
Iflt 7
7J»
87
87'
«si
74
ec
IM
34
84
87
62
UD
Ml
67
M
89
90
91
11Û
ISS
133
1^8
140
lï[8
13a
ire
eft
142
1*S
ISO
UO
11B
137
140
114
..*,.*
92
93
—
182
U7
94
9A
m
1»
74
1*1
84
91
112
136
46
96
97
98
99
1)0
ÏM
14»
lui
150
104
117
S7
CXXVIII
ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
Flowering and other phenochrons for each re^on of the province of Nova Scotia,
compiled from 300 public 8chool observation scheduler» (Tin? phenochrons for
each region (whicn are averages of many observ^atou^) btive the fracrions
omitted].
When Fibwt See^î— REoioxa,
1
to tlie la«t dftf of ^weh io«atlk.
Jim........ „. 51 July.. 3IS
Peb 6» Anff .*«
Mwroll . 90 B«iJt , ...373
April laa Oot. . .SO*
Miiy l&l Not ...SU
Jane .... 381 Dv«, .* UC
S
>
h
Em
ill
Il
xi
Si
4.^
Si
1-'
il
3
^
<
71
88
?5
88
101
90
68
30
93
•^^
1
G».6
96
2
FopuIuH tremuloidei, Michx. .
103.5
loet
105
\08
04
98
102
99
105
111
a
KpEgH^ repenn, L — .......
UM
H6
88 90
92
eo
101
101
98
98
103
4
Viola cacullatat Gray
119.1
11^
117
us
117
121
118
130
126
121
134
5
V. blanda, Willd
llfi.O
no
114
11.^
115
115
115
117
123
121
123
6
Act-T rubmm» L
117.1
118
115 110
in
116
115
117
124
123
117
7
Houatonia cœrulea, L . .* —
131.8
138
127 130
132
125
127
....
146
8
Equmetum arvense, L.. . . . . .
122 4
im
125 114
110
uê
121
123
140
120
d
Taraxacum oWclnaie, Weber
ii9,a
111
119
117
118
118
121
120
128
122
123
10
U
Krythron \ am American u m. , .
H*îpatiea triloba, Chaii......
130.8
1-*7
15'?
Kiô
\?s
IW
121
}m
117 4
123
117
w
m
■
12
Coptis trifolla, Sali»b
128 3
1^
125
120
127
126
126
132
133
130
134
13
Fraiçarïa Virginiana, filUL . . .
137.6
116
119
lU
lie
117
116
lit?
122
119
118
14
(Iruitrlpe)
fioo.e'
•157
163
157
164
167
166
107
178
176
m
15
FrUDUs Pennsylvaulca^ L,,..
141.2
VM
139
136
138
14J
140
140
148
145
150
10
17
(fruit ripe)......
Yacclnium Penn. v. Can., Lam
2211 1
?\1
'^10
^3S\
^^5
2ÎW
141 .0
m
131
137
137
137
141
143
152
161
150
18
<fruitrlpe)
207.1
itffi
m
ItlS
238
10^
218
212
SI
208
]0
Hanunculufi aeria^ L ......... .
147.2
lijâ
144
130
144
152
142
147
103
153
151
?tf)
R. repens^ L ,...,,,......»..* .
1&5.3
146
143
153
163
157
158
157
161
162
104
21
Clintonia borealls, Raf ....
155.2
146
151
146
168
156
154
105
166
22
THUium erythrocarpum, Mich
148.0
142
145
135
148
158
142
146
166
165
141
23
Trientalia ÂmeHcâHum,Purtih
147.4
m
144
135
148
15U
148
14W
163
151
147
24
Cypripedium acaule. Ait.
158.4
151
152
151
157
m
161
160
m
161
....
25
CfLlla oaJuittris. L. . .........
100.6
151
15H
170
144
158
165
T77
Amelanchier Canadensis, T.
138.8
137
135
133
m
1^
139
135
151
143
141
27
(fruttripeK.....
1&4.0
l&l
191
...-
, ..
....
3W
....
1S9
....
• Last year the date here thould have been 164 inatead of " 114,'* which wat a clerical error,
t The '* 164 ** of latt year here shoold have been 168.
APPENDIX D
CXXIX
Flowering and other phenochrons for each region of the province of Nova Scotia,
oompTled from 300 public school observation wchedultfH, [The phenochrons for
each region (which are averages of many obber valions) huve the fractions
omitted].
Whew BEcojuttro CohmQxV— Rf^nioNs.
to tht Lui day al PBâb monlb^
B
April . .
JUU«B. . ^
1
2
3
4
&
e
7
a
ID
u
12
13
H
15
16
17
18
IB
aa
21
2â
S3
24
m
m
. âL Juif .
. «a Auff .
, «0 Bept ,
120 Oct , .
.Ifil Not ,
ABl iHc-.
. -373
..534
Alnus Incana, Willd
Fopiilus tretnulotdesif Mlohx..
EpigfPA repenjt, L. . , . . . , . , .
Viola eu eu lia ta» Gray
Y.blanda, Wiïld,..,..
Acer rubriim, L. ,
Monatonla ca^rulea, h ........
Bquisetum arTenae» L, ...... .
Taraxacum offlcinatet Webcr.
Brythroiiium ÂmerLcatiU0i.. .
Hepatica tr[loba^ Chaix
Coptlstrîfolîa, Salbb
Fragaria Virjfiniana, MilL...
(fruit ripe)
Prunus PenniylTanîca* L...,
" (fruit ripe)
Vaceinlum Penn,v,Can., Lu m
(fruit Hpe)
Banunculus acria, L
R. rcpens, L. ......
Clin ton la boreal K Raf... ..
Trîllîum crythrocarpum, Mich
THen tal iii Amcrl ca nu m , Pum h
Cj-^pripedium acaule, Alt
Caîïa paJusliri»* L
Âmetanchier Canadousi», T.
" (fruit rip6>„,...
0
k
<
101
112
107.
127
124.
123
139
130.
120.
138.
123
135.
129.
ns
147,
228
150
220
155
163
IGl
1^
IM
163,
170
143
210
1-^
107
S I I
7}
ai
96
130 lis
103 ini
118
119
125
133
121
127
12y
128
123
174
Ul
'.ai
130
211
M 150
isa
154
15^
140
158
162
144
212
122
122
134
132
127
156
12B
131
12P
176
146
2Vi
141
lâOj
lai
m
156
152
153
158
163
141
207
|&:
G\4
I
1€3^ 08
114
103
125
123
121
135
125
127
158
102
m
124
173
144
144
211
161
141
146
157
101
108
126
124
lie
144
126
un
134
137
134
127
177
144
146
254
150 153
150
140 150
155
153
166
179
1301 141
107
130
124
124
138
133
1-
^.1
136
132
170
160
152
161
167
153
154
165
146
103
110
UÛ
128
12Ë
124
133
1^
131
130
134
120
174
140
153
151
163
165
140
157
106
144
05
106
100
127
125
123
127
128
12ft
104
112
100!
131
130
120
131
133
139
130
180
146
237
151
SÎ29
156
164
150
154
152
162
164
142
139
129
186
153
161
220
168
171
172
170
170
173
168
150
213.,,.
90
111
112
120
128
128
137
129
138
140
m
151
234
157
237
159
163
173
160
158
164
133
150
210
102
11g
113
129
129
1S3
151
1^
131
136
140
129
182
156
230
157
213
157
168
146
t5S
147
Proc., 1908. 9.
cxxx
ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
Flowering and other phenochrons for each regiaa of the province of Nova Scotia,
compilecl from 300 public Rcliool obî*erv'Ation acliedule*. [The phenochrons for
each reocion (which are average* of Timuy observAlionë) have the fractious
omitted]
When JFibst Seen— Rkoionh.
tù the 1 Alt cUj a#«uh mautii.
a
>■
s
Or
3
•B
156
it
a* =
163
3
a
loi
u
154
^1
Jo
i&g
■O c
!<<
%^
163
1 =
ad
152
if
2
Feb. H.* SB ÂQB- .*,,,.. «.ft43
«
B
£3
Mansh ......,, W Sept tTt
AprU ..„1M Oot.„. SiH
Mij .Wl Not.. SS4
Jma*. ,.».... 181 Deo -.., IWft
il**
2»
Rubiiâ strlgosuSf Michx
15S0
162
20
<fruitrip«>
203.8
205
201
206
ISl
1^)0
207
215
2U
207
W}
HubUB vtHoflUâ^ Ait,
166 1
165
165
164
160
e3@
Iffl
163
225
176
234
160
253
SI
(fruit ripe>
232,7
^1
216
225
170
238
?ffi
Kalmia «lauca, Ait. . , <..-..
161 4
144
145
1i7
146
178
161
176
15B
178
167
162
33
K- anfçuHtlfoilaf L . .. . , . , .
163.7
H2:
165
150
157
161
162
142
167
ai
Comus Canaden&ist L
152.4
144
149
144
xà
156
151
150
181
160
163
36
(fruUripe).
216.1
245
20S
221
203
2U
213
3d
SiAjrinchiumangustifollum, .
158. S
1Q2
154
151
154
158
157
167
175
\m
163
ar?
Lloneea borealLs, L . ^ ^ . . ^ ..
168 6
160
159]
159
164
\m
171
172
176
175
176
182
33
Lioaria Canadenste, Dum
Rhinanthuii Cri^tagaUl, L, . .
171.5
170.5
158
106
172
108
17H
165
17P
161
170
178
m
170
171
178
40
Sarracc^nla purpurea, L
Brunella vulgarian L.. . . . , ,
105.2
171 5
160
171
163
171
166
17^
166
174
17li
154
173
191
174
173
183
174
41
164
4Z
BpilobJum anguatifoUum, L.,
Roaa lucida. Ehrh ., .
166,0
lii s
182
172
180
187
161
190
43
1H3
17^
176
170
185
44
Hypi-rlcum perforatum, L.,..
LeOFitodon autumnale, L
170.0
162
165
185
107
lag
....
45
172
171
176
173
46
Prunmi Oemsus (cuiti v. ).,«..,
143.3
136
1^
136
141
146
146
144
150
144
148
47
(f ml tripe)
197,2
196
201
100
194
■*no
*>nft
SDO
4^
CraUpgus Oxyacantha, L. . „ . .
158.5
162
156
157
Iff?
158
157
168
156
167
40
C, <:oc!Clnea» L. . . ...
156 2
155
Iffî
1ÏÏ
lixh
157
144
164
163
50
Prunu« domestica (cultivated)
145.4
137
141
138
142
149
144
154
160
SI
Py rus malua (cultivated) early
147.6
141
143
142
146
152
147
147
157
\m
153
fig
late
165.8
150
150
148
15&
1.^
156
\El
163
100
160
63
Rïbea ru brum (cultivatt-d). . . .
HI .9
13^
138
137
140
143
13a
140
156
147
147
54
ffruitrfpeï......
mj
jm
ioqI
178
Iff?
104
201
196
APPENDIX D
CXXXI
Flowerine and other phenochroiis for each region of the province of Nova Scotia,
compiled from 300 public school observation schedules. [The phenochrons for
each region (which are averages of many observations) have the fractions
omitted].
When Becoiono Common— Regions.
Dftj of tfae J tat 1902 comipondiiiB
to thfl Uit dar of flucb monih.
Jin .,, SI JnJy, .,„,.,, 3ia
§
1
>
1
1
il
— 1
ri
170
JE
II
161
s
■al
168
II
il
là
ïf
1!
167
iê
r c
172
11
160
Il
168
È
F«b,*...^,,,,,, 6U Aug-. ,.,.^^K 343
So
1
«■Wh ...,.„, {Ml Bftpl STB
April.*,, lir) Oct. S&4
May* .*...„.., Ifil Not ,,..,.,. 834
a
jaoe ,,....1B1 Dfto. *, .»*aijs,
^
3
SB
Rubnfl strigostis, Michi- .....
160. fl
166
lff7
20
(fruit ripe J.,..,..
21Ô.0
227
21>^
213
212
m
220
222
217
^
Rubna viUosiii, Alt . , ,
I73.fi
175
240
ITS
220
173
236
171
246
172
228
180
230
169
2âSS
177
31
(fmltripe)
244
38
K&lmia glauca, Ait
157.5
152
151
Î55
15;^
153
IftS
170
166
155
^
K. angastifolia, L
170,]
15]
171
167
182
163
182
186
168
168
173
31
Camus Canadensis, L.. .....
lflO.6
154
leo
152
1^
166
150
168
107
m
lff7
^
(fruit ripe )•
^5,1
240
B07i
mt
228
2li^
216
as
Sisyrinchium angustlfoJium. .
ifia.4
161
161
158
162
166
166
lee
181
170
171
Ï7
LinnEoa boreaïift, T>
m. 5
167
IflB
164
169
176
17F
178
181
185
182
m
Li nana Canadensis?, Du m ...
176.4
170
171
182
. . ..
170
138
170
30
Bhîtiantbus Oistagallî, L....
177. e
173
174
175
176
176
180
187
180
40
Sarracenia purpurea, L
173.8
182
100
172
159
173
182
179
4T
Bmnellrt vulgaris, L
180.0
190
177
176
17fl
180
W|
188
1«8
42
Ëpilobium anguiftifoliutn, L.
198,0
206
187
300
lff7
100
43
Roaa lucida, Ehrb.
102,6
m
184
IfO
186
204
187
. * » .
201
196
44
Hypericum perforatum, L..,
m.&
im
190
155
186
....
45
Leontodon autumnale, L. . . . .
177.4
173
173
177
182
177
176
173
186
4d
Prunus Oem$utj (cultîv,)
14S?.6
142
146
143
148
156
151
140
155
151
154
47
** (fruit ripe).,
210.4
213
212
leo
.. , .
220
200
210
..,.
212
4S
Crataegus Oxyacuntha» L
104. e
109
IfM
162
164
165
165
174
161
lai
40
C< cocciuea, L
102.7
168
160
101
152
164
—
170
....
50
PrunuË domes Uca (cultivated)
151.5
143
148
146
148
154
140
160
162
160
156
51
Pyrus malus (cultivatodi early
IMJ
150
15t)
148
151
158
isa
13Ï
164
157
150
52
late
161,8
160
156
15fl
160
IflO
162
171
166
164
53
Rîbes rubrum (cultivated),, . .
147.9
138
144
142
140
m
146
148
163
154
U9
54
'* (fruit ripe).
2056
ZVi
207
1S2
228
200
. . . .
205
205
OXXXII
ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
Flowering and other phenochronn for oacli region of the province of Nova Scotia,
compiled from 300 public Hchool observation schedules. [Th(« phenochrons for
each region (which are averages of many observations) have the fractions
omitted].
When First Seen— Regions.
Day rf the year 1902 corresponding
to the last day of each month.
ss
Jan. . . .
Feb ...
March.
April..
May . . .
June...
66
66
57
68
60
60
61
62
63
64
63a
66b
66
67
68
60
70
71
72
73a
73b
74a
74b
75a
76b
76a
76b
. 81 July 212
. 60 Aug 248
»o Sept 27S
.120 Oct 304
.161 Nor 834
.181 Dec 3A6
R. nigrum (cultivated)
(fruit ripe)
Sjringa vulgaris, L. (cultiv.),
Solanum tuberosum, L
Phleum pratense, L
Trifolium repens, L
T. pratense, L
Triticum vulgare, L,
Avena sativa, L
Fagopyrum esculentum, L .
Earliest full leaûng of tree.. .
Latest •* "
Ploughing (first of season)... ,
Sowing ** *•
PoUto-planting " ...
Sheep-shearing **
Hay -cutting •* ....
Grnîncuttlng "
Potato -d igjçî Hg * •
Openincr of rivers **
Opening of lakes "
Last snow to whiten ground.,
** to fly in air
Last spring frost— hard
hoar
Water in streams— highest...
** ** lOWCHt.. .
è
a
oflo
<
142
207
160
186
177
162
150
205
210
194
187
165
104
117
Ho
126
192
231
258
72
78
103
123.
140.
154.
85.
245.
143
210
157
177
176
!.6| 166
6 149
0.
1^
H
CO
s4
202
210
131
21 168
el 90
106
103
130
183
236
3| 255
68
9| 69
97
111
145
161
92
264
141
200
157
182
102
150
146
199
196
130
163
104
113
HI
124
183
232
254
65
78
96
116
139
139
79
253
•a 9>
GJS
5«3
131
163
179
171
168
164
191
161
101
116
119
126
I
185
216
251
140
221
150
186
175
158
168
180
136 137
163
107
128
123
140
190
229
254
69 90
1241 123
I
142 139
i
154 164
80* no
207i 245
^9*
SO
1«
3^
146
165
168
164
164
111
124
251
97
115
as
«a
B<
138
169
186
187
160
160 1621 172
198
146
174
1201 105
116i 115
122
126
100
227
256
72
80
96
121
146
158
87
266
141
206
160
187
177
162
131
191
264
79
79
102
129
141
156
84
251
if
•/Î.2
o>
îi
PQHJ
157
172
205
180
172
142
162
112 101
118 115
119 109
130
213
228 264
280
60
79
107
128
138
lff7
84
250
o
i.
o
s
J!d
152
201
165
187 ... .
IW 192
165
104
207
2a'i
135
166
105
125
118
116
201
235
266
84
82
119
132
137
155
84
141
203
162
172
160
104
176
100
120
115
100
200
224
260
68
72
123
132
137
150
72
242
APPENDIX D
CXXXIII
Flowerinfic and other phenochrons for each region of the province of Nova Scotia,
compiled from 300 public school observation schedules. [The phenochrons for
each region (which are averages of many observations) have the fractions
omit ted J.
Whkn Becoming Common— Regions.
Day of the year tflOl eorrsipoadinB
to til « lAit day af «afih m£>aui.
jAfi..., Si July.. ilt
F«b &a Aag.. .,«,.. ...143
Mantb ,^» ,^, «0 e«^pt.....> ....371
A.i>rtl.... ,...,. 110 Oet, SO*
\fay .,»..... IM Ifi»T.,«.. .„,.S^4
Jane, „.,., ..Ill Biro ....*... Mn
55
56
m
SB
ao
61
m
«
65a
esb
66
57
68
69
70
71
72
Et nigrum (cultivated)
** (fruit ripe).
Syringa vuL, L. (cultivated).
Solatium tuberosum, L
Phleum pra tense, L^ . . , ■ ■ ■
TrifoJtum repens, L .,
T. prabenae, L
Tritlcum vutgare, L. . ......
Aveoft ftativA, L
Fagopyrum osculentum, L. .
Earliest full leaûngof tree...
Latest " ** .,.
Ploughing (first of season )* . .
Sowlnic
Potato-planting "
Sheep-shearing **
Hay-cuttiug
Grain-cutting "
Potafco-dïgglng "
li9A
214 2
167.0
im.Q
179,3
170.3
168.7
210. S
212.3
204.6
117»
128.3
12g.9
l3S.g
201 4
238 3
260.3
117
219
165
m
163
164
151}
226
207
108
119
130
145
IPl
242
mi
5^
146
2r5
16a
167
16a
203
100
116
126
123
la^
1ÎÏ2
2
145
161
178
]€5
164
206
116
129
VM
141
190
2:i8 220
2601 286
1=3
147 151
227
]6o 172
109
183
168
166 168
110
12fî
130
140
207
175
171
HI
1^
124
143
^6
265
la
146
104
156
Iff?
170
ao6
117
121
137
136
237
20H
5i*-d
147
210
166
211
I8S
171
170
SOS
121
128
130
150
200
2m
272
162
17H
212
190
176
179
in
128
121
142
21 B
259
279
157
200^ 214
174
200
1^
175
173
213
207
121
132
129
128
207
242
272
146
171
193
1B7
178
176
100
128
123
122
206
27a
CXXXIV
ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
Flowering and other phenochrons for each region of the province of Nova Scotia,
compiled from 300 public school observation schedules. [The phenochrons for
each region (which are averages of many observations) have the fractions
omitted].
When First Seen— Rkoions.
1
B
tothfrlut dàj ûf iïaoli moatb.
imn 31 Juif ai2
Fteb..„ ûfl Aug ...., a«
Mu^ , M Eept 17^
April. lao Oct. S04
M»3P Ifil Ko* SM
Juan .... „IS1 D«e .3«i>
a
V
d
Ih
hr
iJ
>
<
ll
il
7i
■0
Is
P5
JH O
1§
ta
262
ai
^ -
256
"3 ei
1|
x'
279
'o o
^>
264
2
&
1
a
5^
^
O
TÎSL
FIrat antumn frost, ho«t
3B4.7:
202
262
270
254
271
77b
hard
290,3
2^
2Si
301
290
284
285
302
285
'2SIÔ
78ft
Fir»L snow to flj In air
2^4
2S7
2&1
292
28S
207
2S0
..
306
284
296
78b
" whiten grounds» , ^
313.1
310
315
315
322
317
303
^o^
317
313
311
Tïta
Clostingof Lakes..,
346.5
323
344
342
341
....
352
357
350
362
7»b
" Rivers
354.3
76.3
«7
3W
82
345
77
212A
69
375
76
387
80
341^
81a
Wild ducks migrating, N
76
68
83
81b
S
285.1
2m
im
300
311
278
286
270
314
32d
82a
76.1
81
81
76
77
64
71
68
80
85
77
82b
S
310.3
314
333
320
302
316
203
311
...
313
291
83
Melospîza fasciata, North
85.4
81
86
m
m
87
76
82
7!^
«
87
84
Tardus migratorius ** -. , .
78.3
74
77
71
IB
78
75
76
76
87
QO
85
Junco hiemalta "
79. 1
70
m
68
80
76
76
84
—
go
86
Acti tis m acu larla "
1S4.0
m
127
112
lis
134
124
138
116
124
147
S7
Sturnel la magna *' .. .
107.0
122
109
122
97
74
112
113
lOB
88
Ceryle Alcyon "
121.3
U8
127
131
123
115
115
122
US
103
1(0
8P
Dendrceca coronata '*
D*eestiva " „,_
137,2
140 £
112
133
12S
138
135
137
HT
151
141
143
141
isrs
142
138
138
SO
147
138
141
01
Zonotricbia al ba " .....
loss
111
m
101
106
104
ICfef
80
110
105
11
92
Troch ilus colttbri * **.....
146,1
143
143
140
142
U2
141
14^
153
155
156
93
Tyrannua Carolinenaia" ** . , .
138.7
164
136
134
■ *4-
r^s
13fl
14d
128
94
Dolfcbonjxoryzi voma* * . , . , .
132.0
146
131
136
136
145
123
120
126
95
Splnia triatig "
132.8
148
136
1^
138
136
u»
121
132
96
Sctophnga ruticilla "
127.7
....
106
155
123
....
151
94
136
97
Ampelia cedrorum " .»...
138.0
152
156
....
120
]31>
131
9S
Chordeilea Viginlanos "
126.7
133
lan
128
129
127
m
- . . ,
102
125
138
99
First piping of frog«
9L1
83
B2
m
89
92
92
IH
06
102
08
100
Firwt appearance, snakes
10L7
66
m
m
102
10Î
108
102
111 108
108
APPENDIX D
CXXXV
g :
1
<
>
sc
0
<
1-
<
>
PB
m
O
1
1^
g
Î
•
■
*
i
i
1
1
:^l
i
i
«4 ^
i
1
g
1^1
1
1
*do[s pmbôqo3 -g -g
1;
III
1
1 ■
*j^4«3q3[03
qinog puF ^^uvH 1
11
^5j
1
;ll
§1
n
III
► ►^Œ^SfeSSoS
i
1
§1
puw qiiiowjui¥jL 'Ï
i
i
5^
1
1
<
!
«
S
9
o
aill
^L
3do[s 40.P SBJH "6
nil
1
pQ¥ paouinoïH '8
III!
1
il
Illllli
1
II
^oqaine
puirx«jnBH g
1
II
;ll
1
HîïiospmrwïuwH >
m
II
i:
1
1
■saoîîï
ptnt «iiod^nuy *e
1
§
1
III
ill
1:
'âjTiqudunq ptfv
siiMTit) %a^qpqg 'g
1
1
1
III
ili;
i
1
i
1
i
c
CXXXVI
ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
l«ua)9i \ 9 'Anil
2 f*Q« |*CiKUip||i -g
f- 'QJOq«AOO
2
t}îllG^|Hra«f|SV|f 1
pOTsifodvauv X
CSs
•5s
;:èi
l^i
i :^
S?.
If-
-3linqii»aaq pa» sst^xSiiri
» ^ s
C
z
St.
>
pOV 1{lDOUlJVJ^ 'l —
&;^
Hîr :SÇî
§â^|
^t:
9dois «vdOjaAai *oi
'(VfJOldl \ ?9 'AU]!
^^15 JO.l» «JH "6
2? ptt« pucmlpfS 'g
ss^^^
êaî?
St«d0|gpiiilNC|OO^ -g
<
puB xv;!iwH "S
:2.5ife^SF.5c2:
^^5 iSèSîl
ri
=L =, ?, ^ -
C pa« fîiiodvaâv *£
-Slinquauni pa«
hffS
•iqj^fa
pu« qmouuvx 'I 1^
!^
ê3â
Ê:S
1:
Êri:
s!iilillllè?:gffêl
.H
APPENDIX 1)
ex XX Vil
1
1
s
> i
m
1
1
m
o
1
s
i
: i : i i :
^^ :'S2 ,
î ;" ^5 îs M
: ; iS3 n ;
;S :£ ; :
4B|tiivnt>s
t
itounoa
<
: f : : j :::::-:: ;
ni - 3 >* *
^ ^A itf r^ 1 :
■ - *«'*■■ ■
i
M
i
s
S
o
III i
mZR-5 :
p2l :
S3» :•
* lia.
pg335S
lïi » « «^
&&- &►' ci
!S0SS
W ca -9 s - ■
gri ai
liîl' !.
•ill.
«■B : • : ~ :
liir't!
1 '^ fl : : : :
a ' ȕ3 : : t
1 II III
M
O
g
3t
fi
' S
s
j^gïg .sgi
1
1
s
§sa
^Ssis ; lu:! i :^i •
i-" |3 15 ; :
■HlSiss
:l
1^
ri
2I3S3S i i
î I r - r
ï :5: : : :|S^
: ; : ;5 i i î
tftlIDVDiÏKg
:5illS2ii§ i i :S : -^S
: î
: ■ i : ils
3 jsjsi"
(UJïqiV
; i
. , i . >
: :
iiH-H
Ï0M1O3
:§
:B5
SSS i i :
:- : ■'
:t5 ;e :n
jS 1 j5 jS :
CXXXVIIl
ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
*»^0)Bl4AflS
'omxvg
'aSvi^Ay
■1IM13 aiïauo
•oiJtïWJ^Ï pmjo
'aSudAY
iatuoiiliaaadqd:
,?5 :!;
S * :
f &S
4^ '^ en ,
»04n ï3iA|;i-qiMâbi ^fl^
I 5 « '^ ^ — =5 cj * ^^ ^2S'.^*IÎ2m
; : : ^S ;?
:^
'. : *S-S :â^"se2gSïgî5^ = SSfi^§"3ï
i ; ^^
f I
s
';)IIUJ3.%V
« O t* ©I C« f o"
& oV <« n <« e> 'V u» « CO i>.'
:SSS5S5
'â ^011 («ABU
n[iitj
'SflfVJ^ pttVJ Q
. ^ . =t ^ ^ o O tn c*
»*- * I?: rï* , rj
is «
T ïf r i>' : — te' pt -p v' ; ^ - * - : 9 W - ■ '- U ' i 1*4 l t « i-»' » ^
* . r^ » r* ip - -• * » - «^ -p * . S 5 . . » > 1$ « * -i ' ... - »
*m ." .«) «ffi^^ft . . . . *«aick4 -, -Y ». .^ . -13 *i^a^3
SOCIÉTÉ ROYALE DU CANADA
MÉMOIRES
SECTION I.
LITTÉRATURE FRANÇAISE. HISTOIRE. ARCHÉOLOGIE, Etc
ANNEE 1903
SacnoN I, 1903 [ 3 ] Mémoiris S. R. C.
I. — Découverte du Mississipi en 1659,
Par M. Benjamin Sultb.
(L»u le 20 mai 1903.)
Sommaire: — 1G50, dispersion de -dix-sept bourgades de Hurons
et des Outaouas de Manitoualine; les Hurons du Potun avec une tribu
d'Outaouafi se réfugient à la baie Verte. — 1653, trois canota de ces
gens vont par le nord et le Saint-Maurice jusqu^aux Trois-Rivières
et annoncent quails veulent rouvrir la traite avec les Français. — 1654,
ils descendent en bande sur le Saint-Laurent et repartent avec deux
«Français; à Fautomne, les Iroquois attaquent leur fort dans la baie
Verte. — 1655, les Outaouas et les Hurons du Petun traversent le Wis-
consin et s'établissent sur le Mississipi, à l'île Pelée, dans le lac Pépin.
^ — 1656, les deux voyageurs (noms inconnus) de 1654 reviennent de
la baie Verte. — 1657, per crainte des Sioux, les Hurons du Petun
remontent la rivière Noire et s'arrêtent non loin du lac Supérieur. —
les Outaouas vont se fixer à Kionoonan, rive sud-est du lac Supérieur. —
1658, les sauvages du lac Supérieur et de la baie Géorgienne étant
descendus aux Trois-Rivières, Chouart et Radisson les accompagnent
au retour et vont hiverner dans la baie Verte. Au printemps de
.1659, tous deux se rendent en haut de la rivière aux Renards, chez
les Mascoutins, où Chouart s^arrete tandis que Radisson descend la
rivière Wisconsin, entre dans le Mississipi, visite le lac Pépin, l'île
Pelée, puis explore les rivières de Test et de l'ouest, espérant décou-
vrir le vrai pays du castor. Il pense que " la grande rivière '' aboutit
au Mexique. Après quatre mois de courses, il retrouve Chouarii chez
les Mascoutins et tous deux suivent la rivière aux Renards, revoient
la baie Verte, entrent dans le lac Michigan, passent le détroit de
Michillimakinac et arrivent au saut Sainte-Marie à l'automne. Au
commencement de la saison des neiges*, ils sont à l'extrémité ouest du
Jac Supérieur et vont durant l'hiver chez les Sioux au sud de Chagou-
amigon. Vers le printemps de 1660, ils retournent au lac Supérieur,
•prennent la rivière des Malomines et séjournent à la baie Verte jusqu'à
la seconde moitié de juillet où ils partent pour le Canada. Ils décident
que le Mississipi ne vaut pas le lac Supérieur pour le commerce du
cafitor.
SOCIÉTÉ ROYALE DU CANADA
" Les Français ayant découvert ce pays firent savoir de nation en
nation leur établissement. Les Algonquins demeuraient le long dej
la rivière des Outaouas, au Nipissing, dans la rivière des Français et
entre icelle et Toronto/ et les Hurons dans leur ancien pays/'
{Mémoire de Nicolas Perrot, 9, 80.)
Pour Tintelligence de ce qui va suivre mettons les choses soua une
autre forme.
La rive nord du Saint-Laurent> de Tadoussac à Montréal, était
occupée par des tribus de langue algonquine : les Montagnais du Sague-
(nay, qui se répandaient vers les Trois-Eivières; les Attikamègues du
Saint-Maurice rôdant jusqu'à TOttawa, la baie James, le Saint-Laurent;
les Algonquins de TOttawa dont le pays était aussi bien Machiehe et
les Trois-Eivières.
Ces derniers se subdivisaient en trois peuples localisés sur la rivière
dite des Algonquins; J es Iroquets, ée Vaudreuil à la ville actuelle
d^Ottawa; la Petite-Nation, à Papineauville; les Grands Algonquins,
à 111e des Allumettes. Le nom de rivière des Algonquins disparut
après 1650 parce que les Iroquois en avaient chassé tous les habitants.
C'est à celte date que notre narration commence.
Les indigènes du lac Nipisstng s'étaient vus décimés comme les
autres en 1650; ceux qui restaient, réfugiés au nord, s'alliaient aux
tribus de la baie d'Hudson. Nicolas* Perrot (p. 81) note que "les
Nepissings tinrent ferme quelques années dans leurs villages, mais
il leur fallut ensuite fuir dans le fond du nord à Alimebegon," cepen-
dant le père Paul Ragueneau {Relation^ 1650, pp. 22, 26) dit que le
massacre eut lieu au printemps de 1650 et qu^il en a relevé les traces
au mois de juin suivant: "Le lac (Nepissing) que j'avais vu autrefois
habité quasi tout le long de ses côtes, n'est plus rien qu'une solitude."
La Relation de 1667, p. 24, porte que ces pauvres gens se réfugièrent
"au lac Alimibegong qui n'est qu'à cinquante ou soixante lieues de
la nier du nord.'^ C'est le lac Nipigon.
Champlain, écrivant leur nom en 1613, l'épelle: Nébicerini, et
ailleurs; Nipisierinij. Sagard en 1624 met: Epicerinys. Les Relations
adoptent le plus souvent Nipdssiriniens, et parfois Bissîriniens — en
langue algonquine: les Sorciers. Les Hurons les nommaient Squier-
honons, Squekaneronons, AskicSaneronons, AskikSanchronons, Aski-
quaneronons — ce qui veut dire encore les Sorciers.
\ Les Algonquins de l'île des Allumettes ne les aimaient pas, non
parce qu'ils étaient en rapport avec des influences diaboliques, mais à
* Aujaurd'liui nous disons lajc Simcoe.
[8ULT«] DÉCOUVERTE DU MISSI8SIPI EN 1659 8
cause de leur talent pour le négoce. Avant ranivée des Français,
ces coureurs de bois faisaient la traite à de grandes distances au nord,
à l'ouest, au sud. Ils entretenaient des rapports constants avec les
Hurons de Penetanguishine, tout en disant que ces derniers avaient
nK>ins d'esprit que les autres sauvages. On accorde aux Nipissiriniemj
des facultés intellectuelles supérieures à celles de leurs voisins. Jean*
Richer et Jean Nioolet vivaient parmi eux entre les années 1622 et
il632. A partir de 1633 ou les voit à la traite des Trois-Rivières. Le€^
missionnaires, qui les fréquentaient depuis 1615, établirent chez eux
la mission du Saint-Esprit en 1640 et celle de Saint-Pierre en 1648.,
•*^ C'est la nation que semble la moins éloignée de la foi, de tous cea
peuples errants," disait le père Jérôme Lalemant dans la Relation de
1642, p. 99.
" Ils semblent avoir autant de demeures que l'année a de saisons."
{Relation, 1641, p. 81.) Vivant de pêche, de chasse et de commerce^
ce devait être un ramas de gens du nord plutôt qu'appartenant à la
.vallée de la rivière Outaoua. Ils parlaient un idiome algonquin, c'est
pourquoi le père Paul Le Jeune étant aux Trois-Rivières, l'automne
de 1636, et y recontrant des Nipissiriniens, dit: "Je fus consolé de
voir qu'ils entendaient mon baragouin Montagnes." {Relation, 1636,
p. 53.) Nous retrouverons ce peuple au cours de la présente étude.
A la sortie de la rivière des Français, les Atchiligouans ou Achiri-
gouans, de langue algonquine, avaient des rapports avec la tribu de^
Ataouabouskatouk du voisinage de la baie d'Hudson, et un certain
nombre de ces derniers passaient les hivers sur la rive orientale dé la
baie Géorgienne où demeuraient des petits groupes algonquins appelés,
Outaoukamigouk, Sakahigmiriouek, Aoua&anik (Ouasouarini), At-
chougue (Outchougai). La dispersion de 1650 n'empêcha point les
Achirigouans de reprendre leur poste sur la rivière des Français et de
continuer leur trafic avec les Cristinos Atouabouskatouk.
I Sur la cote nord de la baie Géorgienne (district d'Algoma) un
autre peuple de langue algonquine était surtout voyageur et guerrier.
On les nommait Amikoués parcequ'ils se disaient descendants du Grand
•Caator qui avait construit les chutes, les digues et les rapides de la
rivière des Français. Sagard note que les Hurons appelaient le castor
Tsoutayé, Toutayé, et les Montagnais, Amiscou; alors le nom des Amis-
koués, comme l'écrit Perrot, est algonquin et signifie les Castors. On
Jes qualifiait, en français, de Nez-Percés. Ils furent toujours bons
amis de nos coureurs de bois. De 1633 à 1634 on les voit en guerre)
contre les Puants de la baie Verte. Les hostilités recommercèrent
en 1636. Ce peuple n'avait pas bougé du voisinage de la baie Géorgienne
Jusqu^à 1650, où il prit l'habitude de se retirer dans l'intérieur une
partie de l'année, par suite des maraudes des Iroquois.
6 SOCIÉTÉ ROYALE DU CANADA
A la côte sud-ouest du district d'AIgoma il y avait, en 1640, les
'Nikikouch ou Gens de la Loutre, les Michisaguek ou Mississakis ou
iMissifisagués, tribu algonquine, '' fière et superbe," qui se retira au
sud-est du lac Supérieur, à Kionkonan, en 1650.
La carte de Dollier et Galinée, en 1669,^ indique la "rivière do
Tessalon," comme aujourd'hui; plus à Test le mot " Mississagué " à
la sortie d'un cours d'eau; ensuite viennent les rochers et les îles où
La Potherie disaient en 1700 que les Gens de la Loutre vivaient soli-
taires. Encore plus à Test il y a " AmikSe" près d'une rivière. Il
faut conclure que les Sauvages de cette côte nord ne s'étaient dispersés
que momentanément, puisque de tout temps leur habitat fut le même.
" L'ancien pays des Hurons " (Perrot, p. 80) était, avant 1650,
la baie de Penetanguishine, Natawasaga, ainsi que le lac Simcoe.
Dès 1615 les Outaoua^ habitaient la grande île Manitoualine.
C'était une nation amie de tous ses voisins, commerçante, voyageuse,
peu adonnée à la culture, ayant quelques industries particulières et
pas du tout belliqueuse. Elle parlait la langue algonquine. Les
Iroquois l'enveloppèrent dans la disgrâce générale, car, depuis Michil-
limakinac jusqu'à la rivière des Algonquins (l'Outaoua), tous les peuples
furent balayés en 1650.
Et même ces étonnants ravageurs entrèrent dans la rivière Sainte-
Marie, décharge du lac Supérieur, où les Français avaient pénétré en
il622 pour la première fois, et les Sauteux, gens assez braves d'ordinaire,
crurent prudent d'abandonner leur pays, mais ils y retournèrent bien-
«tôt. Nous continuerons de les appeler Sauteurs — ^avec Nicolas Perrot —
quoiqu'on les trouve sous les noms de Pouitigoueieuhak, PahouitingS-
achirini, Baouichtigouin, à l'origine, et, par la suite, Odgiboweke,
Odjibewais, Ojibway, Chippeway.^ C'étaient des Algonquins.
. Nous avons fait le circuit de la baie Géorgienne et parcouru la
côte nord ; il reste un mot à dire des aborigènes du lac Huron.
La destruction des dix-sept bourgades huronnes était complétée
en 1650-51, ce qui "donna l'épouvante chez les Outaouas et leurs alliés,
qui étaient au Sankinon à l'anse au Tonnerre, à Manitoaletz et Miohilli-
makinac. Ils furent demeurer ensemble chez les Hurons, dans l'île
que Ton appelle l'île Huronne." (Nicolas Perrot, p. 80.) Ceci demande
explication. Au sud du lac Erié il y avait les Chats, qui n'émigrèrent
nulle part mais furent anéantis sur place vers 1657. Les sauvages
de " Sankinon et de l'anse du Tonnerre " (Etat du Michigan) n'étaient
autres que les Mascoutins et il faut placer en 1656 leur abandon de
ces lieux. Par conséquent, ils suivirent, à six ou sept années de dis-
* Voir le bel ouvrage de M. James H. Coyne récemment publié par la
Société Historique d'Ontario.
' Ils appelaient le lac Supérieur KUcMffumi: les grandes eaux.
[sulte] découverte DU MISSISSIPI EN 1659 7
tance, les Outaouas d^ Manitoaletz (Manitoualine) qui avaient décampé
en compagnie des Hurons du Petun en 1650. En outre, arrivant à
rîle Huronne, à Tentrée de la baie Verte, les Mascoutins n*y trouvèrent
ni les Outaouas ni les Hurons, qui étaient déjà partis pour Touest
ainsi que nous le verrons bientôt.
La dispersion des tribus huronnes avait eu lieu comme suit: la
première bande se retira dans Tîle Saint-Joseph, à 7 lieues environ de
Penetanguishine — en sauvage Ahoendoe, en anglais Christian ou
jCharity Island — puis à Manitoualine ; ce devait être en 1649. La
deuxième se rendit aux Iroquois, espérant être mieux traitée. Une
.troisième, comprenant les Gens du Petun, s'enfuit à Tîle de Michilli-
makinac, en 1651 probablement, mais, pourchassée par les Iroquois,
elle recula jusqu'à l'île Huronne, baie Verte. La quatrième demanda
asile à la nation du Chat qui parlait sa langue — tous furent massacrés
ensemble. La cinquième bande descendit à Québec, en 1650, avec le
père Paul Eagueneau, et y demeura.
** Quand tous les Outaouas se furent répandus vers les lacs, les Saul-
teurs et les Mississakis s'enfuirent vers le nord, et puis* à Kionconan/
faute de chasse." (Perrot, p. 85).
" La défaite des Hurons se répandit chez tous les peuples voisins ;
l^eflfroi s'empara de la plupart. Il n'y avait plus de sûreté à cause des
incursions que les Iroquois faisaient dans le temps qu'on s'y attendait le
moins. Les Nepiciriniens s'enfuirent au nord,^ les Sauteurs et les Mis-
sîsakis avancèrent dans la profondeur des terres. Les Outaouaks et
ceux qui habitaient le lac Huron se retirèrent dans le sud et, s'étant tous
réunis, ils habitèrent une île qui porte encore le nom de l'île Huronne.
Les Hurons s'y étaient placés les premiers." (La Potherie, II, 52).
L'île la plus grande ^ qui se trouve à l'entrée de la baie Verte avait
été occupée par les Poutéouatamis, lesquels demeuraient, en 1660, à
quelques lieues dans l'intérieur de la baie, direction nord-ouest-ouest.
Ces Poutéouatamis avaient été chassés du Michigan oriental par les Iro-
quois avant 1634. ,
Parmi les bandes de malheureux proscrits dispersées un peu par-
tout à l'aventure, il en est une que nous suivrons de préférence dans
cette étude — la tribe des Hurons du Tabac, les Petuneux, de la côte est
du lac Huron, réfugiés (1G51) dans l'île de Michillimakinac et, peu
*■ Promontoire sur la côte sud du lajc Supérieur, à l'est: Kewana
aujourd'hui.
* Chez les Gens des Terres, ainsi nommés parce qu'ils étaient à égrale
distance de la baie d'Hudson et des lacs Nipissing, Huron et Supérieur.
* Elle a reçu le nom d'Ile Huronne bien que les Hurons n'y aient séjourné
que deux an-s & peine. Ce doit être The first Landing I$le de Radisson, sur la-
quelle on diapute depuis quinze ans. Nous en parlerons au printemps de 1660.
8 SOCIÉTÉ ROYALE DU CANADA
après, à la baie Verte, connue alors sous la seule désignation de baie des
Puants/
" Les Tionnontatehronnons que nous appellions autrefois la Nation
du Petun, de langue huronne, et les Ondataououat,* de langue algon-
quine, que nous appelions les Cheveux Relevés, à cause que leur chevelure
ne descend point en bas, mais qu'ils font dresser leurs cheveux, comme
une crête qui porte en haut — ont quitté leur ancien pays et se sont
retirés vers les nations plus éloignées, vers le grand lac que noua
appelions des Puants/^ {Relation, 1664, p. 9.)
Un parti iroquois fort de huit cents hommes s'avança, (1652?)
jusqu'à nie Huronne qu'il trouva déserte, car les Hurons et les Outaouas,
avertis du danger par les éclaireurs qu'ils avaient envoyés à la découverte,
s'étaient "retirés au Méchingan où ils construisirent un fort, dans la
résolution d'y attendre leurs ennemis, qui ne purent rien entreprendre
pendant les deux premières années." (Perrot, p. 81). L'endroit de
cette retraite est à la côte nord-ouest de la baie Verte, non loin de la
ligne qui sépare le Michigan occidental du Wisconsin. Du temps de
Perrot la division des Etats n'existait point.
Il faut ici corriger une erreur qui s'est introduite chez les historiens
et que l'on trouve exprimée comme suit dans un travail du juge John
Law publié par la Société Historique du Wisconsin, III, 95, année
1855 (voir aussi pages 112-13, 123-24, 508-9 du même volume) : "En
1652, le père Dequerre, jésuite, partit de la mission du lac Supérieur et
alla fonder une mission florissante aux Illinois, probablement celle de
Saint-Louis où est situé Peoria. Il visita plusieurs nations des bords
du Mississipi et fut tué au milieu de ses travaux apostoliques en 1661."
Aucun religieux du nom de Dequerre n'est connu de ceux qui ont étudié
les archives du temps. De plus, en 1652, il était impossible qu'il y eut
des prêtres, ni aucun Français, dans ces régions. Ce faux renseigne-
ment est tiré d'une liste du clergé commencée, il y a cent ans, par M. le
grand-vicaire Noiseux et qu'il ne voulait pas publier, n'étant pas certain
des faits qu^il y avait notés. On l'a cependant imprimée après sa mort
Le juge Law dit, encore d'après Noiseux, que, "en 1657, le père Jean-
<5harles Drocoux, jésuite, se rendit aux Illinois et retourna à Québec la
même année," mais il n'y avait pas de missionnaire au Wisconsin en
1657, et personne ne connaît le père Drocoux.
* Les Puants, très féroces et assez nombreux, furent presque tous tués par
les minois vers 1653.
" Nicolas Perrot, qud eut des rapporta continuels avec eux, de 1663 &
1700, les nomme toujours Outaouas. Ondataoua signifie, en langue huronne,
les gens des bois. Les Hurons vivaient en plaine.
[SULM] DÉCOUVERTE DU MISSI8SIPI EN 1659 9
II
Il y avait alors quatre ou cinq ans que' les Outaouas et les Hurons
se trouvaient dépaysés et que leur commerce avec les Français ^ était
anéanti. Cette considération les détermina à tenter un effort suprême
pour se procurer des marchandises dont ils avaient grand besoin, ayant
contracté Thabitude de s'en servir depuis plus d'une génération. *' Leur
défaite ne faisait qu'augmenter le souvenir de se voir frustrés du com-
merce des Français. Ils firent cependant des tentatives pour trouver
encore des voies propres à continuer la première alliance. En effet,
trois Outaouaks des plus hardis s'embarquèrent (1653) dans un canot
et prirent le nord du lac Supérieur pour éviter de tomber entre les mains
des Iroquois. Après avoir passé de rivières en rivières, de portages en
portages, ils tombèrent dans celle des Trois-Rivièrcs qu'ils descendirent
jusqu'à son embouchure, où ils trouvèrent un établissement français.
Ils y traitèrent de leurs pelleteries. Les grandes fatigues qu'ils eurent
pendant le voyage, les empêchèrent de reprendre la même route. Il s'y
(aux Trois-Rivières) trouva, par hasard, quelques Algonkins qui se pré-
paraient à remonter chez eux ; ils profitèrent de la même occasion, pas-
sant par le véritable chemin (l'Ottawa) qui mène à Outaouak, ne mar-
chant que la nuit de crainte de tomber entre les mains de leurs ennemis,
et arrivèrent enfin à l'île Huronne au bout d'un an, avec l'applaudisse-
ment général de leurs camarades qui avaient désespéré de leur retour.*^
(La Potherie, II, 52). L'auteur a l'air de croire que les Hurons et les
Outaouas étaient encore à l'île Huronne en 1653, mais il paraîtrait que
dès 1652, ils l'avaient abandonnée.
Voici un passage du Journal des Jésuites qui complète ce renseigne-
ment: "Le 31 juillet 1653, arrive (à Québec) un canot des Trois-
Kivières, qui nous apporte la nouvelle de l'arrivée de trois canots du pays
des Hurons, savoir : Aennons huron, MangSch nipissirinien, MatStisson
que les Hurons appellent Ondatenront, EentaSai et Totraenchiarak,
Andarahitronnons, et deux OndataSaSak, vel 8ta8ak (Outaouas) savoir:
TeochiaSenté et Otontagonen; lesquels sept sauvages ont apporté nou-
velles que toutes les nations algonquines s'assemblent avec ce qui reste
de la nation du Petun et de la nation Neutre, à Atotonatendïé, à trois
journées au-dessus du Sault Skiaté ^ tirant vers le sud. Ceux de la nation
' 1^8 Hurons appelaient les Français "Agnonha, gens de fer ou qui se ser-
vent de fer, ou le fer même, car ils nommaient quelquefois les haches agnonha,'
qu'ils appellent autrement atouhoin," (Sagrard: Histoire du Canada, 1636, p. 221.)
* Le saut Sainte-Marie. La carte de Sanson, 1656, porte à cet endroit le
mot fikiaeronon, ce qui veut dire en langue huronne " la tribu de Skiae."
Brûlé qui vit le saut en 1622, le mentionna à Champlain, c'est pourquoi la
carte de 1632 l'appelle "Saut de Gaston/' en l'honneur du frère du roi Louis
xnL
lO SOCIÉTÉ ROYALE DU CANADA
du Petun ont hiverné à Teatontoraï, les Neutres au nombre de 800 à
Skentehiotc, vers Tetotchanontian, lesquelles deux nations se doivent
rendre Tautonine prochain à Atatonatendïé, où dès maintenant ils sont
mille hommes, savoir :
400 Ondatonatendi.
200 8ta8ak ou Cheveux Relevés.
100 tant A8etatsi8aentronnons que de la nation d'Atoha8i.
200 Enskiateronnons.
100 tant A8echisaetronnons que Achir8achronnons.
C'est Acha8i qui conduit toute cette affaire.'^
Est-ce lui qui parla d^une grande rivière située plus loin que la baie
Verte et qui se décharge dans la mer? Marie de rinearnation men-
tionne ce fait dans une lettre du 24 septembre 1654. C'est la plus
ancienne notion du Mississipi, celle de Jean Nicolet exceptée.
III
" Ce succès si favorable les obligea plus que jamais, et leurs voisins,
à faire des parties de chasse. Ils descendirent ensuite (1654) en flotte
chez les Français, sans se mettre en peine de tous les obstacles et de
tous les dangers qu'ils pourraient courir. Ils y furent reçus avec agré-
ment. On les régala; il y goûtèrent du pain avec délice, des pruneaux et
autres choses qu'ils trouvèrent meilleures que leurs mets ordinaires.
Après avoir commercé leurs pelleteries, Us s'en retournèrent chez eux
ravis d'y trouver leurs familles fort paisibles." (La Potherie, II, 53).
" Une flotte parut dans le lointain, qui descendait les rapides et les
• chutes d'eau qui sont au-dessus de Montréal. On eut sujet de craindre
que ce ne fut une armée ennemie, mais on reconnut aux approches que
c'étaient des amis qui venaient de quatre cents lieues loin, nous apporter
des nouvelles de leur nation et en savoir des nôtres. Les habitants de
Montréal et des Trois-Eivièros eurent une double joie, voyant que ces
canots étaient chargés de pelleteries que ces nations viennent traiter
pour nos denrées françaises." (Relation, 1654, p. 9.) Le narrateur
ajoute que ces sauvages, étaient ^"partie de la nation du Petun, partie
Ondataouaouats," comme nous l'avons fait entendre plus haut. Ils
étaient cent vingt hommes. En chemin ils avaient fait *' rencontre de
quelques Iroquois Sonnontochronnons et de quelques gens de la nation
du Loup/ alliés des Iroquois Anniehronnenô*, qui étaient à la chasse.
Ils en firent treize de captifs, qu'ils ne voulurent point traiter dans les
cruautés ordinaires, non pas même leur lier les bras ni les mains. Dieu
^ Mahlagans, Mohicansw
[sultb] découverte DU MISSISSIPI EN 1659 11
adoucit les cœurs barbares quand c'est lui qui veut faire la paix. Cette
troupe victorieuse, arrivée heureusement à Montréal, y ayant vu la dis-
position des esprits et que tout tendait à la paix, fit présent de ses captifs
à Sagochiendagethé, capitaine onnontaehronnon qui, de son gré, y était
demeuré pour otage, attendant le retour du Français ^ amené captif.
Ce ne sont que festins et que chants de joie, dans une douce impatience
qu^on voit au plutôt ce retour. Là-dessus le Français arriva comme il
a été dit au chapitre précédent. Les Iroquois onnontaehronnons qui le
ramenaient nous firent voir que Dieu travaillait plus que nous à l'affer-
missement de cette paix. Ils nous apprennent qu'uno nouvelle guerre
leur était survenue qui les jette tous dans la crainte; que les Ehriehron-
nons (nous les appelions la nation du Chat) arment contre eux
que cette nation a poursuivi une de leurs armées qu'un de leurs
plus grands capitaines a été pris .... que tout est en feu dans les
quatre nations des Iroquois supérieurs Quelques Hurons qui se
sont répandus partout lors que leur pays fut ruiné, se sont joints aux
Chats et ont suscité cette guerre qui donne de la terreur aux Iroquois.''
La présence des Outaouas et des Hurons sur le Saint-Laurent
ouvrait une ère nouvelle à l'ambition des marchands de fourrures et au
zèle des missionnaires. On invitait les Français, de la part de nations
presque inconnues, à parcourir l'ouest, le nord et le sud, leur promettant
un trafic avantageux. Les pères jésuites entrevoient là une abon-
dante moisson à recueillir pour le bien des âmes.
La compagnie dos Cent- Associés qui avait la prétention d'être
toute chose dans le Bas-Canada, mais qui, en réalité, n'était rien parce
que ses affaires avaient toujours été mal conduites, s'effaçait presque
entièrement en 1644 pour laisser le champ libre aune nouvelle organisa-
tion aussi mal administrée que la première; de sorte que, en 1652, la
banqueroute était aux portes. Alors une société de la Rochelle prit
en main le commerce du castor, sans faire^ beaucoup mieux. Et la
•guerre des Iroquois ne s'arrêtait pas! La colonie française, composée
de sept à huit cents personnes, se voyait sur le point de retourner en
France pour éviter un désastre général. Cette époque est désignée
dans notre histoire comme " les tempsi héroïques." Nous étions une
centaine de familles distribuées à Québec, Trois-Rivières, Montréal, et
livrées sans protection à la rage des Iroquois, néanmoins, il y avait dans
ces groupes des hommes assez intrépides pour aller à quatre et cinq
tents lieues découvrir -des nations barbares et rapporter de leurs courses
les précieuses dépouilles des hôtes des bois qui luttaient sur les marchés
de l'Europe contre les produits des chasses moscovites.
* Entre autres un jeune chirurgrlen enlevé le printemps de cette année par
une troupe d'Onneyouts, près de Montréal.
12 SOCIÉTÉ ROYALE DU CANADA
IVI. Jean de Laiizon, gouverneur général, envoya deux hommes
avec les marchandises nécessaires pour la traite des pelleteries. Ils
pâlirent avec les sauvages ci-dessus le 6 août 1654. Ce voyage marque
dans l'histoire des découvertes de Touest. Nous ne connaissons pas
les noms de ces couxeure de bois, mais il era (pprlé d^eux plus loin.
L'opinion généralement reçue est que c'étaient Médard Chouart
et Pierre-Esprit Eadisson. Comme ils reviendront dans ces pages,
il faut voir quelle était leur situation en 1654, après quoi le lecteur
portera son .jugement. Disons de suite que Chouart et Radisson nous*
paraissent étrangers aux deux hommes dont il s'agit, toutefois c'est le
moment de parler d'eux.
Chouart était arrivé à Québec en 1642 ou 1643, âgé de dix-sept
à dix-huit ans. Il entra au service des jésuites qui remployèrent dans
les missions huronnes. Sur la fin de l'été de 1616 nous le voyons
revenir en compagnie de Gilles Bacon, autre engagé des* jésuites, lequel
était porteur d'échantillons de minerai et de pierres dont M. de Mont-
inagny, gouverneur général, et d'autres personnes s'occupèrent, mais
que les circonstances de temps ne permirent pas d'étudier à fond. On
peut supposer que Chouart n'était pas étranger à ces découvertes de
métaux. Quoi qu'il en soit, dans ses courses vers l'ouest, il avait dû
apprendre quelque chose des Cristineaux ou Kilistinons qui habitaient
entre le lac Supérieur et la baie d'Hudson. Dès le même automne
de 1646, il repartait pour les grands lacs. A son retour, l'année sui-
vante, il épousait, à Québec, Hilône Martin, fille du propriétaire des
fameuses plaines d'Abraham. En 1649, il passa en France et en
revint Tannée d'après, si Ton en juge par la naissance de son fiLgf
Médard, en 1661, à Québec. Le Journal des Jésuites, du 16 juillet
1653, le mentionne retournant d'un voyage en Acadie et l'appelle
Groseilliers — première trace de ce surnom.
Eadisson, âgé d'une vingtaine d'années, arriva de France au com-
mencement de l'été de 1651 et se rendit aux Trois-Rivières, chez sa
sœur Marguerite, femme de Jean Veron de Grandmesnil. Il devait
avoir deux autres soeurs dans ce lieu : Françoise et Elisabeth, non encore
mariées. Rien n'indique qu'il connût Chouart, dont l'épouse mourait
è Québec cette même année. Notre jeune homme passa un an à
se familiariser avec la vie du canotier et du coureur de bois, apprenant
l'algonquin et le huron, deux langues mères répandues, à l'exclusion
de toute autre, depuis Québec jusqu'à l'Ohio et au Wisconsin. Ses
progrès furent rapides sans doute, car il était doué de talents d'assi-
milation remarquables, avait de la lecture, la faculté d'observation
et une excellente mémoire. Avec cela, méthodique et ayant beaucoup
voyagé pour son âge. Robuste de corps, d'im esprit enjoué, brave,
un peu gascon, circonspect, il offre un caractère à étudier, et sa longue
[8ULTB] DÉCOUVERTE DU MI6SISSIPI EN 1659 18
carrière, ses aventures, ses écrits invitent à lui donner une place spé-
ciale dans rhistoire qui nous occupe.
Les Iroquois rôdaient toute Tannée autour des Trois— Rivières à
cette époque. Un jour du mois de juin ou juillet 1652, Radisson, avec
deux chasseurs, parcourait la banlieue et se trouvait seul un moment
lorsqu'il se vit entouré d'une trentaine d'ennemis qui Tenlevèrent.
Trois ou quatre semaines plus -tard, au même endroit, fut tué le
gouverneur des Trois-Kivières avec xme vingtaine d'hommes (19
août 1652). Le captif est entraîné sur la rivière Richelieu et
subit le supplice des verges dans un village des environs d'Oswego,
où ses ravisseurs le donnent à une famille iroquoise. Il déserte,
se sauve jusqu'au lac Saint-Pierre, est de nouveau capturé, ramené
au même village, tourm-enté par le feu, puis gracié et retrouve
sa place ou milieu de ses " frères et sœurs." Ayant pris son parti de
devenir sauvage, il accompagne une armée qui va en expédition vers
Buffalo. Au printemps de 1653 il est chez les Tsonnontouans. En-
suite il va à Orange (Albany) avec ceux qui portent des fourrures aux
Hollandais (automne) et y rencontre le père Joseph Poncet racheté
des Iroquois par le chef du poste. A peine retourné dans son village,
la nostalgie le prend, il s'évade et revoit le fort Orange (29 novembre)
d'où on l'embarque pour la Hollande. Le 4 janvier 1654 il est à
Amsterdam et, vers le printemps, arrive à la Rochelle comptant sur
un navire en destination de la Nouvelle-France.
Dans la narration de ses voyages,^ il dit (p. 86) qu'il attendait
à la Rochelle l'occasion de repartir pour le Canada et, sur ces motc,
il termine son récit. La ligne suivante porte le titre de Second Voyage.
Celui-ci débute euj disant qu'un bateau de pêche le prit, le 15 mai, en
route pour Percé, et qu'il y arriva le 7 du même mois, ce qui n'est pas
possible. Il doit y avoir un feuillet omis. Il ajoute aussistôt que,
tinq jours après, il était à Québec. En quelle année ceci eut-il lieu
et d'où venait-il? De l'Acadie probablement, car les vaisseaux de
France n'arrivaient pas à Québec avant le 15 juin et même plus tard.
Ce qui nous fait croire, en outre, que les vingt premières . lignes du
second voyage ne sont pas la suite du précédent, c'est qu'elles se termi-
nent par ces paroles : " The year before the French began a new
•plantation in the upper country of the Iroquoits," et, comme ce nouvel
établissement des Français, chez les Onnontagués, avait eu lieu l'été
de 1656, il va de soi que Radisson reparut à Québec et aux Trois-
* Publiée en 1885, pour la première fols par la Prince Society, de Boston. L'écrit
est en angrlals, évidemment rédigé par Radisson, car il fourmille de phrases
qui ont la forme française et de termes de coureurs de bois. Ajoutons qu'il a
été anal lu par le coipiste et par i'édlteur.
14 SOCIÉTÉ ROYALE DU CANADA
Eivières en 1657. Beste à savoir ce qu'il a fait du printemps de 1654
au mois de juin 1657; il ne le dit nulle part
En tous cas, lors de son retour aux Trois-ilivières, il a dû apprendre
que son beau-frère, Jean Veron de Grandmesnil, avait été tué le .19
août 1652, et que la veuve s'était remariée le 24 août 1653 avec
Médard Chouart des Groseilliers; de plus, que Françoise, son autre
sœur, avait épousé Claude Volant l'hiver de 1653-54. La troisième
sœur, Elizabeth, se maria avec Claude Jutra le 20 novembre 1657, pro-
bablement en sa présence.
Puisque nous ne savons pas ce qu'était devenu Radisson du prin-
temps de 1654 au mois de juin 1657, voyons si Chouart nous échappe
également durant cette période. Le 24 février 1654, il est cité comme
sergent-major de la garnison des Trois-Rivières. Le 19 mars suivant,
aux Trois-Rivières, " madame Desgroseilliers " présente en cour une ré-
clamation contre Mathieu Labat, sans doute en l'absence de son mari.
Au même lieu, en 1655 "Marguerite Hayet,"^ paraît en cour "vu l'ab-
sence de son mari." Le 9 septembre 1656, Chouart est parrain d'une
petite sauvagesse aux Trois-Rivières.
Donc, si l'on soutient que les deux hommes envoyés par M. de
liauzon dans l'ouest, le 6 août 1654, et qui revinrent à la fin d'août
1656, étaient Chouart et Radisson, nous ne pouvons pas produire un
alibi, mais nous demandons sur quoi l'on se base pour affirmer un tel
fait. Ce ne peut être qu'une supposition et, sur ce terrain, comment
expliquer que M. de Lauzon ait fait choix de deux " voyageurs " aussi
peu serviles que ceux-là? Ils n'étaient pas du parti du gouverneur, si
nous entendons bien les choses de ce temps. Encore, pourquoi Radis-
son, dans ses écrits, n'en parle-t-il pas? Tout oe que nous connaissons
de lui donne à croire fermement que jamais, avant 1658, il n'a vu
l'ouest — et pourtant il note que Chouart y était allé autrefois — du temps
des jésuites chez les Hurons. Il ne cache point que d'autres Français
avaient parcouru ces contrées. Pas un mot de lui-même à cet égard;
il se présente là, comme chez les Iroquois en 1652, faisant son premier
voyage et voyant partout du nouveau. Nous ne croyons pas au pré-
tendu ou supposé voyage de Chouart et Radisson dans l'ouest, du mois
d'août 1654 au ^nois d'août 1656.
IV
Suivons maintenant les sauvages partis du Saint-Laurent avec
les deux hommes de M. de Lauzon, le 6 août 1654, et qui tous arrivèrent
à la baie Verte chez les Poutéouatamis.
' C'est le nom de la famille Ila41s»on.
[SULTK] DÉCOUVERTE DU MISSISSIPI EN 1659 18
" Quelque temps après (ce retour) un de leurs canots donna avis
d'une armée d'Iroquois qui était fort proche. L'alarme se répandit
bien vite dans tous les lieux circonvoisins. Toutes ces nations se
réfugièrent ^ chez les Poutéouatamis, qui étaient à un journée plus
loin. Ils n'eurent pas de i>eine à faire un grand fort où elles se trou-
vèrent à l'abri des Iroquois, en cas qu'ils voulussent y faire quel-
qu'enterprise. Ceux-ci, qui avaient trouvé l'île Huronne q^bandonnée,
poussèrent jusqu'aux Poutéouatamis, non pas comme des conquérants
mais comme des suppliants qui imploraient leurs secours. En effet,
la famine devint universelle parmi les Iroquois. Il se fit cependant
un traité de paix^ de part et d'autre. Les Iroquois se flattaient qu'ils
en viendraient tôt ou tard à bout, comme ils avaient fait des Hurona
après une paix semblable à celle qu'ils avaient faite avec eux trois ans
auparavant. Les Poutéouatamis les reconnurent dans cette conjecture
pour les mitres de toutes les nations, ils ne cessaient point de les
applaudir et de les lou«r de ce qu'ils avaient soumis les Hurons qui
étaient les plus fiers et les plus redoutables. Ils ne voulaient pourtant
pas sortir de leur fort, se contentant de leur envoyer des vivres dans
leur camp. Peu s'en fallut que tous les Iroquois ne périssent dans
un grand festin qu'ils leur avaient préparé, dont les viandes étaient
empoisonnées. Une Huronne qui avait son fils prisonnier parmi les
Iroquois leur en donna avis. Ce projet avorta, ceux-ci se retirèrent sans
avoir pu réussir. Les uns retournèrent sur leurs pas et les autres
suivirent le bord du lac Huron pour y trouver de quoi suT[)sister plus
aisément." (La Potherie, II, 53-55.)
Le récit de Perrot contient les mêmes faits avec quelques détails
en plus. " Ils (les Iroquois) firent encore quelques efforts pour réussir
et mirent en campagne une espèce de petite armée, afin de détruire les
villages de ce nouvel établissement,^ qui avaient déjà beaucoup tra-
vailler à défricher les terres. Ils eurent cependant assez de temps pour
recueillir leur grain avant l'arrivée de l'ennemi, car ils avaient toujours
soin de tenir du monde à la découverte pour n'être pas surpris, qui les
découvrirent véritablement. Le^ îrroquois arrivèrent donc enfin un
matin devant le fort qui leur parut imprenable. Dans cette armée il y
avait plusieurs Hurons issus de ceux qu'on voulait attaquer et dont
les mères avaient évité la défaite qui arriva lorsque les Iroquois furent
* D'aiprès Perrot, p. 81, le déplacement dea réfugiés de rile Huronne pour 8e
rendre àhez les Pou téouat amie aurait eu lieu en 1652, et il ajoute que lee
Iroquois furent deux années sans reparaître.
' De 1637 à 1697 il s'est écoulé soixante ans durant lesquels les Iroquois ont
mâirocié ou consenti eoixante traités de ipaix aussitôt rompus que proclamés.
• Non plu» l'Ile Huronne, mais le fort de» Poutéouatamis au nord-ouecpt de
la baie Verte.
16 SOCIÉTÉ ROYALE DU CANADA
dans leur ancien pays. L'ennemi manquait déjà de vivres, parce que
dans la route qu'ils avaient tenue jusqu'alors, il ne s'était rencontré
que très peu de bêtes. On parlementa et l'on proposa de traiter d'une
paix ensemble: savoir que les Hurons qu'ils avaient dans leur armée
seraient rendus; ce qui fut écouté et accordé. Pour conclure les pro-
positions, on convint que six chefs entreraient dans le fort des Hurons,
et qu'en, échange ils en livreraient six de leur côté en otage. C'est
ainsi que la paix fut faite et arrêtée entre eux. Les Outaouas et les
HuTons' firent présent aux Iroquois de quelques viandes, et en traitè-
rent aussi avec eux pour des colliers de porcelaine} et des couvertes.
Us demeurèrent campés plusieurs jours pour se refraîchir, sans* néan-
moins entrer dans le fort beaucoup la fois, mais quelques-uns seule-
ment, que les Outaouas tiraient par-dessus les palissades avec des
cordes.
"Les Outaouas firent savoir à l'armée des Irroquois, avant leur
départ, qu'ils étaient dans le sentiment de leur faire présent à chacun
d'un pain de blé d'Inde. Ils composèrent un poison pour y mettre.
Quand ces pains furent cuits, ils les leur envoyèrent; mais une femme
huronne qui avait son mari parmi les Iroquois, savait le secret et en
avertit son fils; elle lui dit de n'en point manger parce qu'ils étaient
empoisonnés. Son fils en donna sitôt avis aux Irroquois, qui en jettèrent
à leurs chiens, dont ils moururent. Il n'en fallut pas davantage pour
les assurer de la vérité de cette conspiration, et se résoudre à partir sans
vivres. Ils résolurent de se partager en deux partis, dont l'un relâcha
delà (mots illisibles)^ qui fut défait par les Saulteurs, Mississakis et les
gens de la Loutre^ (qui veut dire en leur langue Nikikouet) dont il y
en eut peu qui échappèrent. Le gros parti poussa plus loin * et se trouva
en peu de temps parmi les buffles. Si les Outaouas avaient été aussi
braves que les Hurons, et qu'ils les eussent poursuivis, égard à la disette
où ils étaient, ils les auraient sans doute défaits; mais quand ils eurent
(les Iroquois) abondamment de vivres, ils avancèrent toujours, jusqu'à
ce qu'ils tombèrent sur une petite brigade d'Illinoëts dont ils défirent les
femmes et les enfants; car les hommes s'enfuirent vers leurs gens qui
n'étaient pas bien éloignés delà. Ils s'assemblèrent d'abord, et couru-
^ Probableiment "delà, la ibale des. Puants, au lac Huron," où Us furent
battus.
' Les Sauteux, du saut Sainte-iMarie, les Mississaguês et les Oens de la
Loutre on Nikikouets, de la côte d'Algoma, nous sont connuis. Il ne paraît pis
que les Amikoués ou Castors aient tformé partie de l'ejppéddtlon. La victoire
mentionnée dans la Relation de 1671, p. 82, colonne 2, n'a !pas eu pour thé&tre
le laiC Huron, mais le territoire des Amikoués, au nord-ouest de la baie
Georgrienne.
» Au sud, chez les Illinois, par le lac Michigan.
[BULTi] DÉCOUVERTE DU MIS8I8SIPI EN 1669 17
rent après les Irroquois qui ne s'en méfiaient pas; après les avoir joints
la nuit, ils donnèrent dessus et en tuèrent plusieurs. D'autres villages
lUinoëts qui chassaient aux environs, de distance en distance, ayant eu
avis de ce qui se venait de passer, accoururent et trouvèrent leurs gens
qui venaient de faire coup sur les Irroquois. Ils se joignirent ensemble,
s'encouragèrent, et s'étant hâtés, attrapèrent rennemi, lui donnèrent
combat et le défirent entièrement; car il y en eut très peu qui se rendi-
rent à leurs villages. C'est la première connaissance que l'Illinoëts a
eue de l'Irroquois et qui leur a été fatale (aux Iroquois) mais dont ils
se sont bien vengés." (Perrot, 82-83).
Eeprenons le texte de La Potherie, II, 55: "Les Iroquois se re-
tirèrent sans avoir pu réussir. Les uns retournèrent sur leurs pas et les
autres suivirent le bord du lac Huron ^ pour y trouver de quoi subsister
plua aisément. Ces derniers se trouvèrent dans de vastes campagnes,
où ils tuèrent quantité d'ours, de bœufs, biches, cerfs, chevreuils et toute
sorte de gibier. Plus ils avançaient, plus ils rencontraient de ces ani-
maux. Un Iroquois qui était écarté de ses camarades découvrit des
pistes d'hommes et aperçut" presque en même temps de la fumée. Il en
donna aussitôt avis aux autres qui reconnurent un petit village ^ d'Isli-
nois. Ils donnèrent dessus sans trouver de résistance, n'y ayant que des
femmes et des vieillards, le reste du village étant dispersé à la chasse.
Un chasseur qui arriva le premier fut bien surpris de ne voir à sa ren-
contre que des cadavres. Il en porta la nouvelle à plusieurs autres vil-
lages voisins; l'on joignit en peu de jours les Iroquois. Les Islinois leur
livrèrent combat, les défirent et ramenèrent tous les prisonniers. Les
Iroquois n'avaient jamais été dans ces quartiers, mais toutes ces vastea
campagnes ont été depuis le théâtre de la guerre."
Des soixante bourgades, des vingt mille guerriers et des cent vingt
mille âmes des Illinois il ne restait plus que deux ou trois bourgades en
1658 — les autres avaient émigré de l'autre côté du Mississipi, dans
llowa, poursuivis jusqu'au grand fleuve par les Iroquois. On voit que
Perrot et La Potherie disent juste en faisant allusion aux malheurs qui
résultèrent pour les Illinois de l'épisode de 1654.
Xotre objet principal étant de suivre le groupe d'Outaouas et de
Hurons du Petun qui se tenait dans la baie Verte, il faut voir leurs
mouvements au cours des années 1654-57. Voici comment s'exprime
* Il faut lire: lac des Illinois appelé Michigan.
' Le copiste de Perrot a lu " brigrade." Ce doit être " bourgade " puisque
La Potherie met " village." (Remarque du R. P. Tailhan.)
Sec. I, 1903. 2.
18 SOCIÉTÉ ROYALE DU CANADA
Nicolas Perrot, p. 85: "Les Outaouas, craignant de n'être pas assez
forts pour soutenir les* incursions des Irroquois, qui étaient informés
de Tendroit où ils avaient fait leur établissement, se réfugièrent au
Mifisissipi, qui se nomme à présent la Louisiane." Mettons que ceci
eut lieu l'automne de 1654 ^ ou en 1655, car on verra plus loin que la
chose ne tarda guère. Le passage suivant entre dans certains détails
additionnels:
" Ces peuples (Outaouas et Hurons) qui avaient été assez heureux
d'éviter leur perte, jugèrent bien qu'il n'y avait pas grande sûreté de
demeurer dorénavant dans un pays qui pourrait devenir la proie des
Iroquois, quelque paix qu'ils eussent faite avec eux. Us se réfugièrent
dans l'ouest,* chez des nations qui les reçurent favorablement. Ils s'y
seraient établis s'ils ne s'étaient pas vus trop éloignés des Français,
et s'il y avait eu des arbres pour faire des canots qui leur étaient absolu-
ment nécessaires. Ils quittèrent ce pays et s'établirent sur le Mississipi
qui les charma par la quantité d'ours, de biches, cerfs, chevreuils, eau-
tors, surtout de ces bœufs qui ont le poil aussi fin que de la soie, dont
on a fait des chapeaux il y a peu d'années en France, et de toutes
sortes de gibiers dont les rivières et les campagnes, les forêts étaient
remiplies." (La Potherie II, 55-6.)
"Les Hurons de la nation du Petun appelée Tionnotanté, ayant
autrefois été chassés de leur pays par les Iroquois, se réfugièrent en
cette île si célèbre pour la pêche, nommée (Missilimakinac; mais ils
u^'y purent rester que peu d'années, ces mêmes ennemis les ayant
obligés de quitter ce poste si avantageux. Ils se retirèrent donc plus
loin, dans les îles qui portent encore leur nomj et qui sont .à l'entrée
de la baie des Puants; mais ne s'y trouvant pas encore assez en assu-
rance, ils se retirèrent bien avant dans les bois ' et, de là, enfin choisi-
rent pour dernière demeure Fextrémité du lac Supérieur,* dans un.
endroit qu'on a appelé la pointe du Saint-Esprit." {Relation, 1672,
p. 86.)
Âmenaient-ils' avec eux les Français de M. de Lauzon, ou si ces
deux hommes restèrent à la baie Verte? Cette dernière hypothèse
nous semble la plus acceptable'* par le désir qu'ils devaient avoir de
* Les êcrivainB du Wisconsin et du Minnesota disputent sur ces mouve-
ments de la bande huronne-outaoualse, faute de connaître les faits dans leur
ensemble.
' Au sud du lac *Surpêrleur.
• Wisconsin et Mississi<pi, 1655-^.
• En 1657.
* La Relation de 165S, p. 21, dit qiue, & trods Journées par eau du bourer Saint-
Mlotiel (Poutéouatamls) tirant dans les terres, est la nation des Maakoutensalc
et des Outltchakouk. Les deux Français qui ont voyagé en ces contrées-là,
disent Que ces peuples sont de très douce humeur."
[8ULTE] DÉCOUVERTE DU MISSISSIPI EN 1Ô59 19
retourner chez eux en 1655. Quant à nos Sauvages, Perrot ajoute:
" Ils montèrent ce fleuve ^ à douze lieues ou environ d'Ouisconehin
(la rivière Wiaconsin) où ils trouvèrent une autre rivière qui se nomme
des Ayoës (lowa à présent). Ils la suivirent jusqu'à sa source et
rencontrèrent des nations qui les reçurent cordialement. Mais, dana
toute rétendue du pays qu'ils parcouraient n'ayant pas vu de lieu
propre à s'établir, à cause qu'il n'y avait du tout point de bois, et
qu'il ne paraissait que prairies et rases campagnes, quoique les buflies
et autres bêtes y fussent en abondance, ils reprirent la même route
pour retourner sur leurs pas et, après avoir encore une fois abordé la
Louisiane,^ ils montèrent plus haut. Il n'y furent pas longtemps
sans s'écarter pour aller d'un côté et d'autre à la chasse: je parle d'une
partie seulement de leurs gens que les Scioux rencontrèrent, prirent
et amenèrent à leurs villages. Lee Scioux, qui n'avaient au<:*une con-
naissance des armes à feu et autres instruments qu'ils leur voyaient,
ne se servant que de couteaux de pierre de moulange et de haches de
cailloux, espérèrent que ces nations nouvelles, qui s'étaient approchées
d'eux, leur feraient part des commodités qu'ils avaient. Croyant qu'ils
étaient des esprits parce qu'ils avaient l'usage de ce fer qui n'avait pas
de rapport avec tout ce qu'ils avaient, ils les menèrent à leurs villages^
Bt puis les rendirent à leurs gens.
" Les Outaouas et les Hurons les reçurent fort bien à lexir tour,
sans néanmoins leur faire de grands présents. Les Scioux étant
revenus chez eux, avec quelques petites choses qu'ils avaient reçues des
Outaouas, en firent part aux autres villages leurs alliés, et donnèrent
aux uns des haches et aux autres quelques couteaux ou alênes. Tous
ces villages envoyèrent des députés chez les Outaouas, où, sitôt qu'ils
furent arrivés, ils commencèrent, suivant la coutume, à pleurer sur
tout ce qu'ils* rencontraient, pour leur marquer la joie sensible qu'ils
avaient de les avoir trouvés, et les exhorter d'avoir pitié d'eux, en
leur faisant part de ce fer qu'ils regardaient comme une divinité.
'* Les Outaouas, en voyant ces gens pleurer ' sur tous ceux qui se
présentaient devant eux en conçurent du mépris et les regardèrent
comme des gens bien au-dessous d'eux, incapables même de faire la
guerre. Ils leur donnèrent aussi une bagatelle, soit CDuteaux ou
alênes, que les Scioux témoignèrent estimer beaucoup, levant les yeux
^ Le MisaiJBSipi. La Mère de l'Inoarnation écrivait dès 1654: ** Des sauvaeres
fort éloignés disent qu'il y a au-dessus de leur pays une rivière fort précieuse
qui aboutit à une grande mer que l'on tient être celle de la Chintw"
" La sortie du Wiaconsin.
* Cette manière de (témoigner sooi admiration existait en Europe, au dire de
madame d« Créquy. Vers 1760, deux Lithuaniens de nobles feumillee répan-
dirent d'abondantes larmes, en présence de la société parisienne, en visitant
les musées et les malsons princières.
20 SOCIÉTÉ ROYALE DU CANADA
au ciel et le bénissant d'avoir conduit ces nations dans leur pays, qui
étaient en état de leur procurer de si puissants moyens pour faire
cesser leur misère. Les Outaouas, qui avaient quelques fusils, les
tirèrent et le bruit qu'ils firent les épouvanta tellement qu'ils s'ima-
ginèrent que c'était la foudre ou le tonnerre dont ils étaient maîtres
pour exterminer ceux qu'ils voulaient Les Scioux faisaient mille
caresses aux Hurons et Outaouas partout où ils étaient, leur marquant
toutes les soumissions possibles afin de les toucher de compassion et
d'en tirer quelque utilité, mais les Outaouas en avaient d'autant moins
d'estime qu'ils insistaient à se tenir devant eux dans ces postures
humiliantes.
" Les Outaouas se déterminèrent enfin .à choisir l'île Pelée * pour
s'établir; où ils furent quelques années* en repos. Ils y reçurent
souvent le visite des Scioux. Mais un jour il arriva que les Hurons,
'étant à la chasse, rencontrèrent des Scioux qu'ils tuèrent; les Scioux,
en peine de leurs gens, ne savaient ce qu'ils étaient devenus; ils en
trouvèrent, quelques jours après, les cadavres auxquels on avait coupé
la tête. Ils retournèrent au village en diligence porter cette triste
nouvelle et rencontrèrent quelques Hurons en chemin qu'ils firent
prisonniers. Quand ils furent arrivés chez eux, les chefs les relâchè-
rent et les renvoyèrent à leurs gens. Les Hurons, ayant assez d'audace
pour s'imaginer que les Scioux étaient incapables de leur résister sans
armes de fer et à feu, conspirèrent avec les Outaouas de les entre-
prendre et de leur faire la guerre, afin de les chasser de leur pays et
de se pouvoir étendre davantage «pour chercher leur subsistance. Les
Outaouas et les Hurons se joignirent ensemble et marchèrent contre
les Scioux. Ils crurent que, sitôt qu'ils paraîtraienl, ils fuiraient, mais
ils furent bien trompés, car ils soutinrent leurs efforts et même les
repoussèrent et, s'ils ne s'étaient retirés, ils auraient été entièrement
défaits par le grand nombre de monde qui venaieni dos autres villages
de leurs alliés à leur secours. On les poursuivit jusqu'à leur établisse-
ment, où ils furent contraints de faire un méchant fort, qui ne laissa
pas d'être capable de faire retirer les Scioux, puisqu'ils n'osèrent entre-
prendre de l'attaquer. Les incursions continuelles que les Scioux
faisaient sur eux les contraignirent de fuir. Ils avaient eu «connaissance
d'une rivière qu'on nomme le rivière Noire; ils entrèrent dedans et,
* Offrant une belle plaine sans arbres, â. trois lieues au-dessous de l'embou-
chure de la rivière Sainte-Croix dans le MississipI, à l'entrée du lac Bonse-
cours ou Pépin, appelé lac des Pleurs par Hennepin en 1680, parce que les
Sioux pleuraient de ravissement â, la vue des articles de fabrique européenne
qu'dl leur montrait.
* Tout au plus de l'automne de 1655 à l'automne de 1657 ou même au prin-
temps de 1658.
[sultb] découverte DU MISSISSIPI EN 1659 21
étant arrivés là où elle prend sa source, les Hurons y trouvèrent un lieu
propre pour s'y fortifier et y établir leur village. Les Outaouas
poussèrent plus loin et marchèrent jusqu'au lac Supérieur et fixèrent
leur demeure à Chagouamikon/' *
Récapitulons ce qui concerne les Outaouas et les Hurons du Petun:
1651, ils laissent leurs pays pour s-e rapprocher du Michigan nord;
1652, vont 11 l'île Huronne; 1653, reculent jusque chez les Poutéou-
atamis au nord-ouest de la baie Verte; envoyent trois canots vers le
Canada pour renouer des relations commerciales; 1654, vont traiter
en Canada; retournent avec deux Français; leur fort de la baie Verte
est menacé par les Iroquois; 1655, se dirigent aux sources de la rivière
Wisconsin; descendent au Mississipi; passent deux ans à Tîle Pelée;
1657, les Hurons se rendent aux sources de la rivière Noire pour y
demeurer; les Outaouas s'avancent jusqu'au lac Supérieur et s'y fixent.*
VI
Que se passait-il, durant ce peu d'années, à l'égard des Iroquois?
Ils étendaient leur puissance. La force et la valeur que ce peuple
déployait à la pratique de la guerre provenait de son organisation, de
sa discipline, de son esprit de suite, infiniment supérieur à tous ce qui
se voyait chez les autres nations sauvages. Il tendait à dominer de
vastes territoires afin de tenir dans sa main le commerce des f ourrurcB
dont le débouché se trouvait, pour lui, dans les comptoirs hollandais,
anglais et suédois des bords de l'Atlantique, par opposition aux Fran-
çais du Saint-Laurent, aussi employait-il toute sa vigueur à se rendre
maître du pays et du monopole qui devait résulter de ses conquêtes.
Ayant tourné leurs vues du côté des grands lacs, les Cinq-Nations
conunencèrent en 1654 à demander la paix avec la colonie française,
prenant pour prétexte que les Eriés (les Chats) du sud du lac Erié
leur faisaient la guerre à l'instigation d'une tribu huronne réfugiée
chez eux. Les Eriés périrent tous dans cette lutte ou furent incor-
porés à l'élément iroquois. Tout aussitôt, en 1656, les Français conclu-
rent la paix et une colonie des nôtres alla s'établir chez les Onnontagués,
comme marque de confiance dans le bon esprit des Cinq-Nations.
Alors, les Miamis, situés près du lac Michigan, reçurent la visite dee
* La Potherie II, 56, se borne à dire: " Lea Nadouays»iouz en avalent om-
brage et en tuèrent plusieurs Ils furent encore contraints de quitter quel-
ques années après ce pays si délicieux et vinrent demeurer <& Chagrouamikon,
sur le lac Supérieur, où ils demeurèrent jusqu'à la paix des Iroquois (1670) avec
les Français et toutes les nations, après laquelle ils se rapprochèrent de leur
pays natal."
* Il va de soi que d'autres petites bajides de Hurons et d'Outaousis circu-
laient dans ces territoires indépendamment de ceux qui nous occupent icL
22 SOCIÉTÉ ROYALE DU CANADA
destructeurs iroquois; ees pauvres gens se retirèrent (1657) dans la
TOQée de ITllinois. Cotait au tour defe* Illinois à diapawdtre, aussi,
dès 1666, on les voit s'éloigner deô* rives occidentales du lac Md-chigan
pour prendre la route de l'ouest iet s'établir de l'autre côté du Mis-
sissipi, dans Tlowa, qui avait été leur ancienne patrie et où ils vécurent
quinze ou seize ans. Les Ejkapous du voisinage du Détroit s'étaient
réfugiés, en 1653, à l'île Manitoualine ; de nouvelles incursions les
repoussèrent plus loin et ils prirent refuge au Wisconsin.
Les Gens du Feu, en langage huron-iroquois Atsistaguerhonon,
étaient appelés Majskouteuch par les Algonquins, ce qui veut dire " habi-
tante de la plaine." Atsista signifie le feu et ronon les hommes, tels que
irini en algonquin et vir en latin. Ces Mascoutins sont mentionnés en
1615 comme faisant la guerre aux Sauvages du nord du lac Huron, prin-
cipalement les Outaouas de l'île Manitoualine, mais ces derniers s'enten-
daient avec les Neutres (côte nord du lac Erié) qui harcelaient con-
tinuellement les Mascoutins; cet état de choses se maintenait en 1646
et ne finit qu'en 1650, lorsque lee Iroquois furent m«tttres du Haut-
Canada. Sur la carte de Champlain (1632) la nation du Feu est placée
à l'ouest de la ville actuelle du Détroit, en un lieu nommé ** Bistaguero-
non." Ce peuple avait sa droite vers l'extrémité du lac Erié, tandis que
sa gauche touchait à la baie de Saginaw. Nous sommes poriié à croire
que l'on peut considérer les Mascoutins comme le principal peuple de
cette région jusqu'au passage de Makinac. '^Cette nation du Feu est
plus peuplée, elle seule, que tous ensemble ceux de la nation Neutre,
tous les Hurons et les Iroquois ennemis des Hurons. Elle contient
grand nombre de villages qui parlent la langue algonquine, qui règne
encore plus avant" {Relation, 1644, p. 97-8). Le père Pierre Pijart,
en mission dans la contrée des Hurons du Petun (vers Goderich)
durant l'hiver de 1640-41, s'était assuré que les Mascoutins parlaient
l'algonquin. Deux de ces Sauvages, pris à la guerre en 1646, dirent que
leur nation n'avait jamais vu d'Européen. Les événements empêchèrent
qu'on ne visitât jamais ces gens dans le Michigan. L'une de leurs
tribus, les Ouchaouanag, est mentionnée en 1648, mais elle n'avait
aucun rapport avec les missionnaires. Lorsque les Iroquois demandè-
rent la paix aux Français, en JL656, c'était afin de se trouver libres du
côté du Bas-Canada; aussitôt ils portèrent leurs armes au sud et c'est
alors que les Mascoutins abandonnèrent leur patrie pour se réfugier vers
l'Indiana et le Wisconsin. Sur sa carte de 1660, le père Ducreux les
place encore derrière le Détroit, parce que ses renseignements à ce sujet
dataient de cinq ou six années déjà. Le Relation de 1658, p. 21, dont
la substance est de 1657 au moins, les montre un peu à l'ouest de Mil-
iwaukee, où Badieson et Chouart les visitèrent en 1659.
[suLTil DÉCOUVERTE DU MISSIS8IPI EN 1Ô59 28
Ce balayage accompli, les Iroquois levèrent le masque et, en 1668,
rompirent la paix avec les Français.
VII
A partir de 1650, les Hurons, Outaouas, Sauteurs, Mississagués,
Amikoués, Atohiligouans, Nikikouëts et Nipissiriniens, fuyant la hache
de Flroquois, portèrent dans la baie Verte, le Wisconsin, le Minnesota,
la connaissance des armes à feu et de pluflieure ustensiles que, par le
moyen de leurs pelleteries, ils avaient obtenus du Canada. Il s'établit
des rapports entre ces peuples divers, même ceux du nord, et le saut
Sainte-Marie avec la baie de Chagouamikon devinrent les centres du
commerce. Les Sioux ne tardèrent pas à connaître l'existence des Fran-
çais, en commençant par admirer les articles de traite dont leurs nou-
veaux amis se servaient avec un orgueil et une ostentation qui les fai-
saient passer pour des êtres supérieurs aux autres Sauvages. Enfin, les
Hurons et les Outaouas, arrivant à Tîle Pelée, avaient découvert le Mis-
fcissipi et n'en faisaient pas mystère. Dès 1656, à leur retour de la
baie Verte, les deux traiteurs de M. de Lauzon devaient être en état de
parler des "grandes eaux" dont Jean Nicolet avait fait mention vingt
ans auparavant.
L'action hardie des Outaouas et des Hurons rouvrant la toraite
(1654) avec la colonie française ne fut pas répétée l'année suivante,
mais, en 1656, lefe sauvages de la Baie renouvelèrent cet exploit, malgré
les embuscades dans lesquelles ils auraient pu tomber.
Puisque les Hurons du Petun et leurs amis les Outaouas rôdaient
alors au Mississipi, quels étaient donc ces Sauvages de la Baie qui allè-
rent en traite sur le Saint-Laurent avec les deux hommes de Lauzon ?
Un mélange de nations — Sakis, Poutéouatamis, Malomines, Mantouek,
tous de la Baie — ^des Sauteurs, Missis'sigués, Amikoués, etc., de la baie
Géorgienne, sans oublier des Outaouas du saut Sainte-Marie qui nous
paraissent avoir été les chefs de cette expédition.
" Le sixième jour du mois d'août 1654, deux jeunes Français, pleins
de courage, ayant eu permission de monsieur le gouverneur du pays
(Jean de Lauzon) de s^embarquer (à Québec) avec quelques-uns de ce
peuple (les Outaouas) firent un voyage de plus de cinq cents lieues
Ils pensaient bien retourner au printemps de l'année 1655, mais ces
peuples ne les ont ramenés que sur la fin d'août 1656. Leur arrivée a
causé une joie universelle à tout le pays, car ils étaient accompagnés de
cinquante canots chargés de marchandises que les Français vont chercher
en ce bout du monde. Cette fiotte marchait gravement et en bel ordre,
poussée par cinq cents bras sur notre grand fleuve, et conduite par au-
24 SOCIÉTÉ ROYALE DU CANADA
tant d'yeux, dont la plupart n'avaient jamais vu les grands canots de
bois, je veux dire les navires des Français. Ayant mis pied à terre au
bruit étonnant des canons, et ayant bâti en un moment leurs maisons
volantes, les capitaines montèrent au fort Saint-Louis pour aller saluer
monsieur j( Jean de Lauzon) notre gouverneur, portant leurs paroles en
la main : c'étaient deux présents, qui passent pour des paroles parmi ces
peuples. L'un de ces présents demandait des Français pour aller passer
l'hiver en leur pays ; et l'autre demandait des pères de notre compagnie,
pour enseigner le chemin du ciel à toutes les nations de cas graai33
contrées. On leur répondit à leur mode par des présents, leur accordant
très volontiers tout ce qu'ils demandaient. Mais pendant que ceux qui
sont destinés pour cette grande entrepris» se préparent, apprenons
quelque chose de nouveau des deux pèlerins français et de leurs hôtes.
" Premièrement, il est bon de remarquer que la langue huronne
s'étend bien à cinq cents lieues du côté du sud, et la langue algonquine
plus de cinq cents du côté du nord. Je sais bien qu'il y a quelque petite
différence entre ces nations, mais cela consiste en quelques dialectes qu'on
A bientôt appris et qui n'altèrent point le fond de ces deux langues.
Secondement, il y a quantité de lacs au quartier du nord qui passeraient
bien pour des mers douces, et le grand lac des Hurons et un autre
(Supérieur) qui lui est voisin, ne cèdent point à la mer Caspie. En
troisième lieu, on nous a marqué quantité de nations aux environs de la
nation de Mer (les Puants de la baie Verte) que quelques-uns ont
appelé les Puants, à cause qu'ils ont autrefois habité sur les rives de la
mer qu'ils nomment Ouinipeg, c'est-à-dire eau puante. Les Liniouek
(Illinois) qui leur sont voisins, sont environ soixante bourgades. Les
Nadouesiouek en ont bien quarante. Les Pouarac (Sioux guerriers) en
ont pour le moins trente. Les Kiristinons passent tous ceux-là en
étendue: ils vont jusqu'à la mer du nord. Le pays des Hurons, qui
n'avait que dix-sept bourgades dans l'étendue de dix-sept lieues ou en-
viron, nourrissait bien trente mille personnes Disons en quatrième
lieu, que ces deux jeunes hommes n'ont pas perdu leurs peines dans leur
grande course; ils n'ont pas seulement enrichi quelques Français à leur
retour, mais ils ont donné beaucoup de joie à tout le paradis, ayant
baptisé et envoyé au ciel environ trois cents' petits enfants.'* {Relation
1656, p. 39).
M. Charles Aubert de la Chesnaye, agent de la compagnie de
traite de Rouen, était à Québec depuis* une année. Dans un mémoire
qu'il écrivit en 1696,* il raconte que les deux Français revenus en
4656 des contrées de l'ouest rapportaient, chacun, pour quatorze ou
^ Et non pas en 1676 comme il est dit êl la pa^re 245 du tome I des Documenté
sur la Nouvelle-France.
[sume] DÉœUVERTE DU MISSISSIPI EN 1659 2B
quinze mille francs de pelleteries, sans compter qu'ils amenaient avec
eux des sauvages portant des pelleteries pour cent mille ecus. " Ils
me firent procès, ajoute-t-il, pour s'exempter des droits du quari;, parce
qu*il« disaient qu*on leur avait Tobligation d'avoir fait descendre
une flotte qui enrichissait le pays."
La Compagnie Rouen-la-Rochelle avait le monopole du commerce
de la Nouvelle-France depuis 1654, mais elle était trop pauvre, et aussi
trop peu entreprenante pour aller jusqu'au lac Supérieur chercher
les fourrures que son privilège lui accordait à elle seule. C'étaient
donc les particuliers qui pouvaient se charger des risques et des périls
de ces sortes d'aventures* et, lorsqu'ils réussissaient, la compagnie exi-
geait d'eux une remise de vingt-cinq par cent de la valeur marchande
des peaux. Dans le cas qui nous occupe ici, les deux Français avaient
été envoyés, équipés sans doute, par M. Jean de Lauzon, gouverneur
général, et la chose paraîtra singulière qu'il refusât d'acquitter le
droit légal du quart, mais souvenons-nouô" que Lauzon avait été l'âme
des Cent-Associés ; que voyant approcher la débâcle financière, il s'était
fait nommer gouverneur (1651) afin de rétablir la situation de la com-
pagnie; que, en 1654, il avait fallu oéder le monopole de la traite à
un syndicat de la Rochelle et de Rouen. Lauzon était donc simple
gouverneur général et non plus direjcteur du commerce en 1654, lors-
qu'il expédia ses deux hommes, aussi ne voulut-il pas reconnaître les
prétentions des commerçants qui l'avaient supplanté.
Le voyage de 1654-56, qui tira de l'ouest des masses de pelleterie
et attira inmiédiatement le trafic des peuples de la baie d'Hudson chez
les Outaouas du lac Supérieur, sans compter la participation de la baie
Verte, n'aurait pas eu lieu sans l'initiative de Lauzon qui voulait se
refaire de ses pertes d'autrefois! L'été de 1656, ce gouverneur re-
tourna en France, de son propre mouvement, et son fils le remplaça
tant bien que mal.
"'L'an 1656, dit la Relation de 1660, p. 29, une flotte de trois
cents Algonquins supérieurs^ venant ici en traite, nous donna espé-
rance qu'en se jettant parmi eux nous pourrions remonter ensemblq
en leur pays et y travailler au salut de ces peuples. Deux de nos
pères s'embarquèrent pour ce sujet, toais l'un fut obligé de rebrousser
chemin, et l'autre qui était la père Léonard Garreau fut tué (sur
l'Ottawa) par les Iroquois." Médard Chouart devait être de ce voyage,
d'après ce que dit son beau-frère Radiseon. Il aurait donc hiverné
dans l'oueet.
Les " chemine coupés par les Iroquois" depuis 1648 se rouvraient
sous l'initiative des Outaouas et des Hurons et, par la suite, le com-
merce des Français avec l'ouest ne devait se trouver interrompu ou
* Baie Verte, saut Sainte-Marie, côte d'Algroma.
26 SOCIÉTÉ BOYALE DU CANADA
gêné que rarement^ quand la situation du Bae-Canada entravait trop
les affairée, ou lorsque les Iroquois se décidaient à frapper un coup
quelque part.
Ainsi donc, bientôt la grande traite de l'été descendrait du lac
Supérieur, se joindrait aux gens de la baie Verte à la bouche de la
rivière Sainte-Marie, passant par le nord de la baie Géorgienne, la
rivière des Français, le lac Nipissing, la rivière Mattawun, et Fan-
cienne rivière des Algonquins, pour arriver à Montréal, étant, par sa
force même, à Tabri des attaques.
De là vint cette habitude de qualifier la rivière abandonnée pas les
Algonquins de " route des Outaouas '' — ce que Ton nomme à présent
la rivière Ottawa.*' * Cependant le terme de ^' Grande Eivière '' a
toujours été le plus populaire depuis près de trois siècles. Le père
Allouez écrivait en 1667 {Relation, p. 17), que les Outaouas, ** pré-
fendent que la grande rivière leur appartient et qu'aucune nation n'y
peut naviguer sans leur consentement; c'est pour cela que tous ceux
qui vont en traite aux Français (Montréal), quoique fort différents de
nation, portent le nom général d'Outaouacs, sous les auspices desquels
ils font ce voyage."
VIII
Chouart a-t-il été dans Touest avec les sauvages qui y retournaient
en 1656? Voyons d'abord la marche de cette caravane: "Les Outa-
ouas descendirent en gros aux Trois-Bivières. On leur donna des
missionnaires: les Hurons eurent le Père Garot et les Outaouas le
P. Mesnard,^ avec cinq Français qui les accompagnèrent. Le Père
Oarot fut tué par k bande du Bâtard Flammand, qui (le Père Garreau)
s'était embarqué avec les Hurons (et fut tué) sur le lac des Deux-
Montagnes, où il (le Bâtard Flamand) avait fait construire un fort;
mais ayant laissé passer le gros des Outaouas et des Saulteurs, qui
étaient bien meilleurs canotteurs que les Hurons, ils (les Iroquois) les
joignirent quoique bien éloignés d'eux, les défirent et en prirent plu-
sieurs. Les Irroquois et les Français étaient alors en paix. Le Bâtard
Flammand fit transporter le corps du père à Montréal, qtii était alors
déjà établi. On lui demanda, sitôt qu'il fut arrivé, pourquoi il avait
tiré sur le père; il répondit que lui ni ses gens ne l'avaient pas tué;
que c'était un Français qui, ayant déserté * de Montréal, était venu
joindre son parti, dans le temps qu'il (le Bâtard Flamand) allait
* De 1615 à 1700 on la voit désigrnée sous le nom de rivière des Prairies, voir
la carte de Sanson, année 1650.
* Non. C'était le père Dreuillette.
■ Voir une note du Père Tailhan, p. 230 du mémoire de Perrot.
[sultb] découverte DU MISSI8SIPI EN 1659 27
dresser des embuscades aux Outaouas, qui voulaient monter la rivière
des Prairies.^ Ce Français fut remis au gouverneur et passé par les
armes,* faute d'exécuteur. Le Bâtard Flammand amena plusieurs
prisonniers hurons, auxquels il fit brûler les doigts, sans aucune oppo-
sition de la part des Français, et leur accorda la vie quand il les eut
rendus dans son village. Ils n'oublieront jamais la manière dont .nous
les avons abandonnés dans cette occasion à la discrétion de leurs enne-
mis.'' (Nicolas Perrot, p. 84.)
Comme le père Dreuillette, le frère Louis Le Boëme et les Fran-
çais qui avaient persisté à les suivre jusqu'au-dessus de Montréal
rebroussèrent chemin après l'attaque des Iroquois, devons-nous supposer
que Chouart fut le seul à accompagner les sauvages dans leur pays,
alors que nous ne savons pas même s'il formait partie du voyage?
Ri-en ne nous induit à croire que les Outaouas et les Hurons
descendirent au Saint-Laurent l'année 1657, de sorte que Chouart
n'aurait guère eu occasion de retourner aux Trois-Rivières, s'il
était parti pour l'ouest en 1656 ' — pourtant Radisson nous dit que son
beau-frère et d'autres Français étaient revenus des lacs en 1657.
La traite de 1667 se lit par le Saint-Maurice. Peut-être Chouart
en était-il; cela justifierait Radisson. Voici ce que nous pouvons dire
à ce sujet: Le 20 avril 1657, huit Français des Trois-Rivières, avec
vingt canots d'Algonquins partaient par la rivière Batiscan, qui est à
six ou sept lieues au-dessous de la ville. Us passèrent vingt-huit sauts
en quatorze jours et arrivèrent au term« de leur course le 28 mai, après
avoir recontré soixante-quartorze sauts ou portages; ils rentrèrent aux
Trois-Rivières le 15 juillet,* chargés de castors. "Ils virent des
Poisson-Blancs (Attikamègues) qui demandent à prier Dieu, des
Agouing8i8ek et des Kiristinons, qui sont proches de la mer du nord."
(Journal des Jésuites, 15 juillet 1657.)
Le 17 novembre 1657, une chaloupe remplie de Sauvages arriva à
Québec portant la nouvelle que plus de soixante canots chargés de
pelleteries avaient abordé aux Trois-Rivières, qu'ils étaient en partie
de la nation des Poissons-Blancs, et d'autres peuples plus au nord,
dont quelques-uns n'avaient jamais vu d'Européens; ils étaient tous
gens bien faits et de belle taille, mais d'une nature timide et peu
^ C'était alors le noun de la rivière lajpipelée plus tard Ontaoua, et Ottawa.
' Falllon: Histoire de la Colonie, JI, 257.
• Ne 'POurralt-on offrir au lecteur le calcul suivant: Marie-Anne, fllle de
" Mêdard Ohouard dit Des Oroizellers et Margruerite Haiets sa femme," née
et baptisée aux Trois-Rivières le 7 août 1657, donne à penser que le père
était en ce dernier lieu durant les mois de novem/bre-dêcembre 1656.
• Le 18 juiUet 1667, Chouart est présent devant la cour, aux Trols-Riviêres.
Le 6 octobre suivant, il est parrain d'Ignace Aubuchon.
28 SOCIÉTÉ ROYALE DU CANADA
entreprenante. Us avaient été attaqués par les Iroquois, deux ou trois
années auparavant, dans leurs bourgades, à la hauteur dies terres, et
avaient cru prudent de se réfugier chez les autres nations plus éloignées.
Pour aller à la mer du nord par le Saint-Maurice, la Relation dit que
Ton va environ cent cinquante lieues, jusqu'au lac Ouapichiouanon ;
de là on va trouver la baie des peuples nommés Kilistinons qui sont
sur la mer du nord. Du lac Ouapichiouanon on descend aux Trois-
JUvières en sept journées. " Maif» voici encore un nouveau chemin du
pays des Hurons aux Trois-Rivières. " Sortant du lac nommé Tema-
gami, c'est-à-dire eau profonde, que je crois être la mer Douce des
Hurons et la source du grand fleuve Saint-Laurent; ayant fait quelque
chemin sur ce grand fleuve, on traverse environ quinze lieues, par
des petits ruisseaux, jusqu'au lac nommé Ouassisanik, d'où cort un
fleuve qui conduit aux Trois-Rivières. C'est par ce chemin que vingt-
cinq canots Nipisiriniens arrivèrent, il y a environ deux ans* (1666)
chargés d'hommes, de femmes, d'enfants ot de pelleteries. Ils nous
dirent qu'ils avaient trouvé partout de l'orignac ou des castors, ou des
poissons, dont ils avaient fait leur nourriture. Ils nous aasuraient
qu'il serait facile à nos Français, partant des Trois-Rivières, de se
rendre dans un mods à la mer Douce des Hurons." ^
D'après notre manière de voir, Chouart a passé l'hiver de 1656-57
aux Trois-Rivières; il a pu former partie de Texpédition sur le haut
Saint-Maurice, du 20 avril au 15 juillet 1657, mais Radisson n'en était
pas puisque, à la fin de juin ou au commencement de juillet, il s'embar-
quait aux Trois-Rivières pour aller au pays des Iroquois (pages 87, 95,
97 de sa narration) .
Au mois de juin 1657 on organisait à Québec un envoi d'hommes
pour renforcer la petite garrJson française établie chez les Onnontagués
l'année précédente. Radisson se rendit à Montréal pour s'adjoindre à
eux, car c'était l'endroit du rendez-vous général. H dit qu'il s'écoula
quinze jours avant l'embarquement (26 juillet) et qu'ils partirent au
nombre de quatre-vingts Iroquois, une centaine de Huronnes, dix à douze
Hurons, vingt Français et deux pères jésuites. La route se fit par le
Saint-Laurent. A Onnontagué le major Zacharie Dupuis et ses trente
soldats avaient construit un fort, mais la situation était devenue des plus
alarmantes. Dès l'automne (1657) on eut connaissance d'un complot
pour massacrer les Français, lequel, toutefois, fut suspendu en apprenant
qu'une cinquantaine d'Onnontagués allaient passer l'hiver à Québec.
Le 20 mars 1658, Dupuis convoqua les Sauvages à un grand festin et,
les ayant gorgés, on profita de leur sommeil pour déguerpir à la faveur
* Journal des Jésuites, 17 novembre 1657; Relations, 1658, pp. 12, 20-21; 1660,
P. 12.
[8ULTB] DÉœUVERTE DU MI8SI881PI EN 1Ô69 20
de la nuit aussi bien que d'une tempête de neige qui effaçait les traces
des fugitifs. Ils étaient 53 hommes, dont 3 périrent dans le voyage.
Badisson (pp. 126, 128, 130, 131, 133, 134) dit qu'ils furent six se-
maines à descendre, puis il ajoute qu'ils arrivèrent à Montréal à la fin
de mars, mais nous savons que c'était le 3 avril.
La débâcle du fleuve avait lieu en ce moment. Peu de jours après,
Badisson était aux Trois-Bivières. Chouart^ et lui résolurent d'aller à
la découverte des grands lacs dont parlaient les aborigènes "et qui ont
été vus, car mon beau-frère y a fait plusieurs voyages du temps que les
pères jésuites demeuraient vers le lac des Hurons, sur le bord de la mer"
(p. 134). Tout ceci est conforme à l'histoire, excepté la mer et ses
rivages.
Le mystère de l'ouest était déjà passablement débrouillé si l'on en
juge par la lettre de la Mère de l'Incarnation du 24 septembre 1654,
signalant le Mississipi, sans le nommer, et les Relations des pères jésuites
de 1654 à 1658 énumérant les peuples lointains dont on avait connais-
sance, toutefois, le marasme dans lequel végétait le Bas-Canada empê-
ohait de donner suite au mouvement commercial inauguré par les Ou-
taouas, les Hurons, les Sauteurs et les Nipissiriniens. M. Jean de
Lauzon, dépité de ses insuccès, était retourhé en France Tété de 1656,
laissant les affaires à un de ses fils qui les passa, l'année suivante, à M.
d'Ailleboust, en attendant une décision de Paris. Le 11 juillet 1658,
M. d'Argenson arriva, mais sans troupes, sans .argent, sans ressources*
d'aucune sorte. Il ne voulut voir — avec raison — que la nécessité immé-
diate d'entraver ou d'anéantir la puissance des Iroquois et il rédigea des
mémoires dans ce sens — on les laissa dormir dans* les bureaux de Paris.
L'amalgame ou replâtrage commercial -qui se nommait depuis trente
ans les Cent- Associés, depuis vingt ans la compagnie Cheffault, depuis
1644 la société des Habitants, depuis» 1655 le syndicat Bouen-Bochelle,
tous rouages les uns dans les autres, ne valait absolument rien.
Deux hommes surgirent à point pour créer un prestige français dans
les régions de l'ouest. Nous allons les voir à l'œuvre.
IX
C'est à la mi-juin 1658,^ rapporte Badisson (p. 136), que Chouart
et lui s'embarquèrent aux Troie-Rivières avec deux pères jésuites, vingt-
neuf Français, et des Outaouas, Hurons, Amikoués, Sauteurs, qui re-
* Le 12 avrU 1658, aux Trois-Rivlères, Il est parrain d'Ignace PeUerln dit
Saint-Amant
" Morgruenite, flUe de Chauart, étant née aux Tno;8-Illvi ères le 16 avril 1659,
nooB supposons que le départ ci-deasue doit plutôt compter du 15 JuUlet, au
moment où M. d'Argenson venait d'arriver de France.
80 SOCIÉTÉ ROYALE DU CANADA
tournaient dans leurs pays respectifs après la traite. Les "vingt-neuf
gaillards ^^ se targuaient de faire un voyage de conquérants, de quoi
Radi&son se moque avec entrain, disant que tout cela est fort bon lors-
que Ton parle des dangers, des peines et des misères que Ton ne con-
naît pas; il leur prédit qu'ils baisseront leur caquet une fois soumis* à
répreuve, comme cela est arrivé (p. 141).
On ne passa pas, malgré la coutume, par le bras de rivière qui
baigne Fîle de Montréal au nord, car il fallait se rendre à la ville pour
y prendre huit Outaouas et deux Français qui attendaient cette occasion.
** Sans cela, nous serions allés par la rivière des Prairies.'* (p. 137).
La rivière des Prairies poriait ce nom depuis quarante ans et, le
plus souvent, on désignait ainsi toute la rivière àes Algonquins qui prit
le nom de route des Outaouas vers 1670. Le hras àe cette rivière qui
passe entre Fîle Jésus et la terre-ferme du nord et dont notre voyageur
parle ici spécialement, porta aussi (1640) le nom de Saint-Jean, en hon-
neur de Finterprète Jean Nicolet.
Les Iroquois qui, depuis 1650, étaient maîtres de ces régions, en
ayant chassé les Algonquins, ne tardèrent pas à se montrer dès que la
flottille eut quitté le lac Saint-Louis pour se diriger à l'ouest. Au lac
des Deux-Montagnes et aux approches du Long-Saut, il y eut des escar-
mouches. Les sauvages agissaient sans' discipline, se débandaient, s'ex-
posaient inutilement, de sorte qu'il en périt treize, tant tués que pri-
sonniers. Les " gaillards," voyant cela, rebroussèrent chemin, laissant
Ohouart et Eadisson seuls avec les Sauvages épouvantés (p. 141).
Heureusement, les attaques ne se renouvelèrent pas et l'on parvint
*^ in a place called the lake of Castors, which is some 30 leagues from
the first great lake " (p. 143). Ce premier grand lac est la baie Géor-
gienne. Dan§ un autre endroit de ses écrits (p. 90) notre voyageur
observe : " Neere the lake of the Hurrons some 40 leagues eastward
there is another lake belonging to the nation of the Castors, which
is 30 miles about." C'est le lac Nipissing, qui portait les deux noms
de Ca&tors et Sorciers à cause des Nipissirininens et des Nez-Percés ou
Amikoués qui demeuraient dans son voisinage. Amikoué veut dire
castor, aussi Nicolas Perrot et autres de la même époque les désignent-
ils parfois sous ce nom. Pendus là, ils avaient fait soixante iportages
depuis Montréal (p. 144) et ils prirent quelques jours de repos*, car il y
avait abondance de poisson dans le lac.
La décharge du lac des Castors, qui mène au lac Huron,» mesure
trente lieues en longueur et compte huit chutes ou rapides, remarque
Badisson (p. 144). Dans son voyage de 1661 (p. 186) il l'appelle la
rivière des Sorciers, un nom connu depuis 1613, à cause des Nipîssiri-
niens surnommés le peuple des Sorciers. Nous tenons à noter ces
petits faits, comme aussi la mention des soixante portage, pour faire
[8Ui;nij DÈC50UVERTE DU MI8SI8SIPI EN 1659 31
voir que la route se fit par l'Ottawa et non pas par le Saint-Laurent,^
les lacs Saint-Prançois, Ontario et Erié, comme plusieurs le prétendent.
A la sortie de la rivière des Sorciers ou des Français, la flottille
se divisa en deux bandes: Fune de sept canots, allant vers la côte nord
ou Algoma, où devaient s^arrêter les Amikoués, tandis que les gens
du saut Saint-Marie et les Outaouas pousseraient plus loin pour se
rendre chez eux; Tautre, composée de Hurons, inclinant au sud, en
côtoyant les* rivages de la baie Goergienne. Avec ces derniers étaient
Chouard et Radisson. "We saw by the way the place where the
flfathers Jesuits had heretofore (de 1634 à 1650) lived, a delicious place,
albeit we could but see it afarre oflE '' (p. 145). Une fois de plus, il
faut reconnaître qu'il n'y a rien du lac Erié ou du lac Sainte-Claire
dans ces descriptions.
Nos deux explorateurs arrivèrent au village des Hurons qui étaient
avec eux; c'était sur Tune des îles Manitoulines (p. 146). Ces familles
huronnes avaient fui en 1650 de la baie de Penetenguishine pour ne
pa6 être massacrées par les Iroquois.
Chouart et Eadisson, apprenant qu'il y avait dans le voisinage
un parti dlrcfquois, induisirent les guerriers hurons* à leur donner la
chaese, ce qui eut lieu avec succès : " We gave them the assault when
they least thought of it. We played the game so furiously that none
escaped. The day following we returned to our village with 8 of our
enemye dead and 3 alive. The dead weare eaten and the living weare
burned with a small fire to the rigour of cruelties." (p. 147.)
Aux îles Manitoualines il y avait des Cheveux Relevés ou Staring
Hairs, comme Eadisson les appelle, mais il ne semble pas les appa^
Tenter avec les Outaouas, pourtant c'était la même nation.
En visite chez ce peuple, nos voyageurs apprirent que les Poutéouar
tamis, occupant le nord-ouest de la baie Verte, désiraient les recevoir,
et ils se rendirent chez eux dans l'intention d'y passer l'hiver.^ Une
ïois là, ils firent connaissance avec des Escoteckes * ou Nation du Feu
peuples établis sur la rive sud-ouest de la rivière aux Renards, quelque
part vers le comté de Green Lake, Wisconsin. Ce peuple avait
été chassé dee environs du lac Sainte-Claire (côté sud) par les
Iroquois, en 1666, et s'était rapproché du passage de Michilli-
makinac, avait passé à la baie Verte et s'était enfin fixé à la rivière
du Loup qui se déverse dans le lac Winnepagoes, en haut de la rivière
aux Renards, à neuf milles du ooude de la rivière Wisconsin, et il
^ Radiflflon dit que c'est le plus beau paye du monde (p. 150).
* Radisson a dû écrire Mascotekes. Ce terme signifie terrain de plaine en
langue algon<iuine. Les Hurons et les Iroquois les appelaient Atsistaghenron-
non« ott Qens du Feu, et Ontaougannftia: ceux qui parlent mal. Les Français
disaient Maskouteng, Macoutenks, Mascoutins.
32 SOCIÉTÉ ROYALE DU CANADA
B*étendait jusqu'à Milwaukee et Chicago. En 1658 il comptait trente
bourgades situées ^' au eud-ouest quart de eud, à six ou sept journées
de Saint-Michel ^' (mission des Poutéouatamis).* En 1670-72, il était
encore dans le même pays.*
Au printemps de 1659, dit positivement Radisson, lui et Chouart,
s'avancèrent jusqu'à ce peuple, qui leur parla des Sioux, et même des
Christinos, nation errante des bords de la baie d'Hudson dont une
partie passait leô hivers au sud du lac Supérieur, (pp. 146, 148-9.)
L'objet de nos deux aventuriers étant de trouver le pays des fourrures
par excellence, ils questionnaient les Sauvages et se faisaient raconter
rétat des choses dans les contrées qu'ils n'avaient pas encore vues.
Il faut omettre les réceptions enthousiastes des Cheveux-Relevés,
des Poutéouatamis et des Mascoutins, pour s'en tenir à la pensée qui
dominait nos explorateurs, c'est-à-dire la découverte de territoires de
plus en plus vastes, contrées du castor et des belles pelleteries en
général. Les Mascoutins offraient de les conduire jusqu'aux Christinos,
mais Badisson (p. 149) observe que cela ne pouvait entrer que plus tard
dans son programme : *' We desired not to goe to the North till we
had made a discovery in the South, being desiroois to know what they
did."
X
Ici se pose un problème: savoir si Radisson est parti du village
des Mascoutins pour se rendre au Mississipi. La narration qu'il donne
de ce voyage se trouve intercalée, sans à propos, dans la descente de
l'Ottawa en 1660 (p. 167-9) où elle est manifestement hors de place.
Il y a un fait incontestable, c'est que le récit en question nous mène au
grand fleuve; reste donc à savoir quand eut lieu le voyage. Nous ver-
rons, par la suite, que ce devait être au printemps de 1659, puisqu'il
n'y a pas moyen de le placer à une autre date durant les années 1658-60.
On a voulu que ce fût durant l'hiver de 1659-60, alors que Chouart et
Radisson exploraient le lac Supérieur et le pays des Sioux, mais, outre
que la chose n'était pas possible sur les neiges, le Mississipi vu par
Radisson était plus bas que le lac Pépin et il lui donne une largeur
"comparable à notre Saint-Laurent" d'après la Relation de 1660,
p. 12. Ce n'est plus le Mississipi des Sioux, qu'il eut toutefois occasion
de voir six mois plus tard.
Chouart ne fut pas du voyage, on ne dit pas pourquoi. Peut-être
a-t-il alors exploré Milwaukee et Chicago, dont il n'était pas éloigné.
^ Le nom était donné, nuais 11 n'y avait encore aucun missionnaire dans
roufst.
* Relations, 1632, p. 14; 1640, pp. 35, 98; 1641, p. 59; 1644, p. 98; 1647, p. 77;
1658, p. 22; 1670, pp. 94. 97, 99; 1671, pp. 25, 42-5; 1672. p. 41.
[8ULTE] DÉCOUVERTE DU MI8SISSIPI EN 1659 33
Au milieu des Mascoutins, Badisson a dû apprendre que la rivière
Wiaconsiii avait servi de route aux Huxons et aux Outaouas pour se
rendre à Toueet peu d^années auparavant^ de même aussi que les* Illi-
niois, sauf une ou deux tribus, s'étaient réfugiés au-delà du Mississipi
en 1666. Les Sauvages qui s'embarquèrent avec lui ne faisaient pas
mystère de r-existenee du Misaissipi. Il a dû oonmaitre d'avanoe le lac
Pépin et Tîle Pelée. Partant du voisinage du lac Winnipagoes on a
moins de diflScultés pour rencontrer le grand fleuve qu'en allant à lui
par le nord-ouest du Wisconsin. Le voyage avait lieu en canot, ce
qui n'eut pas été possible au printemps de 1660, puisque nos voyageurs
étaient alors au sud-ouest du lac Supérieur. La lacune d'avril-juillet
1659, qui se trouve visiblement dans le récit de Radisson, doit être
comblée par le passage inséré sans à propoe vers la fin de l'écrit, et qui
paraît comme «'appliquant à Carillon, le Long-Saut, le lac des Deux-
Montagnes, on ne saurait dire à quoi au juste, car le morceau arrive
là par hasard. H est temps de le remettre à sa place.
Eappelons-nous que, en 1634, Jean Nioolet s'était vu dans la même
situation. Les indigènes lui expliquaient l'existence d'un poriAge,
après quoi on entrait dans une rivière (la Wisconsin) qui, en trois jours^
conduisait aux "grandes eaux" et, sans y aller, al conjecturait que ce
devait être la mer. Eadisson était mieux renseigné; il savait très bien
qu'il allait visiter la vallée d'un grand cours d'eau et reconnaître les
rivières qui s'y déchargent. Voici sa narration:
" We weare 4 moneths in our voyage wthout doeing anything but
goe from river to river. ^ We mett several sorts of people. We con-
versed wth them, being long time in alliance wth them. By the
persuasion of som of them we went into ye great* river that divides *
itself e in 2, where the hurrons with some Ottanake * & the wild men
that had warrs wth them had retired.^ There is not great difference
in their language, as we weare told. This nation have warrs against
those of (the) forked river. It is so called because it has 2 branches,
the one towards the west,® the other towards the South, woh we believe
ninns towards Mexico/ by the tokens they gave us. Being among
these people, they told us the prisoners they take tells them that they
^ Ce n'était pas un voyage en raquettes comme on le prétend dans quel-
ques ouvrages.
' Lie Père Allouez la nomme Misslpi en 1665; c'est la première mention du
nom.
* La fourche du Mdssissipi et de la rivière Wieconsin ou du Missouri.
* Radisson a dû écrire Ottauake.
* Sur l'île Pelée, de 1655 ù 1657.
" Ce serait le Missouri.
' En 1673, Marquette et Jolliet faisaient le même rapport.
Sec. 1, 1903. 3.
34 SOCIÉTÉ ROYALE DU CANADA
!hav€ warrs against a nation, against men that build great cabbans, &
have great beards & had such knives as we have had. Moreover they
shewed a Dcead of beads & guilded pearls that they have had from
that people, wch made us believe they weare Europeans. They shewed
one of that nation that was taken the yeare before. We understood
him not; he was much more tawny then they wth whome we weare.
His arms & leggs weare turned outside; that was the punishment in-
flicted uppon him. So they doe wth them that they take, & kill them
*wth clubbs & doe often eat them. They doe not burne their prisoners
!Bâ those of the northern parts.
" We weare informed of that nation that live in the other river.
These weare men of extpaordinary height & bignesse, that made us
believe they had no communication wth them. They live onely uppon
Come & CitruUes, wch are mighty bigg. They have fish in plenty
throughout ye yeare. They have fruit as big as the heart of an
Oriniak,^ wch grows on vast trees woh in compassé are three armefull
in compassé. When they see little men they are aifraid & cry out,
wch makes many come help them. Their arrows are not of stones as
ours are, but of fish boans & other boans that they worke greatly, as
all other things. Their dishes are made of wood. I have scene them,
could not but admire the curiosity of their worke. They have great
©alumetts of great stones, red & greene. They make a store of tobacco.
They have a kind of drink that makes them mad for a whole day.
fPhis I have not seene, therefore you may believe as you please. When
I came backe I found my brother sick, as I said before.^ God gave
tiim his health, more by his courage then by any good medicine, ffor
our bodyes are not like those of the wildmen." (pp. 167-169.)
L'allusion à Tile Pelée où les Hurons et les Outaouas s'étaient
^retirés, et d'où ils étaient partis récemment, montre que Badisson est
remonté au nord jusqu'au lac Pépin. Rien dans son texte ne donne
à supposer qu'il ait séjourné en cet endroit. Il dit qu'il a employé les
quatre mois allant de rivière en rivière.
Le chemin de fer d'Omaha s'avance dans le Wisconsin jusqu'à la
rivière Chippewa, à 40 miles du lac Rice, et cet endroit, qui va devenir
un centre commercial, a été nommé Radisson en 1902.
* Orlgnac est un mot basque pour désigner un grand cerf. Nous en avons
fait orignal.
" Page 158, mais ce passage, où 11 dit que Ohouart tomba malade, se trouve
intercalé dans un endrofl (lui nous mène à l'été de 1661. H serait bon de voir
le manuscrit original.
[8ULTE] DÉœUVERTE DU MI8SI88IPI EN 1659 88
XI
La page 149 présente une contradiction flagrante. Kadisson
déclare qn'il n'ira pas au lac Supérieur comme les Mascoutins le lui
demandent, parce qu'il est décidé de voir le sud qui l'avait tenté et
attiré jusque-là. A peine a-t-il fini cette explication, qu'il fait ses
préparatifs pour aller au saut Sainte-Marie. Il y a évidemment un
passage du manuscrit qui manque, et ce morceau se retrouve page 167
où il arrive sans raison aucune en parlant du bas de la rivière Ottawa.
Nous venons de le reproduire. Il dit que le voyage au Mississipi avait
duré quatre mois, donc c'est en juillet 1659, après son retour du ^hs-
sissipi, que Eadisson consent à suivre les Mascoutins vers le nord, ainsi
qu'il se l'était toujours proposé.
Il débute par ces mots: "They (les Mascoutins) told us that if
we would goe with them to the great lake of the stinkings (la baie
Verte) the time was come of their trafick, which was of as many knives
as they could gett from the french nation, because of their dwellings
which was att the coming in of a lake called Superior, but since the
destructions of many neighboring nations they (les Français) retired
themselves to the height of that lake (en effet, les traiteurs français
s'étaient reculés jusqu'aux îles des Apôtres, au sud-ouest du lac Supé-
rieur où étaient les Outaouas). We knewed those people well. We
(les Français) went to them almost yearly, and the company that came
up with us weare of the said nation, but never could tell punctually
where they lived because they make the barre of the Christines from
whence they have the Castors that they bring to the french." (p. 149.)
Les Outaouae voulaient garder le monopole de la traite et ne répon-
daient guère à ceux qui cherchaient à se renseigner sur leur nouveau
pays.
Chouart et Eadisson paraissent avoir quitté le pays des Mascoutins
en juillet 1659, puisque dans le trajet de la baie Verte, doi lac Michigan
et du détroit de Michillimakinac Kadisson écrit quatre pages pour ex-
primer son ravissement des beautés de la nature et parler des fruits qui
couvrent les arbres (p. 150-153). Il ajoute: "Tihe summer passed
away with admiration by the diversity of the nations that we saw, as
for the beauty of the shore of that sweet sea."
Arrivé au saut Sainte-Marie, il explique que les Mascoutins ayant
terminé leur traite, voulaient le ramener chez eux, mais il était décidé
de voir l-es Ohristinios (p. 153). Dumnt l'éfté, il observait au cours de
sa narration (p. 152) qu'il n'avait encore rencontré aucun Sioux; que
lui et son compagnon étaient résolus de ne retourner au Canada que
l'année suivante (1660), et il ajoute qu'il proposa aux Hurons qui
étaient avec lui d'aller visiter les réfugiés de leur race établis à sept
36 SOCIÉTÉ ROYALE DtJ CANADA
ou huit journées ouest de la baie Verte, aux sources de la rivière Noire,
après avoir alandoimé l'île Pelée sur le Missûsipi — ce qui ne fut pas
accepté (p. 152). L'endroit en question est assez proche des sources
de la rivière Wisconsin, à six journées (40 ou 50 lieues), sud du lac
Supérieur. Ces Hurons réfugiés étaient comme nous l'avons exposé,
les gens du Petun qui se tenaient, depuis 1650, avec nombre d'Outaouas,
mais ces derniers n'avaient pas voulu s'arrêter aux sources de la rivière
Noire (1667), ils s'étaient rendus à la Pointe, qui est une des îles des
Apôtres dans le lac Supérieur, côté sud-ouest, dans la baie de Chagou-
amigon.
xn
Au saut Sainte-Marie, Badisson note: "We found some frenoh
men y^ came up with us, who thanked ufi kindly for to come & visit
them.'* Cette expression "came up with us^' ne signifie pas qu'ils
étaient venus ensemble du Bas-Canada l'année précédente, mais qu'ils
accompagnèrent nos deux découvreurs, partant du saut Sainte-Marie
jusque chez les Sioux (p. 165) à l'oueist du lac Supérieur, comme nous
le verrons- bientôt.
Les Panoestigonces * ou peuple du Saut avaient eu, les années
dernières, une guerre cruelle contre les Sioux et, bien que très infé-
rieurs en nombre, ils s'en étaient assez bien tirés, avec l'aide des Chris-
tines, toutefois, (p. 164.)
L'été qui venait de finir, les Christines avaient livré une grande
bataille aux Sioux et voyant que la haine était encore vivace entre eux,
Badisson et Chouart abandonnèrent l'idée de se rendre chez les Chris-
tines pour les réconcilier avec leurs ennemis (p. 157). Ce voyage eut
lieu en 1662 seulement.
Durant son séjour au lac Supérieur, Badisson ne parle pas d'une
visite qu'il aurait faite à la baie Verte en octobre; cependant lorsqu'il
raconte son séjour dans le détroit de Michillimakinac, l'été précédent
(p. 153), il donne une description de la baie et termine en disant que,
au sujet des Sauvages de ces lieux, " I will spcake of their manners in
my last voyage, which I made in October."
C'est donc après cela qu'il partit du saut Sainte-Marie avec les
Français qu'il y avait rencontrés, et s'avança jusqu'au fond du lac
Supérieur, vit les Outaouas de la Pointe, et obtint des renseignements
(du moins nous le croyons) sur la bourgade huronne établie aux sources
de la rivière Noire qu'il aurait tant aimé à visiter.
A ce propos il y a dans la Relation des pères jésuites de 1660, p. 27,
un passage annonçant que la nation huronne du Petun, réfugiée à 60
* Pawestlgoncee et Pawltagouek en al^ronquln.
[80LTE] DÉCOUVERTE DU MISSISSIPI EN 1659 37
lieues ouest de la baie Verte, avait envoyé, en 1659, un de ses capitaines
à Québec pour engager les Français à aller les voir, disant qu'ils se
croyaient en sûreté au milieu de plusieurs peuples de langue algonquine,
et sur cette nouvelle, deux Français se proposaient de faire le voyage en
1661. A son tour, le Journal des Jésuites du V^^ août 1659 note ceci:
" Arriva des Trois-Eivières un canot qui porta nouvelles que 33 canots
étaient arrivés des terres, partie Attikameg, Piskitang; entre autres 6
canots de la nation du Sault, Misisager. Lesquels six canots du Sault
descendirent par les terres et y rencontrèrent les Poissons Blancs (du
haut Saint-Maurice) y furent 5 mois en leur voyage. Ils demandent des
français pour les escorter en leur retour."
Ces deux expéditions de canots de traite n'ont pas été inspirées par
Chouart et Radisson puisque ces deux hommes étaient chez les Mascou-
tins au moment où les Hurons du Petun et les Gens du Saut partaient
du lac Supérieur pour Trois-Rivières et Québec.
Or, comm« le père Jérôme Lalemant déclare {Relation, 1660, p. 12)
que nos deux voyageurs ont vu les Hurons de la rivière Noire, il nous
faut placer cette visite à l'automne de 1659.
Chouart et Badisson avaient rencontré au saut Sainte-Marie des
Christinos ou Cris qui venaient trafiquer en ce lieu, selon leur coutume
depuis deux ou trois ans, et les pelleteries qu'ils vendaient aux gens du
saut étaient descendues sur le Saint-Laurent par les canots de la grande
traite annuelle de ces sauvages et des Outaouas de la Pointe.
Comme ou parlait des Iroquois qui pouvaient survenir à tout
moment et attaquer le village du Saut, Chouart et Radisson s'étaient
décidés à aller passer l'hiver chez les Sioux (p. 155) ^Vhere we weare
well receaved. . . . Th wild Octauacks that came with us found some
of their nations slaves, who weare also glad to see them There we
passed the winter and learned the particularities that since we saw by
experience." La saison des neiges s'écoula à la chasse. " We did what
we could to have correspondence with that warlike nation and reconcile
them with the Ohristinos." (p. 157.)
Chouart et Badiséon hivernèrent de nouveau chez les Sioux en 1661-
62, et plusieurs historiens ont confondu ces deux faits p3artaat biaa
distincts l'un de l'autre. Les deux pages que Radisson consacre à son
séjour dans cette contrée durant l'hiver de 1659-60, sont presque unique-
ment remplies de descriptions de chasse; à part cela, il parle des Chris-
tinos, mais rien des Ilurons de la rivière Noire, pas un mot du Missis-
sipi. Il est possible que l'endroit central de ses courses fut Kathio,
ville située sur la rive occidentale du lac Mille-Lacs; et, pour peu qu'il
ait marché à l'ouest, il a dû rencontrer le fleuve, qui mesure de cent à
deux'cents pieds de largeur dans cette direction. Peut-être aussi a-t-il
fréquenté la région qui est au sud de la Pointe, alors il a pu voir les
38 SOCIÉTÉ ROYALE DU CANADA
Hurons des sources de la rivière Noire. Si nous n'avions pas le résumé
de ses confidences aux pèree jésuites de Québec, puis Texploration des
mois d'avril-juillet 1659 au lac Pépin, Thivernement de 1659-60 près du
lac Supérieur éveillerait moins Tattention.
XIII
Voyons le retour des deux explorateurs : " Two years weare expired.^
Wee hoped to be att the 2 years end with those that gave us over for
dead/' (p. 167) We made giidfts one to another, and thwarted a
land of allmost 50 leagues before the snow was melted. In the morning
it was a pleasure to walke, for we could goe without racketts. The
snow was hard enough, because it freezed every night.^ When the sun
began to shine we payed for the time past. The snow sticks so to our
racketts that I believe our shoes weighed 30 pounds, which was a paine,
having a burden uppon ous bajoks besides. We arrived, some 150 of
us, men and women, to a river side,* where we stayed 3 weeks making
boats«i Here we wanted no fish. During that time we made feasts att
high rate. So we refreshed ourselves from our labours. In that time
we tooke notice that the buds of trees began to spring, which made us
to make more hast and be gone. We went up that river * 8 days till we
came to a nation called Poutouatenick and Matouenock; that is the
Scratchexs." There we gott some Indian meale & corn from those 2
nations, which lasted us till we came to the first landing Isle.* There
wo weare well received againe. We made guifts to the elders to encour-
age the yong people to bring us downe to the ffrench. But mightily
mistaken; ffor they would reply, "Should you bring us to be killed?"
(pp. 157-8).
^ Aux pages 134, 148, U dit qu'ils furent trois ans dans leur absence; pagre
170 11 met trois ans et quelques mois. Il faut «e limiter à vingt-cinq mois, du
départ des Trois-Rivières à la rentrée dans cette place.
* Lie printemps de cette région se oomporte identiquement comme celui de
Biontréal et Ottawa, quant à la date, à la neige, aux nuits froides et aux'
éclats du soleil le jour.
■ Xi'une des rivières qui tombemt au lac Supérieur, rive sud, probablement
Nantounagan de la carte des jésuites, 1670-71; ô, présent Ontonagan.
* En remontant le cours d'eau qui »e décharge au lac Suipérdeur, on arrive
à une hauteur de ten>e et de l'autre pente coule une rivière qui se déverse
dans la baie Verte.
* Ceci ne laisse pas de doute sur l'Itinéraire en question. Les Poutéoua-
tamis et les Mantoue vivaient au nord-ouest à la baie Verte. C'est par la
rivière Malomine que nos voyageurs débouchèrent dans la Baie.
■ Sans doute l'une des îles à l'entrée de la baie Verte. Nous dirons l'Ile
Huronne déjà mentionnée.
[8ULTE] DÉCOUVERTE DU MISSISSIPI EN 1659 89
On craignait les Jroquois. Kadisson ajoute: "Our journey was
hroakon till next year, & must per force," (p. 158). Mais cela signifie
seulement que le voyage pouvait se trouver retardé d'un an — et il ne le
fut pas puisque, sans expliquer pourquoi, à la page suivante, il dit qu'on
se préparait à partir. Dans l'intervalle, Chouart avait amassé du blé
d'inde, prévoyant la pénurie ordinaire dee vivres sur la rivière Ottawa.
Tout ceci avait lieu à la baie Verte, croyons-nous, malgré que le texte
des dernières douze lignes de la page 158 soit fort diffus; on y trouve
même un passage qui paraîtrait se rapporter à l'hiver de 1658-59 chez
les Poutéouatamis et qui parle de Chouard comme étant devenu malade.
Peut-être que ( ette incommodité fut la cau^e qu'il n'alla point au
Mississipi avec Radisson.
Cet été, dit encore Radisson (p. 158), voyant que l'on ne partait
pas pour le Canada, je m'employai à la chasse. Il dit vrai puisque le
départ n'eut lieu que le 24 juillet.
Brusquement, il annonce (p. 159) que 500 hommes voulaient
s'embarquer. D'où provenait ce changement de résolution? Rien ne
nous l'explique. Puis, au milieu des préparatifs de l'expédition, arrive
cette note, qui met le désarroi parmi les sauvages : " When we weare
ready to depart, heere comes strange news of the defeat of the hurrons,
which news, I tJiought, would putt off the voyage." (p. 159). Voyons
ce qui en était. Durant le mois de mai venait d'avoir lieu le siège du
Long-Saut, sur l'Ottawa, quelques milles au-dessus de Montréal, où les
Hurons, des Algonquiins et 17 Français oonumandés par Dolla-rd des
Ormeaujc, avaient péri après une glorieuse défense de trois semaines qui
dérangeait les plans de 700 Iroquois en marche contre Montréal. La
nouvelle de ce fait d'armes* paraît avoir été connue à la baie Verte en
juillet et. c'est à quoi notre explorateur fait allusion. La rivière Ottawa
restait au pouvoir des Iroquois, comme elle l'avait toujours été depuis
dix ans que les Algonquins en étaient partis sous le coup de la terreur
inspirée par le bannissement des Hurons.
Chouart et Radisson déployèrent toute leur éloquence pour en-
traîner ceux qui avaient amassé des pelleteries afin d'aller les vendre
aux Français, et il y en avait beaucoup (p. 162). Après de lonc:^ pour-
parlers, bien des hésitations et un grand conseil, on décida rontreprise.
Tout ceci nous paraît avoir eu lieu i^ur l'île Huronne.* Des émissaires
ont dû être envoyés au lac Supérieur et à la côte du nord du lac Huron
pour avertir ceux qui voudraient en former partie. La flottille se mit
en route le 24 juillet, soit du détroit de Mchillimakinac, eoit de la
bouche de la rivière Sainte-Marie et, à mesure que les nouveaux venus
* Un grand débat sur ce point et d'autres, relativement à ritlnéraire de
Radisson, occupe en ce moment les historiens de l'ouest. Voyez le Mémoire
oflfScfel pufbliê en mars dernier par l'honoirable J. V. Brower, de Saint-Paul.
40 SOCIÉTÉ ROYALE DU CANADA
s'ajoutaient à la bande, on suivait la côte du nord pour arriver à la
rivière des Français, mais la crainte des Iroquois empêcha deux cents
Sauvages de continuer la route, de sorte que soixante canots seulement
risquèrent l'aventure. Lee 300 hommes de la troupe com'ptaient des
Hurons, Amikoués, Algonquins, Outaouas, Panoéstigons, Nadouici-
nagos, Ticaton (p. 16-1) qui tous étaient compris, dans le Bas Canada,
sous le nom générique d'Outaouas.
Jusqu^aux Calumets (p. 163) au-dessous de Fîle des Allumettes,
tout alla bien; ensuite (au lac des Chênes) les ennemis les harcelèrent
jusqu'à Montréal (pp. 1C3-7, 169-70) où nos voyageurs apparurent le
19 août.
Dans le récit de Radisson on aprend que le canot de Chouart
versa, mais sans perdre un homme (p. 167). Par la narration du
voyage de 1663 (p. 232) on voit que cet accident eut lieu au Long-Saut.
A la fin de cette même page 167 se rencontre, sans avertissement,
le rapport; de la découverte du Massissipi, Tété de 1659, et il se termine
au milieu de la page 169.
Autre remarque: On a vu que, le mois précédent, Badisson avait
appris, à la baie Verte ou à Michillimakinac, la nouvelle du siège du
Long-Saut. Il n^en dit rien à la page 167, mais il en a dressé Thistoire
en détail, puisqu'il la place (p. 232) dans sa descente de l'Ottawa en
1663. Cette action, dit-il, fut notre salut puisque, sans cela, nous
tombions aux mains des Iroquois. Où il se trompe c'est quand il note
que l'affaire avait eu lieu huit jours avant son passage; or il y avait
au moins quatre-vingt-cinq jours, et même s'il a confondu 1663 avec
1660, disons que, en 1663, il passât au Long-Saut le 22 juillet, ce qui
donne encore soixante jours d'écart.
• Après avoir chassé une bande d'Iroquois du Long-Saut, la flottille
arriva à Montréal, où vingt Canadiens les attendaient avec un brigantin
venant de Québec ou des Trois-Rivières. Après trois jours de repos,
tous se mirent en Toute pour descendre le fleuve et, près de "la rivière
des Prairies," à Repentigny, les Iroquois se présentèrent de nouveau,
mais les petits canons du brigantin les tinrent eu respect (p. 169).
XIV
Le Journal des Jésuites, à la date du mois d'août 1660, porte que
" Les 8ta8at ostoient arrivés à Montréal le 19, qui en partirent le 22,
& arrivèrent aux Trois-Kivières le 24, en partirent le 27. Ils étaient
au nombre de 300. Des Grosiller estoit à leur compagnie, qui y
estoit allé Tannée d'auparavant (non: en 1658). Ils estoient partis
du lac Supérieur (p<as tous) 100 canots; 40 rebroussèrent chemin, & 60
arrivèrent icy chargés de pelleteries pour 200,000 livres; ils en laissèrent
[suLTK] DÉCOUVERTE DU MISSISSIPI EN 1659 41
pour 50,000 livres à Montréal, portèrent le reste aux Trods-Rivières.
Ils vinrent de là en 26 jours, & furent deux moys à monter. Des
Groeillers a hyveméà k naition du Bœuf/ qu'il fait de 4 mille hommes;
ce sont les NadSesseronons sédentaires."
" We came to Quebecq, where we are saluted with the thundring
of the guns & batteryes of the fort, and of the 3 shipps that weaïe
then att anchor, which had gone back to france without our castors
if we had not come. We weare well traited for 5 dayes. The Gover-
nor made guifts & sent 2 Brigantins to bring us to the 3 rivers, where
wo arrived the 2°^ day of, & the 4^^ day they went away." (Radisson,
p. 170). Chouart^ et Radisson rentrèrent donc aux Trois-Rivières le
3 ou le 4 septembre, et les Sauvages en repartirent le 7.
Nos deux voyageurs se reposèrent aux Trois-Rivièros le reste de
Fannée (p. 172). Le 18 septembre 1660, dans ce lieu, Petrus Radisson
est parrain de Marie-Jeamne Pellerin dit Saint-Amand. Ici, comme
dans vingt circonstances faciles à citer, on voit que Radisson et Chouart
étaient catholiques.
La découverte du Mississipi en 1659 est réelle et prime toutes les
autres, que Ton parle de La Salle en 1669 ou de Joll'iet et Marquette en
1673. Elle a eu un retentissement a'-sez profond, tout d'abord. Sams
la jalousie des marchands de fourrures, hostiles à Chouart et Radisson,
cette route restait ouverte. L'aveuglement des traiteurs, le jeu des
intérêts du moment suspendirent la suite des opérations qui devaient
en découler. Les deux explorateurs, eux-mêmes, tournèrent le dos
à toute entreprise de ce côté, parce que le pays des Christinos les
attirait davantage. Désormais, leur but était la baie d'Hudson, et ils
en donnèrent la preuve dans leur voyage de 1661-1663. Contentons-
nous ici de faire voir l'étonnement de la petite population (à peine
2,000 âmes) du Bas-Canada, en apprenant la découverte d'un nouveau
fleuve Saint-Laurent.
Rendu chez lui, aux Trois-Kivières, l'automne de 1660, Radisson
(page 172) prétend qu'il ne dit rien à personne de la région du nord
du lac Supérieur et il donne ses raisons pour cek " My brofclier and I
considered whether we should discover what we have scene or not;
and because we had not a full and whole discovery, which was that
we have not ben in the bay of the north, not knowing anything but
by report of the wild Christines, we would make no mention of it for
feare that those wild men should tell us a fibbe. We would have
* Le bœuf, en langue slouse, se dit Tatanga. (Radisson. 227, 246).
* Le 25 février 1660, aux Trois-Rlvières. " M. Desgroseliers ", est parrain
d'un Attdkamègrue baptisé par le père René Menard. Ce pouvait être Médard
né en 1651, car on volt aux reglsrtre© de la paroisse des enfants de huit à dix
ans pris comme parrains et marraines.
42 SOCIÉTÉ ROYALE DU CANADA
made a discovery of it ourselves and have an assurance, before we
should discover (disclosed) anything of it."
A Québec, néanmoins, il s^était ouvert aux pères jésuites sur la
question de l'ouest, du sud et du Mississipi. On a vu plus haut ce
que le Journal des Jésuites en dit. Dans la Eelation de cette année
1660, p. 27, le père Jérôme Lalemant donne d'autres détails qu'ils est
bon de remarquer: "Une grande nation de quarante bourgs nonunée
NadouechioSec noue attend depuis ralldance qu'elle a faite tout fiaîchc-
ment avec les deux Français qui en sont revenus cet été. De ce qu'ils
ont retenu de cette langue, nous jugeons assez qu'elle a la même
économis que l'algonquino, quoiqu'elle soit diflférenite en plusieurs mots.
Au couchant, tirant vers le nord, les Poualacs et autres nations aussi
nombreuses que les précédentes, ou peu s'en faut, n'ont pas moins
d'aflfection qu'elles à nous recevoir, et y sont tout à fait portées depuis
la ligue offensive et défensive qu'elles ont faite ensemble contre Fen-
neoni commun."
La même BeJation, p. 9, est très précise: "Le lac que nous
appelons Supérieur, à cause que étant au-dessus de celui des Hurons,
il s'y décharge par un saut qui lui a aussi donné son nom ....
porte plus de quatre-vingt lieues de long sur quarante de large en
certains endroits .... Son rivage est bordé tout alentour de
nations Algonquines, où la crainte des Iroquois leur a fait chercher
un asile. Il est aussi enrichi dans tous ses bordages de mines de
plomb presque tout formé, de cuivre si excellent qu'il se trouve tout
rafiSné en morceaux gros comme le poing .... Les Sauvages
qui habitent la pointe de ce lac ^ la plus éloignée de nous ont donné
les lumières toutes fraîches et qui ne déplairont pas aux curieux,
touchant le chemin du Japon et de la Chine dont on a fait tant de
recherche. Nous apprenons de ces peuples qu'ils trouvent la mer de
trois côtés : au sud, du côté du couchant et du côté du nord ....
De ce même lac Supérieur, en suivant une rivière vers le nord, on
arrive, après huit ou dix journées, à la baie d'Hudson .... Le
lac des Ouinipegouek n'est proprement qu'une grande baie (l:i baie
Verte) de celui des Hurons; d'autres l'appellent le lac des Puants,
non qu'il soit salé comme l'eau de mer, que les Sauvages appellent
oudnipeg, c'est-à-dire eau puante, mads parce qu'il est environné de
terres ensouffrées, d'où sortent quelques sources qui portent dans ce
lac la malignité que leurs eaux ont contractées aux lieux de leur nais-
sance."
Le père Jérôme Lalemant, parti de Québec en juillet 1660, se trou-
vait à trente lieues dans le Saguenay lorsqu'il rencontra un; sauvage
ffiommé ASatanik qui venait d'arriver avec sa femme, après un voyage de
* Les Outaouas et autres, de Chagouamigon.
Lsultb] découverte DU MISSISSIPI EN 1059 43
deux ans commencé à la baie Verte, continué le long du lac Supérieur,
ensuite à la baie d'Hudson, puis au Saguenay. Il recueillit de sa bouche
plusieurs renseignements sur les peuples de ces contrées {Relations, 1660,
pp. 9-12).
Il ajoute à ce récit d^autres observations: "A peine me fus-je rendu
à Québec que j'y trouvai deux Français (Chouart et Radisson) qui ne
faisaient que d'arriver de ces pays supérieurs, avec trois cents Algonquins
dans soixante canots chargés de pelleteries. Voici ce qu'ils ont vu de
leurs propre yeux: ils ont hiverné sur les rivages du lac Supérieur et
ont été assez heureux pour y baptiser 200 petits enfants de la nation
Algonquine, avec laquelle ils ont premièrement demeuré. Ces enfants
étaient attaqués de maladie et de famine; quarante sont allés droit au
ciel, étant morts peu après le baptême. Nos deux Français firent, pen-
dant leur hivernement ^ diverses courses vers les peuples circonvoisins.
Ils virent, entre autres choses, à six journées au delà du lac, vers le sud-
ouest, une peuplade composée des restes des Hurons de la nation du
Pétun,* contraints par l'Iroquois (en 1650) d'abandonner leur patrie
ces pauvres gens s'enfuyant et faisant chemin par des montages et sur
dcfe rochers, au travers decee grands bois inconnus, firent heureusement
rencontre d'une belle rivière, grande, large, profonde (le Mississipi) et
comparable, disent-ils, à notre grand fleuve du St-Laurent. Ils trou-
vèrent sur ses rives la grande nation des AliniSek (Illinois) qui les
reçut très bien. Cette nation est composée de soixante bourgades, qui
nous confirme dans la connaissance que nous avions déjà de plusieurs
milliers de peuples qui remplissent toutes ces terres du couchant. Nos
deux Français continuant leur ronde furent bien surpris en visitant les
Nadsechisec, (Sioux) ils virent des femmes défigurées et à qui on .avait
coupé le bout du nez jusqu'au cartilage, de sorte qu'elles paraissaient en
cette partie du visage comme des têtes de mort ^' .... Ils ont visité les
quarante bourgs dont cette nation est composée, dans cinq desquels on
compte jusqu'à cinq mille hommes Il y a une autre nation belli-
queuse qui, avec ses flèches et ses arcs, s-'est rendue aussi redoutable
parmi les Algonquins supérieurs que l'Iroquois l'est parmi les infé-
rieurs, aussi en porte-t-elle le nom de PSalak, c'est-à-dire les guerriers.
Comme le bois est rare et petit chez eux, la nature leur a appris à faire
* Hiver de 1659-60, chez les Sioux.
" Aux eou(PC€8 de la rivière Noire. Ce texte du Père L»alemant donne â.
croire que la visite en question eut lieu durant l'hiver de 1659-60— et non pas
l'automne de 1659 comme nous le pensions.
" Dès 1622 Etienne Brûlé disait avodr vu, au lac Supérieur, des femmes
dont le nez avait été coupé en punition de leur mauvaise conduite. (Sagard:
(îrand Voyage au Pays des Hurons.)
44 SOCIÉTÉ ROYALE DU CANADA
du feu avec du charbon de terre * et à couvrir leur cabanes avec des
peaux/^
Charlevoix, écrivant beaucoup plus tard, s'exprime comme ceci:
" Deux Français, après avoir hiverné sur les bords du lac Supérieur, avec
un grand nombre de familles algonquines, eurent la curiosité de pénétrer
plus avant dans l'ouest, et allèrent jusqu'aux Sioux/^ La révélation
d'un grand, fleuve, pourtant consignée dans la Relation de 1660, lui
échappe. Le R. P. Tailhan dit à ce propos: " Il se pourrait que, dans
le Mississipi naissant et déguisé sous un nom sioux, nos deux voyageurs
n'aient pas reconnu le fleuve large et puissant que les Hurons leur dé-
signaient sous son nom algonquin. Dans ce cas, ils auraient, mais à
leur insu, revu les premiers au XVIP siède, le Mississipi découvert au
XVI« par Ferdinand de Soto." (Perrot, p. 238).
Radisson avait très bien vu Tété de 1659, à la sortie du Wisconsin,
" le fleuve large et puissant," dont il retrouva les sources quelques mois
plus tard, durant Tliiver, au pays des Sioux. Cest le même que la Mère
de l'Incarnation mentionnait en 1654 et c'est le fleuve "comparable à
notre Saint-Laurent" que Eadisson décrit en 1660 au père Jérôme Lale-
mant.
' En 1730, la Vêrendrye disait que ces sauvagres se chauffaient avec des
roches.
SBcnoN I, 1903 [ 45 ] Mémoires 8. R. C.
II. — Un épisode de VJiistoire de la dime au Canada (1705-1707).
Par M. Tabbé Auguste Gosselin, docteur es lettres.
(Lu le 20 mai 1908.)
Je n'ai nullement l'intention de faire ici Thistoire complète de
la dîme, ce qui serait long et fastidieux, mais seulement d'en raconter
un épisode assez curieux, dont les détails, je crois, sont généralement
peu connus.
Il s'agit du procès des curés Boulard et DuFoumel, au Conseil
Supérieur de Québec, fin de 1705 et commencement de 1706, des causes,
des circonstances et des suites de ce procès.
Comme préface de l'épisode, il convient, cependant, de rappeler
en quelques mots les différentes phases qu'avait traversées auparavant
la question de la dîme.
L'institution de la dîme remonte à l'année 1663. Jusque-là, les
missionnaires qui desservaient le pays avaient été entretenus aux frais
des Compagnies qui jouissaient du privilège de la traite des pellete-
ries, et par les dons volontaires des fidèles.
Le premier évêque de Québec, M^ de Laval, ayant érigé, au
mois de mars 1663, le séminaire de cette ville, et lui ayant attribué
les dîmes qui pourraient être établies par le roi, Louis XIV confirme
cette érection, au mois d'avril suivant, et ordonne "que toutes les
dîmes, de quelque nature qu'elles puissent être, tant de ce qui naît
par le travail des hommes, que de ce que la terre produit d'elle-même,
se paieront de treize une, et seront affectées à l'entretien du dit sémi-
naire," alors chargé de toutes les missions canadiennes. Il ajoute que
le séminaire jouira " de la totalité des dîmes, grosses et menues, an-
ciennes et nouvelles, de tous les fruits généralement quelconques, et
sans aucune distinction, qui proviendront sur toutes les terres de la
Nouvelle-France." ^
Cette loi ne fut pas sans susciter de vives protestations. On sait
l'opposition que lui fit entr'autres le gouverneur Mésy.^ Los termes
de la loi prêtaient, d'ailleurs, aux malentendus. M«^ de Laval dut
expliquer que par le mot "travail des hommes" on n'avait voulu dire
rien autre chose que "le labourage des terres," et qu'il ne s'ftgissait
* Edii< (t Ordoniaices t. I. p. 3").
* Vie de Mgr tie Laval, t. I. p. c97.
46 SOCIÉTÉ ROYALE DU CANADA
nullement d'exiger "la dîme des œufs, des choux, des planches, des
cordes de bois,'' comme on en avait fait courir le bruit.^
Ce ne fut que dans l'automne de 1667 que la dîme commença à
se payer régulièrement, et cela, grâce à un compromis étaWi par MM.
de Tracy, Courcelles et Talon, de concert avec Ma^ de Laval et les
prineipaux habitanits du pays.^ D'après ce eomipromis, la dîme étaiit
réduite du treizième au vingt-sixième; mais les habitants étaient obli-
gés de la payer en grain battu et bien vanné, rendu au presbytère: avant
le règlement, les curés étaient obligée d'aller chercher leur treizième
gerbe sur le champ. Le nouveau lèglement était pour vingt ans,
sans préjudice au droit du clergé à la dîme au treizième, le terme expiré.
Douze ans plus tard, le roi confirma l'institution de la dîme et
le règlement de MM. de Tracy, Couroellea et Talon par son édit du
mois de mai 1679 "concernant les dîmes et cures fixes.'" D'après
oet édit, la dîme devait se payer aux curés d^office eux-mêmes, et non
plus au séminaire de Québec.
L'année suivante, à la demande d^un certain nombre de curés,
M. de Francheville,* entre autres, qui ne voulaient pas s'embarrasser
du soin de recevoir et de vendre leurs dîmes, sous prétexte "qu'ils
étaient trop occupés à leurs fonctions spirituelles," le Conseil Supérieur
ordonna qu'elles seraient affermées, et que si Ton ne trouvait pas
d'enchérisseurs, il serait nommé une ou deux personnes pour les rece-
voir et en rendre compte aux curés.'
« « «
H était entendu que la portion congrue de chaque curé devait
être d'au moins 500 livres.* Si la dîme n était pas suflBsante pour former
• Mandements des évêques de Québec, t. 1, p. 161.
■ Jugements du Conseil Supérieur, t, V, p. 184.
■ Edits et Ordonnances, t. I, p. 23L
• Prêtre canadien, né aux Trols-Rivlères le 14 juillet 1649. flla de Marin de
Repentigrny, sieur de PranchevlUe, originaire de GrandanefOill. en Normandie.
M. de Prancheville avait été ordonné prêtre le 19 septembre 1676. Mgr de
Laval écrivait à son sujet en 1691: ** On Ta élevé tout petit au séminaire. Il
y a bien quatorze ou quinze ans quMl est prêtre, ayant assez de vivacité
d'esprit et d'aptitude pour les affaires. Je le fis promoteur (de l'offlcialité),
et depuis ce temps nous l'avons envoya en divers endroits administrer des mis-
sions ou cures. Il a été, entre autres, curé sept ans à l'île d'Orléans, où 11
était encore lorsque je me suis démis: Jl administrait deux paroisses, Saint-
Pierre et Saint- Paul, assez proches l'une de l'autre... C'est un sujet qu'il
a toujours été nécessaire de maintenir dans un esprit d'humilité, ayant de
son naturel beaucoup de disposition à s'en faire accroire " (Liettre de Mgr
de Laval à M. de Brlsader, 17 avril 1691.)
^' 'fugnncnts du Conseil Supérieur, t. II, p. 450.
• La livre. & cette époque, valait environ trais francs. La portion con-
grue était donc d'environ trois cents piastres.
[GoasKLiif] UN ÉPISODE DE L'HISTOIRE DE LA DIME 47
ce montant, on y ajoutait un sujplément qui devait être réglé par le
Conseil, et payé par le seigneur et les habitants de la paroisse. Le
plan n^était ni pratique, ni d^exécution facile. Aussi le roi finit-il par
allouer une somme de 8,000 livres, à prendre sur le revenu public du
pays, pour compléter, au besoin, les portions congrues des curés; et Tin-
tendant, chaque année, rendait compte à la cour de la distribution des
suppléments. M. de Champigny écrit au ministre le 24 octobre 1694:
"Je vous envoie l'état de Temploi qui a été fait des 8,000 livres
accordées par Sa Majesté pour partie de l'entretien et subsistance des
curés. Sa Majesté doit être satisfaite de la conduite de M. TEvêque
(Saint- Vallier), qui a pris soin d'augmenter le nombre des curés, afin
de donner des secours spirituels à de pauvres peuples éloignés, qui n^en
avaient que fort rarement, et d'établir des cures fixes en beaucoup
d'endroits." ^
Tout alla bien durant qu'clques années; mais le roi, qui n'avait
jamais assez d'argent pour ses guerres, menaça bientôt de retrancher
les 8,000 livres, et d'abandonner le clergé aux seules ressources de la
dîme. L'intendant, de son <îôté, ne manquait pas de lui faire à ce
sujet de sérieuses représentations. Il écrit au ministre en 1697:
" A l'égard des 8,000 livres que Sa Majesté accorde pour l'entretien
des curés, il me paraît qu'il est d'une grande nécessité de continuer
cette gratification, si l'on ne veut pas priver quantité de paroisses, où
il y a très peu de dîmes, de secours spirituels.'* *
Il ajoute Tannée suivante:
" Il ne faut pas espérer que les curés puissent sitôt subsister sans
le supplément dos 8,000 livres, à cause de la pauvreté de la plus grande
partie des paroisses."^
M. de Callièree se joint à lui, en 1699, pour soutenir ses préten-
tions:
^* Nous ne voyons aucune a/pparence de pouvoir sitôt retrancher les
8,000 livres que le roi a la bonté d'accorder pour partie de la subsis-
tance et entretien des* curés, car il y en a très peu qui puissent s'en
passer."*
"Le bien que fait Sa Majesté, ajoute-t-on Tannée suivante, de
donner 8,000 livres pour partie de l'entretien des curés, est si néces-
saire, que, s'il ne se faisait pas, il y aurait impossibilité absolue d'entre-
tenir plus de huit ou neuf cures, tous les autres ne subsistant pres-
que que par ce supplément, les dîmes n'étant pas encore considérables*.
' Archives de la Marine, CJanada, CJorrespondance générale, vol. 13.
• IMéL, VOL 15.
■ Ihid., y<A, 16.
• nid., vol. 17.
48 SOCIÉTÉ ROYALE DU CANADA
Ainsi nous ne saurions nous dispenser de La supplier de continuer cette
grâce si utile à la religion. '^^
Le nombre des paroisses augmentait^ et oependant la somme
allouée pour les suppléments restait toujours la même: beaucoup de
curés n'avaient de supplément que tous les deux ans.
Enfin, vers 1704, Tallocation ayant été complètement retranchée,
les curés, qui n'avaient plus de quoi vivre dans leurs missions, s'en
allaient. MM. de Vaudreuil et Beauhamais écrivent au ministre le 19
octobre 1705:
"Les curés, n'ayant point leur supplément, abandonnent leurs
paroisses."*
Voilà quelle était, d'après les documents oflBciels, la situation du
clergé canadien à cette époque.
M*' de Saint- Vallier, alors absent en Europe, travaillait à faire
remettre la dîme au treizième, suivant son institution première. Mais
il avait peu de chances de réussir; et d'ailleurs, dans l'opinion d'un bon
nombre de gens désintéressés, la chose n'était pas désirable :
" M. l'Evêque de Québec n'entend pas les intérête de son clergé,
en demandant que la dîme soit mise au treizième comme en France ",
écrivait l'intendant Beauhamais.*
Que faire ? Il fallait bien pourtant que le clergé songeât à
se procurer une honnête subsistance.
Le pays était dans une période de transition. Jusque-là, on avait
négligé la culture de la terre et l'industrie; il y avait un retour vers un
meilleur état de choses. L'intendant Raudot écrit au ministre en 1706 :
"La colonie du Canada, après avoir coûté de grosses sommes à Sa
Majesté, est d'une très petite utilité. Cela est jppovenu du libertinage
'des habiitamte et du gros prix que valait le castor. Les habitants de ce
pays commencent à présent à reconnaître l'erreur de tout ce qu'ils ont
f:iit. Ils s'adonnent à la culture de leurs terres, à faire des chanvres
et des lins, et, étant encouragés, ils feront, à la fin, de ce pays un pays
utile à la France.*
Un pays utile à la France ! Voilà bien ce que devait être le Ca-
nada dans la pensée de ces fonctionnaires: un instrument pour faire la
fortune de la mère-patrie ! Les Français, d'abord, les Canadiens en-
suite ! La France soutire toutes les pelleteries du pays; et aux Cana-
diens qui, pour les lui procurer, négligent leurs terres, courent les bois,
s'amusent à faire la tradto, elle impose sos denrées, ses draps, ses pro-
duits.
' md., vol. 18.
» lUd., vol. 22.
■ /6i(/., vol. 22.
* lUd,, vol. 24.
[GOfisiUN] UN ÉPISODE DE L'HISTOIRE DE LA DIME 49
On venait d^apporter quelque tempérament à ce régime, et cela
6iait réputé une grande faveur:
" C'est une augmentation d'obligation que ce pays-ci vous a, écrit
au ministre l'intendant Raudot, que la permission que vous donnez aux
pauvres gens de faire de la toile et quelques mauvaises étoflEes pour se
couvrir. S'ils n'en avaient pas fait un peu, la moitié des habitants
seraient sans chemises. Ils ont tous besoin d'en faire, car l'on peut
dire que dans ce pays-ci il n'y a personne de riche et à qui tout ne soit
nécessaire pour pouvoir subsister."*
Vraiment, si l'on ne connaissait la gravité de l'intendant Baudot,
on serait tenté de croire qu'il y avait un peu d'ironie dans sa lettre.
Quoi qu'il en soit, les curés canadiens jugèrent qu'ils devaient, eux
aus&i, bénéficier du mouvement industriel qui commençait; et inter-
prétant à leur avantage les termes de l'édit royal pour l'établissement
de la dîme, ils décidèrent qu'il fallait réclamer " toutes les dîmes, de
quelque nature qu'elles puissent être, tant de ce qui naît par le travail
des hommes, que de ce que la terre produit d'elle-même . . . . , la tota-
lité des dîmes, grosses* et menues, anciennes et nouvelles, de tous les
fruits généralement quelconques, et sans aucune distinction, qui pro-
venaient sur toutes les terres de la Nouvelle-France." Ils préten-
daient avoir droit, par conséquent, à la dîme du lin, du chanvre, de
la laine des moutons, des jardinages, des foins de grève et de prairies,
etc.
Ces prétentions étaient d'autant plus graves qu'elles paraissaient
contraires, au m-oins en partie, aux explications que M^^ de Laval avait
données touchant la dîme, lors de son institution.*
Qui osera, le ipremier, les formuler en public ?
M. Boulard, curé de Beauport, s'en chargea, avec le concours de
son voisin, le curé de l'Ange-Gardien, M. DuFournel. C'étaient deux
prêtres d'un désintéressement reconnu, et que l'on ne pouvait, par con-
séquent, soupçonner d'agir pour des motifs sordides.
Le premier était théologal du chapitre, et appartenait au sémi-
naire, dont il fut plus tard supérieur. Il devint aussi curé de Québec,
et après la mort de M^^ de Saint- Vallier, gouverna le diocèse en qualité
de vicaire capitulaire. M. DuFournel desservit l' Ange-Gardien durant
plus d'un demi-siècle, et y mourut en 1757 à l'âge de 94 ans.
* JMd., vol. 24.
' Mandements des Evêqueê de Québec, t. I, p. 161.
Sec. I, 1903. 4.
80 SOCIÉTÉ ROYALE DU CANADA
Tous deux s'entendirent, dans Tautomne de 1705, pour rappeler
fortement à leurs fidèles, au prône de leurs paroisses, la loi de la dîme;
puis le dimanche 15 novembre, ils annoncèrent qu'à l'avenir ils exige-
raient la dîme de tous les produits de la terre, du lin, du chanvre, du
tabac, des jardinages, des foins de prairies, etc.
S'attendaient-ils de faire admettre de suite leurs prétentions ?
La chose n'est guère probable; mais ils voulaient remuer un peu l'opi-
nion publique, faire soumettre leurs prétentions aux tribunaux, et éta-
blir ce que nous appellerions aujourd'hui un test case.
Le but qu'ils avaient en vue fut atteint. Leur prône fit sensation;
on ne parlait que de cela au sortir de l'église: les commentaires ne ta-
rissaient pas. A Beauport, surtout, où le seigneur Juchereau du Ches-
r.ay ' faisait le l>eau et le mauvais temps, ces commentaires étaient par-
ticulièrement désobligeants pour le clergé.
Juchereau se trouvait justement à cette époque en guerre avec
les Jésuites au sujet des limites de leurs seigneuries respectives;^ il
était évidemment peu d'humeur à tolérer les empiétements des ecclé-
siastiques. Dès le mardi suivant il montait à Québec chez son beau-
frère,- le procureur-général D'Auteuil,*' et lui faisait part de ce qui
s'était passé à Beauport et à l'Ange-Gardien le dimanche précédent.
Il fut convenu qu'il n'y avait pas une minute à perdre et qu'il fallait
immédiatement référer au Con&eil Supérieur les prétentions des curés
Boulard et DuFoumel au sujet de la dîme.
Mais comment faire ? Le Conseil avait pris ses vacances le 12
octobre, "afin de permettre à chacun de faire sa correspondance pour
la France avant le départ des derniers vaisseaux;" il n'était rentré aux
afTnires que la veille, savoir, " le premier lundi d'après la Saint-Martin,"
et avait eu sa séance ordinaire.** D'Auteuil n'hésita pas, vu la gravité
des circonstances, à le convoquer extraordinairement pour le lende-
main, mercredi, 18 novembre. Il n'avait que l'après-midi du 17 pour
préparer sa charge contre les curés Boulard et DuFoumel; mais il
devait suppléer par son ardeur à la brièveté du temps; l'intérêt de la
cause doublait son énergie.
* Ignace Juchereau, fils de Nicolas Juchereau et de Marte-Thérôse
Giffard. Il avait la seigneurie de son grand'père, Robert Qiffard.
* L'ancienne fermie des Jésuites, dite de Sadnt-Ignace, à Beauport, appar-
tient aujourd'hui au Séminaire de Québec
■ D'Auteuil avait éixmsé en 1683 Marie-Anne Juohereau, veuve de Fran-
cois Pollet de la Oombe.
* Jugements du Conseil Supérieur, t. V, p. 167.
[GoasKLiNj UN ÉPISODE DE L'HISTOIRE DE LA DIME SI
François-Madeleine Riiette D^Auteuil, procurenr-général du Con-
seil Supérieur, était fils de Denis-Joseph, qui était venu au Canada en
1651^ et avait été nommé conseiller au Conseil Supérieur par M. de
Mésy et M^^ de Laval, lors de la création de cette cour souveraine en
1663.
Denis-Joseph D^Auteuil était tout dévoué au clergé, et spéciale-
ment aux jésuites. Il n^en fallait pas davantage pour qu^il fût peu
goûté «de Frontenac; et Ton sait que celui-ci Tobligea un jour à s^ab-
senter du Conseil * et à se retirer sur ses terres de Monceaux, ' à Sillery.
L'attachement que Denis-Joseph D'Auteuil professait pour les jésuites,
faisait dire à Frontenac: "Il est comme leur frère donné ;^^ et il ajou-
tait: "Il vaudrait autant avoir mis dans le Conseil le Père supérieur
des jésuites et le Père ministre que les sieurs de Villeray et D'Auteuil.^' *
Cela n'empêcha pas la cour de confier à D'Auteuil, en 1675, les
fonctions importantes de procureur-général; et il les remplit à la
grafîde satisfaction de toute la colonie.
Malheureusement il avait peu de santé; et dès l'année suivante
l'intendant DuChesneau le voyant " fort incommodé de la poitrine et
d'une fluxion sur les yeux, et appréhendant qu'il en mourût, ou qu'il
tombât dans un état qu'il ne pourrait plus exercer sa charge," s'a-
dressa à Colbert, et lui demanda de vouloir bien lui envoyer des lettres
de provisions pour un substitut du procureur-général, laissant en blanc
la place du nom, avec permission de la remplir, en cas de nécessité: ce
qui lui fut accordé.*^
De son côté. Déni s- Joseph D'Auteuil, lorsqu'il avait accepté la
charge de procureur-général, avait supplié le roi de vouloir bien en ré-
server la survivance à son fils.
Il continua à exercer ses fonctions jusqu'à sa mort, arrivée le 27
novembre 1679 ; et c'est alors* que DuCheeneau se servant des lettres de
provision que lui avait expédiées Colbert, alla trouver Frontenac, et lui
demanda s'il ne trouvait pas à propos que l'on remplît le blanc avec le
nom du fils de D'Auteuil, François-Madeleine. Le jeune homme
n'avait pas "l'âge compétent pour exercer la charge de substitut,
n'ayant pas encore vingt-deux ans." " Mais, disait DuChesneau, il tra-
vaille sous son père depuis deux ans, et il est le seul dans le pays à
^ Journal des Jésuites, p. 160.
* Vie de Mgr de Laval, t. II, p. 165.
' Ainsi appelées du nom de aa femme, Mlle de Monoeaux, Clalre-Fran-
QOise, flUe de Jean du Clément du Vault, aeljffneur de Monceaux, et d'Anne
Gasnier. Anne Gkuinier épousa en 1655 le procureur-général Jean Bourdon.
* Manuscrits de la Nouvelle-France, 2e oérie, t. II, p. 69.
* Jugements du Conseil Supérieur, t. Ii;, p. 341.
82 SOCIÉTÉ ROYALE DU CANADA
pourvoir de charge, qui ait fait son cours de droit, et qui soit reçu avo-
cat en la cour du Parlement de Paris. ''^
Frontenac ne voulut jamais consentir à cette nomination. Le
Conseil passa outre, et agréa que François-Madeleine D'Auteuil exer-
çât les fonctions de substitut du procureur-général, bien qu'il n'eût
pas encore Tâge voulu.
La cour non seulement approuva cette nomination, mais Tannée
suivante nomma le jeune D'Auteuil "conseiller de Sa Majesté. et son
procureur-général en survivance de son père.*'
Le nouveau procureur-général ne pardonna jamais à Frontenac
Toppoeition qu'il en avait reçue en cette circonstance, et il le lui té-
moigna en combattant souvent ses opinions au Conseil: "La fermeté
de M. D'Autcuil, écrit quelque part Tabbé Verreau, était presque de
l'intrépidité.''^
Mais il n'en était pas, pour cela, plus favorable au clergé: au con-
traire, en comparant sa conduite à l'égard des* ecclésiastiques avec^îelle
de son père, on aurait dit qu'il voulait soutenir la contre-partie. Il en
voulait surtout aux jésuites, qu'il accusait, bien injustement, de faire
le commerce des castors chez les sauvages outaouais;^ et les difiScuItés
que ces Religieux avaient avec son beau-frère, le seigneur de Beauport,
n'étaient pas de nature à dissiper ses préjugés.
Il arriva à la séance du Conseil du 18 novembre 1705, armé de
pied en cap contre les curés Boulard et DuFoumel, et animé d'un zèle
d'autant ,plus ardent pour la défense des intérêts populaires, que lui et
ses proches avaient dans le pays de grandes propriétés foncières qu'il
fallait protéger contre les envahissements de la dîme.*
Etaient présents à la séance le gouverneur M. de Vaudreuil, les
intendants Baudot, père et fils, et les Conseillers de Lotbinière, Du-
pont, de Lino et Hazeur.
Eefaisons le discours du procureur-général, d'après le compte-
rendu de la séance, tel qu'il se trouve aux archives du Conseil Supé-
rieur r*^
*' J'ai en avis hier, dit-il, que le curé de la paroisse de l'Ange-Gar-
dien, en la seigneurie de Beaupré, et celui de Notre-Dame de Beau-
* Ihid., p. 842.
" Quelques notes sur Antoine de Lamotte de Cadillac.
• Archives de la iMarine, Canada, Correspondance générale, vol. 22.
• Il avait, entre autres propriétés, un flef d'une demi-lleue de front «rar
le fleuve, entre le flef des Aulnets et celui de Port-Joly. (Edits et Ordon-
nances, t. I, p. 449.)
• Jugements du Conseil Supérieur, t. V, p. 184,
[G08SEUN] UN ÉPISODE DE L'HISTOIRE DE LA DIME 83
port ont, dans leurs prônes, dimancbe dernier et autres dimanches
précédents, averti leurs paroissiens que dorénavant ils prétendaient
qu^on leur payât la dîme non seulement des grains, comme il a été
pratiqué jusqu'à présent, mais encore de tout ce que la terre produit
[par la culture, ou saik culture, et des bestiaux, la dîme par conséquent
des foins de bas ,prés, fruits, lin, chanvres, moutons et autres choses.
" Ces propositions, ajoute-t-il, ont causé un grand murmure parmi
les habitants, à la sortie de la messe, à cause de la nouveauté de la
chose, nouveauté insupportable en ce pays, qui est déjà si difficile par
la rigueur de son climat.
" Les habitants sont à peine capables de payer exactement la
dîme de leurs grains et de subvenir à leurs pressants besoins. Ils sont
convaincus quails ne peuvent subsister à l'avenir, qu'en s'appliquant à
élever des moutons, et à cultiver le lin et le chanvre. Depuis deux ans
quails se sont mis à le faire, ils commencent à en ressentir les heureux
résultats. Mais les prétentions et les exigences de leurs curés sont
capables de les décourager, et même de les rebuter pour jamais.'^
D'Auteuil rappelle ensuite le règlement des dîmes, du 4 sepjtembre
1667, établi par MM. de Tracy, Courcelles et Talon, "de concert avec
M. de Laval, et après avoir entendu les plus notables du pays:^^
"Par ce. règlement, dit-il, il fut arrêté que les dîmes ne se paie-
raient à Tavenir que des grains seulement, et à raison du vingt-sixième
minot. ... Ce règlement resta au secrétariat de l'intendant Talon; et
quoiqu'il ne parai&se pas, parce que la plus grande partie de ce secré-
tariat a été dissipée, comme la plupart de ceux de ses* successeurs, il a
été exécuté de bonne foi de part et d^utre; et il ne peut être nié,
parce qu'il y a encore des personnes vivantes qui en ont eu parfaite
connaissance, poxir y avoir été appelées.''
Le procureur-général rappelle encore l'édit de 1679; puis îl ajoute:
" Lorsque Sa Majesté fit connaître ses intentions à M. le comte
de Frontenac et à l'intondant DuChesneau au sujet de l'établissement
des cures fixes en ce pays, ils eurent ordre de régler dans* une assemblée
à quelle somme serait fixée la portion congrue de chaque curé; et elle
le fut à 500 livres, outre les menus profits du dedans de l'église : et on
estime qu'avec cette somme, outre leur subsistance et entretien, ils
pourraient avoir un domestique pour les servir. . . .
" H est incontestable que par le partage qui a été fait pour l'étendue
de chaque cure ou mission, il y a peu de curés qui n'aient plus que la
portion congrue, par les dîmes de grains seulement, comme elles se
sont perçues jusqu'à présent. Et si l'on voulait y faire quelque change-
ment, ce ne serait que pour donner du superflu aux curés, à la charge
des peuples.
54 SOCIÉTÉ ROYALE DU CANADA
" Les prônes des curés Boulard et DuFoumel sont une entreprise
contre Tautorité séculière : il est important d'en empêcher la continua-
tion, ainsi que les inconvénients qui en pourraient résulter."
D'Auteuil concluait en priant le Conseil d'obliger les curés de
Beauport et de TAnge-Gardien à venir /^ rendre compte de quelle au-
torité ils avaient fait ces publications/' et de leur défendre, ainsi qu'à
tous autres curés, " de rien innover par rapport au paiement des
dîmes." Il priait également le Conseil " de défendre à tous les habi-
tants de payer d'autres dîmes que celles des blés et de toutes sortes de
grains, comme on avait toujours fait par le passé."
Le Conseil donna raison au procureur-général sur toute la ligne,
et rendit un arrêt obligeant les curés Boulaird et DuFournel à venir
rendre compte de leur conduite, et leur défendant de rien innover
dans la perception des dîmes. Cet arrêt leur fut signifié le 11 dé-
cembre." Ils préparèrent immédiatement leurs mémoires et vinrent
eux-mêmes les présenter au Conseil le 22 décembre suivant. Cee mé-
moires furent communiqués au procureur-général, et le Conseil remit
" au premier jour d'après les Rois " à rendre sa décision.
Voici ce que contenaient en substance les mémoires de MM. Bou-
lard et DuFournel: "Se croyant obligée d'expliquer aux fidèles les
commandements de Dieu et de l'Eglise, ik avaient pris de là occasion
de leur rappeler la loi des dîmes. Si dans le passé le clergé n'a pas
réclamé toutes les natures de dîmes, ce n'a été que pour condescendre
à la misère des temps. Lorsqu'on estima à 500 livres la partie con-
grue des curés, il s'agissait de ceux qui se mettaient en pension; mais
il était entendu que ceux qui tenaient maison avaient besoin de 300
livres de plus pour un valet. D'ailleurs, dans les 500 livres on comp-
tait 300 livres pour la nourriture, et 200 livres pour l'entretien: or le
linge, les étoffes et le vin sont aujourd'hui à un prix exc^essif ; la dîme
sur les grains ne peut sufiRre pour la partie congrue. Les habitants*
ne trouvant pas la culture des grains assez payante, ont laissé leurs
terres en prairies; d'autres y sèment du chanvre et du lin; et tout cela
jprend la place du grain. Il y a des vergers de quarante arpents, que
les propriétaires prétendent exempter de la dîme. Les arrêts de
France ont jugé que la terre labourable étant convertie en vignes,
oignons, raves, etc., les dîmes devaient s^y percevoir. ..."
D'Auteuil répondit à ces mémoires à la séance du Conseil du 10
janvier 1706:
*' Les dîmes doivent se payer suivant l'usage, au lieu que les curés
Boulard et DuFoumel les exigent comme les provinces de France les
paient toutes ensemble. Un curé qui a 500 livres, avec les profits du
^ Edité et Ordonnances, t. I, p. 309.
[gosselin] un Épisode de uhistoire de la dîme se
dedans de Téglise, a honnêtement de quoi vivre. Tous les vergers
réunis, depuis Tadoussac jusqu^à Montréal, nord et sud, c'est-à-dire sur
une étendue de cent quatre vingt lieues, ne contiendraient pas qua-
rante arpents ensemble : la plainte des curés à cet égard est donc sans
fondement. Il est vrai que les grains sont quelquefois à bas prix, mais
alors Tabondance est une compensation. On donnerait volontiers à
chaque curé fiOO livres et plus pour ses dîmes de grains: ainsi la nou-
veauté qu'ils veulent introduire n'est que pour se donner du superflu."
Il concluait à ce qu'il n'y eût aucune innovation dans la percep-
tion des dîmes, " sauf aux curés, disait-il, qui n'auront pas un revenu
suffisant, à se pourvoir pour le supplément conformément à l'édit de
1679."
Le sort des curés Boulard et DuFournel était d'ores et déjà dé-
cidé: leurs juges étaient tous de grands propriétaires, comme le pro-
cureur-général lui-même, et intéressés comme lui à ce qu'il n'y eût
aucun changement dans le paiement des dîmes. L'arrêt du Conseil,
rendu le l*^*" février 1706, se lit comme suit:
" Le Conseil a ordonné et ordonne que les dîmes seront levées et
payées par les habitants aux sieurs Boulard, DuFournel et autres curés
de ce pays, conformément à l'usage qui a été observé jusqu'à présent,
et fait défense à tous curés de les demander, et aux habitants de ce
pays de les payer autrement, jusqu'à ce que par le roi en ait été or-
donné.''
Il y avait appel au roi de cette décision: le clergé canadien en pro-
fita. Dans sa requête, il renchérissait sur les prétentions des curés
Boulard et DuFournel, et demandait que la dîme fût mise au trei-
zième, suivant son institution première. Voici en substance cette re-
quête :
" Les soussignés, curés et missionnaires du Canada, persuadés de
la protection de Sa Majesté pour l'Eglise de cette Nouvelle-France, et
de son attention pour le soutien de ses privilèges, qu'Elle a toujours
maintenus toutes les fois qu'on a voulu y donner atteinte, viennent
avec confiance implorer l'autorité de Sa Majesté dans une affaire qui
intéresse toute l'Eglise de ce pays, puisqu'il s'agit de la perception des
dîmes, sans lesquelles elle ne peut subsister.
"Le Conseil de Québec leur en interdit la jouissance, jusqu'à ce
que Sa Majesté ait déclaré derechef ses intentions, quoiqu'Elle les ait
formellement expliquées par son édit du mois d'avril 1663: "Toutes
les dîmes, y est-il dit, de quelque nature qu'elles puissent être, tant de
ce qui naît en Canada par le travail des hommes, que de ce que la
86 SOCIÉTÉ ROYALE DU CANADA
terre produit d^elle-même, se paieront de treize portions une, et le
clergé jouira de la totalité des dîmes, grosses et menues, anciennes- et
nouvelles, de tous les fruits généralement quelconques, et sanB aucune
distinction, qui proviendront de toutes les terres dans le pays de la
Nouvelle-France/*
" MM. de Tracy, Courcelles et Talon trouvèrent cela si nécessaire
pour la subsistance des curés, qui d^ailleurs n^avaient aucun autre
moyen pour vivre, quails firent un règlement, en 1667, pour Texécution
de cet édit. Considérant l^état du pays, pour lor& encore très peu dé-
friché et habité, le climat fâcheux, les saisons inconstantes, et les che-
mins tout-à-fait impraticables, ils ordonnèreait que les dîmes se paie-
raient de tout ce qui naît par le travail des hommes, et de tout ce que
la terre rapporte d'elle-même, par les habitants, pures et nettes, et
seulement de la 26« portion une, au lieu de la 13«, et cela pendant Tes-
pace de vingt années, et jusqu'à ce que le pays fût en. état de souflfrir
une plus forte imposition. . . .
^* n ne peut faire aucun doute que les curés du Canada ne soient
en droit de lever la dîme conformément aux édit et règlement ci-des-
sus, et avec d'autant plus de fondement que Sa Majesté n'a rien or-
donné par ses edits que de conforme à plusieurs autres qu'EUe a rendus
pour tout le Royaume, en conséquence desquels les curés ont droit de
percevoir les dîmes de toutes choses, et particulièrement de tout ce
qui provient d'une terre qui a une fois rapporté une chose qui doit
dîme. . . .
" Si Sa Majesté permettait aux habitants de ne payer la dîme que
des grains seulement, les curés seraient réduits à la mendicité, et se
trouveraient hors d'état de desservir leurs cures, et même contraints
de les abandonner," attendu que le peu de débit de ces grains fait que
ces habitants ensemencent la plus forte partie de leurs terres de diffé-
rentes denrées, et jpfarticulièrement de celles qui se vendent le mieux.
" Les suppliants prient Sa Majesté de considérer que leur unique
bien consiste dans la dîme, d'oii il faut qu'ils tirent leur nourriture et
leurs habillements, qu'ils sont contraints d'acheter à un prix excessif,
et jusqu'aux moindres choses de la vie, pendant que toutes les* denrées
qui croissent dans le pays se donnent à un prix fort médiocre, faute de
consommation, et qu'il serait juste qu'ils partageassent du moins avec
les peuples qu'ils servent, les moyens de subsister dans ce que le pays
peut produire. . . .
*^La raison dont le Conseil de Québec s'est servi pour rendre son
arrêt, c'est que les curés n'ont point prétendu jusqu'à présent per-
* Cest ce que quelques-uns avaient déjà fait, au témot&nagre du gouver-
neur et de l'Intendant, comme nous l'avons vu plus haut.
[0088ELIN] UN ÉPISODE DE L'HISTOIRE DK LA DIME 87
cevoir la dîme de toutes les denrées, et qu'ainsi ils sont non recevables
à demander aujoxird'hui une chose à laquelle ils n'ont jamais songé.
Mais dans les commencements, toutes choses, à part les* grains, étaient
de si peu de conséquence, qu'il ne valait pas la peine d'en demander la
dîme: le lin, le chanvre, le tabac, les citrouilles et les autres denrées
étaient encore inconnues, et les peuples étaient alors dans une si
grande indigence qu'il était difficile à des missionnaires que la clharité
amenait au Canada, de ne pas relâcher de leurs droits. Aujourd'hui
que ces habitants sont si bien établis, il est juste qu'ils se soumettent
à leurs obligations.
" Un autre prétexte à la décision du Conseil, c'est la grande pau-
vreté des peuples. Mais il e&t de notoriété publique que communé-
ment il n'y a point d'habitants qui ne vivent sur leurs terres, en y
prenant de la peine. Ils y trouvent presque toutes les nécessités de
la vie, et même ordinairement assez abondamment. Ce sont les
habillements qui leur coûtent le plus, et encore commeneent-ils à re-
cueillir du lin, dont ils font quantité de toile, et à élever des moutons
dont ils prennent la laine pour faire des étoffes; au lieu que les sup-
pliants sont obligés d'acheter jusqu'aux moindres choses, et hors d'état
de seqourir les pauvres. ..."
En terminant sa requête, le clergé canadien suppliait le roi d'or-
donner " que tous les' habitants du Canada possédant des terres seraient
tenus de payer la dîme de treize portions une, savoir, de toutes sortes
de grains, du lin, chanvre, tabac, citrouilles, fruits qui naissent sur les
arbres, jardinages, foins, et généralement tout ce que la terre produit
d'elle-même, et le tout sur le même pied."*
* « «
On ne peut douter que les missionnaires du Canada, en adres-
sant cette requête à la cour, étaient en parfait accord avec leur évêque,
M*' de Saint- Vallier, qui, connaissant bien leurs besoins et leur dénue-
ment, travaillait lui-même à faire mettre la dîme au 13«.* Malheu-
reusement le prélat était alors détenu prisonnier en Angleterre; il ne
devait revoir la France qu'en 1709, et son diocèse qu'en 1713.* H ne
pouvait donc guère s'occuper avec avantage de plaider la cause de son
clergé auprès de la cour.
Mais le clergé canadien avait à Paris un représentant autorisé,
dans la personne de M. de la Colombière, l'un des trois grands vicaires
— ^les deux autres étaient MM. de Maizerets et Glandelet — qui gouver-
^ Edits et Ordonnances, t. I, p. 305.
* Lettre de MM. de Vaudreuil et Beauhamais au ministre, Québec, 19 octo-
bre 1705.
•Ck)8selin, Le Vén, François de Montmorency- Laval, p. 383.
88 SOCIÉTÉ ROYALE DU CANADA
naieut alors l'Eglise de Québec en Tabsence de Tévêque. M. de la
Colombiore était passé en France en 1705, après le deuxième incendie
du séminaire de Québec/ pour solliciter des eecours en faveur de cette
institution. Il y avait aussi M. de Brisacier, supérieur du séminaire des
Missions-Etrangères, auquel le séminaire de Québec était alors afiSlié,
qui portait un vif intérêt à TEglise du Canada. M. de Brisacier écri-
vait au ministre Pontchartrain le 4 avrii 1707:
" Si M. D'Auteuil, procureur-général du Conseil de Québec, vous
donne, monseigneur, quelques écrits' contre TEglise et les curés du
Canada, sur le fait des dîmes, ordonnez, je vous prie, qu'ils nous soient
communiqués, afin que nous puissions vous donner nos réflexions avant
que vous décidiez. . . . '**
D'Auteuil, en efl!et, se trouvait lui-même à Paris: il était passé
en France dans l'automne de 1706, pour essayer de se justifier de très
graves accusations qui pesaient sur lui par rapport à Taccomplissement
de ses fonctions comme procureur-général. Il avait perdu la confiance
du gouverneur et de l'intendant du Canada. Voici ce qu'écrivait à
son sujet M. lîaudot, fonctionnaire "plein de justice et d'équité,^' au
témoignage de M. de Vaudreuil :^
" Quand même, disait l'intendant, le sieur D'Auteuil resterait ici
(au Canada), je ne pourrais pas me servir de lui. Il a quelque capa-
cité; mais vous verrez, monseigneur, par la lettre que je me donne
l'honneur de vous écrire au sujet de l'aflfaire du sieur Berthelot contre
la Dame de I^a/orêt, qu'il n'a pas la jpjrobité qui convient dans ces sortes*
d'affaires. . . . "^
Voilà l'adversaire contre lequel le clergé canadien allait avoir à
défendre ses droits et ses prétentions, à la cour: un homme rusé, ha-
bile, très capable, mais *^sans probité.^' Ce sont bien là les adver-
saires les plus dangereux.
D'Auteuil était appuyé dans ses prétentions par l'un des conseil-
lers du Conseil Supérieur de Québec, François Aubert de la Chênaie,"
seigneur de Mille- Vaches, qui, lui aussi, était passé en France dans
l'automne de 1706.®
Le procureur-général dressa un long mémoire en réponse à la re-
quête du clergé canadien. Voici on substance ce qu'il contenait:
"Le règlement du 4 septembre 1667, dont l'original n'existe pas,
mais qui ne peut avoir été autre chose que ce qui s'est pratiqué depuis,
* Cet Incendie eut lieu le 1er octobre ljp5.
' Archives de la Marine, Canada.. Correspondance générale, vol. 27.
* Ihid., vol. 24.
* Lettre de l'intendant Raudot au ministre. Québec, 2 novembre 1706.
* La famlUe de la Chênaie étsAt alliée aux Juchereau.
* Jugements du Conseil Supérieur, t. V, p. 440.
[G088BLIN] UN ÉPISODE DE UHISTOIRE DE LA DIME 89
doit être la règle pour la perception des dîmes. Si elles ne sont pas
snflasantes, le règlement de 1679 y a pourvu. Depuis Tarrêt du 23
décembre 1680/ les curés ont trouvé plus d^avantage à faire eux-mêmes
la perception de leurs dîmes; et il y a eu des années où quelques-unfe-
d'entre eux ont produit jusqu'à 1500 et 2000 livres, même plus. En
percevant eux-mêmes leurs dîmes, ils ont ôté au public la connaissance
de la vraie valeur des dîmes, et ont pris plus hardiment le prétexte
d'obtenir de Sa Majesté un supplément de 8000 livres. Pour re-
prendre cette connaissance, il n'y a qu'à faire exécuter le dit arrêt du
23 décembre 1G80;* et sïl se trouve que les dîmes ne soient pas suf-
fisantes, les habitants fourniront le surplus sur le pied de 500 livres,
que l'on a estimé devoir suffire pour leur portion congrue.
" Quant à la plainte que font les curés que la dîme n'est levée qu'au
26^, la charge de l'engranger et de la porter au presbytère est très* con-
sidérable. D'ailleurs le défrichement des terres n'en peut pas porter
une plus forte; et la dîme des marais desséchés ne devrait même se
payer à l'avenir qu'au 50®.
" Si les terres où l'on a semé du blé se mettent depuis en chanvre
ou en lin, les curés en sont récompensés, parce que tous les ans on dé-
friche plus de terre pour la mettre en blé qu'on ne sème de chanvre et
de lin où il y avait eu du blé.
"La volonté du Roi est que les curés aient ce qui leur est néces-
saire, soit par les dîmes, soit par le supplément. Les seigneurs et les
habitants veulent bien s'y conformer; mais les nouvelles dîmes que les
curés veulent imposer sont sans nécessité, et ils ne les demandent que
pour s'enrichir aux dépens des habitants. On doit donc les renvoyer
à l'exécution de l'édit de 1679 et des arrêts du Conseil Supérieur
rendus en conséquence, et leur défendre de rien innover, sous peine
de grosse amende."^
On ne pouvait être plus captieux et plus habile. Rien, pour
l'ordinaire, ne flatte davantage l'autorité que d'entendre dire que tout
va à merveille, sous sa direction, qu'il n'y a rien à changer dans les
edits et les règlements existants, que tout est pour le mieux dans le
meilleur des mondes. Rien, en particulier, ne pouvait être plus agréa-
ble à Louis XIV que d'apprendre, de la bouche d'un fonctionnaire
canadien, que le clergé de son pays n'avait plus besoin des 8,000 livres
qui avaient été accordées durant quelques années pour les portions
congrues. Quelle bonne et heureuse réponse à ceux qui pourraient
* Ihid., t. II, p. 450.
* Par cet arrêt, les dîmes devaient être affermées au plus offrant et der-
nier enchérisseur, et le prix donné aux curés.
■ Edits et Ordonnances, t. I, p. 310.
60 SOCIÉTÉ ROYALE DU CANADA
venir lui reprocher d'avoir retranché cette somine ! On se laisse
d^ailleurs si facilement persuader que le clergé en a toujours assez, et
même trop !
D'un autre côté, le dergé canadien avait peut-être mal choibi
Toccasion de réclamer une augmentation de la dîme: le pays était
réellement pauvre, ou plutôt, suivant l'expression de MM. de Vaudreuil
et Baudot, "très gueux et très* dur ^' :
^' L'on peut dire qu'il n'y a personne de .riche ici, écrivaient à la
cour ces hauts fonctionnaires; et tous ceux qui y ont été peuvent vous
asburer que ceux qui l'habitent ont bien de la peine à y avoir la nourri-
ture et le vêtement." *
Les missionnaires du Canada ne se contentaient pas de dem&nder
la dîme au 13*^; ils réclamaient la dîme du lin, du chanvre, du tabac.
Cela produisit une mauvaise impression: ils semblaient vouloir mettre
des- entraves et nuire à des industries naissantes, que l'on avait eu
beaucoup de peine à établir.
On eut beau présenter à la cour des mémoires, bien motivés, en
réponse à celui de D'Anteuil, l'arrêt du Conseil d'Etat fut contraire
aux prétentions du clergé. Cet arrêt, rendu à Marly le 12 juillet 1707,
se lit comme suit :
" Sa Majesté, étant en son Conseil, sans fe^arrêter à la requête dee
curés et missionnaires du Canada, a ordonné et ordonne que les arrêts
du Conseil Supérieur de Québec des 18 novembre 1706 et 1** février
1706 seront exécutée*, sauf aux dits curés et missionnaires à se pour-
voir pour le supplément nécessaire, en exécution de l'article 4 de l'édit
du mois de mai 1679."
C'était laisser la dîme dans l'état où elle était depuis le règlement
de 1667, et pour le supplément renvoyer le clergé devant le Conseil
Supérieur lui-même.
Le clergé canadien avait perdu sa cause, en apparence: en réalité,
il avait gagné un point important, la confirmation solide et définitive
de la loi de la dîme ; et cette loi, le peuple l'acceptait d'autant plus vo-
lontiers qu'elle avait été adoucie en sa faveur, et qu'il avait lui-même
gagné son point contre les prétentions du clergé. On lit dans une dé-
pêche de MM. de Vaudreuil et Baudot au ministre:
" Nous tiendrons exactement la main à l'exécution de l'arrêt que
vous eûtes la bonté de nous envoyer l'année deïrnière au sujet des
dîmes. Nous vous en remercions au nom de tous les habitants de ce
pays, et vous supplions pour eux de vouloir bien toujours laisser les
choses sur le même pied qu'elles sont. . . . "^
^ Lettre de MM. de Vaudreuil et Baudot, Québec, 14 novembre 1708.
■ Arohiv€e de la Marine, Canada, Ckwrespondance générade, vol. 28.
LooawLiNJ UN EPISODE DE L'HISTOIRE DE LA DIME 61
Le procureur-général D^Auteuil avait gagné sa cause contre le
clergé canadien en général : il lui restait à faire faire la leçon au curé
Boulard, en particulier, avec lequel lui et son beau-frère Juchereau de-
vaient être passablement brouillés. La lettre suivante du ministre au
"vicaire-général du Canada '^ fait voir que Inhabile procureur-général
réussit encore sur ce point:
" Dans le compte que j*ai rendu au Eoi de Taflfaire dee dîmes qui
se lèvent en Canada, écrit le ministre, je n^ai pu me dispenser d^infor-
mer Sa Majesté qu'un des curés de ce pays a eu rimprudence d'ajouter
aux commandements de TEglise un septième commandement pour le
paiement des dîmes, et qu'il y a même fait la matière d'un prône.
" Sa Majesté m'a commajidé de vous écrire que son intention est
que vous fassiez une forte réprimande à ce curé pour avoir abusé de
son ministère en cette occasion, et que vous l'avertissiez que si pareille
choee lui arrivait encore, elle le ferait punir. Je vous prie de me faire
savoir ce que vous ferez sur cela, afin que j'en rende compte à Sa Ma-
jesté."'
Voilà comment dans l'ancienne France, l'Etat s'immisçait dans* les
affaires religieuses, dans ce qui regardait^ par exemple, la prédication
et comment on traitait le clergé, à l'époque où le roi Très Chrétien se
considérait vis-à-vis l'Eglise conmie 1'" évêque du dehors ! "
Pour bien comprendre la lettre que nous venons de citer,* il faut
se rappeler que la loi de la dîme existait alors en France comme au Ca-
nada: elle y était même généralement plus rigoureuse; et c'était là
comme ici une loi ecclésiastique, en même temps qu'une loi civile.
C'était un commandement de l'Eglise; seulement, ce commandement
n'était pas formulé dans les catéchismes français; on ne le trouve, par
exemple, ni dans le catéchisme de Boesuet, dont nous avons une édition
sous les yeux,* ni dans le catéchisme de Sens, qui était autrefois en
usage au Canada. Il n'y avait dans les catéchismes français que six
commandements de l'Eglise.
M. Boulard, dans ses prônes sur la dîme, avait-il formulé le sep-
tième Commandement de l'Eglise, tel que nous le récitons aujourd'hui,
tel qu'il se lit dans nos catéchismes?* C'est possible: mais alors, il
* Documents de Paris, Collection Moreau St-iMéry, Vol. 7, Lettre du 6
Juillet 1707.
' EUe n'a Jamais été publiée encore, du moins & notre connaissance.
* Catééhiêfne du diocèse de Meaux, par Messire Jacques- Bénigne Bossuet, évêque
de M eaux. Conseiller du Roy en ses conseils, ci- devant Précepteur de Mgr le Dauphin,
premier aumônier de Madame la Dauphine. A Paris, chez Sébastien Mabre-Cramoisy,
Imprimeur du Roy, rue Saint-Jacques, aux Vigognes. M, de, LXXXVII,
• " Droits et dîmes tu paieras à rE«lise fidèlement"
62 SOCIÉTÉ ROYALE DU CANADA
n'avait fait que donner une forme populaire à une loi déjà existante
et reconnue de tout le monde. M^ de Saint- Vallier, du reste, venait
de la formuler lui-même, quoique en termes un peu différents,^ dans
le catéchisme qu'il avait publié à Paris en 1702,^ et nous ne voyons pas
que le Boi l'ait réprimandé à ce sujet.^ Dans ce catéchisme il n'y a
pas seulement sept commandements de l'Eglise, il y en a neuf: le hui-
tième et le neuvième regardent les excommuniés.*
Mf^ Briand fit publier, en 1777, une édition spéciale du Caté-
chism-e de Sens pour son diocèse, et y fit quelques changements. 11
y introduisit spécialement la formule du septième commandement de
l'Eglise; et personne n'y trouva à redire, parce que cette formule
n'était que l'expression d'une loi reconnue et entrée dans les mœurs.
D'Auteuil, dans ses mémoires, n'avait pas ménagé le clergé du Ca-
nada: il s'était montré injuste et perfide à son égard; et dans les dé-
pêches qu'il adressait à la cour, comme procureur-général du Conseil,
il n'était pas tendre pour les jésuites: on aurait dit qu^il affectait de
se montrer aussi désobligeant pour eux, que son père leur avait été
favorable. On lit, par exemple, dans une de ses lettres au ministre:
" Ils ont assez de biens-fonds en ce pays : dans tous les quartiers
on voit des seigneuries qui leur appartiennent. ..."
11 les a^use non seulement de tenir magasin ouvert à Québec,
mais surtout de trafiquer le castor avec les sauvages Outaouais:
"Ils font le commerce aux Outaouais, dit-il, ou il se fait par leur
moyen; c'est public, et tout le monde en murmure. On voit tous les
ans les canots des jésuites revenir chargés de castors. Peut-on juger
que ce soit d'autres qu'eux qui fassent ce commerce, pendant qu'il est
défendu à tout le monde? '"*
Le procureur-général avait le triste courage de chercher à discré-
diter les jésuites, alors que lui-même était sous le poids de très graves
accusations. Nous avons vu qu'il était passé en France pour essayer
de se justifier. 11 ne put réussir. L'intendant Raudot n'avait pas
* •* Hors les temps Noces ne feras: «paie la dîme jrustement."
' Catéchisme du diocèse de Québec, par Monseigneur VlUustrissime et Révéren-
diêsime Jean de la Croix de Saini-Vallier, Evéque de Qu€bec, en faveur 'des curés et
des fidèles de son diocèse, A Paris, chez Urbain Coustelier, rue ISaint-Jacques, au
Cœur bon. M. DCCII.
■ Il est à noter, cependant, qoie .le volume ne porte pas le "Privilège du
JKoyr
• " L<ee excommuniés fuieias, les dénoncés exipressément ;
" Quand excommunié seras, fais-toi absoudre promptement."
• Archives de la Marine, Canada^ Correspondance générale, vol. 22.
[G08SKLIN] UN ÉPISODE DE L'HISTOIRE DE LA DIME 63
craint de lui donner un certificat de manque de probité: D'Auteuil
avait perdu la confiance du public.
La cour révoqua sa commission de procureur-général, qui datait
du 2 juin 1680/ et Tordonnance royale à cet effet fut envoyée aussitôt
à M. de Vaudreuil, gouverneur du Canada, pour être enregistrée au
Conseil Supérieur. On lit en effet dans les registres du Conseil, à la
date du 21 novembre 1707:
'^ Vu par le Conseil Tordre du Roi donné à Vercailles le 30 juin
dernier, signé Louis, et jjlus bas Phelipaux, e»t scellé, par lequel il casse
et révoque Maître François-Magdeleine-Rtiette D'Auteuil, son procu-
reur-général en ce Conseil, et lui fait défense d'en faire à l'avenir les
fonctions, et d'en prendre la qualité, à peine de désobéissance-, et
enjoint à M. le Marquis de Vaudreuil, gouverneur et lieutenant-géné-
ral en ce pays, et à MM. Raudot, intendants en oe icelui, de tenir la
main à l'exécution du dit ordre, et de le faire enregistrer au greffe de
ce Conseil, le Conseil, ouï et ce requérant M. Charles Macart, con-
seiller, faisant les fonctions de procureur-général du Roi en ce dit Con-
seil, a ordonné et ordonne que le dit ordre sera enregistré au greffe
d'icelui, pour être exécuté selon sa forme et teneur. Raudot."^
Le conseiller Macart^ continua à exercer les fonctions de procu-
reur-général, sans en avoir le titre, jusqu'au 17 ocrtobre 1712. A cette
date, Mathieu-Benoit Collet, avocat au Parleanent de Paris*, arriva à
Québec avec une commission de jp^xxîureur-général, et fut reçu et
installé en cette qualité au Conseil Supérieur.
^ Jugements du Conseil Supérieur, t. II, p. 422.
• Ibid,, t, V, p. 704.
■ C'était un marcftvand, dont la résidence étadt sur la place de l'égrllae de
la Basse- Ville.
Sbction I, 1903 [ 63 ] Mémoibbb S. R. G.
III. — Les Intendants de la Nouvelle-France.
(Notes sur leurs familles avec portraits et armoiries.)
Par M. RÉGIS Boy.
(PréBenté i>ar M. B. Suite et lu le 20 mai 1903.)
I I r
L'intendant, àe 1663 à 1760, a été Tun des premiers personnage©
du pa}rs, car ses attributions lui valaient une autorité plus étendue que
celle du gouverneur, qui suivait d'un œil jaloux la promulgation de
ses ordonnances, croyant souvent y trouver un empiétement sur ses
;prérogaiâves, et qui, alors, s'immisçait dans des choses où il n'avait
aucunement droit, d'où surgissait des disputes, des querelles, se termi-
nant par le rappel de l'un ou de l'autre, et parfois des deux.
L'intendant, par sa commission royale, recevait la gérance des
affaires civiles criminelles et de police. Il prenait connaissance de
toutes les matières concernant le roi, et de toutes les difficultés s'élevant
entre le seigneur et le censitaire. Ses agents, les sub-délégués déci-
daient sommairement des petites causes, avec réserve d'appel à lui-
même. Il jugeait aussi les affaires de commerce; en un mot, faisant
en Canada les fonctions d'un juge-consul. La partie administrative
du gouvernement lui était abandonnée, ainsi que celle des finances.
Le gouverneur ne conserva qu'une espèce de veto sur certaines
mesures civiles, joint au commandement militaire et la gestion des
affaires extérieures, tel que l'entretien des relations avec les autres
gouvernements coloniaux, les indigènes et la métropole, et encore,
l'intendant remplissait-il avec lui cette dernière partie des fonctions
administratives. (Grameau.)
L'intendant avait donc une charge importante, et il fallait impé-
rieusement que ce titulaire eut de l'expérience; et, de fait, il a toujours
été choisi parmi les fonctionnaires royaux dans la mère-patrie. A peu
d'exceptions près, l'intendant, tout en ayant la qualité précitée, avait
surtout la bonne fortune d'être parent du ministre en faveur, ou d'une
famille très en vue à la cour.
Par les pages qui se succèdent, on pourra constater facilement quel
lien consanguin unissait les uns aux autres njos intendants et les minis-
tres, mais le tableau qui suit immédiatement ces lignes, donnera un
aperçu général de nos notes sur les familles des intendants de la Nou-
velle-France.
SecI, IQOa 6.
66
SOCIÉTÉ ROYALE DU CANADA
o «8 ** « d
3 si S
o
t
z
K
s
3
<^
>
Ph
0
S
•o
a
t3 4)
I SUIS m
g g
•8 5
■ 9
S Si
O ta
s-
• S
•* O
'Ç o
f) *^ ft»
1 Base-
's ij2'« s
«^^«^'^
i M
• il
S. tl
i? a .
« js s
Ë "Sa
I Spu
" si
SB
I
3
TS
•S
^
Si 7»
eu h3
1» g
il.'.
"SIS
45 -a
îz;
•s g 1
«g ^
t S 1
Il "
© ©
i2 ©
n: c
o a
© -© *
c «H
"^ O
%
© 3
•3 t3
C 4^
O «
' g
©
"5,
c8
S
0
o
«
9
ci ©.
S ^ o
a 5-^
fia
S
s
o
Q
p
•s I
§ I
08
0
S
l
fi
I
ce
c
■s
& -i
i I I
ss o
^
o
-<
g s
r^ S
00 cS s
3
«n
i 8
i
s S
^
s ^ SI ^ ^ s
^ ?
§
H
1-0
2:
o
H
is
t^ odo»
•4 el 90 -^
[ROY] LES INTENDANTS DE LA NOUVELLE-FRANCE 67
n
Louis Robert, premier intendant.
Ouvrons n'importe quelle Histoire du Canada, à l'année 1663, et,
au sujet de Tintendant que le roi venait de donner au pays, nous
lisons invariablement dans chacune, à peu près dans les mêmes
termes: — "Le 21 mais 1663, le roi nomma intendant, M. Robert, qui
pourtant n'alla point en Canada."
M. Robert, il est vrai, ne s'est jamais soucié d'entreprendre le
voyage d'outre-mer pour occuper sa charge. Pourquoi? C'est oe que
nous nous sommes demandés, et, après mûres réflexions, avec ce que
nous connaissons de l'époque, nous nous sommes dits: — "La santé de
M. Robert pouvait être une cause pour ne point sortir de France, ou
bien, croyait-il réussir à s'acquitter des devoirs relatifs à l'intendance
sans plus se déranger, les jugeant faciles à conduire, même de si loin,
ou bien donc, il ne lui plaisait guère de se risquer à une dangereuse
traversée pour aller vivre au sein de peuplades farouches et barbares."
La dernière hypothèse doit prévaloir, selon nous, car la charge
d'intendant, en France, était créée, surtout pour contrôler les actions
et l'ofl5ce du gouverneur, lieutenant-gouverneur, ou d'autre premier
officier de province, et le même motif fournissait à la colonie naissante
ce fonctionnaire.
Mais ce M. Robert, nommé ainsi tout simplement, qui est-il ? Quel
est son lieu natal, et à quoi s'oocupait-H ? Sujet de peu d^importance
peut-être pour l'histoire du Canada, mais sur lequel il fallait jeter ou
vouloir tenter de faire un peu de clarté pour parfaire la série des
monographies dies intendants de la Nouvelle-France, dans les lignes que
BOUS nous étions tracées.
Oameau accole au nom du premier intendant du Canada, le titre
de conseiller du roi, ce qu'il a cueilli, sans doute, au tome I des Edits
68 SOCIÉTÉ ROYALE DU CANADA
et Ordonnances. La cammiseioii de Robert comme intendant ne s'y
voit point. A VOrdonnance du 21 mars 1663, révoquant les concessions
non défrichées, le roi étant au ccŒJseil avec M. de Mézy, gouverneur,
et révêque d« Pétrée, on lui ordonne do tenir la main à Fexécution
ponctuelle du dit arrêt, etc. Toutes les personnes présentes au conseil
apposent leur signature à ce document^ mais celle de Robert est absente.
C'est tout ce qu'il y a, et avec d'aussi faibles données comment
nous assurer de l'identité de notre perdonnage? Il faut avoir le goût
et la persévérance d'un chercheur pour ne pas se rebuter.
Les intendants, tant en France qu'en Canada, furent choisis parmi
ceux qui avaient déjà eu quelque emploi au ministère public.
Nos recherches à la bibliothèque du Parlement ainsi qu'au bureau
des Archives à Ottawa, établissent positivement que M. Louis Robert
fut notre intendant.
Louis Robert, sieur de Fortelle, est l'homme du temps. Il est
l'oncle du chevalier Edmé-Nicolas Robert, nommé intendant en 1724.
Ce Louis Robert, baptisé le 22 février 1636, fut fait conseiller d'Etat
le 22 septembre 1666; intendant à Bergues^ en 1667; deux ans plus
tard à Dunkerque, et en Hollande en 1672. Il eut ensuite l'intendance
des armées du roi en Italie, Candie et Hongrie — (selon D'Hozier) —
mais d'après la commission de Robert que nous avons lue dans le volume
1, F. 1656-1669, collection Moreau Saint-Méry, aux Archives d'Ottawa,
il est dit que Robert venait de servir comme intendant des finances de
l'armée en Italie et en Candie. Ce brevet est un modèle: il est long,
clair et bien précis. Les commissions d'intendants à la Nouvelle-
France, émis par la suite, n'ont jamais été aussi complètes et bien
détaillées que celle-là.
Enfin, Louis Robert reçut la présidence en la Chambre des Comptes,
le 18 mai 1679.
Il fut l'impassible exécuteur des ordres impitoyables de Louvois
pour écraiser de contributions les peuples de Hollande, et de retour à
Paris, avec le fruit de ses exactions, il aurait, dit-on, perdu toute sa
fortune au jeu.*
Son père, Nicolas, conseiller du roi, fut trésorier de France, au
bureau des finances, à Riom. Un des frères de Louis fut docteur en
Sorbonne (Gilles). Ses deux filles épousèrent, l'une, le marquis de
Livri, premier maître d'hôtel du roi; l'autre, le comte Des Marets,'
grand-fauconnier de France.
Louis créa la branche de Fortelle, mais elle s'éteignit avec lui.
Dans les preuves de noblesse de cette famille, enregistrées pardevant
D'Hozier, juge d'armes de France, il est le VII® degré dans la filiation.
* Colbert par Clément, tome XI, 1868.
' La mère du comte s'appelait Marie Colbert, sœur du ministre.
[boy]
LES INTENDANTS DE LA NOUVELLE-FRANCE
69
Nous avons remarqué que les nome favoris dans cette famille sont:
Antoine, Edmé et Nicolas.
Son anoblissement date de juillet, 1481, par Louis XI; Antoine
Robert étant alors notaire et secrétaire de ce monarque.
D'azur à trois pattes de griffon d'or, posées deux et une, formait
leur blason.
m
Jean Talon, deuxième intendant.
Jean Talon fut de fait le premier intendant du Canada ; M. Louis
Robert, sieur de Fortelle, conseiller du roi, nommé intendant du Ca-
nada le 21 mars 1663, ne vint jamais au pays, et ne s'est troublé en
aucune manière de cette charge que le roi lui donnait, n'ayant pas même
assisté au Conseil d'Etat, de la date ci-haut, où étaient présents: le
70 SOCIÉTÉ ROYALE DU CANADA
roi, eon ministre, M. de Mézy, M«^ de Laval, et les membres nouvelle-
ment créés du Conseil Souverain de Québec.
De plus, la lettre du Conseil Souverain, adressée à Colbert le
13 juin 1664, semble indiquer qu'il n'y eut pas d'intendant de police,
finances, etc., en Canada, avant Talon.
Par lettres-patentes du 23 maïs 1665, Talon fut nommé intendant
de la justice, police et finances "en les pays de Canada, Acadie, et
Isle de Terreneuve, et autres pays de la France septentrionale." Cette
commission royale fut enregistrée à Québec, le 6 juillet 1665.
Comme il n'entre pas dans notre plan de parler de ce qu'à fait
cet intendant, car cela ne serait que répéter nos bons historiens, nous
allons passer outre et n'aborder que du nouveau, ou ee qui est générale-
ment moins connu, ayant trait principalement aux choses en dehors de
son administration.
En novembre 1666, Talon rappelle au roi que son séjour avait été
fixé à deux ans, et il demande son congé lorsque cette période serait
accomplie.
Vers la fin de 1668, l'état de sa santé, des affaires de famille, et
peut-être des difficultés avec le gouverneur, provenant moins de la
diversité de vues que de la différence de caractère, engagèrent Talon
à repasser en France pour remettre sa charge. Il siégea pour la der-
nière fois de son premier terme, au Conseil, où il signa le procès-
verbal de la séance, le 22 août 1668.
Le 5 novembre 1668, le Conseil mande à Colbert que Talon va
repasser en France, estimant sa saaité assez forte pour faire le voyage,
et qu'il pourra l'éclairer sur les affaires du Canada. Le 10, Talon
assiste à une séance du Conseil, et il est cité comme ci-de\'ant intendant.
Le séjour de Talon à Paris ne fut pas inutile au Canada, car, s'il
n'était plus l'intendant, il y avait toujours des intérêts de commerce
considérables, et son influence à la cour n'était pas diminuée. Avant
de passer au Canada, il avait rempli avec succès les différentes charges
suivantes: en 1653, commissaire de l'aimée; intendant du Hainaut
de 1655 à 1665. En 1651, on lui accorda de plus l'intendance voisine
d'Artoib", et il fut choisi pour régler les limites de France et des Flan-
'3 res.
Mais on ne pouvait se passer de Talon au Canada, et sur la demande
du roi (14 mai 1669), il consentit à retourner en Amérique. Le 22
juin, le secrétaire de Talon, le sieur Patoulet, surveillait l'embarquement
de troupes, etc., à La Rochelle, pour le Canada. L'armement de Talon
en cette instance, évaluée à deux cent mille livres, après une navigation
orageuse, se perdit dans un naufrage, sur les côtes du Portugal, où
l'intendant faillit périr. Il s'embarqua de nouveau l'année suivante,
et parvint à Québec le 8 août 1670, pensant encore faire naufrage près
[boy] les intendants DE LA NOUVELLE-FRANCE 71
de Tadousac, où une tempête jeta son navire sur des roches et le mit
sur le côté.
Le 16 serptemibre, il faisait son entrée au Conseil, pour la première
fois depuis son retour de France.
Au printemps de 1670, durant Tabsenoe de Talon, le sieur Patou-
let^ commença à faire travailler la brasserie, la bâtisee étant terminée
et prête à fonctionner.
Le 11 novembre 1670, Colbert lui fait avoir la capitainerie de
Mariemont, en Hainaut. Le 14 mars suivant, Louis XIV le fit baron
des Islets, en Canada. Cette même année, Talon fait son testament,
instituant son légataire universel, Jean-François Talon, son neveu.
M. De Courcelles ayant demandé son rappel,^ M. de Frontenac
arriva en 1672, pour le remplacer. Sa réputation qui le précéda, fit
désirer à Talon de remettre sa charge.® Il jugea la colonie trop petite
pour occuper séparément deux hommes fort actifs et qui ne seraient
pas disposer à dépendre Tun de l'autre, ni par conséquent agir avec ce
concert qui exige des concessions réciproques. Il demande sa retraite.
Le roi lui permit de rentrer en France à Tautomne de 1672.
Le roi changea la baronnie des Islets en comté d'Orsainville, en
mai 1675, étendant l'investiture à la postérité mâle et femelle, contre
la règle générale, et les lettres-patentes atteetent le cas que le roi
faisait de Talon, car elles exposent que sans cette extension à la posté-
rité féminine. Talon n'aurait pas accepté cette faveur. Néanmoins,
il offrit ce comté en vente à Tévêque de Québec, et le contrat fut ratifié
par madame Talon et son neveu Jean-Framçois; cependant, lorsqu'il
offrit au roi, en 1680, toutes ses propriétés du Canada, sans conditions,
il demanda que le titre de comté donné à sa terre d'Orsainville, au
Canada, fut transféré à sa terre de Locquignol, dans le Hainaut, qu'il
avait reçu en don du roi, à son départ pour TAniérique.
A son retour en France en 1672, Talon devint secrétaire du cabinet,
puis valet de chambre du roi.*
Le 13 novembre 1G80, Du Ohesneau fit l'inventaire des propriétés
de Talon, au Canada: le maison de la brasserie; celle appelée Godefroy;
celle présentement habitée par lui, M. Du Chesneau; un grand bâtiment
situé à la Basse-Ville appelé le magasin, et la terre appelée d'Orsainville.
^ Patoulet fut contrôleur de marine & Rochefort en 1673; commissaire-
général au même port en 1676; Intendant aux Iles, de 1679-1683; intendant de
marine à Dunkerque. Mort 8 avril 1695. (Voîhert par Clément, Tome III,)
■ De Courcelles, gouverneur de Thlonville^ avant de l'être en Canada; en-
suite commandant & Toulon. Il mourut le 24 octobre, 1698. (Colbert par Clé-
ment, Tome III,)
* Talon connaissait bien Frontenac, puisqu'ils étaient parents.
* Colbert par Clément, tome II,
72 SOCIÉTÉ ROYALE DU CANADA
En 1685^ le 15 mai. De Meulles, à la demande du ministre, estime
la brasserie à huit mille livres; Talon en demandait quarante mille.
L'intendant se proposait de prendre la brasserie pour le palais et les
magasins. Tout en consentant à prendre les propriétés de Talon, le
roi semblait trouver s'en évaluation élevée.
Il parait que Talon, à ses heures, était poète. Il adressait quelque
fois à la Mère Boulié de la Nativité des madrigaux et des épigrammes
auxquels elle répondait sur-le-chAmp, en même style, et ces pièces
étaient estimées de tous les connaisseurs.
L'extérieur de Talon amnonçait son mérite.
Nous donnons son portrait d'après une peinture de M. Hamel à
rHôtel-Dieu de Québec.
Les Talons de Paris blasonnaient: d^azur au chevron d^ argent ac-
compagné de trois épis montants d'or, soutenus chacun d'un croissant
montant d'argent
Il y avait des Talons dans le Hainaut; c'était un rameau de la
même famille, car ils ont presque les mêmes annoiriœ. Un Jean Talon
a été échevin de Le Quesnoy (Hainaut), en juin 1698, et blasonnait:
d'azur à trois croissants d'or chacun surmonté d'une étoile de même, et
posés deux et un.
Talon était parent des célèbres avocats-généraux de ce nom. Cette
famille illustre dans la robe, suivant des Mémoires, tire son origine
d'Irlamde, où l'on prétend qu'elle a possédé des terres et des places
considérables.
Jacques Warœus, dans ses Antiquités Irlandaises, marque qu'a
TuUi-Félim Alfelah, sur la rivière de Slane, Simon Lombard et Hughes
Talon fondèrent en 1314 un couvent de l'ordre des Hermites de Saint-
Augustin. M. Allemand, avocat au Parlement de Paris, dans son
Histoire Monastique d'Irlande, étend ce qu'avait écrit Warœus, et s'ex-
prime ainsi : — " Dans le comté de Caterlog, à Tulli-Félim, autrement
nommé Tollog ou Folaghe, petite ville sur la rivière de Slane, diocèse
de Laghin, il y a eu un couvent fondé l'an 1314, par deux Français:
Simon Lombard et Hughes Talon. H y a même aujourd'hui, dit-il,
un augustin irlandais dans le grand couvent de Paris, nommé le père
Talon, qui m'a assuré descendre de ce Hughes Talon, qui sur la fin de
ses jours se fit augustin dans le même couvent qu'il avait fondé."
Et M. Allemand continue : — " Je pourrai prouver dans peu que ce
Talon était un des prédécesseurs de M. Tavocat-général Talon, si fameux
aujourd'hui daGOs l'Europe."
Le premier Talooi qui vint d'Irlande en France, pour s'y établir,
où il fut colonel sous Charles IX, s'appelait Artus. Son fils, Jean,
s'établit à Paris, où il fut nommé conseiller d'Etat, le 20 mars 1563.
[boy]
LES INTENDANTS DE LA NOUVELLE-FRANCE
78
Marie-Suzanne Talon, fille d'Orner, troisième degré dans la généa-
logie, morte le l*'' octobre 1653, était mariée à Louis Phélypeaux,
seigneur de PontJchajrtrain, président en la Chaiflbre des Comptes, père
du chancelier de Pontchartrain.
Catherine, autre fille d'Omer,^ épousa, en 1642, Jean-Baptiste
Le Picard. Elle eut trois filles; Fainée, Claire-Eugénie, fut la mère
du chancelier d'Aguesseau.
La dernière fille d'Omer épousa Pierre Bazin, grand'père de Far-
chevêque de Rouen et de Jacques Bazin de Bezons, maréchal de France.
D'un autre Omer (VI® degré) : Angélique-Louise devint la femme
de Louis- Joseph de Montcalm, marquis de Saint- Véran, le 3 octobre
1736.* Momtcalm fut maréchal de camp et commandant des troupes
du roi au Canada.
Ces alliances que je place sous vos yeux sont parmi les principales
oontraotéee dans la famille Talon. Elles prouvent son influence.
Pour concluer, disons qu^il y eut une branche cadette aussi im-
plantée à Paris; sur cette branche, on trouve plusieurs Jean Talon, et il
est fort probable que notre intendant y appartient.'
IV
Claude de Bouteroue, troisième intendant.
Il n'y a pas long à dire sur cet intendant de la Nouvelle-France,
car il a été très peu de temps au Canada, et comm-e deipuis longtemps
cette famille est éteinte, nos recherches généalogiques n'ont pas été
beaucoup fructueuses; cependant, voici ce que nous avons trouvé et
glané.
* Omer, né vers 1559, à St-Questln, dans le Halnaut, entra au barreau
de P&ris en 1613; nommé en 1631 avocat-général au Parlement. Mort, 29 dé-
cembre 1652; a laissé des Mémoires estimés. (Colbert par Clément, Tome /, p. SL)
■ BUe était peUte nièce de Jean Talon qui fut notre Intendant. (Ouénin,
La Nouvelle-France, vol. II.)
' Ces notes sont prises dans un Dictionnaire de la noblesse, par De La CAet-
naife-Des-Bois et Badier, 3e édition, 1878.
74 SOCIÉTÉ ROYALE DU CANADA
Nos historiens noua disent que ce gentilhomme vint remplacer
Talon. Ils nous le donnent comme savant, poli et gracieux; mais qui
ne pouvait surpasser, ou même, égaler son prédécesseur.
La commission de Bouteroue à l'intendance du Canada date de
St-6ermain-en-Laye, du 8 avril 1668, et fut enregistrée à Québec le
22 octobre suivant. Il siège au Conseil Souverain, en première in-
stance, le 7 septembre 1668, et en dernière, le 22 octobre 1670. Il oc-
cupa donc cette charge juste Fespace de deux ans.
Au départ de Talon, à Téchéance de son premier terme d'intendant,
ici, jVL de Ressan, secrétaire de M. de Tracy, lieutenant-général du roi
en Amérique, avait mis en jeu toutes ses influences pour obtenir le
poste vacant, mais on ne lui crut pas assez de qualités — qualités inhé-
rentes à tel office — pour le nommer, et ce fut Claude de Bouteroue,
bien en cour, respecté de tout le monde, et très instruit, qui succéda à
Talon.
M. de Courcelles, le gouverneur, trouva que Fintendant dépendait
trop de M^ de Laval et des jésuites, et la bonne entente entre ces deux
hauts fonctionnaires étant en danger, le roi rappela M. de Bouteroue.
Colbert, là-dessus, mandait à Courcelles, qu'avec le temps, il eut
certainement mieux apprécié l'intendant; que M. de Bouteroue est en
fort bonne estime à Paris, et qu^il aurait rempli dignement les fonctions
de son emploi.^
Mademoiselle de Bouteroue qui était en Canada avec son père,
fut marraine, «en 1670, du chef iroquois Garakonthié, à la conversion
de cet homme.
M. de Bouteroue vivait en 1677, à Paras, puisque Colbert, dans une
lettre à Frontenac, dit qu'il vient de consulter Talon, Bouteroue et
autres, sur le commerce de l'eau-de-vie avec les sauvages.
Il mourut en 1680.^
Le père de notre intendant, qui avait aussi nom Claude, a été
conseiller en la Cour des Monnaies. Il est Fauteur d^un traité sur les
monnaies anciennes de France. Pierre Séguin, doyen de St-Gormain
TAuxerrois, possédait un cabinet contenant toutes les monnaies an-
ciennes de la France, en original, et c^est sur cela que travailla M. de
Bouteroue pour la confection de son traité (1669).
Bouteroue, père, mourut en 1674.
Un sieur Bouteroue, lieutenant de l'Amirauté, à Dunkerque, reçut
en 1675 une gratification du roi, de mille livres, en considération du
travail qu^il venait de faire sur les monnaies anciennes et nouvelles
du royaume.
* Colbert à Courcelles, 15 mai 1669.
* Béchard, Monoçraphies, page 46,
[boy] les intendants DE LA NOUVELLE-FRANCE 78
Je sais que ce lieutenant de rAmiranté appartenait à la famille
de ^intendant de la Nouvelle-France, mais je n^ai pu découvrir son
preanier nom et établir son identité.
Le nom de notre intendant s^orthographiait de deux façons: BotP-
teroue, que nous oonnaissone, et Boutheroue,
Un parent, Hector de Boutheroue, écuyer, sieur de Boumeuf, était
co-propriétaire en 1665, du canal de Briare et du canal de la Loire à
la Seine.
Claude était qualifié chevalier, eft possédait la seigneurie d'Aiibigny.
La famille comptait de bonnes alliances, entr'autres avec les Le-
Clerc de Lesseville, de robe distinguée.
Les Bouteroue étaient originaires de la Touraine. Ils blasonnaient :
D'or, à la lande vairée d'argent et de salle,
Nos premiers intendants, sans doute, sortaient de bonnes familles,
mais ils étaient tous gens de robe ou fonctionnaires publics. Le pre-
mier, Eobert, ne fut intendant que de nom; la perspective d'un vftyage
vers dee contrées lointaines, peuplées de tribus cruelles et sanguinaires,
avait de quoi l'effrayer. Et c'est pourquoi, probablement, il ne vint
jamais au Canada. A son tour. Talon dut s'y prendre à deux fois pour
faire un stage de quatre années. Qui se souciait beaucoup alors de
passer à l'intendance du Canada? Il fallait une forte dose de courage
pour entreprendre un voyage aussi long et dangereux; c'était un mois
et plus sur l'océan, en butte aux tempêtes, aux corsaires, etc., puds,
résidence dans un pays sauvage.
Je ne crois pas que Bouteroue ait sollicité l'office d'intendant en
la Nouvelle-France. On a dû le lui offrir.
Après le deuxième terme de Talon, qui venait remplacer Bouteroue,
il y a une période de trois ans, où le Canada n'eut point tel fonction-
naire, ce qui me confirme dans mes déductions que nos premiers in-
tendants n'ont pas couru après cette charge, pour employer une ex-
pression répandue.
76
SOCIÉTÉ ROYALE DU CANADA
V
Jacques Du Chesneau, quatrième intendant.
Il y avait trois ans que le Canada n^avait pas d'intendant, quand
M. Du Chesneau fut appelé à ce poste, en 1675. Sa oommiseion est
du 30 mai, de cette année. M. Du Chesneau, depuis dix ou douze ans,
était commissaire dans la généralité de Tours; à la date de sa nomi-
nation à Fintendance du Canada, il était conseiller du roi, trésorier de
France et général des finances de la Touraine, seigneur de la Doussi-
mière et d'Ambault.
Du Chesneau recevait douze mille livres par an d'appointements,
comme intendant. De plus, pour les frais de son déplacement, il reçut
trois mille livrée.
Cette famille cet originaire de Touraine. Guillaume Chesneau,
chevalier, seigneur des Breux, Montay et la Doucinière, échanson du
roi, fils de Jean Du Chesneau, (chevalier des dits lieux; chambellan de
Charles VII,) et de Bobine Fumée — qui eut d'Anne de la Lande, deux
garçons. Nous avons relevé plusieurs alliances entre les maisons Voyer
d'Argenson et de Fuanée. Dans la généalogie Fumée, Joan du Ches-
neau, mari de Bobine, est qualifié seigneur des Pruneaux et de
Montrié.
M. Bobert de la Lande, parent de Jacques du Chesneau, était d'un
mérite si génémlement reconnu que le 9 mars 1646, il fut pourvu de
la charge de sous-gouverneur de Louis XIV.
Les influences en cour de Jacques étaient donc très fortes, et c'est
ce qui explique comment il a pu rester sept ans en Canada malgré ses
querelles avec ceux qui l'entouraient, et les réprimandes et les censures
souvent répétées du ministre. Parmi les plus sévères, citons celles où
Colbert (2 juin 1680) lui dit qu'il fera mieux de repasser en France et
se retirer à Tours, s'il n'est pas résolu à exécuter ponjctuellement les
ordres qu'il lui donme, et (du 2 mai 1681) l'avertissant de la part du roi
que si son animosité contre M. de Frontenac ne cesse pas de suite, la
première lettre qu'il recevra sera celle de sa révocation.
[boy] les intendants DE LA NOUVELLE-FRANCE 77
Son intendance, enfin, se termine le 9 mai 1682, et il repasse en
France.
Son fils, qui prenait le titre de chevalier, Tavait suivi en Canada.
Les année de cette famille se formaient comme suit: — D'azur,
semé de besants d'argent, au chevron d'or brochant sur le tout.
VI
Jacques de Meulles, cinquième intendant.
Cet intendant n'a pas fourni une longue carrière en la Nouvelle-
France (1682-86), et Thistoire est brève sur son compte.
Durant la première partie de son administration, il fit bien tout son
passible pour se conformer aux instruictions reçues de son auguste
maître, le roi, et particulièrement de vivre en bonne intelligence avec
le gouverneur et le clergé, mais ce n^était pas chose facile, et il fut
sujet à réprimande et censure à ce titre, comme son prédécesseur.
Mais, par exemple, on lui avait donné pour gouverneur du pays,
un officier impossible à plaire; un homme qui, dans tous les emplois
publics où il avait passé, souleva une juste indignation à cause de sa
conduite; qui, en un mot, s'était acquis la haine générale.* Et, après
Savoir essayé un peu partout, on Tenvoya au Canada.
La nomination de M. de Meulles fut datée de St-Cloud, le premier
mai 1682, et enregistrée à Québec, le 9 octobre suivant.
Jacques de Meulles s'intitulait: chevalier, seigneur de la Source,
et grand bailli d'Orléans. Sa femme, une demoiselle Bégon, était la
sœur de Michel Bégon,* intendant à Eochefort, père de Michel Bégon,
notre intendamt. Cette union le faisait cousin de la femme du ministre
Colbert, fille de Charon de Ménars et de Marie Bégon.
En 1661, Colbert envoya dans toutes les provinces des commis-
saires choisie parmi les conseillers maîtres des requêtes. Il voulait
* Antoine Le Fetovre de la Barre. Voir la correspondance de Colbert à
Mazarln. et surtout la lettre du 16 octobre 1659.
* M. Dudouyt h Mgr de Liaval, 26 mai 1682.
78 SOCIÉTÉ ROYALE DU CANADA
connaître l'état du pays, ses forces, ses ressources, ses' besoins, etc.
Charles Colbert, le frère du ministre, eut à visiter pour su part la
généralité de Touis, dont FAnjou faisait partie. H fit cette visite en
1664. Par ce rapport, le ministre devenait plus intime avec les aflEairee
de son couâin.
Dans son Mémoire sur la noblesse du Poitou, Charles Colbert dit: —
*^ En la paroisse de Cerizay, eslection de Thouars, il y a le sieur François
Meules, seigneur de la forest de Montpensier, qui réside en ea maison
de la Roche-Cerizay, qui vaut quatre mille livres de rente; il a servi
quelque temps en qualité de volontaire. C'est un homme docte et qui
s'applique à écrire.''^
Ce François de Meules fut le père de Jacques, notre intendant. Il
y eut en France une certaine zone, ou plutôt un coin du pays qui, plus
que tout autre, a fourni des fonctionnaires éminents et des ofl&ciers de
mérite à la Nouvelle-France, ayant pour foyer: Tours et Orléans
comme extrême périmètres: les Lusignan, de Lantagnac, Alogny de la
Groie, de Meulles, Bégon, Du Chesneau, Beauhamois, Robert, etc.
J'ai trouvé que vers 1400, Pierre Flory ou Fleury, chevalier, sei-
gneur de Bouille St-Paul, près Thouars, avait pour femme Françoise
de Meulles, de Fraigne-Ohabot.
Ce Flory ou Fleury avait trois sœurs, et l'une d'elles: Jeanne,
épousa Eegnault de Meulles.* Ceci nous fait voir un peu l'antiquité
de la maison des Do Meulles.
L'alliance de Jacques de Meulles à mademoiselle Bégon, qui le
rapprochait de Colbert, est la plus importante qu'il m'a été donné de
relever. Elle en vaut beaucoup d'autres.
Les de Meulles blasonnaient: d'argent à trois tourteaux de «oJfe,
accompagnés de sept croix, ancrées de gueules, trois en chef, un, deux, un.
De Meulles fut accusé de s'occuper de faire du commerce à son
compte, par Denonville, maie La Hontan dit qu'il ne fit de tort à per-
sonne ; au contraire, il procura du pain à mille pauvres gens qui seraient
morts de faim sans son secours. — " Il a fort bien fait son devoir, étant
très équitable et rendant bonne et prompte justice à tous ceux qui
s'adressent à lui. Il est zélé pour la justice et punit le crime sans
rémission." {Histoire de VHôtel Dieu de Québec)
Dans son Mémoire au roi, du 26 août 1683, De Meulles disait en
parlant du Canada : — ^^ On peut assurément trouver dans la France
septentrionale des climats aussi variés qu'en Europe avec plus de belles
terres. Il n'en tient qu'à Votre Majesté de jeter ici les fondements
de la plus grande monarchie qui soit au monde."
' Revue hiitoriqiu de la noblesse, vol. II, p. 149.
" D'Hozler, Armoriai de France, VIII, p. 606.
[boy] les intendants DE LA NOUVELLE-FRANCE 79
Le 31 mai 1686, le ministre informait de Meullee que M. Bochart
de Champigny était nommé pour le remplacer. Bochart arriya à Qué-
bec en juillet 1686, et de Meulles en partit en la première semaine
d^octobre pour retourner en France, où depuis je le perds de vue.
VII
Jean Bochart, sixième intendant.
Le 24 avril 1686, le roi, étant alors à Versailles, nomme Jean
Bochart intendant du Canada. Ces lettres-patentes furent enregistrées
à Québec, le 23 septembre suivant, et, le lendemain,- le nouveau titu-
laire siégeait ofiBciellement au conseil.
Madame Bochart accompagnait son mari; elle retourna en France
probablement en 1696 ou 1697, et revint en Canada en 1698, sur le
vaisseau du roi. Le Poly.
Le terme d'office de Jean Bochart couvre une période de seize
aimées, et c'est le plus long stage qu'ait fait aucun autre semblable
ofiûcier sous le régime français, en Canada. La chose est toute à son
crédit et fait éloquemment son éloge.
Jean Bochart était issu d'une famille originaire de Bourgogne,
remontant à Guillaume Bochart, seigneur de Noroi, gentilhomme ser-
vant du roi Charles VII, qui était de Vezelai.
Le fils de Guillaume, Jean I, fut conseiller au Parlement de Paris
en 1490. C'était un sage magistrat, et il fut préposé à la présidence
de ce Parlement.
Le fils de Jean eut une fille qui épousa François de la Porte. De
cette alliance naquit Suzanne de la Porte, destinée à devenir plus tard
la mère du célèbre cardinal Bichelieu.
Jean II se signala au Parlement de Paris par un plaidoyer hardi
qu'il prononça en présence de François I, touchant la Pragmatique
Sanction contre le Concordat.
Cette hardiesse lui fit des affaires à la cour. Il fut mis en prison,
et n'en sortit que deux ans après à la prière du maréchal d'Annebaut,
son ami particulier. Il épousa Jeanne Simon, nièce de Jean, évêque
de Paris, qui lui donna sa terre de Champigny.
80 SOCIÉTÉ ROYALE DU CANADA
La fiUe cadette de Jean II fut la bisaïeule du maréchal de la Meil-
leraie. G^est au maréchal de la Meilleraie dont il avait à se plaindre
qu'un gentilhomme breton disait : — " 8i je ne suis pas maréchal de
France, je suis du bois dont on les fait! Av^si, le deviendrez-vous, lui
dit De la Meilleraie, quand on les fera de bois.'^
Jean V fut surintendant des finances sous Henri IV. Après la
mort de Jérôme d'Hacqueville, en 1628, Louis XIII mit M. de Cham-
pigny à la tête du Parlement de Paris.
Jean VI, qui fut Païeul de notre intendant, épousa Marguerite
le Charon. Cette alliance le fait beau-frère de César, duc de Choiseul,
pair et maréchal de France. Cette famille Le Charon porte jpiresque les
mêmes armes que Le Charon, beau-père de Colbert, et je les crois
parentes à un degré très rapproché.
Le neuvième chaînon dans la filiation, et le huitième du nom
Jean, c^est notre intendant.
En 1699, il est administrateur conjoint de la colonie, le gouverneur
étant mort. De Champigny voulut avoir la place, mais M. de Callières,
plus puissant en cour, Femporta.
En 1697, un fils de notre intendant — ce doit être Jean-Alphonse —
servit à titre de lieutenant sur VAmphitrite, mais le premier mai 1698,
le roi lui donna une commission de capitaine, à la place du sieur de
L'Espinay. Le 3 mai 1700, le roi lui accorde une compagnie, et le
18 mai 1701, le capitaine reçoit un congé de neuf mois.
Au mois de mai 1701, le roi nomme Jean Bochart intendant de la
marine au Hâvre-de-Grâce, poste vacant, que la famille de M.
de Champigny avait demandé au roi. En 1702, il retourne en France,
et son fils raccompagne, laissant sa place à M. de Courtemanehe.*
Le 5 octobre 1702, le Conseil assemblé, Bochart remet son autorité
d'intendant à François de Beauharnois et part aussitôt pour la France.
Il mourut au Hâvre-de-6râce en 1720.
Il avait époui)é Marie-Madeleine de Chaspoux,' dame de Vemeuil
et du Plessis-Savari, (morte en 1718) et non pas, comme Font donné
certains historiens, Madeleine Houel, veuve de Jean de Boissers."
Madame de Champigny était cousine de Mfi^ de Laval au troisième
degré.* Il parait qu'elle empêchait souvent la punition des coupables
jugés par le Conseil Souverain. On s^en plaignit au ministre disant
qu'elle agissait ainsi animée par des .principes- de charité mal entendue.
Le ministre avisa l'intendant de se mêler de ces choses.
* Rapport de M. Richard sur les Archives du Canada.
* Fille de Jacques de Verneuil, trésorier de France, & Tours.
' Edits et Ordonnances, I, p. 48.
Histoire des Canadiens-Français, IV, p. 42.
* Laval, par Oosselin, 1901, p. 426.
[bot] les intendants DE LA NOUVELLE-FRANCE 81
Notre intendant eut quatre enfants : ^
1<* Jean-Alphonse, prêtre, mort à Paris, 1723.
2® Jacques-Charles, né 22 septembre 1712.
3**, 4® Guillaume et Jean-Paul.
Jacques-Chariee continua la lignée, et s^intitul€Lit seigneur de
Champigny, de Noroi et de Poinci, marquis de Sainte-Marie, en Améri-
que. Il fut gouverneur de la Mari;inique, où il mourut le 20 mai 1754.
Sa femme était Marie-Madel^ne de Boisseret, fille de Louis, marquis
de Sainte-Marie. Lee Boisseret étaient seigneurs d'Herblay.
Il y eut deux autres' branches dans la famille Bochart sous le nom
de Champigny; par Jean-Paul Bochart de Champigny, fils de Jean Vin
(notre intendant) et par François Bochart, dit de Champigny, seigneur
de Saron, second fils de Jean V.
Blason : à^azur à un croissant d'or, abaissé sous une étoile de même^
Il y a encore des Champigny en France.
* Dictionnaire de La Cheênaie-Deshois et Badier,
Sec 1, 1903. 6.
82 SOCIÉTÉ ROYALE DU CANADA
Vin
Fbancoib de Beauhabnaib.
Dans les titres de la famille de ce nom Ton écrivait: Beauhamois,
Beauhamoys, et de Beauhamois, C^eet ^ancienne orthographe; au-
jourd'hui Ton remplace la lettre o par a.
Cette famille originaire de rOrléanais nous intéresBe tout particu-
lièrement, car elle nous a donné un intendant, de 1702 à 1705; un gou-
verneur-général, de 1726 à 1747; et plusieurs autreB de ses membres
sont venus demeurer en Canada, durant plusieurs années.
Disons d'abord que cette famille, distinguée dans Tordre de la no-
blesse par ses anciens services*, soit dans le mili'taire, soit dans la prin-
cipale magistrature, a produit en original les titres justificatifs de ses
filiations depuis François de Beauharnais, seigneur de Miramion, etc.,
auteur du VI® degré, et de plus une généalogie manuscrite dressée en
1644, par Jacques Girault, célèbre avocat au siège Présidial d'Orléans,
à l'occasion sans doute, de quelque partage, qui était alors en litige.
Le premier Beauharnais enregistré dans cette filiation est Guil-
laume, seigneur de Miramion et de la Chaussée. 11 épousa, le 20 jan-
vier 1390, Marguerite de Bourges.
Détail curieux à noter: son fils aîné fut l'un des témoins au procès
fait ipour la justification de la Pucelle d'Orléans.
Aignan de Beauharnais, fils de François, (VI« degré) épousa Mar-
guerite de Choisy. Il eut un fils, qui se maria en 1645 avec Marie,
fille de Jacques de Rubelles, conseiller et secrétaire du roi. Anne de
Beauharnais, fille de François, devint la femme de Paul Phélypeaux,
seigneur de Pontchartrain, le 11 juin 1605. C'est un parent du mi-
nistre de ce nom.
Marie-Anne, petite-fille de François II de Boauharnais (VII® degré)
épousa, le 16 septembre 1683, son cousin Jean Phélypeaux, comte de
MontHiéry, etc., et intendant de Paris.
La trisaïeule du chancelier Séguier était une Beauharnais.
Au moyen de ces alliances, et d'autres faites par la suite, les Beau-
harnais acquéraient de l'influence.
[boy] les intendants DE LA NOUVELLE-FBANCE 88
Michel de Beauhamais, fils de François II, fut prêtre et aumônier
de Gaston, duc d'Orléans.
Jean de Beauharnais, chef du VIU« degré dans la généalogie de
la famille, fut secrétaire de la chambre du roi Louis XIII ; gentilhomme
ordinaire de sa chambre, etc. C'est le grand'père de notre intendant et
de notre gouverneur-général.
François (IX® degré), père de nos fonctionnaires, est qualifié: che-
valier, seigneur de la Boische, de la Chaussée, de Beaumont, de Beau-
ville, etc. Il épousa, en septembre 1664, demoiselle Marguerite-Fran-
çoise Pyvart de Chastullé.
Voici la liste de leurs enfants:
i° Jacques y capitaine au premier bataillon du régiment du Maine,
tué au siège de Mayenne.
2^ François de Beauharnais, qualifié chevalier, baron de Beauville,
seigneur de la Chaussée, de Beaumont, etc., conseiller du roi en ses
conseils, et intendant de ses armées navales, et qualifié aussi. Haut et
Puissant Seigneur, dans les actes qui le concernent; fut successivement
commissaire de la marine; commissaire des armées navales; intendant
de justice, police et finances des pays de la Nouvelle-France, Acadie,
île de Teireneuve et autres pays de la France Septentrionale, le V^ avril
1702. Il est nommé à Tintendance générale de la marine en 1704,
mais il ne partit du Canada qu^en Tautome de 1705. Le 1^ janvier
1706, le voilà intendant de Tarmée navale du roi ' commandée par le
comte de Toulouse. Le 2 avril 1707, par un brevet du roi, il obtient
le " Port Maltais ", en Acadie, la rivière^ comprise, de quatre lieues de
front sur deux de profondeur, tirant du côté de la Hêve,à Test, quart
nord-est, avec les îles et ilettes adjacentes avec droit de haute, moyenne
et basse justice, et le 25 juin, de la même année, cette terre est érigée
en baronie sous le nom de Beauville.
Le 1^' janvier 1710, il est intendant de la marine, ayant inspection
générale sur les classes des ofl&cders, mariniers et matelots du royaume.
Le 24 mars suivant, il passe intendant de la marine à Kochefort,^ puis
intendant de la justice, police et finances de la généralité de La Bo-
ohelle, le 30 du même moî^, et commissaire départi pour Texécution des
ordres du roi dans le pays d'Aunis et îles adjacentes, et dans les pro-
vinces de Saintonge et d^Angoumois ; intendant dee armées navales dans
la mer Océane, et enfin, intendant général des armées navales, le 1*'
avril 1739.
Il avait épousé demoiselle Anne des Grés, morte sans enfants^ le
24 septembre 1731, âgée de 63 ans.
^ Succédant â, M. Ilerbaut tué dans un combat.
' Il y est €ncM>re •Lnten<d<ainit en 1723. iJiapporl de if. Richard, sur les Archives),
84
SOCIÉTÉ ROYALE DU CANADA
Cet intendant fit un court séjour en Canada. Il débarqua à Qué-
bec le 29 août 1702.^
L'intendant de Beaubarnaie fit enregistrer sa commission datée à
Versailles, le 1*' avril 1702, et parut ofiiciellement au Conseil à Qué-
bec, le 5 octobre 1702.
Il fit une traversée heureuse et très courte pour la saison dans la-
quelle il était parti de Fran.ce.
En chemin, le vaisseau qui le portait fit deux prises anglaises, Tune
à k hauteur des Açores, et Tautre, sur le grand banc de Terreneuve.
M. de Beauhamaifl parut pour la dernière fois sous le caractère
d'intendant, au Conseil, le 17 septembre 1705; les messieurs* Raudots,
see successeurs venaient de débarquer à Québec.
Notre intendant mourut le 8 octobre 1746, âffé de 81 ans, après
00 ans de service.
S^ Jean François.
4^ Notre gouverneur, Charles de Beauharnais, chevalier de la
Boische, reçut le titre de marquis dans les provisions du roi le nom-
mant au poste de gouverneur du Canada. En 1686, il fut admis dans
les gentilhommes gardes de la marine, ensuite enseigne le l*' janvier
1696. En 1697, il se rend à Brest, et s'embarque sur le Superbe, pour
faire les fonctions de commissaire sur l'escadre du marquis de Nes-
mond. Il passe capitaine d'une compagnie franche d'infanterie de la
' Corr. Générale, Csun., Vol. XX, folio 106.
[boy] les intendants DE LA NOUVELLE-FKANCE 8e
marine, le 18 janvier 1699; capitaine de frégate, 9 mai 1707; capitaine
de Taisfeeau, 23 avril 1708; chevalier de Saint-LouiB et gouverneur
du Canada, le 11 janvier 1726; comsmiandeur surnuméraire de Tordre
militaire de Saint-Louie, le 22 mars 1732; chef d^eseadre des armées
navales, le 1^ mai 1741, et lieutenant-général d^icelles, le 1^ janvier
1748.
Il parvint à tous ces grades par ses services signalés, et donna des
marques de la plus grande valeur dans toutes les occasions qui se pré-
sentèrent.
Il épousa, le 6 août 1716, Renée Pays, veuve de GaHchon, et
de Pierre Hardouineau, seigneur de Laudianière, etc.*
Il mourut le 12 juin 1749.
6^ Claude de Beauhamais de Beaumont qui continue la lignée,
formant le dixième chaînon ou degré, prit pour femme le 11 mai 1713,
Eénée Hardouineau, fille de Pierre, et de Renée Pays.
Si vous voulez vous égayer, établissez les nouveaux liens de parenté
entre les deux frères Charles et Claude, causée par leurs mariages".
Claude de Beauharnais de Beaumont vint en Canada.
La sœur Juohereeu, dit dans son Histoire de VHôteUDieu, de Qué-
bec:— " Le vaisseau du roi, le Héros, était proche; il était commandé jfar
M. Beaumont, 'frère de M. de Beauhamais, ci-devant intendant du Ca-
nada.
Dans le Bulletin des Recherches Historiques, de Levis, numéro d^oc-
tobre 1897, à la page 156, M. Suite dit:* " Claude-Charles, autre neveu,
etc, vint au Canada, et, en 1729, il obtint la seigneurie de Beauhamais."
Ce ne peut être que M. de Beaumont, frère de notre intendant. Dans
la généalogie de la famille que j'ai par devant moi, il n'y eut qu'un
Claude, neveu de l'intendant François et du marquis Charles, et ce
Claude fut comte et créa la seconde branche des Beauhamais.
Nous en reparlerons dans un moment.
Claude, frère de "François, fut lieutenant et capitaine, et vint en
Canada. En 1703, il commandait la flute la Seine, ayant ordre de
venir en Amérique prendre un chargement de mâts, pour la France.
En 1729, il obtint la seigneurie de Beauhamais; il était alors lieute-
nant de vaisseau. " On le retrouve avec le titre de chevalier de
Saint-Louis (1740-1) et qualifié de Sieur de Beaumont, dit M. Suite. —
Mais sans deute ! c'était son titre en propre, dans la famille. — M.
Suite ajoute: — ^* C'est peut-être lui qu'on nommait également le che-
valier de Beauhamais, et qui figure comme enseigne en pded^ en Ca-
nada (1739)." C'est soit lui ou son fils, Claude.
* D'Hozier, Armoriai de France, registre V, pp. 75-93.
* M. Suite s'était informé en p£Lrtie dans Ferland et Daniel.
86 SOCIÉTÉ ROYALE DU CANADA
6^ Guillaume de Beauharnais, chevalisr de Beau ville, servit 40
ans dans le corps de la marine; fut feneeessivement gentilhomme garde
de la marine, 1697; lieutenant d'infanterie au Canada, 1702;^ capitaine
d^une compagnie du détachement de la marine, en Canada, le 1^' juin
1704; blessé d^un coup de fusil au bras dans un combat naval, où il
se trouva en 1705. Enseigne de vaisseau, le l®*" novembre 1705; aide-
major des armées navales et du port de Rochefort, et capitaine d'une
compagnie franche d'infanterie de la marine, le 20 avril 1711; lieute-
nant de vaisseau, 1711; chevalier de Saint-Louis, le 23 décembre 1711,
. reçu le 20 janvier 1724, (le 8 septembre 1723, il commandait la flute
le Chameau); enfin, capitaine de vaisseau, le 10 mars 1734. Il finit ses
jours à St-Domingue, Tan 1741.
7° Jeanne-Elisabeth, mariée à Michel Bégon, intendant du Canada.
8^ Anne.
9"^ Catherine.
Claude de Beaubanmis, chevalier de Beaumont, avons-nous dit,
continue la descendance.
De son mariage à Bénée Hardouineau, il eut:
1® François.
2^ Cîavde.
François fut gouverneur des îles de la Martinique, Guadeloupe
(1756), etc. Il naquit à La Rochelle, le 8 février 1714. Le roi érigea
sa terre de la Ferté-Aurain en marquisat, et François prit le titre de
marquis de la Ferté-Beauiharnais. C^était en récompense des services
que cette famille avait rendus au roi.
Son union avec sa cousine germaine, Marie-Anne-Henriette Pyvart
de Chastullé, date du 13 septembre 1751. Il en eut:
1** François, mort en bas âge.
2° Un autre François, né à La Rochelle, le 12 août 1756.
3® Aîexandre-FrançoiS'Marie, né à la Martinique, le 28 mai 1760.
Claude, fila de Claude de Beauhamais de Beaumont, naquit à
Rochefort, le 16 janvier 1717. Il fut pendant quatre ans comman-
dant de Tartillerie en Canada (1745). C^est lui qu^on rencontre aux
environs du Détroit en 1747, sous le nom de chevalier de Beauhamais.
Ce Claude est le f^exû du nom, neveu de notre gouverneur, et,
comme en 1729, il n^aurait eu que (douze ans, il est impossible que ce
Boit lui qui obtint, à cette date, la seigneurie de Beauhamais, et qui fut
en même temps lieutenant de vaisseau. C'était plutôt son père, qui
portait le même noon.
Claude, le jeune, en récompense de ses services fut coréé comte des
Rochcs-Baritaud.
^ II remplaçait M, de Sabrevcdâ.
[boy]
LES INTENDANTS DE LA NUUVELLE-FRANCE
87
De son union à Marie- Anne-Françoise Mouchard, du 1*' mars 1753,
nous comptons:
l'' Claude, né le 26 septembre 1756.
2^ Marie-Françoise, née le 7 septembre 1757.
S^ Anne-Amédée, né le 8 janvier 1760.
Alexandre-François-Marie^ vicomte de Beauhamais, épousa José-
phine Tascher de la Pagerie, vers 1780, alors quVlle avait à peine douze
ans. Leur fils naquit en 1781. On connait le sort glorieux et triste de
cette femme.
La famille de Beauhamais blasonne comme suit: D'argent à une
fasce de sable, surmontée de trois merlettes de même.
Devise : Autre ne sers.
Le titre, par alliance, est tombé entre les mains d^une famille russe.
IX
Jacques et Antoine-Denis Baudot, huitième et nbuvièmb
intendants.
Cette famille est originaire d^Arnay-le-Duc, en Bourgogne. Ce
village est tout près de Dijon, et sa population aujourd'hui ne dépasse
pas quatre mille âmes.
Le premier des Raudots qui vint se fixer à la Côte d'Or, y arriva
vers 1360. Son fils fut à la tête d'une fonderie de canons pour Charies
le Téméraire, duc de Bourgogne, puis inspecteur de son artillerie.
C'est le 1^ janvier 1705 que le roi appela à l'intendance du Ca-
nada, Jacques Baudot, et lui adjoignit en même tempe, pour assistant,
son fils Antoine-Denis, pour servir au cas de maladie ou autre empê-
chement du père, et surtout lorsque celui-ci serait absent et éloigné de
Québec de plus de dix lieues. Ils avaient entrée, séance, voix et opi-
nions délibératives, au Conseil Supérieur, avec cette particularité, ce-
pendant, que si leurs voix se trouvaient conformes elles ne pouvaient
compter que pour une.
88 SOCIÉTÉ ROYALE DU CANADA
Jean Baudot, père de Jacques, possédait les seigneuries de Bazarne
et du Coudray. Jean, par son mariage avec Marguerite Talon,^ s'ac-
quérait ^influence de cette famille, ainsi que celle des Phélypeaux,
comtes de Pontchartrain, et d'autres, assez importantes.
Jacques naquit en 1647. Il passa successivement aux charges sui-
vantes: conseiller au Parlement de Metz (1674), puis* à la Cour des
Aides, à Paris (26 mai 1678). Ce fut avant de venir au Canada. 11
était considéré bon juge, à Parie, mais ses affaires étaient en mauvais
état, et c'est peut-être dans l'espoir qu'il y pourrait remédier que ses
parents lui firent avoir l'intendance du Canada.
Jacques Baudot était plein d'esprit, d'une conversation agréable
et aisée, et pariait bien de toutes choses. Il possédait l'histoire de tous
les pays, et s'entretenait familièrement avec tout le monde. Il aimait
beaucoup la jeunesse, et lui procurait chez lui d'honnêtes plaisirs. Son
divertissement ordinaire était un concert mêlé de voix et d'instruments.
Le fils, Antoine-Denis (né en 1679) avait d'abord été conseiller,
puis inàpecteur général de la marine à Dunkerque, avant d'être adjoint
à son père. On avait bonne opinion de lui à la cour, car il parlait peu
et paraissait sage.
Ijcs deux intendants se partagèrent la besogne, et ils y allèrent de
mains fermée', ce qui ne manqua pas de blesser quelques-uns de noa
Canadiens, mais comme les deux fonctionnaires avaient bonne cause
et comptaient de puissants protecteurs sur les marches du trône, leur
triomphe s'assurait de suite.
La sollicitude des messieurs Baudot pour l'avancement de la
Nouvelle-France fut réelle et leur fit concevoir des projets grands et
nobles, détaillés et raisonnes avec une précision admirable et appuyés
de preuves solides.
Ils s'intéressèrent fortement aussi au développement de l'agricul-
ture, ainsi qu'à la police de Québec et de Montréal.
Jacques Baudot avait en Canada un autre fils qui s'appelait
Jacques-Denis Baudot de ChaJus, né en 1685. Il obtint pour lui, ainsi
que pour son neveu Dusty, Sieur de Zély, une lieutenance (1707). Le
10 mai 1710, le monarque accorda à ce fils cadet la première compagnie
vacante au Canada, mais il est probable que lorsque le père retourna
en France, l'année suivante (1711), son fils dût le suivre.* Jacques
^ Orner Talon, intendant de la maison et affaires de M. le duc de Beau-
port, était 6on frère. Denis Talon, avocat-grénéral au Parlement de Paris, se
trouvait être son neveu.
Le grrand'père du Comte de Pontchartraln, ministre de la marine, avait
6pou9ê Marie Talon, cousine de Margruerite.
* En 1713, 11 reçoit un brevet d'enseigne de vaisseau. L'année suivante il
se noie à l'île de Sable. Il était alors capitaine.
[boy] les intendants DE LA NOUVELLE-FRANCE 89
avait demaadé au ministre de Pontchartrain d'être fait conseiller d'hon-
neur en la Cour des Âides^ mais le ministre lui manda que cela ne se
pouvait et qu'il lui ferait comprendre à son retour que cette grâce lui
serait absolument inutile dans son état. Il ajoutait qu'il discuterait
avec lui ce qui pourrait mieux lui convenir. De Pontchartrain, à la
rentrée de Jacques en France, ne trouva mieux que de le prendre
comme l'un de ees principaux commis.
Il fut en outre conseilkr de marine, aa nomination datant de 1709.
II mourut en 1728, âgé de 81 ans.
Antoine-Denis, rappelé un an avant son père, fut nommé inten-
dant-général des classes des matelots du royaume. Il fut en même
tempe premier commis de la maison du roi, et directeur de la compagnie
des Indes. Il succéda à son père comme conseiller de marine, position
qu'il conserva jusqu'à sa mort, en 1737.
Antoine ne laissa pas de postérité,^ et il nous est impossible d'an-
noncer présentement si Jacques-Denis Baudot continua la descendance,
ou si ce furent ses oncles, Jean-François et Louis-François; mais des-
cendance il y a, puisque la famille existe encore de nos jours. Après
la fin prématurée de M. Baudot de Chains, en 1714, nous trouvons Jean
Baudot, seigneur d'Orbigny, qui acheta une «charge de secrétaire du
roi. n restait alors seul de cette famille autrefois si nombreuse. Il
eut un fils: Auguste, maire d'A vallon et député de l'Yonne, de 1816
à 1832, année de son décès. Auguste avait trois fils: Jacques-Henry,
Claude-Marie et Franco is- Alphonse.
Quelques-uns de nos historiens connaissent la brochure de Claude-
Marie Baudot, sur ses ancêtres: Jacques et Antoine-Denis; ils ont pu
y cueillir beaucoup de renseignements sur ces ^^deiLx intendants de la
NouveUe-France sous Louis XIV." Aujourd'hui nous avons pu donner
d'autres détails supp émentaires, grâce à l'obligeance charmante du fils
de François-Alphonse, M. Béné Baudot.
Messieurs Baudot ont ix)ur armoiries: D'azur au chevron d'argent,
chargé de trois trèfles de sinopU, et accompagné en chef de deux étoiles
d'argent, et en pointe d'un croissint du même. (Annuaire de la no-
blesse, 1873).
* La sœur d'Antoine, Margruerlte-Françolse, a épousé, en 1705, Olaude-
Marie de Girard, marquis d'iispeullles. Par cette union, la selgrneurie d«
Bazarne, & 8 lieuee d'Avallon, passa aux (Messieurs Girard. M. le général
fitarquis d'EspeuiUeti, auquel nous nous sommes adressés pour avoir, si possible,
des inrormationA et les portraits de nos deux intendants, s'est donné beau-
coup de peine pour noue être agrréable, mais ses recherohes parmi ses papiers et
même à la Bibliothèque Nationale n'ont rien produit à. son regrret, car M. le
marquis «'intéresse à, notre histoire: outre qu'il est parent de Messieurs Rau-
dot, 11 est aussi arrière-petit -neveu du nmrquis de Montcalm.
90
SOaÉTÉ ROYALE DU CANADA
X
Michel Bégon, dixième intendant.
La famille Bégon est noble et originaire de Blois, et fut Tune des
plus considérables de ce pays, mais elle doit son principal lustre à
Michel Bégon, troisièn^e du nom, qui s'est rendu reoommandable par son
amour pour les Belles-Lettrée et par son zèle pour tout ce qui regarde
le bien public.
Ce personnage fut le père de Michel Bégon, intendant du Canada
(1712-26). n vit le jour à Blois, le 26 décembre 1638.^ Sa première
chaTge publique fut celle de garde-scel du préeidial de sa ville natale,
puis il passa à la présidence de ce tribunal, en 1665. A cette époque,
parmi les fonctionnaires royaux, une nouvelle figure prenait un relief
^ D'après Colbert par Clément, tome III. pasre 220. il est né en 1628, et cela,
s'accorderait mieux avec l'idée de son marlasre en 1648.
[ROY] LES INTENDANTS DE LA NOUVELLE-FRANCE 91
brillant. Ce fut, Jean-Baptiste Colbert, le plus grand des ministres
français. Michel (III) Bégon, dont la cousine, Marie Charon, avait
épousé, en 1648, Colbert, devait bénéficier, cela se comprend, de cette
alliance.
Grâce à la protection du ministre, son parent, il change de car-
rière, et le voilà bientôt (1677) trésorier de la marine, à Toulon d'abord,
puis à Brest. Commissaire général de la marine en 1680. En 1681,
il est nommé à Fintendance du Hâvre.^ Depuis quelque temps déjà,
Colbert avait songé à son cousin Michel pour l'envoyer au Canada, et
les provisions étaient remplies de son nom, mais le ministre changea
d'idée, pour lui donner l'intendance des îles françaises, en Amérique
(1 mai 1682), et ce fut le beau-frère de Bégon, M. de MeuUes, qui passa
au Canada, au même titre.^
Aux Antilles, Michel III rétablit l'ordre et fit des règlements sages
pour la justice et la police de cette colonie.
En 1685, il retourne en France, s'en allant à Marseilles, à l'inten-
dance des galères. Enfin, on le voit occuper successivement la charge
de conseiller d'honneur à Aix (1686), d'intendant de la marine à Tou-
lon, à Rochefort (1688),» et à La Rochelle.
Pour terminer ces lignes sur Michel III, disons qu'il a acquis sa
célébrité à cause de son ip^ÎMt de médailles, d'antiquités, d'estampes
et de coquillages, recueillis dans les quatre parties du monde; par sa
bibliothèque et pour avoir fourni à Perreault les matériaux pour
VHîstoire des hommes illiLstres de France,^
Bégon mourut le 14 mars 1710, et fut enterré dans l'église des
Capucins, à Bochefort.
Cest de cet homjne illustre que naquit, vers 1674, Bégon (Michel
IV), intendant du Canada, de 1712-1726.
De son mariage avec Madeleine Druillon, Michel III a laissé:
lo Afichel (IV du nom).
2^ ScipiofirJérôme.
30 Claude-Michel
4^ et 5^ Deux filles religieuses.
6® Madeleine, mariée en 1686 à Joseph d'Arcus&ia, d'une ancienne
noblesse de Provence.'*
* J. E. Roy, Notes sur l'Intendant Bégon, Bulletin des Recherches Histori-
Ques, vol. rv, p. 265.
' M. Dudouyt à Mgr de Laval, 26 mai 1682.
• Il était à Rochefort en 1698.
* Bibaud, Je, Panthéon Canadien, p. 27.
• M. D'Arcussia mourut jeune, étant officier des g-alères du roi. lors du
bomibardement d' Alicante. Il laissa deux fils. {Diet. LaChetnaye-des-Boiê, p.
703).
92 SOCIÉTÉ ROYALE DU CANADA
7^ Catherine^ mariée à Roland-Bamn de la Qulissaimière, lieute-
nant général des armées du roi.^
S^ Agnès, mariée à Pierre-Alexandre de Foyal de Donnery, gou-
verneur de Blois.
Prenons d'abord Michel IV, c^est le premier en Ikte, et c'est lui
qui nous intéresse plus particulièrement. Nous reviendrons à Scipion
et à Claude ensuite.
Michel Bégen, chevalier, «eigneur de la Picardière, Marbelin, St-
Sulpice, Pommeraye, de la Sistière, de Sérigny, de Meunes, etc., était
inspecteur général de la marine et ordonnateur au département de
Bochefort, depuis 1707, sinon plus tôt, lorsqu'il fut nommé, le 31 mars
1710, intendant de la justice, police et finances, au Canada, en rem-
placement de ^IM. Baudot II était aussi confieiBer du roi en ses
conseils et au Parlement de Metz, en Lorraine.
Le décès de son père, arrivé le 14 mars 1710, retarda son départ
pour le Canada.
François de Beauharnais, qui avait été intendant du Canada quel-
ques années auparavant, venait d'être appelé au ^poste de Bochefort
(?4 mars 1710). Bégon le rencontra, fit aussi la connaissance des au-
tres membres de la famille de Beauharnais, et Tannée suivante (1711),
il épousa Jeanne-Elisabeth de Beauharnais, sœur des Beauharnais qui
furent, Pun intendant, l'autre gouverneur de • la Nouvelle-France.
Cette union ['apparentait avec les Phélypeaux, comtes de Pontchar-
train, alors ministres (1696-1715).*
Eégon partit de France en juillet, sur le HéroSy commandé par son
beau-frère, le lieutenant Beauharnais de Beaumont. It mit pied à
terre à Québec en 1712; sa femme l'accompagnait. Son frère Claude-
Michel avait aussi fait la traversée, car le roi venait de lui accorder
Texpectative d'une compagnie au Canada, pour la première vacance.
Le 5 janvier 1713, le feu se déclara au palais de l'intendant, et
If'lle fut la célérité des flammes, que Bégon et sa femme eurent peine
à fie sauver. Madame Bégon, suffoquée par la fumée dans sa chambre,
fat obligée de bri&er les carreaux de sa fenêtre pour avoir de l'air pour
ri^irer. Deux de ses femmes périrent dans cette conflagration.
Brisset, le valet de Bégon, voulant sauver une partie de la garde-robe
de son maître, périt aussi. Son secrétaire se sauva nu-pieds, vers la
rivière, en face, et se gela tellement qu'il en mourut quelques jours
après, à l'Hôtel-Dieu.
* On a souvent donné ce M. de la Gallssonniêre comme l'administrateur
de la Nouvelle-France; mais le premier était le père, l'autre le fils. (Içnotus,
La Presse, Montréal, 8 mars. 1902, et Can, Corr. Oen. F., vol. 93, p. 85),
* Pour parenté entre Beauharnols et Phélypeaux, voir article sur François
de Beauharnais.
[boy] les intendants DE LA NOPVELLE-FRANCE 98
Bégon perdit dans ce feu dès effets évalués à trois mille livres, et
If 00 livres en monnaie de carte.
Le palais fut ensuite reconstruit aux frais du roi sous la direction
de Bégon.
Pour l'indemniser de ses pertes, le roi lui fît une gratification de
trois mille livres, répétée plusieurs années de suite.^
Bégon, il semble, a voulu, dans les premières années de sa charge
an Canada, jouer un peu le rôle que devait pratiquer en grand, plus
tard, le triste sire: Bigot!
A la date du 17 juillet 1715, le ministre mandait au frère de Tin-
tendant, à Tabbé Bégon, que: — " Il ne peut payer en argent les appoin-
'• tements de son frère, mais par des assignations et des rentes, «^il y
^' consent.* Il ne peut rien faire de mieux, et la conduite de son frère
" au Canada ne mérite pas de faveurs. Il vient de toutes parts un
"concert de plaintes contre lui d^une gravité exceptionnelle. 11 veut
*• se rendre maître du commerce du Canada, ayant fait construire pour
'" cette fin quatre vaisseaux à La Rochelle. Il (Bégon) a envoyé deux
^•' navires aux Iles, chargés de blé et de farine, alors qu'il défend Fex-
*' portation, causant par là une émeute à Québec. Il a fait sceller tous
" les bluteaux des particuliers afin d'être seul à faire des farines. Il
*'a vendu dos blés à 16 livres le minot qui n'aurient pas valu plus de
*' 4, s'il ne s'en était pas rendu maître, et qu'il n'eût pas empêché tout
* le monde d'en acheter. Il a voulu contraindre les marchands à
^* livrer au sieur Haymard, son homme de confiance, des farines à
'• trente livres le baril, alors que par l'augmentation dont il était lui-
-même la cause, elles valaient 60 livres. Il se rend absolument maître
"du commerce du Canada, et les gens sont perdus sans ressource, si
'• on ne met un terme à son avidité. S'il revient encore des plaintes
"aussi générales, û en informera le roi. Il espère qu'il s'appliquera
" à réparer tout le mal qu'il a fait."
Quatre jours auparavant, le ministre avait écrit à l'intendant dans
le même sens. Il faut croire que cette admonition eut un bon effet,
car il n'y eut plus de plaintes* semblables formulées durant la balance
du terme que servit Michel (IV) en Canada.
En 1724, M. Bégon reçoit l'intendance du Havre, en France.
Le chevalier Edmé-Nicolas Robert part pour relever Bégon de
charge, mais il tombe malade en route, et meurt en mer.
En 1725, M. Guillaume de Chazelles est à son tour appelé à l'inten-
dance du Canada, mais le vaisseau qui le porte, le Chameau, par une
* Le mlntetre à Bégron, 16 juin 1716.
* D'après procuration datée k La RocheUe, 10 juillet, 1712, l'abbé Béffon
s'ocoupalt en France des intérêts de son aine.
94 SOCIÉTÉ ROYALE DU CANADA
tempête, donne sur un récif, près d-e Louisbourg, et la perte est entière,
corps et biens.
Ces deux événements détenninent Michel Bégon à demeurer en-
core quelque temps à Québec. Enfin, -en novembre 1725, M. Claude-
Thomas Dupuy est nommé pour le remplacer; il arrive en août 1726
à Québec.
Le dernier procès-verbal des séances du Conseil Souverain, signé
par Bégon, comme intendant, est daté du 15 avril 1726. Il s'embarqua
pour la France le 16 octobre de la même année.^ Le 23 novembre sui-
vant il mandait de Eochefort, au ministre, toute la joie qu'il éjpfpouvait
de revoir son pays après une absence de quatorze ans.
Le Havre-de-6râce est dans la Normandie. Quel stage Bégon eut-
il à faire à cet endroit comme intendant ? Je n'en sais rien, mais en
1737, et probablement avant, il était intendant de justice, police et
ÛLances de la marine, au département de Normandie, avec résidence à
Rouen, tel qu'il apjjert au contrat de mariage de sa fille: Jeanne-Elisa-
beth, avec M. de Lorgeril.
De son alliance avec Jeanne-Elisabeth de Beauhamais, Michel (IV)
Bégon, eut, selon le Dictionnaire Généalogique de M^'' Tanguay:
1^ Michel, baptisé le 10 mai 1713, à Québec H vécut à peine deux
années (16 mars 1715);
2® Un enfant né et décédé le même jour, 13 septembre 1714;
3® Jeanne-Elisabeth, née le 27 août 1715, baptisée le 14 mars
1717, à Québec, dans la chapelle du Palais. Parrain: messire Fran-
çois Bégon, chevalier, conseiller du roi, grand'maître des Eaux et
Forete de France, dôpaiiement de Blods et Berry, enj vertu de sa pro-
curation passée au sieur Jean Martel, seigneur de la rivière St-Jean,
Acadie. Elle épouse le 22 février 1737, Louis-François-Nicolas de
Lorgeril, seigneur de Lorgeril et de Chalonge, etc. Elle mourut en
1739, laissant une fille qui devint religieuse. Lorgeril se remaria en
1740, avec Louise-Jeanne de Saint-Germain.
40 Michel (V) né le 22 février 1717, baptisé le 28 de ce mois, par
Mf^ de St-Valier, et filleul de M. de Vaudreuil, gouverneur. Nous re-
parlerons de cet enfant plus loin.
5° Marie-Madeleine, baptisée le 8 septembre 1718.
6*^ Catherine, le 25 août 1719.
7^^ François-Louis, le 23 février 1723, et inhumé deux ans plus tard,
le l®*" mai 1725, dans l'église de Québec.
8° Un dernier enfant, né et mort le même jour, 19 mars 1728.
* Extrait du Journal des Jésuites, 1710-1769. Voir VAheUïe, vol. XI. 1878.
Janvier, 19.
[boy] les intendants DE LA KOUVELLE-FRANCE 9B
L^intendant Bégon avait acheté le fief de Grand-Pré, situé à la
Canardière. Il y fit bâtir une tannerie et des moulins. Il mourut en
1740.
Scipion-Jérôme, le deuxième fils de Michel Bégon et de Madeleine
Druillon, né à Brest, en 1681, mort le 28 décembre 1753;* docteur en
théologie en 1708; abbé de St-Germain-de-Fleix en 1713; vicaire-
général de révêque de Beauvais; conseiller du roi en son Conseil d^Etat;
évêque-comte de Toul; prince du Saint-Empire.
Claude-Michel Bégon, le troisième fils de Michel III, d'abord en-
seigne des vaisseaux du roi à Rochefort; lieutenanit en 1714; capitaine
de Compiègne, et obtint la Croix de St-Louis, en juillet 1718.
Il fut gouverneur des Trois-Bivières.
Claude-Michel naquit en 1683 et mourut à Montréal, le 1®' mai
1748.
Le 19 décembre 1718, il avait épousé à Montréal, Marie-Elisabeth
Eocbert,* fille d'Etienne Roebert, sieur de la Mirandière, lieutenant et
iiigénieur, puis capitaine des troupes.
Tanguay Heur donne: —
1^ Marie-Catherine-Elisabeth, baptisée le 28 octobre 1719. Mariée
k 17 novembre 1737, à Montréal, à Honoré de Villebois, sieur de la
Rouvillère, ( onseiller du roi, etc. Elle fut inhumée à Montréal, le 21
septembre 1740.
2^ Marie-Louise-Geneviève, baptisée le 4 juin 1721, sépulture la
3 janvier 1722.
30 Claude, baptisé 6 juin 1724.3
M. J.-Edmcnd Roy, dans son essai sur Bégon, publié dans le
Bulletin des Eecherches Historiques, de Levis, vers la fin de son article,
disait: "que Teveque-oomte de Ibul céda la collection d'étampes,
médailles, etc., du collectionneur Michel Bégon, à son neveu, M, Bégon,
conseiller honoraire au Parlement de Metz, et intendant de la marine,
alors en résidence à Paris," et il posait la question, qu'il ne pouvait
résoudre pour le quart d'heure : " Ce neveu était-il le fils de l'ancien in-
tendant ou bien du gouverneur des Trois-Rivièrcs? "
Nous répondons: — "Le fils de l'intendant," et nous ajouterons
que Michel (c'était aussi un Michel) qui continue la descendance, fut
intendant de la marine, à Dunkerque. Il prit pour femme, le 3 juin
1743, Anne-Françoise de Pernot, morte le 4 août 1745, dont:
Michel fVT) né le 28 juillet 1745— mort en avril 1747.
* D'après le Dictionnaire de la noblesse, par De-la-Chesnaye-Des-Bois et
Badler. Scipion-Jérôme avait 77 ans à sa mort.
■ EUe retourne en France, en 1749, avec M. de la Gallssonnière, adminis-
trateur du Canada, neveu de feu son mari.
* II est garde du paviUon à Brest, en 1749, à, bord de la Diane,
96 SOCIÉTÉ BOYALE DU CANADA
La fameuse collection de monnaies, étampes, etc., fut offerte à la
biblitythèqne du roi par le neveu de Scipion-Jérôme : Michel V, fils de
Initerdant du Canada.
Une cousine de notre intendant épousa, le 29 novembre 1718,
Joseph-Charles de Vimeur de Rochambeau.
n y eut deux ou trois branches ou maisons connues sous le nom
de Bégon : Bégon de la Rozière, Bouxière, etc., et, après examen de leur
gtoéalogie, etc., nous sommes portés à croire que ces branches étaient
du même tronc.
Les Bégons blasonnent : " d'azur au chevron accompagné en chef de
(Jeux roses et en pointe d'un lion, le tout Sor^^
XI
Edmé-Nicolas Robert, onzièmb intendant.
Le 22 février 1724, Edmé-Nicolas Robert, chevalier, conseiller du
roi, en ses conseils, et au Grand Conseil, fut nommé intendant en rem-
placement de M. Bégon.
Le chevalier était issu de la famille Robert, originaire de TOrléa-
nais et de Paris, dont les chefs eurent qualité de seigneurs de Ville-
taneuse, de la Fortelle et de Pesselières.^
Antoine Robert, anobli en 1481 par Louis XI, est le premier degré
généalogique enregistré par le juge d'armes de France. Il finit à
Amboise, mais il eut son épitaphe posée au cinquième pillier de l'église
^'t-Paul, à Orléans.
Il eut postérité: c'est la branche de Villetaneuse. Louis Robert,
que nous donnons comme premier intendant du Canada, était seigneur
(le la Fortello; il n'eut que deux filles, bien mariées, dont une l'appa-
Tenta à Colbert.
Le chevalier Edmé-Nicolas appartenait à la branche cadette des
Robert, de Pesselières. Vers 1716-18, il occupait une charge royale
au port de La Rochelle.
Tous les membres de cette famille ont été fonctionnaires publics,
et il n'y a jamais eu de plaintes formulées contre eux durant leur
terme d'oflSce.
D'après l'inventaire des effets, que le chevalier Robert emportait
avec lui au Canada, on con&taie que c'était un homme ayant assez
d^aisance, et la composition de sa bibliothèque nous do^ne une opinion
agréable de son érudition.
^ D'Hozier, Armarial Général, Kegiatre III.
[ri>y] les intendants de la NOUVELLE-FRANCE 97
Le 18 juillet 1724, ses préparatifs de départ terminés, il fit ses
adieux aux ministres. Le 24, il s^embarquait à La Rochelle sur
îc Chameau, avec sa f ennne, Marie-Anne Picard de Mauny,i ^^ gon
fils unique, Edmé-Antoine, âgé de onze ans. Son secrétaire, M. de
Mousscau, et plusieurs domestiques raccompagnaient. Il avait fait
embarquer plu5 de cent cinquante ballots * d'effets, comprenant tous ses
TTieubles, sa garde-robe et sa bibliothèque.
Depuis quelque temps M. Robert ne se sentait pas bien: pas assez
mal cependant pour différer son voyage, et il s^embarqua, mais le soir
du départ du navire, il empira et rendit l'âme.
Le lendemain, son corps fut jeté à la mer, le vaisseau étant encore
en vue des côtes.
Madame Robert soutint cette affliction avec beaucoup de vertu et
de force d'esprit. Madame de Vaudreuil, qui était à bord, fit tout ce
qu'elle put pour adoucir les peines de la malheureuse veuve et la con-
soler. Rendue à Québec, la femme du gouverneur manda au ministre
cette nouvelle et le pria d'essayer d'obtenir pour madame Robert une
pension considérable.'
A Québec, madame Robert se retira à l'Hôtel-Dieu, refusant Ufl
appartement au château, que M. de Vaudreuil voulait lui faire accepter.
Le Conseil Souverain, par arrêt du 14 octobre, ordonna un service
à la cathédrale pour le repos de l'âme de feu le chevalier Eobert.
Afin de pouvoir faire l'inventaire des effets de l'ex-intendant,
Bégon nomma le marquis de Vaudreuil, le commissaire-ordonnateur
d'Aigrement, le procureur-général Collet, les conseillers Sarrazin, de
Lmo, de Lotbinière et Lanouiller, pour élire un tuteur à Antoine, fils
mineur du cnevalier.
Madame Robert fut choisie tutrice, et M. Collet, subrogé-tuteur.
L'inventaire se fit le 16 octobre. Madame Robert et son fils retour-
nèrent en France, aux premiers jours de novembre, par le Chameau.
Les armes du seigneur de Pesselières sont les mêmes que celles de
la Port elle: D^azur à trois pattes de griffon ffor, posées deux et une.
* D'Hozler place les Mauny en l'Orléanais et à Paris, tout comme les
Robert.
* Frontenac n'en emporta que 18, lorsqu'il vint à Québec.
■ On avait déjà accordé 3,000 livres à DuCheeneau pour couvrir ses frais,
de déplacement, ce qui motivait la supplique de madame de Vaudreuil.
Sec. I, 1903. 7.
08 SOCIÉTÉ ROYALE DU CANADA
XII
Guillaume de Chazelles, douzième intendant.
Le 2 novembre 1724, M. Bégon remerciait le ministre de l'avoir
nommé intendant du Havre.
M. de Chazelles vint le remplacer. Il s^emborqua, probablement
à Rochefort, en juillet 1725, sur la flute le Chameau.
Le vaisseau était un peu *en dehors de sa course, lorsqu'il arriva
près deô côtes de FAcadie, la nuit du 27 au 28 août, lorsqu'un coup de
vent du sud-est, très violent, le jeta sur les récifs de Tîle Porte-Nové,
et le naufrage fut complet. Des pêcheurs vivant à Lorembec, vis-à-
vis rîle, déclarèrent le lendemain n'avoir jamais vu tempête aussi
eftrayante. L'île est située à neuf milles environ de Louisbourg. Le
lendemain du sinistre, la mer jeta sur le rivage, au Petit Lorembec, les
cadavres des passagers et de l'équipage du Chameau. Au nombre des
premiers ramassés, il y avait M. de Chazelles ; M. Chaviteau, pilote du
vaisseau, et l'un des plus pratiques dfe ces mers, au dire de Montcalm ;^
M. La Gesse, fils de Ramezay. Ces trois furent inhumés au Petit
Lorembec. La commission de l'intendant ainsi que d'autres papiers
vinrent à terre, et furent renvoyés en France.
Le gouverneur de Louisbourg dépêcha aussitôt un petit bateau
acadien à M. de Beauhamais pour l'informer du triste événement.
* * *
Il existait dans la Haute- Auvergne, jadis, deux îîefs importants,
du nom de Chazelles: l'un, dans la paroisse d'Auriac, entre Bresle et
Massiac, possédé de temps immémorial par la maison Chavagnac; l'au-
tre est un chef -lieu de commune du canton de Ruines, près de Saint-
Flour, et c'est vraisemblablement ce dernier qui a donné son nom à la
famille de Chazelles, de noblesse d'ancienne extraction, qui fait l'objet
de cette notice, qui est connue depuis Gérard de Chazelles, vivant en
1266, et Pons de Chazelles, damoiseau, en 1286.
Guillaume de Chazelles forme le huitième chaînon dans la filia-
tion. Il était écuyer, conseiller du roi, lieutenant et magistrat en la
* Journal de Montcalm, p. 46.
[boy]
LES INTENDANTS DE LA NOUVELLE-FRANCE
99
viguerie royale de Boquemaure. Il épousa, le 26 octobre 1660, Jeanne
de Zanobie, dont il eut:
1® Jean-Pierre;
2<^ Henri, mort en 1726, intendant du Canada.*
3® François;
4<> Jean;
6® Guillaume, qui fut appelé à l'intendance du Canada, et périt
en revenant en France,* sur le vaisseau du roi, le Chameau.
6^ Jeanne.*
Les Chazelles étaient d'Auvergne et de Languedoc, comtes de
Chazelles et de Chusclan; barons de Lunac; seigneurs de la Boissiere,
Luc, Bagnet, Poujols, Beauregard, Aillet, Eoche-Salesse, Courdes,
Montirat, Rieux, etc
Leurs annes sont décrites: D'azur à une tête de léopard S or, lam-
passée de gueules; au chef cousu de gueules, chargé à dextre d'un croissant
d'argent, et à senestre, d'une étoile du mime.
Supports: Detuc lions.
Couronne: de comte.
Devise: Toujours prêt à servir, et à s'effacer qtmnd il a servi.
xin
Claude-Thomas DuPuy, treizième intendant.
vV'-;;: -..vr^';-.'. '■■' ■■■
'^^~-
L^«>^
K
•'■^
•■;•■•.';■■ -rv-.-^
■ ■•' 'v
Du Puy mit pied à terre, à Québec, avec le marquis de Beauhamais,
le 28 d'août 1726. Son brevet d'intendant est signé du 23 novembre
1725. Son premier acte officiel au conseil est en date du 31 décembre.
* Le généalogiste fait erreur ici. C'est Guillaume de Chazelles qui a été
intendant; c'était mon opinion dès le Jour où J'écrivis cet article, mais je
suis confirmé par une lettre de M. le baron Max de Finfe St-Pierremont,
marié & une descendante des Chazelles: mademoiselle de Cacqueray-ValoUve.
' n y a évidemment une tradition dans lia famille que l'intendant est mort
en revenant en France. C'est ce que me dit mon aimable correspondant: mais
la correspondance officielle du temps établit le contraire.
* NohUiaire Universel, Vte de Ma^y. vol. II. p. 68. 1855.
lOO SOCIÉTÉ ROYALE DU CANADA
Claude-Thomas Du Puy, chevalier, était avocat au Châtelet de
Paris; avocat général au Grand Conseil, conseiller du roi en ees Con-
seils d^Etat et privé, maître des requêtes * en titre, et ensuite honoraire
avant d'être transféré à la Nouvelle-Franjce.
Sa commission est enregistrée à Québec le 2 septembre 1726.
On peut bien dire, sans crainte d'être désapprouvé, que cet officier
a été, de tous ceux de son rang, le plus prétentieux, orgueilleux, et le
moins raisonnable connu dans notre histoire. Il suffit de lire l'ex-
cellent article à^IgnotuSy dans La Presse, (Montréal) 19 octobre 1901,
pour s'en convaincre. Lisez par exemple l'extrait qui suit: — "C'était
"pourtant un homme intelligent, instruit, lettré, profondément versé
" dans la science du droit, doué d'une perception nette et rapide, d'une
^' elocution nerveuse et d'une rare facilité de plume. Mais ses talents
** étaient déplorablement gâtés par son caractère. En effet, il était
" auitoritaire, opindâtre, arrogant, entiché de sa personne, féru de l'idée
" qu'il pouvait exceller en tout, violent et excessif, et capable de pousser
" ses ressentiments jusqu'aux plus fâcheuses extrémités." Il fut bientôt
en guerre avec quasi tout le monde: le gouverneur, l'évêque, et un
certain nombre de prêtres.
Le 28 mai 1728, madame Du Puy, venue de France avec son mari et
son fils, jésuite, retourna en France. Elle précédait son mari de quel-
ques mois. En effet, rappelé par son souverain, il prit passage pour
la France, le 1*' octobre, laissant sea affaires privées, dans un état
passablement embrouillé, aux soins de son fils, le jésuite.
La famille est originaire de la Touraine, et est alliée aux .Fleury,
parents avec M. de Meulles; aux Voyer d'Argenson; de la Trémouille,
etc., qui à leur tour comptaient comme De Meulles: parenté avec Col-
bert et Bégon; les Voyer d'Argenson: avec les Lusîgnan, Alogny de la
Oroie, et de combien d'autres de ce coin de France, dont les noms sont
familiers aux lecteurs de notre histoire.
La maison est assez ancienne; nous en avons relevé des traces jus-
qu'à 1330, lorsque Guillaume de Fleury épousa Jeanne Du Puy.
Les armes enregistrées sont: D'or à un lion d^azur, armé, couronné,
lam passé de gueules.
^ Lee mailtres de requêtes avaient une Juridiction spéciale et sans appel,
sur tous les officiera de la maison du roi. C*est ce que Ton appelait les r0-
çuestes de Vhoêiél,
[boy] les intendants DE LA NOUVELLE-FRANCE
lOl
XIV
Gilles Hocquart, quatorzième intendant.
La famille Hocquart est originaire de la Champagne. Le Réthe-
lois fut le berceau de cette illustre maison. Le 4 janvier 1536, elle
prouve sa noblesse d'ancienne extraction devant les élus de Réthel.
D'Hozier, juge d^armes de France, nous dit que le nom de cette
famille est indifféremment orthographié dani» les actes qu^il a examiné*
Hoear, Hocart, Hoocard, Hoccart, Hocquard, Hocquart et Hoquart.
Cependant, il nous assure que les seigneurs de Montfermeil et de
Coubron, quatrième branche des Hocart, établie à Paris, se sont fixés
depuis 1644, à orthographier leur nom: Hocquart,
La famille était ainsi divisée:
I. Hocart, en Champagne.
102 SOCIÉTÉ ROYALE DU CANADA
II. Hooaii, (Claude), de Ste-Ménéhould.
m. Hocart, (François), seigneur de Feloourt.
IV. Hocquart (Jean-Hyacinthe), chevalier, seigneur d'Essenlis et
de Muscourt.
V. Hocart, (Etienne), écuyer, sieur de la Motte.
Gilles Hocquart descendait de la quatrième branche. Son père,
seigneur d'Eascnlis et de Muscourt fut conseiller du roi en ses conseils,
et intendant de justice, police et finances, de la marine, au départe-
ment de Toulon, par provisions du 30 avril 1716. H mourut à Paris,
le 17 octobre 1723, à Vage de 74 ans. Il eut quatorze enfants, dont
cinq moururent en bas âge.
Gilles était le troisième fils de Jean-Hyacinithe.* Il est qualifié
de chevalier. Il fut d*abord commissaire de la marine et obtint du
roi, le 8 mars 1729, une commission en qualité de commiseaire-général
de la maidne et d'ordonnateur en la Nouvelle-Franoe pour fadre, au
défaut de Tintendant, les fonctions qu'il serait en droit d'y faire lui-
même, n arriva à Québec vers la fin d'août 1729, et se présenta au
Conseil Souverain le 6 septembre suivant, pour faire enregistrer sa
commission, afin d'agir comme intendant. Le 21 février 1731, il fut
nommé à Versailles, intendant de la Nouvelle-France, etc. ; ce nouveau
document fut présenté au Conseil le 20 août de cette année.
Sous son administration, et malgré les embarras financiers de la
mère-patrie, la colonie sembla prospérer.
Hocquari; fut remplacé par Bigot. De retour en France, nous le
retrouvons aussitôt intendant de Brest, (le 1** avril 1749), et plu6 tard,
conseiller d'Etat (29 décembre 1763).
En 1756, le général de Montcalm s'embarqua de France pour diri-
ger les (xpérations militaires en Canada, contre les Anglais. H rap-
porte dans son Journal (page 30), qu'à son passage à Brest, il y fut
très bien reçu par M. le comte Du Guay, chef d'escadre qui commande
la marine, et par M. Hocquart, intendant. . . . "Pour M. et madame
"Hocquart, c'est un couple bien assorti; ce sont d'honnêtes gens, ver-
" tueux, bien intentionnés, tenant une bonne maison. Aussi, M. Hoc-
" quart a-t-il été vingt ans intendant en Canada, sans avoir augmenté
" sa fortune, contre l'ordinaire des intendants des colonies qui n'y font
" que de trop grands profits au dépens de la colonie."
Hocquart épousa, par contrat du 23 août 1750, demoiselle Anne-
Catherine de la Lande, fille de Claude de la Lande, oomte de Câlan,
chevalier de l'ordre royal et militaire de Saint-Louis.
* Jean, alëul de Hyacinthe, épousa une demoiselle Colbert, lîlle du cousin
du ministre: celui-ci assista au marlagre. Jean-Hyacinthe prit pour femme,
le 10 décembre 1681, Marie-Françoise Michelet-du-Cosnler, flile de François
et de Marie Talon.
Hocquart de Benli*. fils de Jean, devint le premier commis de Colbert.
[boy] les intendants DE LA NOUVELLE-FRANCE 108
La sœur de Gilles se maria à Claude-François Le Tellier, brigadier-
général des armées du roi.
Au mois d'avril 1755, trois mille hommes formant six bataillons,
et deux cents officiers avaient été embarqués à Brest, à destination de
Québec et Louisbourg. L^escadre portant ces troupes comptait douze
vaisseaux et deux frégates. Partie le 3 mai des côtes de France, elle
passa aux abords de Terreneuve, à ,peu de distance de la flotte Anglaise,
dont elle ne fut pas aperçue au milieu des brouillards, et gagna Qué-
l>ec sans encombre. Seuls, trois navires : VAlcide, le Lys et le Dauphin
Royal, qui s'étaient écartés du gros de la flotte, donnèrent, le 8 juin,
dans l'escadre de Tamiral Boscawen, composée de onze vaisseaux de
ligne et de plusieurs frégates.
M. de Choiseul rapporte que M. Hocquart, qui commandait VAlcide,
étant à portée de la voix du Dunkerqne, de soixante canons, fit crier en
anglais: ^^ Sommes-nous en paix ou en guerre f On lui répondit:
^^ Nous n^ entendons point,'^ M. Hocquart répéta lui-même la question
en Français, le capitaine Anglais répondit par deux fois : " La paix !
la paix ! '' On oonnait ce qui s'ensuivit ; malgré que le capitaine
anglais eut répondu: ^^ En paix !^^ VAlcide et le Lys n'en furent pas
moins capturés après combat.
Ce M. Hocquart (Toussaint), commandant VAlcide, était frère de
Gilles. H fut chef d'escadre en 1761. Il naquit à Nantes et fut bap-
tisé le 29 octobre 1700. Jean-Hyacinthe H<xxjuart de Montfermieil,
neveu de Gilles et de Toussaint, fut tué durant l'action tci^haut men-
tionnée. Ce M. de Choiseul avait épousé une Hocquart.
Blason : De gueules à trois roses d'argent, posées deux et une.
Les Hocquart de Turtôt, de nos jours, continuent la descendance.
104
SOCIÉTÉ ROYALE DU CANADA
XV
Francois Bigot, quinzième intendant.
M
^M
^pii;..^, . '■ ' :;iiii
'T^ /nttlîf^ifftri
smH
François Bigot est né à Bordeaux le 30 janvier 1703. Son père,
Louis-Amable Bigot, était conseilleur du roi au Parlement. La mère de
François appartenait aux Lombard, famille très puissante dauB la Gu-
yenne, d'où les ancêtres de notre héros tirent aussi leur origine.
Bigot avait des influences éminentes à la cour; cela se comprend
bien lorsque Ton sait qu'il était cousin du marquis de Puysieux et du
maréchal D'Estrées.' Marie-Louise Bigot, fille d'Antoine, auditeur des
comptes de Paris, était mariée (1697) au fils du comte de Sillery et de
Catherine de La Rochefoucauld. Le fils de Marie-Louise: le marquis
de Puysieux, fut ministre des affaires étrangères, secrétaire d'Etat, et
membre du conseil de marine. Ce ministre eut une fille unique, qui,
par dispense, épousa en 1744, I»uis-Charle6-César Le Tellier, comte
puis maréchal d'Estrées. C'est le même que celui mentionné un peu
plus haut.
Le 9 septembre 1739, Bigot arrive à Louisbourg et prend charge
du poste que le ministre vient de lui confier. Sa commission comporte
les titres «uivants: Ordonnateur à l'île Royale, chef du Conseil Supé-
rieur, et sub-délégué de l'intendant.
En 1712, il fait le tour de Tîle pour en visiter les ports. En 1744,
Bigot fait déjà des affaires à son compte. On avait appris à Louisbourg
la déclaration de la guerre entre la France et l'Angleterre, plusieurs
jours avant qu'elle parvint à Boston; les marchands armèrent aussitôt
des corsaires, et Bigot, pour sa part, eut plusieurs bâtiments eii course.
Cependant, il ne fit pas d'argent, cette fois-là. Voyant cela, il opta
pour un autre plan, qui lui sonnt d'appronti&^age pour plus tard, alors
* Diet. Généalogique.— La C*c«wayc-Z>c«-//ow.— Mais. Guénin, La Nouvelle-
France, vol. II, p. 197; Gaxneau, Hist, du Canada, vol. II. p. 263; Montcalm au
maréchal de Belle- Isle, 12 avril 1759, le disent proche parent de Puysieux et d'Ba-
trêes, sans spécffler le degré.
(boy] les intendants DE LA NOUVELLE-FRANCE 105
qu'il serait intendant de la Nouvelle-France. Dans les derniers jours
d^octohre 1744, la garnison de Louisbourg se révolta. Faute d^ouvriers,
les soldats étaient chargés d^achever les fortifications. Il parait que
l'on avait négligé de payer le supplément de solde que ce travail valait.
Les soldats se plaignirent; ils murmurèrent sans être écoutés. Ils ré-
solurent de se faire justice, et se révoltèrent ouvertement. Les sédi-
tieux se choisirent de nouveaux officiers, s'emparèrent des casernes,
établirent des corps de gardes, posèrent des sentinelles aux magasins
du roi et chez Bigot, duquel ils demandèrent la caisse militaire, sans
oser la prendre, cependant. Ils formulèrent après cela des plaintes
très-vives contre les officiers et Bigot quails accusèrent de retenir une
partie de levr paye, de leur habillement et même de leur subsistance,
Bigot se hâta de les satisfaire sur quelques points, et tout Thiver, il
employa cette tactique quand ils devenaient trop menaçants.* Fit-il
autrement, à Québec, quand il eut le malheur d'y être ?
Après la prise de Louisbourg, en 1745, il retourna en France, mais
telle était son influence, en cour, qu'il obtint ses appointements pour
1746 et 1747, tout comme s'il eut été en fonctions à File Royale. Puis,
il s'en va faire un tour à Bordeaux et aux eaux de Bagnières, mais en
partant pour ces deux endroits, il offre ses services au ministre, s'il a
besoin de lui pour le Canada.
En 1746 Bigot reçoit l'intendance de la flotte, placée sous les
ordres du duc D'Anville, destinée à reconquérir l'île Royale. C'est
Maurepas, ministre de la marine, qui le protège, et il devait y avoir
certainement parenté entre les deux, car Bigot parle dans sa corres-
pondance avec trop d'assurance à son égard pour les faveurs qu'il en
peut tirer; nous ne comprenons pas que le ministre soit porté à tel
point envers Bigot, à moins de quelque affinité consanguine.
La commission d'intendant à la Nouvelle-France, de Bigot, est du
l*' janvier 1748, et fut enregistrée à Québec le 2 septembre. Il arriva
à Québec, par le Zéphir, le 26 août 1748.
En 1748-49 il alla faire une promenade jusqu'à Louisbourg pour
voir ce qu'il y aurait à faire afin de nuire aux Anglais.
En octobre 1749, Bigot intercède auprès du nouveau ministre do
la marine, Rouillé, comte de JoUy, pour son frère, enseigne de vaisseau.
11 se plaint de ce que ce frère a été laissé trop longtemps sans promo-
tion, et il ajoute qu'en 1740, quand des promotions ont été distribuées,
il e^st persuadé que s'il eut été en France alors on n'aurait pas oubUé son
parent. Tl demandait aussi des faveurs pour son neveu Reyûack,^
garde de la marine, à Brest, alors âgé de 25 ans, et pour son cousin
* Gameau, Hist, du Canada, vol. II, p. 170.
* Fils de la sœur de François Bigot.
106 SOCIÉTÉ ROYALE DU CANADA
germain, M. Lombard, dont le père a servi au Parlement de Bordeaux.
Bigot dépeint son cousin en disant quHl avait de r esprit et serait propre
un jour à tout ce qu'on voudrait. Il écrivait cela à Tun des ministres
du roi, sans se gêner, ce qui fait bien voir où les fonctionnaires du
tempe en étaient. On a beaucoup blâmé Bigot pour le commence
scandaleux qu'il a pratiqué en Canada, mais il avait de si beaux modèles
à copier dans la mère-patrie, que nous ne lui en tiendrions pas rigueur
autant, s'il se fut agit d^un autre paye que 1« nôtre.
Il réprésente au ministre, (1749) qu^il a beaucoup perdu par la
prise de Louisbourg, que see déplacements lui coûtent cher, et il vou-
drait avoir une indemnité. Il profite aussi de Toocasion pour demander
une augmentation dans ses appointements, ditant qu^il est déjà en
avance sur sa paye d'un an, à cause du train de sa maison, qui doit faire
autant que celle du gouverneur, car les officiers et les habitants en atten-
dent autant.
En 1750, Bigot s'est mis à Taise; il veut s'entourer d'amis, de con-
génères, afin de pratiquer en grand son commerce de vol et de péculat.
Il supplie le ministre de lui envoyer à Québec le sieur Vergor du Gham-
bon, de Tîle Royale; il veut avoir comme premier commis, au Détroit,
le sieur Landriève, qui est en France.
En 1754, Tadministration de Bigot n'avait pas été populaire. On
lui reprochait d'avoir trop favorisé see amib, d'avoir soutenu trop énergi-
quement ceux qui avait accepté sa confiance, mais qui n'étaient pas
assez honnêtes gens. Dans ces circonstances il crut bon de se montrer
à la cour pour difesiper les soupçons qui auraient pu s'élever contre lui,
et se fortifier pour l'avenir. Varin, une autre de ses créatures, le rem-
plaça durant son absence.
Le gouverneur même faisait le jeu de Bigot. On a été jusqu'à le
soupçonner et l'accuser, mais il fut trouvé que M. de Vaudreuil n'avait
pas trempé dans les machinations malhonnêtes de l'intendant. Le 28
octobre 1755, le gouverneur mande au ministre qu'il est nécessaire de
laisser M. Bigot en Canada; qu'on pourrait difficilement lui trouver un
successeur.
En 1757 les abus étaient déjà énormes*, et l'année d'après, les
plaintes, les accusations se firent plus pressantes vers l'Europe. Il faut
lire les lettres de Montcalm à ce sujet. On saisit bien les nuances qu'il
met dans sa correspondance, et lorsque, outré de ce qui se passe sous
ses yeux, et qu'il ne peut se contenir plus longtemps, il emploi un
chiffre secret.
Et le ministre (Berryer) dans sa dépêche du 19 janvier 1759, aver-
tit Bigot que la fortune de ses adhérents, de ses créatures rend son
[hot] LE8 INTENDANTS DE LA NOUVELLE-FRANCE 107
administration suspecte. Plus tard (29 août) Berryer Taocuse de
manque d'ordre et d'économie, ainsi que de péeulat.
Que faisait Bigot de tout cet argent qu'il acquérait ainsi ? Il le
dépensait follement, justifiant le proverbe: Bien mal acquis, etc.
Durant le carnaval de 1758, il perdit au jeu plus de 200,000 livres.
Aloins de deux ans après, la colonie succombait aux attaques inces-
santes des troupes de TAngleterre. Dans cette ruine, l'intendant
pensait sans doute enfouir toute trace de ses ténébreuses spéculations.
Mais à son retour «n France, il fut incarcéré dans la Bastillo et y sléh
jouma onze mois, pendant qu'on lui faisait son procès. Lorsqu'il en
sortit, ce fut pour prendre le chemin de l'exil, car il était banni de
France, pour toujours, et ses biens confisqués.
Des contemporains de l'époque nous ont laissé le portrait physique
et moral de Bigot.
D était petit de taille, ^)ien fait, délicat, mais il avait le visage laid
et couvert de boutons. Il aimait le jeu, le ftwte, et les femmes. Il
était haut, dur, et de difiîcîle abord pour ceux qui lui déplaisaient; très
judicieux dans les affaires qui ne heurtaient pas ses propres intérêts, et
fort laconique dans ses réponses.
C'était un homme aimable, dit Montcalm.
Bigot blasonnait: De sable à trois têtes de léopard d^or.
Section I, 1903 [ 109 ] Mémoibks S. R. C.
IV. — Mouvement intellectuel chez les Canadiens-français depuis 1900.
Par rhonorable Pascal Poibier.
(Lu le 19 mal 1903.)
H est décidément plus aisé de faire un règlement que de le suivre.
Les statuts de notre Société prescrivent au président de chaque
section " de préparer pour la réunion annuelle un discours sur les
matières relevant de sa section '\ et je constate que bien peu d'entre
ceux qui m^ont précédé ont satisfait à cette obligation de leur charge.
Je ne dis pas ceci pour trouver en faute les présidents de la section
française: je constate seulement que nous ne portons peut-être pas
un intérêt suflBsant à notre Société Royale.
Notre action sur les écrivains de notre pays est nulle, ou à peu
près; nous ne donnons aucune orientation aux lettres canadiennes;
comme corps répufté d^élite, nous ne dirigeons en aucune façon le mouve-
ment intellectuel canadien. L^âmc canadienne flotte à côté de nous,
sans être sollicitée par le faible sillage que nous traçons.
Ne vous semble-t-il pas, messieurs, que le marquis de Lome, en
fondant la Société Royale; que notre gouvernement, en la dotant, aient
eu la pensée de faire autre chose qu'une synagogue stérile? N'avons-
nous pas un rôle à remplir dans le drame intense qui se joue, au Canada,
entre les différentes race**, et dont le dénouement final sera la dispa-
rition de la nationalité française, ou la fondation d'une France nou-
velle en Amérique ?
Comme Français, comme catholiques, notre place est parmi les
Latins. Notre mission évidente sur ce continent est d'y répandre les
arts, la haute culture intellectuelle, la civilisation, l'âme splendide
de la France. Il faut que nous tenions haut, en Amérique, le flambeau
dont la Gaule, depuis Charlemagne, a illuminé l'Europe. Notre place
est au premier rang, en plein soleil, en pleine lumière. Reléguée au
second, nous périrons. Etre les premiers, au Canada, ou cesser d'être,
telle est notre inéluctable destinée.
Or le nombre nous échappe. La majorité numérique n'est plus à
nous. Nous formons bien encore aujourd'hui le tiers de la population
totale du Canada; mais au train où nous arrive l'immigration mondiale,
nous n'en serons pas le quart dans vingt ans, et le cinquième dans
quarante ans.
Déjà nous avons à peu près perdu le Manitoba, où nous devrions
être, où il nous eut été possible de rester, la majorité.
Les Acadiens se maintiennent à grande peine, dans les provinces
maritimes, livréa qu'ils sonit à une hiérarchie hostile et contrariés par
no SOCIÉTÉ ROYALE DU CANADA
elle dans les efforts légitimes quails font pour demeurer Français, et,
par là mêmle, catholiques.
Aux Etats-Unis, les nôtreb constituent une forte avant-gardfi ;
mais réussiront-ils à faire plus qu'arrêter le flot envahisseur de
Taméricanisme anglais? Seront-ils autre chose que la "levée'* qui
barre le torrent? Se maintiendront-ils par kur seul eflfort?
Il n'y a que la province de Québec où nous soyons numériquement
les plus forts, où nous sommes les maîtres, où nous nous sentons sûrs
de nous-mêmes.
C'est donc autour de la province de Québec que nous devons nous
grouper, comme autour d'un foyer réchaufCant et lumineux. Comme
Athènes dan* la Confédération hellénique, la province de Québec doit
être la première dans la Confédération canadienne, par les lettres, les
arts, les sciences, la haute culture intelleotuelle et la direddon des
idées.
Faisons donc sur nous-mêmes un examen sévère; étudions nous, sans
parti pris de nous encenser stupidement ; examinons* notre outM-
lage de combat intellectuel; passons en revue nos forces offensives et
défensives, et pesons nos chances de succès ou de défaite dans la lutte
de vie ou de mort nationale que nous avons à soutenir, au milieu des
races qui nous entourent.
Avançons-nous? Beculons-nous?
La critique honnête et franche; l'exercice du droit de dire respec-
tueusement la vérité aux hommes; de se la dire à soi-même; le courage
de faire ses eoulpes, est le sel qui préserve de la corruption. Faisons
ensemble notre coulpe.
L'homme, l'Etat, les membres du corps social ou religieux qui ne
. peuvent souffrir qu'on leur dise d'autres vérités que des vérités flat-
teuses, qui préfèrent le mensonge louangeux à la vérité âpre et forti-
fiante, sont en pleine décadenoe. - La paresse intellectuelle, et, le plus
souvent, l'orgueil, sont assis à leur chevet de moribonds.
Or, ,pour remplir les obligatione de ma charge de président de la
section française, à notre Société Royale, j'ai repris la revue rétrospec-
tive du mouvement intellectuel chez les nôtres, là où Va laissée M.
Gérin, c'est-à-dire, j'ai remonté jusqu'au commencement de l'année
1900, et j'ai comparé.
Vous donnerai-je franchement les conclusions de mon enquête?
Les progrès que nous faisons sont plutôt lents, et le terrain que
nous gagnons ne nous donne aucune avance sur les autres nationalités.
Le mouvement intellectuel, commencé parmi nous vers le milieu du
siècle dernier, s'est plutôt ralenti. N'avançant pas, nous reculons.
Dans les sciences nous demeurons où nous étions il y a cinquante,
il y a vingt-cinq ans, au fin bas de l'échelle. Nous pouvons compter
[poirikb] mouvement CHEZ LES CANADIENS-FRANÇAIS 111
&ur les doigts d^une de nos mains le nombre total de ceux parmi nous
qui pourraient occuper en Allemagne, en France, aux Etats-Unis, à
McGill, ou dans les provinces-sœurs, une ohaire dans renseignement
de rhiôtoire naturelle, de la géologie, d-e la minéralogie, d-e Pastrono-
mie, de la paléontologie, de la botanique, de la biologie, de Tethno-
logie, dee mathématiques, de la géographie, de la sociologie, de la
chimie, de Thistoire, de la pédagogie.
Et pourtatnit c'est aux sciences appliquées, c'est à la science, que
nous devons tous les progrès dont se glorifie la civilisation moderne.
Après la religion, c'est la science qui contient la plus grande somme de
vérités qui se pudsse acquérir ici-bas. Elle affranchit l^homme, l'élève,
l'éclairé, lui fait épelcr l'alphabet de la création. La science menait à
Dieu, au moyen âge; mais aussi les premiers savants du monde se
recrutaient, alors, dans les universités catholiques.
En littérature, où nous sommes ai certains d'exceller, nous n'avons
rien produdt, depuis deux ans et demi, qui se puisse préférer, par exemple,
aux Anciens Canadiens de M. de Gaspé, à Jacques et Marie de Bourassa,
ni, peut-être, aux romans historiques de Marmette.
Dans le champ purement littéraire, il est même fort douteux que
nous fassions, aujourd'hui, mieux que nos amds les Anglais. Qui
opposerons-nous à leurs romanciers Roberts, Fraser, 0x1 ey, M^^* Wood,
lipie Laut et Parker, pour ne nommer que les principaux? La répu-
tation littéraire de quelques-uns de ces auteurs s'étend jusqu^aux Etats-
Unis, jusqu'en Angleterre.
Faisons avancer leis nôtres, tous ceux qui, depuis le commence-
ment du siècle, ont produit une œuvre littéraire quelconque, et passons
la revue de leurs ouvrages. Quelques-uns m'échappent, sans doute,
mais c^est le petit nombre.
Pêle-mêle ce sont : Uovhliée, par Laure Oonan; les Légendes Cana-
diennes, par M. Rouleau; Deux récits, par M. Rousseau; Conteurs Canor-
dienS'Français, par M. Massicotte; Mon premier péché, par Madeleine;
Florence, par M. Girard; Soirées du Château de Ramezay, par l'Ecole
littéraire de Montréal ; La vérité révélée, par M. Magnan; Claude paysan,
Caràbinades, Les Ribaud, par le Dr Choquette; l'Etoffe du pays,
par M. de Montigny; Le vieux muet, par M. Caouette; Mélanges poli"
tiques et littéraires, par M. Marchand; Bleu-Blanc-Rouge, par Colom-
bine; Uécrin précieux des Jeunes Mères, par M. St-Cyr; Précis de l'his-
toire de la littérature française, par la Congrégation des sœurs de Sainte-
Anne; Monuments du Mont Royal, par M. Joseph Bninet; Jésus-Christ,
par l'abbé Nunésorais; La grande figure du prêtre, par le Dr Dionne;
Une fleur canadienne, par M. Pampalon; Robert Lozé, par M. Errol
112 SOCIÉTÉ ROYALE DU CANADA
Bouchette; Articles et études, et Mariages clandestins des catholiques, par
l'abbé Auclair; Vengeances et fables, par M. Pamphile Lemay; La Noël
au Canada, par Louis Frechette.
Ce sont là de bons ouvrages, pour la plupart; quelques-uns même
excellenits; mais en vérité ils ne rejettent pas dans lombre les produc-
tions littéraires des meilleurs écrivains anglais contemporains du Canada.
Nos publicistes, nos nouvellistes, forment une élite brillante. Sur-
tout ceux de Montréal, des jeunes pour la plupart, manient une plume
alerte et fa-oile. Ils n'ont pas, cependant, fait oublier Buies, Faucher
de Saint-Maurice, Lusignen, Taché, Dessaulles, Chauveau, Aubin,
Montixttit.
Beaucoup de talent et quelque originalité; peu d'idées, s-ervies par
trop peu de travail et d'études.
Saluons l'entrée dans les lettres canadiennes de l'élément féminin.
Nos plus gracieux conteurs, et, à l'occasion, les plus malins, sont au-
jourd'hui des femmes, ce dont nos cœurs français se sentent doucement
émus.
Le journal, qui, il y a vingt-cinq ans, fournissait à grand'peine le
gîte, le couvert et l'apéritif à Provencher, à Oscar Dunn, à Cauchon, à
Fabre, à de Celles, à David, à Beaugrand, à Gérin, à Laberge, paie
aujourd'hui des rentes à Dansereau, à Tarte, à Langlois, à Tardivel, à
Pacaud. Est-il pour cela mieux fait? Plusieurs en doutent, malgré-
l'incontestable talent des rédacteurs de nos grands journaux contempo-
rains.
Paulo majora canamus. Parlons poésie. Les muses canadiennes
semblaient, depuis plusieurs années, assoupies parmi les sentes ombreuses
de THélicon. Elles s'éveillent; et voici qu'elles accordent leur luth
antique, dont elles accompagnent les chansons de Poisson, rêvant sous les
grands pins d'Arthabaskaville, et les hymnes lyriques de Chapman,
célébrant la France héroïque et les pures gloires du Canada.
D'autres encore parmi nos poètes vont boire aux ondes troublantes
de l'Hippocrène, cependant que les sœurs d'Apollon leur sourient.
Leurs chants, toutefois, ne couvrent pas la grande voix de Cré-
mazie, ni les éclats vibrants de Fauteur de la Légende d'un peuple.
Dans le domaine de la poésie, je crois, cependant, que nous occupons
toujours la première place, au Canada.
En est-il de même de l'histoire ? Nous avions* Charlevoix, Fer-
land, l'abbé Faillon, Suite, Casgrain, Edouard Richard, de Celles, Roy
et Gameau. La plupart sont morts, les autres n'écrivent plus. Allons-
nous vivre éternellement de leur gloire, à la façon dont les Espagnols
vivent de la gloire du Cid et de Cervantes ? Rien n'est plus déprimant
que de s'hypnotiser devantt un nom, et de se croire tous grands pad\îe
que Tun des nôtres le fut.
[poiRttK] MOUVEMENT CHEZ LES CANADIENS-FRANÇAIS 113
Le8 Anglais, M. Doughty, en collaboration avec l'honorable M.
Chapais, M. Parmalee et M. Chambers, viennent de nous donner six gros
volumes sur le siège de Québec et la bataille des Plaines d'Abraham.
Leurs historiens se nomment Price, Dawson, Wilson, Weir, Hop-
kins, Hannay, Kingsford et Boairinot — ces deux derniers viennent de
mourir.
Qu'avons-nous à opposer à ces ouvrages, d'un mérite inégal, il est
vrai, mais dont quelques-uns ont une valeur très réelle?
L'Histoire du Palais episcopal, par M.f^ Têtu; l'Histoire de Sainte-
Foyty par l'abbé Scott; V Histoire des Ursulines des Trois-Rivières,
Madame de Ste-Anne, par le père Charland, Labrador et Anticosti, par
l'abbé Huard; Les exploits d' Iberville et la Monongohela, par Ed. Bous-
seau; V Histoire de Saint-Luc, par l'abbé Moreau; Familles d'Yamc^
chiche, par F.-L. Desaulniers; l'Histoire de la paroisse de St-Liguori, par
l'abbé Dugas; l'Histoire de Charlesbourg, par M. Trudel; l'Histoire du
Séminaire de Nicolet, par l'abbé Douville; Sainte-Marguerite, par les
Sœurs de la Miséricorde; Frontenac et ses Amis, par Ernest Myrand;
Bases de l'Histoire d'Tamachiche, par Raphaël Bellemare; les Archives
Canadiennes, par Edouard Richard; Noces de diamant de la Société
Saint-Jean Baptiste, par M. H.-J.-J. Chouinard; Henri de Bernières,
par l'abbé Goseelin; Louis Joliette, par Ernest GTagnon; Lettres sur l'Ile
d' Anticosti, par M«f^ Guay; Une paroisse historique de la Nouvelle-
France, par M. l'abbé Scott; Abrégé de Fhistoire du Canada, par les
S(curs de la Charité; Petite histoire des Etats-Unis, par Sylva Clapîn;
De la fondation du Collège de Bimousici et de son fondateur, par l'abbé
Sylvain; Monographie de Saint-Ignace du Cap Saint-Ignace, par l'abbé
SiroÎB.
C'est beaucoup, surtout comme quantité; mais ce n'est pas
suffisant. Nous devons faire davantage et mieux encore.
L'histoire est une fontaine de Jouvence, où les peuples vont puiser
une étemelle jeunesse. La nôtre, sous bien des rapports, est incom-
parable. Abreuvons-nous plus souvent à son onde.
Les études sociales et économiques ne reçoivent pas* de notre part
l'attention qu'elles méritent, et c'est un malheur.
Par contre les questions de jurisprudence, de droit, de coutume,
formant le thème de nombreuses études publiées dans nos revues de
droit et dans des ouvrages et opuscules spéciaux. La basoche ne perd
pas ses droits dans la province de Québec.
Nos médecins n'écrivent guère le résultat de leurs expériences sur
leurs semblables. Ils se contentent des expériences de leurs confrères
étrangers. Ils guérissent leurs patients, et, au besoin, les enterrent,
sans bruit et sans ddssertations. Des obituaires font le plus clair de-
leur littérature. Ils se reposent en paix.
Sec. I, 1903. 8.
114 SOCIÉTÉ ROYALE DV CANADA
Un mouveanent de grande portée, dû à Tinitiative de TUniveisité
Laval, a été inauguré depuis quelques années, et produit déjà de très
excellents résultats. Je veux parler des cours de littérature française
donnés à Montréal et à Québec par des maîtres français, en même temps
que des concours littéraires ouverts à la jeunesse canadienne. Faisons
venir de France ou d'ailleurs les professeurs de français qui nous
manquent, en attendant que nous en produdsions nous-mêmes de
compétents.
A signaler aussi plusieurs conférences tout à fait remarquables:
celle de M. Tardivel, par exemple, sur La langue française au Canada;
celle de M. Nevers, Les Anglais et nous, et celles de M. Henri Bourassa,
sur La Orande Bretagne et le Canada et sur le Patriotisme canadien-
français.
Que dirai-je de nos artistes, architectes, peintres, sculpteurs,
chanteurs, musiciens?
La jeunesse canadienne, celle du Bas-Canada, est la plus brillante,
la plus étincelante, peut-être, qui soit au monde. Tous les talents
s'y trouvent en puissance, y abondent, y éclatent spontanément; et
cependant peu d'entre nos artistes arrivent à la grande gloire. C'est
que nous n'avons pas d'école de beaux-arts, et que nos enfants, pour la
plupart, sont trop pauvres pour aller étudier en Europe. Le Carnegie
qui voudrait prendre soin de nos artistes en herbe, leur donner la cul-
ture qui leur convient, serait plus glorieux que celui qui se charge de
nos bibliothèque publiques.
L(»s dramaturges français founiissent au monde son théâtre. Allons-
nous sous ce rapport rivaliser avec nos cousins d'outre-océan Atlantique?
On pourrait presque le croire au nombre des pièces qui ont été publiées
et jouées durant les deux dernières années et demie. Tragédie en
vers, Subercase, par le R. P. Brault; drame en vers, Veronica, par Louis
Frechette; Levis, drame historique en vers, par l'abbé Marcile; Pour
la Mairie, comédie en vers, par Arthur Geoffrion.
En prose, le Drapeau de Carillon, par David; Hindelang et de
Lorimicr, par Colombine; Les adieux du /7oc/e, par Madeleine ; Les houles
de neige, par de Montigny.
iSo.s auteurs dramatiques ne manquent certes pas de talent; mais
peut-être l'expérience de la seène et des situations scéniques leur fait-
elle quelque peu défaut.
Il me reste à parler de l'éducation — écoles primaires, collèges ot
couvents, écoles spéciales et écoles techniques.
L'éducation c'est l'arme de combat. Chaque homme s'arme à sa
taille, et chaque peuple selon ses nécessités ot ses lumières. Les
Espagnols ont les canons se cliargeant par la gueule; les Chinois, les
vieux mousquets du siècle dernier; les nègres d'Afrique, la pique et le
[poiribr] mouvement CHEZ LES CANADIENS-FRANÇAIS 118
javelot du moyen âge. Leurs années ne peuvent en aucune façon^ avec
tout Théroïsme qui autrefois les rendait victorieuses, supporter le choc
des bataillons modemee, armés de pièces perfectionnées.
L'éducation secondaire ne diffère guère chez nous de ce qu'elle
était il y a cent ans. Nous chargeons toujours nos canons par la gueule.
Les flatteurs
Présent le plus funeste
Que puisse Caire aux rods la colère céleste,
assurent aux autorités canadiennes, — et les mandarins du Céleste Em-
pire tiennent le même langage à leur reine douairière — qu^il ne faut
lien changer, rien ajouter aux anciennes méthodes, parce que ce serait
de l'impiété. Or, les mandarins* mènent TEmpire du Milieu, autrefois
le plus grand de toute la terre, à la désintégration; et nos tristes flat-
teurs canadiens seront cause que nos corps enseignants, à qui le Ca-
nada doit tant, douit le dévouement est digne de tant de respect, dont
les cours d'études étaient certainement les plus forts en Amérique, il y
a cent-cinquante ans, tomberont dans la déconsidération populaire, ai
leur néfaste influence prévaut pluadeurs années encore.
Ceux qui, parmi nous, aiment les congregations enseignantes à la
manière et avec la virile sincérité dont Fénelon aimait Louis XIV et
la royauté, sont comme lui renvoyés en disgrâce, s'ils ont l'audace de
dire au roi qu'il n'est pas un dieu et que ses courtisans le trompent et
le mènent à sa ruine.
Et personne, au Canada, n'ose toucher à l'arche sainte de l'édu-
cation secondaire et dire franchement la vérité. Il faut se taire ou
flatter lourdement.
Pour avoir eu la témérité d'écrire qu'un certain nombre, un trop
grand nombre, de professeurs dans nos collèges n'ont pas la compétence
requise pour enseigner ce qu'ils enseignent, et avoir proposé une certaine
réforme de ce côté-là, j'ai été banni de la société des honnêtes gens; on a
décrété que je suis un catholique dangereux; plusieurs estiment que je
ne suis plus catholique du tout; un journal de Troôs-Rivièrcs a démontré
que je suis un sectaire; et certain Recteur d'université, parfaitement
estimable d'ailleurs, en séance publique de fln d'année, a prouvé, avec
force palmarès et diplômes décernés honoris causa, que nos maisons
d'éducation fourni-ssent le plus haut enseignement qui se donne aujour-
d'hui dans le monde; que les mousquets qui ont fait nos pères
vainqueurs à Sainte-Foye, sont plus efficaces que le fusil Lcbel; que les
Canadiens doivent toujours en armer leurs enfants, et que moi, qui
pense différemment, je pourrais bien ne pas être un honnête homme.
Il est aussi malaisé, ici au Canada, de parier de réformes scolaires
les plus nécessaires et les plus essentielles, qu'il est dangereux de parler
de réformes politiques à la cour de la reine douaiirière des Fils du Ciel.
116 SOCIÉTÉ ROYALE DU CANADA
Messieurs et chers collègues, je vous laisse, pour ce qu'elles valent,
ces conclusions, qui sont honnêtes, si elles ne sont pas tout à fait
optimistes.
Pouvons-nous, en notre qualité de membres de la Société Royale,
faire quelque chose pour le progrès et Tavancement des nôtres?
Pouvons-nous exercer une action utile sur le mouvement intellectujel
canadien, dans le domaine des lettres, des arts, des sciences et de
l'éducation ?
Si nous le pouvons, nous le devons, cela dût-il nous causer quelque
effort sérieux; dût-il en résulter quelque inconvénient personnel pour
nous.
Section I, 1903 [ ^17 ] Mémoires S. R. C.
V. — Le Père Bebastien Rasles, jésuite, missionnaire chez les Abénaquis,
1657-1724.
Par N.-E. Dionne, M.D., LL.D.
Bibliothécaire de la Législature de la Province de Qu6bec.
(Lu le 20 mai 1903).
En 1894 paraissait à Albany, capitale de Fétat de New- York, un
gros volume de 450 pages, intitulé : The Pioneers of New France in New
England, par James Phinney Baxter, A.M., auteur de plusieurs autres
ouvrages historiques d'une certaine importance. Ces écrits ont apporté
à leur auteur de la notoriété et du prestige dans le monde américain.
Son dernier, celui dont nous allons nous occuper, touche à un sujet
essentiellement canadien. Malgré le titre général qu'il porte, il n'est
en réalité qu'une relation détaillée de la vie du Père Sébastien Basles,
jésuite célèbre qui, de 1689 à 1724, année de sa mort, consacra son
talent, son énergie et son zèle d'apôtre à convertir les sauvages, et qui,
après avoir fourni la plus laborieuse carrière, comme aussi la plus mou-
vementée, fut tué par les Anglais, dans sa mission abénaquise de Nan-
rantsouak, sur les bords de la rivière Kennebec.
Cette mort tragique aurait pu amener des comjplications sérieuses,
si le gouverneur de la Nouvelle-France l'eut voulu. Mais il resta plu-
tôt dans l'indifférence, au grand regret des sauvages, qui avaient perdu
Uur missionnaire en même temps que l'espoir de continuer à demeurer
dans le pays de leurs ancêtres. La mission de Nanrantsouak finit donc
avec la disparition du Père Sa^iles, et bientôt un grand gilence se fit dans
ces contrées où les Abénaquis avaient vécu pendant de longues années,
80 croyant maîtres chez eux.
La mémoire du Père Easles serait vite tombée dans l'oubli, si des
historiens, Charlevoix surtout, n'eussent conservé la tradition à son
sujet. Cette tradition, respectable à tous égards, fut toujours res-
pfctce, du moins dans les grandes lignes. Les historiens américains
i/cnt guère contredit Charlevoix à venir jusqu'à l'apparition du livre
de M. Baxter. Ce dernier a déployé tant de zèle et mis un si grand
soin à parfaire son œuvre, que nous nous croyons justifiable de l'appré-
cier à sa juste valeur, sans arrière pensée comme sans préjugés.
Dans sa préface, M. Baxter commence par afiirmer, sans preuves,
que le témoignage de Charlevoix ne vaut que ce que valent générale-
118 SOCIÉTÉ ROYALE DU CANADA
nient les récits de voyageurs qui recueillent des notes ici et là, plus ou
TQoins véridiques, les rédigent au hasard de la plume, et puis les lancent
oans le publie sous forme de livre. Voilà une très grave affirmation,
d^autant plus grave qu^elle s'adresse au plus ancien historien de la Nou-
velle-France, à un écrivain des plus féconds et des plus érudits, à celui
qui a été l^inspirateur de tous les historiens du Canada, des Etats-Unis,
et même de France, qui se sont occupés des Canadiens-français. Person-
nellement nous avions toujours été sous l'impression que le jésuite
Charlevoix avait préparé son bel ouvrage sur le Canada avec le plus
grand soin, ayant sous les yeux d'abondantes notes et une masse de
documents propres à le guider dans l'élaboration de son œuvre.
K'étions-nous pas justifiable de penser ainsi, quand tant d'écrivains,
anglais et français, protestants et catholiques, l'avaient toujours cité
ccmme un historien digne de foi, ou, sans le citer, lui avaient em-
prunté, sans lui en donner crédit, une foule de détails qu'ils auraient
toujours ignorés sans lui?
Dans ce concert d'éloges nous omettrons systématiquement les
écrivains français, dont l'autorité pourrait être suspecte à plusieurs,
précisément à cause de leur nationalité. Tenons-nous-en donc aux
auteurs anglais ou anglo-américains. Ouvrons John Gilmary Shea à
la préface de son excellente traduction de Charlevoix. Que dit-il:
** The history of New France, by Father Charlevoix, is too well known
end too highly esteemed both for style and matter to need any explan-
ation of its scope or object here. The praise of Gibbon will alone
assure the English reader that as an historical work it is of incon-
siderable merit."
Nous n'avons pu retracer nulle part l'opinion de Gibbon dont parle
ici Shea, mais il n'y a pas de doute que le célèbre historien anglais se
prononce favorablement à l'égard de l'ouvrage de Charlevoix.
Nous trouvons dans un ouvrage de date récente, intitulé : *T)iction-
ary of American Literature," deux appréciations de VHûtoire de la Nou-
telle-France, qui sont loin d'être malveillantes. La première est de
l'red. W. Ilodge, du bureau ethnologique de Washington. Il s'ex-
prime ainsi: "The author, a French Jesuit, well known for his monu-
iricntal History of New France, was an acute observer. . . His Letters
aie replete in valuable information regarding the Indian tribes and
settlements visited, etc."
La seconde est de M. Charles W. Colby, professeur d'histoire à
l'Université McGill de Montréal : " Charlevoix, dit-il, had command of
invaluable sources and shows undoubted cleverness."
Voici une autre opinion provenant d'un historien fort distingué
des Etats-Unis, Charles C. Smith, trésorier de la Société historique du
Massachusetts, qui a contribué pour une si large part au grand ouvra^re
Ldionni.] le Père Sébastien rasles 119
de Justin Winsor: "Narrative and critical history of America/'
"Among the later French writers the pre-eminience belongs* to the
Jesuit Father, Pierre François-Xavier de Charlevoix, who had access
to contemporaDeous materials, of which he made careful use; and his
statements have great weight, though he wrote many years after the
events he describes/'
Qu'est-il besoin de multiplier les opinions sur le mérite et l'auto-
rité du Père Charievoix, puisqu'il y en a tant qui l'afSrment et si peu
qui s'inscrivent en faux ? M. Baxter a-t-il oublié que l'historien de la
Nouvelle-France a résidé à Québec pendant plusieurs années, et qu'il a
dû profiter de son séjour ici pour se renseigner le mieux qu'il a pu sur
les événements de son temps? Soyons donc de bon compte, et don-
nons à chacun son dû. L'autorité de Charievoix est indéniable, et la
meilleure preuve que nous puissions en donner, est la persistance avec
laquelle tous les historiens du Canada et même des Etats-Unis le citent
Fons le contredire.
Ce point établi, entrons sans plus tarder dans la vie du Père Rasles,
que nous avons écrite avec la plus «étricte impartialité, oubliant pour
le quart d'heure notre origine française et notre titre de catholique.
II
Sébastien Rasles naquit à Pontarlier, dans la province de Lyon,
le 4 janvier 1657. Il entra au collège des Jésuites à Dole, le 24 sep-
tembre 1675. Après y avoir fait son noviciat, il fut nommé professeur
de cinquième au séminaire de Carpentras, où il séjourna deux ans,
puis il fut appelé à Nîmes, et successivement à Carpentras et à Lyon
pour enseigner la théologie. De là il passa à sa troisième année de
probation, et il partit pour le Canada le 23 juillet 1689. Pendant les
vingt-quatre années qui précédèrent sa vie de missionnaire, le Père
Kasles sut trouver assez de loisirs pour s'occuper de bonnes œuvres, et
l'on cite entre autres, la congrégation des jeunes ouvriers et celle des
portefaix de Lyon qu'il sut diriger avec un zèle admirable. "P:&r-
Fonne qui ne vit en lui une âme d'apôtre," écrit le Père de Rochemon-
icjx. " Dévouement, activité, vertu, santé de fer, il avait tout ce qu'il
fsut pour réu:?sir dans les missions sauvages; aussi ne fut-on pas étonné
dr le voir s'embarquer pour l'Amérique du Nord. Alors, on s'expliqua
également pourquoi ce religieux, si avare de son temps, aimant l'étude
et les œuvres de charité, faisait encore de la peinture et des ouvrages
(!e tour: tout cela devait un jour servir au futur apôtre dans les forêts
du Nouveau-Monde."^
Leê Jéêuites et la Nouvelle-France au XVIIe Siècle, vol. III. p. 470.
120 SOCIÉTÉ ROYALE DU CANADA
Arrivé à Québec le 13 octobre, le Père Kasles fut aussitôt envoyé
à la mission abénaquise de Saint-François de Sales * pour se mettre au
courant de la langue de ces sauvages. " A mon arrivée à Québec, écrit-
il à eon frère, je m'appliquai à apprendre la langue de nos sauvages.
Cette langue est très difficile, car il ne suffit pas d'en étudier les termes
et leur signification, et de se faire une provision de mots et de phrases,
il faut encore savoir le tour et l'arrangement que les sauvages leur
donnent, et que Ton ne peut guère attraper que par le commerce et la
fîéquentation de ces peuples."
Le Père Easles, doué comme il l'était d'une merveilleuse mémoire,
eut bientôt fait de se familiariser avec l'idiome abénaquis, comme il
apprit plus tard à parler avec correction l'illinois, l'outaouais et le
huron.
Le 13 août 1691 le Père liasles quitta Saint-François de Sales pour
83 rendre chez les Illinois qui venaient de perdre leur missionnaire.
Arrêté pendant plusieurs mois à Michillimakinac, il arriva enfin à des-
tination au printemps de 161)2. Dans une lettre à suu frère il nous
fait connaître avec un grand luxe de détails les mœurs et coutumes de
cce sauvages lointains au milieu desquels le père Marquette avait, dès
1674, jeté la bonne semence. Le Père Easles ne demeura avec eux que
perdant un an, après avoir opéré tout le bien que son ambition pour la
conquête des âmes avait dû lui suggérer.
En 1693, enfin, le Père Rasles fut appelé à prendre le chemin de
la mission abénaquise de Xanrantsouak, petit village situé à six milles
de Xorridgewock, presque vis-à-vis l'embouchure de la rivière Sandy,
clans le Kennebec. C'est là qu'il pa^ïsera les trente dernières années
de sa vie, avec ses chers Abénaquis, dont il avait déjà appris par rd'au-
tre« missionnaires les excellentes dispositions à l'égard de la religion
catholique et aussi des Français avec qui ils vivaient dans une douce
alliance depuis de longues années déjà. Etant plus rapproches des
centres anglais, les Abénaquis de Xanrantsouak entretenaient des rap-
ports commerciaux plus fréquents et plus suivis avec les négociants
de Boston qu'avec ceux de Québec. Mais ils n'allaient pas au delà,
restant toujours attachés aux Français et à la religion qui était com-
mune aux deux nations. Les Anglais, eux, voyaient d'un mauvais œil
cette amitié; ils auraient préféré s'attacher une peuplade qui, par sa
nature belliqueuse, pouvait décider du sort des armes entre les deux
peuples rivaux du continent américain. Pour arriver à leur fin, ils
eurent recours à divers moyens qu'il est bon de mettre au jour, afin de
' Cette mission était à une Ueue et demie environ de Québec, dans les
parages du saut de la Chaudière. Ole avait été ouverte durant l'été de 1683.
et les jésuites l'avaient appelée Saint-Francois-d^-Sales. parce qu'ils en
avaient conçu l'idée, le 29 Janvier, Jour où tombe la fête de ce saint.
[dionnk] le Père Sébastien raslks 121
mieux faire coir prendre la conduite du père Rasles au cours des événe-
njents qui vont iuivre.
Au moment même où le Père prenait possession de sa nouvelle
fonction, les Abénaquis concluaient avec les Anglais fortifiés à Pema-
quid un traité de paix, qui ne devait pas être de longue durée, car avant
Fexpiralion d'une année, ils avaient fait irruption sur les établisse-
ments de la Nouvelle-Angleterre.
Au mois de novembre 1694, Bomaseen, chef des Abénaquis de
Nanrant&ouak, accourait à Pemaquid, demandant à parler au capitaine
March, commandant du fort. Il se déclara fort ennuyé des aggres-
sions de ses congénères, et il assura March que son plus grand désir
était d'y mettre un terme. March ne voulut pas Tôcouter, comme il
aurait dû, et il fit arrêter Bomaseen puis" incarcérer à Boston comme
traître et suspect. Quelque temps auparavant, les Anglais avaient
pris quatre Abénaquis et les avaient mis à l'ombre. Cette conduite fut
loin de rencontrer l'approbation générale. Hutchinson, le grand
historien du Massachusetts dont l'opinion est assez accréditée, n'hésite
pias à déclarer que ces actes de violence ne peuvent être excusés. " C'est
une de ces actions, dit-ol, qui ont été la cause que les Anglais furent
accusés d'injustice à l'égard des sauvages, en les provoquant ainsi à
toutes les cruautés qu'ils ont commises pour se venger d'eux."
L'exaspération des Abénaquis, à la vue de tant d'actes hostiles de
la part d'une nation qu'ils détestaient d'avance, parvint bientôt à son
comble. Témoin de ces faits, le Père Rasles aurait bien voulu faire
consentir les sauvages à rester tranquilles, mais comment leur faire
saisir que l'esprit de vengeance est indigne d'un bon chrétien,
quand eux n'y voyaient qu'un acte de courage et même de vertu ? Tout
de même il réussit à leur faire comprendre qu'il valait mieux attendre
des circonstances ])lus favorables pour obtenir des Anglais ce qu'ils
demandaient, c'est-à-dire la reconnaissance de leur droit à rester
maîtres chez eux.
Le traite de Riswyck, signé en 1698, vint jeter un peu d'eau froide
sur les ardeurs guerrières des Abénaquis, bien qu'il ne réglât pas la
sempiternelle question des limites de l'Acadie. Aux yeux des Anglais,
le territoire habité par les sauvages de Nanrantsouak restait toujours
attaché à leur domaine, tandis que les Français le réclamaient pour eux.
Le fait est qu'il n'ap;partenait ni à l'une ni à l'autre des deux nations.
Les Abénaquis prétendaient rester les maîtres du sol à titre de primi
occupantis, de même que les Iroquois que personne n'avait encore trou-
blés sous ce rapport parce qu'on les savait trop redoutables. Pourquoi
l'Angleterre agissait-elle autrement à l'égard des Abénaquis ? Est-ce
parce qu'ils étaient plus faibles, moins populeux? Quoique valeu-
reux, les Abénaquis ne demandaient pas mieux que de vivre en paix
122 SOCIÉTÉ ROYALE DU CANADA
avec leurs voisins, Français et Anglais, mais à condition que leurs terres
ne fussent pas envahies par les étrangers.
Neuf années s'étaient déjà écoulées depuis le jour où le Père Rasles
avait mis le pied sur le rivage du Kennebec; son œuvre de missionnaire
portait des fruits de salut, mais elle était sans cesse exposée à subir de
terribles assauts. Le voisinage des Anglais était un danger constant
pour la foi des Abénaquis; s'ils prêtaient allégeance à TAngleterre,
c'eût été périlleux. Aussi préférait-il les voir rester en bons termes
avec les Français, leurs amis de vieille date. En 1703, le gouverneur
Dudley fit demander aux Abénaquis une entrevue à Oasco, afin de leur
soumettre ses projets à leur égard. Il leur fixait la date du 20 juin.
Ceux-ci consentirent, mais à la condition que le Père Rasles assisterait
aux délibérations, afin, disaient-ils, que tout se passât sans préjudice à
leur religion et au roi de France. Le missionnaire ne se souciait pas
de prendre .part à cette conférence, ne fût-ce qu'à titre de témoin muet,
car il savait d'avance qu'il n'en résulterait rien de bon pour ses ouailles.
Cependant, de guerre lasse, il finit par consentir à les accompagner,
suivant sa coutume.
" Je me trouvai, dit-il, où je ne souhaitais pas être, et où le gou-
verneur ne souhaitait pas que je fusse." De son côté le gouverneur
avait eu la précaution de se faire accompagner d'un ministre de son
culte. Son adresse aux Abénaquis est acquise à l'histoire. " C'est par
ordre de notre reine, dit-il aux sauvages réunis, que je viens vous voir;
elle souhaite que nous vivions en paix. Si quelque Anglais était assez
imprudent pour vous faire du tort, ne songez pas à vous en venger,
mais adressez-moi aussitôt votre plainte, et je vous rendrai une prompte
justice. S'il arrivait que nous eussions la guerre avec les Français,
demeurez neutres, et ne vous mêlez point de nos différends: les Fran-
çais sont aussi forts que nous; ainsi, laissez-nous vider ensemble nos
querelles. Nous fournirons à tous vos besoins, nous prendrons vos
pelleteries, et nous vous donnerons nos marchandises à un prix modi-
que."
Puis, prenant à part le Père Rasles, le gouverneur anglais lui dit:
^* Je vous prie, monsieur, de ne pas porter vos Indiens à nous faire la
guerre." Ce à quoi le missionnaire répondit avec la plus ferme assu-
rance: "Ma religion et mon caractère de prêtre m'engagent à ne leur
donner que des conseils de paix." *
C'était au tour des sauvages à prendre la parole. L'un d'eux
s'avançant auprès du gouverneur, lui dit dans son langage à lui:
" Grand Capitaine, tu nous* dis de ne point nous joindre au Français,
■ Lettres édifiantes ei curieuses, écrites des missions étrangères, Paris, 1781, t. VI,
pp. 202-203.
* Ibidem, p. 203.
[dionnb] le Père Sébastien raslks 128
supposé (Jue tu lui déclares la guerre; sache que le Français est mon
frère ; nous avons une même prière lui et moi, et nous sommée dans une
même cabane à deux feux, il a un feu et moi Tautre. Si je te vois
entrer dans la cabane du côté du feu où eet assis mon frère le Français,
je t'observe de dessus ma natte, où je suis assis à Tautre feu. Si, en
t'observant, je m'aperçois que tu portes une hache, j'aurai la pensée:
que prétend faire l'Anglais de cette hache ? Je me lève pour lors sur
ma natte, pour considérer ce qu'il fera. S'il lève la hache pour frapper
mon frère le Français, je prends la mienne et je cours à l'Anglais pour
le frapper. Est-ce que je pourrais vodr frapper mon frère dans ma
cabane, et demeurer «tranquille sur ma natte ? Non, non, j'aime trop
mon frère, pour ne pas le défendre. Ainsi je te dis, grand capitaine,
ne fais rien à mon frère et je ne te ferai rien; demeure tranquille sur
ta natte, et je demeurerai en repos sur la mienne." '
Ainsi finit cette conférence. L'Anglais s'en retourna chez lui sans
avoir pu faire consentir les Abénaquis à rester indifférents dans les luttes
qui pouvaient éclater d'un jour à l'autre entre les colonies française
et anglaise d'Amérique. Le fait est que peu de temps après l'on apprit
à Nanrantsouak par des suuvages de retour de Québec, que la guerre
était allumée entre la France et l'Angleterre. Aussitôt les sauvages
ouvrirent leur conseil, et après avoir mûrement délibéré sur ce qu'ils
devaient faire, ils ordonnèrent aux jeunes gens de tuer les chiens pour
le festin de guerre ;'ron ferait ce jour-là le recrutement des guerriers.
Le festin eut lieu, et 250 Abénaquis s'engagèrent à prendre les armes
contre les* Anglais. Puis tous coururent se confesser au père Rasles.
'•Je les exhortai, dit-il, à être aussi attachés à leur prière que s'ils
étaient au village, à bien observer les lois de la guerre, à n'exercer au-
cune cruauté, à ne tuer personne que dans la chaleur du combat, à
traiter humainement ceux qui se rendraient prisonniers, etc."
Les 250 guerriers Abénaquis se dispersèrent ensuite sur le terri-
toire anglais par groupes variables, et au jour fixé pour fra^p,per un
grand coup, ils firent main basse sur les villages désignés d'avance,
tuèrent deux cents personnes et ramenèrent cent cinquante prison-
niers.
Pendant tout le temps que dura cette guerre néfaste, les Abéna-
quis ne cessèrent pas de porter la désolation sur le territoire anglais,
ravageant les villages, détruisant les métairies et les forts, enlevant les
bestiaux et grossissant le chiffre de leurs prisonniers.
Ces drames sanglants devaient susciter de terribles représailles de
la part des Anglais. Durant l'hiver de 1705, le colonel Hilton, à la
tête de 275 soldats munis de provisions pour trois semaines, furent
*Ibid,, p. 204, Penihallow rapporte autrement cette entrevue.
124 SOCIÉTÉ ROYALE DU CANADA
envoyés à Nanrantsouak pour s'emparer du père Easles et saccager le
village. Les Abénaquis ayant eu vent de cette expédition, et se sentant
incapables de résister à un ennemi aussi puissant, se sauvèrent dans les
boiB, abandonnant leur viHage à l'ennemi. Celui-ci brûla Tegli&e, les
cabanes et s'en retourna sans plus de succès. Le Père Rasles, de son
côté, rapporte que les Abénaquis étaient absents de leur village, mais
nullement par suite de la peur des Anglais.
Le traité d'Utrecht signé en 1713 vint mettre fin à ces hostilités
qui, somme toute, n'eurent d'autre résultat que de remettre en ques-
tion les droits que possédait l'Angleterre sur l'Acadie et sur le terri-
toire occupé par les Abénaquis. Au lieu de nommer des commissaires
qui eussent fixé la ligne de démarcation entre les deux colonies, en con-
servant les ancienncB limites, comme l'avait proposé le Père ■ Aubery
dans ses Mémoires à la cour. Ton eut recours de part et d'autre au
statu quo. C'était ouvrir la porte à de nouvelles contestations, qui ne
pouvaient être réglées amicalement, chacune des colonies s'en tenant à
ses vieilles prétentions. Les Abénaquis devaient souffrir de cet état
de choses.
Aux premières nouvelles de la paix, le gouverneur de la Nouvelle-
Angleterre lit savoir aux sauvages qu'il désirait les rencontrer à Ports-
mouth, afin de conférer avec eux sur la présente conjoncture des affaires.
L'entrevue eut lieu à l'endroit fixé d'avance, à la date du 11 juillet 1713.
Il leur parla comme suit : " Toi homme Xaranhous, je t'apprends que
la paix ost faite entre le Roi de France et notre Reine, le Roi de France
cède à notre Reine Plaisance et Port-Royal avec toutes les terres adja-
centes. Ainsi, si tu veux, nous vivrons en paix toi et moi: nous y étions
autrefois, mais les suggestions des Français te l'ont fait rompre, et
c'est pour lui plaire que tu es venu nous tuer. Oublions toutes ces mé-
chantes affaires, et jetons-les dans la mer, afin qu'elles ne paraissent
plus, et que nous soyons bons amis."
" Cela est bien, répondit l'un des sauvages, que les Rois soient en
paix, j'en suis bien aise, et je n'ai pas de peine non plus à la faire
avec toi. Ce n'est |>oint moi qui t« frappe depuis douze ans, c'est le
Français qui s'est servi de mon bras pour te frapper. Nous étions en
paix, il est vrai, j'avais même jeté ma hache je ne sais où, et comme
j'étais en repos sur ma natte, ne pensant à rien, des Jeunes gens m'ap-
portèrent une parole que le gouverneur du Canada m'envoyait, par la-
quelle il me disait: mon fils, l'Anglais m'a frappé, aide-moi à m'en
venger, prends ta hache, et frappe l'Anglais. Moi qui ai toujours écou-
té la parole du gouverneur Français, je cherche ma hache, je la trouve
enfin toute rouillée, je l'accommode, je la pends à ma ceinture pour te
venir frapper. Maintenant le Français me dit de la mettre bas; je la
Idionnb] le Père Sébastien rasles 128
jette bien loin, pour qu'on ne voie plus le sang dont elle est rougie.
Aînsi, vivons en paix, j'y consens.
"Mais tu dis que le Français t'a donné Plaisance et Port Eoyal,
qui est dans mon voisinage, avec toutes les terres adjacentes; il te
donnera tout ce qu'il voudra, pour moi j'ai ma terre que le Grand
Génie m'a donnée pour vivre : tant qu'il y aura un enfant de ma nation,
il combattra pour la conserver/'
Cette deuxième conférence n'eut pas de résultats plus heureux que
la première pour les Anglais de la Nouvelle-Angleterre. Les Abénaquis
consentaient bien à garder la plus stricte neutralité, tant qu'il n'y aurait
pas de guerre entre leurs deux voisins d'origine européenne. Ils surent
profiter de la suspens on d'annes pour rebâtir leur église que les Anglais
avaient détruite. Ils s'adressèrent à Boston pour obtenir les ouvriers
nécessaires. Informé de leurs démarches, le gouverneur leur fit dire
qu'il bâtirait leur église à ses frais, s'ils consentaient à recevoir chez
eux un ministre protestant et à renvoyer le Père Easles à Québec. IjCs
sauvages refusèrent cette offre, en disant que le gouverneur français
relèverait leur chapelle de ses ruines, s'ils lui demandaient cette faveur.
C'est en effet ce qui eut lieu, et ils virent bientôt se dresser un temple
d'assez bonne dimension que le Père Rasles, avec son talent universel,
sut orner avec goût et même avec un certain luxe.* " J'ai bâti, dit-il
dans une lettre à son neveu, du 15 octobre 1722, une église qui est
propre et très ornée. J'ai cru ne devoir rien épargner ni pour la déco-
ration ni pour la beauté des ornements, qui servent à nos saintes céré-
monies: parements, chasubles, chapes, vases sacrés, tout y est propre,
et serait estimé dans nos églises d'Europe. Je me suis fait un petit
clergé d'environ quarante jeunes sauvages qui assistent au service divin
en soutane et en surplis. 11 ont chacun leurs fonctions. . .. Le grand
luminaire ne contribue pas peu à la décoration de l'église; je n'ai pas
lieu de ménager la cire, car ce pays m'en fournit abondamment."
La nation abénaquise était profondément chrétienne. Le Père
Easles lui rend ce témoignage dans les lettres qui sont restées de lui.
" Tous mes néo])hytes, dit-il, ne manquent pas de se rendre deux fois
par jour à l'office, dès le grand matin pour y entendre la messe, et le
soir pour assister à la prière que je fais au cou-cher du soleil. Comme
il est nécessaire de fixer l'imagination des sauvages, trop aisés à se dis-
traire, j'ai composé des prières propres à les faire entrer dans l'esprit
de l'auguste sacrifice de nos autels; ils les chantent ou bien ils les réci-
tent à haute voix pendant la messe. Outre les prédications que je leur
faifi, les dimanches et fêtes, je ne passe guère de jours ouvriers sans-
leur faire une courte exhortation. Après la messe, je fais le catéchisme
• Francis raconte autrement Thlstodre de cette conatructlon, p. 242-243.
126 SOCIÉTÉ ROYALE DU CANADA
aux enfante et aux jeunes gens: grand nombre de personnes âgées y
assistent . . . . Le reste de la matinée jusqu'à midi est destiné à entendre
tous ceux qui ont à me parler. C'est alors qu'ils viennent en foule me
faire part de leurs peines et de leurs inquiétudes, ou me consulter sur
leurs affaires particulières.. .. L'après-midi, je visite les malades et
je parcours les cabanes de ceux qui ont besoin de quelque instruction
particulière. S'ils tiennent un conseil, ce qui arrive souvent parmi les
sauvages, ils me députent un des principaux de l'assemblée, pour me
prier d'assister au résultat de leurs délibérations. Je me rends aussi-
tôt au lieu où &e tient le conseil; si je juge qu'ils prennent un sage
parti, je l'approuve; si, au contraire, je trouve à dire à leur décision, je
leur déclare mon sentiment que j'appuie de quelques raisons solides, et
ils s'y conforment. Mon avis fixe toujours leurs résolutions. Il n'y
a pas jusqu'à leurs festins où je suis appelé."
Le fait est que les missionnaires chez 'les «ppuplades abénaquises,
jouirent toujours d'un grand prestige. Aussi méritaient-ils tous, sans
en excepter un seul, qu'on les écoutât, qu'on leur obéît même dans les
circonstances difiSciles de leur existence comme peuple. Leurs avis
ou lours conseils étaient généralement marqués au coin de la plus pro-
fonde sagci^se, parce qu'ils étaient désintéressés. Voili qui explique
pourquoi les Anglais de la Nouvelle-Angleterre accusèrent toujours les
missionnaires d'être la cause des malheurs qui leur tombaient sur le dos
chaque fois que TAbénaquis déterrait sa hache de guerre. Ils en voulu-
rent tout particulièrement au Père Sasles, rendu plus suspect que tout
autre à raison de sa longue carrière comme missionnaire, et à raison
surtout des circonstances qui voulurent que cette période de 1694 à
1723 fut plus particulièrement mouvementée. Glissons, en outre, sur
la question religieuse, sur la grande lutte du protestantisme contre le
catholicisme, qui dans ces temps reculés, primait peut-être la ques-
tion politique. Un jésuite était considéré par les sectes protestantes
comme un homme hors la loi, un être à part, qu'on pouvait injurier,
bafouer impunément.^ Le Père Kasles ne devait pas faire exception à
la règle établie, et Ton verra plus tard comment on s'y prit pour lui
enlever son autorité et le bâillonner à tout jamais.
Persuadé maintenant que sa démarche auprès des Abénaquis avait
abouti à un fiasco, le gouverneur Dudley résolut de changer de tacti-
que. Il connaissait l'attachement de ces sauvages à leur progéniture,
il leur envoya un ministre de son culte avec instruction d'ouvrir une
école à Old-Town, sur les rives du Kennebec, et de pensionner les
enfants aux frais de son gouvernement. C'était les prendre par leur
' Un acte de la cour générale du Massachusetts, du 15 Juin 1700, chassait
les jésuites de la province, à l'égal d'un Incendiaire, etc.
[dionxe] le Père Sébastien rasles 127
côté sensible, le cœur et la bourse. Le ministre-instituteur s^installa
donc au milieu des sauvages, attendant la venue des élèves. Le recrute-
ment marcha mal. Deux mois &''étaient écoulés et pas un seul enfant
n^avait fait acte de présence. Pourtant le révérend M. Baxter — " c'était
son nom — n^avait rien négligé pour réussir, d'autant moins que son
salaire devait augmenter dans la proportion du nombre de ses élèves:
présents, caresses, bons procédés de toute nature, rien n'y fit; les sauva-
ges se montraient irréconciliables. Ne sachant que faire, il crut gagner
son point en essayant d'endoctriner son entourage; il jeta le ridicule sur
les dogmes de la religion et sur les pratiques des catholiques, comme la
récitation du chapelet, le culte des images, etc. " Je crus, écrit le Père
Basles, devoir m'opposer à ces premières semences de séduction. J'écri-
vis une lettre honnête au ministre, où je lui marquais que mes chrétiens
savaient croire les vérités que la Foi catholique enseigne, mais qu'ils ne
savaient pas en disputer; que n'étant pas assez habiles pour résoudre les
difficultés qu'il proposait, il avait apparemment dessein qu'elles me
fussent communiquées, que je saisissais avec plaisir cette occasion qu'il
m'offrait d'en conférer avec lui, ou de vive voix, ou par lettres."
Le Père.Rasles composa donc un long Mémoire de près de cent
pages, où il se faisait l'apologiste de la religion catholique, de ses dogmes
et de son culte, et il le fit parvenir au révérend M. Baxter. Celui-ci
quitta aussitôt Old-Town pour Boston, où il prépara avec soin sa ré-
ponse. Le document est en latin,^ mais d'un latin vulgaire que le Père
Rasles put sans doute comprendre suffisamment pour pouvoir réfuter
les erreurs théologiques qu'il renfermait; il en fit part à son contradic-
teur. Se sentant incapable de continuer la discussion, If. Baxter se
contenta d'écrire au Père Kasles, l'accusant d'être un homme colère, un
etçpit chagrin, etc. — beaucoup de personnalités, mais peu d'arguments
à l'appui de sa thèse anticatholique.
Malgré sa récente déconfiture, le gouverneur Dudley ne se tint pas
pour battu/ Cette fois le danger pour les- Abénaquis allait prendre des
proportions beaucoup plus grandes, parce qu'îls tombèrent dans le
panneau de leur propre gré. Un marchand bostonnais leur ayant de-
mandé la permission d'établir un comptoir sur les bords du Kennebec,
ils y consentirent Fans refléchir aux conséquences. Bientôt il en arriva
• Le révérend Joseph Baxter était né à Braintree, Mass., en 1676. De 1696
à 1717, 11 fut recteur de l'église de Medfield, qu'il abandonna pour se rendre
à Arrowsic, maintenant Georgetown, Maine. Il mourut en 1745.
• Un latdniste distingué à qui nous avons communiqué les lettrée du révé-
rend M. Baxter, nous écrit: " Somme toute, la latinité du ministre pro-
testant laisse singulièrement à désirer, et sa lettre méritait pour la plupart
des phrases qu'on y lit cette censure du Père Rasles: Tu anglice loqueris utendo
verbis latinis. On y remarque plusieurs tournures anglaises, des fautes gixw-
frtères contre la grrammaire, des termes impropres, etc."
128 SOCIÉTÉ ROYALE DU CANADA
un second, et puis un troisième. Pincdement, ils devinrent si nombreux
que lee Abénaquis commencèrent à s^alarmer, surtout lorsqu'ils s^aperçu-
rent qu'ils érigeaient des petits forts pour se mettre en sûreté. Ils
comprirent, qu'à la première occasion, il y aurait rupture de bons procé-
dés et qu'une guerre pourrait surgir entre eux. Ils députèrent quel-,
ques-unfl des leurs auprès du marquis de Vaudreuil, gouverneur de la
Nouvelle-France, afin d'obtenir du secours des Français! Celui-ci, qui
ne voulait pas prendre d'engagement en temps de paix, répondit évasive-
ment qu'il leur fournirait des armes et des munitions. Mais les Abéna-
quis insistèrent, et déclarèrent qu'ils* chafiseraient tous les étrangers.
Français comme Anglais, si on les abandonnait à leurs seules ressources.
Le gouverneur protesta alors '^qu'il marcherait même à leur tête, plutôt
que de les abandonner à la merci des Anglais." Les délégués se reti-
rèrent à demi-satisfaiite, n'ajoutant pas trop foi à la sincérité de M. de
Vaudreuil ; la suite des événements devait leur donner raison.
Peu de temps après, quelques Abénaquis étaient à trafiquer paisi-
blement leurs pelleteries chez un négocient anglais, lorsqu'ils s'aperçu-
rent que la maison était entourée d'une couple de cents hommes armés.
" Nous sommes morts, s'écrie l'un d'eux, vendons cher notre vie." Et
les voilà qui arment leurs fusils, prêts à faire feu contre ces ennemis
redoutables. " Ne vous alarmez pas, répartit l'Anglais, nous ne vou«
voulons pas de mal. Nous venons seulement vous prier d'envoyer à
Boston quelques-uns de vos chefs pour y conférer avec le gouverneur
sur les moyens" d'entretenir la ppix entre les deux nations." Toujours
crédules, les sauvages députèrent quatre des leurs à Boston, et là on les
fait prisonniers, au mépris du droit des gens*, car on était alors en pleine
paix. Les représentations des Abénaquis n'eurent d'autre résultat que
d'aggraver la situation; après leur avoir arraché pour deux cents francs
de peaux de castor, comme rachat des prisonniers, le gouverneur n'en
continua pas moins à les garder soi-disant comme otages.
Les sauvages, de plus en plus irrités, auraient fondu comme des
lions sur les colons anglais, si le missionnaire ne s'y était opposé dç
toutes ses forces. Ils durent se contenter d'adresser au gouverneur de
Boston une lettre-ultimatum, dont voici la substance: lo Les Abéna-
quins ne peuvent comprendre pourquoi on retenait leurs députés dans
les fers, après la parole qu'on avait donnée de les rendre aussitôt que
les deux cents livres de castor seraient payées; 2o ils ne sont pas moins
surpris de voir qu'on s'empare de leur pays sans leur agrément; 3o les
Anglais devront en sortir au plus tot ou élargir les prisonniers; ils atten-
dront leur réponse dans deux mois, et si, après ce temps-là, on refuse de
les satisfaire, ils sauront bien se faire justice."
[diommb] le Père Sébastien rasles 129
Dudley répondit à cette sommation en s'emparant du jeune baron
de Saint-Castin, dont la mère était Abénciquise, et en l^incarcérant à
Boston, puis en mettant à prix la tête du père Rasles. " On était per-
suadé à Boston, dit Charlevoix, que ce missionnaire serait toujours un
obstacle invincible au dessein qu^on y avait formé àe s'emparer peu à
peu de tout le pays qui sépare la Nouvelle- Angleterre de l'Acadie, parce
qu'en maintenant avec soin les néophytes dans la foi catholique, il res-
serrait de plus en plus les liens qui les unissaient aux Français. Après
plusieurs tentatives, d'abord pour engager ces sauvages par les offres
et les promesses les plus séduisantes à le livrer aux Anglais, ou du moins
à le renvoyer à Québec, et à prendre en sa place un de leurs ministres^
ensuite, pour le surprendre et l'enlever; les Anglais, résolus de s'en dé-
faire, quoi qu'il dût leur en coûter, mirent sa tête à prix, et promirent
mille livres sterling à celui qui la leur porterait. Tout cela ayant été
inutile, ils crurent enfin avoir trouvé une occasion de se saisir de sa per-
sonne, vers la fin de janvier 1722." "
Plus l'Anglais mettait d'acharnement à traquer le père Rasles, plus
les Abénaquis lui montraient de dévouement. Un jour le bruit courut
que les ennemis avaient envahi le quartier où logeait le missionnaire.
Aussitôt les Abénaquis décident de les ohaaser et de les poursuivre
jusque dans leurs derniers retranchements, dût-il leur en coûter la vie.
Mais, comme c'était une fausse alerte, les «fauvages durent se calmer.
De pareilles scènes se renouvelèrent souvent, et toujours les sauva-
ges se montrèrent disposés à la défendre. Voyant qu'un jour ou l'autre
il lui arriverait malheur, ils lui proposèrent de s'enfoncer plus avant
dans les terres vers Québec. Il leur répondit: "Quelle idée avez-vous
de moi ? Me prenez-vous pour uji lâche déserteur ? Hé ! que devien-
drait votre foi, si je vous abandonnais ? Votre salut m'est plus cher
que la vie." Au père de La Chasse qui, étant venu le voir, lui conseil-
lait de prendre des mesures pour mettre sa vie en sûreté, il disait:
" Mes mesures sont prises, Dieu m'a confié ce troupeau, je suivrai
son sort, trop heureux de m'immoler pour lui."
De son côté, le missionnaire, prévoyant le jour oii les Abénaquis
seraient chassés de leur pays par les Anglais, leur exprimait ses craintes
et les engageait à aller planter ailleurs leurs tentes. ^' Nous y consen-
tirons, répondaient los sauvages, à la condition que tu nous accompa-
gneras." " Impossible, je ne partirai pas, répliquait le Père, mon devoir
est de rester ici, pour donner les secours de mon ministère aux infir-
mes et aux vieillards. Je ne tiens pas à la vie; au contraire, je mourrai
avec joie dans ce village, en remplissant les devoirs* que Dieu m'a im-
posés. (Test d'ailleurs ce que je désire depuis longtemps. Quant à
>• Charlevodx, II, pp. 380-381.
Sec. 1,1903. 0.
130 SOCIÉTÉ BOY ALE DU CANADA
vous, rien ne vous' retient id. Fuyez, pour éviter une mort certaine."
Plusieurs écoutèrent la vodx du miseionnaire, et émigrèrent vers Qué-
bec en 1722.
Vers ce tempe-là, les Anglais résolurent encore une fois de s'empa-
rer du père Easles. Westbrooke, a la tête de deux cents hommes bien
déterminés, arrive à Timproviste au village de Naniantsouak. Heu-
reusement les Abénaquis ont ajp^ris l'appaiiition de la troupe ennemie,
et ils se sauvent dans les bois^ car il leur est impossible de se défendre,
la plupart d'entre eux sont à la chasse, et il ne reste au village que les
femmes, les vieillards et les infirmes. Le père Easles se sauve avec eux,
après avoir consommé les saintes espèces. Westbrooke arrive sur Fen-
trefaite et se met à la poursuite des sauvages, qu'il ne peut atteindre.
Le père Basics échappe comme par miracle à la vue des soldats qui,
rendus à dix pieds de sa cachette, rebroussent tout-à-coup phemdn.
Retournés au village, les soldats pillent l'église, la résidence du mission-
naire, enlèvent ses papiers, son dictionnaire abénaquie, " et toutes les
provisions qui leur tombent sous la main, puis ils s'en retournent dans
leur pays. Mais comme il leur fallait à tout prix la tête du père Basics,
ils organisèrent une nouvelle expédition qui, cette fois, devait réussir.
Westbrooke part de Boston le 4 mars 1723, s'empare de Penfcagoët
qu'il détruit de fond en comble, puis il se dirige sur Nanrantsouak, et
essaie à deux reprises de s'emjparer du père Basics*. Alors on redouble
ses forces. Une véritable armée s'organise à Boston et vient fondre à
] 'improviste sur le village des Abénaquis, dans la nuit du 24 août 1724.
Trop faibles pour se défendre, car ils ne sont 'qu'une cinquantaine de
guerriers valides, ils se sauvent à travers les bois, emmenant les femmes,
les vieillards et les enfants. Le bruit de la fusillade attire le Père
Basics en dehors* de sa chapelle. En l'apercevant les Anglais jettent
un grand cri de joie et font pleuvoir sur lui une grêle de balles. Il
tombe au pied d'une croix qu'il avait fait planter au milieu du village.
N'apercevant aucune résistance, les Anglais ' pillent les cabanes,
profanent les vases sacrés, puis incendient l'église. Après avoir massa-
cré quelques femmes et des enfants qui n'avaient pas eu le temps de
fuir, ils quittent précipitamment le village, conmie pris d'une terreur
subite.
Cent cinquante sauvages avaient échappé au massacre. Bevenus
dans leur village que l'incendie avait ruiné, ils aperçurent bientôt le
" Le manusc?rtt de ce dictionnaire, conservé à l'Université de Harvard,
est un petit in-quarto, et fut iniiprinîé dans les Mémoires de T Académie Amé-
ricaine des arts et des sciences, en 1833 (Vol. I, pp. 375 à 574.) Sur le pre-
mier feuillet le Père Rasles avait écrit: " 1691. Il y a un an que Je suis parmi
les sauvages, Je commenice à mettre en ordre en forme de "dictionnaire les
mots que J'ai)iprends." Il l'avait donc commencé lors de son séjour & la
mission de St-Francois de Sales.
[dionne] le Père Sébastien basles isi
cadavre du père Baales^ la chevdure enlevée, le crâne fracaesé, et tout
le corps mutilé. Ils s'emparèrent de la précieuse dépouille, et Tenseve-
lîrent à l'endroit même où, la veille, il avait célébré les saints mystères.
Le Père Rasles était dans la soixante-septième année de son âge;
il en avait consacré trente-quatre aux missions sauvages*. Avec lui s^é-
teigidt la mission de Nanrantsouak. Les* Abénaquis se disperBèrent un
peu partout, mais le gros de la nation vint échouer dans les missions du
Canada, où ils s'unirent à leurs frères pour continuer à vivre chrétien-
nement à l'ombre du drapeau de l'Eglise catholique. Leur foi ne s'est
jamais démentie depuis cette époque, grâce au zèle des missionnaires
qui ne ménagèrent rien pour leur ouvrir le Ciel.
m
Il ne nous reste plus maintenant qu'à rapporter les divers témoi-
gnages des écrivains qui ont mentionné dans leurs ouvrages le célèbre
missionnaire jésuite. L'édoge est la note générale, bien que chez quel-
ques-uns la louauge perde singulièrement de sa valeur à côté des criti-
ques plus ou moins acerbes de sa conduite. Ainsi Francis Convers, eon
principal biographe, après avoir ajouté à son nom les qualificatifs d'ambi-
tieux, de partisan, d'autocrate, d'arrogant, de caustique, finit par la
déclaration suivante: "Je ne puis analyser son histoire sans recevoir
l'impression qu'il fut pieux, dévoué, un homm« extraordinaire. Nous
avons devant nous un savant nourri au banquet de la science euro-
péenne, accoutumé aux raflSnements de l'une des nations les plus culti-
vées du vieux monde, qui dit adieu aux joies du foyer et aux attrac-
tions de sa terre natale, pour passer trente-cinq ans de ea vie au sein
des forêts, sur un rivage lointain, au milieu de sauvages dé-
goûtants, seul, sans compagnon, si ce n'est les féroces enfants des bois.
Avec eux il vécut comme un frère, comane un bienfaiteur, comme un
ami; partageant leur sort," leurs coutumee, leurs besoins, leurs périls,
les rigueurs du climat; tenant sa vie pour peu de chose dans l'accom-
plissement du devoir, et la terminant victime des dangers auxquels il
a dédaigné se soustraire. Il a fait tout cela dans le but d'amener au
bercail de son église ces hommes primitifs, où ils devaient, d'ajpirès lui,
apprendre à connaître le vérité et la lumière de la foi qui vient du
Ciel."
Si, réellement, le Père Rasles était un homme aussi extraordinaire
que l'a écrit Convers, comment pouvait-il être arrogant, autocrate, ambi-
tieux, etc. ? Voilà un exemple de -cet illogisme qui caractérise les
écrits de certains auteurs protestants lorsqu'ils- parlent des catholiques
ou du catholicisme, sans les connaître.
132 SOCIÉTÉ BOYALE DU CANADA
Francis prétend que le Père Easles se laissait guider dans ses actes
par cet article de la théologie catholique, qui veut (\ue la fin justifie les
moyens. M. Baxter lui-même semble vouloir insinuer la même chose,
par le fait que Pon trouva dans les papiers du Père Rasles Fouvrage du
Père Busembaum, intitulé : Medulla Theologicae Moralis, qui aurait émis
une semblable opinion. Or, rien de plus faux: ni FEglise catholique,
ni Busembaum, ni le père Ra&les n'ont professé une semblable doctrine.
Du reste, le seul fait que Touvrage de Busembaum ait été trouvé dans
la bibliothèque du Père Easles, n'est pas une preuve que celui-ci parta-
geait toutes les opinions. théologiqueis de son confrère.
Passons à d'autres témoignages. Le père de la Chasse, qui avait
connu intimement le Père Rasles, en parle avec éloge : " 11 était infati-
gable, écrivait-il, le 29 octobre 1724, à un religieux de son ordre, dans
les exerdces de son zèle; sans cesse occupé à exhori^r les sauvages à
la vertu, il ne pensait qu'à en faire de fervents chrétiens. Sa manière
de prêcher, véhémente et pathétique, faisait de vives impressions sur
les cœurs. . .. Il ne se contentait pas d'instruire presque tous les jours
les €jauvages dans son église, il les visitait souvent dans leurs cabanes;
ses entretiens familiers les charmaient; il savait les assaisonner d'une
gaieté sainte qui plaît beaucoup plus aux sauvages qu'un air grave et
sombre; aussi avait-il l'art de leur persuader tout ce qu'il voulait; il
était parmi eux comme un maître au milieu de ses élèves.
"Nonobstant les continuelles occupations de son ministère, il
n'omit jamais les saintes pratiques qui s'observent dans nos maisons.
Il se levait et faisait son oraison à l'heure qui y est marquée. Il ne se
dispensa jamais des huit jours de la retraite annuelle; il s^était prescrit
pour la faire les premiers jours du carême, qui est le temps que le Sau-
veur entra dans le désert- . . .
" La pauvreté religieuse éclatait dans toute sa personne, dans ses
meubles, dans son vivre, dans ses habits. Il s'interdit, par esprit de
mortification, l'usage du vin, même lorsqu'il se trouvait au milieu des
Français; de la bouillie, faite de farine de blé-d'inde, fut sa nourriture
ordinaire. Durant certains hivers, où quelquefois les sauvages man-
quent de tout, il se vit réduit à vivre de glands; loin de se plaindre
alors, il ne parut jamais plus content. . . . C'était lui qui cultivait son
jardin, qui préparait son bois de chauffage, sa cabane et sa sagamité,
qui rapiéçait ses habits déchirés, cherchant par esprit de pauvreté à les
faire durer le plus longtemps qu'il lui était possible. La soutane qu'il
portait lorsqu'il fut tué, parut si usée et en si mauvais état à ceux qui
l'en dépouillèrent, qu'ils ne daignèrent pas se l'approprier, comme ils
en eurent d'abord le dessein. Ils la rejetèrent sur son corps, et nous
la renvoyèrent à Québec.
[dionnb] le Père Sébastien rasles iss
^* Autant il se traitait durement Ini-même, autant il était compa-
tissant et charitable pour les autres. H n'avait rien à lui, et tout ce
qu'il recevait, il le distribuait au&HÎtôt à ses pauvres néophytes. Aussi
la plupart ont-ils donné à sa mori; des démonstrations de douleur plus
vive que s'ils eussent perdu leurs parents les plus prochefe
Vous jugez bien, mon révérend père, que ses vertus dont la Nouvelle-
France a été témoin depuis tant d'années lui avaient concilié le respject
et l'affection des Français et des eauvages. Personne ne doute qu'il
ait été immolé en haine de son ministère et de son zèle à établir la vraie
foi dans le cœur des sauvages. C'est l'idée qu'en a M. de Bellemont,
supérieur du séminaire de Saint-Sulpice, à Montréal. Lui ayant de-
mandé les suffrages accoutumés pour le défunt, à cause de la communi-
cation de prières qui est entre nous, il me répondit, en se servant des
paroles si connues de saint Augustin, que c'était faire injure à un
martyr, que de prier pour lui. Injurium facit martyri qui orat pro eo."
Cette lettre du Père de la Chasse, alors supérieur de la mission des
jésuites, dans la Nouvelle-France, est un document important, pour ce
qui regarde en particulier le caractère du Père Rasles, son genre de vie
au milieu des sauvages. Or, il paraît évident, d'après lui, que ce mis-
sionnaire était un saint, un apôtre, un homme de Dieu, un véritable
ascète. Le langage de l'abbé Bellemont, sulpicien fort remarquable,
confirme en tous points l'opinion du supérieur des jésuites.
L'histoire Parkman ne fait que répéter en d'autres termes la véhé-
mente diatribe de Francis à l'adresse du Père Rasles, mais il s'en tient
là. Pas un mot d'éloge sur la vie édifiante du missionnaire des Abéna-
quis. Pourtant sa renommée comme historien impartial n'eût paA
Boufferi, s'il avait eu le courage de parler plus franchement, à l'instar
de Francis. Tous deux s'accordent à dire, avec Baxter, que le Père
Basics ne doit pas être considéré comme un martyr de la foi. Ils ont
peut-être raison, mais leur appartient-il de décider une question dont
ils ne peuvent être juges; ils n'ont ni mission, ni qualité pour cela,
n appartient à l'Eglise catholique seide de statuer en la matière. N'em-
pêche que les catholiques ont bien le droit de penser dans leur for inté-
rieur que le Père Rasles fut un martyr dans le sens large du mot, martyr
du devoir, martyr de son dévouement à la religion, martyr aussi do son
patriotisme. L'histoire de sa vie est là pour le prouver. Qu'est-il
besoin d'avoir recours aux légendes et aux fables inventées* jBur teon
compte dans le but de le déprécier et même de l'avilir ? L'historien
véridique et impartial ne peut puiser à ce fonds, parce qu'il est trop mé-
prisable.
X'accusation la plus sérieuse que M. Baxter porte contre le Père
Basics, n'est pas neuve. H n'a fait lui-même que rééditer pour la cen-
1 84 SOCIÉTÉ ROYALE DU CANADA
tième fois la vieille rengaine contre les miasionniairee de TAcadie, les
Bigot^ les Thury^ quails poussaient les sauvages à faire la guerre aux
Anglais^ à détruire leurs fermes^ et même à les occire eanjB mifléricorde.
Qu^en savent-ils vraiment ? Est-ce parce que les gouverneurs de la
Nouvelle-France entretenaient avec ces missionnaires une certaine
correspondance, rendu nécessaire par les besoins d^information sur les
agissements de ces peuplades dont ils avaient jusqu^i un certain point
la charge et la direction comme catholiques ? Nous avons lu et relu ces
lettres, et tout ce qui s'en d^age ^e sort pas du domaine général des
recommandations au sujet des Âbénaquis et de Fimportance de conser-
ver leur amitié. Il est facile de comprendre que les* gouverneurs comp-
taient plus que sur une alliance stéiile avec ces sauvages qu'ils avaient
maintes et maintes fois protégés; ils avaient besoin de leur appui pour
soutenir les assauts répétés des Anglais. Le missionnaire était le seul
homme qui pût réussir à réchauffer Famitié et à mainitenir une alliance
dans toute son intégrité. Aussi s'y employait-il de grand cœur, croyant
faire œuvre de patriotisme. Est-ce à dire pour cela que le mission-
naire désirait la guerre et incitait les sauvages à rentrejprendre ? A
quoi eût-il servi au Père Basics d'engager ses chers Abénaquis à lever
la hache de guerre ? Eût-ce été dans le but de servir les intérêts de
la religion ? Hélas I il ne le savait que trop bien: la guerre, pour les
Indiens, n'était souvent qu'un prétexte pour assouvir leur soif de ven-
geance, exercer leurs cruautés sans nom, tuer, piller, etc. La religion
catholique ne pouvait bénéficier de ces scènes de carnage. L'Eglise a
toujours eu horreur du sang, car sa mission en ce monde est toute de
paix, d'harmonie et de charité.
Le Père Rasles n'était pas un homme sanguinaire, comme quel-
qu'un l'a représenté, aimant à faire le coup de feu contre l'Anglais. Il
était prêtre et missionnaire tout d'abord. Ses supérieurs ne l'avaient
pas envoyé à Nanrantsouak pour aider les Français dans leurs combats,
mais pour s'occuper de l'avenir religieux des Abénaquis. Vivant au
milieu d'eux comme un anachorète, il n'avait d'autre ambition que de
sauver leurs âmes par la prédication de l'exemple et de la parole. H
bâtit leurs églises, les décora de sa propre main, et travailla de toutes
ses forces à adoucir leurs mœurs, à réformer leur éducation. Cette
tâche était énorme. Eéussit-il à la remplir au gré de ses vœux ? Nous
ne le croyons pas, car c'eût été miracle autrement, étant données les
dispositions d'esprit de ces sauvages à l'égard des Anglais, qui représen-
taient à leurs yeux un double ennemi, ennemis de leur religion et enne-
mis de leur race. *
SxcrioN I, 1903 I 135 J Mémoibu 8. K. C
VI. — Irenna la huronne.
Par M. Pamphile Le May.
(L.U Je 9 mai 1903).
I
LA CROIX
Irenna la huronne, alerte, grorge nue,
S'éIoi«me du wifiTwazn. Chaqiîe soir, quand la nue
Plane conmie un oiseau dans l'air plein de frissons,
Elle «e grlisse seule & travers les buissons;
Effarée, elle fuit comme la biche souple.
Ounis aime Irenna la huronne.
— Un beau couple.
Avalent dit les vieillards assis pour >le conseil.
Ounis est un chasseur. Il voit, dans son sommeil.
L'ours brun de la forêt et l'outarde des grrèves.
Il volt des crfijies mus et du eancr dans ses rêves.
Car il est un guerrier, un fils de sagamos.
Souvent Irenna chante, et nul ne sait les mots
Qui tombent de sa bouche aux heures de la jole^
Accroupi sur des peaux phis molles que la soie.
Un Autmoin redouté vient d'annoncer & tous
Qu'elle parle en secret aux puissants Manitous.
— Les plaisirs de l'amour, le bonheur d'être mère
•Couronneront bientôt sa jeunesse éphémère.
Et ses pieds suivront loin l'homme qui la soumet.
Ajoutent les vieillards fumant le calumet.
—Quels sont les Manitous que sa prière Invoque?
On ne la voit Ja*mais, ô sages! quand j'évoque,
Pour savoir nos destins, les bienveillants esprits.
Reprend TAultmoin.
Et tous le regardent surpris.
Au wigwam de la vierge, & la dernière lune,
Ounis s'en est venu tout heureux, sur la brune,
Apporter les présents: des castors, des vdsons..
Ils furent acceptés. Sans peur des trahisons,
Ounds n'a pas revu sa douce fiancée.
Ainsi le veut l'usage.
136 SOCIÉTÉ ROYALE DU CANADA
Irenna, iMilancêe
En Ba frêle pirocrue, au mouvement des eaux.
Vient aborder la rive, et, dans les verts roseaux
Son mocassin fleuri trace une longrue raie;
Elle aemble inquiète. A sa hanche serrée.
Une peau l'enveloppe avec un soin jaloux.
Songe-t-elle au pOatoir ? son«e-t-elle ft l'époux ?
Sous le dOme embaumé des résineuses pruches,
S'assemblent, bourdonnant comme feraient des ruches.
Les parents, les vieillards et les chasseurs amis.
Pour la fête chacun dans son orsrueil a mis
Des colliers à, son cou, 0ur sa tête des phunes.
Csnnbales et tamtems, comme un concert d'enclumes.
Font retentir les bols jusques au loin. Le feu
Pour le feetln déjH s'allume. Et le ciel bleu
Regarde s'élargir, à, travers la ramée,
Le nuage mouvant de l'épaisse fumée.
De sa hutte d'écorce enfin le jongleur sort,
Ounls l'avait prié de conjurer le sort
Et de paraître ensuite au milieu d^ convives.
Ounls, pour inspirer des tendresses plus vives,
S'est tatoué la face et les bra& Les stylets
Ont ciselé ses chairs de dessins violets.
Sous ces dessins grossiers que le caprice invente.
L'amour a l'air féroce et le rire épouvante.
C'est la beauté pourtant aux yeux de la tribu.
La laideur, c'est cet homme et livide et barfbu
Qu'apporta dans ses flancs une grande pirogue.
— Moi, je sais composer une mortelle droguo.
J'en remplirai ma coupe et j'Irai, sans trembler.
L'offrir aux hommes blancs qui sont venus troubler
Notre liberté chère et nos chères Ivresses !
Chante l'Autmoin cruel, en nouant à ses tresses
Une plume d'aiglon qui tombait des vieux pins.
— Où donc est la promise ? . . Et ses yeux sont-ils peints.
Dit- Il encor ?.. Ses yeux, son épaule, sa gorge ?
Le daim captif est là. C'est elle qui l'égorgé.
Qu'elle frappe sans peur l'animal endormi,
Et sans peur ses enfants frapperont l'ennemi.
[LB may] IRENNA la HURONNE 137
Irenna la huronne, alerte, gorge nue,
S'approche du wtigrwam, maiis 11 est tard. La nue
Redescend lentement dans Teir plein de frlsBons,
Bile ee g'iiese seule à travers les buiSBone.
D'où vient-elile ? Un bruit sourd monte sous les feuillafires.
Son oou n'est pas orné de brillants coqulllaires...
Quelque chose pourtant flotte à son sein bronzé;
Bst-ce de cron amour le signe déguisé,
Ou de la Robe Noire est-ce la médecine?...
Les convives sont Ik. Son regtard les fascine.
On dirait un serpent endormant les oiseaux.
La ramure légère, enlagant ses réseaux,
Au-dessus du wigwam s'arrondit conune une arche.
Par un sentier de mousse Ounls s'avance. Il mar<âie
D'un pas fiévreux, rapide, avec un air d'orguelL
Il arrive et s'écrie, en franchissant le seuil:
— A la danse ! au festin ! la volupté commence ! "
Irenna paraît sourde à, cette véhémence.
En va4n le fiancé l'Invite sur ses pas.
Des pleure mouillent ses yeux, elle n'obéit pas.
Ounls s'avance alors, mais la vierge recule,...
Le jonigleur & ses dieux parle selon le rite.
Tout-à-coup 11 s'écrie:
— Arrachez de son oou
Cet objet Inconnu qui vient on ne sait d'où...
Le Manitou le veut ! "
II clcune et gesticule.
Ounls s'avance aJors, mais la vierge recule
— Ce 'talisman nouveau, dit-elle, c'est la croix !
Je t'aime, tu le sais, et tu m'aimes, je crois.
Ne te dôsofles pas. L'espoir que tu caresses
Ne sera point qu'un rôve, Ounls, si tu t'empresses...
Mais pourquoi ce frisson ou cet air abattu ?
La "robe noire" attend, va donc, Ounls... Veux-tu?
188 SOCIÉTÉ ROYALE DU CANADA
II
LA 8URPRI8B
Les vieillards ont 8lég>é sous la forêt Dans l'ombre,
liOin du " visacre pâle " ont siégé les vieillards. . .
Les cruerriers iroquoto sont venus, en grand nombre,
Suiprendre les hurons, pendant que les broulllardfl
Tendent leur voile hiunJde autour de la bourgade.
Sur les eaux, sous les bols, dans la lueur qui fuit.
Glisse comme un serpent l'Infernale brigade.
liUe guette sa ipnoie. O ! la sanglante nuit...
La moK plane I
L'Autonoin a prédit la victoire,
n a parlé deux fois à, l'esprit des combats.
Les " blancs " auront leur tombe id. Ce territoire.
Depuis le lac sans fin jusqu'aux monts de lA-bas,
Sst aux cbasseurs. Les " bdancs " et les htirons qu'Us aiment
fieront tous égorgés. Les Hurons les premiers,
CcLr ils déposent l'arc, fouillent la terre et sèment
Des grains qui vont mûrir au milieu des fun^ers.
Les bois sont endormis. Le Mbou solitaire,
Seul aux cîmes des pins, ulule tristement.
— O l'augure fatal ! ne va-t-U pas se taire ?
Songe Ounis, le guerrier, qui marche lentement.
Ounis souffre depuis qu'Irenna son amie
A reçu le baptême et prie un Dieu nouveau.
Sur son front désormais pèsera l'Infamie...
Des pensers de vengeance échauffent son cerveau.
— De quel d<roit ce Dieu-lià, gronde-t-il dans un rftle.
Vient-il nous enlever les vierges de nos bois,
J^ous ne lui volons ^pas ses femmes au front p&le?...
Il erre ca et là, comme un fauve aux abois.
Honteux de son échec, irrité de sa peine...
Mais queUles sont ces voix qui chuchotent tout près?
6ont-ce les guerriers morts qui lui soufflent la haine ?
n veut boire du sang... Le sang qu'il aime. Après
Il ira déterrer, lui, la hache de guerre.
Bi les autres ont peur, qu'importe ? il ira seul.
Le wigwam d'Irenna qu'il respectait naguère
S'endormira ibientêt sous un sanglant linceul...
Bt toujouis le hibou slnistrement ulule...
Interrogeant la nuit de ses ardents regards,
Ounis marche plus vite. Un feu maudit le brOle...
Il est fou d'avoir eu pour elle tant d'égards.
[LI mat] IRENNA la HUBONNE 189
Ireium reposait mir aa couche de branchea
Un an^e avec amour la proté^reait, ouvrant
Au-deflBU8 de eon front ees ailes toutes blcmchee.
Elle se dâlectait dans un rêve enivrant
Jj&nge ne voit-Il pas la menace qui plane ?
N'entend-ll pas un bTuIt paireil au flot montant ?
Qui donc s'introduit HL, dune la chaste cabane?
Un spectre s*est penché sur la vlergre. Hésitant,
Il écoute pesser une haleine eanbaïunée. . .
Ce srrand Esprit, ce Christ au séduisant appel,
Ce I^eu qui lui ravit sa jeune blen-aimée,
Va-t-il à, aon amour, va-t^l H son ecalpel.
Cette nuit, la soustraire ?
Elle est Ift sans défense.
Le père est à la chasse em loin. L'obscurité
Favorise l'audace et provoque l'offense.
On fait nvieux ce qu'on fait dans la sécurité.
Mais quel cii de fureur, quelle clameur immenee
S'élève tout-4t-ooup dans la bourgade en paix ?
Est-ce le cri de eruerre ? Il meurt et recommence
Comme un éclat de foudre au fond des bois épais.
Le féroce Iroquoie, brandissant la miassue.
Sourit au sans: qui coule et foule aux pieds les morts.
n frappe; il est partout et ferme toute issue.
Bon bras est sans repos et son coeur, sans remords.
OunJs s'est redressé pareil à la panthère;
Aux appels des firuerriers Ounls a répondu...
La vierge avait un soncre . . O ! le chaste mjrstère !
Aux clameurs des combats le sone^e s'est fondu.
III
LB SUPPUCB
Lee cruerriers iroquoie reviennent de leurs courses.
Ils chantent en vogruant, et vantent les ressources
De cet esprit subtil qu'ils tiennent d'es aïeux.
Ils traînent des captifs. Ils sont fiers et joyeux.
Car toute la tribu va les aa>peler braves.
Lfcs femmes, les enfants, avec les vieillards grraves.
Vont descendre à la rive en fouie, au-devant d'eux.
Leur bouche se contracte en un rire hideux.
Car ils ont inventé de nouveUes tortures.
Des cheveux tout san«rlants pendent ft leurs ceintures.
Les cheveux des guerriers ennemis.
140 SOCIÉTÉ ROYALE DU CANADA
Jjea canots
Glissent sur le flot noir comme un vol de linots.
Lie chef, de temps en temps, jette une cdameur craie
En frappant rudement, du bout de sa pagaie.
Un jeune i>rlsonnier â. ses pieds étendu.
Le vainqueur n'aura pas lon^^uement attendu
Pour voir mûrir ses plans et triompher sa ruse.
Mais que n*a-t-ll fait plus ? Malntenajit il s'accuse
De n'avoir pas versé tout le sang qu'lil rôvalt.
Avait-il peur des Blancs ? Lies Blancs, oh ! s'il pouvait
Pendre comme un troqpliée H sa ceinture fauve
Leur courte chevelure ! Et, dans leur crâne chauve
S'il pouvait au festin, boire leur sang tiédi !
Et longtemps les canots, dans un élan hardi.
Emportant les vaincus et les fruits du piiUage,
Ont tracé sur les eaux leur sinistre sillage.
Ils arrivent enfin. Louant Areskoul,
Le iguerrier dans les flots jette, tout réjoui.
Le petun odorant qu'il offre en sacrifice.
Le sachem Iroquois,— serait-ce un maléfice ?—
Le sachem déjà vieux brûle pour Irenna,
La fl>lle des hurons qu'un guerrier lui donna.
Il brûle et veut l'avoir pour femme ou pour maîtresse.
Elle viendra bientôt, en sa grande détresse.
Pour la première fois au wdgwam d-u chasseur.
C'est pour sauver Ounis. Elle se dit sa sœur...
Tous les deux Ils mourront s'ils ne vivent ensemble.
A la darté des feux la tribu se rassemble.
C'est l'heure du supplice. Alors le sachem dit:
— Jusqu'à l'autre soleil' il vous est interdit
De tourmenter Ounis, le frère de ma femme.
Pour les aiitres captifs nul tourment n'est infâme."
— L'ardent foyer pétille et la chaudière bout.
Au festin ! . . . . Les 'captifs sont là, rangés debout.
Liés solidement au tronc rugueux du frône.
Au festin ! .. .. Nous irons sur la sanglante arène,
Et le hunon mourra déchiré par les fers.
Les outTSigea anciens que nous' avons soufferts
Seront vengea !
[le may] IRENNA la HURONNE 141
Ainsi parle un jongleur immonde,
Bt le festin commence. Et tout ce cruel monde
Dédhdre de ses dents les morceaux de la chair.
Et l'enivrant fumet monte lonertemps dans l'air
Avec les ords de joie, & travers le bois dense.
Puis au repas succède une inferna>le danse,
La danse de la mort.
— Le sais-tu, prisonnier,
Le soleil qui se oouche est pour tod le dernier ?
Nos dUens vont dévorer, cette nuit, ton cadavre. . .
Guerrier, tu vas mourir ! gruerrier, la peur te navre !
Ils dansent en chantant ce sinistre refrain.
Leur colère, bientôt, ne connaît plus de freln«
Ils balancent les bras. Us agitent la tête,
Ils poussent des clameurs comme des cris de bête.
Devant les prisonniers ils passent tour à tour,
Et leurs ongrles, aigus comme des becs d'autour,
Les déchirent Ensuite, au signal, l'arc se bande,
iE)t de cruels enfants, avec la noire bande,
Sur ces nobles vaincus lancent des traits perçants.
Et toujours garottes, les hurons Impuissants
Jettent à leurs vainqueurs des regards pleins d'outrage.
Le sang' qui coule aJlume une effroyable rage;
C'est la pourpre sans prix dont le bourreau se teint.
On attise la flamme au foyer qui s'éteint.
Les femmes font rougir des Instruments de pierre
Et brûlent en riant l'insolente paupière
D'où sans cesse Jaiïlit le mépris.
Les hurons.
En des éclats de voix qui fpemiblent des clairons.
Provoquent leurs bourreaux:
— Bourreau, tu te relftches!...
Oh ! quel bonheur ! nos yeux ne verront plus de Iftches !
Nos flls de vos aïeux ouvriront les tombeaux.
Pour vous donner ensemible en pâture aux corbeaux !"
Plus Ils narguent la mort, plus aussi le sang coule...
Leur voix n'est plus qu'un râle et la vengeance est soûle.
Parmi ces fiers mourants Ounls est oublié...
n est demeuré seul k son arbre lié.
Cest un malheur nouveau. Le supplice qui tarde
Est souvent plus oruel qu'un prompt supplice. Il garde
En son cœur uîlcéré rancune à son destin.
S'il est sur le bûcher au lieu d'être au festin,
Cest l'amour inconstant d'Irenna la chrétienne
Qui l'a voulu... L'inf&me! Au moins qu'on la détienne!
Qu'elle sache aa mort et ses ressentiments.
Et qu'ensuite elle meure au milieu des tourments !
142 SOCIÉTÉ ROYAXE DU CANADA
• rv
LA PROVIDBNCB.
L'ombre a xu>yê les hoia. Lie silence environne
Xta caibane d'êcorce où la Jeune huronne,
Captive pour toujours, pleure en ses longs enniils.
E311e ira dans l'Instant, sous le voile des nuits,
Pour de tristes amours co<iuetteKnent parée,
Sous la tente du chef. Le ciel l'a séparée
D'Ounis le beau guerrier qui possède son cœur.
OunLa ne cacha point un sourire moqueur
Quand elle lui pai^a du Christ et du baptême.
<Maintenejit sur leur tête est tombé l'anathème,
Puisque tous deux ils sont au pouvoir du vainqueur.
Des voix hurlent Ift-bas, d'autres diantent en chœur.
C'est le rugissement des 'bourreaux qui s'étonnent,
C'est l'hymne de la moK que les captifs entonnent;
Irenna, seule, pleure et maudit sa beauté.
La haine épuise enfin toute sa cruauté.
Tout bruit meurt. L'iroquols dort. Un rire farouche
Comme un refiet d'enfer passe encor sur sa bouche.
Mais le chef ne dort pas. JH espère, il attend.
Un murmure, un frisson, un souffle qu'il entend
Lui semblent le soupir de la superbe esclave.
Et voiUL que s'allume une paupière cave;
Au bord du lac dormant un spectre est descendu;
Un cœur broyé géonit sur le bonheur perdu;
C'est l'aKière Ondina qui cherche sa rivale.
Le sachem ila renvoie, et, comme une cavale
Que l'érperon de fer tourmente et fait hennir,
La femme délaissée, â. l'amer souvenir
•Se révolte et bondit.
Les pénétrants arômes.
Les chauds baisers des nids sous les sauvages dOmes,
La tiédeur de la ibrlse et le caime des deux,
Tout Invite à l'amour.
Le chef est soucieux.
Elle tarde à venir, la huronne captive.
Aux douces voluptés son ftme trop rétive
Hésite & se donner. . . N'a-t-elle donc pas bu
La magique boisson du chef de la tribu ?
Le Jongleur, à minuit l'a fadt sourdre du sable.
Cette boisson qui rend l'amour Impérissable
Le Sagamo l'a prise; il s'en est enivré,
Et le feu court déjà sous son masque cuivré.
[LI mat] IBENNA la HUBONNE 148
Les cadsuvres eont llL Béantes, lee blessures
Saignent encor. Lee loups font d'horrlbaee morsuree^
lis ont flalPê le sang et eont vite venus.
Et des corbeaux nombreux sur lee os déjà nus
Ouvrent leur sombre vol d'où tomibent des cr4s aigres.
Ounis le prisonnier cherche quels ch€mts allègres
Pour braver les bourreaux â. son tour U dira.
Comme un tigre blessé riroquois bondira.
Mais devant le héros ses Aireurs seront vaines.
Le huron jettera tout le sang de ses veines,
Comime un défi mortel, au front de ces vils chiens,
Et, mort, 41 s'en Ira glorieux vers les siens.
La huronne a passé sous da sombre ramure. . .
6a joue a de l'éclat comme une poche mûre;
Ses yeux, sous leurs cils noirs ont de fauves lueurs.
Repus, lassés du mal, reposent les tueurs.
Le wlgwam du sachem est ouvert. Le chef veille.
n velHe en attendant la captive. O ! merveille !
Au bruit léger d'un pas, comme un timide daim,
Lui, l'homme san^ruinalre, fl tressaille soudain !
Lui, le fauve pétri d'une sordide fange.
Il sourit & l'amour comme ferait un ange !
La Huronne est venue... Elle est venue enfin!
Le bonheur sera long. Des ivresses sans fin
Vont remplir désormais l'ftme du fier sauvage.
La captive oubliera les lunes d'esclavage. . .
Le lac n'a plus de chants, le bois n'a plus d'échos;
Tout dort, hormis les loups qui dévorent les os.
A travers les vieux troncs épars dans la nuit noire
Fasse ime forme svelte. Un long stydet d' ivoire,
Un stylet qu'elle agite et serre dans sa main.
Laisse tomber du sang le loncr de son chemin.
Mie court au hasard et comme une insensée.
Personne ne pourrait deviner sa pensée.
Elle va répétant, dans sa course, des mots
Qui tintent comme un glas aux voûtes de rameaux.
Devant la mort qui vient Ounis est impassible,
-Mais 11 entend son nom et tremble... (Bst-11 possible
Qu'un autre infortuné vive encor près de lui ?
C'est une ruse .... Oui, là, dans l'ombre une arme a lui I
N'importe, il n'a point peur, il ressent trop de haine.
L'arme se troanpe-t-elle?... Elle coupe sa chaîne!...
Le malheureux captif reprend sa Hberté.
144 SOCIÉTÉ ROYALE DU CANADA
Pour venger dl^mement sa race et sa fierté,
La vierge avait tué le chef impur et traître.
^le suivit les paa d'Ounds^ Toue deux au prêtre
Ils vinrent, au retour, faire ces long» récits.
Ounls avait des tons, des regards adouclA.
— Baptlae-mod, fit-il» J'aiime un Dieu qui pardonne.'
Le prêtre ddt:
— <:;e Dieu l'un â. l'autre vous donne."
Irenna, tout émue alors, le front penché.
Murmura lentement:
— Mon père. J'ai péché !"
Section I, 1903 [ 146 ] MAmoires S. R.
VII. — La Fontaine d^ Abraham Martin et le Site de son Haiitation.
Par P.-B. Casgrain, Québec.
\
(L.U le 20 imal 1903).
Le nom d^ Abraham Martin dit Técossais, pilote royal du Saint-
Laurent, nous reporte aux premiers temps de la colonie. Il figure dans
le domaine de Fhistoire de Québer, comme tîn personnage un peu en
vue sous le nom de Maistre Abraham, et depuis 1854 on Fa fait revivre
inopinément à propos des Plaines d^ Abraham.
On sait que le pilote abandonna la vie de marin poux se fixer à terre,
et il s'établit à Québec, dans la banlieue, sur le penchant du coteau
Sainte-Geneviève, à Tendroit qui fut connu dès lore et appelé depuis
vulgairement Claire-Fontaine,
Cette appellation continua après sa mort (1664) parmi ses héri-
tiers, et même jusqu'après la conquête, alors que Tendroit devint com-
munément nommé La Fontaine d^ Abraham Martin.
Cependant cette fantaine ne nous paraît plus -oonnue aujourd'hui
puisque on s'en enqudert pour la trouver, et que personoie ne répond
à la question. Bulletin des Recherches Historiques, nov, 1902, question'
904. La raison en est simple, c'est qu'elle a disparu de la vue depuis
longtemps, pair un changement dans la voierie. Bile a été oubliée,,
étant restée cachée sous une maison construite peu après la conquête.
Et de même qu'il a fallu chercher pour découvrir la Fontaine de ^
Champlain, (Cf. Canada-français, vol, 1, p, 466), ainsi nous allons nous
mettre en quête pour trouver l'endroit de celle d'Abraham Martin.
Nous aurons en même temps* l'occasion de délimiter exactement,
d'après la disposition actuelle du terrain, la pièce de terre qu'il possé-
dait là, comme aussi de rappeler le nom véritable qu'elle portait et qui
lui fut donné pour désigner son habitation.
Dès 1645 il avait commencé à défricher sa pièce de terre, et en
1648^ il avait déjà bâti sa maison et une grange; puis il compléta son
défrichement en entier, que ses enfants ne purent cependant conserver
plus de trois ans après sa mort (1664), faute de moyens.
Cette propriété consistait en 32 arpents en superficie, et compre-
nait deux lots* en bois, dont 20 arpents lui provenaient du chirurgien
* L'acte de domation par Adrian (8Ù;J DuOhesne qui fut si&né dans cette
maison l'Indique.
' M. Doug'h'ty fait erreur en la divisant en 3 lots, et en disant 2 dona-
tions, prenant la ratification pour une autre donation. The Siege of Quebec,
vol, II, p. 290,
Sec, I, 1003. JO.
/
146 SOCIÉTÉ ROYALE DU CANADA
Adrian Duchesne^ à qui ils avaient été départis et cancédSs en roture
par la Compagnie de la Nouvelle-France le 9 ' juillet 1637, et qui en
avait obtenu la ratification par titre confirmatif de la compagnie, scellé
de son sceau^ en date^ à Paris, du 5 avril 1639 ; et Duchesne lui en avait
fait donation, à la suite d'une promesse verbale à cet effet qui remon-
tait à 1645, par acte authentique passé à Québec, devant M^ Laurent
Bermen, notaire royal, le 10 octobre 1648; titre qui fut dûment agréé
et ratifié par la compagnie le 1«' février 1652.
Et quant aux autres 12 aipents Martin les tenait aussi en roture
et directement par don de la compagnie, qui les lui avait départis
par le Sieur de Gand, son commis-général, ainsi qu'il est énoncé dans
un procès-verbal de bornage et arpentage dressé le 4 décembre 1635
^T Jean Bourdon, arpenteur royal, suivi de tradition et possession
immédiates, mais sans autre titre que ce procès-verbal. Cependant
oomme cette concession demeurait sujette à la chaxge stipulée et bien
comprise d^en prendre ratification de la compagnie, laquelle s'était
aussi réservé de donner les titres, honneurs et redevances, le titre de
cette acquisition n'avait pas sorti son effet vis-à-vis d'elle et restait
ainsi en suspens, jusqu'à Taccomplissement de ces formalités requises
et exigées. Martin demanda donc, par après, la i«4^fication de cette
concession, laquelle lui fut accordée par la compagnie le 16 mai 1650,
sans autre 'désignation du fond que celle énoncée au procès- verbal ci-
dessus, fixant la charge des redevances à douze deniers de cen^' par cha-
cun arpent par an, comportant profit de lods-et-ventes, saisines et amen-
des.
Le tout fut vendu aux Dames R.R. Mères TJrsulines du monastère
de St-Joseph de Québec, par les héritiers d'Abraham Martin et de Mar-
guerite Langlois, aa femme, (au noanbre de cinq, dont l'un était encore
mineur) parce que les bâtiments tombaient en ruines et la «terre restait
en friche faute de moyens.
Ces motifs sont ainsi exprimés dans le oontrat d'acquisition des
Dames Ursulines passé en forme authentique devant M*" Duquet,
notaire royal, à Québec, le 1«' juin 1667.
Comme il n'est pas fait mention, parmi les titres de propriétés des
vendeurs énumérés en cet acte, de celui en date du 4 décembre 1635,
tel qu'on le voit énoncé et décrit dans le procès-verbal de l'arpenteur
Bourdon, à cette date, pour servir alors probablement à l'effet de titre
par interim et sauf ratification, il est à croire, comme on l'a dit ci-haut,
que ce document n'aura pas sorti son plein effet, puisqu'on y a suppléa
par le titre subséquent de 1650, couvrant d'abondant les droits du con-
cessionnaire et comportant le vrai titre.
[casgrain]
LA FONTAINE D'ABRAHAM MARTIN
147
Devenues adn&i propriétaires, les Dames XJisulines qui détenaient
en simple roture, comme leurs auteurs, obtinrent ^érection en fief de
cette petite étendue de terre, et on lui donna le nom de fief Saint-
Joseph, feitué en la haute-ville et ahanlieue (sic) d'ieelle/
En cette qualité elles concédèrent en censive, le 22 mai 1762, à
"Jean-Marie Déguise dit Flamand, marchand-tanneur, de Québec,
"une pièce de terre faisant partie du dit fief, la dite pièce de terre
" seize et située hors les murs de cette ville sur le chemin Saint-Jean, le
" dit lieu nommé vulguerement {sic) Fontaine d'Abraham Martin, de
^OM. l3^jf^**^ Kc^H^i ÂfcJctJLyr •/•
V
iJLÉtê,J*.%n0^ -^
"la consistance de cent-vingt pieds de front sur le dit chemin Saînt-
"Jean, sur quatre-vingt pieds de profondeur allant vers le coteau
" Sainte-Geneviève, aboutissant la dite profondeur aux terres encore non
"concédées, joignant au nord-est aux terres non concédées, du côté du
" sud-ouest encore des terres non concédées/'
Cette concession fut faite à charge annuelle et perpétuelle de six
deniers de cens, quinze livres tournois de rente foncière, et soixante
livres tournois de rente constituée. Le contrat tel que stipulé appert
* Cf. Foi et hommayee des Ursulines, vol. I, 1ère partie, p. 297, 16(r7, Re»»
des Fol et Hommaflres.
148 SOCIÉTÉ ROYALE DU CANADA
au long daDS le procès-verbal de mesurage et bornage accompagné du
plan figuratif y joint, dressé le même» jour, 22 mai 1762, par M^ Noël
Levasseur, arpenteur royal, en forme authentique et signé des parties,
afin de servir, en même temps, de titre à Déguise.
Le plan figuratif indique "les bornes de la portion de terre et
" fontaine vendues au dit Jean-Marie Déguise ;'' et sur Talignement nord
du chemin St-Jean, est marqué Fendroit d'une fontaine se déversant
vers le coteau, avec Tinscription "fontaine d'Abraham Martin, dis-
" tante de la borne sud-ouest de vingt-huit pieds ;*' ainsi qu'on peut le
voir sur le fac-similé du plan photographié que nous présentons.
Plus tard Déguise désirant vendre se fit donner un titre plus effec-
tif pour pouvoir transférer sa propriété, et les Dames Ursulines lui con-
sentireut un contrat en forme probante, passé devant M*" Panet, no-
taire,, le 28 septembre 1765; et à Tinistant le même notaire jacassa un
second acte de vente par Déguise à Jean-Marie Liénard Durbois dit
Mondor, maître-tanneur. La pièce de terre y est désignée tel que
ci-dessus, au lieu vulgairement appelé Fontaine d'Abraham Martin, et
" suivant procès-verbal et plan figuratif d'icelle faits par le Sieur Noël
" le Buisson (Levasseur),* arpenteur, en date du 22 mai 1762, ensemble
le procès-verbal d'alignement dressé par M*^ Lamorille, le 27 avril
1763".
Le chemin Saint-Jean d'alors avait été ouvert par l'ordonnance du
Conseil Souverain du 20 juin 1667. Il passait dans la cour de la maison
de feu Abraham Martin, après avoir longé un petit coteau à gauche et
traversait ensuite les terres tiu Sieur de Repcntigny et celles des Hospita-
lières. Son parcours était irrégulier et suivait les aocidents du sol,
comme le démontre l'angle prononcé de l'alignement du chemin sur le
plan de Levasseur. Ce qui nous permet en même temps de fixer raison-
nablement le site de la maison près de la Fontaine.
Mondor disposa de 40 pieds de front sur la profondeur ci-dessus,
du côté du nord-est, en faveur de Chs Trudel, et vendit l'emplacement
des 80 pieds restant à Joseph Belo dit Larose, par contrat devant M*"
Deschenaux, notaire, le 19 juillet 1784.
Le même cens, les mêmes rentes foncière et constituée, appuyés
suir cet emplacement et sa subdivision, conitinuent d'être perçus par les
ci-devant seigneuresses du fief, sauf que les rentes sont devenues main-
tenant rachetables à volonté deipuis l'abolition de la tenure seigneu-
riale. C'est par ce moyen qu'on a pu identifier le site du terrain con-
cédé en référant aux lots du Cadastre officiel du quartier Saint-Jean,
n«» 3090, 3091 et 3092, appartenant à M. Hethrington, boulanger ;
* Françoise Levasseur. veuve de Jean-Baptiate Gosset de dit duBuisson,
avait épousé Pierre Buisson, de là le surnom.
[cAfiGRAiN] LA FONTAINE D'ABRAHAM MARTIN 140
lesquels lots forment, avec celui voisin, n<> 3089, Tencoignure ouest de
la rue Sainte-Geneviève, en montant du coteau pour joindre la rue
Saint-Jean.
La fontaine devait donc se trouver sur la propriété de M. Thomas
Hethrington, n<> 366 de la rue.
En effet, Mr. Hethrington, fils, a eu Tobligeance de nous donner,
le 16 février dernier, les renseignements précis suivants:
"La fontaine existait, dit-il, sous le mur de fondation de Tan-
cienne maison où je suis né, et que nous avons rebâtie. Elle était cou-
verte par une voûte en pierre, cintrée, large et assez haute pour y péné-
trer facilement, comme je Tai fait souvent dans mon enfance. Cette
voûte était appuyée sur un mur très épais qui existe encore sous le
milieu de notre maison, à, une quinzaine de ffieds de Talignement actuel
de la rue. L'eau se déversait vers le nord et coulait sans cesse, étant
une source vive, très claire et très bonne. Lors de la pose des tuyaux
de Faqueduc et du gaz le drainage qui en est résulté a diminué Teau.
Dès avant la reconstruction, il y a une quinzaine d^années environ, la
fontaine avait été comblée pour s^en débarrasser, parce que Teau était
devenue mauvaise à cause du développement du faubourg au-dessus et
de Finfiltration qui s^en était produite dans les terres mal égouttées
alors. Cependant elle continue toujours à couler un peu, si bien qu^il est
nécessaire d'entretenir un canal qui déverse dans Tégout inférieur de
la rue.''
C'est à cause du redressement du chemin Saint-Jean et de l'aligne-
ment donné à la rue par Lamorille que la fontaine s'en trouve ainsi éloi-
gnée d une quinzaine de pieds, et l'emplacement a gagné d'autant en
front vers la rue, où il fait presque angle droit maintenant : ce qui dé-
montre combien le chemin caracoUait.
D'après les énoncés qu'on lit aux actes cités, on voit que l'eau de
la fontaine était abondante et servait à alimenter une tannerie, où il y
avait aussi un moulin à tan et une boutique. Cette industrie ayant
commencé là en 1762, a été continuée longtemps, même après 1784.
Jetons maintenant un coup d'œil sur l'ensemble et les limites
vraiee», aujourd'hui, des 32 arpents de terre d'Abraham Martin, qu'inci-
demment il nous a fallu examiner.
Comme l'exactitude historique et géométrique ne saurait être trop
minutieuse dans ces recherches et exposés, examinons attentivement le
plan délimitatif qu'en ont donné MM. Doughty et Parmelee, au vol.
II, p. 298, The Siege of Quebec, etc., avec l'indication des limites com-
prises entre les lignes " A.B.C.D." et marquées " Claire-Fontaine
Street,'* " Ste-Geneviève Street '* et " St. John Street," avec une ligne
IBO SOCIÉTÉ ROYALE DU CANADA
pointillée^ près et au sud de la rue Saint-Jean^ pour indiquer la limite
sud.
Il nous parait évident que ce qu'il nous ont présenté comme plan est
^out au plus une copie d'une copie approximative faite par feu M. le
chapelain Maguire et que s'est un dessin récent à ea face, et postérieur
à la conquête à cause de l'écriture en anglais. On peut le regarder
comme un simple croquis qui peut donner un atpearçu suffisant au lecteur
pour localiser l'endroit; mais comme jp^an il est imparfait^ et ne montre
aucime marque d'authenticité. Il ne comporte aucune signature, et n'a
ni rhumb-de-vent, ni échelle, ni mesurage, et l'indication de la rue
Claire-Fontaine y est erronée.
Car il faut remarquer que quant aux dates qui nous occupent,
savoir 1635 et 1667, la rue Claire-Fontaine n'existait pas là alors, ni
depuis. Lorsqu'elle a été ouverte elle s'est arrêtée comme aujourd'hui
à la rue Saint-Jean.
La rue Sainte-Geneviève était de mêtaie inconnue de nom et de
fait en ces premiers temps.
Les tenants et aboutissants d'alors étaient du côté ouest, (N.N.O.).
M. de Bepentigny (Pierre Legardeur), 1667 ; et en mars 1668, les reli-
gieuses de ITTôtel-Dieu; de l'autre côté au nord-est les héritiers du dé-
funt M. Couillard, représentant feu M. Hubou;* au sud M. de Villeray,
et au bout vers le nord la commune (s'étendent au pied du coteau).
En suivant une ancienne ligne fondamentale' de cette époque, la
tirant droit dans le centre de la rue Claire-Fontaine et dépai«ant la rue
Saint-Jean pour aller frapjper la cîme du coteau, on retrouve la ligne
ouest, boane originaire des 32 arpents. Elle est devenue aujourd'hui
une ligne imaginaire, mais divise encore les mêmes propriétés des TJpsu-
lines de celles de l'Hôtel-Dieu. Elle est apparemment irr^ulière snr
le sol à cause des oonstructione qui biaisent sur elle et y font des em-
pièteuients réciproques, qui ont été accordés par de mutuels consente-
ments.
Les autres bornes actuelles sont, vers le nord, la cîme du coteau
Sainte-Geneviève, au sud-est, la rue Saint-Gabriel, et au nord-est la rue
Sainte-Geneviève; lesquelles contiennent les 32 arpents. Voir notre
plan bornes A.B.C.D. dressé par M. A. Taché, du bureau des Terres.
Nous n'avons pu trouver dans les anciens titres et plans aucun in-
dice que ces 32 arpents aient jamais porté le nom de Plaines cTAbrahàmy
' Honorable homme, demeurant à la côte Salnte-Geneviêve, décédé le IS
mai 1653. qui avait épousé «Marie Rollet, veuve de Louis Hébert.
' Cette llfime part de la Grande- Allée, «ur le sommet de la côte à Per-
rault, et suit le milieu de l'alifirneanent de la rae Cliaire-Fontaine, dnolt jusqu'à.
la rivière Saint-Charles, au pied de la rue de la Couronne, et servait de ligne
fondamentale de division des pix>priétés Jusque-là. EîHe coure 21**. ouest.
[casorain]
LA FONTAINE D'ABRAHAM MARTIN
161
appliqué spécifiquement à ce terrain d'environ 6 arpents de largeur sur
environ 6 arpents de profondeur. Cette petite superficie ne comporte
PLAN
D^Abraham Martin
T I
^ùù ptmdt frmfiçmf* mu. jf*am
UJI.
guère en elle-même ce qu'on entend en bon français, chez nous, par
Texpression plaine, et encore moins de permettre d^employer le pluriel
pour pouvoir dire les Plaines d'Abraham, en parlant de ce petit carré
de terre. Ce que nous entendons clairement au pays par plaine, est
182 SOCIÉTÉ ROYALE DU CANADA -
une étendue plus ou moins considérable de terrain planche, s'étendant
de tous côtés sur une surface généralement égale^ comme^ par exemple
sur les hauteurs de Québec, le plateau dit des Hauteurs d'Abraham, à
partir des Buttes-à-Neveu, entre Québec et Sîllery. H serait encoro
plus difiBcile d^appliquer ce nom à la côte ou coteau Sainte-Geneviève,
sur lequel est situé le terrain d^Âbraham Martin, à cause du manque
absolu d^un même niveau; attendu que le versant du coteau va en pente
rapide vers sa cîme. L'inclinaison forme là sur le coteau, rue Saint-
RéaJ, une différence de 119.71 pieds avec le niveau de la rue Saint-
Gabriel, c'est-à-dire une rampe de 1 dans 9 sur la profondeur des 6
arpents-.
Quiconque croit qu'il pourrait y avoir là une plaine, n'a qu'à aller
rhiver voir glisser les enfants dans les côtes des rues sur ce versant, et
s'assurer de la vitesse prodigieuse de leurs traîneaux. De là probable-
ment le nom si ancien de côte Sainte-Geneviève.
Chose étonnante : Ce n'est que depuis 1854 (Doughty, The Siege of
Quebec, vol. II, p. S98, citant Beatson), qu'on a fait la découverte que
ce terrain a porté et doit porter le nom de Plaines d'Abraham, et était
suivant MM. Doughty et Parmelee, *Hhe original Plains of Abraham.^^
(Id.y pp. 291, 806.)
MM. Doughty et Parmelee à ce sujet s'appuient sur l'autorité de
feu l'abbé Ferland, que le caipitaine Beatson a suivie et qui leur a été
passée toute faite de ce chef, pour repéter tous quatre la même chose,
sans plus ample examen.
Eemontons aux sources pour contrôler d'abord l'abbé Ferland; ce
que ces derniers n'ont pas fait et auraient pu faire aussi facilement que
nous, en ce moment, d'une manière certaine et authentique, ayant eu
en mains les mêmes pièces primitives et prenant la peine de les lire.
Personne ne contestera que le coteau Sainte-Geneviève s'étend de-
puis les murs, au nord de la porte Saint-Jean, jusque dans Sainte-Foye,
formant le versant du côté nord-ouest du chemin Saint-Jean. Cest
sur ce coteau et environ à 8 arpents des murs et juste au-delà de la roe
Sainte-Geneviève qu'est situé le terrain de Maître Abraham.
Il est facile de s'apercevoir que l'abbé Ferland n'a pas vu ou n'a
pas pu examiner attentivement les pièces originaires qui se rapportent
à ce terrain. Ainsi il n'aurait pas mis Marie, une autre fille, femme de
Jean Cloutier, au lieu de Marguerite Langlois, comme femme d'Abraham
Martin. Il n'aurait pas borné le terrain vers le sud à la rue Saint-Jean,
qui n'existait pas alors, même comme chemin de son vivant,^ et il aurait
vu que la limite de ce côté s'étend au-delà et jusqu'à la rue Saint-Gabriel
d'à présent; il ne l'aurait pas borné à l'ouest à la rue Clairo-Fontaine qui
* Il ne fut ouvert qu'en 16«7 par procès-verbal du Conseil Souverain.
[cASGRAiw] LA FONTAINE D'ABRAHAM MARTIN 153
n'a jamais existé là et qu'il confond avec la rue Déligny^ qui^ dit-il^ passe
comme ^*Claire-Fontaine" devant l'Egliee Saint-Jean; il aurait découvert
que le terrain ne s'étend pas aussi loin de ce côté ; enfin il aurait lu claire-
ment dans les divers titres cités, le nom distinct de Claire-Fontaine
donné à ^habitation d'Abraham Martin et pas d'autre.
Où e^t-ce que l'abbé Ferland a appris que le nom de ^^ Plaines
" (T Abraham était autrefois appliqué à ce terrain, comparativement uni,
" dit-il, qui s'étend du pied du coteau Saint-Louis jusqu'à la cîme du
*' coteau Sainte-Geneviève?" Mais c'est là même le coteau Sainte-
Geneviève, et connu comme tel et non autrement de tout temps.
PoTir ceux qui ne l'ont pas à vue de nez comme nous, Bouchette
doit être la meilleure autorité ; et si l'on veut référer à sa Topography of
Canada, 1815, pp. J,S0'405, elle satisfera les plus incrédules, qui n»
sont pas de Québec. D'ailleurs n'importe quelle carte de la ville indi-
que ce coteau sous ce nom, à commencer par les plus anciennes, cellee
de Villeneuve en 1685 et 1688.
Les titres leb plus anciens désignent tous l'habitation d'Abraham
Martin sous le nom de Claire-Fontaine.
Nous allons établir qu'elle était connue comme telle, même de son
vivant, et nommée ainsi par ses héritiers immédiats, et a continué telle
par les Ursulines, leurs acquéreurs, qui ont toujours endossé tous
leurs titres ^^acquisition de la terre de Claire-Fontaine/' jusqu'à au-
jourd'hui.
De môme aussi d'après des anciens plans la terre de Martin est dé-
signée Claire-Fontaine, Cf. Plan Levasseur, 1766, cités par Doughty &
Cie, et autres plans.
Mais ce qui va encore plus directement en preuve c'est le témoi-
gnage ,par écrit des cinq héritiers Martin eux-mêmes, consigné dans les
quittances respectives de leur part du prix de vente aux Ursulines.
Ainsi dans deux actes passés à Montréal, devant M*™ Basset, no-
taire royal, l'un du 3 juillet 1669, Nicolas Forget dit Despastys et
Magdeleine Martin, sa femme, donnent quittance pour partie de leur
part du prix ; *^ à cause de la vente faite aux dites Religieuses par leurs
*' cohéritiers, de la terre Claire-Fontaine, située au dit Québec, et estant
" de la succession des défunts Abraham Martin et Marguerite Langlois,
"père et mère de la dite Magdeleine Martin;" Et l'année suivante,
21 mai 1670, ils accusent " parfait paiement pour leur part et portion
" qui leur était échue de la terre Claire-Fontaine,^'
Dans une autre quittance de Messire Charlcs-Amador Martin,
prêtre, par acte passé devant M*'* Becquet, notaire royal, à Québec, le
16 août 1675, il reconnaît et ratifie comme fils et co-héritier d'Abra-
ham Martin et de Marguerite Langlois, la vente faite aux TJrsulînes des
"trente-deux arpents de terre scis en la banlieue de cette ville au lieu
134 SOCIÉTÉ ROYALE DU CANADA
*' dit Clère (sic) Fontaine avec quelques vieux bâtiments tombés en
"ruine;" et déclare être payé de sa part du prix de vente.
Etienne Eacine, comme ayant épousé Marguerite Martin, co-héri-
tière, reconnaît par acte devant le même Becquct, notaire, en date du
11 janvier 1668, avoir reçu le reste de leur part de la vente '^ d^une
" terre et habitation seize en la banlieue de Québec au lieu dit Claire-
'' Fontaine.''
Jacques Raté, qui avait épousé (1658) Anne Martin, veuve de Jean
Côté, aussi co-héritière, donne la même désignation Claire-Fontaine,
dans la quittance du 14 janvier 1668, Becquet, notaire.
Jean Gloutier, comme ayant épousé Tautre cinquième co-héritière
Marie Martin, repète de même : " Une habitation seize près cette ville au
lieu dit Claire-Fontaine," le 20 janvier 1668, devant le même notaire.
Les Ursulines vendirent ensuite leur acquisition à Jean-Eustache
Ijanouiller de Boisclair, contrôleur de la marine et des fortifications en
ce pays, par acte devant Louet, notaire royal, le 26 avril 1726, la dési-
gnant "trente-deux arpents de terre en superficie, "scitués en la banlieue
**'de Québec, au lieu vulgairement nommé la Claire-Fontaine/' Cette vente
fut résiliée par les pariies le 29 mai 1749, par acte devant M^** Bou-
cault, notaire, et la Claire-Fontaine retourna encore, sous le même nom,
aux religieuses; et le même jour elles consentirent à ce de Boisdair un
bail à ferme d^une pari:ie du même terrain alors clos en pieux pour Tes-
,pace de neuf années. Ce qui nous amène à l'époque de la conquête et
de là nous arrivons, comme on Ta vu, à 1765 et 1784, sans changer de
nom.
Il faudrait donc détruire cette chaîne de preuve d^abord, puis en
produire à rencontre une autre de même valeur afin de justifier l'appel-
lation des Plaines d'Abraham de Fabbé Ferland et celle d'Original Plains
of Ahraliam de M. Doughty et consorts.
D'après ces prémisses nous sommes fondés à conclure que:
L'habitation d'Abraham Martin était de son temps bien connue,
et nommée vulgairement Claire-Fontaine et pas autrement.
Que cette appellation a subsisté après lui jusqu'à la conquête et ?.
même été continuée jusqu^en 1784.
Que la fontaine qui porte son nom était bien sur son terrain et est
^celle que nous avons trouvée et indiquée.
Que le petit carré de terre de 5 arpents sur 6, n'a jamais porté le
nom de Plaines d'Abraham, nom qui n'a jamais, non plus, été usur])é par
le terrain de Martin.
Que de fait cet endroit ne peut pas former topographiquement ce
qu'on ])cut appeler une plaine ou encore moins des plaines.
(CA80RAIN] LA FONTAINE D'ABRAHAM MARTIN 18B
Que le seul indice qui reste à ce sujet pour rappeler le nom et Thabi-
tation d'Abraham Martin, eet le nom de la me Claire-Fontaine^ laquelle
aboutit à ^encoignure sud-ouest du terrain primitif ; nom qui va dispa-
raître pour être remplacé par celui d^avenue Perrault, suivant la ré-
•cente ordonnance du conseil de ville. C'était ci-devant la route dite
Claire-Fontaine, pour Touverture de laquelle les Dames Ursulines et de
l'Hôtd-Dieu laissèrent chacune quinze pieds de terrain entr'elles en
1790; et c'était aussi l'ancien chemin pour arriver sur les hauteurs du
Cap, en montant de la vallée Saint-Charles par la côte d'Abraham.
De là, probablement, (?) le nom de Hauteurs d^ihraham^ comme domi-
nant le fond de terre qu'occupait Maître Abraham et par lequel on
passait.
A l'époque de la conquête les Français les nommaient les Hauteurs
de la ville, ou Hauteurs d'Abraham, et lee Anglais ont dit ^* The Heights
of Abraham,'' en conséquence/
Jusqu'alors nous n'avons pu trouver nulle part, la désignation de
Plaines d'Abraham, qui nous semble comparativement récente. Nous
sommes enclins à croire que la partie si bien adaptée à un cliamp de
courses, à raison de sa surface unie, et qui a été depuis environ un siècle
(1780) en u?age comme tel^ a fait naître le nom do Plaines d'Abraham,
(Cf. DcGaspé, ^Mémoires, p. 467) qui se restreint depuis longtemps à ce
champ de courses.
' En tous cas rien ne parait prouver que le nom du pilote écossais,
pas plus que son terrain, ont servi à illustrer ce qui est connu aujourd'hui
comme le champ de l)ataille des Plaines d'Abraham. Il est vrai que les
Français en déroute et fuyant la poursuite des Anglais ont passé là,
comme ailleurs, pour se sauver et ont même pu s'y défendre; ce qui
n'ajoute pas plus d'importance à ce terrain qu'aux autres du voisinage
et jusqu'à la rivière Saint-Charles. Le terrain de Martin se trouve en
arrière de l'église Saint-Jean et à près d'un mille du champ de bataille,
c'est-à-dire du monument de Wolfe.
En écrivant une page d'histoire simplement sur la foi d'autrui et
sans remonter aux sources et les étudier sérieusement pour s'assurer par
soi-même, on s'expose à faire fausse route et à se voir appliquer l'adage:
Quof Graecia mendax scripsit !
Il ne faut qu'un mauvais moment pour créer une erreur, et il faut
des années pour la détruire. Et encore ! Témoin Kingsford et sa date
de l'assaut Montgomery qui coure de par le monde.
^ Open ground called the Heights of Abraham. Id. vol. VI, p. 27, Fragment
cf tht i^iege, etc. Cf. aussi les divers plans anglais de l'époque.
ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
TRANSACTIONS
SECTION II.
ENGLISH HISTORY, LITERATURE, ARCHEOLOGY, Era
PAPERS FOR 1908
Section II., 1903 [ 8 ] Trans. R. S. C.
I. — The Evolution and Degeneration of Party. — A Study in Political
History.
By Reverend Dr. N. Burwash, Victoria College, Toronto.
(Read May 19th, 1903.)
In all countries enjoying either a democratic or a constitutional
form of government the political party plays an important part In
primitive times a party formed around the person of a strong military
leader was often the means by which the original liberty of the tribe or
nation was lost and absolute government established. At a later period
a revolutionary party was the means by which that liberty was regained.
But in modem times the party is no longer an occasional or extraordin-
ary agency, called into being at some great crisis, but a permanent and
legally recognized part of the machinery of a free representative govern-
ment. It is such to-day in Britain, in the United States of America, in
Canada, in France and Germany and even in Japan.
Tn these cases the party is not the volcanic outbreak of resistance to
oppression, but is the result of the fact that the people have a voice in
determining the various issues which arise in their history; that they
are free to discuss these issues, and to form and express their opinions
thereon; and that they can finally give force to those opinions at the
polls. The party is the voluntary association of citizens by the help of
which public questions are thoroughly discussed, public opinion formed,
such opinion on the one side or other propagated and finally made effec-
tive in legislation. Such association is absolutely necessary if publid
opinion is either to be intelligently formed or effectively expressed.
Our object in this study is not to follow the history of the various
parties which have arisen in our own or any other country, or to trace
their varying fortunes of ins and outs, or their changes of origin, growth
and decay. It is rather to treat the party in politics as a species or type,
and to determine the forces which contribute to its origin and healthy
development. It is to study the laws by which those forces operate, as
well as to follow the normal course of the development into the highly
comjplex organism of the modern party. And it is finally to observe
the evil influences which contribute to its decay and eventually result
in its overthrow.
The method of such a study must, of course, be inductive ; and as
human nature is the same the world over, and the forces which govern
the social or political evolution are universal in their operation, we may
4 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
draw our examples from the histories with which we are all familiar^
those of Canada, Britain and the United States.
The first fact that meets us, one that lies on the very surface of those
historiée is, that a living party is created only by the occurrence of some
new issue of considerable importance and always of widespread interest.
We may adduce as examples the parties which divided the nation from
Henry VIII. to Elizabeth, from James I. to Charles II., from James II.
to George T. As during this period the constitutional liberty of Eng-
land was only slowly taking form, the parties were largely revolutionary
on the one side and absolutist on the other; but in eveory case the intense
and persistent political life of the party was due to the importance of the
issue involved and the widespread interest which consequently attached
to it. Such issues occur only in the life of an active and progressive
nation. Wherever the people have settled down into a stagnant tradi-
tional life, without ambitions or new interests, and things go on as they
were, there can be no new creation or birth of party. It is a ripe issue,
involving large interests on the one side and the other, intelligently
grasped by the people, that possesses this power of giving birth to party
life. A merely speculative question cannot constitute such an issue.
Academic disputes do not move the people. An issue or question enters
the field of practical politics only when it has first entered into the in-
dustrial, commercial, or political life of the people, or into their inter-
national relations, and so forces itself upon their attention. We doubt
whether a case can be found in which an abstract principle formed the
basis of successful party life. The issue must take concrete form. We
may even go further, and say that it must propose a positive course of
action under the circumstances, a definite policy. It is more frequently
on the policy or course of action to be pursued than on the end to be
attained that party division of opinion arises. The deeper and more
permanent party Unes, however, imply divergence of ends as well as of
methods. The first party lines in the Province of Upper Canada were
based on the divergence of Imperial and Colonial interests. The ques-
tion was, should the country be governed from Downing street accord-
ing to the ideas and convenience or interests of the Home Government?
or by the voice of and in the interests* of its own electorate ? Such a
divergence goes to the very basis of political life and creates a party
Jine of division which may perpetuate itself through the entire national
history.
The issue which draws the line of division between parties must be
important and permanent as well as practical. It must touch great
common interests of the people, interests which are essential to their
individual or united well being, and which are continuous in their char-
[bubwash] evolution AND DEGENERATION OF PARTY 5
acter. This is essential not only to the perpetuity of party life, but also
to that force or energy which makes a party effective for its political
function. A deeply earnest interest is necessary to strong healthy poli-
tical life and even the most fiery or bitter party spirit is preferable from
the moral point of view to apathy and consequent carelessness. Indif-
ference is only less fatal to the welfare of the state than that selfish and
corrupt individualism or sectionalism which makes the state the prey of
the grasping and unscrupulous schemer.
An issue which is strong enough to awaken and sustain a strong
healthy political life will generally result in the creation of two parties.
This is especially the case among the Anglo-Saxon peoples who form
iheir opinions with great definiteness and force of character. The
French people, with their more delicate logical distinctions, may shade
off from the extreme right to the extreme left into five sections whose
boundary lines are not very clearly defined. This certainly gives more
scope for individualism in political life which when pure and healthy
may be a very useful characteristic. But in Anglo-Saxon politics it has
passed into a proverb that "Every question has two sides.'^ The two
sides are not created by the abstract merits of the question itself; for
could we at once apprehend the absolute truth of every question there
would be but one opinion, and that the correct one. It is the slowness
of the human mind to arrive at final truth that renders the conflict of
party needful as the process by which that goal is reached ; and it is the
characteristic one sidedness or imperfection of the human genius which
determines its view, from this side or that side, of each individual ques-
tion. This characteristic habit or attitude is probably more moral than
intellectual, a matter of feeling rather than of judgment. On the one
hand we have the conservative spirit, attached to things as they are,
œutious and critical, averse to all change, a lover of the ancient, the
venerable and respectable. On the other hand we have the progressive
spirit, delighted with the new, with brilliant imagination portraying it in
gay colours, venturesome and idealistic, keenly alive to all the imperfec-
tions of the present order, and a worshipper of the millennial idea rather
than that of hoary antiquity. Under the impulse of the one spirit pro-
gress will be slow but safe and solid. Under the other there will be
constant activity and movement, but not unfrequently mistakes.
It is not necessary here to enter into the investigation of the various
causes which produce this variety of mental attitude. Influence of phy-
sical environment, hereditary proclivities, social environment, education,
and social, religious or political institutions, all have their influence on
the final result, which is the foundation imder the stimulus of some
practical issue of two antithetic political parties.
6 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
One of the early stages in the foundation of parties is the definition
of policy, principles, or platform. For the purposes of the successful
politician, the simpler and more epigrammatic this is the better. A
policy or platform condensed into one or two high-flounding words is
wonderfully effective. A policy which is lengthy or hard to understand
will thereby work its own defeat. " Protection for our infant indus-
tries,'* "A National Policy,'^ "No taxation without representation,'*
" The United Empire," are familiar examples. This is but a case of
the tendency in all ages of the popular mind to condense its' experience
or .convictions into some pithy saying which »is the wit of one and the
wisdom of many. The policy thus represents the fully conscious stage
of political life, the (point at which the individual elements are not only
uniting into a living organism, but the organism is becoming conscious
of its own existence and character.
Another of the early steps in the life of a party is leadership. Tn
revolutionary parties this is naturally military in its character, and may
often as the result of mere physical force change the character of the
movement which it represents. A good example we have of this in the
French Revolution and Napoleon. It began with the widest liberty
as its watchword; it ended in the most extreme absolutism. Wash-
ington gives us the finest example in history of a leader who never
attempted to step aside from the end for whicà he was called to power.
But the true constitutional leadership of party is that which aims
at victory by intellectual and moral conviction and not by physical
force. Such leadership demands a rare combination of natural endow-
ments and acquired advantages. Wide knowledge, and strong under-
standing, the gift of clear, forcible and persuasive speech, tact in deal-
ing with men, all contribute to successful leadership. But probably the
moral and social qualifications are even more important than the intel-
lectual. Such a man must command public confidence, or even per-
sonal affection. To this end the people ihust have come to know him,
and he must have great power of moral or social attraction, a strong
personality and personal influence. Kecent years have given us con-
spicuous examples of such leadership — Gladstone, Disraeli, Lincoln,
Bismarck, Sir John A. Macdonald, Sir Oliver Mowat. Such leadership
is of immense immediate advantage to the cause of any party. And yet
if the personal influence of the loader causes the people to lose sight of
Ihe issue which is the true life of the party, the death of the leader
may easily mean the disintegration of the party. In true healthy poli-
tical life men should never overshadow the principles which they repre-
sent.
The real business of the leader is to make the people understand
the nature and importance of the principles which he represents and to
[bubwabh] evolution AND DEGENERATION OF PARTY 7
CO eate the enthusiasm for them which leads up to the necessary action.
I' or this purpose leadership in our day has two most important instru-
ments, the platform and the press. Of these the platform is the more
immediately powerful. It brings into effective operation not only the
rational considerations by which the party position or policy is «us-
tiined, but also all the personal influence of the speaker, the force of
liis emotional nature, his power to transmit this to his audience, in fact
the influence of the orator, which was so exemplified in Demosthenies
und Cicero. Added to this is the contagious enthusiasm of the audience
itself, reacting again on the speaker, and arousing him to the veiy
highest exertion of his powers. But if this is the more immediately
powerful agency, the press is far more permanently and more safely
influential in its results. It affords opportunity for calm consideration.
That which it presents can be reconsidered at leisure and deliberately
weighed apcurt from the tumult of an excited assembly. This is also
true of the leader himself. In the calm quiet of his study he can come
far nearer- to simple truth than under the excitement of the great
public gathering. What he writes can be laid aside, reconsidered,
improved, and finally presented as the very best. Nor is the process of
selection confined to the man alone. The whole country will give its
attention not to every one who writes, but to those who write that
which is worth reading. To lead the people permanently to the truth
the press has thus many advantages over the platform. And to these
is to be added the fact that there is no limit to the constituency which
i^ can reach. The physical strength of the greatest orator can reach
crJy thousands where the press reaches millions. The creation of a
party press becomes for these reasons one of the most important steps
in its evolution.
Following the process of development especially in modem times
we are led next to the subject of party organization. This branch of our
subject is capable of almost indefinite expansion. It is at the same time
a point of great practical interest inasmuch as here first appear those un-
healthy influences which lead rapidly to degeneration.
The organization of a party may be of a very simple and of a per-
fectly legitimate and useful character. If any body of citizens are to
co-operate in the effort to bring their convictions and the reasons for
them to the notice of their fellow citizens, some form of organization is
for this pmrpose indispensably necessary. There must be a meeting to
arrive at a common understanding of their fundamental principles.
Such a convention must have a chairman and secretary. It is but a
step from this to a permanent organization for the promotion of these
principles. To this organization are attached local branches in all parts
of the country. To employ the platform and the press in the work of
8 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
this organization, it is often necessary to meet the expenses of speakers,
writers and printing. All this is regarded as legitimate; but it is
bringing ns nearer to the sources of danger. The introduction of funds
and of paid workers may easily be perverted as we shall see presently.
But thus far the fundamental purpose of the organization, the formation
of intelligent public opinion is imquestionably both legitimate and use-
ful. Another object of the organization of the party, the selection of
the candidates who shall represent the party in the election contest, is a
necessary function under a representative system.
But when we turn to the next purpose for which party organization
exists and for which it has of late years been greatly extended we have
reached our most doubtful and dangerous ground. Is the personal can-
vass either by the candidate or the party agents legitimate or in the best
interests of a pure and free representative government? Every school-
boy knows how ancient this practice is and how our very words "candi-
date'* and " ambition '* have been derived from it. But even in Home
did it not belong to the age of decline when the man sought the oflBce and
not the oflBce the man ?
Looking at it in our own day is the personal influence or solicitation
of the candidate or of his agents at all a proper influence by which to
secure votes ? If T vote for a man because he is my friend or has made
himself agreeable, or has taken the trouble to ask me, and not because I
have a clear conviction that he represents a right policy, am I not as
unfaithful to my duty, as if I had voted because he slipped flve dollars
into my hand ? It may be said that only by such a personal canvass and
by great effort on election day can the full vote be polled. Granted, but
is the vote polled by such methods of any real service to the country?
Does it express any political responsibility or any intelligent or honest
conviction? Should not all such persons be left to disfranchise them-
selves ? But we will return to this point when we come to consider the
degeneration of pariy in politics.
The battle of party having been fought out at the polk, next pre-
sents itself on the floor of the legislative assembly; and there also the
political party has its course of development.
Several important particulars differentiate this development from
that of the party in the country, or among the electors. The result of
the election contest has placed one party in possession of the offices of
executive government, and has given them a certain priority in the pre-
paration and presentation of legislation. The work of the governing
party becomes thus constructive, that of the other critical. The work
of criticism by no means excludes a positive policy directly opposed to
that of the government, but the opposition are for the time being with-
[BUKWA8H] EVOLUTION AND DEGENERATION OF PARTY . 9
out the power of making that policy effective. They can present it and
record their votes and reasons in its favour, but with a view to future
rather than to present success.
The issues on which the parties divide on the floor of the house are
no longer confined to principles or matters of commanding importance,
but are extended to minute and well defined legislative action. Many
subjects of legislation are thus excluded from the category of party ques-
tions and are left to the exercise of individual judgment. It is the pre-
rogative of the Government to choose their ground in bringing forward
their programme of legislation, leaving minor matters to individual
action. But even after this elimination the field of party issues is
greatly enlarged in parliament. The discufifiion of these issues in
parliament has a twofold purpose, justification and conviction.
Probably the latter purpose is subordinate. On all party questions,
the position of the party is carefully considered and practically
determined before the matter is discussed in the house. The speeches
are not so much to change votes as to justify the position taken before
the country. This is especially true of great issues which have already
been explained and considered in caucus. Those items of legislation
which are less essential to the party principles and policy may be left
for open discussion. That a man should leave his party on a great issue
becomes thus a most important matter in parliamentary history and is
scarcely ever the result of a discussion or of parliamentary oratory. On
the floor of parliament the party thus assumes its distinct function and
develops its organization to meet the requirements of that function.
The principal elements in this organization are the parliamentary leaders,
the whips and the caucus. By means of the caucus the leaders consult
the whole body of their followers on important matters of policy. The
whips are the agency by which the whole force of the party is made avail-
able for a division. Two leaders are recognized in the house, one of the
government and one of the opposition, but under these are lieutenants
who are intrusted with the defence of particular parts of the party policy
as well as called upon for general support of the leaders. The members
of the ministry holding seats in the house are, of course, identified with
such leadership on the side of the government.
The party thus fully formed and organized has a definite period of
historic life often extending through several generations, and sometimes
perpetuating by means of its organization a degenerate existence after
its formative principles have ceased to have any living eflBcacy.
Of the normal life of a party the living issue is the creative force,
and this normal life is or should be governed by certain ethical prin-
ciples. A man who takes upon himself the responsibility of being the
lO EOYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
representative of his party especially in parliament is believed to have
done so from honest, intelligent, and well tried conviction. Loyalty to
his party principles is on this account expected of him as a public duty.
He can only honourably be released from the obligation by the resigna-
tion of his position. In carrying fundamental principles into effect the
individual member by his very union with the party submits his indi-
vidual judgment as to ways and means to the decision of the majority.
The very existence of party implies this distinction between principle and
methods of its application. To change the principle is to reconstruct
the party lines and leaves every man free. Compromise can only be
applied to methods.
On the other hand the party owes it to its members to allow large
discretion in all matters not affecting its fundamental principles. This
is one of the most notable features of English political life and is one of
the most important characteristics of wise leadership. Parties organized
under the vital influence of those far reaching forces which run through
all (history, awake to all the new issues which arise in the course of
national life and taking up a well defined position on those issues as a
matter of honest conviction may perpetuate a healthy political life
through many generations. But the secret of this perpetuation of a
healthy party life lies in honest conviction. Any influence which brings
about deviation from this, or which substitutes for this some other motive
must eventually result in overthrow and is in itself a political corruption.
The occasion for such degeneration to which we may now turn our atten-
tion, arises from the fact that every issue which arises in political life in
course of time reaches its solution. The whole truth probably lies with
neither party. But even in the extreme case of one party altogether
right and the other altogether wrong, there comes a time when the wrong
is put right and so the issue ceases. But in the meantime the men who
compose the party which thus has attained to victory are a well organized
body of men accustomed to act together, and possibly in possession of the
reins of government. If new issues have arisen which have been adopted
into their party platform a healthy political life may be maintained.
But if such is not the case, it will generally be found that the solution of
the issue has brought about a nearly even balance of parties, now com-
posed of the ins and outs. It is conceivable that the ins may maintain
a pure political life by an able, wise, and honest administration of public
affairs, the central motive being the highest interests of the country.
The opposition may do the same by watchful, honest criticism of the
measures and administration of their opponents, the same unselfish
motive governing them. But in such an ideal state of affairs it will be
seen that the real life of party has ceased to exist You have no longer
[bubwash] evolution AND DEGENERATION OF PARTY 11
two living parties divided by a clearly defined set of principles, but the
organized bodies of two parties whose living spirit has passed away. One
of these bodies is in possession, the other not, and the struggle between
the parties may become a mere struggle for power, not for principle.
The moment this becomes the case the door is open for the entrance of
corruption on both sides of the house. Under these circumstances the
best men may be proof against the malign influences ; but no party that
the world has ever known has been so. So long as the party from honest
conviction was engaged in contending for its principles, tïhis very con-
tention, a pure motive, exerted a conserving influence. It kept the
party pure. A man who is working from honest convictions will
scarcely emiploy dishoneet methods. But when his principles have
triumphed and when a generation succeeds to his place who have en-
tered the organization by inheritan-ce and whose convictions have not
been called out by clearly defined issues the salt which kept the mass
pure has lost its savour. In the struggle for place and power, men
enter the lists who are quite unscrupulous as to the means employed
for the attainment of their end, and the true, healthy political party
degenerates into a corrupt struggle for victory.
It is no uncommon thing that in such oases the best men eschew
political life and thereby the evil is rapidly increased. If the evil
affected only one party the remedy would seem to be within easy
reach. Turn the corrupt party out and bring in a better. But the
form of political disease which we have been studying in almost every
case affects both political parties alike, and effective remedy must be
something far more radical than anything which can be brought about
by the triumph of either party.
Anotiher remedy apparently easily at hand is that all good men
of all parties should forget the names, associations and conflicts of
the past and unite for the puriflcation of political life. One of the
most recent and apparently successful examples of this has been the
overthrow of Tammany in New York. But reasonable and direct as
such a course may appear it presents several serious difficulties if not
radical defects.
In the first place suoh a combination is not easily brought about.
It requires something like the presence of a moral plague to awaken
the body of even earnest and upright electors to action in such a case.
Each party is wide-awake to the defects of its opponents and ready
to denounce them most roimdly. But that is a very different thing
from the breaking up of oM party lines, and associations and the con-
struction of a new party for the purification of politics.
Again, such a party once formed and installed in power by its
very success has removed its own raison d'être. The evil which called
12 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
•
it into being no longer exists, and only the remembrance of it remains
to quicken the pulses of party life. I need not mention instances in
our own political history which show us how quickly a great scandal
as it appears at the time is forgotten. Energetic, permanent party
life cannot be maintain^ on memory. A single generation at moat
will serve to obliterate the keen sense of wrong and danger, and then
for lack of living issues the evil will again creep in.
The remedy which nature provide is the incoming of some new
and important positive issue which creates anew a strong, healthy polit-
ical life. Such an issue is very likely to arise out of the rashness and
self confidence of the men whose corrupt course is degrading the
political life. It is a fortunate thing for the country if they make
such a mistake before the course of corruption has reached its extreme
limit. Such questions as the cleigy reserves and responsible govern-
ment are samples in our own country sixty or seventy years ago. They
not only created a strong, healthy political life and brought to the
front our best types of Canadian statesmen; but they also gave us a
period of remarkable freedom from political corruption.
But when in the enjoyment of a healthy and comparatively pure
political life, can anything be done to secure its maintenance. This
is a question of even greater importance than that of a cure. The
solution of this problem must be sought at the very source of the evil.
It is often said in a general way that we must raise the moral stan-
dard, especially in the political field. This is quite true. The
improvement of public sentiment, the quickening of public conscience
are all important and needful works. But they can only be brought
about by slow evolution. The life of a whole generation is needed to
aocomplish even the least appreciable result. The downward move-
ment in the field of politics is of a much more rapid character. It
does not wait for a whole generation of citizens to become morally
corrupt. It can find the material for its purpose, materies morbiy in
any ordinary generation of men and if the circumstances are favourable
its progress is very rapid.
The first step in the course of political corruption is the substitu-
tion of party or personal thirst for power for honest party or personal
conviction as to principle. The next step plunges both politician and
party into the corrupt and mercenary struggle for the loaves and fishes.
The next step is not the securing of the regulation loaves and fishes,
but the plundering of the oountry. if this process of degeneration
is to be prevented we must guard the first step. Strong constitutional
limitations must be placed on the personal and party ambition. The
distinction must be clearly drawn between personal and party ambition
and zeal for honest even though mistaken convictions. We cannot^ of
[bubwash] evolution AND DEGENERATION OF PARTY 13
course, read the hearts of men and human laws cannot control motives.
"We can only deal with acts. The political activity that arises directly
from zeal for convictions is limited to efforts to disseminate truth, by
discussion, by voice and pen. The most radical and effective remedy
that we can suggest for political corruption is to make all and every
form of personal canvass or propagandism which goes beyond the public
dissemination and discussion of opinions illegal.
We are well aware of the objections which would be raised to such
an election law. Political convictions are disseminated, not merely
by the press and public meetings, but also by private discussion.
Granted, and granted also that the private discussion of public affairs
between individual citizens should not be in any way discouraged, but
rather promoted, yet to exclude a mere personal canvass by the can-
didate, to exclude house to house canvass by agents, and especially to
exclude the introduction into a riding of outside people for such a
canvass would imply no limitations of the individual liberty of the
citizen and would remove the opportunity for a great deal that corrupts
modem politics.
R. S. C.
.)
r with
or the
Pierre
t mis-
md ÎQ
"rench
affair^
, with
worth
igiDAl
have
f the
ough-
lentic
selves
k)iifle-
and
'etter
ister,
Irye's
who
. was
r his
'oUrc-
7 St
and
says
çood.
sau.
See
126.
one
the
.1903
Qmmov II., 1903 [ 18 ] Trams. R. S. C.
Il.—Th6 Lake of the Woods Tragedy.
By Lawrence J. Burpee.
(Communicated by W. Wilfred Oajnpbell, and read May 19, 1908.)
All students of early Canadian history are of course familiar with
the general outlines of that most tragic incident in the search for the
Western Sea — the murder by the Sioux of the eldest son* of Pierre
Gaultier de Varennes, the Sieur de Lavérendrye, with the Jesuit mis-
sionary Âulneau, or Auneau^^ and a score of voyageurs, on an island in
the Lrfike of the Woods. None of the English histories of French
Canada, however, contain more than a parsing reference to the affair^
and the French-Canadian historiams are not much more explicit, with
the exception of Benjamin Suite. It has, therefore, seemed worth
while to bring together such evidence as is now available, — the original
documents, whether in manuscript or print, — so that we may have
before us, in convenient form, the fullest possible details of the
occurrence.
The Sioux having done their work with characteidstic thorough-
ness, no survivor remained of Lavérendrye's party to carry an authentic
account of the matter to the nearest post; and the Indians themselves
showed a perhaps natural reluctance to enter into details. Conee-
quently, the evidence we have is more or less indirect and
circumstantial.
What may be considered the oflficial account is contained in a letter
from the governor, Beauharnois, to the French Colonial Minister,
dated 14th October, 1736.^' This is based on the elder Lavérendrye's
report, and upon a statement made by one Bourassa,* a voyageur, who
had met the same party of Sioux on the day of the massacre.
^ The Sleur Vérendrye had four sons. The eldest, here referred to, was
Jean-Baptiste, born at Sorel, in 1713. He had taken an active part, under his
father's directions, in the search for the Western Sea.
" For full particulars in regard to Father Aulneau, see The Aulneau Collec-
tion, 1734-1745, edited by Rev. Arthur E. Jones, S.J., and published by St.
Mary's Collegre, Montreal, 1893. As to the spelling: of the name, Parkman and
most of the other historians spell it Anneau. Mr. Benjamin Suite says
Auneau is the preferable spelling, but that Aulneau is almost equally good.
There does not appear to be any sufficient authority for spelling it Anneau.
■ Lettre de Monsieur de Beauha/rnols, à, Québec, le 14 octobre 1736. See
Canadian Archives: Postes 4es Pays de l'Ouest, 1679-1759. (Vol. 16), F. 126,
pp. 335-339.
• It is difficult to place this man. He Is never referred to, except as one
Bourassa. Mr. Suite is of opinion that he was probably a grandson of the
first Bourassa, who came to Canada from France in 1684. See Tanguay.
16 EOYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
Beauhamois reports Lavérendrye's arrival at Fort St. Charles,*
after an enforced wintering at Kamanistiquoya; the illness of
Lavérendrye's nephew, La Jemeraye; and Lavérendrye's suggestion
that a new post should he established to the south of Lac des Prairies,
which was thought to be a very advantageous situation for the fur
trade; and then he goes on to say: —
"He (Lavérendrye) wrote me from the same idace (Fort St.
Chaiies) on the 8th of the same month (June, 1736), and he informs
me that the canoes had just arrived from Kamanistiquoya, and that
they had not met the party which had left on the 5th for Mis-
silimakinac, led by his eldest son, and amongst whom were Father
Auneau and twenty-two hired men. He . . . conveys to me his fear
thait this party was exterminated by the Sioux of the Prairie.
"I have since learned, monseigneur, that the party had been
totally destroyed by these Indians, and here are the particulars of the
occurrence. You must remember, monseigneur, that during the year
1734, Sieur de la Veranderie gave me a memorandum to be sent to you,
which memorandum you approved last year, and in which he speaks
to the Indians in the following terms: — "I am not opposed to your
waging war against the Maskoutins Poiianes, your enemies/* In the
same memorandum it is stated that he gave them his son to lead them.'*
Lavéreiîdrye's son did accompany the Indians, in their expedition
against the Maskoutins Poiianes, but only for a short distance, when
he returned to the fort. The Maskoutins Poiianes, however, dis-
covered his trail, and attributed to him the leadership of the hostile
party. This, in the opinion of Beauhamois, was the immediate cause
of the subsequent massacre.
"After having carefully read," continues the Governor, "the
memorandum of the Sieur de la Veranderie, I enquired from some
old voyageurs who the Maskoutins Poiianes were. They told me that
they were the Sioux of the Prairie. I immediately understood the
misfortune which had taken place, and gave him (Veranderie) strict
instructions not to send in the future any more French to war against
^ In a letter from Father Auflneau to Father Boivln (Aulneau OoUeotUm,
p. 72), he grives this description of Fort St. Charles:
" It is merely an enclosure made with four rows of posts, from twelve
to fifteen feet In helgrht, in the form of an obloncr square, within which are
a few rough cabins constructed of logs and clay and covered with bark."
Father Jones, who edits these letters, adds the followlngr footnote:—
" The probable site of Fort St Charles was a feiw miles up the bay now
known as ">No(rth-We«t Angle Inlet" At the entrance of this bay, which
begrhis at Aimerlcan Point, lies Guoketê Island. The latitude of the fort would
be about 49^ 6\ and its longitude west of Orreeniwi'oh 95^ i", or perhaps a few
minutes further west."
Fbukpkk] lake of the WOODS TRAGEDY 17
this nation, nor to incite any Indians of his post to take part; that his
orders were to maintain the Indians in peace, union and tranquility. . .
"I made enquiries with regard to what took place, and learned
that the Indians at the post of the Sieur de la Veranderie had fired
upon the so-called Maskoutins Poiianes, who had demanded: "Who
fired at us?" They answered: "The French." They immediately
resolved to be revenged, and had recourse to all the usual means to
carry out their intentions, notwithstanding the fact that the Sieur de
la Veranderie had not been concerned in the affair. This act produced
in fact the same effect as if he had been there himself.
" At the beginning of the month of June last (1736), a party of
Sioux of the Prairies, to the number of one hundred and thirty men,
found the canoe of Father Auneau, in which was one Bourassa. They
captured all the French, and tied the leader (Bourassa) to a stake to
burn him. Fortunately for him he had a slave belonging to this
nation, whom he had taken from the Monsonés. She said to her
people : ^ My kinsmen, what are you about to do ! I owe my life to
this Frenchman. He did nothing else but good to me. If you desire
to be avenged for the attack which was made upon you, all you have
to do is, to go a little further on and you will find twenty-four French-
men, amongst whom is the son of the chief who killed your people.'
They released Bourassa and his men, and went and totally exterminated
the other party.
"This is, monseigneur, an unfortunate affair, which may perhaps be
the cause of the abandonment of all the posts in this (western) country.**
This letter of Beauharnois', dated 14th October, 1736, was, as
already stated, based partly upon a report from the elder Lavérendrye.
Unfortunately, however, the report (mentioned in Beauharnois' letter
as of date the 8th June, 1736), is not in the Archives at Ottawa,
nor, indeed, does it appear to be extant elsewhere. Although I have
made a most minute search through the calendars of French Colonial
documents published in the Canadian Archives Reports, no reference
can be found to it there. Parkman, in a footnote on page 33 of
A Half Century of Conflict, Vol. II., gives the following original
documents as bearing on the Lake of the Woods incident : —
"Beauharnois au Ministre, 14 Octobre, 1736; Relation du Massacre
au Lac dos Bois, en Juin, 1736; Journal de la Vérandrye, joint à lai
lettre de M. de Beauharnois du Octobre, 1737." He, however, makes
ne mention of Lavérendrye's letter to Beauharnois of 8th June, 1736,
which would appear to have conveyed the first intimation of the mas-
sacre, or rather Lavérendrye^s fear that such a massacre must have
taken place, for as yet he had no direct proof of it. It is most
Sec. II., 1003. 2.
18 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
improbable that, if the letter of th-e 8tli June was among the docu-
ments in the Colonial or other Archives at Paris, it would have escaped
the notice of Parkman, and also of the late Mr. Marmotte and of Mr.
Eichard, who, on behalf of the Canadian Archives, made exhaustive
searches through the Colonial papers in the various departments of the
French Government for anything that might have a bearing, direct or
indirect, upon the history of New France.
The other document mentioned as forming the basis of Beau-
harnois* report — the Relation of Bourassa — is, however, in the
Canadian Archives. It reads as follows: — ^
" A voyageur, Bourassa by name, relates that on, June 3rd, 1736,
having set out the fifth (of the band) from Fort St. Charles, at the
Lake of the Woods, for Michilimakinac, met the following morning,
just as he was about to push off from shore, thirty canoes manned by
ninety or a hundred warriors, who surrounded and disarmed him and
his companions, and plundered their stores. When they had learnt
from him that under the curtain* of Monsieur de la Véranderie's Fort
there were five or six wigwams of Cristinaux, against whom they had *
set out on the warpath, they released him, and departed with the inten-
tion of capturing the encampment. They told Bourassa, however, to
wait for them, and at their return they would restore his arms. This
he did not think advisable to do; on the contrary, he hurried to
Michilimakinac, while the Sioux, on their side, pushed on to Fort St,
Charles, where they failed to find the five wigwams of Cristinaux who
had decamped, so they retraced their steps.
" Meanwhile, twenty voyageurs, who had lately arrived from Lake
Alepimigon, were on their way to Michilimakinac. At a day^s journey
from there (Lake Alepimigon)^ they were met by that same band of
Sioux, who massacred them all.
** Among the slain were the young Sieur de la Véranderie and
Father Auneau, the missionar}\
* This document is entitled " Affaire du meurte de vinigt-un voyageurs
arrive au Lac des Bois, au (mois de juin 1736.** A copy le anion«r the MSf?. in
the Canadian Archives: Nouvelle France, Vol. 16. Postes des Pays de
l'ouest, 1679-1759, pp. 340-343.
* The curtain is the line of enclosure between two bastions.
■The writer of this report was evidently somerwhat at sea as to his geo-
graphy. A reference to the accompanying map will show that Liake Alepimi-
gon (the modern Lake Nepigon) is north of Lake Superior, while the Lake
of the Woods is a considerable distance to the westrward— certainly a number
of days* journey as men travelled in those days. In any case, the voyageurs
were travelling east, and therefore could not possibly have come from
Lake Alepimigon to the Lake of the Woods. As a matter of fact, they had
come from Fort St. Charles, on the western side of the Lake of the Woods.
[bubpeb] lake of the WOODS TRAGEDY 19
"Their bodies were discovered and identified by a party of
Frenchmen who passed by the same place a few days later.* Their
heads had been placed on robes of beaver skin, and most of them with
the scalp missing. The missionary was kneeling on one knee, an arrow
in his side, a gaping wound in the breast, his left hand resting on the
ground and his right hand raised. The Sieur de la Véranderie was
stretched on the ground, face downward, his back all hacked with a
knife; there was a large opening in his loins, and his headless trunk
was decked out with garters and bracelets of porcupine quills.
"It will be only this year that we shall be in possession of the
other particulcars of this unfortunate affair.
"Some are of opinion that the Indians wished to wreak their
vengeance more particularly on young La Véranderie, the son, who
two years before had joined a war party of Christinaux against the
Sioux. It would appear that in the council he Kad been proclaimed
leader. Be that as it may, the young man had desisted and had not
taken part in the hostilities.
" According to Bourassa, the bulk of the attacking party was com-
posed of the Prairie Sioux, of some Sioux of the Lakes and of
Monsieur de la Sonde's post. The latter appeared well disposed
towards the French; perhaps they were overruled in the affair of the
Sieur de la Véranderie's murder. If the Sioux of the Lakes' conspired
with the Sioux of the Prairies to shoot the French, then there is much
to be feared for the Sieur St. Pierre, who is commandant at the post of
the Sioux^ The Sioux nations are the fiercest of all the native tribes.
They have been from time immemorial at war with the Cristinaux and
the Assiniboels. These latter were originally from the same stock;
they speak very nearly the same language, and yet they are irreconcil-
able enemies. A circumstance which the same Bourassa reports is,
that the Sioux complained to him that the French supplied the
Cristinaux with arms and ammunition. The Cristinaux might as well
complain of the French furnishing the Sioux with ammunition.
" The Sieur de la Véranderie writes that, grief-stricken at the
loss of his son, he intends placing himself at the head of the Cristinaux
and Assiniboels, and of marching against the Sioux (an extreme
measure and not to be recommended). He would do better to agree
to give up the post of the Western Sea, or have another officer
' Pierre Margry, in an article in the Moniteur (Paris, 1852), says that the
discovery of the murdered man was made by Ave Canadian voyageurs, several
days after the event.
* Fort Beauharnols, situated on Lake Pepin, about forty miles south-
east of the present city of St. Paul.
20 BOTAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
appointed to relieve the Sieur de la Véranderie, who could undertake
the task of conciliating all the tribes."^
Under date of the 14th October, ITS?, Beauhamois again writes
the Colonial Minister,^ forwarding an extract from the Journal of the
Sieur de la Véranderie, containing a fuller account of the circum-
stances which led up to and surrounded the Lake of the Woods
tragedy. The extract is as follows: —
^'During the month of June, 1736, this officer held a meeting at
Fort St. Charles, Lake of the Woods, as to the mode of obtaining pro-
visions and ammunition, and it was resolved unanimously to send three
canoes to Kamanistigoiiia and thence to Missilimakinac. To this end
Sieur de la Véranderie distributed powder and bullets to those who
were to take part in this journey, and Father Auneau, Jesuit, along
with the eldest son of this officer, left on the expedition.
" The officer in question received during the same month of June,
a letter from Sieur Bourassa, informing him that having been met by
the Sioux they pillaged all that he possessed, without, however, causing
him any personal injury, and upon his asking these Indians why they
were taking him in custody, being good friends and brethem, they
answered that it was the custom of warriors not to recognize anyone
on their path.
" The party wîhich had gone to Kamanistigoiiia and Missili-
makinac not returning when due, Sieur de la Véranderie sent Sieur
Gras * with a canoe and eight men commanded by a sergeant, to go and
meet the expedition, but the sergeant having returned on the same
day, reported that those forming part of the expedition had been
massacred; that the great majority of the bodies had been found
decapitated, and lying in a circle one next to the other, the heads
being wrapped in beaver skins. Amongst the dead were found Father
Auneau and the eldest son of Monsieur de la Véranderye. An account
of this adventure was given last year, thougà at that time it had n<>t,
however, been confirmed.
"During the month of August following, two Monsonis Indians
having gone around the Lake of the Woods, found two canoes belong-
ing to this party, with more than twenty Sioux canoes, fastened
together two by two, and in which there was a great quantity of blood.
The two Indians, moreover, found human limbs which had been buried
^ This translation is taken from The Aulneau Collection.
■ Canadian Archives MSS. Nouvelle France — Postes des Pays de l'Ouest.
1679-1759 (F. 126). pp. 349-367.
■ The Sieur Gras (or Lepras) mentioned here would appear to have been
one of the sons of Jean de Gras (b., 1656), a merchant, of Montreal. This is
the only family of the name mentioned by Abbé Tanguay in his Dictionnaire
Généalogique. Mr. Benjamin Sidle Is of the same opinion. See Tangnay, p. 372.
[burpbe] lake of the WOODS TRAGEDY SI
iD the sand^ and this left no doubt that the Sioux had also lost some
of their number.
" The news of this adventure having got abroad, Sieur de la
Véranderde was visited by delegates from liie Cris and Monsonis, who
informed him that during the following autumn the chiefs of their
nations would come to him in order that, with him at their head, the
blood of his son and that of the other French that the Sioux had
killed, might be avenged; to whidh MonsieuT de la Véranderie rerplied,
thanking them and telling them that it would be necessary to await
the orders of their father as to what course should be followed, and
that after these had been received, he would inform them of it.
" A few days afterwards the Cria and Assiniboels assembled at
Fort Maurepas, and sent twelve of their number to Sieur de la
Véranderie, to ascertain if it was his intention to go and avenge the
death of the French, and especially of his own son, whom their nation
had adopted as their chief; that they were still mourning his death:
that a portion of their warriors would proceed to the point below the
fort which is their common meeting place ; and that they had the hope
of seeing him himself or one of his children at their head to march
against the Sioux, or that at least he would send them a canoe with
powder, bullets and tobacco.
" Sieur de la Véranderie having held counsel with the great
chiefs of the Monsonis and Cris, they commenced by bewailing the
death (of the French), and the Indian chiefs proposed to Sieui' de ta
Véranderie to send expeditions against the Sioux, but upion consider-
ing that this would interfere with the autumn hunting, and also with
the harvesting of the wild oats, and upon the representations of Sieur
de la Véranderie, that owing to the limited number of canoes pro-
visions were scarce, it was decided not to undertake the expedition.
But this officer proposed at the same time to the chiefs of the two
nations, to send word to the Monsonis of Lake Tekamamiouen to the
effect that after having met together, they should go every year to
meet the convoy of the French and escort it with fifty men, which
they would furnish, in order that they might not be exposed to the
insults of the Sioux. This was unanimously accepted and was carried
out during the autumn of last ye^r.
" Monsieur de la Véranderie, as a mark of gratiitude, gave to the
chiefs of these two tribes a collar to be kept by them, the one given
to the Monsonis, at Fort St. Pierre, and the one given to the Cris, at
Fort St. Charles, Lake of the Woods.
"This officer, moreover, promised to the Indians some tobacco,
powder and also bullets, which would be delivered to them in the
spring and autumn of each year. ,
22 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
"Towards the end of the month of September following, Sieur
de la Véranderie received two ddegaites ocmiing from the Cris and
Assiniboelfl, who asked him on the part of their nations, to send canoes
to their tribes in order to supply their needs. This ofl5cer granted to
the delegates a canoe manned by six men and under the command of
one of his children, who was escorted by the Indians as far as Fort
Maurepas, and he gave his son instructions for his guidance that he
might acquire knowledge during his voyage.
" One of the principal things which he recommended to him was
to explore the Ouachipouannes, otherwise called the KoiiatheatteSi a
white and civilized people who cultivate the land and live in forts and
houses, and who, according to the knowledge of the Indians, lived at
a distance of not more than one hundred and fifty leagues from Fort
Maurepas; to induce these people to send to Fort Maurepas delegates
of their nation, in order to form an alliance with the French; and to
tell them that, when one of their number had come the winter before,
the commandant had only been informed of the fact after his depar-
ture, which had been for him a cause of sorrow as well as for the other
French.
" Sieur de la Véranderie added to these iustructi'ons to notify the
Assiniboels and Cris to be at their fort during the month of January
following, and that he would explain to them there the instructions of
the Great Chief of all the French.
"During the month of October following, a great number of
Indians, Cris, Monsonis and Assiniboels, came to Monsieur de la
Véranderie, and the ohief of the Cris, w^ho was the spokesman of these
nations, after having shown how their tribes were sensible of the
accident that had occurred to the French, proposed to him again to
come at their head to avenge the dead. They represented that they
were very sorry that their death had retarded the establishment of a
fort which they had promised to them at the far end of Lake
Ouinipigon, where they could have found the subsistence of their
families.
" The chief asked, lastly, that he would leave with them to spend
the winter at Fort Maurepas one of his children, and to allow them to
adopt his son the Chevalier as their chief, in the place of his brother
whom they had lost." ....
In the Collection Moreau St. Mcry, of the French Colonial
Archives, there is a memoir of Lavérendrye, addressed to M. De
Beauharnois, and dated, at Fort St. Charles, in 1737, which seems to
cover generally the same ground and the same period of time as the
extract from Lavérendrye's journal forwarded to Paris by Beauharnois,
under date of the 14th October, 1737, quoted above. At the same
[BURPEii] LAKE OF THE WOODS TRAGEDY 23
time, the details are in many particulars so widely different, that it is
almost impofesible to make the two accounts fit into each other. Pos-
sibly if we had a full transcript of the Moreau St. Mery manu-
script the difficulty might be lessened, but unfortunately a
copy of this document ha& not yet been received in the Canadian
Archives (in the original it covers 38 pages of Ms.), and all that we
have to go on is a synopsis of the document in the Archives Calendar
which is given here for purposes of comparison with the preceding
document : —
" Memoir of de la Véranderic to M. de Beauharnois,^ to be sent to
the court. Has already sent an account of what occurred from the
date of his departure from Montreal, in June, 1735, up to 2nd June,
1736, the date of Sieur Bourassa's departure. Has since continued to
keep up his journal with the saimo exacliitude. His two sons arrived
that same diay from Fort Maurcpas, telling him the news of the death
of his nephew De la Jenimcrayo, which happcn<?d on 10th May, at La
Fourche des Koseaux, where they erected a cross. Being in want of
merchandise and powder, he sent his eldest son with Père Auneau to
Kaministiquia to meet the canoes from Michilimakinak. Letter from
Bourassa pillaged by the Sioux. 17th June, arrival of Sieur Legras ^
with two canoe loads of goods. 20th June, arrival of 30 Cristinaux
with furs, and news of the massacre of 21 men at a point seven leagues
from the fort. 29th July, arrival of four Frenchmen. August 4th,
arrival of four Crées, promising to help to avenge his son. Departure
of his other son for Fort Maurepas, with Indians. September 17th,
sent six men to disinter the bodies of Père Anneau and of hif," own son,
which he caused to be buried in his chapel, with the heads of the other
Frenchmen. October 15th, arrival of a large number of Indians.
Their statements : " There are 800 Indians at la Pointe du Bois fort.
They want to avenge his son and the other Frenchmen, and to have
his second son for their chief. '^ His answer: Exhorts them not to
go to war then. February 8th, 1737, leaves for Fort Maurcpas, with
his two children, ten Frenchmen and many Indians. February 25th,
arrival at Fort Maurepas. Decided to remove Fort Maurepas to the
great Forks of Rivière Rouge, where the Assiniboels were awaiting
him. Speaks of another great lake to the west, which is called the
brother of Lake Ouinipigon, where there is an abundance of game.
Sends a map of the country. General description of the country.
March 11th, return to Fort St. Charles. June 3rd, departure for
Montreal with 14 canoes laden with furs. June 25th, arrival at
* Collection Moreau St. Mery, 1732-1740, Vol. 10, F. 12, Pol. 248.
' See previous footnote in regard to Sieur Gras. Gras and IJegrras are
evidently the same.
24 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
Kaministiquia. July 22nd, arrivai at Michilimakinak. August 3rd,
departure for Montreal/'
In The Aulneau Collection are a number of letters bearing upon
the Lake of the Woods massacre. They have jppxticular référence to
the death of Father Auneau, or Aulneau as it is always here spelled.
The first of these letters is from Father Nicholas de Gonnor ^ to
a correspondent in France.* After some personal remarks he says: —
" Another reason for writing you is, to beg you to break as gently
as possible to Father Aulneau^s mother, the news of the death of her
dear son, who, we have learnt but lately, was massacred last May by a
party of wandering Indians, called the Sioux of the Prairies, while he
was journeying from his own to another mission, with the intention
of going to confession and of seeking advice on troubles to wihioh his
extreme delicacy of conscience had given rise. He is universally
regretted by both the members of the Society and by seculars, for he
was universally esteemed. . . .
"He was surprised with twenty other Frenchmen, but it is not
known how they were put to death. No premonitory sign of distrust
on the part of the Indians was noticed, nor were the victims tortured,
as they are wont to be when prisoners are taken in battle. It is con-
jectured that they were surprised while asleep, and received their death
blow unawares. The heads of all were then severed from the bodies.
" It is said, however, that from the position in which the Father^s
body was found, he must have been on his knees when he was
decapitated, and one of the party who found him took possession of his
calotte, remarking that poor as he was, he would not part with it for
a thousand crowns." ....
In 1739, Father du Jaunay, writing from Michilimakinac to
Madame Aulneau, adds the following particulars: — *
" Ck)ncerning the circumstances accompanying the death of your
dear son, here is wihat I have learnt from hearsay, and some of my
sources of information seem trustworthy.
* Father Kicolas de Gonnor, according to a (footnote at pag« 25 of The
Aulneau Collection, belonged origrlnaUy to the Pzxyvince of Aquitaine. He was
born Noveanber 19, 1691, and entered th»e Society of Jesus, September 11th,
1710. He came to Cajiada In 1725. In 1727 he was sent to the Sioux mission,
and afterwards he was stationed some time at Sault St. Liouis.. In 1749 he
had returned to Quebec; thenoe he waa once more sent to the Sioux, where
he was superior in 1752. He remained there until 1755, when he was trana-
f erred to Montreal, and the followlngr year to Quebec, where he died, December
16, 1759. Hia Indian name was tiarenhés.
* The Aulneau Collection, pp. 87-89.
■ The skull-cap sometimes worn by clergy of the Church of Rome.
* Aulneau Collection, p. 110-111.
[bukpm] lake of the woods TRAGEDY 28
" In the first place, the majority of the Indiana implicated were
averse to putting him to death. In the second place, it was through
sheer bravado that a crazy-brained Indian set at naught the conse-
quences which held the others in awe.
" A third particular I have gathered is, that scarcely had the deed
been perpeitrated, than a deafening dap of thunder struck tenrar into
the whole band. They fled from the spot, believing that Heaven was
incensed at what they had done.
" Finally, that the portable chapel and, namely, the chalice, which
was plundered, had fallen into the hands of a widowed squaw who had
several grown-up son-s, the pride and wealth of the tribe. In a remark-
ably short lapse of time, all, or nearly all of them perished in her
sight. This she ascribed to the chalice, which her sons had given her;
so she rid herself of it by throwing it into the river.
"This,'' concludes Father du Jaunay, "is all I have been able
to gather from the various accounts of the Indians. I met here with
a native, who claimed to be a Sioux and to have been present at the
massacre; but on being warned that he was an imposter, I did not
think it proper to question him, trusting to time to throw more lighit
on the occurrence.'*
In the Archives of the Gesù at Rome is preserved the following
letter, from Father Lafitau to the Father General at Rome. The
letter is dated at Paris, April 4.th, 1738, and the original is in Latin: — ^
"As to what relates to Father Aulneau, nothing more has been
learnt than what has already been written. He had followed an
officer whom the Governor of New France had commissioned to dis-
cover the way across the continent to the Western Ocean, as yet
unknown from this side. He had reached the sources of the
Mississippi and had penetrated further west. But, according to the
custom of adventurers of that class, who are alive to their own
interests which they consult* rather than the common weal, the party
had, in barter, sold powder and other munitions of war to the tribes
they met with.
*' Some of the Indians, incensed at this species of traffic at which
their enemies gained an advantage, took occasion of an expedition this
officer had planned and had entrusted to his own son as leader, with
Father Aulneau — ^who had a presentiment of his death, as his letters
attest — to accompany him.
"In fact, the savage band stole upon them unawares, and
slaughtered them all. Father Aulneau received two thrusts of a knife,
and was decapitated.^**
^ The Aulneau Collection, pp. 91-92.
• Father F. Nau, wxitlna: In 1788 to Father Aulneau's mother, said: "A
party of Frenchmen had captured, last autumn, the murderer of our dear
26 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
About thirty or forty years ago. Father Felix Martin, S.J., sought
to glean some additional particulars of the massacre, and the result of
his researches is summed up in the following note — found among his
papers after his death : — ^
"We are not in possession of the details relating to Father
Aulneau's family, education and vocation to the religious life.
"He came to Canada in 1730, and six years subsequent to his
arrival, he was chosen to accompany an important expedition of dis-
covCTy westward, undertaken by Monsieur de la Véranderie. The
latter commanded a party of twenty determined men, one of his own
eons being among the number.
"The explorers had reached the Lake of the Woods, and had
landed on an island for their morning meal. Their camping fires,
however, betrayed their presence to a band of Sioux warriors who were
prowling about in the neighbourhood.
" These Indians, notorious for their cruelty and for the implacable
war they waged on all those who gave them umbrage, resolved to attack
the French. They stealthily landed on the island without attracting
notice, and rushed upon the explorers who were off their guard. Many
were pierced with arrows or were felled with the tomahawk. Some
sought safety in flight, only to perish in the waves. Father Aulneau,
wounded by an arrow, fell upon his knees, when an Indian coming up
behind him dealt him the death blow with his tomahawk.
" All the baggage was pillaged, but the Indians dared not touch
the body of the missionary. Three weeks after the occurrence, a party
of Indians of the Sault (Sanleux), passing by the spot, found his body
unmutilated. Not being able to dig a grave for it, as the island was all
rock, they raised over the body a cairn one or two metres in height.
"Mr. Belcourt,^ a missionary stationed at Pcmbino, in 1843,
visited the place and saw the tumulus. Tie gathered on the very spot
the tradition of the massacre from the lips of an Indian, whose father
had helped to prepare a sepulchre for the missionary."'
Father Aulneau, and intended to -brin-g him to the French settlements to
make him undergo the penalties he so well deserved; tout Gk>d reserved to
Himself the punishment of his crime Other heathen tribes rescued
the Sioux prisoners from the hands of the French and sent them back to
their homes."
^ The Aulneau Collection, p. 90.
■ Rev. G. A. Belcourt was a well-known missionary In the North-west
He was a relative of the present Menvber of Parliajnent for OttaAva, of the
samo na^me.
■ I fear we cannot put much credence in this explanation of Father
Martin's. From the very beginning he is inaccurate. Father Aulneau did
not come to Canada in 1730. He landed on the 12th August, 1734. Father
[bubpke] lake of the WOODS TRAGEDY 27
A translation of Mr. Belcourt^s narrative will be found in the
Minnesota Historical Collections. It is as follows: —
" A tradition of the savages near the Lake of the Woods reports
that the French travellers in passing were invariably accompanied by a
missionary ; and that one of them was killed on this same lake, and his
companions all either killed or drowned. The following is the manner
in which they relate this occurrence: Early one morning, a French
canoe manned with eight men left a trading house which the French
had built about the middle of the Lake of the Woods, and stopped upon
an island near to the last pass, to enter the river of Eainy Lake. The
atmosphere was so still that the wind could hardly be felt. Having
built a fire to take their repast, the smoke rose up and was perceived
by a party of Sioux warriors who were approaching the same island by
a branch of the river of Eainy Lake called the Road of War. These
having landed on the opposite side of the isle uuperceived by the
French, fell upon them unawares and massacred the missionary and
some of his companions; the others throwing themselves into the water
in order to cross over to some other islands were drowned. This event
took place, according to the report of the savages, about the year 1750.^'^
In a long memoir, written at Quebec, and dated 31st October
1744,* Lavérendrye once more refers to the Lake of the Woods
tragedy, and this is the last bit of evidence which I have been able to
gather: —
" I had many people in the fort and no provision^, and this dete>
mined me to send at once three canoes to bring us supplies and
merchandise. The Reverend Father decided, on the spot, to go to
Missilimakinak. He asked for my eldest son, as he hoped that his
journey would be quick. It was not possible for me to oppose him.
His resolution was absolutely taken. They embarked the 8th June, and
were all massacred by the Sioux, seven leagues from the fort, by the
Martin confuses Vérandry^'s generaJ expedition to the west with the parti-
cular Journey on which the tragedy occurred at the Lake of fhe Wooda.
This particular Journey was not In any sense exploratory. It was simply
an expedition to Kamanistigotiia and Miasilimakinac for supplies. It was
not commanded by Vérandrye the elder, who did not accompany it at all.
The graphic account of the massacre which follows would be extremely
valuaible and interesting if it were based uipon a more substantial foundation.
The remaining particulars are more probably correct.
* **>D€(partment of Hudson's Bay," by Rev. G. A. Belcourt. Minnesota
HiatOTlcal Collections. Vol. II., 1850-1856, p. 212.
' " Mémoire du Sieur de la Verendrye au sujet des Etablissements pour
Itarvenir à la découverte de la mer de l'ouest, dont il a été chargé par
M. le marquis de Beauharnois, Gouverneur général de la Nouvelle-France
en 1731.** This documertt is published In Margry's Collection. It Is also In
the Canadian Archives,
28 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
worst of all treacheries. I have lost my son, the Reverend Father, and
all my Frenchmen, which I shall lament all my life/*
An examination of these various accounts will reveal a considerable
diversity of opinion as to the circumstances which led up to and
attended the massacre, and the causes which induced the Sioux to
attack a parly of Frenchmen. Much of this disparity may be
attributed to the radically different points of view of those whose
evidence has been adduced; some of it is explainable by the fact that
the various statements were written at widely different times and
places. Making due allowance for these circumstances, and weighing
carefully the evidence of the various witnesses, the reader will, I think,
find it possible to extract from these various documents a fairly complete
and accurate accounit of this most disastrous incident in the search for
the Western Sea — ^the tragedy of the Lake of the Woods.
SwnoN IL, 1903 [ 29 ] Tkans. R, S. C.
III.— Tfee Hon, Henry Caldwell, L.C., at Quebec, 1769-1810.
By Sir James M. LeMoine, D.C.L.
(Bead May 19, 1903.)
Capt. Hy. Caldwell servingr under WaWe, at Quei>ec .. .. 1759
Commander of Brkiah Militia, at siege blockade 1775
Called to Legislative Council 1782
President Provincial Agricultural Society 1789
Receiver-General for Canada 1794-1810
In June, 1759, there landed in Canada from Admiral Saunders'
fleet, a youthful British officer, destined to fill, at Quebec, a long,
active and very distinguished career: Capt. Henry Caldwell of
Colville's regiment, whose promotion dated from January, 1759.
At the memorable fight of 13th September, 1759, on Abraham's
Heights, the youthful captain, aged 24, acted as Assistant-Quarter-
master-General to General Wolfe. His bravery brought him a step in
rank; he became Major Caldwell, under which title were won his
brightest laurels. A portion of the British forces, after the battle of the
Plains, were recalled; the 78th Highlanders were disbanded in
Canada ; the Major cast his lot for Canada and settled at Quebec. Major
CaJdwell, by his active business habits, seems to have preserved the
esteem of General James Murray, who remained in Quebec, as its first
English Governor, unjtil 1766.
A few years will elapse, and we will find the Major the trusted
agent, and subsequently the lessee of the Generars extensive Canadian
estates. Major Caldwell continued to fill military duties in the army
of occupation until 1773, when Lord Barrington, Secretary of War
allowed him to sell out.
In virtue of a notarial deed of lease, bearing date 7th April, 1774,
he was named agent and lessee of the great Seigniory of Lauzon, and of
numerous other properties acquired by General Murray. The General,
like many other distinguished British officers, had been bitten by the
earth hunger, so prevalent in the first years of British rule. Many dis-
tinguished Frenchmen the owners of large seigniories in Canada,
resolved to return to Prance in 1760, such as those of Longueuil,
the Seigniories of Lauzon, Terrebonne, Foucault, la Prairie, la Chenaye,
Belœil, etc.
Governor Murray was not by any means the only British officer
craving for land; Sir Thomas Mills, Cramahé, Major Samuel Holland,
Major Caldwell, Capts. Fraser, Nairne, Laughlin Smith, the Hales and
«O ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
others, invested large sums in real estate, near Quebec, in the early days
of the colony, after the conquest.
The dever Seignior of Lauzon had from the first been deeply
impressed with the great possibilities which Canada, despite a severe
climate, offered for agricultural, manufacturing and industrial pursuits.
Voltaire's sneer, at the *' 15,000 acres of snow," if it ever came
to the ears of the Major, evideritly had no terror for him. Let us
proceed.
A crisis in Canadian affairs was imminent in 1775; the colony had
to fight for its very existence. Major Caldwell was just the man to
come to the front and buckle on his sword; his zeal, devotion, undoubt-
ed courage as Commander of the British Militia of Quebec during the
fierce assault and blockade by Montgomery and Arnold, are matters
of history.
Caldwell had, in no small measure helped Guy Carleton in saving
Canada to Britain. Recognition and reward were in store for him; he
received and merited both.
General Carleton selected Major Caldwell to be the bearer of the
despatches, announcing the defeat of the invaders in 1775-6.
Caldwell warmly recommended by Guy Carleton and Ool. Allan
McLean, landed in England amidst public rejoicings, on the 15th June,
1776.
Imperial Rome had a laurel crown for the trusty messenger bring-
ing the news of a Roman victory. England, more practical, rewarded
Major Caldwell, the bearer of the glorious tidings, with a gift in hard
cash of £500 sterling, — the War Office made him a Lieutenant-
Colonel, whilst the King, later on, named him a Legislative-Councillor,
at Quebec.
It is evident Caldwell's visit to London was far from being barren
of results, so far as he was concerned. His merit, intelligence, hand-
some person and happy address, secured to him some powerful friends,
amongst others William Pitt, the son of the great Lord Chatham. The
influence thus acquired, helped some ambitious plans he had previously
entertained.
He applied to the Lords of Commerce, for a grant of the Quebec
and Levi ferry. They wrote on. the 8th April, 1777, to Governor
Carleton, as to the propriety of granting a privilege, seemingly of con-
siderable magnitude. The ferry service in summer was effected by
canoes and "bateaux " who landed passengers and freight in the cul-de-
sac (the Champlain market now occupies the site). In winter, access
from Levi to the city, was had over the ice-bridge when it formed, and
in canoes, when it; did not.
[LE MOiNBl HON. HENRY CALDWELL AT QUEBEC 81
Caldwell failed to succeed in this project; it was thought too
important a monopoly to be given to one man, over sudh a large extent
of the harbour. Caldwell, a brave, intelligent and ajnbitious mian, elated
with past honours conferred, aspired to a high post. He applied for
the position of Lt.-6ovemor, to be vacant by the return of Cramahé to
England. Grenerai Haldimand, Governor of the colony, on being con-
sulted replied to Lord Germaine, that though he acknowledged fthe
fitness of Caldwell, still he preferred to see Col. Hamilton appointed
to the position previously held by Cramahé, which was done.
Col. Henry Caldwell, during his tenure of office as Legislative-
Councillor, met with some contradictions and occasionally official
reproof; one instance in point: a complaint had been made to the
Colonel in 1782, about a captain of militia residing at St. Nicholas.
General Haldimand, in a letter on the subject to Caldwell, took
the militia-captain^s part. Caldwell complained and justly too, of
favouritism having been shown to colonists, such as de Kouville and an
other; his juniors in rank, being made full colonels over his head.
Later on. Col. Caldwell, smarting under the sense of injustice
that his military service was forgotten, resigned his commission as Lt.-
Colonel — but his permanent appointment as Receiver-General, in
1794 — allnyed his irritation, one is led to believe.
Caldwell was the friend of progress; had introduced the latest
machinery in his large grist-mills and saw-mills — and various
improvements on the numerous farms he had acquired in the country, —
in the system of tilling and fertilizing the soil, and improving the
breed of cattle and farm stock generally.
In the year 1789, he became president of the first Society of Agri-
culture organized in Canada. On the 6th April of that year, the rank,
fashion, nobility and clergy of all denominations, as well as com-
moners, crowded the halls of the Chateau St. Louis, at the beck of Lord
Dorchester to enter their names as subscribers to the Quebec
Agricultural Society. The Governor-General, Lord Dorchester was
named patron; Hon. Henry Caldwell, president, and the Hon. Hugh
Fin] ay. Deputy Postmaster-General, secretary.
Subscribers.
The Roman Catholic Bishop of Quebec. Major R. Matthews.
Chief Justice Wm. Smith. Capt. Rotson.
Rev. Philip Toosey, Military Chaplain. Capt. Fraser.
T. Monk, Attorney-General. Kenelm Chandler.
John Blackwood. Peter Stewart.
Matthew Lymburner. Malcolm PYaser.
A. de Qaspé. Hon. Hugh Finlay.
Obediah Aylwin. ** Thos. Dunn.
82 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
Bishop Bailly, coadjutor. Hon. Eidward Harrlaon.
Jenkins Williams. '* John Collins.
Juchereau Duchesnay. " Adam Mabane.
Dr. Mervin Nooth. •* J. C. de Lery.
Isaac OiTden, Judge of Admiralty. " G. W. Pownall.
Sir Thomas Mills. " Henry CaldwelL
J. Arthur Coffin. " Wm. Grant.
G. Taschereau. •• François Baby.
Perreault, l'Aîné. " Samuel Holland.
L. de Salaberry. •* George Davidson.
Capt. St. Ours. •• Chs. de Lanaudlère.
Rev. À. Hutoert, curé de Québec. " Liecompte Duprès.
J. T. Cugnet.
Messire Pauet, curé de la Rivièire
Ouelle.
Hon. Mr. Caldwell, on being elected president, addressed the meet-
ing in eloquent terms, both in English and in French; twelve members
were chosen as directors. The president dwelt forcibly on the modes
of improving agriculture — the sowing of hemp to compete with
foreign importation — amelioration of farm stock — planting of fruit
trees — experiments in seed wheat — offering prizes and entering the lists
himself as competitor; such were the doings of the enterprising *Tiauzon
Farmer," backed by His Excellency, Lord Dorchester.
One of the most important offices which had to be created in the
colony after the conquest, was that of Receiver-General of the public
dues, and of accounting for the same.
The first incumbent was Thomas Murray. In those days the
Receiver-General was not compelled to reside in the province.
Absenteeism of high officials was in vogue. Sir Thomas Mills,
recently landed from England, succeeded Thomas Murray, on 10th
July, 1765.
After a short residence here, he returned to London, leaving as
his deputy a Mr. William Grant. The salary was insignificant, $800 —
later on, increased to $1,600 ; a remuneration totally inadequate for the
responsibilities and duties attached to this high office; the titular
having to keep up \^nth the expenditure attending the high official
circles of society, in which he was expected to move. It was, "however,
said that the large sums ofl money passing through the hands of the
incumbent — ^the absence of provincial control over his acts — possibly
some additional fees of office, would afford the officer facilities to make
the most of his position, by way of compensation for low sulary.
William Granit soon gave cause for complaint; he refused to account
for "receipt and expenditure'' to the Governor of the colony, alleg-
ing that he was accountable to the imperial authorities only. General
Haldimand appointed Col. Henry Caldwell, to take pro-tempore
[lb MOiKit] HON. HENRY CALDWELL AT QUEBEC 83
Grant's place in 1784, until the home authorities should be consulted—
ordering Thos. Ainslie, collector of customs, at Quebec; Geo. Pownall,
clerk of the court, and other public servants, to pay over to Caldwell
only, the public moneys received by virtue of their respective office.
The Coloners permanent appointment was gazetted in 1794.
On the 28th February, 1801, Col. Oald-well purchased from Gen-
eral James Murray, by the agency of Lt.-Col. Kobert Matthews in
Ix>ndon, not only the lordly domain of Lauzon (whi-ch included the old
pari-shes of Podnt Levy, St. Charles, St. Henri, part of St. Gervais,
St. Nicholas), but also the seignioriefe* of Rivière du Loup, Madawaska,
Foucault, on Lake Champlain, Sans Bruiit estate with Belmont manor,
neaff Quebec, together with the fief of St. Foy and a house in St. John
Street, Quebec.
Price of sale, £10,180 sterling, payable in instalments.
When taken in connection with other real estate purchased, Col*
Caldwell then ranked with the greatest land owners in the province^
His speculations in, land were not always satisfactory. In 1788,
he had applied, but in vain, to Lord Grenville to be comipenBated by
the Crown for the loss of 20,000 acres of land which the verification
of the boundary between Canada and the United States had lopped
off, the 35,000 acres which hitherto had composed his seigniory of
Foucault (Caldwell manor) on Lake Ohampladn; he petitioned, in con-
junction with others, for Crown Lands from the British Government
and was informed that each petitioner ought to make a separate request;
thus were rewarded his military services !
The Hon. Henry Caldwell in the enjoyment of the perquisites
of his exalted post of Receiver-General was dmwn deeper and deeper
into land speculations and industrial schemes. The seigniory of
Lauzon soon could boaêt of a splendid grist mill and saw-mills at
St. Nicholas, Levi, Etchemdn. Roads were opened — bridges built —
colonization promjoted.
Belmont Manor,^ near Quebec — his elegant «home — the seat of
generous hospitality, burnt in 1798, had been improved and rebuilt.
Here continued to reside, courted and eeteemed, the hero of the two
sieges, 1759 and 1775. Col. Caldwell, according to tradition, seems
to have also been favoured with a handsome person. I well remember
being told by the late Hon. William Sheppard, of Woodfield, near Que-
bec, that le beau militaire was supposed to have been the hero in Mrs.
^ Proprietors: Intendant Talon, 1670; Gen, James Murray, 1765; Hon. Henr^
CaldweU, 1801; Sir John Caldtoell, 1810; John W. Dunscomh, 185^,
Sec II., 1903. 3.
84 BOYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
Frances Brook's novel, " The History of Emily Montague/^ and was
meant for Ool. Elvers, the friend of ttio divine Emily. This was the
first English novel written in Canada, in 1767.
A great sorrow invaded, in 1804, the sweet retreait of Belmont
Manor; the death, on the 19th February, at the age of 67 years, of
the loved chatelaine^ Ann Oaldwell. This miwh esteemed lady was
sister to the Lord Biâhop of Ossory, and of Baron Hamilton; she left
an only son, John Caldwell. The learned Bev. Alexander Sparkes,
who had landed at Quebec, in 1780, had been selected as the precep-
tor to the only son of Ool. Oaldiwell; he found a bright aaid apt scholar
in young John, who, after going through a course in the classics and
in foreign languages, studied for, and was admitted in 1789, a member
of the Quebec Bar; he also received a conumtkaaon in the Canadian
militia.
Youmg Johm soon became hds father's factotum in the manage-
ment of the seigniory of Lauzon, and other family estates in Canada.
His sympathetic aoid kind treajtment of his father^s tenamtry, as well
as his liberal views won him their oonfidence. In 1804, and again, in
1809, he was deputed to parliament as member for the extensive
county of Doixshester, whidh then comprised Lauzon, Ste. Marie and
other large centres in the Beauoe district.
In 1812 John Caldwell, who was ito become Sir John Caldwell
by the death of aji Irish baronet, succeeded to hds fatber^s ofiSoe as
Beceiver-Oeneral, accepting the onerous charge and its responsibilities.
Col. the Hon. Henry Caldwell, expired at Belmont Manor, on the
28iih May, 1810, aged 75 years. His remains were buried in the vaults
of the Anglican Cathedral.
Mr. Jos. Edmond Eoy, the historiographer of the Seigniory of
Lauzon, published the olograph will of the Receiver-General, its* tenth
Seignior.
Among other iprovisions in this lengthy document there are several
legacies; to his wife, Mrs. Caldwell; to his brother, IVIajor-General
Caldwell, serving in Portugal an annuity of £200 ; to the children of his
younger brother Charles, a naval officer, who died in 1775; there are
also legacies to Edward Bowen, attorney-geneiral, later on, chief-
justice, who died at Quebec, in 1865; to Miss Margaret Coffin, Mrs.
Alice Simpson, Miss Annabella Simpson, Miss Sarah Taylor, Miss
Christian Nairn, Dr. James Davidson, William Hamilton, without for-
getting the poor, whom he was in the habit of assisting each week in
winter; to each the generous old man left 40 shillings.
The warrior who, on so many occasions, had braved shot and
shell, seems to have had a holy horror of being buried alive, judging
from the text of his will, which I shall give, in Mr. Roy's French ver-
[LE moinb] HON. HENRY CALDWELL AT QUEBEC 80
sion: " C'est, de plus, ma volonté, si ma mort arrive en été, que mon
corps demeure dans mon lit jusqu'à ce que Ton ne puisse plus long-
temps supporter Fodeur. Si la mort a lieu en hiver, je désire que mon
corps demeure ipareillemen.t dans mon lit cinq à six jours et que Ton
fasse du feu dans la chambre, à moins que l'odeur ne puisse plus être
supportée. C'est ma volonté que mon corps soit alors confié à la terre
dans la voûte que j'ai fait construire dans le cimetière, à Québec."
Belmont lines the St. Foy heights in a most picturesque situation.
The view from the east and northwest windows is magnificently grand;
probably one might count more than a dozen church spires glittering in
the distance — in every happy village, which dots the base of the blue
mountains to the north. In 1854, this splendid property was purchased
by J. W. Dunscomb, collector of customs, Quebec ; he resided there and,
about 1864, he sold the mansion and garden to the Roman Catholic
church authorities of Quebec, reserving 400 acres. The old house, a few
months later, was purchased by Mr. Wakeham.
The first time our eyes scanned the silent and deserted banqueting
halls of Belmont, with their lofty ceilings and recalling the traditional
accoimts of the hospitable gentlemen, whose joviality had once lit up
the soene, visions af social Ireland of Barrington's day floated uippeiv
most in our mind. We could fancy we saw the gay roysterers of tim^s
bygone; first, a fete champêtre of lively French officers from Quebec,
making merry over their Bordeaux or Burgundy, and celebrating the
news of their recent victories over the English at Fontenoy, LaufiEeld or
Carillon to the jocund sound of Vive la France! Vive le Maréchal Saxe I
à la Glaire Fontaine! etc., then. Governor Murray surrounded by his
veterans, Guy Carleton, Col. Caldwell, Majors Hale and Holland, and
some of the new subjects, such as brave Chs. de Lanaudière,^ compli-
menting one another all round over the feats of the respective armies
at the two memorable battles of the Plains, and all joining loyally in
repeating the favourite toast in Wolfe's army British colours on every
French fort, port and garrison in America.^
lioter on, at the dawn of the late century, a gathering of those
Canadian barons, so well delineated by J. Lambert in his Travels in
Canada in 1808, one week surrounding the board of this jolly Receiver-
^ Chs. Tarieu de Lanaudière. Knigrht of St Louis, commanded a portion
of th« Canadian miMtla at Carlllan, waa A.D.C. to Sir Guy Carleton—
served In 1775 — accompanied the General to England, where Georgre III.
rewarded !him; he was made Legislative Councillor and Deputy Postmaster
General for Canada.
• The sangruinary battle of Fontenoy, was fought on the 11th May, 1745.
The battle of LauffeJd took place on the 2nd of July, 1747. The French
victory at Carillon, in which the militia of Canada bore a conspicuous part
was won near Lake George, 8th July. 1758.
8Q ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
General of Canada at Belmont Manor; the next^ at Charleebourg, mak-
ing the romantic echoes of Chateau-Bigot ring again with old English
cheer and loyal toasts to '^ George the King '' I or else installing a
** Baron '' at the Union Hotel, Place d'Armes, — and flinging down to the
landlord, as Lambert says " 260 guineas for the entertainment/^ Ah I
where are now the choice spirits of that comparatively modem day, the
rank and fashion, who used to go and sip claret or ice cream with Sir
James Craig at Powell Place (Spencer Wood). Where gone the Muirs,
Paynters, Munros, Mathew Bells, de Lanaudières, Lymbumers, Smiths,
Finlays, Caldwells, Percevais, Jonathan Sewells, TJniackes. Alas! like
the glories of Belmont, departed — ^living in the chambers of memory
only.
This estate, which until lately, consisted of two hundred and fifty
acres, was conceded, in 1649, by the Jesuit Fathers to M. Godfroy ; it ex-
tended from the line of the Grande AUée to the Bijou wood. In 1670,
it passed over to the famous Intendant Talon. Shortly after the
conquest it was occupied by Chief Justice Gregory. In 1765, it was sold
for £500 by David Ames of Montreal to General James Murray.
We find that one of the first operations of General Montgomery,
in 1775, wBs to take forcible possession of " General Murray^s
house on St. Foy road f later on, the property came into the possession
of Col. Caldwell.
In the memory of Quebecers, Belmont manor must remain more
particulariy connected with the Caldwell family — three generations of
which occupied its specious halls, and where the Colonel expired, in
1810.
Belmont manor is situated on the St. Foy road, on its north side,
at the end of a long avenue of majestic trees, distant three miles from
Quebec. The original mansion which was burnt down in 1798, was re-
built by the Colonel, in 1800, on plans furnished by an engineer officer
of the name of Brabazon. Col. Caldwell's gracious hospitality drew
round his board some of the best known men in Quebec of the time, such
as the gallant General Brock, John Coltman, William Coltman, the
Hales, Foy, Haldimand, Dr. Beeby, of Powell Place, J. I>?ster, John
Blackwood.
In 1810, Col. CaldwelFs son John, accepted the succession, with its
liabilities, then unknown — occupied, in summer, a handsome residence
in the Seigniory of Lauzon, and was appointed Receiver-General to suc-
ceed his father in 1812.
In 1817, Belmont was sold to the Hon. J. Irvine, M.P.P. In 1833,
the property reverted to Sir Henry Caldwell, son of (Sir) John Cald-
well— Sir John continued to live at the magnificent summer residence
[lb moine] HON. HENRY CALDWELL AT QUEBEC 87
he had built near the Btchemin river at Levi, — too lavish in his ex-
penditure and unlucky in many of his innumerable milling operations,
with heavy liabilities unprovided for. Sir John, on his dismissal from
office in 1832 owed the Crown $100,000; this amount was subsequently
repaid in full out of the revenues of the seigniory of Lauzon and other
estates taken possession of by Government. He died at Bangor, U.S., in
1845.
Works Consulted.
The Titles and Plans of Belmont Estate were submitted to me by
J. W. Dunscomb, Collector of Customs, Quebec, proprietor in 1865.
"Maple Leaves'' for 1865; "Picturesque Quebec," 1882.
Neilson's old Quebec Gazette, 1764-1810.
Histoire de la Seigneurie de Lauzon, par Jos. Edmond Roy,
M.S.R.C. As agent for this vast seigniory, he is in possession of its
Titles and Papers.
I seize on this opportunity, to acknowledge my great indebted-
ness to Mr. Boy's elaborate work for dates and details.
Sbction il, 1903 [ 89 ] Trans. R. S. C.
lY.— The Death of DuViut.
By William McLennan.
(Read May 19, 1903.)
The Anglo-Saxon constantly asserts with much self-satisfaction that
ïVance is no colonizer and points his moral as he unfolds his tale of the
fall of French Canada, or French India, with a description of the cor-
ruption of the home government, the vileness of the colonial officials
and the failure of the King to send help in the hour of need. The in-
ference of course is that England succoured her colonies — and hence the
difference.
The true reason of her failure was that France busied herself
altogether too much over her distant settlements. She not only attempted
to Older every detail of their internal government but even their policy
towards their neighbours. She provided India, Canada and Louisiana
with priests, soldiers and settlers. The officer Who had gained his
pension and retirement was offered a seigneury with many dignities, the
soldier found no difficulty in taking up a respectable farm from his old
commander at a ground rent of a few sous for each acre. The King
provided the start in life, even up to the important part of a wife with
a modest dowry of provisions, clothes- and a few livres in good white
money.
Every officer who settled in Canada must needs have a title or at
least his " lettres de noblesse '^ and these were bestowed with a gene-
rosity which went far to make up the long despaired of arrears of pay.
The home government curbed the governor, the intendant, the
bishop, and invited all the tittle-tattle they could write of each other.
Without a permission (congé) you could not return to France, you could
not go into the English colonies to the south, least of all could you go
into the woods end you could not even change your place of residence,
say from Montreal to Quebec. Were you a soldier you could not marry
without due submission to and permission from your colonel. Were
you a tavern-keeper you must have your pewter-pots regularly stamped,
must not open before a certain hour or close your door before another.
If a " bon bourgeois '^ you had many duties from that of keeping your
ways clean of weeds and briars before your gates to that of being in
your own pew in the parish church, upholding your share of the many
charities of the town and of taking your place in any expedition which
might be put a-foot under proper authority against those cruel devils.
40 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
the Iroquois, or against " our natural enemies those ambitious English
of New York/^
Never was more anxious care and supervision expended over an only
child !
For her part England allowed her infants to grow up without over-
much supervision. Eoyal governors* were sent out, more or less adequa-
tely supplied with means to carry out the system of the moment. But the
mother country gave to her children no practical help or support. Her
bantlings paddled about in water, hot or cold as they found it, and
though in America they finally broke away from the maternal swaddling-
bands yet they developed into a continent of English-speaking, English-
thinking folk.
France was too anxious, too ^^ motherly ^' to allow her children to
Tx alk alone, and as' a result her name has disappeared from the map of
North America; the one survival of her dream of empire remains only
in the vague tradition of a peasantry bound in honourable loyalty to her
old enemy.
France had great dreams for America, for '^New France.'^ The
sjpirit of adventure and conquest was a birthright common to all her
sons. She sought again a " Nouvelle France '^ in the New World as she
had in her struggle against the Eastern Empire in the Old.
Think of her pretensions ! She had Canada and the St. Lawrence.
She had Louisiana and the Mississippi. England had a narrow strip
down the Atlantic coast between French Canada on the north and Span-
ish Florida on the south ; the Alleghanies served as a western boundary
which her colonists never reached during the first century of their occu-
pation, and to the east was the sea, a barrier and yet a tie to " Home.*'
Quebec in Frontenac's day held about 1,345 souls, Three Rivers 150,
and Montreal 1,418. Westward from Montreal there were Forts Fron-
tenac, Niagara and Detroit, besides some less important ones towards
the north.
From Detroit down to the present New Orleans there were cer-
tainly not more than one hundred and fifty Frenchmen to hold this
*^ New France *' for His Most Christian Majesty. This force was dis-
tributed in about ten forts, or, more properly speaking stockaded posts,
scattered along at various points between Detroit and the mouth of the
MisÉÔssippi. The garrison of each, if complete, would consist of the
commandant, his lieutenant, a storekeeper, a sergeant and ten soldiers —
say from twelve to fifteen men in each.
On its face the situation seems absurd, but Frontenac never
dreamed of holding the country by means of the scanty help sent by the
[m'lbnnan] death of DULHUT 41
home govemment. His hundred and fifty men were simply so many
representatives of the pomp and power of Old France, his reliance was
on the friendly Indian tribes who occupied this long stretch of border
territory.
Their all^iance was obtained partly by judicious attention and de-
ference and partly by boldness through the medium of that large dass
of wandering Frenchmen who were explorers, fur-traders and even cou-
reurs-de-bois. In the first class we find such men as LaSalle, Dulhut,
Péré, Perrot, Nicolet, Jolliet and others, all of whom were fur-traders
(but, nota bene, licensed fur-traders, holders of congés, that is, permits
to trade.) These men had an intimate knowledge of the savage and
many of them had remarkable influence over the wildest tribes; it was to
their personal influence that France secured and held eflEective allies
along her ever-spreading borders. They conciliated the tribes, acted as
intermediaries botween them and the governor, and, by just treatment
and marvellous courage bound the Indian so firmly to France that she
long held the West free from all intrusion.
With the exception of the conspiracy of Pontiac, Canada has been
spared the horrors and miseries of Indian warfare since the conquest.
The wandering fur-trader and later the lonely settler in our Northwest
lived out their lives amid native and exiled tribes without danger or
even alarm, and this because England was wise enough, in Canada at
least, to accept and follow up the conciliatory policy towards the Indian
which France had so happily inaugurated.
Apart from the explorers and licensed fur-traders, who were few in
number, there was a surprisingly large body of men who had taken to
the woods; some legitimately enough as voyageurs or employés, others
simply for the love of the free, vagabond life, that curious desire of the
return towards the savage. These were known as coureurs-de-bois; and,
although a constant anxiety, they were at times an effective aid in the
many expeditions set on foot by the ever-active government at Quebec
Whether it was an expedition towards the West to overawe or
combat unfriendly tribes, a raid to the North to surprise the English on
the shores of Hudson^s Bay or a sea-flight with d'lbervUle to Newfound-
land, Maine or Louisiana, the coureur-de-bois was ever ready to share
in the adventure. Many of them lived the lives of outlaws with a price
upon their heads and too many were merely wandering vagabonds, far
below the Indian in every decency of life and honour.
Coureur-de-bois was as bad a name as a man could well be called in
Canada two hundred and fifty years ago, and this was the stigma which
Dnchesneau, the intendant, tried to fasten upon Daniel de Greysolon,
Sieur Dulhut, a man of the highest honour and unblemished life.
42 BOYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
Ten years ago I published in Harper's Magazine (Sept. 1893) what
I then knew of this gentleman-adventnrer, explorer and fur-trader.
He had Italian as well as French blood in his veins^ and was bom
at St. Germain-en-Laye about the middle of the seventeenth century.
He was ensign in La Compagnie Lyonnaise in 1657, and in 1664 waa
a gendarme de la Garde du Eoy^ the King's Body Guard, which fixes his
gentility beyond question, for one of the qualifications was the proof
of the right to bear arms for two hundred years (deux oents ans de
noblesse).
There can be as' little doubt as to his title of explorer. M. Henri
Lorin in his admirable study on Frontenac says that Dulhut '^ is a dis-
coverer of the same title as LaSalle.*' As to fur-trader, every one in
Canada from the governor downwards, men, women, clergy and laity
were, or wished to be engaged in thia extremely lucrative traflBc.
When he came out to Canada I do not know, but he was* in Montreal
before 1674. That year he sailed for France and was in time to play
his part as squire to the Marquis de Laesay through that awful August
day at SenefE on the bordera of Brabant. SeneflE is a name which
arouses no remembrance in English breasts* to-day; but it was so close an
affair between Condé and our Prince of Orange that it was doubtful with
whom the advantage lay until Condé followed William and forced him
to raise the siege of Oudenarde. The Hollanders and Spanish num-
bered 90,000 and the French less, each side lost between seven and eight
thousand men. Condé had three hor&es killed under him and as the
young Marquis de Lassay had two horses killed and was thrice wounded,
his squire, our M. Dulhut, must have seen very active service on that
now almost forgotten day.
It is a curious coincidence that the Recollet father, le révérend
père Louis Hennepin, was at Seneflf that day looking after the wounded,
shriving the dying. It is improbable there was any meeting then, but
years afterwards Dulhut and Hennepin met on the upper waters of the
Mississippi, when the j^riest waa in even greater danger than on the
field of SenefE.
Dulhut must have returned to Canada by the last vessels of that
year and when we next hear of him he and his younger brother Claude
Gr^ysolon de la Tourette had leased a modest property from Pierre
Pigeon on the south-east comer of Notre-Dame and St. Sulpice (then
St. Joseph) streets.
The brothers had both friends and relations in Canada; their uncle
Jacques Patron had apparently been in Canada since 1659; their
brother-in-law, Louis Tayeon, Sieur de Lussigny, was an officer in Fron-
tenac's guard; Alphonse and his more famous brother Henri de Tonti,
[m*ijwnan] death of DULHUT 43
the friend of LaSalle, were their cousins, and so apparently W8W De-
lietto. The Tonti were sons of Lorenzo Tonti, the Neapolitan banker,
who, when a refugee in France founded the Byetem of what we now
know as Tontine Insurance. Delietto was an oflBcer in the French army.
At that time there was no indication that Dulhut would become a
wanderer. He had ample means, and, tired of lodgings, built for
himself a hajidsome house with grounds running down to the river.
Tîbe house stood on the northern side of the street across the foot of
the present Jacques-Cartier Square, the gardens were behind and the
lot between the street and the river was afterwards purchased to secure
the view. Here he settled with his brother La Tourette and their fat
and choleric friend Jacques Bizard, formerly captain of Frontenac's
guard, now town-major. It certainly was a handsome establishment
for a young man, probably the best in Montreal at that day and yet ere
a year had gone Dulhut sold the place to his unole, Jacques Patron, and
started for the West, "le pays d'en-haut.^' This was on the 1st Sep-
tember, 1678, and he had with him, his brother La Tourette, six French-
men and three slaves, probably Panis, presented to him by friendly In-
dians, to serve as guides.
That he had great personal courage perhaps counted but for little
in a day when most men had to be brave. But Dulhut's courage w«fl
not that of mere personal braving of danger, though no doubt he faced
that often enough; it was the greater courage for duty's sake. When
in command at one of his forts on Lake Superior in 1684, he actually
puTSU/ed, captured, tried and convicted the Indian, murderers of two
Frenchmen, and despite all the threats, lies and cajoleries of a powerful
and hostile tribe of Indians, at the imminent risk of his life and at the
risk of the life of every Frenchman in the Northwest, but simply be-
cause he believed it his duty, replied to all the entreaties of the chiefs
that had the culprits been prisoners of war he would gladly have released
them but as murderers they must die. " It was a hard s-troke for them/
he says, " none of them believed I would undertake it.''
There was not another post within possible reach, but he held that
the safety of every white man west of Fort Frontenac lay in his hand
and though he had not more than forty-two followers in all, probably
not more than half of whom were white, he marched his little force out
of his fort to within two hundred paces of the Indian encampment, and
there in the face of over four hundred sore and truculent savages he
carried out the sentence to which their own chiefs had agreed.
Thereafter there was no question of Dul hut's word in the North-
west. The Indians both feared and trusted him, his friends loved him,
he was generous in thought and act and no one speaks of him dispa-
>*
44 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
ragingly save the Intendant Duchesnean and LaSalle. But the inten-
dant was a fK>or creature by nature and his position as an opponent to
and spy upon the governor, no doubt^ must answer for many of his
faults. Aff for LaSalle he was a silent, forbidding man, struggling
against a load of debt and the constant dread of a withdrawal of court
favour. Every man in the West who had any standing, with perhaps the
exception of Henri de Tonti, he looked upon with suspicion as a possible
intruder on his field. He would neither consult, advise nor co-operate
and he went his lonely way until the horrible tragedy on the borders of
Mexico ended his unhappy life.
' With these two exceptions every one speaks* well of Dulhut: it is
technically true that Frontenac imprisoned him, but when one reads that
though he kept him within the bounds of the Château St. Louis he had
a seat and cover for him each day at his own table; it is easy to see that
it was only a device to keep him out of the clutches of Duchesneau, the
intendant.
He built the first po&t at Detroit, another at Kaministiquia (the
present Fort William) on Lake Superior, another. Fort La Tourette on
I-»ake Nepigon and for nearly thirty years* from 1678 to 1707 he was ex-
ploring, trading and giving his best services to the Government to hold
the Indians not only in check but to keep them loyal to France. He
was the first to strike a blow after the awful massacre of Lachine by the
Iroquois in 1689; a massacre believed to have been instigated by the
English and which ushered in that long series of murderous raids which
drew a line of blood from the banks of the Mohawk to the shores of
Maine and was the beginning not of a seven but a seventy years' war
which lasted until the capitulation of Montreal in 1760.
Dulhut was the earliest explorer of the Northwest; he knew every
stretch and bay of Lake Superior and much of the country to the North,
he saw the upper waters of the Mississippi long before LeSueur made
his famous journey from its mouth, he knew of the Great Salt Lake
and only abandoned the journey there in order to save the Père
Hennepin, who repaid him with grudging thanks and not a few lies.
He held the wild tribes in effective subjeotaon and more than once led
them as allies to the French. For this at the end of twenty years he
received promotion, a captaincy in the colony troops which meant pay
of about 1,000 to 1,200 livres a year. He* was heavily in debt and
when his old uncle, Jacques Patron, died in 1691, he bequeathed all
his property to La Tourette. Worse than this, he had been a life-
long mart}T to gout; that he should have kept at his post so long
under this most exquisite of tortures speaks volumes for his endurance.
[m'lbnnan] death of DULHUT 48
In 1695, through the intercessdon of the Iroquoise, Catherine
Œtegahkotiita, he was relieved of his snfferingB for a term of fifteen
months after twenty-five years of martyrdom with attacks that some-
times lasted for three months without relief. In 1696 all are reported
well at Fort Frontenac with the exception of Dulhut *' who is bnflfering
from his gout/'
The latest trace I could find of Dulhut when I wrote my first article
was in 1707, when Tonti relieved him at Detroit, and then the brief
m^ention of his death in Vaudieuil's letter of 1710, stating that he had
died during the previous winter.
I then accepted the general ojpihion that he had died somewhere in
the West but last year a happy chance gave me the trace of his will and
then I found that during the afternoon of the fourth day of March,
1709, Maître Michel LePailleur, Royal Notary for the Island of Mon-
treal, with his two witnesses went to the house of Charies Delaunay,
master tanner, where in a lower room giving on St. Paul Street they
found "Daniel de Grey&olon, escuyer, Sieur Dulhut, capitaine d'une
compagnie des troupes du détachement de la Marine '' seated in his arm-
chair much troubled by his gout, who, considering " there is nothing
more certain than death or more uncertain than the hour thereof," re-
quested Maître LePailleur to make his will.
He commends his soul to God, to the Virgin, to St. Michael the
Archangel and to all other Saints of Paradise. He wishes to be buried
in the church of the Eecolletfc' (which stood untU 1866, at the corner of
Notre Dame and St. Helen Streets). He makes legacies in favour of
the EecoUets, the Sulpitians and the Jesuits. He leaves five hundred
livres (equal to as many dollars of to-day) to Charles, the five-year old
son of his landlord, as well as all his furniture and personal effects, and
the residue of bis estate he bequeathes to his heirs-at-law in such pro-
portions as his brother La Tourette may decide.
He lived through that year, but when Maître LePailleur came again
on the 12th February, 1710, accompanied by M. de la Chassaigne, for-
merly governor of Three Rivers, Charles Le Moyne, Baron de Longueuil,
Antoine Forestier, surgeon, and St. Olive, apothecary, they found poor
M. Dulhut no longer able to sit up and very ill indeed. He then altered
his will. He bequeathed three hundred livres over and above any wages
which may be due at the time of his death to his valet La Roche ^^ for
the great care and trouble he has had of him during his long illness.^'
He leaves to Mme deLaunay and to her children all debts* due to him
especially those due by her husband, and, repeating " Have pity upon
me, 0 God, according to Thy great mercy '* he signed before the notary
and witnesses.
46 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
He died during the night of the 25th-26th February, 1710. In the
morning at eight o'clock, the Baron de Longueuil with Lienard de Beau-
jeu and the Sieur de Blain come and seal up all papers, etc., and on the
day following they again appear with Maître LePailleur and make a de-
tailed inventory of all his effects ; of which the most interesting items are
his diaries for 167P-1677-1678, and some others undated. None of these
are known to-day and unless they were sent to his brother La Tourette,
who had returned to Lyons, it is most unlikely that they will ever come
to light.
Slight aa this find may seem it gives us some valuable details of
the personality of Dulhut. He held the lease of the ground floor of the
house of Charles Delaunay, which stood on the lot now occupied by No.
60 St. Paul Street, be had his valet, his silver forks and sjppons, his cane
with its silver pommel and -chain, his big atlas and a ^^ History of the
Jews'' in five volumes, probably Josephus, his sUk stockings*, his cra-
vates and cuffs of fine muslin, three perukes, his S'carlet doak and his
good brown suit, gold-laoed and with its buttons and button-holes em-
broidered in gold, but everything much used as became a man who no
longer moved abroad, whose days were passed at a window in summer
and by the fire in winter.
From his back windows he could look out on the broad St. Law-
rence, that highway which had led him so many a weary league into the
wilderness; from the front he could catch a glimjjse of the house and
garden he had built and planted over forty years before and from which
he had gone forth for some reason we cannot now discover. When he
built it he was a man of about twenty-five ; he stood well with many
powerful personages in France; in Canada he was an intimate friend of
Frontenac, he was well-to-do, perhaps* wealthy; there is no hint of
scandal or suggestion of any motive for his sudden departure. Surely
there was some heart-break at the bottom of the whole story.
His life from the day he left Montreal was of necessity one of hard-
ship and loneliness. He was often for years together in the depth of
the woods, " aux profondeurs des bois " as it was expressively desKribed
in his day.
When he returned to Montreal, a man drawing towards the allot-
ment of three score and ten, for such rest and comfort as were possible,
he had not a relative near him. His brother. La Tourette, had returned
to France and was living in Lyons, so probably had his brother-in-law
Lussigny and his cousin Delietto ; his unde. Patron, was dead, as was his
cousin Henri de «Tionti, and Alphonse was stationed at Detroit.
Apart from the dry bones of notarial documents and occasional
and generally hostile mention in the reports of the intendant.
[m'lennan] death of DULHUT '^^^^' R. 8- C.
we have nothing from the hand of Dulhut saye hie memv/iu-i to the
minister in 1697, and this will and its codicils; but even with this scanty
material we can add to Vaudreuil's curt eulogy " he was a very honest
man/' that he was a man of good judgment, of firm resolution, of strong
faith and friendship, singularly modest in a day when self-assertion
seemed a necessity for recognition; a man who under constant disap-
pointment and great physical suffering was supported by a marvellous
patience that endured untU the hour of his release.
N
•*«à
Section IL, 1903 [ 49 ] Tbamb. R. a C.
Y.—The Gaelic Folk-Songs of Canada.
By Alexander Fraseb, Toronto, Ont.
(Communicated by W. W. Campbell and read May 20, 1903.)
** Cànaln àlgh nam buadhan oirdheare,
A b* fharsuln« cllù air feadh na h-B6rpa;
Bithldh 1 fathaat mar a tholslch,
Os ceann gacb cainnt 'na h-iuchalr eôlais."
Translated: —
" Strange mystic powers lie In that tongue,
Whose praise through Europe wide has rung;
As 'twas of yore In school and college,
It shall be first —the key of knowledge."
Two explanatory words may be allowed.
1. By Gaelic is meant only that branch of the Keltic language
whose home and chief habitat are the Highlands of Scotland.
2. The field. It has been estimated that there is about a quarter
of a million people in Canada who understand and speak the Gaelic
language.
No people are more devoted to their native language than the Scot-
tish Kelts. They have cherished it and retained it through centuries of
struggle and vicissitude, ab a precious heritage, and in the freer atmos-
phere of to-day, the old vernacular holds its own against the encroach-
ments of the language of commerce with equal success as in the olden
time it did against the prejudices of alien educators and hostile law-
givers. It has come down from sire to son on the plains of Canada with
almost equal purity as in the glens and straths of Caledonia.
" *S1 labhalr Padrlc 'n Innise Fall na Rlogh,
'S aji faiglie caomh sin Colum nàomtha 'n I."
Translatbd:—
" 'Twas it that Patrick spoke in Inis-Fayle,
And saintly Calum lin lona's Isle."
The printed literature of the Scottish Gael is not extensive, but a
Gaelic liiterature there is, which will compare favourably with the litera-
ture of many other countries, and, if taken with that of its kindred
branches, is of very respectable proportions indeed. Probably four-
fifths of it is poetry. The Kelts are a poetical people; the clansman
lived in an atmosphere of poetry and romance; every village had itfr
bard, every family its ready singer. The very vicissitudes of the people
Sec. IL, 1903. 4.
60 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
bred idealism and poetic fancy, and their mental pabulum was the song
of the minstrel and story of the seanaohie. The scarcity, or entire ab-
sence of books had the effect of quickening and strengthening the mem-
ory, and the ordinary peasant could generally repeat a marvellous quan-
tity of verse. Thus, folk songs passed from generation to generation,
becoming sacred in the process, through tender associations dear to the
heart of the emotional Gael. The epochs of song correspond to the
great national movements which affected the condition or stirred the
emotions of the people as a whole. Thus, the Jacobite risings of 1715
and 1745 A.D., were followed by revivals of Gaelic song, the latter date,
inaugurating what hafe been termed the Augustan age of Highland
poetry, with its great names — Macdonald, Maclntyre, Buchanan,
Mackay and Ross. Following the Jacobite defeat at Culloden came a
period of unrest and change in the Highlands from which relief was
sought in the new homes of America. Wave upon wave of emigration
succeeded, until the landowners and government* became alarmed and
enacted measures prohibiting the people to leave their native country.
These measures, however, were relaxed and the mountaineers, by tens
of thousands sought homes in Canada and in the United States. This
was at a time when Gaelic poetry was at its best, and when the vanish-
ing echoes of the Jacobite muse were re-awakened by the social
uphe-aval caused by the depopulating of the glens.
The clansmen carried with them not only the treasured songs of
the past, but the warm verses wrung from the local bards by the sad
scenes incident to the departure of whole country-sides of the native
people, leaving nothing but desolation behind them ; and the songs, also,
which many of those departing composed as " Farewells " to their native
land. These songs abound. Many of them are of poetic merit, and are
Gung in Canada even at the present day. Two of the most popular
tunes played on shore as the emigrant ships weighed anchor were
'• ^lacCrimmon's Lament '' and " Lochalx^r No More." The first is
one of the most pathetic in Highland minstrelsy and its effect to-day is
as great on a Gaelic-speaking Highlander as in the emigration days.
MacCrimmon, was one of a famous family of pipers, which for genera-
tions were retained by the chief of the Clan MacLeod, at Dunvegan
Castle, Isle of Skye. They are supposed to have been originally from
Cremona, Italy. The family held land from MacLeod, the son succeed-
ing the father in possession and in the office of piper. The name of
their farm was Boreraig, and here a piper's college was conducted to
which the noblemen and gentlemen of the north of Scotland sent their
young pipers to be instructed in bagpipe music, the ordinary term of
apprenticeship being seven years. In 1745, ^[acLeod, of Dunvegan,
espoused the side of the house of Hanover, in the Stuart rising. Mac-
[frassr] GAELIC FOLK-SONGS OF CANADA 61
Crimmon, the hereditary piper, seems to have had a premcmition that he
should fall in the war, and accompanied his chief reluctantly. On the
eve of his departure he is said to have compos(»d the piobaireachd known
as " M'acCrimmon's lament," and the Gaelic words which have been
paraphrased by Sir Walter Scott, viz : —
CUMHA MHIC-CRIOMTHAIN.
Bratach bhuadhail Mhte-Leoid o'n tùr nrhôr a* lasadh,
'S luchd iomradh nan râmh grreasadh bhàrc thar a ghlas-chuan;
Bogha, sgriath, 's claidheamih mûr, 's tuagrh gu leôn, eirm nam fleasgach,
'S Mac-CriamthaLn cluich cuairt, ** Soraidih bhuan do Dhun Bheagrai-n."
S^lan leis gach creig &rd ris 'bheil gairich ard-thonnan,
Slan lels gach gleann fus 's dean cràc-dhaimh an langan;
Eil€an Sgiathanaioh algh! slan le d'bheanntaibh 's guirm' flrich.
Tillidh, cWi* fheutadh, MacLeoid, ach cha bheO do Mhac-Criomthaln.
Soraidh bhuan do'n gheal-cheO, a tha comhdachadh Chuilinn,
Slan leis gach blà-shùil, 'th'air an Dun, 's iad a' tuireadh!
Soraidh bhuan do'n luohd-oiùil, 's trie 'chiilr sunnd orm is tiome—
Shefrl Mac-Crlomthain thar sail, is gu brath' oha till tuUleadh.
Nuallan allt' na piob-jnhoir a cluich marbh-rann an fhilidih,
Agus deaxbh bhrat a bhâ.Ls mar fhalluing algr* uime;
Ach cha mheataich mo chridh* is oha ragaich mo chulslean,
Ged dh' fhalbham le m' dheOln, 's flos nach till mi chaoidh tuilleadh.
'S trie a chlulnnear fuaim bhinn caoi thiom-chridh* Mhic-Criomihain,
'N uair 'bhios Gaidheil a* falbh thar an fhairge 'g an iomain —
O! chaomh thir ar graidh, o do thraigh *s rag ar n-imeachd;
Och! cha till, cha till, oha till sinn tuilleadh.
Translated hy !Sir Walter Scott: —
MacLeod's wizard flag from the gT^y castle sallies,
The rowers are seated, unmoored are the galleys,
Gleam war-axe and broad-sword, clang target and quiver.
As MacCrimmon plays. " Farewell to Dun vegan for ever! "
" Farewell to each cliff, on which breakers are foaming;
Farewell, each dark glen, in which red deer are roamdng;
Farewell, lonely Skye, to lake, mountain, and river;
MacLreod may return, but -luacCrimmon shall never! "
•'Farewell the bright clouds that on Coolin are sleeping;
Farewell the bright eyes in the fort that are weeping;
To each minstrel delusion, farewell; and for ever —
MacCrimmon departs, to return to you never! "
'The Banshee's wild voice sings the death-dirge before me.
And the paJl of the dead for a mantle hangs o'er me;
But my heart shall not flag, and my nerve shall not quiver.
Though devoted I go — to return again never! "
82 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANAJ)A
7*00 ofi shaU the note of MaoCrimmon's bewailing
Be heard when the Gael on their exile are saUinc:--
"Dear Land! to the shores, whence unwilling we sever
Return — return — return, we shall never! "
In the famous "Bout of Moy*' MacCrimmon fell, and his pre-
monition was fnlfilleH. In Skye his death was mourned by his sweet-
heart, who is made pathetically to lament his death, in the following
lines which are those usually sung to the tune, " MacCrimmon's
Lament '* : —
Dh' ladh ceo man stûc mu aodann Chulainn;
Gku' n d* sheinn a bhean shith a tonrann mulaid;
Tha Aullean fform, ciûln, *b an Dun ri aileadh;
O'n thriall thu bh'uainn, 's nach till thu tuille.
Caia UU. cha till, cha Ull MacCriomthaln,
An ooffadh no eith oha till e tutUe:
Le airgiod no ni oha till MacCriomthaiin;
Cha tin STU brath gu la na cruinne.
Tha osag nan gleann gu fann ag imeachd
Gach sruthan 's gach allt, gu niall le bruthtach,
Th\a ialt nan speur feagh gheûgan dubhach;
Ag caoidh gun d' fhalbh, 's nach till thu tuille.
Cha Ull, oha till, etc.
Tha'n fhairge fadheOidh, Ian brOin a's mulad;
Tha'm «bata fo sbeOl, ach dhiult i siubhal,
Tha gaire nan tonn, le Xuaim neoHsAiubhach,
Ag radii gun d* fhalbh, 's nach tUl thu tuiUe.
Cha till, oha till. etc.
Cha duinnear do oheôl 's an Dun mu Cheasgair;
No Mactalla na mùr, le mùdrn gr'a fhreagalrt:
Gaoh fleacrgach a's oigh, gun cheOl gun bheaidradh,
O'n thriall thu bh' ualnn, 'b nach till thu tuille.
Cha Ull. oha Ull, etc
Translated 6y Lachlan MacBean;
O'er Coolin's faoe the night is creeping.
The banshee's wail is round us sweeping.
Blue eyes in Dun are sadly weeping.
Since thou art gone, and ne'er returneart.
The breeze of the bens is gently flowing,
The brooka in the glens are softly flowing.
Where boughs their darkest shades are throwing,
Birds mourn for thee who ne'er returnest.
It's dirges of woe the sea ia sighing.
The boat under sail unmoved is lying.
The voice of the waves in sadness dying
Say thou art away and ne'er returnest
[fraibr] GAELIC FOLK-SONGS OF CANADA 68
We'll see no more MacCrLmmon's returning,
Nor in peace nor in war is he returning:,
Till dawns the great day of woe and burning:.
For him, for him, there's no returning:.
These verses loee much in Hie translation. In the original they
are remarkable for beauty of diction and for the dejpth of tender
feeling they express, and one can easily understand the enduring
impression they would make upon the minds of sorrowing emigrants,
especially when sung to one of the sweetest minor melodies in the
treasury of Gaelic music.
To this class belongs Evan MacCoU^s (a charter member of the
Eoyal Society) "Beannachd Dheireannach an EUthirioh Ghailich/^ —
" The Highland Emigrant's Farewell/' one of the best emigrant's songs
in the language, the concluding lines of which are:
Uair elle, 's gn bràth,
Beannachd bhlà.th leat, mo dhuthaich!
Qed nobh gu L*ath'-luain
Falach-oualn ort bho m' shûil-sa,
Gu deireadh mo ohualrt,
Gearr no buan, bi'dh mi 'g: umud^,
O! Ard'rlg:h nan dùJ,
Beannaich duthaich mo g:hràidh!
In this poem MacCoU describes his father's feelings, overcome by
strong emotion as the mountain peaks of his native land recedes from
his view, and in turning away after the darkness has closed the scene,
the stem-visaged Gaol vows eternal devotion to his native land, and
invokes a benediction upon its future. This poem, or song, composed
to the tune, "Erin gu brath,*' has been sung in the Old Land and
in Canada by at least two generations, separated by the wide Atlantic
yet on both sides of the ocean, each remembering the close relationship
betwixt them of kith and kin.
When the Scottish Gael found a lodgement in Canada, the songs
of his race were not forgotten. That body of song was the common
heritage of the Kelt, the world over, but the soul of song did not Uve
on the poetry of the past only; it found its muse in the dense forest,
on the rivers and lakes, and at the happy firesides of the settlements.
Here in Canada, therefore, Gaelic poems and songs were composed in
the style of the older minstrelsy. Some of them can be compared
to the popular lyricô of the Highlands. The themes varied with the
glories of sea and land, the beauties of nature with her rich colourings
and varying moods; the heroism and devotion of the women — of
mothers and daughters who bore the hardships of colonization with
84 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
courage and good cheer; the merriment of the home life, for alongside
the hardships were situations which gave play to the lively wit and
fancy of the buoyant Kelt, and these as weil as the loves of the swains
and maidens furnished rich material to the bard. Every settlement
had its poets, and the connection between the life and the lyrics of
the people was well maintained. Thus, tihe labours of the day were
lightened by song, in the melodious speech of the fathers; the idea
of exile was softened and the land of adoption became more and more
a real home like the native land. But that native land was not for-
gotten, and " MecOrimmon^s Lament," or the " Emigiant^s Farewell "
had still the power of awakening memories of the past :
" Is trie mi culnrhneach air tte mo dhûthoihals,
Air tir nam beanntan 's nan srleanntan ûrar;
Air tir nan ag^maicheaji &rda, ruisgrte.
Nan creagran corraoh, 's nan lochan dûg>horm."
Translated: —
'* Dear land of my fathers, my home in the HiiglUands,
'Tis oft that I think on thy bonnie srreen glens,
Th^ far-gleamingr lochs, and the sheer sided oorries,
Thy dark-frown bng cliCCs, and thy glory of Bens! "
Or,-
"Is toigh leam a Ghaidhlig, a bardachd 's a ceOl,
I0 trie 'thog i nios sinn 'n ualr bhiodhmaid fo leôn;
'S 1 dh' ionnsalch sinn tra ajin an laithean ar n-Oig,
'S nach fag sinn gu 'br&th gus an laidh sinn fo'n fhoid."
Translated: —
•* And the songs of the Gael on their pinions of flre,
How oft have they lifted my heart from the mire;
On the lap of my mother I lisp'd them to God;
Let them float round my grave, when I sleep 'neath the sod."
By the Eestigouche or th-e St. Lawrence the peasant-poet aat and
mused upon the days of yore, and to the gathering neighbours poured
an oblation to the manee of his forefathers, such as the beautiful
'^ Canadian Boat Song/* said to have been translated from the Gaelic
by Eari Eglinton: —
Translated:—
" lAOben to me es wihen ye heard our father.
Sing long ago the songs of other shores;
Listen to me a»nd then in chorus gather.
All your deep voices as ye pull your oars—
Chorus.
Pair these broad meads, these hoary woods are grand»
But we are exiles from our father's land.
[FRA8ER] GAELIC FOLK-SONGS OF CANADA 8B
From the lone shelling of the misty island.
Mountains divide us and the waste of seas;
But still the blood is strong, our hearts are Highland
And we In dreams behold the Hebrides.
We ne'er shall tread 'the fanoy^aunted valley,
Where, 'twixt the dark hills, creeps the small clear stream,
In arms around the patriarch banner rally.
Nor see the moon on royal tombstones gleam.
Wihen the bold kindred, in the time long vanish' d.
Conquered the soil and fortified the keep,^
No seer foretold the children should be banished,
That a degenerate lord might boast his sheep.
Come foreign irage! let discord burst In slaughter.
Oh! then, for clansmen true, and keen claymore!
The hearts that would have given their blood like water,
Beat heavily beyond the Atlantic's roar.
Fair these broad meads — those hoary woods are grand.
But we are exiles from our father's land.
There is doubt as to the authorship of this translation, some
attributing it to Professor James Wilson; others to Hugh, 12tih Earl
Eglinton, among whose papers it was found. In Maroh, 1896, I adver-
tised in th€ Grlengarr}' newispapers for the original and received in
reply five Gaelic songs purporting to be the original of the Canadian
Boat Song, but 1 could not accept any of them as being genuinely such.
It is curious that Moore's Canadian Boat Song should also have been
a translation from an old French song, popular in Poiton, according
to Ernest Gagnon, Quobec.
Railing at his hard lot, a pioneer poet breaks out:
"Oax^h ceum a shiubhlas sinn feadh na duth'chsa,
Gur coille duth-ghorm i air fad,
Tha ruith gu siorraidh gun cheann no crioch oir',
Is beachainn fladihaich tha innte gu pailt';
Cha'n fhaic sinn fraoch ann a fas air aonaoh,
Xa sruth a caochan ruith soilleir glan,
Aoh bulg 'ua geoban 's na rathadan mora
Na'n sluichd mhi-chomhnard le stumpan grroid."
Fifty years later, however, this same poet catting his eye back, finds
his muse is more cheerful. The log-houses are disappearing, so are
the dcn^ forests, the fauna is less formidable, the roads are improved,
the fields are beautiful, and if the heather and the golden broom are
not seen on the sloping foot hills, the verdure is at least luxuriant and
pleasant io the eye; and he feels no compunction in placing the new
in favourable contract with the old.
66 ROYAL SOCIEfY OF CANADA
The Gael is iflftensely religiaue. He turns to verse for adequate
utterance when profoundly stirred with sacred thoughts. At the
time of the first emigration to Canada, Dugald Buchanan, the greatest
religious poet of the race, flourished. His spiritual songs were seized
with remarkable avidity and were known in every cottage in the Icuid.
Seldom have religious verse in any language had such extensive cir-
culation. Next to Holy Writ the early emigrant prized Buchanan,
and many a log-^cabin in the bush, rang, on Sabbath-day, with the
chorus of his hymns. Canadian editions were printed, and they are
still in use by some who could not tell whether the author had lived
in the eighteenth (as he did) or in the nineteenth century, or whether
he was a native of Canada or of Perthahire, so thoroughly have these
hymns become a part of the Canadian Gaelic folk-song. Buchanan
chose subjects which gave soope to his powerful imagination. For
instance: "The Greatness of God," "The Sufferings of Christ,'' "The
Day of Judgment,'' "The Skull," "Prayer," etc. He was known
among the litemry men of his time as a great poet. An account of an
interesting interview between him and David Hume, the historian, has
come down. These two were discussing the merits of some authors
when Hume observed that it was impossible to imagine anything more
sublime than the following lines, which he rejpeated:
" The cloud-caipt towers, the gorgeous pal€uces,
The solemn temples, the great globe itself.
Tea. all which it inherits shaU dissolve.
And like the baseless fabric of a vision —
Leave «not a wreck behind."
Buchanan admitted the beauity and sublimity of the lines, but,
said, he could produce a passage more sublime, and repeated the fol-
lowing verses :
'^ And I saw a great white throne, and him that sat on it, from
whose face the earth and the heaven fled away; and there were found
no place for them. And I saw the dead, small and great, stand before
God: and the books were opened; and another book was opened, which
is the book of life : and the dead were judged out of those things which
were written in the books, according to their works. And the sea
gave up the dead which were in it; and death and hell delivered up
the dead which were in them; and they were judged every man accord-
ing to the works."
Hume, it is said, admitted the superiority of Buchanan's quotation,
as an example of the sublime in literature.
After Buchanan came Patrick Grant, a sweeter, if a weaker poet.
Grant's hymns have, from the time of their first appearance, been widely
known and popuiar in Canada and are still read with pleasure and
[fraskr] GAELIC FOLK-SONGS OF CANADA 67
profit in the Gaelic settlements. One or two examples will show the
bright spirit that pervaded them — a cdntrast to Buchanan's sombre
earnestness :
Translated:—
(1) '* Hark! Slon loud ring$ her King's hlgrh praises,
She êings and raises her voice,
His love to proclaim who came to aid her,
Hiis name, who made her his choice.
Hallelujahs prolong the son« that's «riven,
Among wide Heaven's bright hoet.
And those who while here, lies near to Jesus
That dear sound pleases them most"
Theee Mnee may also serve as an example of that assonance wbioh
is characteristic of Gaelic v-ensification, — the " leonine rhyme.*'
Translated :—
(2) ** In ilka trial we hae tae bear
We'll nestle near him, there's shelter there,
For ill we trust Him, whate'er betide us.
He'll save and guide us (for ever mair.
His frien's on earth He will ne'er disclaim.
But brln« wd' Joy a* that loe his name,
Frae His dear presence nae mair tae sever.
But share for ever His Liasting Hame.
The year 1786 witnessed the arrival in Canada of a man of nota,
whose life-work will not be forgotten among the Gki^el. Rev. Dr. James
Macgregor, the Gaelic Hymnist was bom in 1759, at Portrmore, in
Perthshire. He settled at Piotou as a missionary, and preached in
Gaelic to the Highlanders. A talented and scholarly divine, he com
posed hymns and religious poems which became popular among the
Highlanders of Nova Scotia and Cape Breton. They were sung in
almost every family, and the testimony of the early ministers of the
Gospel in the Maritime provinces is to the effect that these poems made
a deep impression on the people. While known, they were not widely
used in Upper Canada, at least, I have n<Â been able to trace them
much beyond the manses of the Gaelic speaking clergymen of Ontario,
but MacGregor's collection sold well in Scotland and. in Nova Scotia.
In the west Rev. F. J. MacLeod published a book of hymns and spir-
itual songs, at Toronto, which found acceptance among the Kelts of
northern and western On-tario — Vietoria, Grey and Bruce counties.
A poet better known that Mr McLeod, was the Rev. Donald Monro,
whose volume of Gaelic verses appeared in 1848, with an encouraging
list of subscribers. Mr. Monro was a native of Kilmartin, Argyllshire,
and settled in Glengarry in the forties, removing thence to the town-
ship of Finch where he enjoyed a lengthened ministry. He died in
88 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
February, 1867, in the 78th year of his age, but ■still lives in the well
gotten up volume of Gaelic poetry which he gave to his countr3nn[ien.
The popular songs of the people, however, muist be their love
songB, and in this branch of the subject the Kelto-Canadian had a rich
treasury. As the French-Canaddan inherited the folk-song of Old
France, so the Gael -of Canada did the songs of the Scottish Highlands.
Love songs live long. To-day can be heard songs crooned in Nova
Scotia or in Ontario, whose origin is l'est in the mists of time, or of
authors who lived many generations ago in Scotland. Sujch a song, for
instance, is " Fear a Bhata,'* " The Boatman,^* one of the finest of our
Gaelic love songs:
Translated:—
** My friends oft tell me that I miist sever
All thought of thee from my heart for ever;
Their wordfl are idle— my passion's 9weUin^,
Untanned as ocean, can brook no queUinfir.
My heart is weary with ceaseless wailing.
Like wounded swan «when her strenfrth is failing,
Her notes of anguish the lake awaken,
By all her comrades at last forsaken.
Another example would be : " Ho ro mo nighean donn bhoidheach,*'
eung by a chorus of children in Toronto not later than last June. The
translation of a verse will show the intensity of the sentiment pervad-
ing it:
Translated : —
•* O maid whoae face is fairest,
The beauty that thou bearest,
Thy witching «mile the rarest,
Are ever with me.
" Though far from thee I'm ranging
My love is not estranging,
My heart is sliU unchanging
And aye true to thee.
I
*• Thy smile Is brightest, purest,
Best, kindliest, demurest.
With which thou still allureat
My heart's love to thee."
But the settlers themselves and their descendants to the present
time composed love songs which obtained popular recognition, many
of whicJi have seen the light of the day on pages of books or j)eriodicals,
but many, very many, sftill remain to be collected and preserved as
interesting specimens of the Gaelic muse in Canada.
Som<î of the better known Gaelic poets of Canada are: Dr. James
Macgregor, Rev. D. B. Blair, Rev. A. MacLean Sinclair, Evan MacColl,
[FRAfiu] GAELIC FOLK-SONGS OF CANADA 89
Eev. Donald Monro, Eev. F. J. MacLeod, Hugh MacColl, Archibald
MacKillop, A. Gordon, Alexander MacMillan, Hugh MacCorquodale,
Neil Clark, Mrs. Angus MacKay, Mrs. McKenzie, Dr. J. MacLeod,
Donald Grant, Donald Campbell, D. MacFarlane, Angus Canniohael
(author of " Venus of the Gaol,*' etc.), James MacMaster, Miss Cath-
erine Cameron, Mre. John MacDonald.
Quite reoently, while on a visit in the county of Bruce, I came
across a number of G«<elic songs composed by Mr. J. B. Macdonald,
a respected citizen of Tiverton, a specimen veree of which I shall tran-
scribe to show that patriotism and vitality still characterize the sons
of Ossian:
O, 's aim a'n America a tha mi an dr&sda,
Fo dhùbhar na oollle nach teirlg gu bràth,—
'S'n uaiT dh' fhalbhas an dùbhlachd 'ea thlonnd'as am biàths
Bidih drisean 'us biùlan *s flùth'r orra fus.
Ach's tniagh naoh robh mise 'n Tiridh mar bha,
Ged bhithlnn gun sgUllinn dar ruiginn an traigh;
Bu shunndach a bhithinn 'n uair dh' eireadh an Ian,
Dol a dh* iarraidh nan siolag gu iochdar tralgh-bhaigih.
Tirddh mo chrldhe, Tiridh mo ghaoll,
Far am bithinn am mireag 'sa ruith air an raon*,
'S bho 'na thug mi mo chùl ris do dhuthaich nan craobh,
•S e dh* fhag mi fo mhulad nach grunnaich mi 'n caol.
The Gael had his "Golden Age," and it was an age of poetry.
Its traditions have floated down the cen-turies to our own times, and
are met with in popular songs, one of which may fitly close this
sketch:
" Linn An Aioh **— *' The Happy Aob."
Translated: —
When all the bdrds in Gaelic sang,
Milk lay like derw upon the lea;
The heather into honey sprang,
And everything was good and free.
No tax or tribute used to fall
On honest men, nor any rent;
To hunt and fish was free to all,
And timber without price or stent.
There was no discord, war or strife,
For none were wronged and none oppressed;
But everyone Just led the life
And did the thing that pleased him best.
eo ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
All lived in, peace, there was no sort
Of prey or plunder, feud or flgrht;
There was no need of any cooirt —
Their hearts contained the law of rigrht.
For fiTold or silver no one cared,
Yet want and woe were never near;
All had enou^rh, and richly fared,
And none desired his neighbour's gear.
Love, pity, and good-wUl were spread
Among: the people everywhere;
From where the momin? rises red
To where the evening: shineth fair.
When all the birds in Gaelic saaff.
Section U., 1903 [ 61 ] Trans. R. 8. C.
VI. — Totemism: A Consideration of its Origin and Import.
By Charles Hill-Tout.
Hon. Secretary of the Bthnolofirlcal Survey o£ Oancida, etc.
(Communicated by Honorary Secretary and read May, 19, 1903.)
Two years ago I had the honour to present to the Society a short
paper on the subject of Totemism as it obtains in tribal society in
British Columbia.
The scope of the present paper is more comprehenfiive; it aims
at a consideration of the subject from a general point of view.
The doctrine of totemism has of late much exercised the minds
of anthropologists^ and there has been a considerable increase in the
literature upon it. This has not, unfortunately, resulted in an accept-
able solution of the problem of totemism, but rather the reverse. It
has brought out in a painfully clear manner that American and
European students hold widely-differing views upon the subject, and
appear to look at the question from a fundamentally different stand-
point. Even their terminology seems to have little in common.
TMs has apparently come about from the fact that students of
this country have dealt with data drawn almost exclusively from Amer-
ican sources, while those of Europe seem to have fixed their attention
more particularly upon data gathered in Australia and other parts of
the world.
This would seem to suggest that the totemism of tribal man in
America is different from that found among primitive peoples else-
where. But this certainly cannot be the case. Totemism, wherever
found, in its naked and virgin state, is demonstrably the outcome of
the mind of savage man contemplating the relations existing between
himself and his physical environment, that is of anthropopathic con-
ceptions of the tmiverse, and in its fundamentals must (rf necessity
be everywhere the same. The difference, if difference there be, will be
found to lie partly in the attitude of the student himself and partly in
the fact that too much stress has been laid by certain European ex-
ponents of totemism upon subsidiary features of it, which, as I shall
attempt to show, are not really -essential elements, but only, more or
less, local adjuncts or accidents, which differ materially in number
and character in different centres and among different peoples. If
these concomitants of totemism, mostly social, be set aside and the
underlying concept be regarded alone, totemism will be seen to be
the same in all parts of the world.
62 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
The American student may be said to possess a certain advantage
over others in his study of the subject. Nowhere in the world has
primitive man received such close and systematic study by trained
observers as in this country, and nowhere can we find a wider or more
varied range of culture than among the aborigines of this continent.
Every condition of tribal society appears to exist here. There are
tribes in the Matriarchal state, tribes under Patriarchal rule, and tribes
in all stages of transition between the one and the other. He has,
therefore, an ideal field for the study of primitive institutions and
concepts and should, with due care, be able to arrive at the heart o-f
things.
I will, therefore, begin this consideration of the subject by a
brief statement of what is regarded by leading American students as
the doctrine of totemism. And as the late Director of the Bureau of
Amerioan Ethnology, so recently as July last set forth briefly in an
article in Man, what may be considered the prevailing view of the
doctrine in this country, I cannot do bettea* than cite his statement
of the case in his own words. He writes : " A group of Amorind
tribes occupying a limited part of the Dominion of Canada and the
United States are known as Algonquins; they belong to a distinct
linguistic stock in which many languages are spoken. Among these
tribes the word ^ totem ' or its variant is used, and those are the
languages fram which the word comes. The word is derived from
a root which signifies clay. Among the Algonquian tribes clay was
used to paint the face and body with the heraldic devices [that is
the totem symlx)ls] of a group of pej^ons .... The group is composed
of such persons as reckon consanguineal kinship only through the
mother; thus, the mother and her brothers and sisters and their
mother with her brothers and sisters, belong to the group, and the
kinship may be reckoned in the same manner through an indefinite num-
ber of generations. This group we call a clan, but the Algonquians
call it a totem, thus clan and totem are synonymous.... There are
other tribes in which the clan group is replaced by what we call the
gentile group. This group is like that discovered among the Latin
tribes, and embraces those persons who reckon kinship through the
father with his brothers and sisters, including their father and his
brothers and sisters. Thus the mother^s group and the grandmother^s
group are excluded When the second group is found we call it
a gens. ... In America we call the name of the clan and also the name
of the gens its totem, and totemism is considered a method of naming.
Among some tribes the child on coming to puberty takes a new name,
and this name is called its totem In every tribe among the
Amerinds societies are organized, which we formerly called 'medi-
[hill-tout] TOTEMISM : ITS ORIGIN AND IMPORT 63
cine societies^ and then ^religious societies'. . . . These societies
are also named, and the names of the societies are their ix)tems, so
that totemism pertains to individual names, to clan names, to tribal
names, and also to society names.
** The name which the individual assumes at puberty is the totem
name of the individual; it is also the name of the thing for which the
individual is najned. . . . When shamanistic societies are organized,
their names are also their totems, and apply to the societies as well
as to the things to whidi they are devoted. This is the Amerindian
custom, and is also the custom of American students.
'' In tribal society we find very interesting superstitions ajbout
names, for the name is held to be an inherent attribute or property of
the thing; again, the object from which the puberty name of the
individual is taken becomes his tutelar deity. In like manner the
totem name of the clan, the gens, and the tribe severally become
tutelar deities of these bodies. Such are the customs and supersti-
tions of the Amerinds about name^, and we call this doctrine of naming
totemism.^'
Now at first sight this " doctrine of naming " seems to be lacking
in scientific precision. Indeed, Major Powell's critics have found
fault with it upon this very ground. One of them says : " it is diffi-
cult to see the advantage of a system of nomenclature where everything
is called by the same name."^ Another says : **I must confess to feeling
a little bewildered by this terminology and I venture to think it will
not prove of much service in advancing our knowledge." ^ But this is
not really the case. To regard it in this light is to fail entirely to
appreciate the American point of view.
To rightly comprehend how the word totem may logically and con-
sistently include so many apparently diverse ideas we must examine into
the nature of those ideas to see if they are really as diverse as they
appear to l)e; and are not merely so many different expressions of a
common underlying concept.
Upon analysis we find the following elements comprised under
this " doctrine of naming " : —
{1. The name acquired by a person during the puberty ceremonials.
2. The object or thing from which the name is taken.
3. The symbol or representation of the object.
(i
The name of a group of people united by ties of consanguinity.
The object from which that name is taken.
3. The crest or kindred-symbol or representation of the object.
' Man., 1902, Article 85.
* Presidential address of Dr. A. C. Haddon before the Anthrop. Sect, of
the B.A.A.S., Belfaat, 1902.
64 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
C <2.
l3.
The name of a ** medicine " or ** religious " society.
The object or thing to which that society is devoted.
The emblem, symbol or representation of that ol^ject or thing.
Now a brief examination of these categories shows us that the
same concept underlies them all. In each we have the same three
elements: name, object, and symbol. In each the object is the source
of the name, and in each the object is the same thing, viz., a tutelary
guardian spirit. It is in thie concept of a ghostly helper or tutelary
.spirit that we find the oonnecting link. This is the essential element of
totemism. " This is totemism " in its pure and naked state, i.e., shorn
of its social accessories. And in applying the same name to all three
elements we are, as Major Powell has shown, but following the custom
of liie natives themselves «nd regarding the subject from their point of
view. In the Algonquian's mind, we may be sure there was no confusion
in the application of the word totem to these several phenomena, for to
him they were but different expressions of one and the same thing; nor
need there be in the mind of the etudent when he has once rightly appre-
hended the concept which underlies the term.
In the philosophy of savage man the name of a thing is something
more than a mere label, or mark of distinction; it is an essential part
or attribute of the thing itself. It is of prime importance to appre-
ciate this fact for a right understanding of it makes clear a good many
strange and obscure customs and superstitions among primitive peo-
ples. To adopt or receive the name of an animal or plant or other
object, was in the mind of the savage to be endowed with the essence
or spirit of that object, to be under its protection, to become one with
it in a very special and mysterious sense. This becomes clear from a
study of names and the customs and superstitions connected with
them. Among these may be instanced the habit of avoiding personal
names in direct address. Major Powell has recorded an interesting
example of this. He was at one time travelling in company with a band
of Kaibab Indianis, the young ohief of whom was known to white men
by the name Frank. Major Powell sought on several occasions to learn
his Indian name, but could not succeed. He then endeavoured to notice
the term by which the chief was addressed by others of the tribe, but
invariably some kinship term was employed. One day, however, the
ohief and his wife quarrelled, and in her anger the wife called him
Chuarumpik (" Yucca-heart ''). Later, Major Powell referred to the
subject and questioned the chief about it, who explained and apolo-
gized for the great insult his wife had heaped upon him by thus men-
tioning his name, but said that she was excused by the great provocation
he had given her. The "insult" lay in calling nim by his real or
" mystery " najne.
[hill-tout] TOTEMISM : ITS ORIGIN AND IMPORT 68
Everard F. im Thum gives tixe following account of the name
syôtem of th© Indians of Guiana, " whioV' «ays Malloiy, " might haye
been written with equal trutii about some tribee of North America ": —
"The system under which the Indians have their personal names is
intricate and difficult to explain. In the first place, a name, which
may -be called the proper name is always given to a chUd soon after
birth. It is said to be proper that the peaiman or medi<iine-man,
should cîhose and give the name. . . . The word selected is generally
the name of some plant, bird or other natural object. But these
names seem of little use, in that owners have a very strong objection
to telling or using them, apparently on the ground that the name is
part of the man, and that he who knows the name has part of the
owner of that name in his power.^ !
The close relation between the person and his name is again seen
in the practices of shamans and witches. In their formulas relating
to love and killing or maiming, the name of the victim or of the per-
son whose affections it is desired to win, is always specifically mentioned;
for the Indian believes that injury will result from malicious handling
of his name as surely as from a wound inflicted on any part of his
pliysical organism. " This belief," writes Mooney in his article on the
' Saored formulas of the Cherokees,' ^ " was found among tihe various
tribes from the Atlantic to the Pacific and has occasioned a number
of curious regulations in regard to the concealment and change of
names. Should his prayers have no apparent effect when treating a
patient for some serious illness the shaman sometimes concludes that
the name is affected and accordingly goes to water, with appropriate
ceremonies and christens the patient with a new name. He then begins
afresh using the new name."
Teit, writing of the Thompson Indians says: "It is believed that
all animals have names of their own which may be revealed by the
guardian spirits. The knowledge of these names gives a person addi-
tional power over animals. A man who, knowing the name of the
grisly bear, for instance, addresses him, gains so much more power
over him that the bear at once becomes gentle and harmless." '
In a note upon " The Eeligious Ceremony of the Four Winds or
Quarters, as observed by the Santee Sioux," Miss Alice Fletcher
remarks :
"A name imiplies relationship, and consequently protection;
favour and influence are claimed from the source of the name whether
* Tenth Report of Bureau of American Bthnologry. 1888-89, pp. 44-5.
* Seventh Anmial Report BureaAi of Amer. Eth., p. 343.
■ The Thompson Indians of B.C. Memoirs of the Amer. Mus. of Na/t.
Hist.. Vol. n, p. 355.
Sec II., 1903. 5.
ee ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
this be the gene or the vision. A name therefore shows the affiliafcioia
of the inidividual; it grades him^ so to speak, and he is apt to lean
upon its implied power The personal name (and also the kin-
ship term in some cases) among Indians therefore indicates the protect-
ing presence of a deity, and must, therefore, partake of the ceremonial
character of the Indian's religion/'
The practice among some savages of interdianging names is
founded upon the same or kindred beliefs. We also see another illus-
tration of the same idea in the care and jealousy with which each
family or clan guards and retains for its own peculiar use its own list
of personal names. These names are regarded as peculiarly sacred,
inasmuch as they are intimately connected with the lives and histories
of their owners or their ancestors; and for an ouibsider to appropriate
one of them would be the deadliest oflEence and would result in his
speedy death.
It is clear from the foregoing, then, that an object and its name,
particularly when thjat object is a " mystery " object, was one and the
same thing in the eyes of the savage and hence his calling them by
the same name.
And with regard to the third element of the categories, the symbol
or representation of the object, it was the same thing. î»Jel8on informs
us that the Eskimo possess masks representing their totem animals, the
wearers of which are believed to become actually the beings repre-
sented, or at least to be endowed with their spiritual essence.'
Dorsey, writing in his " Study of Siouan Cults," concerning the
origin of the buffalo and their ^^ mysterious " power says : " Therefore,
when a man can hardly be wounded by a foe, the people believe that
the former has seen the buffalo in dreams or visions and on that
account has received mysterious help from those animals. All such
men who dream of the buffalo act like them and dance the buffalo dance.
And the man who acts the buffalo is said to have a real buffalo inside
him and a chrysalis lies within that part of the body near the shoulder
blade.'' ^ Similar views are held by the Salish tribes.
Turner, writing of the religion of the Hudson Bay Eskimo, says:
" The spirit [i.e., the tutelary guardian] is often in a material form in
the shape of a doll carried somewhere about the person." *
Lynd, writing of the Dakotas, says: "Frequently the devout
Dakota will make images of bark or stone, and after painting them
in various ways and putting sacred down upon them will fall down and
worship before them, praying that all danger may be averted from him
^ Eighteenth Annual Report Bureau of Amer. Eth., pp. 394-5.
* Eleventh Annual Report Bur. Amer. Eth., 1889-90, p. 477.
• Ibid,, p. 194.
[hill-todt] T0TEMI8M : ITS ORIGIN AND^IMPORT 67
and his. It must not be undersix)ad^ however^ that >the Dakota is an
idolator. It is not the image that he worships^ but the spiritiial
essence which is represented by that image, and which is supposed to be
ever near it J' ^
The coast tribes of British Columbia hold similar views; and the
accounts that have been given of fetishism in different parts of the
worid everywhere reveal the same belief. The Polynesian taboo beliefs
with iregard to certain objects being the shrine or haibitation of their
gods is another illustration of this belief. On the island of Nukunono
Fakaafo was a stone wrapped about with mattings and held so sacred
by the natives that only the king durst view it, and even he only once
a year w£en it assumed a fresh suit of matting. This stone or idol or
fetish was termed by the natives the Tui Tokelau or Lord of Tokdau
and was regarded as the personification of the god.* The Ark of the
Israelites belongs to the same class of beliefs.
It becomes clear then that in the mind of the savage the name of
a thing, the symbol or representative of that thing, and the thing itself
is all one and the same. They are to him only so many différent
expressions of the same concept. Hence there is no inconsistency in
his designating them all by a common name.
To follow the Algonquian custom, then, and call the several ele-
ments of our categories by one and »the same term is, I submit, neither
illogical nor inconsistent. But in order that this may become the
more apparent it may be well to consider here briefly the nature of this
fundamental concept of primitive man of which totemism, in one form
or another, is everywhere the outward and visible sign. For, as I
remarked in my former paper, we can best apprehend the philosophy
of savage customs and beliefs when we view things from the point of
view of savage intelligence.
A particularly suggestive and lujminous exposition of the mental
attitude of the Zuni toward the universe is given by Cuahing in his
article on Zuni fetishes in the Second Annual Eeport of the Bureau
of Amer. Eth. As this report is now out of print, and as the Zuni
savage does not differ greatly from other savages elsewhere, it will not
be ouit of place if I cite a few pertinent passages from it.
" The Zunis," he writes, " suppose the sun, moon and stars, the
eky, earth, and sea, in all their phenomena and elements; and all inani-
mate objects, as well as plants, animals, and men, to belong to one
great system of all-conscious and inter-related life in which the degrees
of relationship seem to be determined largely, if not wholly by the
degrees of resemblance. In this system of life the starting point is
» Minn, Hlot. Soc. OoU.. Vol. II, pt. 2, p. 67.
• Turner, " 19 years in Polynesia."
68 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
WAH, the moat finished yet th<e lowest organism^ at leasts the lowest
beoaufie the most dependent and least mysterious. In just so f ar aa
an organism^ actual or imaginary^ resembles his is it believed to be
related to him and correspondingly mortal; in just so far as it is mys-
terious is it considered removed from him^ further advanced, powerful
and immortal. It thus happens that the animals^ because alike mortal
and endowed with similar physical functions and organs are conaidereâ
more nearly related to man than are the gods: more nearly related
to the gods than is man because more mysterious^ and chairacterized by
specific instincts and powers which man does not of himself possess. . . .
In like manner the supernatural beings of man's fancy — the ^ master
existences' — are supposed to be more nearly related to th'è person-
alities with which the elements and phenomena of nature are endowed
than to either animals or man; because like those elements and phe-
nomena and unlike man and animals they are connected with remote
tradition and, therefore, are considered immortal."
To the above should be added the statement that all these beings
are given by the Zunis the forms either of animals, of monsters com-
pounded of man and beast, or of man. The animal gods comprise by
far the larger class.
Mrs. Erminnie A. Smith, writing in the same Eeport upon the
''Myths of the Iroquois," remarks: "All the mysterious in nature,
all that which inspired them with reverence, awe, terror, or gratitude,
became deities or beings like themselves endowed with supernatural
attributes, beings whose vengeance must be propitiated, mercy implored,
or goodness recompensed." Biggs, writing on the Mythology of the
Dakotas, remarks: "They pray to the sun, earth, moon, lakes, rivers,
trees, plants, snakes, and all kinds of animals and vegetables — many
of them say, to everything, for they pray to their guns and arrows —
to any object artificial as well as natural, for they suppose that every
object, artificial as well as natural, has a spirit which may hurt or
help." ^
And Turner writes, concerning the beliefs of the Eskimo about
Hudson's Bay: "All the affairs of life are supposed to be under the
control of spirits, each of which rules over a certain element
Each person is supposed to be attended by a special guardian who is
malignant in character, ever ready to seize upon the least occasion to
work harm upon the individual whom it accompanies." ^
Bearing in mind, then, this attitude of savage man towards nature,
and his intense belief in the activity and omnipresence of the " ghosts "
of things, it is not difficult to perceive how the totem concept was
^ Eleventh Annual Rept. Bur. Amer. Eth., 1889-90, p. 434.
• Ihid., p. 194.
[hill^dt] TOTEMISM : ITS ORIGIN AND IMPORT 69
evolved. Surrounded as he felt himself with beings and agencies
disposed rather to harm than to befriend him, and being unable by the
limitations of his dmtelligence, to discern the true relations between
causes and effects, he is led irresistibly to attribute all his blessings
to friendly powers and all his ills to hostile ones. He assumes imme-
diate causal relations where they do not exist, and not knowing or
understanding the true causes of things takes for them some object in
his immediate environment.
*^ A Kaffir broke a piece off the anchor of a stranded vessel and soon
lifter died. Ever after the Kaffirs regarded the anchor as something
mysterious, divine, and did it honour by saluting it as they passed by,
with a view to propitiate its wrath.'^ ^
The Yakuts, Wuttke informs us, first saw a camel duiring an out-
break of smallpox and in oonsequenjce pronounced the animal to be a
hostile deity who had brought the disease among th«m.' These are
typical cases of the way in which the savage reasons. To the Kaffirs
the anchor was clearly the cause of the man's death; and to the Yakuts
the camel the cause of the smallpox. There was no dowbt in their
minds. Did not the facts speak for themselves ? Another savage con-
nects some obj-ect in his mind with certain good fortune that has
happened to him, and thereafter that objecft becomes his fetish, his
tutelary deity to be consnlted or appealed to in all ■emergencies. An
American savage chose the crucifix and a little image of the virgin
as his manitus af'ter he had found, as he believed, that they had pro-
tected him on sundry occasions against the arrows of his enemies.'^ *
It is then, in these beliefs common to savage man the world over
that we find the raison d^êire of totemism, and under this term I include
the kindred phenomena of fetishism; for the explanation of the one
is the explanation of the other. Between the fetish so-<îalled and the
totem, on its religious and magical sid-e, that is, in its essential char-
acter, I can perceive no difference at all. They are equally the out-
come of the anthropopathic apprehensions of the universe by savage
man. So also is the Taboo, the religious ban of the Polynesians.
Among American savages we find all three phases in various stages of
development. In the list of personal totems of the Thompson Indians
given by Teit in his Memoir on that tribe, and which I cited in my
former paper, we find exactly the same objects, and they have the same
characteristics as those which beoomie the fetish of the African savage.
Waltz's definition of the fetisih is equally a definition of the personal
^ Quoted by Schultze In his " Fetishism " from Alberti's, die Kaffern.
* Wuttke, Gesch. d. H. I. 72, cited by Schults».
" Charlevoix Journ.:U historique d'un voyage de l'Amérique Septentrionale,
Paris, 1774, p. 887.
70 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
Sulia of the Salish : A fetish, he says, is an object of religious vener lion
wherein the material thing and the spirit withdn it are regarded as one,
the two being inseparable. And for the matter of that so also is that
given by Dr. Tylor. " Fetishism/^ he writes, is " the doctrine of
spirits embodied in, or attached to, or conveying influence through cer-
tain material objects."^ Indeed, if one sought to give a definition of the
8uUa of the Salish, or the " waqube " of the Omaha and Ponka, it would
be impossible to find a more exact definition than this of Dr. Tylor.
The only diflEerence between the African fetish and the Sulia of the
Salish, perceivable to the observer, is the manner in which they are
severally acquired. Chance seems to be the chief factor in deteimin-
ing the acquisition of the African fetish, whereas among the Salish,
dreeims or visions are the usual source of their Sulia. This is also
the manner of acquisition in several other North American tribes.
But if the subject be regarded from a world-wide point of view we shall
find that the totem or fetish is acquired in a variety of ways and that
of these accidental coincidence determines a very large proportion.
Among Noriih American savages the dream or vision is the usual way,
but not exclusively so. Totems are also frequently acquired by their
owners by direct and personal contact with the object when out hunting
or fishing. The origin of many of the clan totems of the North-west
Coast tribes are accounted for in this way. Some American tribes
chose their personal totems by a method of divination. The fetish^es
of the Zunis, which take the place of the Sulia of the Salish, are
chiefly stone objects, and as the tutelary deities of the Zunis are mostly
animals, these stone objects are the representations of tliem. The
most highly-prized of them ^^ are natural concretions in which the evi-
dent original resemblance to animals has been heightened by artificial
means." All these fetishes are supposed to be either actual petrifac-
tion of the animals they represent or were such originally. The Zunis
say concerning them : " Whomsoever of us may be met with the light
of such great good fortune may see (discover, find) them and should
treasure them for the sake of the sacred (magic) power which was given
in the days of the new. For the spirits of the Wa-ma-à-hâ-i still live,
and are pleased to receive from us the Sacred Plume (of the heart —
La-sho-a-ni), and sacred necklace of treasure (thlâ-thle-a) ; hence they
turn their ears and the ears of their brothers in our direction that they
may hearken to our prayers (aacred talks) and know our wants." ^
They are supposed to have originated in the following manner. In
"the days of the new" the Sun- Father created from his own being
^ " Primitive Culture " II, p. 132.
* Zunl Fetiches. Second Annual Rep. Bur. Amer. Eth., p. 15.
[hill-tout] TOTEMISM : ITS ORIGIN AND IMPORT 71
two children. These, perceiving the weakness of mankind, "the
finished beings" of the earth, sought to protect them from the
" animals of prey " and whenever they canne across in their wandering
over the earth one of these animals, " were he a greajt lion or a mere
mole," they struck hîm with the lightning of their magic shields and
instantly he was sihrivelled and burnt to stone. Then they thus ad-
dressed -them: " That ye may not be evil unto men, but that ye may
be a great good unto them have we changed you into rock everlastingly.
By the magic breath of prey, by the heart that shall endure forever
within you, shall ye be made to serve instead of to devouir mankind."^
On the Isthmus of Tehuantepec when a child was about to be
born the relatives drew on the floor figures of animals, one after another,
and the one that remained when the infant was born became its totem.
A somewhat similar custom prevailed, in Samoa.
The difference, then, between the " totem " here and the " fetish "
there is clearly seen to lie mainly in the way in which they are severally
acquired. In character they are everywhere the same.
It is not needful to dwell longer on this point. Already there is a
pretty general concurrence of opinion among anthropologists that the
fetish and the personal totem is one and the same thing; or, at any
rate, that the two have their origin in the same animistic concept;
the point in dispute is rather the relation existing between these
and " clan totemism/' which we must now proceed to consider.
In this country the majority of students hold the view that the
" clan '' totem is but a natural development along social lines, of the
personal totem. And not only the clan totem, but the society or
fraternal totem as well. They are irresistibly led to this conclusion
from the data before them. The attitude of the clansmen and of the
members of a society to their respective totems is everywhere seen to
be the same as that of the individual to his personal totem and the same
relation exists between them.
I pointed out just now in the analyp-îs of the elements which enter
into American totemism that the three series or categories are intimately
connected by the common underlying concept of a tutelar spirit or
ghostly helper, which in the first case is confined to the individual,
in the second to the clan or gens, and in the third to the society or
brotherhood. Now, it appearo to me, that if we are able to discover
a clear instance or two of a personal totem passing by inheritance to
the family or relatives of its owner, and thus becoming a common,
family totem, we shall be perfectly justified in assuming that the
family totem may be enlarged into the clan or gens totem, inasmuch
* ZunI Fetiches. Second Annual Kept. But. Amer. Bth., pi 14.
72 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
as the clan or gens is but a group of families * connected by ties of
consanguinity. The main objection brought against this view of the
matter by Mr. Andrew Lang and others is that the personal totem is
not transmissible or hereditable. But is not this objection contrary to
the f actfi of the case ? We have abundant evidence to show that the
personal totem is transmissible and hereditable. Even among tribes
like the Thompson, where it was the custom for every one of both
sexes to acquire a guardian spirit at the period of puberty we find the
totem is in some instances hereditable. Teit says in his detailed accouait
of the guardian spirits of the Thompson Indians, that " the toten^ of
the shamans are sometimes inherited directly from the parents ;^^ and
among those tribes where individual totemism is not so prevalent» as,
for instance, among the coast tribes of British Coluambia, the personal
totem of a chief or other prominent individual, more particularly if
that totem has been acquired by means other than the usual dream or
vision, such as a personal encounter with the object in the forest or
in the mountains, is commonly inherited and owned by his or her
posterity. It is but a few weeks ago that I made a special enquiry into
this smbject among some of the Halkomelem tribes of the Lower
Fraser. "Dr. George,^' a noted shaman of the TciFQe^Bk, related to
m(! the manner in which his grandfather had acquired their family
totem, the bear; and made it perfectly clear that the bear had been ever
Fince the totem of all his granfather's descendants. The important
totem of the Sqoiàqî which has members in a dozen different tribes of
the coast and Lower Fraser Salish, is another case in point. It matters
little to us how the first possessor of the totem acquired it. We may
utterly disregard the account of its origin as given by the Indians them-
selves, the main fact for us is, that between a certain object or being
and a body of people, certain mysterious relations have been estab-
lished, identical with those existing between the individual and his
personal totem; and that these people trace their descent from and are
the lineal descendants of the man or woman who first acquired the
totem. Here is evidence direct and ample of the hereditability of the
individual totem and Amerdcan data abound in it.
Miss A. Fletcher in her close -and detailed study of the Omahas, was
led to the conviction that the gentile totems of that tribe, and by impli-
cation those of others of the Siouan stock, were derived from the per-
sonal totems of leading members of the tribe. She writes: "As
totems could be obtained but in one way — thro' the rite of vision — the
totem of the gens must have come into existence in that manner and
must have represented the manifestations of an ancestor's vision, that
of a man whose ability and opportunity served to make him the founder
^ I here of course use the terms " family " in Ita restricted sense as applied
to the subdivisions of the clan and gens.
Ihill-tout] TOTEMISM : ITS ORIGIN AND IMPORT 73
of a family, of a group of kindred who dwelt together, fought together
and learned the value of united strength/^^
Dr. JF. Boas vrss led to the same conclusion with regard to the
totems among the Kwakiull Indians. He writes: "We have to deal
here with the elementary idea of the acquisition of a guardian spirit
which has attained its strongest development in America. Its specific
character on the North Pacific Coast lies in the fact that the guardiattf
spirit has become hereditary. This is the case among the northern tribes
of British Columbia. It is also the case among the Kwafciutl and among
the CJhinook.^^
En€dgn Nibleck arrived at similar conclusions with regard to the
clan totems of the Haida-Tlingit. He writes: "From their natuire
totems are in a state of fiux. Clans tend to become phratries, split up
into suib-phratries, sub-phratries decay and finally disappear. An indi-
vidual distinguishes himself, becomes wealthy and hence a leading man
of the village. His totem or indeed, his individual crest or sub-'totem,
may have been an obscure one. As he rises, its importance in the tribe
rises with him. Under his successors the totem widens its numbers,
influence, and finally eclipses other clan totems which eventually melt
away or are incorporated with it. In thds evolution we see the sub-
totem grow into the clan totem." '
And if I may be permitted to refer to my own work, I may state
that I was led independently to form the same opinion from my study
of the Salish tribes before I was even aware that others had come to
this conclusion.
This is likewise the view -taken by the officers of the Bureau of
American Ethnology and, as far as I have been able to learn, that of the
majority of students on this continent.
There must be some force, I submit, in the evidence on this head
whidi thus leads so many students, working independently of each
other, to the same conduision.
Some European students have clearly recognized this force. The
author of " Totemism " in his consideration of Miss Fletcher's paper
remarks in " Golden Bough," * " It is quite possible that as some good
authorities incline to believe, the dan-totem has been developed out of
the individuul totem by inheritantîe."
Mr. N. W. Thomas is apparently inelined to go even further and
take the same view as that suggested in my former paper, and more
* The Import of the Totem. (Salem Press, Mass., 1897).
■ The 0ocial orgranlzatlons of the Kwafciutl Indlane. Heport U.S. Nat
Mus., 1895, p. 893.
■ The Coast IncWaiur of Southern Alaska and Northern B.C., Wasii.
* Golden Bough ill, ,p. 419. note 6.
74 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
specifically dealt with here, but apparently from independent study of
the subject, viz. : that *^ the basis of individual totemism seeons to be
the same as that of f etichism/^ Elsewhere in «the same article he
writes : " This view [i.e., of ihe indwelling obsessing spirit of the
totem in its owner] suggests that the interpretation suggested for indi-
vidual totemism can also be applied to clan totems/^ ^
And even Mr. Andrew Lang, writing in his recent paper on " The
origin of Totem names and beliefs,^' remarks: "Though the attitude of
a private person to his nagual, or of a magical society to its protective
animal, may often closely resemble the attitude of the group to its
hereditary totem, still the origin of this attitude may be different in each
case." 2 Thus, while admitting the force of the evidence in this con-
nection, he is led to explain it away or regard it as different, partly be-
cause he is under the impression that the personal totem is not heredit-
able, but more particularly because of a singular misconjception he has
regarding the transmissibility of male property and rights under
matriarchy. He argues thus: Totemism is a phenomenon peculiarly
characteristic of tribal society under mother-right, and though it may
occasionally descend to the later state of father-right, it rightly belongs
to, and had its origin under, the former. Now, under these conditions
descent is reckoned in the female line ; how then can a man become the
founder of a family and transmit his personal totem to his children?*'
These are not his actual words, but I think he will admit that they state
his position accurately. Thus, in his criticism of " Miss A. Fletcher's
theory,*' he writes : " The conclusion of Miss Fletcher's valuable essay
shows at a glance that her hypothesis contains the same fundamental
error as that of Dr. Wilken, namely the totem of the kin is derived from
the manitu or personal friendly object of an individual, a male ancestor.
This cannot, we repeat, hold good for that early stage of society which
reckons descent in the female line, and in which ancestors do not found
houses, clan names or totem-kin." And in writing of the view expressed
by myself, he says : '' Mr. Hill-Tout has evolved a theory out of the
customs of the aborigines of British Columbia, among whom ^the clan
totems are a development of the personal or individual totem or tutelar
spirit/ The Salish tribes, in fact, seek for ^Sulia, or tutelar spirits,*
and these %ive rise to the personal totem,* answering to manitu, nyarong,
nagnal and so forth. ' From the personal and family crest is but a step
to tlie clan crest.' Unfortunately with descent in the female line, this step
cannot be taken. Interesting as is Mr. Hill-Tout's account of the Salish
Indians, we need not dwell longer on an hypothesis which makes village
communities prior to the evolution of totemism.''
* Man, August, 1902, AiPt, 86.
' Folk Lore. Vol. XIH. No. 4. Dec. 1902.
Lhilmoot] TOTEMISM : ITS ORIGIN AND IMPORT 78
I remarked juat now iihat the differenoe between the American
and European views of the doctrine of totemiam was due partly to
the attitude of the students. This becomes clear from the above
citations from Mr. Langes article. He is unable rightly to appreciate
the evidence brought together by American students in suppori; of
the views herein set forth, because of certain prepossessions. One
of these, as I have shown, is his belief that the personal totem
is not hereditable, and the other is that group totems could nol
have arisen from the pereonid totem as claimed by Miss Fletcher,
myself, and other American students, because under mother-right men
are never founders of families or clans or totems. The evidence which
I oflEered of the evolution of family or group totems from personal
totems, gathered with much care and caution by personal investigation
among the Salish tribes, is summarily dismissed because these tribes are
no longer under matriarchy. And in like manner Miss Fletcher's con-
clusions based upon a close and sympathetic study of a Siouan people are
set aside because the Omahas are under patriarchal rule. Whereas
American tribal society abounds in data which show that, although group
totemism did in all probability first appear in the admittedly eariier
matriarchal state, it may and does arise under any and all conditions of
savage society. The pari;icular f onn which totemism in any given tribe
shall take depends entirely upon the social structure of that tribe.
Under matriarchal conditions the social unit is the clan, and under
patriarchal rule the gens. These severally occupy the place which is
taken by the family group in later social organization. The clan and
the gens totem, then, cleariy answer to the family totem of village
society; or rather the latter answers to the two others and all arise in
the same way. But whereas under the clan and gens organization the
group-totem is necessarily confined to those social units, in village
society with descent counted on both sides of the house it spreads outside
of the family into the tribe at large or even beyond it; for here the factor
of afiinity is operating as well as that of consanguinity. The main
diflEerence, then, between the group-totem of village society and that of
the earlier states of clan and gentile organization, lies in the fact that
the totem-groups of matriarchy and patriarchy are formed, strictly,
in theory at least> on consanguineous lines, while those of the village
state include within them those connected by ties of aflBnity as well as
those of blood."^
* We have been accustomed to regard the " village community " as the
social unit of savages organized on the lines of the Salish peoples. Later
and closer study of their social organization has led me to reject this view
and regard the ** family " as the real social unit. This family is composed of
the elements of the other two more primitive states, the clan and gens, and
76 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
We have then a form of group-totemism for each stage of tribal
society. Under mother-right with descent exclusively in the female line,
we have what is commonly termed in this country "clan** totemism.
Under father-right with descent exclusively in the male line, " gentile '*
totemism, and in village society, like that obtaining among the Salish
tribes with descent on either or both sides of the house, we have still
another form of group totemism, which for lack of a better term I will
provisionally call "Kin'' totemism. The aqoiaqi totem, already
alluded to and described by me in my report to the Committee of the
Ethnological Survey of Canada on the Halkomelem division of the
Salish, is an illustration of this form. This totem is said to have origin-
ated in the adventure of some woman with some lake "spirits,'' and by
her marriage and that of her descendants has spread over all the
Halkomô'lem tribes, and its members are now numbered by hundreds.
I can perceive no diflEerence between this sqoiaqi brotherhood or kin-
group and the clan groups of the northern Indians, except that in the
latter case the group is theoretically composed of consanguineal relatives
on one side of the house only, and in the former of the relatives on both
sides of the house, affinitive ties being counted as well as consanguineous
ones.
But to return to Mr. Lang's primary objection, that the evolution o£
the group totem cannot proceed from the personal, individual totem be-
cause in the more primitive forms of society where totemism originated
" male ancestors do not found houses or clan names," descent being on
the female side. As Mr. Lang has laid so much stress upon this argu-
ment and is able apart from it to appreciate the force of the evidence for
the American point of view, if it can be clearly shown that his objection
has no basis in fact, that his conception of the laws of inheritance under
matriarchy is faulty, consistency must needs make him a convert to the
American view. The singular error into which Mr. Lang has fallen is
in overlooking the fact that male property and rights are as hereditable
under mother-right as under father-right, the only difference being that
in the latter case the transmission is directly from the father to his off-
spring, and in the former indirectly from the maternal uncle to his
sister's children. WTiat is there to prevent a man of ability under
matriarchy from " founding a family,'' that is acquiring an individual
totem which by his personal success and prosperity is looked upon as a
powerful helper and therefore worthy of regard and reverence? Under
niotluT-right the head of the clan, is invariably a man, the elder male
includes the relations of both parents usually for six generations. Every
tribe is composed of a greater or less number of these families, Just as the
tribes where clan and gentile organization prevails are composed of a greater
or less number of clans or gentes.
[hilmoot] TOTEMISM : ITS ORIGIN AND IMPORT 77
relative on the maternal side; and the clan name is not so mudh the pro-
perty of the woman as of her elder brother or her conventional ^^f ather/'
that is her maternal uncle. The ** fathers ^' of the group, that is the
maternal uncles, are just as much the heads and "founders of houses'^
and clans in the matriarchal state as under the more advanced state of
patriarchal rule. And that they do found family and group totems the
evidence from our northern coast tribes makes clear beyond the shadow
of a doubt.
The oft-quoted case of the Bear totem among the Taimâbeans is a
case in point, and this is but one of scores that could be cited. The
origin of this totem came about in the following manner: "A man was
out hunting and met a black bear who took him to his home and taught
him many useful things. After a lengthy stay with the bear the man
returned home. All the people became afraid of him, he looked and
acted so like a bear. Some one took him in hand and rubbed him with
magic herbs and he became a man again. Thereafter whenever he went
hunting his friend the bear helped him. He built a house and painted
the bear on the front of it and his sister made a dancing blanket, the
design of which represented a bear. Thereafter the descendants of his
sister used the bear for their crest and were known as the Bear claii/'^
Who was the " founder of the family," here and the source of the
clan totem? Clearly and indubitably the man; and so it invariably
was as the study of the myths accounting for the clan totems plainly
shows. It matters not, I may point out, that these myths may have
been created since the formation of the clans to account for their origin,
the point for us is that the man was regarded by the natives themselves
as the " founder " of the family and clan. The founders of families
and totem-crests are as invariably men under matriarchy as under patri-
archy, the essential difference only between the two states in this regard
being that under one the descent is through the " conventional father,"
under the other through the "real or ostensible father." Such being
the case Mr. Lang's chief argument falls to the ground and the position
taken by American students as to the origin of group-totems is as sound
as before. *
Having thus considered the American view of totemism and shown
that the objections brought against certain features of it by Mr. Lang,
and those who think with him, are groundless, we may now pass on to a
consideration of the European view more particularly as set forth in
recent publications in England.
Taking these in the order of time we have first to examine the view
or rather views held by Dr. Frazer, the author of " Totemism."
* Fifth Report on the Physical characteristics, etc., of the N.W. Tribes of
Can., B.A.A.S., p. 24. London, 1889.
78 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
Writing in the Fortnightly Review for April and May of 1899,
under the heading of ^'The oidgin of Totemism,^^ he remarks: "It
may be well to begin by reminding the reader that a totem is a class of
natural phenomena or material objects — most commonly a species of
animals or plants — ^between which and himself the savage believes that
a certain intimate relatdou exists. The exact nature of the relation is
not easy to ascertadn; various explanations of it have been suggested,
but none has yet won general acceptance.^ AVihatever it may be, it
generally leads the savage to abstain from killing or eating his totem, if
his totem happens to be a species of animals or plants. Further, the
gi'oup of persons who are kin to any particular totem by this mysterious
tie commonly bear the name of the totem, believe themselves to be of
one blood and strictly refuse to sanction the marriage or cohabitation
of members of the group with each other. This prohibition to marry
within the group, is now generally called by the name of Exogamy.
Thus to^temism has commonly been treated as a primitive system, both
of religion and of society. As a system of religion, it embraces the
mystic union of the savages with his totem; as a system of society, it
comprises the relations in which men and women of the same totem
stand to each other, and to the members of other totemic groups.
And corresponding to these two sides of the system are two rough-and-
ready tests or canons of toteanism; first, the rule that a man may not
kill or eat his totem animal or plant; and second, the rule that he may
not marry or cohabit with a woman of the same totem. Whether the
two sides — the religious and the social — ^have always co-existed or are
essentially independent, is a question which has been variously
answered. Some writers — ^for examiple. Sir John Lubbock and Mr.
Herbert Spencer, have held tJiat totemism began as a system of society
only, and that the superstitious regard for the totem developed later
through a simple process of misunderstanding. Others, including J. P.
McLennan and Bobertson Smith, were of opinion that the religious
reverence for the totem is original, and must, at least, have preceded
the introduction of Exogamy."
Now, on examining this view of totemism, we perceive that it differs
from that given by Major Powell in several important features. First,
great stress is laid upon the fact that a totem is always one of a class of
objects and never an individual object; and herein Dr. Prazer distin-
guishes between a " fetich " and a ^^ totem.'* That this distinction is
more fanciful than real we have seen; we may, therefore, set it aside at
once as not being an essential element of totemism. And secondly
^ These remarks I need hardly point out after what has been said respect-
Ing the unity of American opinion on totemism apply only to the European
schools.
[niLL-TOUT] TOTEMISM : ITS ORIGIN AND IMPORT 79
that totemiam before dt can be accepted as such, must bear upon it cer-
tain signs manual, in other words, miiflt exhibit certain features of a
prohibitory character which are regarded as its '* Tests ^^ or " Canons/'
These are :
1. The Canon of Exogamy.
2. The Canon of TaJboo.
According to the first, no man shall marry or cohabit with a woanan
of his own toteim group; and under the second, members of a totem
shall abstadn from killing or eating the totem object. Up to the pub-
lication of Messrs. Spencer and Gillen^s important work on " Ths
Natives of Central Australia"^ these canons were regarded by Dr.
Frazer as the vital elements of totemism, sine qua non. Since his
acquaintance, however, with the data therein presented, ho has been
led to look with different eyes upon these " canons,^' and now appears
doubtful of their force and validity, and in their place seems desirous
of establishing a new " test," which may be termed the Canon of
Provinder.
As we shall presently have to refer to these " doubtful canons '^ in
cur consideration of Dr. Haddon's views, we need not stop to examine
their validity here, but pass on to a consideration of the evidence upon
which this later canon has been established.
It appears that among the Central Australian tribes they have a
ceremony which they call Intichiumay the object of which is " to pro-
vide the community with a supply of food and all other necessaries by
means of certain magical ceremonies, the performance of which is dis-
tributed among the various totem groups.^^ From this custom or cere-
mony Dr. Frazer h€LS been led to infer that the main object of totemism
among the Central Australian tribes, and, by implication, all other
totemic peoples, is to ensure the multiplication of the an i m «la or plants
of the several totem species. For after dwelling upon the Intichiuma
ceremonies he concludes thus : " Totemism among the Central Austra-
lian tribes appears, if we may judge by the Intichiuma ceremonies, to
be an organized system of magic intended to procure for eavage man a
plentiful supply of all the natural objects whereof he stands in need. . .
Have we not in these Intichiuma ceremonies the key to the original
meaning and purpose of totemism among the Central Australian tribes,
perhaps even of totemism in general.^'
In suggesting this new view of the matter Dr. Frazer seems to have
abandoned the position he formerly took with regard to this question.
In his earlier writings he suggested something quite different from
this. Then it was the ^'soul^x^' theory as it has been called. This
^ Macmlllan & Co., London, 1899.
80 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CAlïADA
View wae based on the idea common in Màrchen of an individual hiding
his soul or spirit in some object or oUier^ and thus forming a
mysterious and intimate connection betwieen himself and the object.
'' Here was the link," reasoned Dr. Frazer, *' the relation between the
individual and his tutelar spirit; here was the personal totem.'* This
view had lihis much in common with the American view that it supposed
the group totem to be a development from the personal totem, and here,
at least. Dr. Frazer was on the right track. For to separate personal
totesnism from group totemdsm as many European students are doing,
and regard them as imrelated phenamena savoure it seems to me of any-
thing but sound science. Dr. Frazer argued, and rightly we hold, that
" the explanation which holds good of one kind of totem ought equally
to hold good of the other'*; and hence he drew the deduction that a
ckn or gens revered its totem and called itself after its name, because
the members thereof were held to have their individual lives or souls
boumd up with that of their totem. The dbvious objection, of course,
to this explanation of totemism is, that this belief is found among
so few savages who practise totemism. Dr. Frazer himaelf was con-
scious of this objection but explains it away after this manner. "How
close " he argues, " must be the concealment, how impenetrable the
reserve in which he," (the savage) " hides the inner keep and citadel
of his being. No inducement that can be oflEered is likely to tempt
him to imperil his soul by revealing its hiding place to a stranger.'*
The answer to this is, that the close study of the American savage, who
almost everywhere holds totem notions, by experienced students like
Gushing, Dorsey, Fletcher, Powell and others, must have revealed some
signs of its existence if it had formed a part of his philosophy of life
or lay at the root of totemism. The question has been studied too long
and too carefully for this belief, if it had ever been entertained, to have
escaped discovery. For even if it had, conceivably, been everyw^here
systematically withheld by the natives from every white investigator
who has ever gone among them, it must have been known to all Indians
V lio held totemic notions. Yet, no Indian who has been weaned from
the faith and practices of his fatiiers, or who has thrown off the old
pagan habits and customs for those of civilized life, has ever told us a
word about it. We have educated natives among us who are, equally
with ourselves, keenly interested in the study of the customs and philo-
sophy of their people, and it is not conceivable that they would know or
learn nothing of such a belief, if it were the true basis and explanation
of the totemism of their forefathers. This view, then, must have been
set aside, even if its author had not discarded it, as he apparently has,
on the ground that it is lacking in that feature which must necessarily
[hill-tout] TOTEMISM : ITS ORIGIN AND IMPORT 81
characterize any theory that claims to be r^arded as the true explana-
tion of totem habita and practices, viz., universal application.
We need not, then, further consider this theory, plausible as it cer-
tainly is, but return to Dr. Frazer^s later hypothesis based on the Canon
of Provinder. Let us now see what these Intichiuma ceremonies are
and in; what respect they differ from analogous ceremonies in this
country.
According to Dr. Frazer and the authors of " The Native Tribes of
Central Australia/' they are magic rites which have for their object the
increase of the totem animal or plant. Each clan is regarded as posses-
sing direct control over the animal or plant whose name it bears; and
this control is exercised for the express purpose of increasing the neces--
saries of life. Î
Thus for example, *'when men of the emu totem desire to multiply
emus they set about it as follows: Several of the men open veins in
their arms and allow the blood to stream, on the ground till a patch-
about three yards square is saturated with it. When the blood is dry it
forms a hard surface, on which the men of the totem paint in white, red,
yellow and black, a design intended to represent various parts of the
emu, puch as the fat, of which the natives are very fond, the eggs in
various stages of development, the intestines and the liver. Further,
several men of the totem acting the part of ancestors of the emu clan,
dress themselves up to resemble emus and imitate the movements and
aimless gazing about of the bird; on their heads are fastened sacred
i*ticks about four feet long and tipped with emu feathers, to represent
the long neck and small head of the emu.
There is no need to cite further examples. The ceremonies of other
clan-groups are all similar in character though they may differ in detail
from that described. Now those familiar with the " rituals " of Ameri-
can tribes will see in these Australian ceremonies practices analogous to
those found in this country. The elaborate Salmon ceremonies of the
Pacific Coast tribes, for example, are parallel performances, and like the
Inticlnumo, are carried out expressly for the purpose of securing a good
" run " of salmon. The wild rice ceremonies or rituals of the Menomini
or wild-rice people, the Eskimo deer ceremonies, the maize or corn cere-
monies, the rain and hunt rituals of the Sia and Zunis, all have the same
object, the increase of the necessaries of life. That the several totem
groups should perform the ceremonies connected with their own totem
object is exactly what we ought to find under the view of totemism here
taken. We find the same division of ritual and privilege among Ameri-
can tribes, though not everywhere so strongly developed and systematized
perhaps as they are reported to be among the Central Australian peoples.
Sec. XL, 1003. 6.
82 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
There the " division of labour *' seems to have been specialized. This
Mould appear to be tho only distinction between them and the cere-
monies or rituals of ;our American "medicin-e*' or " religious *'
societies. In all other respect they appear to correspond.
Now, in this country we do not regard the practices of " medicine *'
or " magic'* societies or totem groups, as the sum total of totemism, but
only, as T have pointed out, as one feature of it, and that probably the
latest in evolution ; and the chief objection in my mind against regarding
the Intichiuma and similar ceremonies as the basis " and original mean-
ing and purpose of totemism,*' is that this explanation of it does not go
to the root of the matter, but still leaves us to show how the several clans
or groups acquired this magic or religious power over the totem object-
In short, while it gives us a plausible raison d'être for totemism, it fails
entirely to tell us how it originated, or why it is the totem group is com-
monly called by the name of the totem-object.
Moreover, totemism rightly considered is not a set of practices or
ceremonies, but clearly a belief, which is the efiBdent cause of these
practices. Hence to attempt to judge totemism by ^^ canons" and
" tests," is to regard the form or expression of the doctrine rather than
the infoGTming principle or concept which underlies and prompts it,
to take the shell for the kernel, and to open the door to endless diflfer-
ences of opinion. For although the underlying principle of totemism
is one and the some everywhere, its outward expressions or manifesta-
tions are as numerous almost as the tribes among whom it is found.
The only pos^ble way by which we can arrive at harmony of view
in the matter is in the recognition of the psychic side or aspect of
totemism a5 its really essential feature. When we have done this then
we may profitably go on to study and examine the different local ex-
pressions of tlie doctrine and note the various forms they assume in the
different stages of social evolution.
Dr. A. C. Haddon is the next exponent of totemism whose views
we must consider. In his presidential address before the Anthropo-
logical section of the B. A. A. S. at the Belfast meeting of last year, he
r«: marks : '^ Tcteniism as Dr. Frazer and as I understand it in its fully
developed condition implies the division of a people into several totem
kins each of which has one, or sometimes more than one, totem.
The totem i5 usually a species of animal, sometimes a species of plant,
oecasionally a "natural object or phenomenon very rarely a manufactured
object. Totemism also involves the rule of exogamy, forbidding mar-
riage within the kin, and necessitating inter-marriage between the kins.
It is essentially connected with the matriarchal stage of culture (mother-
right), though it passes over into the patriarchal stage (father-right).
The totems are regarded as kinsfolk and protectors and benefactors of
the kinsmen, who respect them and abstain from killing and eating
[hill-tout] TOTEMISM : ITS ORIGIN AND IMPORT 88
them. There is thus a recognition of mutual rights and obligations be-
tween the members of the Mn and their totem. The totem is the crest
or symbol of the kin To put the matter briefly^ totemism consists
ol the following five elements: —
1. Social organization with totem kinsmen and totem symbols.
2. Reciprocal responsibilities between the kin and the totem.
3. Magical increase or repression of the totem by the kinsmen.*
4. Social duties of the kinsmen.
5. Myths of explanation.
Totemism is only one of several animal cults."
It is plain that we are here dealing with a view of totemism that has
little or nothing in common with the American view. The key to Dr.
I i addon's position lies in the tail cf his definition. "Totemism," he
affirms *'*is only one of several animal cults," and in accordance with
this view he separates the various forms or local expressions of the
totemic concept into distinct cults. He will have it that the personal
and society totems are not features of *'true " totemism at all. Such
a position is, of course, incomprehensible to American students, yet this
is the view he informs us of Tylor, Frazer, Lang, Hartland, Jevpns,
Durkheim and many other leading anthropologists.
Now, it will be instructive to see how this view originated. It ap-
parently arose from a misconception of the real character and purpose of
totemism as that doctrine is held and understood by primitive man him-
self. It appears to be founded upon the preconception of the savant
rather than upon the real beliefs of the savage. Totemism has been
regarded as a set or code of social rules and regulations rather than as
the expression of man^s earliest religious feelings and sentiment. It has
been confused with certain social customs and observances which have in
part grown out of the totem concept, and in part have arisen quite in-
dependently of it. This is clear from both Dr. Frazer's and Dr. Had-
don^s definitions of totemism and from the fact that "element" after
"element" and "canon" after "canon" has had to be abandoned as frosh
facts have been gleaned from primitive life, and the student has been led
to approach the matter from the point of view of the savage. The newer
data gathered from the Central Australian tribcfs by Messrs. Spencer and
Gillen are so strongly confirmative of the American point of view that
Ahey compel the aibandoniment of the mod; important features or
elements of totemism as it is commonly conceived by English students.
This will manifest itself as we examine Dr. Haddon^s elements in
detail which we may now proceed to do.
First, as to "social organization with totem kinsmen and totem
symbols." Dr. Haddon must pardon me if I point out that here at the
* Dr. Frazer'» " Canon " of Provlnder.
84 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CAlïADA
beginning his first element is based on an assumption which a close study
of the subject makes it difficult to justify. It is assumed as an accepted
and incontrovertible fact that the social organization of savage peoples
into clan groups in the matriarchal stage has its foundation in totemism.
But no proof hae been, or can be, given for this statement and such evi-
dence as we can gather on the point leads to the opposite conclusion. All
we certainly know of the earlier stages of human society is that hordes
cr bands lived together under an organization which we call matriarchy
or ^'mother-right;" that is kinship was traced through the mother only,
the most obvious and the most certain form of relationship. Now, it is
clear that the recognition of uterine ties must bind the mother to her
offspring and them to her in cloeer bond than any other. Again, uterine
brothers and sisters are a naturally defensive and co-operative group and
spontaneously aid each other to avenge insults and redress wrongs. Here
then, we protebly have the pristine unit of social organization. But
the mother of this " family " is also uterine sister to other sisters and
brothers; therefore her "family" is connected by ties of blood to other
"families." Now, the aggregation of these blood-related "families" con-
stitutes a wider group, and this is the clan of matriarchy. Clans are
confessedly blood-related groups, and this bond or union is everywhere
seen to be based on this kinship of blood. The formation of clans, th3n,
has nothing to do with totems, and it is not the common totem, which is
inherited from the founder of the clan, that makes the members of the
clan kinsmen. Clans, then, are purely social groups held together by the
common; tie of blood; and may, and most certainly do, exist cs such,
apart from any totem concept. The totem is obviously a later feature,
and is in no sense an essential part of the clan structure. So much is
this seen to be the case that Dr. F. Boas,^ a most cautious and experi-
enced investigator, has remarked that the earlier social grouping of the
Kaida and Tlingit appears to have been on lines similar to the com-
nunal organization of the more southern tribes, as the clans so fre-
quently bear territorial names instead of totem names. Wemiaminow
and Krause also noted that certain Tlingit clans were called after the
localities where their communal houses stood. Indeed, it is a common
practice with the Haida and Tlingit to call their clans after the names
of their houses or the places where they are erected. And yet these
tribes have a strictly matriarchal organization with group totems. It is
not safe,, then, to affirm that totemism implies the division of a people
into totem-kms; the kinship is not totemic but always consanguineous.
Totemism per se has nathing to rio with clan ^tnicture.
Another feature of element No. I is the rule of exogamy. "Totem-
ism," says Dr. Haddon, " involves the rule of exogamy, forbidding mar-
* See Fifth Report on N.W. Tribes of Canada, B.A.A.S., 1889.
[HILL-TOUT] TOTEMISM : ITS ORIGIN AND IMPORT 88
riage within the kin and necessitating inter-marriage between the kins.'*
But is this really a feature of totemism ? It is true it has become in a
measure associated with totemism, but is not this accidental ? Is it not
because the endogamous or incest group is the same thing as the clan
group? We have seen that the formation of the clan group was inde-
pendent of totemism, and are we not thereby justified in inferring that
the endogamous group, which is the same body, was equally independent
of totemic concepts? Such evidence as we may gather on the point cer-
tainly supports this view. Marriages among the tribes of America are
universally regulated by customary law which appears to have had its
origin quite apart from totemism. It appea:^ to be based on political con-
siderations rather than upon any other. Marriage ties were bonds em-
ployed to unite different clans into larger bodies such as the tribe. These
bi'dics were primarily political corporations, their union having for its
object a permanent alliance for offensive and defensive purposes. *'Make
ye marriages with us: give your daughters unto us and take our
daugliters unto you,^' said Hamor of old to Jacob, and we can wdl be-
lieve that many Hamors before and since have uttered the same words.
Agreements or treaties of this kind enforced for a generation or two
crystalize into customary law which later may be thought to have received
the sanction of the clan or tribal deities and so to have become sacred.
But is this totemism? I cannot think so. If the canon of exogamy
were of totemic origin, surely we ought to find a uniformity of practice
and observance. But this is by no means the caee. American tribal
society presents us with totem groups living under endogamous regula-
tion and marrying strictly within the family or totem group. And the
same thing is found in Australia.
Messrs. Spencer and Gillen have shown that among some of the
Central Australian tribes, totemism has no effect upon marriage or
descent, a man being free to marry a woman of his own totem or any
other as he desires or thinks fit, and his offspring may belong to either
his own or his wife^s clan, or they may belong to neither, or part in one
and part in another as fancy and circumstances shall dictate, and the
traditions of these tribes *'seem to point back to a time when a man
always married a woman of his own totem. The reference to men and
women of one totem always living together in groups would appear to be
too frequent and explicit to admit of any other satisfactory explanation.
We n^ver meet with an instance of a man living with a woman who was
not of his own totem."^ " Such traditions,^' remarks Dr. Frazcr in his
conjiideration of Messrs. Spencer and G-ilten's work, "it is plain, fly
straight in the face of all our old notions of totemism. Are we, there-
fore, at liberty to reject them as baseless? Certainly not. Their very
^ The Native Tribes of Central Awtralia, p. 419.
86 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CJlSADA
discordance with the practice of the natives at the present day is the best
guarantee that they contain a substantial element of truth. They
could not have been invented to explain customs which they contradict.
Every theory of Central Australian totennism [and I nmy add of any
other totemism] must reckon with them; none can be satisfactory which
does not show how the gulf between the present and past totemic system
of the natives may be bridged/' ^
In this view of the matter I entirely concur with Dr. Prazer, and
would here desire to point out to him that the American view of
totemism offers the most satisfactory of bridges and reconciles without
violence of «my kind, in the simplest and most eflfective manner this
seemingly discordant feature of " Australian totemism.''
Dr. Haddon has of course confiidered these disturbing data from*
Central Australia too; indeed, he has himself called attention to similar
discordant practices among the Papuans and other Pacific Islanders.
He remarks in this connection: — "Among some Papuans marriage
restrictions are territorial and not totemic. Dr. Eivera has shown that
in Murray Island, eastern tribe of Torres Straits, marriages are regu-
lated by the places to which the natives belong. A man cannot marry
a woman of his own village, or of certain other villages. ... A
ffimilar custom occurs in the Mekeo district of British New Guinea, and
it is probably still more widely distributed. I was informed by a mem-
ber of the Yaraikanua tribe of Cape York, North Queensland, that
children must take the 'land' or ' country' of their mother; all who
belong to the same place are brothers and sisters, a wife must be taken
from another ^ country'; thus it appears their marriage restrictions are
territorial and not totemic. The same is found amongst the Kumai
and the Coast Murriug tribe of New South Wales. . At Kiwai, in
the delta of the Fly River, B.N.G., all the members of a totemic group
live together in a long house which is confined to that group. I have
also collected evidence which proves there was a territorial grouping
of totemic clans among the western tribe of Torres Straits."
But these practices, so discordant wibli the " Rule of Exogamy," do
not affect Dr. Haddon in the same manner as they do Dr. Frazer. He
si ill holds to his five " elements," and explains these breaches of his
rule by regarding them as some of the steps by which the savage passes
out of totemism.^ In offering this suggestion Dr. Haddon seems to
have overlooked the evidence of those traditions of the Arunta, gath-
ered by Messrs. Spencer and Gillen, which shows that in the early days of
ihe tribe "a man always married a woman of his o\vn totem"; for it
' Fortnightly Review, 1899, p. 656.
* Goe Ihls remarks on this head in his Address, page 14. Transactions of
Section H., Brit. Afisoc, Belfast, 1902.
[hill-tc)ut] TOTEMISM : ITS ORIGIN AND IMPORT 87
does not appear to me to be sueceptihle of such an explanation as he
bas oflfered.
EegBxddng, then, the evidence on this head from America, from
Australia and from Torres Straits, British Guinea and the other Paci-
fic centres, oflfered by Dr. Haddon himself, it seems to me impossiUe
to maiutain that exogamy is a canon, rule, or essential element of
totemism. The most that can be said for it is, that it is a fairly com-
mon concomitant of it, and that it appears to have received the sanc^
tion of the totemic deity. But this we can satisfactorily account for
without regarding it as an essential part of totemism.
The common European view of exogamy seems to be the outcome
of the theory of endogamy and exogamy first prof ounded by McLennan,
tor following him others of the earlier writers on marriage customs in
tribal society, "culled from the literature of travels a vast body of
stories about taboos in marriage; and it was finally concluded that cer-
tain tribes required their tribesmen to marry women who were foreigners
and aliens. This was called exogamy. Then it was held that other
tribes required or permitted their tribesmen to take wives within the
tribe; and this was called endogamy. So an attempt was made to clas-
sify the tribes of mankind, not only in America but elsewhere, into
two groups, the exogamous and the endogamous.
Now we understand that in all tribal society there is an endo-
gamous, or incest, group, which we call the clan in savagery and the
gens in barbarism; while, at the same time, the clansmen usually marry
within the tribe by regulations which vary greatly from people to people.
It seems that the ties of marriage are used to bind diflEerent peoples
together in one larger group which we call the tribe, and that the clans
of a tribe may at one time have been distinct tribes; that when tribes
become weak or desire to farm permanent alliances with other tribes for
ofl'ensive and defensive purposes, such tribes agree to become clans of
a united body and by treaty confirm the bargain, by pledging not to
msLvry within their own groups, but to exchange women with one
another. . . . Such a bargain or treaty enforced for many generations
as customary law, ultimately becomes sacred and marriage within the
group is incest. Perhaps there is no people, tribal or national, which
has not an incest group; so all peoples are endogamous as all peoples
are necessarily exogamous.^'^
Such were the views held and expressed by Major Powell regarding
the origin of endogamous and exogamous regulations, and in default of
a better may well be accepted as the explanation most in harmony with
the faicts of the case.
* Sociology, or the Science of Institutions, W. J. Powell. Amer. Anthrop.,
pp. 703-4, N.S., I, 1899.
88 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
Second. "Reciprocal responsibilities between the kin and the
totem " — in other words " the totems are regarded as kinsfolk and pro-
tectors, or benefactors of the kinsmen who respect them and abstain
from killing and eating them." Here, Dr. Haddon is in some respects
on safer ground. The totems are naturally, for obvious reasons^ treated
with respect and regarded as the " protectors " or " benefactors " of the
individual and the totem group. But when he claims that they are com-
monly regarded as kinsfolk, using tliat term in its ordinary sense, and
that the kinsmen refrain from killing and e;iting them, we have again
what appears more like an over-Jhasty generalization of the savant rather
than the actual belief and practices of the savage, and Dr. Haddon will
find it extremely difficult to maintain this view in face of the array of
opposing evidence which later ethnological research furnishes on this
head. This is so strong, that from a consideration of a portion of it
from one source alone — the Central Australian — Dr. Frazer has been
led to set aside his Canon of Taboo and regard this rule of abstention as
having no important bearing upon totemism, or at most to be only a
later subsidiary feature of it. The traditions of the Arunta represent
their ancestors as possessing and freely exercising the right to kill and
eat their totem animals and plants, " as if this were indeed a functional
necessity."^ And American data fully bear out the trutih and reliability
of these traditions. Yet, Dr. Haddon makes no reference to these diis-
corda-nces with his " elements '^ in his address, nor does his theory of
totemism attempt to explain them, which, as Dr. Frazer has observed,
every theory of totemism is bound to do.
The study of this question of taboo from the point of view of
American evidence, has led me to the conclusion that the practice of
abstaining from killing and eating the totem object, when an edible
one, arises in part only from the supposed relation existing betw^oon the
totem and the possessor or possessors of it. It is seen to be mainly the
outcome of the animistic philosophy of savage man and his belief regard-
ing the animal and vegetal world. Among all American tribes, no
matter what their social structure may })e — clan, gens, or village com-
munity, we find numerous and curious rules and regulations and taboos
regarding the slaying, gathering and eating of animals and plants, which
are quite independent of totemism, the explanation of which becomes
measurably clear to us, when we bear in mind the universal attitude of
savage man towards the universe, as we have seen it revealed to us by
Gushing and other sympathetic students of primitive life.
The origin of these food taboos and restrictions arises primarily
from the savage's strong belief in the " mysterious " powers of animals
and plants; and the practice of them was originally, whatever it may
* The Natives Tribes of Central Australia, p. 209.
[hill-tout] T0TEMI8M : ITS ORIGIN AND IMPORT 89
have been later, intended to propitiate them. This is clear frorai the
f>tudy of the subject Among the Thompson Indians of British Colum-
bia, at tribe where group-totemiam of any kind seems to be wholly
unknown, we find numerous taboos relating to the killing and eating of
animals and plants which differ in no essential from the so-called
taboos of totemism. For example, when a lad killed his first deer
he never ate it himself but always gave dt to the people to eat. When
a hunter killed a deer it was said the rest of the deer would be
well pleased if the hunter butchered the animal nicely and cleanly.
To waste the meat of a deer displeased the animals who wouild not
in consequence allow themselves thereafter to be «hot by the hunter.
If a hunter was overburdened and had to leave behind some of th-e
meat of the dieer, it was said that the deer were better pleased to
have the meat of their fellow hung up in a tree rather than left on
the ground. The intestines of the quarry which in some cases were
not taken away by the hunter were collected and placed where the
blood had been spilt while butchering. The whole was then coveoped
with a few fir boughs, the hunter in t^e meantime bidding the deer
not to be sorry at the death of their companion or because some*
portion of its body had been left behind, since he had done his beert
to cover dt up. If the hunter neglected to cover the remains it was
believ-ed that the rest of the deer would feel sorry or angry and
would cause him bad luck in hunting. If a deer-hunting party
had bad luick they remained at Hiheir camp for a few days,
sweat-bathing, singing and praying to their guardian spirit to give
them success and also asking the deer to present themselves to be shot
at. No hunter would give a deer's head to, nor would he eat with, a
man who was the first or second born of a family. The deer, it was
believed, would become very wild and difficult to shoot, if he did so.
Deer meat was never taken in through the common door or entrance of a
lodge because the common door was used by women. When the father of
an adolescent girl began to hunt the deer always ran away from him. A
bear hunter often addressed the prey and begged it to come and be shot at.
The grizzly bear was asked not to be angry with the hunter nor to fight
him, but rather to take pity upon him and deliver himself up to him.
When a man killed a bear he and his companions with him painted
their faces and sang the bear song. Sometimes he prayed also thank-
ing the bear for letting himself be killed. When the flesh of the bear's
head had been eaten the skull was tied to a small tree top and left
there. If this were neglected the bears would take offence. Placing
the heads of any large animal on trees or rocks was a mark of respect.
A hunter never talked lightly or made fun of any animal he intended
tc hunt or trap. He always spoke of it in respectful tones and said.
90 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
*' 1 may kill it,** never, " I shall kill it/* All young people when eat-
ing the first berries, roots or other products of the earth addressed a
prayer to the Sunflower-Root, thus: — "I inform thee that I intend
to eat thee. Mayest thou always help me to ojscend, so that I may
always be able to reach the tops of mountains and may 1 never be
dumsyl I ask this from thee, 0 Sunflowier-Eoot. Thou art the
greatest of all in mystery.*'^ These examples might be supplemented
by scores of others from other American tribes. The taboos and restric-
tion in food imposed upon menstruating women, upon widows, widow-
ers and orphans, all belong to the same class and have a similar sig-
nificance. The First Fruits ceremonies of the Fraser River tribes, the
many customs connected with the salmon all show the same beliefs in
the mysterious powers of animals and plants; and the various restric-
tions or taboos all have the same object — the propitiation of the spirits
or ghosts of the «mimais or plants.
It is not in totemism qua totemism, then, that we should look for
the explanation of taboos of this kind, but in the savage's general ani-
mistic conceptions of nature. Theyi are the natural outgrowth of his
• anthropopathic apprehension of things, and are only incidentally con-
nected with totemism.
With regard to the claims of kinship between the totem and the
totem-group. Dr. Haddon seems to overlook entirely the large body of
contrary evidence on this head gathered by Dr. Boas from the North-
west tribes and by otlier students elsewhere. I do not see how any one
familiar with the later American evidence in this connection can hold
that the totem object is co-mmonly regarded by the totem-group as the
ancestor and founder of their clan. I know this was the earlier view
even of American students, but this has been generally modified by later
and wider research. It is true the totems are usually addressed by the
natives themselves as "grandfather" or " ^andmother,** but these
terms, as most students are aware, among primitive races are more
terms of respect than terms of relationship. When an Indian wishes to
show regard to a person or an animal he always addresses him by a title
indicative of superior age, such as elder brother, uncle, father, grand-
father or the like. This custom I suspect, before it was properly under-
stood, had a great deal to do with misleading unwary students, and
possibly even the savages themselves, at times, into thinking that the
tc>tem object was the ancestor and founder of the clan or gens. The
true relation between the totem object and the totem-group will be
invariably found to be the same as that existing between the individual
and his personal totem — a relation of " mystery " not of blood. I
* The Thomrson Indiana of B.C., by J. Talt. Memoirs of the Amer. Mus.
of Nat. Hist.. Vol. II, p. 346, et seq.
[hill-todt TOTEMISM : ITS ORIGIN AND IMPORT 91
have already shown that the taking or assuming the name of a totem «or
tutelary spirit implies relationship with it, but not that of ancestor and
descendant.
Third. Magical increase or repression of the token by the kins-
men. This ifi an element added to totemism since the publication of
Messrs. Spencer and Gillen's researches among the Central Tribes of
Australia. It has reference to the Intichiuma ceremonies, the same
that led Dr. Frazer to discard his " canons " of exogamy and taboo.
We have seen that these ceremonies are peculiar to "religious" or
" medicine " societies in America and constitute but a single aspect of
totemism. They are not a feature of clan or gentile totemism at all
from the American point of view, but like the taboos and restrictions
we have just considered ai^ the natural outcome of savage philosophy.
Major Powell has given a very lucid description of them in his paper
on Sociology, which as it bears directly upon Dr. Haddon^s third " ele-
ment'' I shall take the liberty of citing in part here. He remarks: —
In savagery there are societies which are organized for the purpose of
securing the co-operation of ghosts in the affairs of mankind. These
societies are often called phratries or brotherhoods, and are the cus-
todians of the lore of unseen beings. They occupy themselves with
ceremonies and various practices intended to secure advantages and
to avert evils which are attributed to multitudinous ghostly beings
which are supposed to have tenuous bodi^ and, to live an occult and
magical life as they take part in human affairs. Everything unex-
plained is attributed to ghosts These phratries, which are orga-
nized to obtain the «assistance of ghosts, develop periodical ceremonies
which are designed to secure the annual productions of nature upon
which human welfare depends. Thus the fishing tribes of the Paci-
fic Coast that depend largely for their food on the coming of the salmon
from the sea at stated times, have ceremonies designed to secure their
coming; those that depend upon cereals, like wild rice, also have their
ceremonies to invoke the aid of ghosts to bring abundant seed. In arid
lands, where vegetation is so dependent upon rain, these ceremonies
take the form of invocations for rain. Thus in every region of the
United States periodical ceremonies are performed to secure harvests
and supplies of game.*
It will be seen from these citations that these ceremonies are no
part of c'an totemism a î oni^ Amorican savages; and with all diiu respect
to Australian students it is open to question whether the Intichiuma
ceremonies are not best explained, ae Major Powell held, by regarding
them as observances of ^^ religious," " medicine " or " magical ''
* Sociology, or the Science of Institutions. Amer. An th., N.S.. I. 1899. pp.
710-1.
92 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
societies or brotherhoods rather than as observances, or ceremonies
performed by the whole clans.
Fourth. Social duties of the kinsmen, that is to say the kinsman
looks to his brother kinsmen for sjrmpathy and assistance in trouble or
need. Here again I am constrained to ask : " Is this totemism Î" As
I have shown, the dan is a blood^oonneoted. group, and its members
naturally and spontaneously aid and help one another. Tieir very con-
nection prompts and suggests this. It is a world-wide universal
practice, and I cannot see that totemism has anything to do with it.
We find exactly the same custom prevailing among the " families '* of
the Salish and other tribes whose organization is neither clannish,
gentile nor totemic. Surely this " element " has the least right of any
to be considered an essential feature of totemism.
Fifth. Myths of explanation. Here again I fail to see why this
should bei regarded as an "eleiment" of totemism, when» that which is
much more characteristic of that doctrine — ^personal and society totems
— are rigidly excluded in Dr. Haddon's definition. It is true most
peoples have myths explaining or accounting for the origin of their
totems, but I marvel that Dr. Haddon should daim these among his
elements as they so invariably show that the group or dan totem was
originally a personal or individual totem of the founder of the dan, a
form or feature of totemism he ddiberately rejects. Moreover, myths of
explanation are not peculiar to totemism, they run through the whde
body of tribal habits, customs and beliefs, and the myths explaining the
origin of totems differ in no essential from the myths explaining
the origin of the tribe or cosmos.
Thus, it is clear, there is little of totemism, when it is rightly re-
garded, in Dr. Iladdon's five " elements "; from which it is seen that he
has considered the social accessories and later accidents of totemism
rather than the psychic content of the doctrine itself. That he, and those
who hold like views with him, are justified in their position by the facts
of the case, I cannot persuade myself, nor do I see that we arrive at any
better understanding of the matter by setting up a form of so-called
^^ true" or " typical " totemism, — which appears to me to be fashioned
more after the preconceived ideas of a cultivated European than after
the ideas of an American or Australian savage, — than by seeking to
comprehend the principle or concept that lies at the base of the doctrine.
To my mind, the apprehension of the effident cause of totemism leads
to a better understanding of the doctrine in all its manifestations than
any vision of totemism in its "fully developed condition," and I sub-
mit that we may derive more profit from our consideration of the sub-
ject when all "animal cults" are considered as only so many local phases
or expressions of one and the same fundamental concept, as they de-
Ihill^ot] TOTEMISM : ITS ORIGIN AND IMPORT 93
monstrably are^ rather than as different and distinct cults, as Dr.
II addon would have us regard them. To separate individual totemism
from group or "typical" totemism seems to me to cut ourselves off
from the very heart and root of the matter, from the only evidence that
can possibly help us to understand the purpose and meaning of totemism.
It is like asking the student of chemistry to be satisfied with his com-
pounds and not seek to discover the elements that lie at their base.
As Dr. Iladdon has informed us in his address that his view of
totemism is that '^ understood by Tylor, Frazer, Lang, Hartland, Jevons,
Durkheim and others," it becomes unnecessary to criticize the views
of these gentlemen. We may at once pass on to examine the " sugges-
tion concerning the origin of totemism " put forward by Dr. Haddon in
the latter part of his address, and also the "guess" of Mr. Andrew
lisng concerning "the origin of totem names and beliefs." ^ This
*•' suggestion " of Dr. Haddon does not so much deal with the origin
of totemism as I and other American students understand that doctrine,
as with the origin of totem-group names. Thus, he remarks: "I take
this opportunity to hazard a suggestion for a possible origin of one
aspect of totemism. Primitive human groups, judging from analogy
could never have been large, and the individuals comprising each group
must have been closeiy related. In favourable areas each group would
have a tendency to occupy a restricted range owing to the disagreeable
results which arose from encroaching on the territory over which
another group wandered. Thus it would inevitably come about that
a certain animal or plant, or group of animals or plants would be more
abundant in the territory of one group than in that of another. To
take a clear example, the shore-foik and the river-folk would live mainly
on different food from each other, and both would have other specialties
than fell to the lot of the jungle-folk. The groups that lived on the
seashore would doubtless have some natural vegetaiMe product to supple-
ment their animal diet, but the supply would probably be limited alike
in quantity and variety. Even they would scarcely have unlimited
range of a shore line and there would be one group of shore-folk that
had a specialty in crabe, another would have shad-beds, while a ttiird
woidd own sandy shores which were frequented by turtles. A similar
natural grouping would occur among the jungle-tolk: sago flourishes
in swampy land, certain animals frequent grassy plains, others inhabit
the dense scrub, bamboos grow in one locality, various kinds of fruit
trees thrive best in different soils; the coastel plains, the foot hills, the
mountains, each has its characteristic flora and fauna. There is thus
no difficulty in accounting for numerous amall human groups, each of
which would be largely dependent upon a distinctive food supply, the
* Folk-Lore, Vol. Xni. No. 4. December 26tli. 1902.
94 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
superfluity of wMch could be bartered for the superfluities of other
groups .... Among the shore-folk the group that lived mainly
on crabe and occasionally traded in crabs might well be spoken of as
" crab men " by all groups with whom they came in direct or indirect
contact. The same would hold good for the group that dealt in clams
or in turtles, and reciprocally there might be aago-men, bamboo-men,
and so forth. It is obvious that men who persistently collected or
hunted a particular group of animals would understand the habits of
these animals better than other people, and a personal regard for these
animals would naturally arise. Thus, from the very beginning, there
would be a distinct relationship between a group of individuals and a
group of animals or plants, relationship that primitively was based, not
on even the most elementary of psychic concepts, but on the most deeply
seated and urgent of human daims, hunger.^^
The point that strikes one first in this suggestion is that it knocks
all to pieces the " Canon of Taboo," which is included in Dr. Haddon's
second ^^ element.'* Dr. Haddon is, of course, aware of this and explains
it away by remarking that his suggestion " deals with incipient totem-
ism " only. This again is, of course, an inconaprehensible position from
the American point of view, but it serves admirably to show that English
students regard the social concomitants of totemism as its essential
features — a view, as I have shown, impossible to hold if we would rightly
imderstand this phenomenon of savage life.
Now the objections that arise in my mind as I consider this hy-
pothesis are several and some of them deep-rooted.
First, these names come from without; they are not taken or as-
sumed by the groups themselves, but are applied to them by the neigh-
bouring groups. And while we have numerous instances of nick-names
being given both to individuals and tribes by their neighbours, I can
recall no instance where these names have been recognized and adopted
by the individuals or groups thus named. Endless tribes and division
of this country have had names descriptive of their habitat, the food upon
which they chiefly live, their mental or physical characteristics, etc.,
bestowed upon them; but in no case that I can discover have those
names been recognized or adopted by the people themselves; and to
apply these names to them to their faces is to deeply insult them and
wound their self-respect.
Secondly. If this were the true origin of group names we ought to
find ample evidence of it in the names themselves. Now, a study of clan
names as they obtain in America gives little support to Dr. Haddon's
theory. For while they are generally called after the names of the ob-
jects of the present environment of the clan or group or tribe, (and this
is a highly significant fact which has been too much overlooked in our
[hill-todt] TOTEMISM: its origin and import 98
considérations of the subject), these objects are by no means commonly,
such as are suitable for food, and Dr. Haddon's explanation of these
does not appear satisfactory to me.
Thirdly. As I have just pointed out, the names of totem groups
are invariably found to be the names of the objects that are natural to
the locality where the clan groups reside. Now we know from historical
data, to say nothing of the tradition of the natives themselves, that a
very general displacement of tribes has taken place all over the American
continent, and this within comparatively recent times ; yet in every case,
I believe I am right in saying, the totem names of both individuals and
groups are names of objects characteristic of their present environment,
many of which in numerous instances must have been quite unknown in
the earlier habitat. What, then, is the legitimate conclusion deducible
from these facts? Is it not that the names of some clan groups, at least,
are comparatively modem and date at earliest from the first presence of
the clan in its present territories ? This does not agree with Dr. Had-
don's hypothesis which expressly supposes the totem names to have arisen
in the earlier days of man's history, when he dwelt in small, more or
less, isolated groups in restricted areas. But it appears to me to support
strongly the view I have advocated, that totem groups and new clans
may arise at any time in the history of tribal society, and that the per-
sonal totem gives rise to the group totem. Tribes as a general rule in-
crease in number, witih the lapse of time and new clans spring into exis-
tence, after the manner of the Bear clan of the Tsimshian. How else are
we to account for the presence of totem-group names which have clearly
arisen since the settlement of the tribe in its present quarters, as they
ore called by the names of objects known and common to their present,
but not to their former place of residence. But these objections, strong
as they are, I regard as comparatively minor. My chief and invincible
objection lies in the total disregard of this hypothesis for the psychic
factors of totemism, which my study of the question has compelled me
to look upon as all-important and essential to the doctrine. I fail
entirely to see how the evidence brought together by American and other
students regarding savage man's mental attitude towards the universe
can be set aside or neglected in any discufision of totemism. Life and
nature are full of mystery to the savage from his birth to his death,
but Dr. Haddon's theory wholly overlooks and ignores this and bases the
origin of a doctrine which is confessedly full of "mystery'* upon the
commonplace, unmysterious feeling of hunger. Again, I muet be par-
doned if my personal knowledge of the workings of the primitive mind
prompts me to say this ifl more the view of a cultivated European than
that of a superstitious savage. It is altogether too matter-of-fact for
the mind of primitive man, who sees in the commonest and simplest
96 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
object before and about him an incomprehensible and awe-ooonpelling
mystery. Toiemiam was bom. and cradled in the savage^s erver-preBent
sense of m^-stery, whatxîver it may have since become, and any ihypo-
thcBis which ignores this feature of savage life muflt necessarily fail
in its purpose. In this all students of primitive philosophy will as-
suredly agree.
The objections I have urged against Dr. Haddon's " suggestion/'
apply with equal or greater force to the " guess '^ of Mr. Lang, the
jnain feature of which is, that the names are always given "/rom
without/' Mr. Lang's line of argument is as follows : — " At first the
human groups were ^ anonymous,^ that is bore no special designa-
tions. Every group would speak of itself as ' the men,' while it would
know neighbouring groups as Hhe others.' But this arrangement
lacks distinctness. EacK group would need a special name for each
of the neighbouring tribes." Mr. Lang does not mind how the name
arifiee. It may be given in derision, or it may be based on some
fancied or real group-traits of character, good or bad, or applied from
any cause whatever, provided only that it come " from without/' This
is the vital point of his theory. The main support Mr. Lang offers
for this view, is gathered from the practices of modem English and
continental villagers. T have to admit that he gives us much interest-
ing information regarding the names of derision applied by the people
of one village to those of another, but he fails entirely, as far as T
have been able to see, to show us that these villagers called themselves
by these terms, or recognized or admitted them in any way. I was my-
self bom and bred in the west country and my recollection of these nick-
names is that the boys of one village would fight with the boys of an-
other just because they cast these names in each other's teeth. Mr.
Lang gives us a lengthy list of these village names, of which the fol-
lowing are examples: —
Ashley
Monkeys.
Yarby
Geese.
Watworth
Bulldogs.
Fenton
Rooks.
Wickley
Tigers.
Oakditch
«Potato-grubfl.
St. Aldate'g
Fools.
Hlllborough
Mice.
MUtown
Mules (formerly " rats ")
Loughton
Cuckoos.
But will Mr. Lang assure us that these villagers called themselves
by these names, or adnuitted them as applicable to them for a moment?
I think he will find that they are invariably indignantly repudiated by
one and all. Mr. Lang cites the term " Eskimo " as another example.
[hill^ut] TOTEMISM : ITS ORIGIN AND IMPORT 07
and remarks that this name wa6 applied to the Arctic races in America
by the neighbourLng Indians; but Mr. Lang should Burely be aware
that no Eslcimo native ever calls himself, or rather speaks of himself
by this term, but always by hi*^ own name of Inuit or its equivalent. I
could cite scores of cases of names applied by one Indian tribe to an-
other, but I know of no single insitance where those tribes have ever
adopted and assumed them, and the only evidence Mr. Lang hime^
offers that any of those sobriquets '^ stick '^ and become recognized and
adopted by the people to wihiom they are ajpplied, is that drawn from
the practice of schoolboys of the present day. He remarks: "Bach
group would, I suggest, evolve animal and vegetable nicknames for
each neighbouring group. Finally some names would ' stick,' would
be stereotyped, and each group would answer to its nickname just as
Pussy Monjcrief, or Bull-dog Irving or Piggy Praser or Cow Maitland
does at «ihool." ' But even accepting this kind of evidence seriously,
Mr. Lang forgets that the cases are not parallel. The schoolboy
cannot help himself; when his seniors or his physical superiors addrefes
him by his nickname, he has to answer to it or be kicked; but does the
youth pride himself on his nickname and deeire that he shall be known
in the family circle by it, and thereafter retain it ? Mr. Lang will
jpardon me if I say that to my mind his hypothesis is truly a " guess "
and nothing more- I am bound to remind him, too, that he found
fault with the evidence Miss Fletcher, I, and other American students
offered for the origin of group-totems taken from savage tribes im-
measurably nearer to the primitive condition of mankind than his
European villagers and Scotch schoolboys, and rejected it on the
ground that these tribes had passed beyond the matriarchal state.
What shall be said then for his main evidence, which is* drawn from
modem English and Frendh villages and from schoolboys life ? Mr.
Lang may .daim that he has offered evidence from American tribes
under patriarchy, from the same stock, indeed', froon which Miss Flet-
cher drew her evidence. But even granting the validity of this* evi-
dence, or rather Mr. Lang's interpretation of it, which I am unable to
do, as it appears to me to be founded upon a misconception, why, I
would a9k, rfiould Mr Lan^ desire to refer to the customs of the Siouan
tribes in support of his theory, and preclude Mias,* Fletcher or others
from doing the same ? Of the two classes of evidence, the superior
cogency of that of Miss Fletcher mu9t be apjpajent to anybody.
Now I submit, in conclusion, that the view of totemism here advo-
cated suggests at the same time an origin for totem group-names that
does no violence to the modes of savage thought and reasoning, and
* The origin ct Totesm Namea and Beliefs. Trans. Folk-Lore, Vol. VHI, No.
A, 1902. p. 886.
Sec II., 1908. 7.
98 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
which is strictly in harmony with all lines of evidence upon the point,
and may well be regarded as the true origin. We have seen that names
mean vastly more to the savage than to ourselves. A name with him,
as I have shown, is a "mystery '' thing, not a mere mark or label; and
he who assumes or takes the name of a thing, animate or inanimate,
animal, plant, object or element, is thought to partake of the nature
of the spirit of that object, and to be bound to, or connected with, it in
a very special and mysterious manner. As Miss Fletcher has shown,
the personal totem name indicates the protecting presence of a deity
or tutelar spirit and close connection with it; and as the attitude, as we
have seen, of the member of a group towards the common totem is
always the same as that of the individual to his totem, it may justly be
inferred that the relation is the same and arose in like manner; and
that the group name is the totem name of the ancestor who founded
the family, group, or clan, and transmitted the totem or protecting pre-
sence and powers of the turt;elar spirit. The character of the group-
totem is everywhere seen to be the same as that of the personal totem,
therefore, the explanation of the one may justly be regarded as the
explanation of the other, more particularly, as I have shown that the
personal totem undoubtedly does give rise to the family and group-
totem.
If Dr. Haddon, Mr. Lang and other European anthropologists
will study the nature and significance of nomenology as it is found
among American tribesmen, I am fain to believe they will be led to
lake the views here advocated. It may be observed that it is no argu-
ment to urge that names are not regarded by savages in other countries
as they are by the American tribesmen, for we are not at all certain
that they are not, and the probability is that they are. Other savage
races have not received the same close study as those of this continent,
and it was not till students had spent many years of investigation
among the American Indians, that they began to understand and per-
ceive the deep significance names had for them.
I desïire finally to ^say that I have been prompted to the writing of
this paper by the desire to assist European studenjts of tobemism to
understand better the view commonly held by American students; for I
think it is clear from the criticisms upon Major PowelFs article in
Man,^ that the evidence upon which that view is founded has not been
* The purport of this article has been somewhat misunderstood. It was
never intended aa a deliberate presentation of the views taken of totemlsm
In America, but was written In consequence of, and immediately after, the
appearance of Dr. Frazer's article on the discordant data from Australia In
the Fortnightly Review for April and May, 1899, although not published till
laat year In Man, and should be resuî In the light of that article. Its intention
was ra;ther ,to ishow that when totemlsm ds rightly regarded as a system of
[ HiLL-TODTj TOTEMISM : ITS ORIGIN AND IMPORT 99
duly appreciated by European anthropologists, nor received the con-
sideration at their hands that it merits. Perhape I am preeumptuoufl
in undertaking the taslc; but if a decade's contact with savage races and
a close study of their habits, cus'toms and modes of thought be any
qualification for the undertaking, I may, at least, claim that.
naming, Ln the sense dn -wOiich the savage regards names, aind not as a system
of social rules and regulations, as )held by most Buropean students, the data
from Australian and other sources which oompeUed the majority of European
anthropologists to reconsider their position, faJl naturally into place in the
American conception of things, and cause no embarreuEBmen/t to the American
student whatever; and in this, as I have tried to show, he was quite right
SiCTiON IL, 1903 [ lOl ] Trans. R. 8. C.
VII. — A few remarks on " The Siege of Québec ''* and the Battle of the
Plains of Abraham, by A, Doughty, in collaboration with 0.
W. Parmeke; and on the Probable Site of the Battle of the
Plains of Abraham, by A. Doughty,
By P. B. Casgrain,
(Communicated by B. Suite and read May 19th, 1903.)
Amidst the well deserved encomiums which have welcomed the
recent publication of the above remarkable work on the Siege of Quebec,
we have much pleasure to join in a cordial approbation.
All students of Canadian history and, we may add, the English
speaking people of the whole British Empire, ought to be thankful to
the authors and to Mr. Doughty, in particular, for his diligent and suc-
cessful researches, his arduous and unremitting labours, his skill and
tact in finding and obtaining through high protection and influential re-
commendations, ready access to many valuable documents deposited in
public archives abroad, and in various private collections. He may also
be congratulated, jointly with the editors, on the magnificent form in
which he has been able to extend them to the literary world.
The additional papers now published will throw further light on
many details and incidents of the most important events which resulted
in the conquest of " La Nouvelle-France," and secured against her the
supremacy of England in the New World.
The beautiful interesting six volumes now before us deserve more
)than the cursory notices generally extended to new publications, with
more or less appreciative truth or commendable sagacity and critical
ability. They require a full and complete review by a learned and com-
petent authority, and we frankly admit our incapacity to do so with ade-
quate justice either to the authors or to the reader and public at large.
Therefore we earnestly invite our learned men and scholars to a fair and
Asound critical examination of the whole subject which is not yet ex-
hausted as we shall see.
They will thereby continue the praiseworthy and successful efforts
of the authors to promote and perfect the knowledge of this eventful
period.
Their primary object, after a careful scrutiny of the new documents
brought to light, would be to ascertain whether they are, as we have heard
it alleged, subversive of our former acquired notions on the subject, and
in what particulars ; or whether they do not generally confirm the lessons
we have learned from the historians of the past.
102 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
By passing through an impartial and judicious ordeal and scrutiniz-
ing with a severe test the import and value of the divers documents and
plans brought forth, and carefully comparing, analyzing and weighing
what appears to be conflicting evidence, we may reasonably expect to de-
finitely settle what little remains of diflBcult, obscure or doubtful points
and debatable ground respecting this grand historic achievement.
In the meantime we may be allowed to venture a few remarks on
some particular data on which we happen to differ, as presented to us by
Mr. Doughty and his collaborators; and we anticipate they shall not be
constructed amiss. For be it well understood we have not the least idea
of disparaging the value of the scholarly and elaborate production of the
authors in its general embodiment, but it would be undignified and un-
manly on our part, if by reaeon of the consensus of approval and praise
we have seen and heard, we were to be thereby silenced, and deterred from
expreesing our views when occasions arise for a reasonable criticism,
based upon the very documents we have the opportunity of perusing for
the first time.
If, therefore, we should meet in the course of the narrative what
may appear to us inaccurate, erroneous, or contradictory assertions or in-
complete statements; one-sided appreciations, deductions and conclusions
more or less venturesome; discrepancies and disagreements between the
collaborators themselves, or between the proof and the suppositive or in-
ventive process of the writers, — then we are bound to point them out for
•the sake of historical accuracy; however supported they are by much
display of learning, great skill, and nice ingenuity of exposition ; and we
feel the more obliged to expose them because they are often rendered
attractive by an agreeable style, presented in a handsome and appropriate
garb, and adorned with artistic illustrations, all which tend to pre-
possess, even captivate the superficial or unwary reader.
In pursuing, for the present, a limited investigation and confining
it to twx) ]:)rincipal poinUs, we sliall endeavour to carry it with due caution
and discrimination, avoiding acrid or unnecessary disputations or petty
criticisms. A temperate discussion, supported by well grounded con-
siderations, tends more to display the literary value of the work and the
attainments of Mr. Doughty personally. This course is rather compli-
mentary than otherwise.
We may premise by submitting that although we acknowledge the
head author of this extensive publication to be a persevering and fortun-
ate collector of precious historical documents, yet we cannot refrain from
expressing our matured opinion that he and his contributors have not
always shown a strong and sure grasp in handling them, and have been
misled into some avoidable errors.
[CA8GBAIN] REMARKS ON •*THE SIEGE OF QUEBEC" 108
For it looks most strange that with all the former known materials
in hand and the accretion of the present documentary information re-
ceived and at his early disposal, Mr. Doughty, in first instance and by his
paper, should have woefully failed to arrive at a true and correct con-
clusion on the main object of his contention, as to the battle of the Plains
of Abraham, that is to say, the real position of the armies when ready to
engage; and should have produced in support thereof a plan of the battle
such as his Flan A^ by him affirmed, bona fide, to be then perfectly
accurate.
And what is more surprising is to see his collaborators, specially Mr.
Chambers * having remained so long " blind " over palpable errors, ap-
parent to the naked eye on this Plan A.
This arraignment, improbable as it may seem at first, is nevertheless
but too well grounded.
It needs no further proof than the preliminary one drawn from the
own showing of the four joint collaborators. For without disclaiming
or in any way discarding the first plan and finding of Mr. Doughty,
upon whose faith they assumed both to be accurate and «truatworthy,
but, on the contrary extolling them as entirely reliable and conclusive,
they now come out with a very different version and a totally changed
plan of battle.
This, of course, is a tacit but an unavoidable admission of the pre-
vious mistake; which it would have been more proper to candidly
acknowledge, as soon as it was perceived by them, particularly when they
could not help seeing the utterly fake position given to both armies,
since their attention was called to it by an article in the Quebec
Morning Chronicle, August 4th, 1900.
Otherwise, if these writers allow both plans and respective versions
to sul)aist on the same footing and be reputed as equally true and cor-
rect, the reader will remain at a loss to make a choice as to the one to be
relied on ; or may be inclined a priori to reject both as antagonistic, be-
cause they are drawn from the same materials and sources.
Under the modest title " The Probable Site of the Battle of the
Plains of Abraham,'* Mr. Doughty has determined positively this exact
site according to his conception of it in 1899.
In view of elucidating the two main objects and ultimate conclu-
sions of his paper, that is to say : first, the disposition of the contending
armies in battle array on the field, and secondly the complete elimination
of the Race-course as part of that field, he has marshalled his evidence
and arguments with such seductive ingenuity and consummate skill as to
* Cf. (Quebec Morning Chronicle, April 2nd, 1900. Mr. Doughty*» able contribu-
tion on the êubject; -also id.. May 3, 1903. ^orth American Notes and Queries,
Jime, 1900, «and Aii«rU8t. 1900.
104 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
present a prima facie apparently clear case and satisfactory as such even
to many learned readers; until a closer exaimination revealed the total
fallacy of the whole fabric and mode of exposition.
In the meantime it was headlong asserted in the press by a
correspondent, more bombastic in tone than perspicnous in discern-
ment, that " he (Mr. Doughty), is absolutely satisfied that his conclu-
" sicoifi are buttressed by truth and cannot be assailed."^
Certainly there is much that is plausible in the argumentation of
the writer, and though we disagree with his solution on both points
adverted to, his paper is singularly interesting to study, and deserved
a better result, instead of being now discarded by him and meeting a
disastrous failure as to the position of both armies, compared to which
the small blunders he found in Hawkins are insignificant.
The connection of this paper with the more complete work which
is its legitimate and grown up offspring, is so close and direct that, far
the sake of argument and comparison, they must be reviewed together
and placed in juxtaposition.
It would be more satisfactory ta us not to refer, in any way, to
that paper, if we could pass over several material errors we see in it,
and specially in the plan A, as mere oversights or inadvertences,
had not Mr. Doughty isince reaffirmed in a deliberate manner
their perfect truth and accuracy, being confirmed, as he alleges, by the
further plans he had since received from Europe.
And were it not also that the insertion of the same paper in the
transactions of the Royal Society of Canada, was hastily put in before
having been examined and discussed by the section; as explained by
the Editor, who at first sight judged it " a paper of special value and
must assist the student in coming to a correct conclusion." There it
remains unchallenged, though admitted now to be erroneous.
We are sorry to say we cannot fully commend the second version
and plan, as being also correct, because the same course of reasoning
has been partly followed; and they must also come to grief in part,
but not to the same extent as the former, which caused us to stagger
at first sight.
We shall therefore take issue on the findings of Mr. Doughty on
the two above mentioned points; and to avoid all misunderstandings,
we shall quote his statements in his own words.
He says in his paper, p. 410; note :
1st. " Towards the close of my paper I mentioned that two impor-
" tant d.ocumeiits relating to the battle were in Europe and that at the
^ Cf. Quebec Morning Vhronwlc, April 2, 1900. ^orih American Notes and
Queries, June, 1900, p. 15, and August, 1900, p. 93.
[CAflOBAiN] REMARKS ON "THE SIEGE OF QUEBEC" 108
" time of w riting I had not received copies. Since this paper ha** been
" in the press I have received the two plans referred to, and they con-
*' firm in every respect the accuracy of the positions established on plan
According to this plan "the army was not at any
time drawn up upon the ground forming the present race course/'
2nd. " The condition of the ground now forming the race course
"would have prevented operations there on the day of the battle.'^
Id., p. 418. And the same is repeated, Vol. II, p. 295, more
emjphatically. "On the day od! the battle the ground known as the
" race course was in such condition that it would have been impossible
" for an army to have been drawn up there in the position indicated on
" the several plans.*'
"The ground now commonly known as the Plains of Abraham,
*^ which has recently been acquired by the city for a park, formed no
" port of the famous battle field of September the 13th, 1759.— Id., Vol.
II, p. 289.
To be brief let us point out the more striking errors of the plan
" A,'' which crystallises the gist and purport of the whole paper, and
then we shall put it in juxtaposition with the other plan, Vol. Ill, p.
96, the new one preptired for and approved by the authors, drawn and
supervised by the same draftsmen, MM. Vallée, Charest & St. Michel,
to be the true and final criterion of the position, of the two standing
armies.
The patience of the reader, if not of the earnest student, must
necessarily be taxed by constant and tedious references to plans;, but
this course is unavoidable in order to thoroughly understand the con-
troverted points on this subject.
Referring then to the said plan " A " —
Ist. The spot where Montcalm is indicated to be in command, is
next to impossible; topographically he is out of sight, as in a well,
being at the foot of a hill and facing the rock called " La Roche Ber-
nard'* on John street.
2nd. His right wing is carried away down the St. Charles valley
in Saint-Sauveur, reaching so far as tihe crossings of St. Monique and
St. Luc streets, more than a mile from the site of the conflict on the
Heights of Abraham.
3rd. His left is too near the town, cannot see the enemy, and is
too far from the edge of the cliff, not to be easily outflanked there.
4th. The spot where Wolfe fell mortally wounded is carried much
too far. He never reached there; this would be a quarter of a mile
106 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
from the well known place where he died (the monument); whilst it
ought to be only about 100 yards from it, when he was mortally wound-
ed in front of the Louisbourg Grenadiers.
5th. Wolfe^fi line in consequence is also too much advanoed; atnd
in placing it on the slope from the eminence of the gaol towards the
town, Mr. Doughty is unfortunately mistaken, for it should be IJie
other slope from thence in the direction of the river, where the Louis-
bourg Grenadiers and the Otway really stood according to all the plans.
6th. The camp, after the battle, was entrenched between the gaol
and Sillery and not between the gaol amd the town; all the maps agree
on this point.
The Chronicle, Quebec, Canada, Saturday, August 4, 1900, (see
appendix "A^^), furnishes further details pointing out more fully
these and other notable errors, which cannot be characterized and
passed off ^^ a^ minor details," and though they were openly challenged
and controverted in the press by the above article herewith produced as
an appendix, they have remained unexplained and the objections raised
thereto unanswered.
These material mistakes having been so signalized were, of course,
corrected by the second plan, but only in part, as can easily be ascer-
tained by comparing both together.
Now the task devolves upon us of challenging the accuracy of this
last plan and of proving that it is also subject to further and important
corrections, in order to arrive at the tnie dispositions of both armies,
according to the best authorities on the subjoct, and moreover by
means of the very plans we are furnished with in these volumes.
Considering the marked discrepancies between the two final plans
presented to us as the joint work of the above named experts and drafts-
men; and considering that the latter is, as it purports to be, a new and
peculiar one, that is to say, an average plan combined from and com-
ipiled by careful measurements of all the numerous and different plans
submitted to them, we have fair cause for feeling diffident, and find a
double reason, in order to dispel our reasonable doubts, for examining
very closely the mode of proceeding of these experts; and we are
entitled to revise their finding and to ascertain the accuracy of their
work. And we shall do so, even at the risk of bein/:^ taxed too sharp
and severe a critic, because we are dealing in this instance more with
these experts than with the historians themselves; and also for the
Lcasqrain] remarks ON "THE SIEGE OF QUEBEC" 107
reason that we .have a euflScient excuse for our criticism in trying to
probe to the bottom the truth of historical facts.^
It must be self evident that from and out of the number of the dif-
ferent plans of the battle submitted to us, one must be found more cor-
rect than all the others, and this one we shall try to find and adopt as
the most reliable, and in preference to the above average or composite
plan, which we conceive hardly possible to be historically and topographi-
cally correct for moving bodies, — though it may appear so approxima-
tively.
Another inference follows; because the modiLs operandi conveys
the implicit admission that none of them are really accurate, and in
fact they all disagree more or less; therefore each one in particular is
less reliable than the written and positive evidence of living witnesses at
the time, who, being present, give their own true and precise relation of
what they know and have seen, particularly those who have remained in
Quebec.
After a close examination of all the plans produced by Mr. Doughty,
we attach like him muich importance, as to the general position of the
contending armies, to the plan to be found in Jefferys, p. 140, which
he, Mr. Doughty, reproduced in hia paper, p. 304, and has copied from
the same one engraved and published in 1760 for the same Jefferye.
A view of the action is enlarged oh the rig-ht comer.
This plan dated 5th September, 1759, drawn by a competent
authority, a naval oflBcer, is the first of all, and is the official document
sent to the Minister Pitt, with the subsequent additions thereto, giving
a view of the action of the 13th. It was not forwarded with the first
despatches, not being then ready, but was soon after put in charge by
Moncton of Townsend, the officer of distinction who delivered it at
London on the 30th November following.
This plan was, with the additions, made immediately after the
battle, to accompany the official report of the commanding officers of the
navy and army, mus-t be presumed substantially true and reliable.
The circumstances of the extension of time required and given to com-
plete it, and the actual presence of the army engineers, such as MacKel-
lax, Holland, Deblieg, Desbarres and Montrésor, all tend to confirm a
full reliance to be placed on this plan.
* " History Is a science which commits Itself to no conclusions, except
•' such as the evidence before her warrants "
" It le only recently, and most opportunely, that Professor Bury haa
" strongly asserted the right of history to be treated as a science. That 1»
** to «ay, that historians should follow methods which lead to scleatlflc
" certainty."
The Tablet, London, 13th June, 1903, p. 925.
108 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
On this first branch of controversy, that is to say, the exact position
of the two contending armies in line of battle and ready for action, we
have three infallible and immovable land marks to work upon as certain
and true basis.
1. The Buttes-à-Neveu and the line of Montcalm thereon, formed
en front de handière, that is a straight line of his regulara.
2. The spot where Wolfe expired now marked by his monument.
3. The othex spot, quite near, on the eminen-ce of the gaol, where
he received the third and mortal wound. Moreover, we have the best
of all the plans, the ground itself of the battlefield under our eyes,
which hardly covers a square mile.
It is easy to find the true direction of the bandière line. It runs
from the west side of the Tower No. 2 on top of Perrault Hill, Buttes-à-
Neveu, toward and close to the west side of the General Hospital, at an
angle of 45® west, — ^according to the meridian line of Holland, without
reckoning the 30' of its error at that time.
The proof of this direction is clearly furnished by Mr. Doughty
himself, from his own showing by his plans.
Eeference being had;
1. To JcfTerys' plan published in 1760, p. 140, and reproduoed by
Mr. Doughty (Pa.per, p. 394) ; — it will be seen on the enlarged view,
this line passes somewhat a little west of the General Hospital, as
also on the British Museum plan, reproduced. Vol. II, p. 257, and Mr.
Doughty carries it even more west on his plan "A,^* p. 378, of his paper;
whilst on the other plan, also produced by Mr. Doughty and drawn for
him by St. Michel, vol. 11, p. 96, this line of handière is carried east a
distance of 233 yards, from the General Hospital, forming a wide gap
between these two handière lines, measuring an angle of 28**, 20',
between thorn.
2. To the plan n^xt in date of publication, of Jefferys, geographer of
His lyfajesty, draw^l from the original surveys made by the Engineers of
the Army, vol. 11, p. 272, which is identical with the one published by
Thomas Mante, in 1772, in his History of the late War in North America;
— it will be seen that the French line runs exactly in the direction toward
the General Hospital.
3. To the large coloured and valuable plan, vol. 1, p. 264; — it will
be seen that the P'rench handière is also exactly in line with the General
Hospital.
4. The plan. Vol. Ill, p. 116, also shows the French line en
handière, opposite the English army, in the enlarged view of their dis-
position ; and also the same direction is given towards the General Hos-
pital, though these buildings do not appear on the map giving, on a
smaller scale, the position of both armies.
[CA8QEAIN] REMARKS ON "THE SIEGE OF QUEBEC" 109
5. The plan made in 1841 for Hawkins, in London, by James Wyld,
geographer to the Queen; — the same formation of the French army
is to be found.
In fact all the other plans we have been able to examine do not
materially differ on this point; and therefore we controvert thereon the
finding of the experts and draftsmen of Mr. Doughty on both their plans,
and declare them antagonistic and unreliable, so far. We shall adhere
to the plans, as they stand, on that point, and discard the average plan.
It is not supposed we are to be called on to prove the site of Wolfe's
monument is the correct place where he died ; therefore we shall go on to
fix the exact apot where he fell in front of the Bragg regiment and
the Louisbourg-Grenadiers, on the eminence where the gaol is now
built.
Let us preface by adverting to Samuel Holland, assistant engineer
and captain in the 2Dd Battalion of the Royal Americans, who waa at
the baMe under Wolfe, also at Sainte-Foy, and at the siege of Quebec by
Ijévis, where he replaced the engineer MacKellar, mortally wounded at
the last battle. Holland remained at Quebec till he crossed to England
in December, 1763.* He was there the guest of the Duke of Richmond
during the ensuing winter, and in the spring, 1764, he returned to
Canada with the rank of major (?) and the appointment as surveyor-
general of the province. He became a legislative councillor and died at
Quebec, December 28th, 1801, being 73 years of age.
In his official capacity no one knew better than he the surroundings
of Quebec and particularly the Heights of Abraham, which he had sur-
veyed immediately after the taking of Quebec and resurveyed afterwards,
as appears by the several plans from his office, and notably the one on
the large scale of 200 feet to one inch, drawn by Wm. Hall and by him
finished 1790, and where has been traced the meriddan line established
by Holland in 1785. Holland is one of the army engineers referred
to by Jefferys as above mentioned, and therefore may be taken as one
of the best authorities as to the incidents of the battle of the Plains;
and he knew exactly the spot where Wolfe was fatally wounded and
the one near by where he expired.
When he traced his meridian on the Plains, he chose Wolfe's re-
doubt (called by that name on account of the ground where the hero had
fallen), and he located the first meridian stone at the southwest angle of
the redoubt, with the intention of determining and fixing, as we really
believe, the very spot for the future.
^ Cf. OaptaOn Bentick to Bouquet (in French), Jjonàxm, 7 Dec., 1763, BM.
SU «61.
no ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
And 80 far he has been BTiccesrful. For Boujchette, wlio had
studied under thim and became his successor in oflSce, refera to the
circumiBtance as follows: —
"The four meridian stones fixed in 1790* by the late Major
"Holland, then surveyor-general of Canada, are placed at convenient
"distances from each other acroes the plains, they represent a line
" astronomically north '' (variation since from 12** 35' W. to 17**, May,
" 1903),*' and were established for the purpose of adjusting the instru-
" ments used in public surveys of lands, one of them that stood in the
" angle of a field redoubt where Grenieral Wolfe is said to have breathed
" his last, has been greatly impaired by the pious reverence of curious
^^ strangers, who, wishing to bear away a relic of anything from the
"spot consecrated by the heroes death, have broken off pieces of the
" stone placed there thirty (25) years after the event" Cf. Boiwhette
Topography of Canada, 1815, pp. 466-67.
The field book of Holland, if found, will ascertain his intention
as to the first stone of his meridian at the time of that important
operation.
The field books and joujmals were returned by Wm. Ohewett>
Pennoyer, Bankin and others, and ought to be found in the Imperial
Departments, London.
For Holland,* as Engineer-in-Chief at Quebec, claimed a number
of plans that had remained in England in charge of Major Desbarres,
with whom he had left them in 1776, — on being ordered suddenly from
London to Portsmouth, from which place he wrote for them, but with-
out effect. Since which, ait different periods, he renewed his application
but with no better result; and on the 10th of November, 1790, he sends
a catalogue to enable His Majesty's minister to direot the transmission
of such plans, etc., including ^ tliis meridian line.
'■ The meridian of Holland must have been traced on or before 1785,
since Jeremiah McCcirthy. land ©urveyor, says: " J'ai prit le rhumb-de-vent
selon l«a véritable meridian (aie) de Monsr. S. Holland, Ecuier, arpenteur
ÉTénéral, tiré proche de Québec."
rrocéS'Vcrbal de bornage, Kivière-Ouelle, liS juillet 1786, This date of 1790
seems to Imply that the four stones were either replaced by others or made
more conspicuous than formerly. In adl cases the first duty of HoiUand in
his official capacity (1764) would be to establish, to his satisfaction, a known
meridian to work upon. Bouchette may perhaps fix that date, 1790, as the
time the meridian was traced on the map at Its completion,
■ Writlngr *to tihe Govemior, Lord I>orchester, Quebec, Noveoniber 1st, 1790,
he represents that several of the principal and original plans and surveys
of the Province were wantimg. They were left by him in the care of Major
Desbarres In May, 1776. Within a late period many of these documents
were returned and have remained dormant in boxes at Ottawa.
■ ** Meridian lAne at Queft>ec (2 cop.), 4 chains to 1 Inch." Archives ^f
Canada, Q., Vol. 4Q, p. 167, 119.
[cabgrain] remarks ON "THE SIEGE OF QUEBEC" HI
After Bomchette, we find in the same department, John Adams,
E.M.S.D., re-affirming the statement relative to the position of this
first stone, as being the place where Wolfe fell. On a plan made by
him from actual and original survey, 1822, engraved by E. Bennett,
Qu<îbec, and dedicated to Lord Dalhousie, there is marked in front of
and the west side of the redoubt : " Wolfe's Redoubt near which he fell"
Though the redoubt has disappeared its location ds well settled and
known by the plans. It covered a part of the ground of the east wing
of the gaol, and the stone was planted in its yard, in line with and
twenty feet from the west wall of this wing.
This plan may be seen at the City Hall, and the quoted inscription
may (well serve to account for the continuation of the interest and
reverence attached to (this spot by visitors and strangers. For it was,
down to the year 1835, the date of the first anjonument to Wolfe, on
the Plains, the only visible sign on the Plains to remember 'his glonouB
death, and was at the time believed by many to be the actual spot
where he died, until the erection of the monument determined forever
the sacred ground where " he breathed his last."
This continued and beloved tradition, based upon this meridian
stone, if untrue, could not possibly have been countenanced by a
number of living witnesses, wiho 'had been at the battle. No one will
believe that Holland, during more than fifteen years that he saw the
people^s reverence for this landmark, could lend himself to a shameful
deceit; the more so as there were at the time, in and around Quebec
many survivors of Wolfe's army, such as the two Frasere, Naime, James
Thomson, etc., also Carlton, Lord Dorchester, afterwards Govemor-in-
Chief of the Provinces, without reckoning a great many more abroad,
and particularly his co-workers in the original plans.
The cherished memory of Wolfe went on increasing in Quebec, a^
proved by the erection (began 1827), of the monument to him and
Montcalm, his brave opponent, and terminated in 1834, when affixing
together thereon the names of the two heroes.
Shortly afterwards (1835), the Grovemor, Lord Aylmer, erected the
first monument on the Plains.
It is a pleasFure to quote on this subject the brilliant scholar, the
learned and gentlemanly editor of the old Albion, our late Dr. John
Chariton Fisher, LL.D., wiho wTote in the Québec Mercury, Septemiber
17th, 1835, an interesting and appropriate ariiicle bearing closely to
the site of the above meridian stone. It is headed : —
" Monument on the Plains of Abraham to the Memory of Wolfe.*'
" The last anniversary (1834) of the Battle of the Plains of Abra-
ham was aptly chosen as the day on which the naones of the heroes
Wolfe and Montcalm were affixed on the sarcophagus, on which rests
112 EOYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
the beautiful obeliak raised in their honour by amd during the govern-
ment of the Eerl of Dalhousie (1827). The return of the anniver-
sary may be appropriated to a brief description of the monument lately
erected by lieutenont-General Lord Aylmer, while goveroor-in-chirf
of the provinces^ ivhich completes the series of testimonials offered by
posterity to the memory of the devoted and the brave."
After mentioning the monument to Wolfe and Montcalm and the
dab in the Chapel of the Ursuline Convent, "Honneur à Montcalm,
etc./' he continues:
"A monument to Wolfe on the spot w»here Ihe died was alone
wanting. The exact spot was known to but few, wihile tiie interest
attached to it was increased by the lapse of time.
'^ The last contemporary of the Battle was no more * and the site
would in a few years have beoome a subject for conjecture.
"Although the stone, which formed his death oouch, had been
preserved in its original position, it had been sunk beneath the surface,
in order to protect it from pilgrims who came, not to enrich but to rob
the shrine, by carrying away as relics pieces of the rock, hallowed by
the death of Wolfe.
" These considerations, it may be imagined, suggested the design
of erecting a monument on this spot to Lord Aylmer.
"And as no accurate description of it has yet appeared, and as
the spot is constantly visited by strangers, the following particxdars^
which may be depended upon as correct, will doubtless be interesting
to the public.''
" The monument lately erected by Lord Aylmer to the memory
of Wolfe, on the spot where he died, is situated in a field, the property
of Hammond Gowen, Esq., between the house of C. Caimpbell, Esq.,
and the race-course, and adjoining the Grande- Allée, The ground
necessary for the site was presented by Mr. Gowen to his Lordsihip for
the purpose; and the monument is distinctly seen from the road.
" The monument is a truncated coluiiiin, etc. The inscription,
which is deeply cut in the column, is brief and emphatic, containing a
modest and delicate reference to that upon the slab in honour of Mont-
calm.
" Here died Wolfe victorious *
* Mr. James Thomson died In 1830. He was In his 9Sth year when Lord
Dalhousie, on the 15Lh Nov., 1827, addressed him as follows: "We honour
you here as the compan-ion to arms and a venerable living- witnees of the
fall of Wolfe; and do us the favour to bear witness on this oocasdon by the
mallet In your hand."
■ In 1848, Sir Benjajndn Durban erected the one Jiow* over it, burying
underneath the remains of the old one. A strong iron railing protect* It
[CASGRAINJ REMAKKS ON '«THE SIEGE OF QUEBEC" 113
'' The spot where Wolfe received his third and laat wound wa^ in
from of the Kedoubt ^ on the rLjing ground, somewhat on the right
and in advance of the monument. He was thence borne to the rear
and supported against the rock, lying on the surface.
'^ In a small field, the property of Mr. Moorhead, between the one
in which the monument is situate and the property of, Charles
Campbell, Esq., about fifty yards to the north from the column,
immediately joining the fence, may be seen the remains of a well
whence Wolfe was supplied with water, when lying faint and dying on
the spot now marked by the column. Tliis has been ever since known
to the old inhabitants of the neighbourhood as "Wolfe's Well;" but
in consequence of a horse having been drowned in it about four years
ago, was filled up with rubbish, to the great regret of many who have
never ceased to hold it in hallowed remembrance.
" Such is the interest attat^hed to the scene of the glorious event,
that a public debt of thanks is due to the distinguished General Officer,,
who during his administration of the .province acquired by Great
Britain at the price of Wolfe's death, has taken care at his own expense,,
to mark this sacred spot in so conspicuous and appropriate manner
that it never afterwards can be overlooked and forgotten. ^
'-' Quebec, September 13th, 1835, J.C.F.'^
It it were in regard to topography alone, it is* obvious too much
importance cannot be attached to point out the very spot whore Wolfe
foil. A searching light thrown on surrounding details and circum-
stances, will lead us to the ipoint we are looking for. The location of
the above stone corresponds very closely with the distance of about
100 yards, given by James Henderson of the 28th regiment, who then
stood quite close to the General and carried him off at once to the
rear. Td, Vol. 111, p. 215, The measured distance from the centre of
the monument to the meridian stone is 380 feet, only 26 yards more
and closely corresponding to such space of " about 100 yards/'
Mr. Doughty had, in first instance, marked the spot on his first
plan " A,^^ (p. 378 of his paper), quite near the Orphan Asylum on the
Grande-Allée; that is somewhat over a quarter of a mile east of the
Tnomnnont. He has now receded from this place on his second plan to
the eminence of the gaol, coming back near the Holland stone, and indi-
cating by a red star his finding on his plan, Vol. I, p. 96. It is distant
only 250 yards from the monument as we shall see.
This egregious di^Jorepan^T must unavoidably lead us to distrust
both plans and his expert draftsmen when compiling their average
plan.
* The front Is indicated on tlie plams by the flèches pointing west, and as
Indicated by Adams & Holland.
Sec. IT, 1003. 8.
114 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
Moreover we are in a position to demonstrate on view of the other
plans above referred to and by his own documents, that this red star is
carried by Mr. Doughty
1st. Too far north, and
2ndly. Too far east, —
though he aflSrms, Vol. Ill, p. 204, that " there is no longer any possible
doubt where he (Wolfe) fell/' and he refers to the indication on the
King's map, in the British Museum as a proof. It would have been
more satisfactory to the reader to have seen reproduced and published
that small part of this large majp (a copy being in the possession of
the authors (Vol. VI, p. 281), in order to let him judge for himself,
instead of relying on Mr. St. MichePs average plan, who remains con-
victed of previous fatal errors. Perhaps we might, on examination, find
him and the authors again in error on this as on the other points above
referred to.
Moreover this famous very large map^ was made abroad, a certain
time after the battle, and borrowed and compiled from maps on a small
soale then in existence, and not from actual operations on the ground;
and it must not clash with these; and moreover ought not to counter-
balance the certain knowledge and convincing evidenice of the witnesses
who remained on the spot, at Quebec, and visited it for years thereafter
as a shrine of glorious reverence and deep sjrmpathy.
Let us assume for the moment that this red star points to the corre-
sponding place on the King's map. It is easily proved that all the three
companies of the Louisbourg Grenadiers stood, not on the eminence of
and in front of the gaol, nor in froait of the monument, but somewhat
further down on the slope from this eminence, beginning therefrom and
in the direction of the river, exactly where Mr. Doughty, in first
instance had placed the Otway; and therefore the whole right wing of
Wolfe must be drawn nearer to the verge of the cliff, because :
(a) The first plan of St. Michel (Paper, p. 378), renders this clear-
ly apparent by the position occupied by the Otway near the brink of
the cliff, and not adjoining the gaol as shown on the second plan;
(b) On Jefferys* plan, the official one accompanying the dispatches,
the same Otway will also be found close to the cliff and the Louisbourg
Grenadiers, on the slope, a little in advance on its left;
(c) The other correct plan of Jefferys*, Vol. II, p. 272, "considered
of great importance" Vol. VI, p. 280, places no less than five regiments
on the south side of Louis road, including two of them further south
than the lower road of the Plains, and therefore lliese two ^re. on the
* The scale Is not given, but we calculate it to be 100 feet to 1 inch.
[cAfiGRAiN] REMARKS ON "THE SIEGE OF QUEBEC IIB
•
slope of the eminence, whilst Mr. Doughty^s plan shows only one, the
Otway, there and adjoining the gaol;
(d) The combined plan of Deblieg, Holland and Desbarres, Vol. I,
p. 264, (36 inch by 18), seems a reduced copy and not a fac-simile of
the original (size 5 ft. 10x2 ft. 4 in. Vol. VI, p. 280). The line of the
English differs considerably from that of the Doughty plan which, in
contradiction to that of these three engineers, places Braggs' regiment
on the north side of St. Louis Koad, instead of the south side and on
the eminence.
(e) We would prefer relying on the official plan of 1841, by Jas.
Wyld, geographer to the Queen and of H.E.H. Prince Albert, dedicated
to the members of the United Services of the British Empire, — ^in pre-
ference to the one of Mr. St. Michel, and locate the Braggs regiment
south of the road, then the Louisbourg-Grenadiers on the slope, in circu-
lar form, and the Otway quite near the cliff. We cannot> therefore, admit
with Mr. Doughty " that all the plans agree as to the exact position of
Braggs' regiment and Louisbourg-Orenadiers, when they received the
French assault,^' for the simple reason that his and his alone disagrees
with them all ; but we take note of his remark and admission, that this
last map of Wyld prepared for Hawkins, " his latest work, agrees with
the maps of those who were present, is in itself significant.'' (Paper,
pip. 402-403.) We therefore stand by it with his approval.
It is unfortunate that Mr. Doughty contradicts himself in thus
placing the Braggs north of the road, the Otway adjoining the gaol,
and the whole of the Grenadiers on the eminence, whilst he says else-
where the Braggs, 28th regiment, occupied the eminence, the Grenadiers
stood on their right, and the Otway was extended between these and the
ridge of the cliff.
He writer. Vol. Ill, p. 120:—
" Prior to the arrival of these reinforcements some of the Canadian
troops had endeavoured to slip around the declivity between the British
right and the St. Lawrence. The movement was quickly observed by
W^olf e, who advanced some platoons from the Louisbourg-Grenadiers and
the 2Sth Regiment (Braggs) to the small rising ground on his right, to
intercept it, and as soon as Otway^s regiment, the Thirty-fifth came up,
he further strengthened his right by extending that battalion between
the Grenadiers and the precipice (sic) sloping towards the river, and to
form part of a second line upon the right.^'
And in Vol. V, p. 30, we read the following passage of the Fragment
of the Siege: ''The Louisbourg-Grenadiers were extended on the right
of these regiments to the river.^' That portion of the slope continues
from the eminence, which is said " dis-tant about 500 yards from the
ridge.^' Vol. Ill, p. 118.
116 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
Thus Mr. Doughty reverses Wolfe's tactics and leaves a wide gap for
the enemy to slip along the cliff and outflank his right. And here we
may add that Mr. Doughty has fixed (Paper, p. 384), the effective range
of the musket against troops in column 200 yards (Wolfe also). There-
by he nullifies the then required efficiency of the fire of the Otway as
Wolfe would have had it.
Our conclusion then is that on the Doughty plan, the Otway, the
LouisbouTg-Grenadiers and the Braggs must necessarily be all carried
down southerly some 100 yards distance towards the cliff, and the spot
marked by the red star shall come nearer south, so as to be in line with
the meridian stone, if not out-passing it. The Sergeant-Quartermaster
Johnson, present on the field, confirms this southern position (Vol. V,
pp. 103-4), on the right wing, occupied by the Louisbourg Grenadiers,
at the head of which Wolfe sometimes commanded and sometimes at the
head of the former, — "and advanced at the head of the Louisbourg
" Grenadiers, with charged bayonets, when another shot pierced his
^'breast.^^
We have seen that Wolfe had just sent the 28th regiment, Braggs,
to the small rising ground on his right (the eminence of the gaol), so
that it could not stand north of the St. Louis Road, as Mr. Doughty will
have it. It must be left standing where directed by \V'olfe, about 100
yards south of the road, having on its right the first company of the
Louisbourg Grenadiers. So much the worse for the average plan of the ,
experts and the red star of JMr. St. Michel.
Next we intend to prove satisfactorily that the alleged distance east
from the monument to the point of the red star is overstretched and is
not 300 yards.
First of all, according to the scale of this plan, it is only 750 feet or
250 yards; also the same measure is found on the official plan of the
cadastre. This is, to begin with, a recoil of 50 yards.
Secondly, adopting as a basis for correct measurements, the true
bandière line above mentioned in the direction of the General Ho€»pital,
and closing west the angle of 22°, 20', which it forms with the bandière
given by Mr. St. ^lichel, we shall have mutatis mutandis, another retro-
gression of the whole English line proportional to the cord opposite the
star, about 85 feet, or 28 yards, reducing in consequence the 300 yards to
224 only.
Now since the exact distance from the meridian stone to the
monument is exactly 126 yards, there remains only the small difference
of less than 100 yards between the landmark of Holland and the point
indicated by Mr. Doughty: a trifle. But, even without reckoning these
deductions, the whole <lifl*erence could not exceed 174 yards. We shall
not therefore allow Mr. St. Michel to remove our well known land-
[cabgrain] remarks ON "THE SIEGE OF QUEBEC" 117
mark,— since he has demonstrated his professional savoir-faire to be
on a par with hià historical accuracy as to St-Sauveur.
If we are to believe the evidence of James Henderson, the very best
witness on the occasion, who supported Wolfe to the hollow ground in
rear, a distance of "about 100 yards ;'^ and consider that the 224 yards
of Mr. Doughty would hardly out-pass the eastern limit of the redoubt;
and that our basis and calculations are not mere verbal criticism, nor in-
tended for a mere show of accuracy, but to arrive at a certainty of know-
ledge and conviction, based upon reliable geometrical lines, measure-
ments, boundaries and land-marks ; also the broad fact that, in contradic-
tion to the large distance first given of a quarter of a mile, Mr. Doughty
comes back so close to Holland's land-mark ; and moreover, when we take
into account the continued popular tradition and reverence (without any
doubt ever being raised), for this sacred spot, — it is reasonable to believe,
with the weight of the evidence before us, that Holland has irrevocably
marked the spot where Wolfe fell ; and it will, to the latest day, continue
to be visited with the same deep interest and patriotic emotion. It
would, in our estimation, be cavilling and hair splitting not to adopt the
redoubt as the place where Wolfe fell, and whcrefrom it took tihc name
of Wolfe's Eedoubt.
We next come to the second point of controversy; — does the race-
course form part or not of the battle field ?
The general outlines of the battle are not in dispute among former
historians : and men of learning agree in placing the brunt of the fight
on and between the eminence of the gaol and the Buttes-à-Neveu or Mar-
tello Towers along there.
Even Hawkins, who is so severely taken to task by Mr. Doughty,
says: "The severest fighting took place between the right of the race
*' stand and the Martcllo Towers."
The assertion of Mr. Chambers (?) in the Quebec Morning
Chronicle, April 2nch WOO, that: —
" It is generally understood that the fiercest of the fight look place
" upon that ground which is now the race-course, and this stand has been
" taken by Sir Jame^ LeMoine and P. B. Casgrain,'' — is simply
unfounded in fact. V. Conférence par P.-B. Casgrain, 14 décembre
1899, in Transactions of the Literary and Historical Society of Québec,
1000,
The pretensions of these writers and of those who are conversant
with the subject, go no further than to show that this part of the Plains
necessarily formed part of the battle field, as a ground to be held and
kept by all moans, being the key of the position and the only road and
means of communication with the fleet for the stores and ammunitions;
that military operations did effectively take place there on that day ; that
118 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
part of the English line was drawn up on this ground and marched to the
eminence; that Webb's reserve stood on the race-course during the fight;
that the 3rd batallion, the Royal Americans, was detached further back
on Marchmont to secure the landing, and "stood there as a post to pro-
*■ tect the rear;'^ Vol. II, p. 296, and that whilst the English were there
and forming around, they lost more men than during the rest of the day.
Vol. V, p. 54.1
Unfortunately for Mr. Chambers he is the guilty party for giving
currency to the erroneous version of this event which he now repels.
He says in Chambers^ Guide to Quebec, p. 93: —
" The Plains of Abraham, properly so called at the present time,
" stretched away from near the St. Louis toll gate westward, upon the
" south side of the road, and extend from the highway to the brink of
" the steep precipice overhanging the river. The battle field ifi govem-
" ment property, but is at present rented as a pasturage for the cattle
" of city milkmen.
" It was during the British assault upon the French position on
"this id&ing knoll (yonder knoll of the gaol), that General Wolfe
" received his death wound."
Leaving aside this statement, we shall continue on the second point,
and in support of our contention we abide exclusively by the proof to
be extracted out of the writings, plane and appendices to be found in
the volumes of The Siege of Quebec now before us.
As it is rather difficult to represent on a map moving bodies, we
place more reliance, as to the march of troops, on the evidence given
by the officers then- in their command, than on any other source.
Colonel Hon. Malcolm Fraser was in command of the Fraser High-
landers on that day, and thereafter remained at Quebec, as also his
friend and neighbour, Cajptain Nairne of the same regiment. We quote
from his journal wihere he gives a clear, concise and true statement of
what they both did, and saw with their own eyes on this occasion.
" We had several skirmishes with the Canadians till about ten
^* o'clock when the army formed in line of battle in front the
" town of Quebec about a mdle -distant " (the mile is 66 yards beyond the
"east line of the race course);'" in the rear, a wood occupied by the
" light infantry (who by this time had taken possession of the four gun
* Hawkins may not be wrong when he extends the battle from the race-
stand, for the reason that so far the English had already lost " more men
" in killed and wounded in skirmishing than in the general action." Moncrief,
V, p. 54.
" 1,500 of their best marksmen kept a continued Are upon our line for
" some time Before the battle became general." Sergeant Johnson, V. pp.
103-104.
[casorain] remarks ON "THE SIEGE OF QUEBEC" 110
*' battery) ; and the third battalion of the Royal Americanfi. In the
"space between which last and the main body, the forty-eighth was
*' drawn up as a body of reserve.'^ This general disposition of the army,
that is to say, the line, the reserve and the rear, is confirmed by the
historians, and also by several of the maps and plans of the battlefield
and forms a total linear space less than 1000 yards from front to rear.
(2,950 feet), that is to say from the gaol to the post on Marchmont.
Col. Eraser continues : " The army was ordered to march on slow-
" ly in line of battle, and halt several times, till about half an hour
"' after ten/' Here begins the real point of controversy, the gordian-
knot, which we shall try to untie before cutting it. Did the army
march in line as thus stated ? or was it formed into line at once on the
eminence of the gaol and from thence extended on each side? We shall
use the words of Mr. Doughty on this maroh. (Paper, p. 378) " By
" referring to plan A, it will be seen that a very short march would be
" necessary to bring the army to the line indicated on the plan/' He
means from the eminence of the gaol, past de Salaberry street, to a
point near the Orphan Asylum, where Wolfe is indicated to be in com-
mand and fall, 1175 feet of actual march.
As Wolfe's Redoubt, where he fell, stood only 475 feet from the
eastern boundary of the race course, this slow march would then com-
mence 1175 feet west of this redoubt and. be a space for marching of
700 feet, on the plains towards town. We are willing to be generous
and give away 500 feet to Mr. Doughty, being satisfied with the remaind-
er. And thus we shall be west of, near to and • on line with Maple
avenue, " on the open ground," and the perfect level shown there in all
direction ; the same referred to by Captain Knox when speaking of the
ground upon which the army halted after its march towards town in
files as being " an even piece of ground which Mr. Wolfe had made
''choice of."
The first formation may reai^onably account for the heavy losses
then and previously thereto suffered on the English side by the galling
fire on their whole line, continued from a few brushes and a little hillock
from Canadian and Indian .«kinniishers, snap-shooters and skulkers, on
each wing and on the rear. Vol. V, pp. 28, 104.
Knox, quoted by Doughty (I*aj>er, p. 374), states that after the line
was formed " About nine the two armies moved a little nearer
" to each other."
*' Les deux armées," says Le Journal de VArmée, séparées par uns
petite colline, se cannonaient depuis " environ une heure."
Mr. Doughty himself confirms such eminence in front (Paper, p.
402). *' The General before the battle, while reviewing the position
120 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
" of the armies, aaw that it was an advantageoue position and sent a
" few men to occupy it/'
This colline, the eminence of the gaol, or hillock, evidently had not
yet been reached by the English, and it obstructed Wolfe's view of
the enemy; also concealed his troops from them. The letter of James
Henderson, of the 28th Regiment, Braggs, dated 'at Quebec, October
7th, 1759, is exactly in point: " the general viewing the posi-
** tion of the two armies, he took notice of a small rising ground between
" our right and the enemy's left whi<'h concailed (sic) us from that
'* quarter, upon which the general did me the honour to detach me with
" a few grenadiers to take possession of that ground and maintain it to
** the last extremity, which I did till both armies was (sic) engaged. And
^* then the general came to me and took his post by me. But, oh
*^ was scarce a moment with me when he received his fatal wound.'*
Wolfe had scarcely given the order to advance when he sank to the
ground. Vol. Ill, p. 203.
In fact the first and final formation of the line of battle ''were
"formed immediately in front of the eminence of the gaol,'' Vol. Ill, p.
1 18, 9 ; the right n-ear the sunmiit of the cliff overlooking the St. Law-
rence, and the left en potence, near the Ste. Foyc road. Hie crest of this
eminence between the two armiies was reacned by this line so formed
and is well delineated on the plan. Vol. II., p. 254:, showing there the
array of the English army. " Mr. Doughty repeats that shortly after
nine, tlie two armies moved a little nearer;'' this short march may have
been the last halt of the English after attaining tlie above crest. In
any case this advance could not and did not exceed, at most, the 300
yards beyond the front of the inonmnent, according to Mr. Doughty;
and sudi space w^ reduce to 100 yaixls.
Mr. Doughty says, 111, p. 207 : " It is quite clear he (Wolfe), sur-
'* vived his removal to the rear of the army but a few minutes/^ As it
is well known he asked as a favour to be laid down, being unable to go
any further; what about the 200 yards additional? The presumption
would be that he would have expired on the way.
This much being said and so far settled, as to the place of the for-
mation of the line and its last stand, we shall see how it has a direct
bearing on determining the jjo.sition of the 48th Kegiment, the Webb,
under Colonel r>urton, forming part of the second line or reserve
on tlie right, and drawn up in eight subdivisions. We need not trouble
ourselves with the reserve on the left'; it was ordered to stand and
stood ^^800 pa.es fiom the lini'/' lliat is "JOOO feet. Vol. IIT, p. 93.
S^ome of the plans even .-how iIr' Wobl) in line with it. 11, p. 257.
[casorain] remarks OV "THE SIEGE OF QUEBEC" 121
It must be known that on the plains there existed two roads, the
Chemin St-Louis, and another, the lower one, leading frani the Foulon,
running not far from the cliff, and joining the first named road at the
eastern end of the race course, in a diagonal direction, and rather free
and indefinite tliere. This lower road was never legalized, tûiat is to say,
made a public highway or legally settled as such by a procès-verbal du
Grand-Voyer, It always remained till quite lately, a road of conve-
nience, de toUrance and is now shut. This is the "convenient road*'
mentioned by Knox.
A glance at the different maps in these volumes, I, p. 264, — II, p.
257 — II, p. 272, letter K, — and Hawkins* plan, will show that the
reserve of the Webb was sftationed between these two roads, at a dis-
tance from the line varying from 800 paces (II, p. 267, III, ,p. 116), to
mu-ch less no plans. Vol. I, p. 264 and p. 257. On Hawkins' map it
appears more distant than the space between the two armies. A fair
average would locate the Webb aft mid-distance between the main line on
the eminence and the post in the rear, the Royal Amenoans ; and in any
case somewhere on the ground of the race-courisc, not nearer than the
old stand, being the least possible distance by the plans, that \& to some
400 feet from its eastern side. The whole space of the battle field thus
occupied by the British troops (without reckoning the advanced pla-
toons and scouts), would not then exceed 20 arpents, to use this better
understood measure.
Now we are at a loss to understand the possibility, by Mr. Doughty,
to extricate the Webb from the Plains or race-course- The standing of •
Burton's reser\'e within 30 yards from the spot where Wolfe died,
forcibly reminds his placing of ^lontcalm's right in St-Sauveur.
Is it then unfair to ask the collaborators to this part of the narra-
tive, if they all persist in affirming that the Webb reserve was not on
the race-course, because we frankly give them credit that their false
conclusions are errors in argument, not a breach of veracity. A sub-
missive silence could be taken as a suppression of truth or a reticence.
Let us now come to some active military operations on the same
race-course from the beginning of the day.
We shall not take into account the landing of the troops on the
beach at l'Ani?e-des-Mùres, right opix)eite, and all along the beach of
this ground, then fonming part of the whole property belonging to
the Ursuline nuns down to river and low-water mark.
But this act of hostility so far, was resisted from above the cape,
as we shall see.
On this subject we read that:
After the capture of Verger's post (see this post indicated by tents.
Plan, V, 11, p. 257) his dying guards were still lurking in the adjoining
122 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
field or field of Indian com extending on Marohinont and on the Plains.
They were followed by a few grenadiers and the party who had reached
the summit of the cliff. " The fugitives fled before them and, being
" vigorously pursued, their lieutenant, hoB drummer, and several of the
" men were taken prisoners. The remainder escaped from the field,
"passing through the htishes which surmount the cliff and endeavoured
" to reach tàe shelter of the town." They fled to and joined the post
at FAnse-Hies-Mères.^
They must necessarily have covered the ridge of the raceKJouree
on their way, because they kept firing all along on the boats.
For we read again:
Col. Howe having taken possession oî the St.-Michel (Samos)
ba'ttery, " drove in all the small parties which were posted on tihe
"heights and annoyed our columns going up the Hill." The Town*-
hend Papere, Vol. V., p. 214; ibid., p. 268.
"The light infantry was disposed, some in the woods upon our
" left flank, to cover that side, and others to scour the face of the hank
" towards the townJ' Vol. V, p. 50.
And this is confirmed also by Moncrief, who says, that after the
taking of Verger's picket and some prisoners, — " the remainder made
" their escape along the edge of the bank tow€urd the town, and with some
^^ small flying parties posted there kept firing upon some of our boats,
"which had by mdstake dropped down too far that way, where the
" general was obliged to follow in his own boat to order them back.**
Vol. v., p. 50.
Vol. III., 81. — "A few of the boats of the second division, swept
" down by the ebb tide, had passed tie landing place and were endea-
" vouring to effect a landing at PAnse-des-Mères, somewhat nearer the
" city. They did not accomplish their purj)ose, for some of the pickets
" who had escaped from the posts commanding the preciiwce, pre-
" vented thoir disembarkation. Then Wolfe came.''
*The site of L' Anse-des-îtières properly so called according to Bouohette,
would be placed at the south-west extremity of Cape Diamond, not very far
from the wall of the citadel, wnere a small cove Is indented in the cape and
Is now called Diamond Harbour.
It Is to be found in the same locality under the same name of Anse-de^-
mères, according to the i>lan by A. Larue, surveyor, published by Wm. Cowan
& Son (without date, but known to be 1832), and lithographed by Alian &
Ferguson, for Robert Wedr, wholesale stationer, Glasgow.
But it is now well known, that from early times, the popular acception
of l'Anse-des-Mères, was at mid-distance from the town and the Foulon.
Franquet, the French King's engineer (1752), placed \t à un quart de lieue de
celle du Foulon ; — that is on line wdth the east end of the rOice-couirse ;
it is known to-day as such. The plaji Vol. II., p. 272 (al.«?o in Mante),
shows the kujt boats landlmg there, having been carried down so far and
they were flred at from the post above.
[casqrain] remarks ON "THE SIEGE OF QUEBEC" 128
Other operationa on the same Plains preceded the real conflict.
We have seen that as soon as the remainder of the Otway came up
with the second convoy, it was ordered straight to re-enforce the right
and intercept the enemy^s advance along the edge of the cliff. They
must, in consequence, have followed the lower road on the Plains lead-
ing in right direction to the post assigned to them.
It is unlikely tihat this regiment, out of a loss of 54 men in killed
and wounded, none should have then fallen from the constant fire of
skirmishers, so numerous all round, as may be seen on the mape and
especially on the one of the British Mu&eum. Vol. II., p. 254:. This
is the more likely because the Otway, during the conflict, was stationed
on the second line as a reserve.
At tiie same time, the Britisih brought to the front two brass
6-pounders, which the sailors had -dragged lup the Poulon path and
along the lower road.
This operation is distinctly indicated on the same map of the
British Museum, thus: *'Z>, English artillery march'/' the two pieces
following this road and Joining the St. Loui^ road. There they were
placed in position with the line by about eight of the clock.
Seeing again the number of flanking parties surrounding the Eng-
lish on all sides, it is probable some of the sailors and gunners must
have also been fired at, and may be comprised among the eight gunners
and matrosses of the artillery killed and wounded.
Now, whether the race-course was or was not a fit ground to deploy
troops, the above described military moves and operations neverthelesB
took place there.
At all events, the foregoing skirmishes and operations seem a
BuflScient rebuttal to the broad assertion of M. Chapais, that not a
soldier did fight on the race-course, and not a drop of English or French
blood was shed there on either side.
We may now appeal to the commanding officer, Brigadier-General
Townshend, who declared prisoners of war all the French wounded
lying in the General Hospital, because it formed part of the battle
field; he would not have scrupled to extend the whole battlefield from
the Samos battery and Vergor's post to the sam-e hospital. A military
writer would not hesitate to extend it from the landing place to the
pontoon-bridge on the St. Charles river, since the firing continued all
along.
It seems to us that any reader must have a mighty and inveterate
proposition to struggle with, should he be unable, with these data, to
recognize the race-course as forming part of the battlefield.
For him, and in last resort, we shall proffer the best, and in our
apprehension, a convincing final evidence from the authentic " Memoirs
124 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
of the Siege of Quebec/' by Quarter-Master Sergeant John Johnson, who
is admitted a good witness and a competent authority.
We shall simply quote his own words in relation to the battlefield :
It is proper to state that Sergeant Jolinson took part in the first
battle of the Plains, and was al^ fighting hard at the battle of Ste.
' Foye, or rather Sillery, as more properly named by the English. We
take it as well known that Levis won the day by taking his enemy's
left in flank and in rear, having succeeded in pushing Colonel Poulaiies
with tho Koya'l RouesiUon far enough along the diff, so that by a rush
in flank and by a reveoise attack, he broke General Murray's line, and
thereby decided the victory by a complete rout and flight of the Eng-
lish troops.
This happened at the west end of the race-couree.
Here is what Sergeant Johnson says three times as to the battle-
fields: "It did not appear that either the oflBcera or
*'' men were in the least intimidated, as, trusting in the saane good
*' Providence, that had gained us that glorious victory, on the same
ground the thirteenth of the preceding Septemiber.'' Vol. V., p. 120.
. . . . "Again, Although our men were as zealous for the
*' service of their country, and the honor of His Majesty, as they
*'were in that battle fought on the same ground the thirteenth of the
" preceding September; .... Id., p. 122.
". . . . In two memorable actions: One on the thirteenth
"of September, the glorioue day wherein we gained the full reward
^' of our toil and labour in the siege of Quebec ; and again on the
" twenty-eighth of April, on the same ground. Id., p. 159.
It is then not surprising that the common sense of the people of
the Dominion, supported by the same sentiment from abroad, cut short
the controversy and settled de facto the disputed historical point.
The Federal Government, yielding to the pressure of public
opinion, purohased the Plains of Abraham and handed them over to
the city of Quebec, to be used and kept as a park and a national pos-
session. They are thus to remain in perpetuity a testimondal in honour
of the brave soldiers of the two great nations who inhabit this country,
who then shed their blood, fighting against each other on these grounds,
and now live together in peace and amity, for its common welfare.
But above all, they shall be held in cherished and holy remembrance
of the dying heroes
Wolfe and ^Ioxtcalm.
Uumanum est errare. — Theroforo, we invito students possessing
historical, military and geometrical qualifications to revise our findings,
and we will be glad to correct any error we may have fallen into.
[CASQRAIN] REMARKS ON «'THE SIEGE OF QUEBEC" 12B
because it will turn to the more perfect discovery of truth and to the
best advantage of our history; also it will serve to enhance the value
of Mr. Doughty^s able and remarkably useful contribution.
APPENDIX.
Where the Battle of the Plains of Abraham was Fought.
An Answer to Mr. Arthur Doughty.
The Question Discussed by Mr. P.-B, Casgrain.
A brief review of the paper published in the Transactions of the
Royal Society of Canada, 1899-1900, Vol. V, p. 359, " The probable Site
of the Battle of the Plains of Abraham," by Arthur G. Doughty.
K. Henry — What is this Caatle cjalled that stand hard by ?
Montjoy — They call it Agrinoourt.
K. Henry— Then we call this the field of A^inoourt.
—.Shakespeare, Henry V., Act 4, scene 7.
So might have said the immortal Wolfe, to his surrounding com-
panions, when, dying in the arms of victory on that glorious day, the
13th September, 1759, he cast a last failing glance on the field around
him : — " Let tbis be called the battle of the Plains of Abraham."
And so it will be known for ever by that appropriate name and all
the field around the spot where he breathed his last.
Credit is due to the author of the cited monograph for his 18
months' researches to elucidate, according to his own light, the " pro-
bable" site of that memorable battle.
We are fully convinced that he is as intent on arriving at the whole
truth as he and we are intent on suppressing no portion of it.
Should the writer have erred, as we propose showing, it is meet
erroneous statements and unwarranted conclusions should not pass un-
challenged; otherwise they might go abroad in future as uncontroverted
historical facts, the more so, because they appear under the auspices of a
learned and distinguished body such as the Royal Society of Canada.
We are not yet sure, unless further and better proof be furnislied us,
that, as alleged in the Morning Chronicle of April 2nd, in reference to
the same paper, " the author has made a discovery to which older and
more distinguished men have been blind for years ***** an(j
that the ideas that have prevailed among the ignorant and learned alike
for nearly a hundred years have been woefully unfounded.^'
The contention of Mr. Doughty is that the race course does not form
any part of the battlefield and that the fighting was confined between de
126 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
Salaberry street and the walls of the city (p. 360) ; moreover, that the
condition of the ground now forming the race course would have pre-
sented operations there on the day of the battle (Note 5, p. 418).
On the other hand, what is now asserted, as based on tradition and
the documentary evidence, is that the English army was formed into line
across the race course and extended from the ridge of the cliff to and be-
yond the Ste. Yoye road; that the opening of the battle on the English
side took place when and after they had advanced on the eminence of the
gaol, where they awaited the fire of the enemy; and that on returning
the fire and charging, the fight extended from thence to the walls of the
town and down the valley of the St. Charles to the bridge of boats.
Mr. Doughty ignores the operations at Sillery, in the morning, the
firing and skirmishing between the two foes for more than an hour by
outposts, before and during their forming into line ; also the advance, by
several halts, during half an hour, before the battle, of which he treats
very lightly.
Mr. Doughty will allow us, therefore, a fair, impartial and brief
criticism in examining carefully some of his statements and more par-
ticularly the plans on which he bases his theory and on which he relies as
the gist of his contention.
1. Keferring to the plan A, p. 378, being a reliable plan of the
City of Quel)ec, with the neighbouring country extending to Marcih-
mont, — a6 it appears to-day, — tihe position of the regiments of both
armies, English and French, are indicated by black marks, as standing
ready for action.
This plan is drawn by St. Michel, June, 1899, and enlarged from
the original, which is on a very small scale, and which was edited in
1760 by Thos. Jefferys (not Jeffreys) in his " Natural an-d Civil History
of the French Dominion in North and South America," London, 1761.
The extreme right of* Montcalm, composed of the burgess of
Quebec and Indians, is miadc there to extend in the valley of the St.
Charles, now St-Sauveur, from below the Coteau Ste-Genevieve, ap-
posite Martello Tower No. 4, eo far as the comer of the modem streets
St. Luc and Ste. Gertrude, covering a space of more than half a mile
in length in a westerly direction.
We confess we hardly credit eu:r eyes, so contrary is such position
to all the historians and to Mr. Doughty's own text.
(a) We have always read and believed that both araiies, as a whole,
met on the Heights of Abraham.
(6) That the burgess of Quobec and the Indians occupied tihe crest
of the Coteau Sie-Geneviève and extended even beyond tie reserve of
the English left.
[cAflOKAiN] REMARKS ON »*THE SIEGE OF QUEBEC 127
(c) On the plan they are entirely cut oflf from the main body by
the steepness and height of the coteau and by their distance.
(d) In that position they have no enemy to encounter, and would
have to scale this cliff before reaching him.
(e) This position differs in toto from Mr. Doughty's own text.
At page 391 he quotes Entick as mentioning the "Canadians as
being placed on the bank, and on the borders of the Cote Ste-Gene-
viève, and on his plan, which is apparently the same as Jeffreys, th«
Canadians are shown to be in this direction."
And what is more, he himself says that on the plan (A) it will be
noticed that the CaBadians are placed on the sloping ground of Cote
Ste-6eneviève.
They ought to be, but they are not.
"All this evidence," he adds, " confirms the accuracy of the plan,
so far as the position of the Canadians are (sic) concerned.
We admit our impossibility of conciliating the text with the plan,
however carefully meafiured and prepared by Mr. Oharest (p. 365). It
is erroneous.
(/) If so, it remains evident, as a consequence, that the whole
line of Montcalm, being thus carried up half a mile, without any appar-
ent gap, is shown not to be able to extend far enough on its left to
meet properly the right of Wolfe, which roaches very near the edge of
the Cape.
(g) P. 401. To maintain the French battalions drawn into a
straight line, en front de bandière, as he was forced to do, he is more
xmfoiiunate than Mr. Hawkins, whom he alleges to have been so be-
cause he proved too precise as to the relative positions of ihe army
(French).
Mr. Doughty might have found the terminus a quo et ad quern
on Jefferys^ plan and in the text of th<e latter; and also on Hawkins'
plan of 1841 (wbich he does not controvert); that line passes from the
General Hospital to the heights of the Buttes-à-Nepveu, or Martello
Tower No. 2.
(h) By placing the French line midway between Lewis Gate and
the ButteS'à'Nepveu, on his plan A, Mr. Doughty has failed to observe,
as a fact under his eyes every day, that the down grade from these
Buttes to that middle point is such that the troops could not see, nor
tven be seen by the enemy from thence.
2. Now let us examine the position of the English battalions on the
same plan.
Their front is nearly a straight line, having the two extremities
formed en potence towards each cliff, and a reserve at some distance be-
hind.
128 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
(a) The Amherst Regiment is placed on the verge of the coteau Ste.
Geneviève, one branch of the potence covering it and the other facing
west towards the Indians.
(&) This formation at this point is impossible according to Mr.
Dought/s own text, because it would be exactly in the middle of the
îYench line of Canadians bordering the same coteau.
(c) The object of forming en potence there would cease to exist,
since it was formed with the view of preventing the French from turning
the English flank at that point.
(d) This potence, as a matter of fact, was at some distance from the
cliff and near Ste. Foye road, and was covered in rear from the Indians
by the Royal American and light infantry.
3. By thus disposing the English line as shown on the plan A, it will
be seen :
(a) That Wolfe met his final death wound at a long distance, about
a quarter of a mile from the spot where he is known to have died, whereas
he was not carried in rear more than about 100 yards after he fell, accord-
ing to various and undoubted authorities, such as the Grenadiers who
supported and carried him to the rear. (James Henderson and others.)
(b) As the fighting was continued by the resistance of the 1500
Canadian sharpshooters in the intervening copice, who exerted themselves
at this instant with more than common ardour (Entick 4, p. 119), it is
hardly possible that Wolfe, having passed beyond that point, could have
been safely carried back to such a long distance without eminent danger
and severe contest, in which case some mention of it would be found in
some of the writers.
(c) The two mortal wounds of Wolfe did not permit carrying him
at such distance, he was in the agonies of death and expired soon alter
the last shot he had received.
" He first received a ball through his wrist, which immediately
wrapping up, he went on with the same alacrity, animating his troops by
precept and example. But in a few minutes after, a second ball, through
his bcdy, an inch below the navel, and a third, just above his right breast,
obliged him to be carried off a small distance in the rear, where roused
from fainting in the last agonies by the sound of Hhey run f he eagerly
asked, 'Who run?' and being told the French, and that they were de-
feated, he said : ' Then I thank God ; I die contented,' and almost in-
stantly expired." (Entick, 4, p. 118, published 1763.)
But what is most sin^nilar is that Mr. Doughty (p. 407), contradicts
his plan and confirms Entick as follows:
" During this interv^il, however, that is between the time of firing,
when Wolfe received his wound, and the time when the pursuit com-
menced, Wolfe was on the spot where he died. It was after he had been
[CA8QBAIN] REMARKS ON "THE SIEGE OF QUEBEC" 129
wounded ; after he had been earrid to the rear of the front line, and while
lying upon the ground, that he was told that the enemy was giving way.
It is, therefore, apparent that he must have fallen very near to the place
where the firing occurred.'^
If so, how comes it that on this plan A, General Wolfe is made to
ftdvance and fall on the Grande-AUee, about 70 feet from the Western
gable of the Female Orphan Asylum, that is to say, nearly a quarter of a
mile from the spot where he died. AU the ingenuity and figures of Mr.
Doughty cannot remove this land mark of the monument, nor the truth
of the inscription : " Here died Wolfe Victorious/'
Nor can he obliviate the tradition of the fatal spot, marked with
reverence by Major Holland, as a meridian stone, on the eminence of
the gaol, from whence the fainting hero was carried to breathe his last
(Bouchette, Description Géographique, à-c., :p|. 483). >
These discrepancies between the text of the writer and the plan
he produces to demonstrate the correctness of his contentions, seem to
us so palpable, that we venture to assert that the whole of his system
being built on such a foundation, it must necessarily make the whole
fabric fall to the ground.
Mr. Doughty might easily have had Jefferys' diminutive plan veri-
fied by projecting it on a large map of the locality, by means of a nega-
tive on glass, on the proper scale, by the magic lantern. It would give
him a perspective view, and reproduction mechanically correct and
more reliable than any other hand drawing.
Thus he would have been able to follow Jeflferys' text so as to com-
ply with his plan and adapt that plan correctly to the ground measure-
ments of to-day.
3. On some other lees impori:ant points Mr. Doughty continues to
be inaccurate and sometimes obscure. It should have been made more
clear in what direction he extends the slope of the hill he mentions
on plan No. 1. It ought to be toward the river and not towards the
town.
Also he might have settled at once the exact position of the " King's
mill'* and adjoining bakery-house, which were situated opposite the
horn-work, (Johnstone, p. 44).
He took considerable trouble to find the distance of a musket shot.
Wolfe himself had marked that distance : *' The fire is to begin
in a regular manner, when the enemy is within shot, at about two hun-
dred yards." Instructions, etc., 1755, Entic, Vol. IV, p. 93.
4. Another point developed by Mr. Doughty we find altogether
novel : It is the probable route taken by the British army in its march
Sec. II., 1903. 9.
ISO ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
towards the town in files, as indicated on plan No. 1, that is to say, a
march straight from the hill of Wolfe's Cove towards the Ste. Foye road,
in a N". N.-West direction.
(a) This march was not possible, being through the woods of Sil-
lery.
(b) It had no immediate object, not tending towards the town.
(c) There were two branch roads at hand leading directly to the
level ground chosen by Wolfe on the plains. The lower road was good
and convenient. (Knox, p. 78).
(d) That direction north is flatly contradicted by the text (p. 371),
cited by Mr. Doughty, from Knox, which is east towards the town.
" Here we formed again, the river and the south country to our
rear, our right extending towards the town, our left to Sillery, and
halted a few minutes.*'
'* We then faced to the right, and marched towards the town by
files, till we came to the Plains of Abraham, an even piece of ground
which Mr. Wolfe had made choice of, while we stood forming upon the
hill."
We shall leave Mr. Doughty losing his way north in the woods of
Sillery, and follow Wolfe, arriving on the plains by the direct road he
had in mind to take, and from thence gaining the Ste. Poye road with
part of his troops, who marched there unopposed.
5. So ^intent is Mr. Doughty of confining the battle between De
Sala-berry street and the walls of the town, that he disbelieves or mis-
apprehends the relation of the nuns of the General Hospital, when they
say : " Nous vîmes de nos fenêtres ce massacre,** and again, "L'ennemi
maître de la campagne à deux pas de nous.** (p. 391).
From personal observation lie says no troope could be seen from
thence, who were on the level ground (meaning on the 'heights). But
the Journal of the Nuns hero refers to «the pursuit by the Engli^'h afi
far as the hospital and the bridge of boats, where, in fact, the brunt of
battle took place, and where the Highlanders lost so heavily. This
locality was part of the field of battle, so much ao, says Mr. Doughty
(p. 389), that siBch of the enemy as were wounded that day, and lay
th<îre, were made prisoners, the hoepital being considered a part of
the field of battle.**
6. Mr. Doughty places Borgia*« house at 100 yards east of Maple
avenue, on the Ste. Foye road. Since the English were repulsed from
it and that house set on fire by the French, causing their enemy to
retreat to their former position, that position necessarily must have
been some 100 yards at least west of Maple avenue, and therefore, in
line with the race-course.
[CA8GRAIH] RFAfARTTfl ON "THE SIEGE OF QUEBEC" 1Ô1
7. Agaon he is in error when he takes upon hdmBelf to place the
four gun battery, as recorded by Hawkins, at tii-e redoubt (Plan No. 1),
marked by Major Holland on the emdnence to oomimand the St. Lewis
and Ste. Foye roads.
Hawkins did not fall into this mistake. He says, p. 344: " The
first care of General Wolfe was to capture the four gun battery on tho
left of tho English, which was accomplished by General Howe.*' Thus
the Samos battery is disposed of. So far there is no discrepancy with
Mr. Doughty.
But Hawkins (p. 354) mistook th« remadns of the battery near the
race stand as existing on the 13th September, 1759, and as it appears
on the plan published by him in 1841, which contains the works, ete.,
made on the Plains after the battle. But on the accompanying plan
of the details of the battle this error is corrected and no redoubt is
to be seen there.
The subeequont redoubt was mounted, as it was believed, with
the four guns captured from the Samos battery. Mr. Doughty will
admit his misapprehension of Hawkins and charge the latter so far
as he was mistaken on a minor point, whilst '' The Picture of Quebec,"
he admits, " is an exceedingly interesting work, and by a great many
is accepted as an authority of the highest order.^^ (P. 397.)
Mr. Doughty will pardon me in saying he is a newcomer to this
country and we welcome his accession among us. But he ignores our
early traditions, and we shall continue to hold, as transmitted to us by
our ancestors, that the spot where Wolfe received the fatal wound was
marked by Major Holland at the comer of the redoubt, called " Wolfe's
Bedoubt,^^ built on the eminence of the gaol, immediately after the
battle of the Plains; and that he expired at the short distance in the
hollow where now stands his monument, distant only 75 yards from
the race-course.
Let me give him the names of a few witnesses serving under him,
who survived the immortal hero many and many years after the con-
quest, such as the venerable Mr. James Thompson, who died in 1830,
at the ripe age of 98 years; Major Samuel HoUand, who survived till
1802; Malcolm Fraser, of the 78th, till 1815; Simon Fraser, captain in
the same regiment, till 1812; and on the French side. Dr. P. Badelard,
till 1802; and a number of Canadian militiamen, among others the
grandfather of Gameau, our historian ; the father of the Hon. Elie Gin-
gras, M.L.C., who, at the age of 19, was serving under Montealm; both
of whom transmitted directly to these their descendants faithful relar
tions of the war.
It is hard to be told that we have all been woefully in error for
the last hundred years as to the site of the battle, and that the square
182 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
space of ground called the race-oourse could not have been trodden
by any soldder on that day.
Nevertheless Mr. Doughty asserts that the Third Battalion of the
Royal Americans was detached to the ground of Marchmont and occupied
the whereabouts of the present buildings to preserve the communication
with the beach and the boats. This, he adds, proves that the line of
battle was not in the immediate vicinity of the Marchmont property.
The inference is not to be so lightly drawn. The true reason is aflSxed
and precedes : it was because " the two armies moved a little nearer to
each other,^' and the Third Battalion, which had been left to guard the
landing, was detached from there at that time for the purpose. Mante,
(not Manthe), p. 255.
This indicates that the line was not then far away and that this bat-
talion formed part of the rear guard as well, in case of a possible retreat.
More than that, the communication thus secured between this rear and
the front line and advanced outposts cannot but be considered otherwise
than covering the field of battle from Marchmont towards the town on a
space hardly more than half a mile.
How Wolfe could avoid trespassing on the race course, when two
roads were leading and joining through it, and not take advantage of the
shortest cut before him, we are at a loss to understand. It would have
been impossible for him to form his right wing near the cliflE and reserve
behind without utilizing a part of it, the more so as he rested this wing
on the lower road.
But without going outside of my own family tradition, I may in-
form Mr. Doughty that the three brothers Duperron, Louis and François
Bâby, my great-grand-uncles, served during the whole of the seven years
war, down to the capitulation of Montreal. François, then 26 years
of age, survived to October, 1820, and was a contemporary of and in im-
mediate contact with my mother, Elizabeth Anne Baby, his grand-niece,
bom in 1803, and who died at Quebec at the ripe age of 86 years. From
that source she was possessed of many incidents and details of the war.
On the other hand she knew Marguerite Cassault, wife of Jean-Fran-
çois Casgrain, my great-grandfather. This old lady had lived 25 years
under the old régime, and had been an eye-witness at Chateau-Richer,
her native place, of the devastation and burning of all the surrounding
country by Wolfe, as also of the shelling and destruction of her home in
Ohaanplain street. Let me add further that this Jean-François Casgrain,
her husband, bom in 1716, was present at Fontenoy, 11th May, 1745,
and was serving then in the '^Carabineers,'* sumamed 'TLee Invincibles f'
and these, together with the Brigade Irlandaise, as is well known, re-
trieved the day which had been nearly lost. Wolfe, then a young lieuten-
ant of 18 years of age, was in the opposite ranks, though not on the field
[GA8GRAIN] REMARKS ON <<TH£ SIEGE OF QUEBEC" 133
that day, but soon after they met at Lawf eldt, to meet again at the siege
of Quebec in 1759, where Casgrain, though lame from former wounds,
still served the Lower Town batteries against the English fleet. He died
in 1802, very near completing his 86 years. If therefore, personally, I
rely with some degree of confidence upon the veracity of the persons al-
luded to, who were well acquainted with the men and events of their
times, in a. comparatively limited community, Mr. Doughty will allow
me, with all due respect for his attainments, to differ from him, and re-
tain my old cherished ideas on both battles of the Plains of Abraham.
So far we have confined ourselves exclusively to the review of this
monograph, in pointing out Doughty vs. Doughty. It would require a
more complete criticism by comparing him with the divers writers on the
subject, weighing each authority and the whole of them in a true scale,
and not taking approzima.t6 estimates of distances as correct or con-
venient data. A careful and studious writer might do this with the view
of adding valuable and precise information to one of the most salient
points in Canadian history.
Ao^e.— This appendix Is not intended to form part of the a;bove notes,
nor piresented an violation of the rule ais to printed doouments,— but simply
to «pare the reader's time and troulble in referring to the files of the Queheo
Mommff Uhrtmicle, in onder to ascertain the date and nature of the objections
raised and puibUahed against some of Mr. Dougih/ty's TiewB and Ktatementa.
Section U., 1903 [ 138 ] Traks. R. 8. C.
VIII. — Intrusive Ethnological Types in RuferPs Land.
By Rev. Db. Q. Bbyoe.
(Read May 19. 1908.)
Th€ filling up of the great north and west of Canada at the present
time, by immigrants from all parts of the world, suggests to students
of race an inquiry into the early intrueionfi of ethnological types into
Rupert's Land, w«hich became a part of Canada in 1870.
The region known from the incforporation of the Hudson's Bay
Company in 1670 until 1870 as Buperf s Land, was the centre of attrac-
tion, (1) for several tribes of Indians; (2) later, for bands of traders,
settlers and coloniats of diSorent nationaliti^. While at present it
is the agricultuial and pastoml features of this region that are drawing
to it thousands to settle, yet for two centuries before the Northweat
became a part of Canada, fur-bearing animals, including on the prairies
mighty herds of buffaloes, attracted different races and peoples to the
land.
Rupert's Land as d«fin^ by the charter of the Hudson's Bay
Company, included the lands lying on the rivers and other bodies of
water tributary to Hudson Bay. This vast region of varying physical
features was divid-ed into two parts by a line drawn from the inter-
section of parallel 90° W. long, with the north shore line of Lake
Superior, running west and northwestward to Lake of the Woods, thence
to Lake Winnipeg, up its eastern shore, and far away to the Arctic
sea. East of this line is the rocky region, with its Laurentian and Hu-
ronian rocks, woods and crystal streams even to Labrador. West of
the line lie the wide fertile prairies, generally treeless, covered with rich
grasses, and originally inhabited by the buffalo, bear, and antelope.
Eastern and Western Rupert's Land appealed in very different ways
to the various classes of intruders who were drawn to them.
EABLY BACB8.
When the French explorer, Nicolet, first of white men, in 1634,
found his- way westward, he passed up the Ottawa, down the streams
to Georgian Bay, and through that bay, encountering Indians of Algon-
quin stock. These were the Ottawas, Pottawottomies, and OJibways.
Among these three tribes a confederacy existed known as the " Three
Fires." When Nicolet reached the St. Mary river, and at the head
of it Sault Ste. Marie, he found the Indians to be still Ojibway, a lead-
tBQ BOYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
ing stirps of the Algonquins. The local name given by the French
to the Indiana of the district was
BAUTEimS.
DifiEerent forms of the word have been used, <as: — Saulteurs, Sanl-
teux, Sauteux, or more commonly, Saulteanx. This family of Indians
had very marked features of life and behaviour. They might well be
called the Indian gypsies of the west.
BourgainvdUe in his Memoir (1757) tells us that he found numbers
of this tribe trading far up Lake Superior at Nepigon. He says:
'^ This tribe, one of the most numerous in these regions, is wandering,
plants nothing, and subsists solely by the chase and fishing.'^ As
far west as the Kamdnistiquia river he found Saulteaux, and they were
an aggressive and intrusive mce, with their faces set westward.
In 1808 Alexander Henry, Jr., found Saulteaux mingling with
the Crées on the south branch of the Saskatchewan, fifteen hundred
miles west of Sault Ste. Marie. They had there actually become
adapted to the use of horses — a remarkable thing for a canoe-loving
Algonquin.
A celebmted fur trader, Peter Grant, in 1804, writes a finish'ed
and accurate account of the " Sauteux Indians.^' This sketch is to
be found in Ex-Governor Masson's "Bourgeois du Nord-Ouest.'' He
describes the Saulteux Indians, in the main, as follows :
Of common stature.
Somewhat slender.
Complexion, whitish copper-coloured.
Hair: black, long and strong.
Point of nose slightly flattened.
Lips, full.
Cheeks, high and prominent.
Eyes, black.
Face — rather hanKÎsome.
The Saulteaux were well adapted by their nomadic life for the
life in the rockland forest, and here their influence was strongly felt.
Grant speaks of their country as bounded on the northeast by Nipissing
(and Hudson's Bay?); on the southwest by the south side of Lake
Superior, in a line to the head of the Mississippi, and from thence to
Eed River. He states their popuktion to be 6,000 souls. (Probably
Grant did not distinguish very clearly the Saulteaux from the Crées. —
G. B.).
Groups of Saulteaux are to this day to be found on the Red and
Assiniboine rivers, and even on the Saskatchewan.
[bbycb] ethnological TYPES IN RUPERTS LAND 187
In considering the Sanlteaux it is not to be forgotten that it was
among those Indians at Sault Ste. Marie that H. E. Schoolcraft col-
lected his immense store of Indian legend, from which Longfellow
obtained the material of " Hiawatha.'^
THS CBEE8.
But long before the Saiilteaux developed in numbers and power,
the Ojibways of the Upper Lakes had spread themselves to the noriii
and west. Indeed, the migration noted by the eariy French explorers
from Sault Ste. Marie, was but one of the movements which had been
going on probably for many centuries before. The eariier Ojibway
migrations had" given ris»e to a vast nation, of several divisions, known
as the Crées. Their name was variously spelt by the early writers* :
Christineaux, Kristinos, Klistinos, Kinistineaux, Knistinos, etc.
I.
Leaving Lake Superior and Lake Winnipeg and going noriieast-
ward the rivers and lakes are found to supply food, and the forests
to provide hunting for a scattered tribe called the Muskegons or Maske-
gons. This type is stout, low-«et, dark, and somewhat stolid in appear-
ance. The women generally incline, especially in more advanced years,
to obesity. They are familiariy known as the Swamp or Swampy Crées,
from their country being largely made up of swamp or muskeg. Not
only do the Swamapy Crées extend to Hudson Bay, but they are found
as a persistent type in Labrador, reaching up till they meet the Eski-
mos*, with whom they are at deadly enmity.
IL
While the Ojibways hold the Lake of the Woods district, and are
found at Red Lake and other Indian settlements in Northwestern
Minnesota, they do not seem to have spread westward, past the Eed
River and Lake Winnipeg region. The Crées, however, have pushed
beyond this district, and are found among the forests of the Winni-
pegoosis and Lower Saskatchewan. Their habits not having changed
from those of the Lake Superior and Lake Huron Indians, they resem-
ble the ordinary Wood Indian. They were called by the French " Lea
Cris de bois," and now as wandering bands are known as the Wood
Crées.
Id8 BOYAL 80GIETT OF CANADA
m.
By far ihe most intereetiiig branch of the Crée stock are the
Plain Crées of the English, or " Les Cris de prairies '^ of the French.
The Plain Crées are stalwart, brave, reckless, fond of horse-racing
and gambling, but have many noble qualities, being true, and less
revengeful and cruel than the Sioux. Finding the necessity of chang-
ing their habits to become residents of the prairie, their fathers for-
sook the canoe and the bark wigwam, and adapted themselves to trans-
port by the horse, and to residenoe in skin or leather tents. The
horse had been brought by the western bands of Indians from Mexico,
where it was introduced by the Spaniards, and became invaluable for
crossing the wide plains of the west. The Wood Crée or Ojibway
had become accustomed to the use of the train-dog, or Huskie (a cor-
ruption of Bskie, being a wolfish-looking strong dog used by the Eski-
mos). With this the Indian could cross the lakes in winter or follow
the river, but the dog cannot compare in efficiency with the horse.
That this is the proper genesis of the horse-using habit of the Plain
Crée is shown by the Plain Crée word for horse, viz. : '* Mis-ta-tim/'
or " big dog.*' The bufiBalo was the great object of attraction on the
prairies. The Indians of the buffalo country were always in plenty.
The Indian women, used in tanning the dung of birds and the
astringent bark of the willow, and so succeeded in making excellent
leather. Thus the skins of buffalo and deer were tanned for making
tent leather, a more suitable, and more durable material for the "tee-pee^*
or tent than birch-bark could have been. The camps of the Plain
Crées were large, and the great chiefs were possessed of a great weaJth
of horses, tents and guns. The 'chief means of transport on their horses
was by means of the " travoie " or crossed poles over the backs of
horses, the lower ends trailing on the ground. The squaws, who were
expert riders, managed the whole " transportation question." Th«
Athabasca Crées reeemibled the Plain Crées, though somewhat modified
by their northern habitat.
LINGtnSTICS.
The question of language is too large to be discussed at any length
in this paper. The Ojibways, including their sub-family of Saulteaux,
and the three subdivisions of Swampy, Wood, and Plain Crées, ail
gpeak the same Algonquin tongue. Yet the very considerable differences
show the length of time that must have elapsed since the forward wave
of the Swampy Crées left the homes of the Algic (adjective for
Algonquin) nation on the north shore of the Great Lakes. It is said
[bbtcb] ETHNOLOQICAL TYPES IN RUPERT'S LAND 189
•
that shades of difference in pronunciation can be detected among the
Swampy Crées, every hundred miles from Lake Winnipeg to the shores
of Hudson Bay. The use of different consonantal equivalents is very
marked, although care must be taken to examine the nationality^
whether French or English, of the lexicographer who has reduced the
Indian language to the written form. For example. Lake Winnipeg was
first written by the French Ouinipique; and by the English on Hudson
Bay Winipic. Christeneaux was the earlier spelling of the name for
the Crées by the Frencsh, Cristinos by the English. The following
table will be sufficient to show the modification of the consonantal
sounds of the same word by different branches of Crées. It is the
three persons of the personal pronouns, as given by Father Lacomîbe:
I Thou fld
Saultcaux (Ojibway) nin kin win
Muskesrons (Swampy Crées) nina klna wlna
Wood Crées nila klla wlla
Plain Crées nlya kiya wlya
Athabasca Crées (Far Nortii) nira kira wlra
It will thus be seen that marked peculiarities are found in the
Algic races and languages, and that certain physical differences may be
made out among the different types. No mention has been made of
the Blackfeet and allied nations living near the foothills of the Rocky
Mountains. They seem ethnologically and to some exitent linguistic-
ally related to the Crées, but the relationship is too vague to be con-
sidered at present.
THB SIOUX INTRUDERS.
The various Algonquin tribes have for centuries been at war with
the tall, handeome and athletic Indians living on their southern bordeiB,
viz., the Iroquois on the Ohio river, and the Sioux or Dakotas on the
Mississippi. The most feasible theory as to these neighbours of the
Algonquins is that they -came northward in a whirlwind of fury up the
Mississippi from Mexico, and are probably of Aztec relationahip. Cer-
tainly the physical appearance and mental characteristics of the Iroquois
and Sioux suggest that they are the same people. Their languages^
it is stated, axe cognate, and their organization in political confederacies
is similar.
The first meeting of the Sioux with the French is chronicled by
the early French explorers early in the seventeenth century. At that
time the «country of the Sioux exteiided to the west side of Lake
Michigan, and this aggressive race virtually controlled Miehilimakinac,
so long a meeting pkce of the Indian nations. But the Ojibway
140
ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
nations — the Ottawas, Pottawattomies, and Saulteaux early obtained
firearms from the French, and with these improved weapons drove the
Sioux westward, wresting Michigan, Wiaoonsin, and what is now north-
eastern Minnesota from their hereditary enemies. The Saulteaux or
other Ojibways have to this day kept possession of the region about
Ked Lake, Minnesota. The name Sioiix was firet used by the French,
being the last syllable of the name Nadouessi — the people — with a
French termination added. The confederacy of the Sioux supplied
the name Dakotas — or Allies. How grim sraich a name sounds, when
one reflects that even before the arrival of the whites a schism had
taken place, seemingly about 1600, by which the northern tribe of the
Dakotas broke oflf from their strong confederacy. From time to time
the Sioux made dashes into the Eed Biver and Lake of lihe Woods
country, but were invariably driven back by their Crée or Ojibway
neighbours. The massacre of one of the sons of Véiandrye, in 1737,
took place on one of these forays. To this day the Sioux war road
is pointed out on the west side of the Lake of the Woods; and in
Manitoba the Missouri trail from the country of the Dakotas was
known to the early settlers.
THE ASSINIBOINES.
As already mentioned these were a seceding tribe from the Sioux
Alliance. Their name is Crée, meaning the Sioux (Bwan) from the
Stony Eiver (Assin — a stone). They were familiarly known as the
*' Stoneys " or " Stonies." It is quite possible that the Stony river re-
ferred to in ihedr naimc is that of the Upper Eed River, rising in North-
ern Minnesota from Lake Traverse — a stony lake. The Assiniboines
have always been on friendly terms with the Plain Crées, have largely
married and intermingled with them, and it is not surprising that the
western tributary of the Red River — the Assiniboine — ^bears their name.
The Assiniboine is in appearance a finer Indian than the Saulteau or
Crée. He is tall, refined, sharp-featured, and generally much less
robust than «his northern neighbour. Alexander Henry, Jr. (Cones'
edition) gives a good account of the Assiniboines found by him along
the Saskatchewan river. The habitat of the Assiniboines, however,
was on the Upfper Red river, on the Moose mountain, along the Inter-
national boundary, an'cl even into the Rocky Mountains, west of Cal-
gary. It is not unlikely that the Sioux with whom Lord Selkirk made
treaty in common with the Crées and Saulteaux may have belonged to
the Assiniboine tribe. Of weaker constitution than their Crée allies
the As-iniboines of to-day are a sickly race, and promise soon to be a
mere reminiscence of the past.
V
[bryce] ethnological TYPES IN RUPERTS LAND 141
THE REFUGEE SIOUX.
Though the Sioux war parties were, as we have seen^ in the habit
of making raids into Rupert's Land, or sometimes* trading visits, yet
their country was the region of the Missouri river, though, it extended
through what is now South Dakota, and Southwestern Minnesotfu In
the year 1862, goaded on to desperation by greedy government agents,
the Sioux rose in rebellion against the American government, made a
great massacre of tHe white settlers, and many of those most implica-
ted in the rising fled for refuge to Rupert's Land. A few survivors of
the blood-thirsty refugees, and the children of the band, still remain
on British soil, at Portage La Prairie, Brandon, Prince Albert and else-
where. The greater number of the Manitoba Sioux live on the reserves
of Birtle and Oak River, north of Griswold. These refugees, now
largely settled on reserves, are generally good farmers and sustain
themselves, being as aliens unable to receive any grant from the gov-
ernment as' the Canadian Indians of Manitoba and the Territories do.
CONDITION OP THE INDIANS.
It is a matter of some importance to state in a few words the
present condition of the Indians of the old region of Rupert's Land. An
enormous advance has been made in their conditions and prospects since
Rupert's Land became a part of Canada in 1870 — one-third of a century
■ago. In almost all parts of this vast region the Indian has become sta-
tionary and not nomadic. In many cases reserves have been made, and
the pjesit mass of the Canadian Indians live in houses of their own.
While hunting and fishing are still favourite occupations with them,
yet large numbers of the Indians are farmers to-day. Schools are very
generally maintained among them by the Dominion Government, and
industrial schools supported by the government under the direction of
the different religious denominations are doing a most excellent work
among the Indian youth.
For many years before Confederation the different churches carried
on missionary work among the Indians, but in the last generation this
has been greatly stimulated and to-day there is scarcely an Indian settle-
ment of any size without its missionary, and there are many congre-
gations among the Indians as comely and decorous as those of their
white neighbours.
142 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
THE ICETIB.
The Metis or French half-breeds, earlier known as the Boîsbmlés,
a name which signifies the dark or charcoal-faced people, are on the
father's sid-o the descendants of an energetic race which invaded
Rupert's Tjand. The Scottish Fur Company of Montreal, virtually
begun by Alex. Henry, sr. (1760), Thos. Curry (1766), Jas. Finlay,
(1768), carried on th-eir trade by means of sturdy and venturesome
French-Oanadian voyageurs from the banks of the St. Lawrence. It is
somewhat snrprifiing that these first traders after tihe conquest of 1759,
found no tribe of French natives in the borders of Rupert's Land.
Under British rule it became different, and it is even said that the
traders encouraged the «marriage of a certain number of their men with
the Indian women for the purpose of retaining them in their service
in the country. Whether this statement be correct or not it in cer-
tain that the Metis or Boisbrulé became a well marked type in Rupert's
Land. At the beginning of the 19th century, so decided had become
the feeling of kinship and common interest that the Boisbrulés spoke
of themselves as " Thé New Nation.'' No doubt this feeling was
encouraged by their leaders, the Nor'westers to stir them up against
their rivals of the Hudson's Bay Company. The Metis are as a rule :
Tall,
Active,
Athletic,
Excitable and restless.
Good-hearted,
Brave,
Fond of amusement.
Fond of show.
rWieir residence was along the Red River, in the parishes, beginning
at Fort Garry, St. Boniface, St. Vital, St. Norbert, Stc. Agathe, Point-
de-Chênes and Lorette; on the Assiniboine river, St. Charles, St. Fran-
çois-Xavier, Baie de St. Paul ; and on Lake Manitoba, St. Laurent. Far
away in the West, on the Saskatchewan, the Metis now have their com-
fortable settlements anH live their characteristic life. Their attack on
Fort Douglas, in 1816, gave them a reputation for turbulence, which
again showed itself in the rebellions of 1849, 1869, 1885. The number
of Metis- west of Lake Superior, when Rupert's Land was merged into
Canada in 1870, probably reached 6,000 souls.
[BRYd] ETHNOLOGICAL TYPES IN RUPERTS LAND 14S
THE ENGLISH HALF-BBÈEDB.
The fact that from the beginning of its existence in 1669, to the
piresent day, the Hudson's Bay Company's vessel from the Thames* has
gone northward by the German Ocean and passed through Pentland
Frith accounts for the employment of Orkneymen in the service of the
company. Stromness was often the last port of call, and early in the
18th century, it is known that Orkneymen went to York and Churchill
Factories in considerable numbers. So early as 1775, Alexander Henry,
sr., found Orkneymen in the company's service at Fort Cumbepland.
So largely did this element preponderate in the service, that in 1816
we find the BodsbruiléB speaking of the people of the oom/pany as ^^ Les
Orcanais." The Orkneymen largely intermarried with the Indian
women in different parts of Euperfs Land, and usually on leaving the
service settled near Fort Garry. Hence the so-calkd English half-
breeds, were only known as such on account of their language, but lo-
cally were usually called " Scotch half-breeds." The English half-
breeds were: —
Middle-sized or under.
Steadier than the Metis,
Somewhat slow in movement.
Stolid,
Fairly reliable,
Sociable,
Somewhat suspicious.
Intelligent.
The names occurring among this ppople of mixed blood, are Inkrter,
Tait, Fobister, Setter, Harper, Mowat, Omand, Flett, Linklater, Spence,
Monkman, Isbister, Norquay, and so on. At the time of the transfer
of Rupert's Land to Canada, they numbered upwards of 6,000, settled
in the parishes of St. Johns, St. Paul, St. Andrews and St. Clements,
on the Red River, and in St. James, Headingly, and Portage La Prairie,
on the Assiniboine River.
OLD SETTLERS.
The oflBcers of the Hudson's Bay Company, a few traders, but espe-
cially the Selkirk Colonists of 1812-15, made up another element in the
settlers in Rupert's Land numbering at the time of the transfer some
2,000 souls. While many of the company's traders married half-breed
women, the Selkirk Scotch settlers remained for nearly two gene-
rations almost entirely separate from the native people. This was
partly on account of a strong sentiment on their pari;, but also because
144 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
they were segregated as a people in the parish of Ealdonan, which dif-
fered in faith from the other English parishes. Among the Hudson's
Bay officers, sixty-five per cent were Scotch, and notable names
among them were Pmden, Bird, Bums, Stewart, Lillie, Campbell, Chris-
tie, Kennedy, Heron, Ross, Murray, Mackenzie, Hardisty, Graham,
McTavish, Bannatyne, Cowan, Rowand, Sinclair, Sutherland, Fin-
layson. Smith, Balsillie, Hargrave and others. The people of Kildo-
nan bore the ordinary Highland names.
C0NCLU8I0K.
Some 50,000 Indians still remain in the old limits of Rupert's Land.
The original settlers of Rupert's Land have now been overwhelmed by
hundreds of thousands of new comers, and the old life of Rupert's Land
has gone never to return. Along with the new settlers, younger Kildo-
nan has spread itself out into Springfield, Sunnyside, Millbrook, Grass-
mere, Bnant and Argyle, and elsewhere; a Metis overflow has taken
place to St. Albert, Batoche, and Qu'Appelle and to many a lonely lake
and river in the KTorthwest Territories; the English half-breed has in
many cases hurried west to Edmonton, Prince Albeit and Battlef ord to
find a home like to that of his fathers on Red River; and the Saulteaux
on St. Peters, on Red River, the Crées and Assiniboines on numerous re-
serves scattered over the plains are becoming less picturesque but more
civilized and comfortable; Ojibways and Swampjy Crées are still hold-
ing their settlements on the Laurentian belt, making a living by fish-
ing, hunting, and labouring for the white settlers and lumbermen.
It will never be quite appreciated by those from abroad who have
come to the western province and territories, how much they owe to
those who preceded them in old Ruperf s Land. That earlier occu-
pation meant the occupation of the land by Indian hunter and English
and Canadian fur trader. In time by a slow but sure process came the
gradual introduction of Christianity and the attainment of a semi-civi-
lization; thus the barbarous and wandering life of the savages grew
into habits of order and settled work. By this means a valuable
pioneering and trading agency was provided for the fur trade, for sur-
ve3ring the plains and for Canadian exploration. This early occupa-
tion by the whites gave us the nucleus of our present educational and
religious organization. These influences made the Hudson's Bay Com-
pany not only a band of traders, but a company which helped forward
in different lines the improvement of the Indians, and led them to be
the friends of education and religion. If the writer reads the story
aright, all this «w^onduced to save to Britain and Canada the vast north-
west which would otherwise not unlikely have met. the fate of Oregon.
Section IL, 1903 [ 143 1 Trans. R. S. C.
IX. — The Second Legislature of Upper Canada, — 1796-1800.^
By C. C. James, M.A., Toronto.
(Communicated by W. Wllfired Campbell and read May 19, 1903).
The fifth and last session of the First Legislature of Upper Canada
began at Newark (Niagara), on the 16th of May, 179G, and closed on the
3rd of June. The four years^ life provided by the Constitutional Act
was thus filled, as the first election took place in August, 1792. Mr. D.
W. Smith, in his record of offices, published in my paper of last year,
gives 18th August, 1796, as the date of his election; we therefore con-
clude that the general elections were held in August, just four yeara
after the holding of the first.
Lt.-Governor Simcoe and his advisers had well understood that
the evacuation of Fort Niagara by British troops w^as only a question of
time and mutual arrangement and therefore the holding of the Parlia-
ment at Newark was but a temporary convenience. The pennanent
location of the capital therefore was of deep concern and Simcoe's
travels through the province were doubtless in great measure for tlie
purpose of selecting points advantageous for towns and government
%7orks. The general scheme that he had in view would appear to have
been that Kingston, Chatham, Penetanguishene and York were to be
naval bases and that the capital should be located in the interior. We
are told that he had set his heart upon a site at the Forks of the Thames
where a town to be royally named Georgina should arise, to become in
time the seat of government. The Governor-General of Canada, I^ord
Dorchester, did not see eye to eye in all things with Lt.-Governor
Simcoe. At length, however, in 1796, the forts were to be handed over
to the United States, and hence the importance of moving the capital
from Newark. The lands on the north shore were purchased from the
Indians in 1787, and in 1788, Mr. Aitkin laid out a town-plot near Fort
Toronto, in accorrlance with instructions from Surveyor- General John
Collins. In 1792, Simcoe determined upon York as the name of the
county from Durham west, and he gave the name York to the harbour
on August 27, 1793.
• Simcoe had a very favourable opinion of York, for on a promontory
overlooking the valley of the Don he built his rustic house called Castle
^ This Is the second of a seirles of papers on the Legrlslature of Upper
Canada. The first dealing with the origination of the Legislature and the
members of the first Legislature 1792-1796, appeared in the Transtactlons of
the Royal Society of Canada published last year.— C. C. James.
Sec. II., 1903. 10.
146 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
Frank and here he spent the summers of 1794 and 1795. The U. C.
Gazette of July, 1794, has an advertisement calling for carpenters for
buildings at Y'ork, whether for legislative purposes or for barracks for
the Queen^s Rangers, we cannot say. The elections were held in August,
and soon after, on 11th September, Simcoe obtained leave of absence.
The announcement was made that Peter Russell, Esq., the senior
meml)er of the Executive Council, had been appointed administrator
under the title of President. This office he filled till 1799, when he was
succeeded by Hon. Peter Hunter as lieut.-Governor. In August, of
that year, the latter arrived at York on the Government vessel " The
Sffeedy.*^ In addition to being Lieut.-Governor of Upper Canada, he
was Commander-in-Chief of the King's- forces in Canada, which neces-
sitated frequent trips to Quebec.
The following are the dates of the four sessions of the second
Legislature : —
1st Session, 16th May to 3rd July, 1797.
2nd '' 5th June to 6th July, 1798.
3rd " 5th June to 29th June, 1799.
4th " 2nd June to 4th July, 1800.
All these sessions were held at York. I have seen the statement
that the third was held at Newark, but the minutes of both the Assem-
bly and the Council bear date at York. The records of the first session
are not obtainable. Typewritten copies of the 2nd, 3rd and 4th are
available for reference in the Legislative Librar}^ Toronto.
It may be interesting to give the list of returning officers for the
second general election : —
Eastern District Cornelius Munro.
Leeds and Frontenac, Ontario and Addin-g-
«ton, Prince Edward and Adolphustown.. Poole En-grlsund.
Lienoz. Hastin^re and Northumberland B. Crawford.
2nd, 8rd and 4th Llncolns and Counties of
Durham and York Half pay officer to be recom-
mended by Beasley.
Suffolk, Essex and Kent Rdohard Pollard.
The constituencies remained the same as had been fixed by Simcoe's
Proclamation of July, 1792. By it the nineteen counties were arranged
to elect sixteen representatives and I propose now to give a few notes
as to these sixteen members.
Glengarry. — The two brothers, Hugh Macdonell and John Mac-
donell, had been selected as representatives of the first and second rid-
ings of Glengarry in the First Legislative Assembly. Col. John Mac-
donell had been Speaker. On the 9th of June, 1798, Col. John Mac-
donell was sworn in as one of the members for Glengarry, and took his
[JAMES] SECOND LEGISLATURE OF UPPER CANADA 147
seat. We thus see that he took his seat at the second session^ and a
number of questions arise : Was he elected at the time of holding the
general electdons in August^ 1796, and unable to take Ms seat during the
first session ? or was some one else elected and the seat vacated through
death or by order of the House ? The probability is that he was re-
elected at the time of the general election, but unable to appear at the
first session. Who was the other member for Glengarry, successor to
Hugh Macdonell ? In the list of members present during the 2nd, 3rd
and 4th sessions we find this name continually recurring, Capt. Wilkin-
son. There were many other members who were military officers, re-
tired officers, but they are not often designated by military title. The
conclusion I arrive at is that the Capt. Wilkinson referred to was a
captain in active service at the time. We turn to J. A. MacdonelPs
History of Glengarry, and there find a list of officers of the Glengarry
Militia Regiment in 1803, and as captain appears Richard Wilkinson.
John Macdonell was colonel and his brother Hugh Macdonell lieut.-colo-
nel of this same regiment. My conclusion then is* that Capt. Richard
W^ilkinson was the member for 1st Glengarry. On the old McNifif map
of 1st November, 1786, showing the first settlers, R. Wilkinson, is located
on lot 21 of the first concession of Charlottenburg. He was also cre-
dited with lots 18 and 19 and the half of lots 17 and 20 in the second
conx^ession. The first named lot probably locates his early residence.
In the year 1804, Walter Butler Wilkinson was elected as one of the
members for Glengarry and Prescott for the Fourth Parliament.
In the year 1800, a bill was introduced into the Legislature for the
relief of Hugh Macdonell, " late adjutant-general of the militia.^' This
refers to Capt. Wilkinson's predecessor and the fact of his filling this
ofiice referred to may explain why he was not returned a second time as
member for first Glengarry.
Dundas, — Col. Thomas Fraser was chosen member for Dundas.
He was bom in Scotland and came to America, He enlisted first in
McAlpine's Corps in which he served as lieutencint. This corpp suffered
severe loss in Burgoyne's campaign along with Peters* Corps and Jes-
sup's. After the scattered remnants were collected, he joined the Loyal
Rangers, commanded by Major Edward Jessup, and was appointed cap-
tain of the 10th Company, 22nd June, 1782. He served six and a half
years during the war. At the close of the war, the men and officers
drew lands in Grenville county. He lived just below Cardinal on the
river front near the county boundary line. His record before enlisting
is thus entered. " A farmer of property in the Province of New York,
lost by the Rebellion.'* He died in 1821, at which time he must have
bpcn well advanced in years. He served through only one parliament,
148 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
his successor in the 3rd House being Jacob Weager, one of the Palatine
German Loyalists. Mr. A. C. Casselman has called my attention to the
fact that his case was that of a non-resident representative. Dundas
was settled by Germans. Thomas Fraser lived in Edwardsburgh, on
the western limits of Matilda, or just across the line, and his selection
was doubtless due largely to the fact that he was a military officer. The
Germans served as privates in the 1st Battalion of Sir John Johnson's
Royal N. Y. Regiment. Two of their officers had settled in Dundas
county, namely Captains Richard Duncan and John Munro. In the
year 1788 or 1789 the former was made judge of the Mecklenburg
(Eastern) district, and both had been called to the Legislative Council
by Lt.-Govemor Simcoe, John Munro, on the 17th September, 1792,
and Richard Duncan on the 17th June, 1793. Their two leading ofiB-
oers thereby being out of reach, the electors of Dundas felt called to
seek a representative military officer outside of their two townships,
and so they selected Capt. Thomas Fraser in 1796. Their representa-
tive in the first House, Lt. Alexander Campbell was also a non-resident.
However, since 1800, the Germans of Dundas have sent many of their
descendants as representatives to the legislature.
There were many Erasers among the settlers of the Eastern
or Lunenburgh district. The V. E. L. list carries the names of no less
than 27 Erasers, six bearing the name Thomas, and eight that of Wil-
liam. Capt. Thomas Eraser, of Edwardsburg, was the member of the
legislature. Capt. William Eraser, his brother, also of Jessup's Loyal
Rangers, is entered as having residence in the eastern district. Their
father, William Eraser, Sr., is also on the list and was living as late as
1786, and probably in 1789, when the list was made up. Some of the
Eras(-rs located in the Bay cf Quinte district, and it is a fair inference
that those that had served in Jessup's Corps were from the same section
of New York as Capts. Thomas and William, and were probably rela-
tives. Judge Pringle in his ''Lunenburgh,'^ states that Capt. Eraser
in 1788, purchased a farm at his own expense for $100, and located upon
it a Mr. Clark who had been teaching for two year? in the Bay of Quinte
district. This ^Ir. Clark taught the first school in the Eraser district
in a log building erected hy the settlers. The author does not state
which of the two brothers thus early interested himself in the education
of the section.
Siormont. — Robert Isaac Dey Gray was elected, and he was also ap-
pointed the first solicitor-general for Upper Canada. He was the son
of James Gray, major of the Eirst Battalion of the King's Royal Regi-
ment of New York. The father settled near Cornwall at what is known
as Gray\s Creek. He was bom in Scotland, and served in the British
[JAMES] SECOND LEGISLATURE OF UPPER CANADA 149
Army for 26 years. James Gray died 11th May, 1796, aged 64, and his
wife Elizabeth Gray, died 14th February, 1800, aged 63. They are both
buried at ComwalL The address issued by Robert I. D. Gray to his
constituents may be found in Judge Pringle's " Lunenburgh/' page 258.
It is dated August 3, 1796, and is addressed " To the Free and Inde-
pendent Electors of the Township of Cornwall and Osnabruck and of
the County of Stormont." Col. Clarke, of Niagara, in his memoirs
refers to Solicitor-General Gray as being the chief promoter of the bill
against slavery. He was one of the charter members of the Law Socie-
ty of Upper Canada (1797), the first nam-e on the list being that of
John White, the first attorney-general, and the second that of Robert
Isaac Dey Gray, the first solicitor-general. These two were also chosen
Benchers of the Law Society on the 9th November, 1799, (approved
16th January, 1800), and Mr. Gray was treasurer from 1798 to 1801.
He was re-el e:"ted as member of the third legislature, being chosen for
the new constituency of Stormont and Russell in 1800. The election
for the fourth legislature was held in 1804, and he was again elected,
but he met his fate soon after in that year, being one of the victims in
the memorable loss of " The Speedy." His successor as member for
Stormont and also as solicitor-general was Mr. D'Arcy Boulton.
When John White, the attorney-general was killed in a duel,
January, 1800, he was succeeded by Thomas Scott. The reason why
Solicitor-General Gray was not promoted to this position was that it
was considered that he was too young.
Grenville. — As already stated Jesaup's Loyal Rangers were settled
in Edwardsburgh and Augusta, the two townships of Grenville, Colonel
Edward Jessup being the leading man of the county. The first Amer-
ican Jcssup was Edward, who came from England. His son Joseph
died at jVIontreal in 1779. Joseph's son Edward was bom in Stamford,
Fairfield county, Connecticut, in 1735. This member of the third
generation was evidently a man of influence. He resided at Albany and
had at his disposal a large tract north of Albany known as Jessup's
Patent. There may be seen on the large map, at the end of Vol. I.
of OTallaghan's Documentary History of New York, two blocks of land
bearing the name " E. Jessup & Co.,'' lying west and southwest of Fort
George. This will locate the section of the state in which the Jessups
recruited. Fort Edward was n^ear by, the home of Dr. Solomon Jones
and his brothers; Saratoga was a little further south; wliile east of
Saratopi was the Cambridge settlement of Irish Palatines whence ha
drew some members, among whom may be mentioned Lt. John Dulinage.
On the U. E. L. list we find Edward Jessup, Esq., major commandant;
his son, Edward Jessup; his brother, Capt. Joseph Jessup, and Henry
160 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
Jessup. Among the provincial corps organized early in the war were
those of Peters, Jessup, and McAlpine. In 1781, after the failure of
the Burgoyne expedition, the provincials were reorganized and the
corps known ae the Loyal Rangers was formed. Msljot Edward Jessup
was given the command. The list of captains was as follows: Ebor.'ezer
Jessup, John Peters, Justus Sherwood, Jonathan Jones, William
Fraser, John Jones, Peter Drummond, John W. Meyers and Thomas
Fraser. T5ie lieutenants were Guisbert Sharp, Henry Simmond, David
Jones, JamjBS Parrott, Alexander Campbell, David MeFall, John Dul-
mage, Grershom French, Gideon Adams, John Bitter, James Robin-s,
Edward Jessup; ensigns, John Dusenburg, John Peters, Elijah Bol-
ton, Thomas Sherwood, Thomas Mann. Harmonius Best, William Law-
son, Conrad Best; adjutant, Matthew Thompson; quarter-master, John
Ferguson; surgeon, George Smith, and surgeon's mate, Solomon Jones.
A few of these settled in the Bay of Quinte district, most of them in
Grenville. Four of the above became members of the legislature. The
list is an important one, containing as it does the progenitors of a large
number of the most important families of the two sections.
Major Edward Jessup settled on lands in the Ist concession of
Augusta, and on his property the town of Prescott was begun. His
soii, Liemt. Edward Jessup, of the Loyal Rangers, was bom at Albany
end flfettled beside his father at what is now Prescott. It was the
younger Edward who was elected as miember for Grenville in the second
legislature. In 1800, on his retirement from this position, he was
apipjointed clerk of the peace for Johnstown district. In 1809, he
became lieut.-colonel of the First Regiment of Leeds militia. He
died at Prescott in 1815. His father died at the same place, February,
1816.
Edward Jessup, sr., has the distinction of being one of the persons
mentioned in the New York Confiscation ». Act passed 22nd October,
1799, "An Act for the Forfeiture and Sale of the Estates of Persons
who have adhered to the enemies of this State, etc.^'
In the list appear the following : " Robert Leake, Edward Jessup
and Ebenezer Jessup, now or late of the said county (Albany), gen-
tlemen.^'
Robert Leake was major of Sir John Johnson's 2nd Battalion, and
Edward Jessup was organizer and commander of Jessup 's Corps and the
Loyal Rangers.
Leeds and Frontenac. — In the first legislature Ephraim Jones had
been member for Grenville. In the second House appears Dr. Solomon
Jones, a member of an.other family, as representative for Leeds and
Frontenac. Solomon had been surgeon's mate in Jessup's Loyal Rano:-
ers. He was bom in Connecticut, and, after studying for his profession
[jAMEs] SECOND LEGISLATURE OF UPPER CANADA IBl
at Albany, had settled with his family in the upper part of the state
near Fort Edward on the Hudson. This was Jessup's recruiting ground.
The Ephraini Jones family came to Canada via Massachusetts. Si;lomon
and no less than six brothers appear to have enlisted in the Loyalists
Corps. Two were killed, one went to Nova Scotia, and four, John,
Solomon, David and Daniel, cajne to Upper Canada. The atory of
Jane McCrae, who wa« shot near Fort Edward, comes in ae part of the
history of this Jones family, for Solomion's brother, David, was her
intended husband. Sir Daniel Jones, the first native of Upper Canada
to be knighted, was a son of Daniel, the brother of Dr. Solomon Jones.
It seems somewhat strange that the m-ember elected for the riding of
which Kingston must have formed an imiportant part should have l>oen
chosen from the extreme eastern section; but the fact of Solomon
Jones being a medical doctor with an extensive practice along the river
may be an explanation.
Lennox, HaMmgs and N orthumherland. — After the Bourgoyne
failure, the 2nd Battalion of the King's Royal Regiment of N«ew York
was formed. Sir John Johnson was It.-col. commandant of the regi-
mbent. James Gray, father of Robert Isaac Dey Gray (see Stormont)
was major of the Ist Battalion, and Robert Leake, major of the 2nd.
Some of the other officers might be mentioned. In the 1st Battalion :
Captains, John Munro, Richard Duncan, Hugh Macdonell, Jacob Far-
rand, Samuel Anderson, Hugh Munro. In the 2nd Battalion : Captains,
George Singleton and William Crawford; lieutenants, Jeremiah
French and Hazleton Spencer; and ensign, Timothy TJiompson. The
1st Battalion was settled on the St. Lawrence ; the 2nid on the Bay of
Quinte. The officers named above will all be recognized as leading
citizens of the two districts. Hugh Macdonell, Jeremiah French and
Hazleton Spencer were elected members of the first legislature. Richard
Duncan and Samuel Anderson were appointed among the first judges.
John jVfunro was a legislative councillor. Ensign Timothy Thompson
succeeded Hazleton Spencer as the member for Lennox, Hastings and
Northumberland in the second legislature. On the list in the Canadian
Archives he is returned as having been born in America, served three
years, and occupation before the war ^* private gentleman."
The following sketch of Timothy Thompson was prepared for the
author of this paper by the late Mr. Thomas W. Casey, of Napanee. In
this sketch he is stated to have married the widow of William Fraser.
This William Fraser had been adujtant in the Ist Battalion of the
King's Royal Regiment of N.Y., was bom in Scotland and served ten
years, seven of which were in the 34'th Regiment.
So far as I have yet ascertained, Timothy Thompson, a retired
officer, under pension allowance, came to South Predericksburgh at an
162 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
early time (the exact date I have not ascertained) and settled on a farm
near Conway, P.O., on the Bay of Quinte shore, a couple of lots west
of the farni owned by Rev. Ro^rt McDowall, Presbyterian missionary.
He was a member of the Church of England, St. Paul's church, Fred-
ericksburgh, and lies buried in the Presbyterian burying-ground just
opposite, in a plot near by Rev. Mr. McDowall and family. He was
married in St. John church, Bath, by Rev. John Langhom, February
6th, 1791, to Elizabeth Frasor, widow of the late William Fraser, both
of Third Town (see Ontario Historical Society Papers and Records,
Vol. 1, page 17). They had no children. He was not married before
and therefore left no children.
Mrs. Fraser, his wife, had three daughters, whom he appears to
have treated as his own family.
(1) The oldest married John G. Olute, of the same locality, who
was a promdnenit business man then and who lies buriod near, beside
Thompson. Some of his children are still living. The oldest, Mrs.
Murdoch, now of Kingston, is past 90 yeara, but remembers a good
deal. Another, David Clute, Sillsville, P.O., and his sister, Mai*garet,
who never married, also remember a good deal.
(2) Another daughter married James McXabb, M.P.P., of Belle-
ville; a son of theirs was accidentally killed in 1837, mention of which
is made in Canniffs Histor}'.
(3) Another married — S}Tnons for her first husband ; then
James Carpenter, of Toronto. Some of the family live there yet.
TimoUiy Thompson, Mr. Clute says, was several times elected to
parliament. One of his opponents was Jamos Mordoff, a resident of
Fredericksburg'h, whose name appears severdil times among baptisms
and marriages in Ijanghom's records. The elections then were held
nc^r Tlioiiii>.<on*» own place, though he did not keep a public house
himself, yet, kept "' oj)en house '' during the several days of those
elections, aecording to the custom then.
^Fr. Clute has yet a box on which is painted '' Ensign Thompson."
Frasor was S<-otch and wore his kilties, and he thinks Thom|>son was
also Scotch.
Thompson had a num.l)er of negroes, who did all the woik and
who lived in cAl)ins near by. His widow lived years after him, and the
older inhabitants of the locality rememl)or her quite well.
Ellen Clute, a grand-daughter of Thompson's, lived with them, and
was adopted as his child. She was made his heir, and there was be-
queathed to her the farm. She sold it to Solomon Wright, Esq., where
he lived and died, and it is now owned and o cupied by his son, Edward
Wright. He also willed other lands he then owned or laid claim to.
These included a large gore between 1st and 2nd concessions, abutting
[jameh] second legislature OF UPPER CANADA 153
across a number of farms of 2nd concession. It is said he got a quit
claim deed from government when in parliament. Ellen Clute married
Dr. J. B. Ham, a son of Henry Ham. He first practised law in King-
ston, with John A. Macdonald or in the same office, then studied medi-
cine and moved to Whitby, where both he and his wife died. There was
a long law suit about the gore or gores of land in which a number of
Fredericksburgh families were interested, and they spent $3,700 in that
way but they held the land, which belongs to their farms till this day.
Addinglon and Ontario, — Upon the opening of the third session at
York, 5th June, 1799, the clerk of the assembly, Mr. Angus Macdonell,
read a letter addressed to Hon. D. W. Smith, speaker of the House of
Assembly, dated 2ath November, 1798, and signed by Eobert I. D. Gray
and Timothy Thompson, stating that "Christopher Robinson, late a
member of the said house, serving as the knight of the shire for the
county of Addington, died upon the second day of Xovember.*^
This locates the first member elected to the second house for
Addington and Ontario, and gives us the date of his death, 2nd No-
vember, 1798.
This Ghristopher Robinson was the progenitor of the well-known
Robinson family, in Upper Canada, and the name has been perpetuated
in many well-known citizens of Toronto, where the first Christopher sat
as member in 1797 and 1798. Through the Robinson family of Vir-
ginia, he traced back to a family in Yorkshire, England. He was born
in 1764. He wat an officer in the Queen's Rangers dtTring the revolu-
tionary war and after first going to New Brunswick came to Upper Can-
ada in 1792, doubtless through the influence of Simcoe, the old com-
mander of the Queen^s Rangers. He was one of the charter members
of the Tjaw Society of Upper Canada (1797). This second legislature
held two other charter members, Robert I. D. Gray and Timothy
Thompson; and the clerk of the house, Mr. Angus Macdonell was also
a member. The first six Benchers were John White, R. I. D. Gray,
Walter Roe, Angus Macdonell, James Clark and Christopher Robinson.
In 1784, Mr. Robinson married Esther, daughter of Rev. John
Sayre, formerly of Fairfield, Conn. The descendants are fully set forth
in Mr. C. E. Chadwick's " Ontarian families," Vol. II, page 57. It
might be well to mention that the three sons, Hon. Peter, Sir John Be-
verly and Hon. William Benjamin were prominent public men in Upper
Canada, and the two daughterc married D^Arcy Boulton and Stephen
Heward, who filled important places. A sketch of the second son, Sir
John Beverly Robinson, Bart., may be found in Mr. H. J. Morgan's*
SA'clches of Celebrated Canadians. It may be worth noticing that a
grardson of the first Christopher is to-day in active practice, at present
184 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
engaged as counsel on the Alaskan Boundary Arbitration, Mr. Christo-
pher Robinson, K.C. He is one of the few living grandchildren
of the pioneer legislators of Upper Canada.
On the 12th of June, 1799, Messrs. Rogers and Jessup introduced
William Fairfield, Esq., as the duly elected member in succession to Mr.
Robinson according to the return of Poole England, Esq., returning
officer. Wm. Fairfield, sr., is entered on the TJ. E. L. list as a "pen-
sioner during the war.^^ He was one of the pioneers of Emestown.
He was married before coming to Upper Canada, and nine children ac-
companied the parents, four of the sons being old enough to be recorded
on the U. E. list in 1789. Three children were bom in Upper Canada.
It was therefore a numerous family, six boys and six girls, all of whom
lived to be married. The descendants of William Fairfield, of Ernes-
town, are therefore a great host at the present day. In 1844, Lt.-Col.
John Collins Clark prepared a sketch of the pioneer families of Ernes-
town and from it I have obtained the following list of the children of
William and Abigail Fairfield: —
Archibald, married Mary Howland (from England.)
Mary, married, Ichabod Hawley.
William, married Miss Billings.
Benjamin, married Abigail Lockwood.
Jonathan, married Charity Cryder.
Stephen, married Maria Pruyn.
John, married Elizabeth Clapp (of Fredericksburgh).
Sabra, married William Wilcox (from Augusta).
Abigail, married Henry Ripson.
Clara, married Benjamin Brown (of Brownville, N. Y., brother
of Gen. Jacob Brown).
Jennet, married, 1st, John Grashong; 2nd, Daniel Sheldon; 3rd,
Arthur Aylesworth (of Hallowell).
Sarah, married Emmanuel Overfield.
William and Sabra Fairfield Wilcox had twx) children, John and
Clara, the latter of whom became the wife of Marshall Spring Bidwell,
the well -known representative of Lennox in later years.
Prince Edward and Adolphustown. — One of the memorial tableits
on the walk of St. Albans, U. E. L. church, Adolphustown, bears this
record : —
" Col. Jas. Rogers, of King's Rangers, died in Fredericksburgh,
Sept., 1790, aged 63 years.''
The U. E. list bears these three entries: —
" Col. James Rogers, Marysburgh and Sophiasburgh, major com-
mandant."
[JAMES] SECOND LEGISLATURE OF UPPER CANADA 166
"James Eogers, Marysburgh and Sophiasburgh, son of Major
James, King's Hangers."
" David M. Rogers, Marysburgh and Sophiasbirrgh, son of Major
James, King's Rangers."
Here we have the father, Major James Rogers, of the King^s
Rangers, and his two sons. There were three daughters, Mary, the
eldest, married John Armstrong, from Co. Clare, Ireland. He was
for a time private secretary to Grovernor Simcoe. Their son, James
Rogers Armstrong, was the representative for Prince Edward county
in the Parliament of Upper Canada (183G), and among tlie dx?seendantà
may be mentioned the wives of Rev. Egerbon Ryerson, Hon. Wm.
Macdougall and Hon. Justice Girouard (see Chadwick^s Ontarian
Families, Vol. II., pp. 7, 8).
Mary Ann, the second daughiter, married Col. Jolin Peters, late
sheriff of the Newcastle District, brother of the Bishop of London-
derry.
Margaret married Aaron Greeley, who came from New Hampshire.
Ho was a cousin of Hon. Zaceheus Burnham, of Northumberland
county. He erected the first mill at Brighton and there met his wife,
as she was then living witih her brother, David McGregor Rogers, who
had moved west from Prince Bdi^-urd county. Their daughter. Miss
Susan Greeley is now living at Wicklow, Northumberland counrty,
enjoying life at the fine old age of 97 years.
Major James Rogers lived on a fann in Fredericksburgh beside
some of his retired King's Rangers. As an officer he drew a large
area of land, but most of this had to be selected elsewhere, principally
in Prince Edward county. The son, David McGregor Rogers, lived for
a time in this latter counrt;y and was chosen as representative in the
second legislature.
A Sootoh-Irish settlement had been formed in New Hampshire
and the settlers brought across the sea the name for their new town,
Londonderry. With them came thedr pastor, Rev. David McGregor.
The two brothers, Robert and James, were members of this settlement,
and the latter married Margaret, the daughter of the Presbyterian
pastor, hence the name given to the son, who became the member of
the U. C. legislature.
David McGregor Rogers married Sarah Playter, of Toronto, and
had four children, two sons and two daughters. The full genealogical
record of his family is set forih in Mr. Chadwick^s Ontarian Families
(Vol. II., pp. 11 to 14). Lt.-Col. H. C. Rogers of Peterborou^^h,
Lt.-Col. R. Z. Rogers o^ Grafton, and Lt.-Col. J. Z. Rogers of Ashbujm-
ham are grandsons.
186 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
David McGregor Rogers after living some years in Prince Edward
county, moved westward into Northumberland county, and finally set-
tled at Grafton, the homestead of the latter place being now in tha
possession of his grandson, Lt.-Col. Robert Z. Rogers. After the second
legislature th:e province was rearranged for representation and in sub-
sequent parliaments the major represented these districts, of which
Northumberland county formed a part. He sat continuously in the
house from 1796 to 1824, with the exception of one parliament He
had taken an active part in the military affaire of Upper Canada before,
during and even after the war of 1812-14. Having a claim against
the province for supplies and equipment incurred through his being
commissariat officer, he remained out of the house one parliament,
1816-1820, that he might effect a settlement. Up to the time of ûis
death in 1824, he had sat as m^miber for twenty years. He was the
representiative man of his district in many ways, judicial, political and
civil. He was for some years engaged in superintending the location
of settlers over a large area in the Midland district. He was registrar
of deeds for the county and appears to have been a representative of
his county in more than a political sense. He was bom 23rd November
1772, and died 13th July, 1824.
The story of Robert Rogers and the Rogers' Rangers, and of James
Rogers and the King^s* Rangers, may be found set forth in our histories
of the Revolutionary War. The Transaictionvs of the Royal Society of
Canada for 1900-1901, Vol. AT!., section II, contain an interesting paper
on " Rogers, Ranger and Loyalist,*' by Walter Rogers, Esq., barrister
of the Inner Temple, London, England, a great-granidson of David
McGregor Rogers.
Durham, York and First Lincoln, — The following interesting
sketch of Richard Beasley, member for Durham, York and First Lin-
coln in the second legislative assembly ha.s been kindly contributed by
Mr. H. L. Gardiner, of Hamilton:
" Richard Beasley was the patentee of lot six in the broken front
and first concession of Barton, 'of lot 18 in the broken front and first
and second ( oncessions, of lot 10 in broken front and first, second and
third concessions, and of lot 21 in broken front and first, second, third
and fourth concessions, about 1,200 a<?res in this single township, two-
thirds of it now in the ciiy of Hamilton. Smith's ' Canada' montions
that 94,012 acres of the Indian lands on the Grafld river were sold to
Richard Beasley, James Wils^ji and John B. R ).-seaii for £8,887, that the
purchase money of this tract had l.ieen paid up, and that 3,000 acres had
been given to Mr. Beasley to make up a deficiency in the 94,012 acres
before mentioned. Much of Mr. Beasley's land was located in Water-
[jAMEs] SECOND LEGISLATURE OF UPPER CANADA 187
loo township. Mr. J. H. Smith writes that about the year 1785 or
1780 ]^Ir. Richard Beasley, who carried on quite an extensive trade
with the Indians, laid daim to the land where Dundurn Park is now
situated. He alflo pre-empted the adjoining property known as Beas-
ley's Hollow, and afterwards erected a miill on the stream flowing
into Coote's Paradise. On his monument in the churchyard at
Christ's Cliuroh CathednaJ, Hiamilton, the following in5crii>tion is
found:
" ^ In memory of Richard Beasley, Esquire, who departed this life
on the 16th day of Febmary, 1842, aged 80 years and seven months.
The first settler at the Head of the Lake.'
" Mr. Beasley became a member of Barton lodge of freemasons in
1795, and in 1803 the lodge held its meetings in his house, whidi
occupied part of the ground now included in Dundurn Park. J. Roas
Robertson's " History of Freemasonry in Canada '' says that " an early
ro&ident of Barton township, if not the first, was brother Richard
Beasley, who was an Engfehman by birth. Mrs. Jolin Graves Simcoe
knew Mr. Beasley, and made a number of sketches of Burlington Bay
and Coot-C's Paradise. He was not only a mill owner, but storekeeper,
and located in Barton township about 1794 or 1795. He traded with
the Indians and kcjpt a general store on what is now King street,
Hamilton. Brother Richard Beasley was the W. M. of Barton lodge
prior to 1810, and wrote a letter to R. W. Bro. Jarvis, dated March
22nd, 1802, concerning masonic and personal matters from which the
following extract is taken:
With regard to your negro wonnan, she -Is certainly not worth as much
as when you first pinrchased her; in the first place, she Is older and will
never make as good servant as wliat she had been, as she has adopted
different Ideas from what she formerly possessed. Th-e female child you
mentioned worth £30, New York currency, I do not want. I will give you
for the negro woman £50, New York curreaicy, if you owe that much to
Barry estate shall settle it with your executors. I remain, dear s-lr, your
very humWe servant, Richard Beasley.
" Mr. Beasley's house and store were on the north side of King
street, west of Ferguson avenue. The building was standing in 1860.
It was built of hewn timbers covered with clap-boardv^. Jt stood about
eight feet back from the present street line. He owned at the same
time a holise in Dundurn, and his descendants state that Richard
Beasley moved to his house at Dun-dum immfcdiately after his arrival
in Barton, and that his sons, Ridiard, George, David C, and Henry
Beasley, were born in the house and that Henry (the father of Thomas»
Beafeley, city clerk of Hamilton) was bom in 1793. Without docu-
mentary evidence, it is believed that the first house of Richard Beasley,
188 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
the U. E. Ijoyalist^ was at Dundum^ and that his elder sons were bom
on a house on this site. Thomas Beasley, city clerk; his son, Alex-
ander C. Beasley, and two nephews, Thomas and Maitland Beasley,
sons of the late Sylveater Beasley, are the only descendants of Richard
Beasley now living in Hamilton, and none of the original property
remains in the family/*
Second Lincoln. Having settled the representation of 1st Lincoln
we come to 2nd, 3rd and 4th Lincoln. With 4th Lincoln was included
Norfolk. There are three members to be located, D. W. Smith, Samuel
Street and Benjamin Hardison. As Capt. Benjamin Hardison lived at
Fort Erie it is fair to assume that he represented 4th Lincoln and
Norfolk. Samuel Street's brother lived at Niagara Falls, and was one
of the most influential men of that section, and therefore we place
him as representative of 3rd Lincoln. Second Lincoln, then, would be
left for David William Smith. He had been a member of the first
legislature. In my paper last year I attached his name to Kent along
with William Macomb. After the paper wat» in printed pages I was
fortunate in securing through Mr. Phileas Gagnon, of Quebec, an
extract from The Quebec Magazine for December, 1792, containing a
list of members, the first printed record as far as known of the mem-
bers with their respective constituencies. In this list D. W. Smith
appears as the member for Essex and Suffolk, while William Macomb
and -Francis Baby appear as members for Kent. I had based my loca-
tion of Smith on an extract from a letter by Lt.-Govemor Simcoe, in
w-hich he states that "Lieut. Smith, the son of Major Smith, who
commanded for the last two years at Detroit,** had been " elected by
the inhabitants of that district into the Assembly." I assumed this
settled his election at Detroit, but The Quebec Magazine made it very
doubtful. Since the Addendum was made to my paper last year I have
seen a copy of a very interesting letter by D. W. Smith, referring to
the preparations for his election of August, 1792, in which Essex is
referred to as the constituency. It would seem, therefore, that the
names of Francis Baby and D. W. Smith, of my list published last year
should be interchanged.
Mr. D. W. Smith, the surveyor general of lands for the pro-
vince, with his head office at Newark, was elected on the 18th of August,
1796, as member for 2nd Lincoln. He was chosen speaker to suoceed
Col. John MacDonnell who was not-in attendance at the first session.
Mr. Smith was away from Canada when the fourth session opened and
as he \ras not expected home in time, Samuel Street was elected speak-
er in his stead for the last session.
[jameb] second legislature OF UPPER CANADA 189
For further particulars as to the life of Mr. D. W. Smith, readers
are referred to my previous paper.
3rd Lincoln, — Samuel Street was elected member for one of the
Lincolns and I place him in the 3rd riding. The Street family genea-
logy may be found in Chadwick's "Ontarian Families," Vol. II., pp.
174-6. The family are there traced back to one Richard Street, who
died in Somerset county, England in 1592. There appears always to
have been a Samuel in the family and in the Niagara district or old
Lincoln county, there were two Samuels that may be confused. Natha-
niel Street, of Norwalk, Connec. (bom, 1693; died, 1748), had a son
Samuel. (bom, 1720), and the family of the latter consisted of four
sons and four daughters. Nehemiah and Samuel were two of the sons.
Tliis latter Samuel was the member elected in. 1796. The following is
Mr. Chadwick's entry: —
" Samuel, bora 2nd January, 1752 or 1753, came to Canada 1780
or 1781 (U. E. L.), was a trader at Fort Niagara, col. in the militia (of
Canada), J.P., M.L.A., and sometime speaker of the Legislative Assem-
bly; in March, 1784, married Phoebe, daughter of Peter Van Camp and
had issue, a daughter Mary, married to John Usher.'*
Nehemiah the brother settled at Niagara Falls and carried on the
business of fur trading and milling. He was succeeded in his business
at the Falls by his son Samuel, nephew of the member. He was born the
14th March, 1775, and died 21st August, 1834. This younger Samuel
was the progenitor of the Street family of Niagara Falls, among the
descendants being Hon. Mr. Justice Street and Eev. Thomas Clark
Street Maeklem, provost of Trinity University, 3V)ronto. Lt.-Col.
Thomas Clark Street, son of Samuel Street, jr., represented Welland
county in the Ontario Legislature, 1851-1854, and the latter's sister
was the wife of Hon. Josiah Burr Plumb, sometime speaker of the Can-
adian Senate.
At the opening of the 4th session of the 2nd parliament, Mr.
Samuel Street was elected speaker, in the absence of Hon. D. W. Smith.
He was speaker for only one session as at the elections after the ses-
sion Ealfe Clench and Isaac Swazcy were returned as the two members
for the united ridings 2nd, 3rd and 4th Lincoln.
4th Lincoln and Norfolk.— CsLpt. Benjamin Hardison, of Fort Erie,
wa^ a member of the second parliament, and I attach his name to the
united ridings of 4th Lincoln and Norfolk. Lt.-Col. Ernest Cruik-
shank has directed my attention to the following notes as to his con-
nection with the war of 1812-14, as set forth in "The Documentary His-
tory of t.he Campaigns on the Niagara Frontier."
160 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
On the 17th June, 1812, Benjamin Hardison and three others,
wrote to the Buffalo Gazette, referring to the understanding that Black
Eock and Fort Erie were to observe a neutrality towards each other,
and calling attention to the fact that recently musket balls have been
fired from the American side.
Buffalo, 28th July, 1812: ''The British have erected another
breastwork in a circular form on the hill near Capft. Hardison^s oppo-
site Black Rock. A number of soldiers are stationed behind it/'
Buffalo, 1st December, 1812 : " Between 9 and 10 o'clock, three
sailors embarked in a boat, passed over to the enemy's shore and set
fire to the dwelling house of B. Hardison and to the house and store of
Mr. Douglas, which were consumed.'^
Lt.-Col. Cruikshank has lately interviewed Capt. Hardison's
daughter, Mrs. Martha Ann Stanton, who is sùill living at Fort Erie,
aged 86. She states that her father was twenty years older than her
mother, who was born in 1781. Her mother was his second wife. He
was bora, therefore, in 1761. He died about 1823, and is buried on his
farm at Fort Eri€. The Massachusetts War Records contain the fol-
lowing entry: —
"Benjamin Hardison, private in Capt. Moye's Company, Col.
Phinney's regular Massachusetts troops, taken prisoner and held cap-
tive in Canada untdl close of the War."
He was bora at Berwick, then in Massachusetts, now in the State
of Maine. Mrs. Stanton states that he was an usher to the first Pro-
vincial Logfbilature, Samuel Stn>ct being another, and slie has a silver
knee buckle set with Irish diamonds, which is believed to have been
part of his ofïicial costume.
Capt. Hardison is the only member of the early Legislature who
had fought on the Uniknl States aide — perhaps his withdrawal from the
fighting throu;rh his capture and the treatment received while in
Canada may have changed his vi-ews. He was but a youth at the time.
We shall prolmbly never know the reason tor his settling at Fort Brio
and becoming a loyal Britisher. It is also worOi noting that there is
still living in 1903 the daughter of one who wavS employed in the Rrst
Legislature of Upper Canada in 1792 to 1790, and who was a member
of the Second IIx)use one hundred and seven years ago.
Kent. — As in the first parliament, Kent sent two representatives
elected jointly by the whole county, not by two ridings of the county
as in the case of Glençarr}\ As stated in the previous paper, Kent
county included all left over from the other counties north and west
as far as the Indian lands. The southern boundary was a line running
east from Maisonville's mill to the Thames. The county included.
[jAMis] SECOND LEGISLATURE OF UPPER CANADA 161
therefore^ a narrow strip running east from the Detroit along the
south shore of Lake St. Clair. This line would begin about where
the town of Sandwich now is. Detroit was in the handi» of the British
up to 1796^ and^ theref ore^ it was the headquarters for the first election.
This post was evacuated in July and the elections took place in
August. The British citizens- had removed to Amherstburg and Sand-
wich. The second general election was doubtless held at Sandwich^ and
the two representatives chosen were Thomas Smith and Thomas
McKee.
Thomas Smith followed the same profession as David William
Smith, he was a land surveyor, but the two were not related as far as
known. Among the records we find this statement : " Thomas
Smith, loyalist, came into Niagara in 1776, with a plan of Fort Stan-
wix and Intelligence.'' He settled at Detroit, and in 1789 and 1790
was Secretary to the Hesse Land Board.
In 1790, for some reason, he was displaced as secretary, and was
succeeded by D. W. Smith, son of the chairman. Captain John Smith,
who was commander of the Detroit forces at the time. In a letter
dated 1790, he is referred to as clerk of the court of the District of
Hesse, and in 1789 was acting deputy surveyor. That he was a mem-
ber for Kent in 1797 is proven by the fact that in that year the land
board sitting at Newark (Nassau or Home district), had under con-
sideration the petition of Thomas Smith, member for Kent (see Michi-
gan Pioneer and Historical Society, Publications, Vol. XXV, pp. 142,
148). In this petition it is stated that from July, 1776 to April, 1777,
he served as a captain in the Indian department. Resigned and
served in militia department at Detroit as second in command under Col.
McGregor. For two years he was secretary to the land board at
Detroit; clerk to His Majesty^s Court for three years; employed two
and a half years in assisting settlers; served 16th August, 1794 to
December 14th, against Wayne. He lost much property. Six hundred
acres were granted to his wife as the wife of a member of parliament.
The following letter dated October, 1788, was written by William
Kobertson, Esquire, to the Chief Justice of Quebec, and supplies* some
additional information as to Thomas Smith. Mr. Robertson requests
to have him appointed a notary for Hesee:
"For this purpose Mr. Thomas Smith has been mentioned with
approbation. He is a lieutenant in the militia, acting for the present
as deputy surveyor, but without pay or commission, as there is* nobody
else; has been very judiciously nominated derk of the Court of Com-
mon Pleas there; and from his education and knowledge of the two
Sec. II., 1903. 11.
162 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
languages, and an opinion and confidence the people have of his prin-
ciples and integrity, I presume his appointment as notary would be
satisfactory for these reasons^ to which may be added that he is not
likely to change his residence or leave the place, being married and
settied/'
The firfet three judges of the Court of Common Pleas for the Dis-
trict of He68e (1788), were Jacques Duperon Baby, Alexander McKee
and William Robertson.
Mr. C. M. Burton, of Detroit, has kindly furnished me with some
notes afi to Thomas Smith.
Finding the surveying business dull, he entered into an agreement
with John A&kin to cartry on business as a trader — ^an adventure they
called it — and he was at Miamis for several years. Some years after
1796, he resided in Detroit, and acted as surveyor. He made a map of
Detroit in 1706 and at one time got a large land grant on the U. S.
side of the line. A daughter of Thos. Smith married John McDonnell
of Detroit, a well-to-do citizen, who at one time made quite a stir in
an international dispute. Many of the early western surveys bear
Thomafe' Smith's name. A very interesting map of Sombra township
made in 1820 testifies to the neatness of his work. He was a native
of Wales and died at Sandwich on the 3rd of March, 1833, aged 79
years.
Thomas McKee the other member for Kent, was a son of Col.
Alexander McKee who had been Indian agent at Pittsburg before the
Eevolutionary War. He was one of the efficient western leaders of
Indian forces during the war. He was of Irish birth. After the war
he settled on the Detroit river. Thomas McKee, the son, married
Thérèse Askin, the daughter of John Askin, governor of Micilimac-
kinac. The A&kins were an Irish branch of the Scottish Erskine
family. Alexander McKee, as before stated, was one of the first three
judges of the Court of Common Pleas for the District of Hesse. From
1788 to 1796 this court held sefesions at Detroit. He was for a time
deputy superintendent general of Indian Affairs; Sir John Johnson,
with headquarters at Montreal, being superintendent general. Col.
McKee died after a short illness on the 14th January, 1799, and was
succeeded by Col. Daniel Claus. Thoma* McKee who died recently at
Sandwich holding the office of registrar of the County of Essex waa
grandson of Thomas McKee, the member for Kent, elected in 1796.
His son William James McKee, of Windsor, represented North Essex
in the Legislature of Ontario from 1896 to 1902. Both Col. Alexander
McKee and Col. Thomas McKee were influential men among the west-
em Indians and their names are to be found on many of the impoT-
[jameb] second legislature OF UPPER CANADA 168
tant treaties and land surrenders. For many years he was one of the
Indian superintendents. Thomas McKee was one of the members for
Essex in the 3rd parliament and was succeeded in th« 4th by David
Cowan. Though elected at the general elections of August, 1796, he
did not take his seat until 1800, being introduced and sworn in as
member at the opening of the fourth session. The succession from
the first to the last McKee mentioned in this paper is interesting: —
Col. Alexander McKee— Thomas McKee (member 1796)— Alex-
ander McKee — Alexander McKee — Thomas McKee (registrar)—
Thomias Alexander McKee and William James McKee (ex-M.P.P.).
Thomas McKee, member of the second legislature died in 1815.
Essex and Suffolk, — David William Smith had represented these
counties in the first legislature. Just before the first session (August,
1792) he had reanoved to Newark, and, as stated above, (had changed
his constituency m 1796, being elected for 3rd Lincoln, in which New-
ark was situated. This left a vacancy in the west. At the close of the
Revolutionary War, Detroit was the chief centre of the western district.
Across the Detroit river a French-Canadian settlement had gradually
sprung up about the Indian church located at what is now the town of
Sandwich. The Indians had granted to a half-dozen of their English-
speaking leaders a large traat, now the townôhdp of Maiden, but the
dispute in connsection with the ownership of this land was not settled
until after the erection of Fort Amherstburg, in 1796, and the removal
thither from Detroit of the military and naval headquarters.^ A large
number of loyalists had settled on a strip of land running east from
Maiden township along Lake Erie. Many of these were members of
the disbanded Butler's Eangers. In 1787 Major Matthei^Ts, under
orders from Lord Dorchester, laid ouit 97 long, narrow lots and con-
firmed the squatters in their rights. These formied the first lots of
two townships, which, for many years, went by the name "The two
connected townships." Their present names are Oolehester and Qos-
field. The lots were numbered from east to west. In the Government
records this section from Kingsvdlle to the eastern boundary of IMalden
is referred to as " The New Settlement.*' Lots 68, 69 and 70 were
reserved for a town. Colchester village stands on these lots today.
Number 97 was occupied by John Cornwall, and he was the man
who was elected in August, 1796, to represent Essex and Suffolk. In
1899 Mr. Thaddeus Smith wrote a pamphlet giving an historical sketch
of Pelee bland with an account of the McCormick family. The Chip-
pa wa and Ottawa Indians in 1788 gave a lease of the island to Thomas
* See Early History of the Town of Amherstburg, by C. C. James. The
Echo Printing Company, Amherstburg, 1902.
164 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
McKee for 999 years. In 1804 Thomas McKee leased the island to
John Askin, and in 1816 Alexander McKee, son of Thomas, leased
it to William McCorraack. In 1823 full title was passed, and the
island's history became part of the history of the McCormick family.
William McCormick married Mary, the seventeen-year-old daughter of
John Cornwall, in January, 1809, and in this way the sketch of
the member under consideration comes into the story. John Corn-
wail was a native of Wales. He came to America about 1772 and
settled in Connecticut. He joined the Loyalists and, after serving
through the war, found himself at its close in the western district.
On enlisting, "he left his wife and child in Connieoticut, and it was
twenity (?) yeara before they joined hiim in Canada, the son by that
time a grown man. This son, Joshua OomwaM, I take to be the m»em-
ber elected to represemt Essex county in the seventh parliaonent, 1817.
Mr. Thaddeus Smifth has given us more information of Mary Cornwall
McCormick than of her father. Her husband died in 1840, and she
survived him fifty-one years, dying in 1891, but little short of 99 years
of age. " She had good executive ability and great influence for good
upon those she came in contact with. Her mind was a wonderful
storehouse of knowledge of the inoideats and history of the early
times, much of which was within her personal experience.*'
An old record book of " The Two Connected Townships " pre-
served in the Crown Lands Dept., Toronto, gives the namios of the
grantees of the 97 lots, John Cornwall is entered as a private of Butler's
Hangers. Then follows this note: "The Board told Cornwall that
if he could find an unclaimed few lots together, they would consenti
to his geitting them for himself and family and so dis^pose of his im-
provements on his lot." Thaddeus Smith states that he lived near
Sandwich. The above note may help to reconcile statem^înts as to
his locaition.
Members of First Legislature.
Since the appearanoe of ray paper of lasrt; year dt^aling with the
members of the first legislature I have been enabled to procure notes of
three members that were somewhat briefly referred to, namely: Isaac
Swayzie, member for 3rd Lincoln, Francis Baby, one of the mem-
bers for Kent and Par&hall Terry, member for Lincoln and Norfolk.
Isaac Swayzie. — The following n'Oitos as to Isaac Swayzie, member
for 3rd Lincoln in the first legislature (1792-1796), have ])cen fur-
nished by Mr. Benjamin E. Swayzie, barrister, of Toronto, great-grand-
son of Israel Swayzie, the first settler at Beaver Dams, and first cousin
of Isaac Swayzie:
[JAMK8] SECOND LEGISLATURE OF UPPER CANADA 168
Samuel Swayzie from Soutbold, Long Island, was the progenitor
of the New Jersey family. He was born at Sçuthold, 20th March,
1689. He removed to Boxbury, N.J., in 1737, and resided there till
his death, 11th May, 1759. His fifth and young-est son was Caleb.
Three of the sons of Caleb came to Canada at the end of the war, and
three oi'here later on.
1. Isaac, who settled on the Niagara river.
2. Caleb, Jr. (bom 27th March, 1772; died 15th June, 1858), who
was buried in the old Beaverdaims cemeitery. He was grandfather of
W. D. Swayzie, of Dunnville.
3. Richard (born 5th February, 1775; died 12th January, 1863),
who settled near Beaverdams and was the father of the Swayzie fami-
lies of Haldimand county.
Three other children came to Upper Canada later, namely:
4. Samuel, came to Canada in 1805, and settled at Allanburg.
5. Susan married — Sh«trp, and settled at Ancaeter, where dhe
died, aged 104 years.
6. Elizabeth, who married — Cooper, and lived near Niagara Falls.
Lt.-Ool. Isaac Swayzie, described in the official list of U. E. Loyal-
ists, as the " Pilot to the New York Army," made hiis home at Niagara
and appears to have been more or less engaged in active service during
•the whole of the Civil War, at one time commanding a small fort in
New York Staite. Early in the war, he and a number of imarmed men
were occupying an old log hou^e, when a party of armed Whigs sud-
denly surrounded the place. Knowdng that he was the person wanted,
he, Isaac, was concealed beneath the floor of the dwelling. The
Americans searched the place, and on not finddng him, they became
enraged and bayonetted his unarmed brother to death. Isaac was
lying immediately under the place where his brother was killed and was
completely saturated with bis blood, eventually escaping by slipping
through the guard. Naiturally a man of extreme views, this incidenit
so preyed upon his mind that his one object in living seemed to be
to do the greatest passible injury to the Americans. He was captured
several times, buit always succeeded in making his escape, the last
time with the assistance of his wife, who shortly afterwards fell a victim
either to the savagery of the Indians of New Y'ork Srt;ate, or to the
over zeal of some of the " Sons of liberty." The death of his wife
had the effect of increasing his bitterness towards the Whdg or Revolu-
tionary party, and he then declared that he would never make peace
with them, and apparently they never made peace with him. When
the American forces were first encamped on the Swayzie farms near
the Beeverdams, they respected property, and left the people in pos-
session of their dwelldngs. True, they took whatever they wanted.
166 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
but they paid cash for whatever was taken by them. Not so wit'h
the property of Isaac, they turned his home into a barracks for their
men, destroyed Ms crops and budlddngs, aod did not leave as miich as
a rail of his fences unbumed.
Early in «tihe war Isaac was arrested and imprisoned in the aid
log jail at Andover, Sussex couaty, N.J. Proviaiona were supplied to
him by his family, and in a baked loaf his sister oonioealed a key by
which he managed to gain his release. He made his way to New York
city and joined the British army, becoming " Pilot of the New York
Army."
ÂB mtenitiioned in my previous paper. Col. Isaac Swayzie was the
originator of the well-known apple named " Sway2aie Pomane Gris.'*
He was the pioneer nurseryman of the Niagara distmct and earned trees
on his back to Beaverdams, wfcere they are still growing on the old
Israel Swayzie homestead between The Cross Roade and St. John's
West.
According to tradition Isaac was married before comiing to Canada,
but lost his wife through the terrible doings of the war. He was
imprisoned; his wife visited Mm; they exchanged clothes; he escaped;
she was put to death. Has second marriage with Sarah Secord, aoid
hÔB third marriage with El-enor Ferris are referred to in my previous
paper.
During the Bevolutionary wiar Isaac Swiayzie made his name a
terror to the enemy, and for years his deeds were the subject of fireside
recital in New Jersey. He was distinguiahed also in the war of 1812-14
as he oomonanded a corps of fifty men variously known as " The Royal
Artillery Drivers,'* " Swayzie's Militia Artillery," and " The Lincoln
Militia Artillery." For his services he received a land granit in East
Nissouri, Oxford county.
He sat in the Legislative Aseembly of Upper Canada as follows:
l9t Parliament (1792 to 1796) for 3rd Lincoln.
3rd Parliament (1801 to 1804) for 2nd, 3rd and 4th Lincoln.
4tih Parliament (1805 to 1808) for 2nd, 3rd and 4th Lincoln.
6bli Parliament (1812 to 1816) for 4th Lincoln.
7th Parliament (1816 to 1820) for 4th Lincoln.
The following notice appeared in The Gleaner and Niagara News-
paper of the 18th February, 1828:
" Died. — At 'hds place of residence neaT this Town on the 11th
instant, Isaac Sway23ie, Esq., aged 77 years. Mr. S. was a native of
New Jersey. In the general defection of the inhabitants of thaï Colony
at the commencement of the Rebellion that ended in the independence
of the now United States he remiained true to his King and Country
and was persecuted and suflEered much by imprisonment and otherwise
[jambs] second legislature OF UPPER CANADA 167
as was usual in such oases. He at length escaped intx) the Brifciflih lines,
we believe, at New York.
'•' He was actively employed in His Majesty's service till the peace
of 1783. He afterwards came into this part of the country where he
has resided ever since. Mr. Swayzie has been frequently chosen as a
representative in our Commons House of Parliament. A numiber of
years ago he was appoin'ted Collector of the Internal Duties of the
District, which duties he faithfully performed with much forbearance
to the people from whom moneys were to be received frequently to
his own loss."
Francis Baby, member of the First Legislative Assembly for Kent
(1792-1 79G), along with Williiam Macomib, of Detroit, w«s the niath
child of Hon. Jacques Duperon Baby, the pioneer French Canadian
trader at Detroit. He married (9th September, 1795) Frances Abbott,
daughter of James Abbott, a Britiaih officer, wào came to America at
the time of the Revolutionary War. James Abbott was a native of
Dublin, who came to America, settled first at Albany, and later moved
to Detroit where he engaged in the fur trade, having branch bouses at
Vincennes, Indiana, and other places. His brother, Edward Abbott,
was Governor of Vincennes at the time of the Revolution. Among
the children of James Abbott were James, judge at Detroit; Mary,
wife of Sheriff Hands, of Sandwich, and mother of Mrs. Jecun Baptiste
Baby; Frances, wife of Francois or Francis Baby, and Elizabeth, wife
of Hon. James Baby. Judge James Abbott, just mentioned, married
Sarah Whistler, aunt of Whistler, the artist.
Mr. Duncan Dougall, of Windsor, has kindly sent; me the follow-^
ing notes in regard to 'his grandfather, Francos Baby:
" Francois Baby had amongst other lands over 1,000 acres of land
in Windsor and Sandwich West, being two farms in widith in the
present city of Windsor, and running back through three deep conces-
sions, according to the French survey. The original deeds from the
French Crown described the lands as running to the centre of the
Detroit river, but when the British Patents were issued they were only
from the channel bank of the river. Francois Baby was appointed
lieutenant of the Western district, which included the counties of
Essex, Kent and Lambton, and as such, exercised a sort of governor-
ship similar to the lieutenants of the counties of England.
" He lived in a feudal sort of way and was very proud and, I might
say, arrogant. As I remember him when I was a boy 10 years of age,
he was a tall man, over six feet high and very straight, with a deep
bass voice. I do not think he was in any business, but lived on his
money and what was raised on the» cleared portions of his estate. He
was M.P.P. and was defeated by Col. John Prince.
168 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
" The dwelling house in which he lived for very many years before
hie death is still standing. It was built with a large lawn in front
and facing the front on Sandwich Street and the river, but has now
been turned into a double house and faces the back street, now Pitt
Street. He was very fond of hiorses, and always kept good ones, and
thought notihing of driving down to Quebec and Montreal in his sleigh.
On one occasion, when my grandmother was ill, he wanted a Detroit
physician, and drove to Detroit on the ice. When be started the ice
had shoved and was moving down the ricer, but this did not daunt
him. He staried across the river, jumping his horse and cutter from
one cake of ice to another, and succeeded in landing in Windsor safely.
He drove a covered calèche in summer when making long trips and
when he came down to visit us at Bosebank, my father's residence
(near Amheratburg), which he frequently did, he would usually start
for home, a drive of 18 miles, about nine or ten o'clock at night, pre-
ferring to make the journey through the night.
"The Battle of Windsor (1837) was fought in the orchard of
Franicois Baby.
"Jacques Duperon Baby was very friendly with the Indians who
deeded to him tihe large tracts of lands. One tract, just below Detroit
on the River Rouge, another above Detroit on Lake St. Clair between
that city and Mt. Clemens, and another tract, the largest of all, was
30 miles square on Lake Huron and the River St. Clair. Port
Huron and many other towns and villages are now built upon parts of
it. After the Declaration of Independence the Babys sided with Brit
ish and came back to Canada to live, and the land was all forfeited."
The father, Jacques Duperon Baby, lived on a faran where Windsor
now stands, and to this home Francis succeeded. Jean Baptiste lived
at Sandwich, and Hon. James Baby lived on a farm further east, near
Chatham.
Francis Baby was bom 7th Decemiber, 1763, and died 24th Novem-
ber, 1856 ; his wife. Prances, died in 1838, aged about 59. There were
twelve children.
1. Francis (bom 1796, drowned 1828), father of F. R. Baby, of
New York, and of Albert F. Baby, of Cameron, Minn.
2. James (bom 1798), married Elizabeth Henderson.
3. Elizabeth (bora 1800), married Pierre Pauil Lacroix.
4. Edmund (bom 1803), married Françoise Agatha Arket.
5. Anne (born 1805), married William L. Baby.
6. Emily (born 1807), married Dr. Albert K. Dewson.
7. Henry (died young).
8. .Antoine Raymond (bom 1811), father of Ra3rmond Baby,
banker, ot Chatham, now of Windsor.
Ljamm] second legislature OF UPPER CANADA 169
9. Susanne (bom 1814), married James Dougall, of Windsor.
10. Charles Jean (bom and died 1816).
11. Alfred (bora 1817).
12. Thaddeus (bom 1820).
Parshall Terry: The name» — Young, as one of th« members of
the First Legislature, had, for many years, puzzled me, and I was un-
able to locate th« man or his riddng until the finding of The Quebec
Magazine for December, 1792, by Mr. Phileas Qagnon, referred to in
my previous paper, set mo on the track. The correct name was Par-
shall Terry. A careless writing of the name " Terry" by Dr. William
(.'anniff, or by some one for him, led hitn or the compositor to read it
*•' Young, '^ and so it was printed. Subsequent writers followed the
wrong name, and the mistake thus came into many books and pamph-
lets. I got the correction last year just in time to insert it in the final
proof, but too late to add any notes.
References to Parshall Terry will be found in the three volumes of
"Landmarks of Toronto,*' by Mr. John Ross Robertson, as follows:
Vol. 1, p. 427; Vol. 2, p. 994; Vol. 3, p. 297. He was the only member
of his family who sided with the Britis-h. He belonged, to Butler^s
Rangers and settled at first at Niagara. He followed Simcoe and th^d
troops to York and settled in the Don Valley. His neighbours were
the Eastwood, Skinner and Helliwell families. Terry built mills at the
head cf Broadview avenue. He married Rhoda Skinner, and had five
daughters who married the following persons : Edward William Thom-
son of To^nto Township, Greorge Thomson of Scarboro, Dr. Lee
Loudon, Lt.-Col. Farquharson, and James Cornell of Soarboro. The
last of his family died in 1875. After his death his widow married
"William Cornell. She lived to a great age. Parshall Terry was
drowned in July, 1808, while attempting to cross the Don. His pioneer
mill on the Don was succeeded by the old paper mill which stood near
the bridge that yet carries across the river the old mill road.
ADDENDUM.
Place of Meeting : The mistake has been made more than once of
referring one of the sessions of the Second Legislature to NewaA or
Niagara. There appears to be no doubt whatever as to the places of
meeting of the various aessione 1792-1800. The five sessions of the
First House were all held at Newark, and the four sessions of the Second
House were all held at York. The typewritten copies of the journ-als,
and the earliest printed statutes, confirm this. The little settlement on
the west or left bank of the river was variously known as Niagara, West
170 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
Niagara, Butlersbiurg, Lenox, Nassau and Newark. The officiai name
was Newark at the time of the sessions of the First Legislature. Lt.-
Gov. Simcoe himself in his proclamation of July, 1792, named the town-
ship Newark, after Newark in Lincolnshire, England. Section 12,
chapter 8, of the 1792 statutes provided for the erection of a gaol at the
" Tlown of Newark," and section 3 of chapter 6 of the statutes of 1793,
provided for sittings of the sessions of the Peace for the Home district
at " Newark." The Lieutenant-Governor's proclamations and his an-
nouncements, as a rule, wiere dated from " Navy Hall " or " Council
Boom, Navy Hall," as though the little group of buildings near the
wharf, oontaindng the provincial executive oflBces, were a place apart
from the people's settlemient of Niagara or Newark.
The first volume of Upper Canada statutes now available contains
the statutes-at-large from 1792 to 1804 inclusive, paged consecutively,
set up without break, but bearing on thie title page 'TTork, 1802." This
date may have been a tjrpographical error, or there may have been an
earlier volume printed in 1802, and in the volume 1792-1804, the printer
may have repeated the former title page. After the year 1804 the
statutes wjere printed yearly, and our largest libraries contain bound
volumes that are made up of statutes of the various years: thus at
Osgoode Hall, Toronto, is the compilation 1792-1804 with the title page
dated 1802; and in the Ontario Legislative Library are two volumes,
ome with the statutes for 1805, 1806, 1807 and 1808, bound up with the
1792-1804 collection, and the other having, in addition to the above,
the statutes for 1810 and 1811, together with the Imperial statutes
affecting Canada from 1774 to 1791.
In the volume 1792-1804 the numbering of the sessionâ is oorrrectly
given, except in nine headlines where fourth appears instead of third,
but in the voluime printed at York in 1818, there is a curious mistake
that may mislead some writers. The volume is entitled " The Provin-
cdal Statutes Revised, Corrected and Reprinted by Authority, York,
1818." The first, second, third and fourth sessions of the First Parlia-
ment are correctly numbered. Then the fifth of the First is called the
First of the Second, and so on until we have the fourth session of th^
Third in 1803, followed by the fourth session of the Third in 1804. The
compiler allowed the mistake to stand for the sessions of 1797 to 1803
inclusive. It may be that the pages had already been run off the press
when the mistake was corrected in 1804. Type was limited, no doubt,
and paper was soaree. The prinJ ers^ mistake occurred through the fact
that there were five sessions during the four years 1792-T796. Thomp-
son and Macfarlan>e corrected this m-istake as to the numbering when
they issuied their revision of statuites at Kingston in 1831.
[jAMEn] SECOND LEGISLATURE OP UPPER CANADA 171
In both the York and the Kingston issues the statutes of 1792 and
1793^ are stated to have been passed «bt Niagara, but, as stated above,
the typewritten journals are dated at Newark.
Mr. Thomas Langton, K.C., of Toronto, in connection with this
maiiter, has calkd my attention to the following extract from "The
Travek of Isaao W^ld (Vol. 2, pp. 87, 88, third edition, 1800), under
date of September, 1796. It will be an interesting addition to the his-
tory of the littl-e town that was the meeting place of our First Legp's-
lature, a plaoe that has enjoyed so many names, its latiest, that of
*' Niagara-on-the-Lake,'^ having been given to its post oflBce in March,
1903: ^
" On the eastern side of the river is situated the fort, now in the
possession of the people of the States, and on the opposite or British
side a town most generally known by tho najne of Niagara, notwithr-»
standing that it has been namod Newark by the Legislature. The
original name of the town was Niagara; it was afterwards called Lenox,
then Nassau, and afterward Newark. It is to be lamented that the
Indian names so grand and sonorous should ever have been changed for
othera. Newark, Kingston, York are poor substitutes for the original
names of their respective places — Niagara, Cataraqui, Toronto. The
town of Niagara hitherto has been and still is the capital of the Pro-
vince of Upper Canada. Orders, however, had been issued before our
arrival there for the removal of the seat of Government from thence to
Toronto, whioh was deemed a more eligible spot for the meeting of the
legislative bodies as being f uirther removed from the frontier pf the
Undted States.''
Students of Canadian history will find interesting supplements to
this paper and to that of 1Ô02 in The Transactions of the Canadian In-
stitute, April, 1892, Vol. II, Part 2. '' The Administration of Lieut-
Governor Simcoe viewed in his OflBcial Correspondence," by Ernest
Cruikshank.
And in No. 2, Vol. II of University of Toronto Studies, History and
Economics; '* Municipal Government in Ontario,'' by Prof. Adam
Shortt.
In The Olobe of 24th October, 1903, will be found a very full and
authoritative discussion of the question as to where Parliament first
met, by Miss Janet Camochan, president of the Niagara Historical
Society.
The D. W. Smith election letter referred to on page 158, has just
been printed in Transaction No. 4 of the Women's Canadian Historical
Society of Toronto (1903).
172
ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
List of Members of First and Second Lboisljiturbs of Upper Canada —
1792-1796 and 1796-1800.
Glengarry, Ist Riding:,
Glenearry, 2nd Riding:,
Stormont,
Dundas,
GrenviUe,
Leeds and Frontenac,
Addingrton and Ontario,
{1792-1796. HufTh Maicdonell.
1796-1800, Richard Wilkinson.
{1792-1796, John MiacdonéM.
1796-1800, John MacdoneU.
f 1792-1796. Jeremiah French.
1 1796-1800, Robert I. D. Gray.
( 1792- Alexander CampbelL
1 1796-1800. Thomas Fraaer.
f 1792-1796, EJphraiim Jones.
\ 1796-1800. Bdwaxd Jessup.
f 1792-1796, John White.
\ 1796-1800. Solomon Jones.
/ 1792-1796, Joshua Booth.
J 1796-1798, Christopher Robinson.
1 1799-1800, William Fairfield.
^1792 PhUip Borland.
Prince Edward and Adolphustown, \ 1793-1796, Peter Vanalstine.
[ 1796-1800, David MJoGregor Roarers.
Lenox, Hastimgfs and Northumberland.
Durham, York and 1st Lincoln,
2nd Lincoln.
3rd Lincoln,
4th Lincoln and Norfolk,
Basex and Suffolk,
[1792-1796, Hazelton Spenoer.
1^1796-1800, Timothy Thamd;>8on.
( 1792-1796.
I 1796-1800,
' 1792-1796. Nathaniel Pettit.
Richard Beasley.
{1792-1796, Benjamin Pawling.
1796-1800, David Wm. Smith.
/ 1792-1796,
( 1796-1800,
Isaac Swayzie.
Samuel Street.
/ 1792-1796, Parshall Tenry.
\ 1796-1800, Benjamin Hardison.
J 1792-1796, David Wm. Smith.
1 1796-1800, John CornwaU.
/William Macomb
1792-1796, < and
VI
Kent (Two Members),
1796.1800,
'•{
^Francis Baby.
Thomas Smith
and
Thomas McKee.
Section U., 1903 [ 178 ] Trans. R. S. C.
X. — Acadian Magazines.
By D. E. Jack,
(Communicated by Dr. S. B. Dawson and read May 20th, 1903.)
The earliest Acadiaii magazine of which there appears to be any
record was The Nova Scotia Magazine, of which 5 volumes were
printed at Halifax, N.S., during the years 1789-92. This magazine
contained but little original matter, and abounded in anecdotes and
selected articles culled from The European Magazine, The American
Museum, The Massachusetts Magazine, The Imperial Magazine and from
many other sources. It also contained a large amount of poetry, part.of
which was of local origin. *' Pollio," of Halifax, must have been a verse
writer of influence, as several eflEorts appear over his signature. One of
these written " For the Nova Scotia Magazine '' is entitled " Odin, An
Highland Ballad Versified.'' The editor of the magazine deals ten-
derly with *' Pollio " and his short-comings in part as follows : —
" We take the liberty of calling onr ingenious correspondent's at-
tention to a few of his rhymes. He well knows that their harmony in
no wise depends on the similarity of the written words, but on sound
only: Therefore, though we are aware he can produce too many in-
stances from the greatest English poets, we would advise him to be
guided by his ear alone."
Then follow some examjxlee of bad rhymes such as health, death,
move, love, red, mead, convey, sea, etc. The editor further adds: —
" These remarks, we confide, will be received with the same spirit
they axe offered ; which is only that of friendly communication. Cheap
as they are, we would not have spent them upon an inferior writer.
But from * Pollio ' Ve hope for many future favours ; and, if he thinks
with us, the least contention can easily remedy this trifling defect;
trifling, we know, not from poverty of words, but more likely from too
hasty composition."
The following translation of the thirty-third Ode of Anacreon,
signed " Minimus," and which appeared in The Nova Scotia Magazine for
March, 1790, p. 230, is not without merit. By a singular co-incidence a
translation of the same Ode by W. P. Dole, LL.D. of St. John, N.B.,
appears in Siewarfs Quarterly, published eighty years later, and although
more extended reference is made in this paper both to Stewart's Quar-
terly and to the writings of Dr. Dole, it may not now be inappro-
priate to give l>oth translations for the purposes of comparison. Singu-
174 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
larly enough it was only when discussing the outlines of the paper now
before you with the writer that Dr. Dole became aware of the earlier
translation by " Minimus.'^
For The Mova Scotia Magazine,
Translation of the thirty-third Ode of Anaereon.
You, dear Swallow once a year,
In Summer's firenial heat appear;
Once a curious mansion build,
Once with Mttle swallows filled:—
But love, within my hopeless breaat.
Hath built a never falling: nest.
Some young desires in plumage bright.
Half of some the shells detain;
Some within the egg remain.
The chirping brood with careless noise.
Stun my ears and kill my Joys.
The elder loves, the younger feed:
These again with wondrous speed,
Other generations breed.
Ah! what can ease this wretched breast
With such a swarm of loves possessed!
Minimus,
{The Mova IScotia Magazine» March, 1790, p. 230.)
The following is the text of Dr. Dole's translation: —
Dear Swallow! you, a friendly comer,
Returning every year.
Build your nest here in the Summer,
In Winter disappear.
For Nile or Memphis far you leave:
But love within my heart
His downy nest doth ever weave,
And never will depart
One passing is just getting wings.
One hatching, one on egg:
A clamorous cry unceasing springs
From gaping mouths that beg.
The older loves quick zeal display
The younger brood to feed;
These, brought up, in their turn straightway
Another nestful breed.
What remedy therefore have I?
Since every effort proves
I have not power, howe'er I try,
To drive away such loves.
W. P. D.
(From Stewart's Quarterly, Vol. 3, No. 3, Oct., 1869, p. 252.)
[jack] ACADIAN MAGAZINES 178
Some attention is paid in this magazine to the movements of the
Governor, the doings of the Provincial Legifilatnre and the school ex-
aminations at Windsor, and at Halifax. That the practice of branding
felons was then in vogue will be observed from the statement that at a
Court of Oyer and Terminer and General Goal Delivery, held by special
Commisbion before the Hon. James Brenton, Bichard John Uniacke and
James Newton, Esquires, on Friday, February 19th, 1790, John Stewart,
Ebenezer Wright, Jane Wishart and George Smith were found guilty of
Grand Larceny and ordered to be branded.
From the proceedings of the House of Assembly it is learned that
.Major Barclay presented to the &jp^aker a specimen of some iron from
the Iron Works, lately established at Wilmot and referred the House
to Major Millidge for further information. The last named gentlemen
on being asked by the speaker what quantity of iron he supposed the
works in their present state could produce yearly, said about 30 tons,
but that the proprietor was about erecting another fire which would
enable him to produce at least 60 tons. *' This information gave much
satisfaction to the House, who were also much pleased with the sample
of the iron produced.^^
Scanty and primitive as are the notices of local men apd affairs
contained in this first effort to found an Acadian magazine, the volumes
yet contain much of interest and value to the student of local history.
This magazine was edited at Windsor, where, in the year 1792,
King's College was established.
Of The Nova Scotia and New Brunswick or Historical, Literary,
Theological and Miscellaneous Repository, Halifax, 1806, we are in-
formed that one number is extant. They were all fond of long titles
and of sub-titles, in these early days of magazine m^aking, but it wias
the fashion of the times elsewhere as well as in Nova Scotia. In The^
History of Halifax City, published by the Nova Scotia Historical
Society, page 139, will be found a very brief reference to this magazine.
It was offered for sale at the bookstores of Messrs. Morrison, Bennett,
Edward Ward an«d William Minns.
In July, 1826, appeared the first number of 2Vie Acadian Magazine ;
or Literary Mirror, consisting of original and selected matter on literary
and other subjects. This magazine was published at Halifax for the
proprietors, and was printed by J. S. Cunnabell, 105 Barrington St.,
the subscription price being $4.00 per annum — half in advance.
Th€ following list of agents will, perhaps, be of some interest:
"Subscriptions received by the following agents: — ^Benjamin DeWoli,
Esq., Windsor; W. Sargent, Esq., Barrington; Mr. William J. Ward,
Shelboume; F. S. Blanchard, Esq., Truro; R. Dickson, Esq., Onslow;
176 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
H. G. Farish, Esq., Yarmouth; T. Boaoh, Esq., Cumberland; Mr. John
H. Freeman, Liverpool; W. Salter, Esq., Newport; Mr. Joshua M. Bae,
Lunenburg; James Ratohford, Jr., Esq., Parrsborough; John Wier,
Esq., Londonderry; William Pope, Esq., Bedeque, P.E.L; M. C. C.
Tropolet, St John, N.B.; Mr. Edward Baker, Fredericton, N.B.''
The first volume contains three illustrations or " embellishments ''
as they are styled, of the Prince House at Halifax, a view of Windsor,
and a portrait of the then Duke of York.
The Acadian Magazine contains much more local and original mat-
ter than its precursor. The Nova Scotia Magazine. An extensive re-
view appears of " The Rising Village," by Oliver Goldismith, descendaBt
of the author of the " I>eserted Village," which was published with a
preface by the Bishop of Nova Scotia. (London, 1825, 48 pages. Price,
2s. 6d.) This poem, while not of a very high order of merit is yet a
distinct advan-ce in style and thought over some of the poetical effu-
sions which appeared at the end of the previous century.
It is amusing to note the rapid advance of the pedler into the
more dignified station of a merchant, and a few lines from the earlier
portion of the poem may perhaps be quoted: —
•• While now the rislnig village claims a name,
Its limits still increase, and still its fame,
The wand'ringr Pedler, who undaunted trac'd
His lonely footsteps o'er the silent waste;
Who t ravers' d once the cold and snow-clad plain.
Reckless of danger, trouble or of pain,
To find a market for his little wares!
The source of all his hopes, and all his cares.
Established here, his settled home maintains.
And soon a merchant's higher title gains.
*• Around his store on sipaclous sThelves array'd,
Behold his great and various stock in trade.
Here, nails and «blankets, side by side are seen,
There horses' collars, and a large tureen;
Buttons and tumblers, cod-hooks, spoons and knives
Shawls for young damsels, flannels for old wives;
Wool, cards and stockings, hats for men and boys.
Mill-saws and fenders, silks and infant' toys;
All useful things, and join'd with many more.
Compose the well assorted country store."
Since these days the "shawls for young damsels*' have been
superseded by the tailor-made gown, or as close an imitation of such as
the ingenuity or purse of the country maiden of this generation will
permit ; mill-saws and fenders have been more or less put out of business
by the band-saw and the jacknife saw-mill, the latter of which travels
the country laying waste many beautiful places and seeking what it may
[jack] ACADIAN MAGAZINES 177
devour. Neville Parker^ Master of the Bolls in New Brunswick^ used to
write poetry, some of it very clever, and Cecil and Atticus in The Acadian
Magazine may 'have been written by either Neville Parker or his brother
Bobert, as they were students at college at Windsor, N.S., about that
date. This is merely a surmise, but the solution offered is one that is
by no means improbable.
In January, 1827, the following address, which is self-explanatory
appeared in The Acadian Magazine.
ADDRESS.
At the opening: of a nerw^ year It is usual for the managers of periodical
publications to address their readers wdth complimenfts and thanks. We have
now proceeded in our undertaking as far as the seventh number, and having
received a very generous suppor^ from the public, it would 'be ungrateful \n
us to overlook an occasion of the kind.
When we commenced the magazine, it was not undt»r the mof^ favourablci
auspices. A magazine has been tried An an earlier period of our provincial
history. It was a compilation of extracted matter from English works.
Although the selections it contained were very judicious, yet the period had
not then arrived for the establishment of such a «work, and it was after a
fair trial reluctantly abandoned. We were told it was sftill a premature and
raaOi speculation, that the country stiU depended upon casual foreign sup-
plies for its men of talent and genius, and that it could ndt afford such con-
triibutions of original writings as would insure success, or even a lasting
existence to a magazine. Under this cloud of discouragement we ventured
on our perilous ftiglit, and although we may not have soared to the empyrean^
heights of literature on newly fledged pinions, we trust we have not yet sunk
to the earth, or approached the fbathos. Our progress in gaining subscrip-
tions and communications to the work, has not fallen eiiort of the expecta-
tions we formed at the outset, and we find the number of friends progressrtvelyt
increasing. While this continues to be our situation, we shall not flinch
from our «post. We are decidedly of opinion, that the character, wealth and
happiness of Nova Scotia, will receive material improvement by the growth
and extension of our literature. It is not to be concealed, that an opinion
is disseminated «by some, 'that «we can hope but little from the exertions of
the (pen ; but it is the duty of every Nova Scotian tx) Jodn with ardor in.
wiping off the reproach that attaches to us.
We return our warmest thanks to our many correspondents, both in this
province, and the sister colony, iNeiw Brunswick. We shall endeavour to
make our work generally interesting to readers residing in New Brunswick
and Prince lEdward Island as well as in this province.
We have the greater pleasure in giving the present numlber to the press,
because we have not found it necessary to make any selections, the original
communications admitted having entirely fllled it. We will endeavour to
add still further to the Interest of the work in the course of a month or two,
as we have the promise of additional assistance from literary friends.
Wishing the reader a happy New Year, we take our leave for the present.
Sec. II., 1903. 12.
178 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
Two years (despite the self-confidence of its editor) saw the end of
The Acadian Magazine, and June, 1828, was the date of its last issue.
Thus passed into history the third Acadian Magazine.
Following The Acadian Magazine came The Halifax Monthly Maga-
zine, of which three volumes were published, bearing date 1830-3. This
is stated to 'have been a creditable production. It was "printed and pub-
lished by J. S. Cunnabel, Argyll Street, opposite the west end Dalhousie
College,^' the subscription rate being 12 shillings per annum. "It
dealt with current politics, contained fiction, poetry and sketches, most
of them apparently original, and an article on the death and character
of George IV., may have created a stir at the time." It is a matter of
regret that at the time of writing this sketch a copy of this interestting
publication was not available for the purpose of review, at least not in
the city of St. John.
From some very voluminous manuscript records of the early
history of the Press in New Brunswick compiled by the late Joseph
W. Lawrence and now in the possession of Mr. Frank B. Ellis, of St.
John, we learn that in 1834 Mr. George Blatch published from the
oflBce of The St. John Observer the Two Penny Magazine, a weekly
museum of literary amusement and instruction.
Concerning it the editor of The St. John Courier wrote " from the
editor's known talent, and the extensive literary correspondence and
other means of obtaining useful information which he enjoys, we are
confident The Two Penny Magazine only wants a commensurate
patronage, to render it amusing and instructive, as well as a deserving
publication."
Mr. Lawrence expresses the opinion that in this enterprise Mr.
Blatch was in advance of the time, and that the work was consequently
early abandoned. For a number of years he kept a book and music
store, importing pianos from England. He subsequently studied law,
and was admitted to the Bar about 1848. 'In 1868 he was appointed
registrar of the Court of Vice-Admiralty and later was made clerk of
the Supreme Court for the City and County of St. John. As a lecturer
in the St. John Mechanics Institute in its early days Mr. Blatoh was
decidedly popular.
In September, 1840, there appeared The British North American
Wesleyan Methodist Magazine — published (monthly) by " councxional
authority."
Volume one, including sixteen numbers, from Seiptember, 1840, to
December, 1841, inclusive, and volumes two to four twelve numbers
each, 1842-44, were published by Henry Chubb & Co., of St. John,
K.B. The magazine was then discontinued for a year and a half, and
[Uck] ACADIAN MAGAZINES 179
volume five, June, 1846, to May, 1847, indusive, was published bv
James Hogg a/t Fredericton, N.B.
In the month of January, 1841, there was issued by Robert Shives
the first number of The Amaranth,
Robert Shives was a great-grandson of Robert Kilgour, Bishop
of Aberdeen, one of the Consecrators in 1786 of Dr. Seabury,
of Connecticut, th^ first bishop of th-e Protestant Episcopal Church in
America. The father of Robert Shives was a native of Aberdeen,
came to St. John and engaged in commerce. In 1811 he married a
daughter of John Wiggins, of Portland, not long after which he visited
Scotland, and there his son Robert was born. Mr. Shives, Sen., died
at St. John, December 30th, 1824, at the early age of 37 years, and
was buried in fch-e old historic burial ground adjoining King Square.
On the 27th June, 1827, Robert entered the printing office of The
Courier as an apprentice. In 1834, upon completing his time, as it
was called, he went to Scotland where he spent two years. On his
return in 1836, he re-entered the office of The Courier, where he
remained until 1840, when he commenced the publication of The
Amaranth, a monthly magazine.
During the apprenticeship of Robert Shives the volumes of The
Courier were enriched by the letters of John Gape, which continued
for a year, increasing the circulation of the paper from 800 to 1,500
copies, creating a sensation in New Brunswick not unlike the letters of
Junius' in England. They related chiefly to the Crown Land Depari>
ment. At this time the offices of Commissioner and Surveyor-Qeneral
were held by Hon. Thomas Baillie, and from them he received salaried
amounting to £2,019.
One of the grievances complained of by John Qape, was the large
amount paid to Mr. Baillie.^
The Amaranth was the first literary magazine published in New
Brunswick, which contained much literary material of value and
interest, and it was without doubt the best effort yet made to estab-
lish a\ magazine of a high class of literary excellence in the Acadian
Provinces. Indeed, it may well be claimed that for fascinating interest
and artistic word painting, the articles which appeared therein from the
pen of Moses H. Perley, have possibly not been equalled and ceri;ainly
not excelled by any other Acadian magazine writer. The sketches first
appeared in The London Sporting Review and were republished in The
Amaranth. Mr. Perley was a native of New Brunswick, a man of
great literary capability and one who, from his knowledge of his native
* (BVom manuflcript of late J. W. Lawirence on Early PrlnteiB and Early
Nefwspapere of New Bminawlck, xk>w in possession of Frank B. EHlie of St.
John).
180 EOYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
province, its beauties and its possibilities, was able to assist in making
more widely known its many attractions.
Mr. W. R. M. Burtis, for many years common clerk of the City of
St. John, was also a writer of merit and a frequent contributor to the
pages of The Amaranth, his story of Indian life, " The Storm Spirit
of the Milidtes'^ having been more than once republished by later
periodicals.
In all the older magazines it is difficult, and in the majority of cases
impossible at this late period to ascertain the identity of the various
local contributors. In fact so much care was taken upon this point
that it is difficult to discover even the names of the editors of many of
them. In this respect The Amaranth more nearly approached the
modem ideal of a literary magazine. Some of the articles by local
contributors bear the writer^s signature, while in other cases the first
and last letters of the writer's surname are given. By this aid Mr.
Jonas Howe in a very excellent article upon The Amaranth, which
appeared in Acadiensis in July, 1902, has been able to discover and
place permanently upon record the names of its more important
contributors.
Turning carelessly over the pages of the first volume of The
Amaranth recently, a poem on page 268 immediately attracted atten-
tion. It was entitled " The Dying Chief ,^' and was signed ^ J. A.,''
Westmorland, July. The first three stanzas are as follows : —
The Dying Chief.
The stars look'd down on the battle plain,
When night winds were deeply sighing,
And with shattered lance near his war-steed slain.
Lay a youthful warrior dying.
He had folded round his gallant breast
The banner once "o'er him streaming,
For a noble shroud as he sunk to rest,
On the couch that knows no dreaming.
Proudly lie lay on his broken shield
By the rushing Guadalqulver—
While dark with the blood of his last red field,
Swep>t on (the majestic river.
Turning further on to the end of the following number of The
Amaranth, we find the following brief but pointed editorial comment:
''The poetry, entitled, "The Dying Chief" which appeared in
our last number, as an original contribution, is an extract from a
volume of poems published in England. The gentleman (?) who sent
this manuBcript to our office, and who, instead of placing his own
[jack] ACADIAN MAGAZINES 181
initials to it added those of another, is cautioned against trying his
plagiarisms in future. We had strong doubts as to the originality of
the piece when we gave it a place on our pages/'
In April, 1842, the editor of The Amaranth welcomed to the ranks
of Acadian Literature The Nova Scotia New Monthly Magazine in
the following words: —
" The first number of this work is now before us, and we hail its
appearance with pleasure, ss a valuable addition to our Colonial .Litera-
ture. The contents of the present number are rich and varied — the ori-
ginal articles are written with good taste and judgment, and the selected
ones are from the chodoest works of the day. From the energy and re-
sources of the publishers, we are led to believe that The New Monthly
will become very popular."
Thib magazine was 32 pages in extent, octavo in size, and published
by Simpson & Kirk of Halifax, the St. John agency being at " The Cir-
culating Library, Germain Street.'' The subscription price wa* 8s. 9d.,
including postage.
From the pages of the first number of the new magazine was repu-
blished in The Amaranth^ a poem entitled " The Fossil," addressed to
, generally supposed to be to Dr. Abraham Gesner, a well known
scientist who lived in St. John, and who left bohind him valuable works
on the geogra,pliy of New Brunswick and Acadifin Geology, and who ga-
thered the nucleus of what was afterwards the Museum of the St. John
Mechanics Institute, now owned by the Natural History Society of St.
John.
As the poom alluded to is not lengthy, and is of some merit, it may
perhaps be quoted at length. Unfortunately no clue is given as to the
identity of the writer.
It reads as follows: —
The Fossil.
Once in the youn^r earth's golden prime,
'Ere care made grrey the wing of time,
There fell a green leaf on the shore;
And it floated away on the wandering wave.
And found dn the deep green sea a grave.
And ne'er was thought on more.
Ages rolled on, and the rocking earth
Had seen a new creation's birth.
And Empires rise and fall:
But none e'er thought how that green leaf slept,
Like a treasured thing by Enchanter kept,
'Neath the old earth's marble wall, —
182 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
Till on a day, as It befel
A sagre unsealed the mighty spell
Of nature's treasure cave,—
And, changed to a hard engraven stone,
Lo! the frail leaf that, ages gone,
With its fall scarce stirred the earth.
And hath not the heart full many a dream.
That falls aa that noiseless leaf on the stream,
And as silently sinks to rest—
And the tide of life rolls over its sleep,
In those shadowy caves— the wondrous deep
Of the fathomless human hreast
But when Bhall those caverns yield their dead —
The dreams of the past— the thoughts long fled?
Oh! not for the pnring wt)rld:
But in that last dread day, when souls
Must give to light their hidden scrolls.
Will their secrets be unfurled.
And then on my heart will the memory
Be read engraven lastingly.
Like the leaf on the marble bright
But halo'd around with purity,
That will not shrink from an angel's eye.
In that blaze of perfect light.
The Mayflower or Ladies Acadian Newspaper appeared in 1851,
not less than five numbers being published. Of this periodical, Miss
Herbert was the editor, and the place of publication was at Halifax.*
The Mount Allison Academic Oazette was the official organ of the
Mount AUi&on (N.B.) institutions for about ten years, during which
time it was issued semi-annually, and took the place of the catalogues
usually published by educational institutions.
No. 1 was dated December, 1853, and contained 6 pages, of closely
printed matter, of about quarto size, relating to the Academy and its
affairs.
In 1862 the University was opened, this publication taking the
name of The Mount Allison Gazette, New Series of which there were but
two issues, namely, June, 1863, No. 1, and December, 1863, No. 2.
The Eurhetorian Argosy appeared in 1878. Vol. No. 1, January to
June, contained six numbers. This was the College paper of the Mount
Allison Institutions, and in May, 1903, it will have completed its twenty-
ninth volume, being now known as The Argosy.
The next magazine in the order of publication, of which I have
been able to find any record was The Provincial or Halifax Monthly
Magazine, which was printed by James Bowes & Son, and was ably
[îackJ ACADIAN MAGAZINES 188
edited by Mrs. William LawBon. Mention is made of it in the article
on ^ Canadian Magazines before alluded to, and Mr. Arthur H. U. Col-
quhoun remarks therein that " the articles on copy-right, on the new
system of telegraphs, and on various subjects of timely interest indicated
good editorship, and a staflf of competent writers." But in December,
1853, after two years of dauntless effort, the periodical gave up with a
cry of "no subscribers."
After 1853, all attempts at the publication of a literary magazine in
Nova Scotia appear to have been abandoned, and for the literary ven-
tures of this class for the next half century we must look to New Bruns-
mck and Prince Edward Island.
In McFarlane's Bibliography of New Brunswick, page 58, a most
valuable publication, by the way, is noted, " The Parish School Advo-
cate," edited by Alexander Munro. The first number was issued Jan.
l&t, 1858. Its platf oran was as follows : —
Ist. Free schools, supported by direct assessment to a limited
extent.
2nd. The Bible, the test mark of moral obligation, without which
education is useless.
In 1895, The Chignecto Post, published at Sackville, N.B., and
edited by W. C. Milner, celebrated its twenty-fifth birthday, by the issTie
of a thirty page number, whi<îh contained a very full biographical sKetch
of Mr. Munro accompajaied by his portrait.
In The New Brunswick Magazine, volume 1, No. 2, pp. 78-80-81,
will be found an article from the pen of Dr. George Stewart of Quebec,
and entitled An Early New Brunswick Magazine, This article gives
an excellent idea of The Guardian, the magazine just mentioned, and a
few notes from the article named may perhaps be admissible.
Dr. Stewart informs* us that the new venture was on a more ambi-
tious scale than The Amaranth, the editors and publishers being
Messrs. Edward Manning and R. Aitkin. It was issued monthly at St.
John, and lasted for nine months only, being withdrawn in September,
1860.
The Guardian was devoted to education and general literature. It
was printed by the firm of Barnes & Oo., of St. John, who li«ke the
historic firm of H. Chubb & Co., of St. John, and Cunnabel, of Halifax,
have aided in the conception of many literary ventures.
Anything relating to New Brunswick but politics, was the maxim
of its editors. It was to be largely provincial in its tone and character,
and a lengthy programme was prepared. Papers relating to Nova Scotia
* A Century of Canadian Magra^ines, by Arthur H. U. Colquhoun, Can-
adian Magazine, 1901, Vol. 17, p. 141.
184 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
and Prince Edward Island were not debarred from its pages however.
Its contributors were not paid.
Mr. William K. M. Burtis who had been a valued contributor of
fiction to The Amaranth, provided most of the fiction published, his
story entitled "Grace Thornton, A Tale of Acadia," continuing through
eleven chapters.
An amusing printer's error occurred in connection with a series of
papers written by Mr. E. Penniston Starr, a leading coal merchant of
St. John, and a man of good literary taste. The last page of Mr. Starr's
first article, contained his initials, which were not observed, however, by
the compositor. What the compositor did observe, were the letters
P. T. 0. (please turn over), at the foot of the page preceding the last.
P. T. 0. was forthwith adopted by Mr. Starr as his pseudonym, much
to the amusement of those who were aware of the joke.
Dr. Stewart further tells us that such subjects as "Poetry in
America," "British Poetry," "State of the World at the Christian
Advent," etc., appeared, and that they were pretty heavy, but that there
was a good list upon provincial subjects, such as " The Botany of the
Lower Provinces," " Education in New Brunswick," " The Geography
of New Bruniawick," "Geography of Nova Scotia," "History of
Acadia," and "The History of the Loyalists." The caribou and the
Canadian grouse or Spruce partridge were also written upon.
The nine numbers when bound, made a volume of 218 pages, the
cost to subscribers for the set being two shillings and sixpence.
Prof. W. F. Ganong, of Smith College, Northampton, Mass., is
the owner of a complete set of The Guardian.
The Progress Magazine was the first published in Prince Edward
Island, and it was started in the Progress office by Thomas Kirwin, in
1868, so we are informed by Mr. Cecil T. Bagnall in a short article in
the Christmas number, 1902, of The Prince Edward Island Magazine.
Kegardiug its publisher Mr. Kirwin, we are informed that he was a
splendid specimen of Prince Edward Island manhood, and that he was
born at Tryon, on the 17th April, 1832. Losing both parents before he
was eight years old, he was taken to Charlottetown by an older married
sister, and sent to a private school, afterwards entering the Old Central
Academy, changed to Prince of Wales College, then under the master-
ship of John Arbuckle. He learned his trade as a printer in the
establishment of John J. Pippy in Charlottetown, afterwards removing
to Boston, Mass.
In 1862 Mr. Kirwin fought in the war of the Rebellion, was
wounded and later sent home. 1866 he went to Sumnierside and started
The Progress newspaper, and continued to publish it for three years,
at the end of which time he again returned to Boston, where he his
[jack] ACADIAN MAGAZINES 186
since permanently resided, now enjoying a responsible editorial position
on The Herald, which he has held for twenty-one years.
In a personal letter from Mr. Archibald Irwin, the editor of The
Prince Edward Island Magazine, that gentleman states that only one
copy of The Progress Magazine was printed, and that it was altogether
made up of clippings from British and American magazines and news-
papers on miscellaneous subjects. It appears to have commenced and
ended with number one. The page was about 5^ x 8 inches in size,
set two columns to the page. Typographically it was neat but not at
all superior in style.
In 1867, Dr. George Stewart, then a young and enterprising drug-
gist, with a place oï business on King street in the city of St. John,
commenced the publication of Stewards Quarterly, a periodical which
was conducted .with much ability, and in the editing of which he had
the assistance of writers of more than ordinary talent '^This magazine
was more general in its interests, and therefore appealed to a wider range
of supporters than did any of its predecessors.
Like most of the boys of that period, and of the twenty years
following. Dr. Stewart appears to have had the stamp collecting mania
in an acute form.
In " Literary Remdniscences ** published by Dr. Stewart in the
Canadian Magazine, that writer informs us that " he began to write
for the press very early in life, and in 1866, in St. John, N.B., estab-
lished The Stamp Collectors' Monthly Gazette,^ which was withdrawn in
1867," when Stewart's Quarterly was founded in the same city.
Concerning the Quarterly, Dr. Stewart informs us that " it lived
five years, and though, as a financial venture it was not very profitable,
it earned quite a reputation in Canadian letters. Its contributors
were drawn from Newfoundland to British Columbia. The Eev. Moees
Harvey of St. John% as well as Judge Prowse, were frequent writers
in its pages. Dr. Harvey's valuable papere on Newfoundland did
much to make that ancient colony known all over the world, for the
newspapers, attracted by the author's attractive style, made copious
extracts from his articles."
A complete set of Stewart's Quarterly is now difficult, in fact
almost impossible to obtain.
Taking up at random the fourth volume, the only one in the
writer's own collection which is complete, it appears full of interest,
and treats of a variety of enticing topics.
One of the principal poetical contributors was Enyella AUeyne,
three examples of whose skill as a verse writer appear in this volume.
The leading editorial article in the first number, is devoted to the
* Canadian Maflr., Vol. XVII, No. 2, Jiin«, 1901. pagre 163.
186 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA ^
writings af this contributor. So well was the identity of the poet
eonceaJed that even the editor of the magazine in w»hich the poems
from time to time appeared, was deceived, and supposed that it was
to one of the fair sex that he was indebted for the really creditable
verses which from time to time adorned the pages of his magazine.
The editorial opens thus: —
" Some three months ago the literary world of Canada became
aware of the fact that a poet of no ordinary powers was among them.
Yet Bo modegJt has been this lady (for who else but a woman was it
who jodned together such strings of linked sweetness long drawn out,
as Milton hafh it) that, though her graceful oonrpositions have attracted
the attention of admiring thousands, she still holds from the public
eye her name, and only suffere her mysterious signature, which read-s
the same backwards and forwards, to accompany the fruits of her
muse.'*
" In thé columns of The Daily Telegraph and Journal this new light
sought fame, and in that widely circulated journal she obtained it."
It oooasioned gr^at surprise when it became known that the writer
Enyella AUeyne was Mr. H. L. Spencer, afterwards editor of The Mari-
time Monthly. Mr. Speneep is still actively engaged in the newspaper
work in St. John.
Prom the verses of Enyella Alleyne, one example is submitted for
your criticism:
Upon the beach I walked at eve alone,
And listened to the moaning of tile sea,
And watched the sails that in the moonlight shone
At the horizon: Unto me
There ca-me a voice, as from «below the waves, —
** The less'nlng sail will soon be seen no more,
" And as I sweep thy footprints from the shore,
" Time mosses o'er a world of- unknown graves.
" And it is well. If mem could not forget.
" With phantoms all the world would peopled be
"The ghosts of buried joys their hearts would fret
" A flood of tears like blood, would drown the sea.
" Rail not at time — the healer of thy woes —
" As of tihose thou hast forgotten, shall be thy last repose."
As the majority of readers now find it impossible to identify most
of the writers, who, under assumed names contributed to the earlier
Acadian Magazinos, so in another generation the namies of many of
those who contributed in no small degree to the literary success of
Stewart's Quarterly might be equally difficult to obtain. For this
\
[jack] ACADIAN MAGAZINES 187
reason the names of such of them as, with some assistance, have been
identified, are herewith appended.
Nûm-de-Plume. Writer's Name.
Damon Rev. Maurice Swabey of P. E. I., later Rector
Pythias of Exeter.
W.P.D William P. Dole, LX..D.
Laellus William P. Dole, LL.D.
"G." William P. Dole. LJ^.D.
J. W. G J. W. Gray (artist), Montreal.
I. A. J Isaac Allen Jack, D.C.L., of St. John, N.B.
An Old Angler W. H. Venning:, now of Sussex, N.B. Mr.
Venning wrote Sporting Sketches in Main<e
and New Brunswick. These were written
OTigimUly for the Atlantic Monthly, but were
rejected by the editor of that magazine.
" E." " G." " N." Ediward G. Nelson, St. John.
Lynden J. L. Stewart, now Itvlng at Chatham, N.R,
where he edited the Miramichi Advance. Mr.
Stewart's second n«ume is Lynden.
Publicus A. A. Stockton, L1L1.D., of St. John, who wrote
an able article on the " Fishery Question."
Diana Supposed to have been Miss S. Irésie Elder.
N. E. S John Valentine Ellis, who has been for many
years editor of the St, John Globe. The let-
ters N. E. 'S. are the final letters of each of
his names. Mr, Ellis is now a member of
the Senate of Canada, and is too well known
to need any introduction here.
H. L. S iH. L. Spencer, before alluded to and known also
as Enyella Alleyne.
Clifton Jonas Howe, of St. John, N.B.
Alexandei" Eae Garvie, who resided in Miramichi, N.B., was a
contributor to The Quarterly, and was a member of a very clever family
He was a brother of T. C. Garvie, of Halifax. His article on " Plau-
garism " and '^A Bev^erie '' attracted the most attention. He published
a volume of poems " Thistledown." He died in Montreal, March,
1874. Extensive notices of Mr. Garvie appear in The Maritime Monthly,
volume III., No. 4, March, 1874; also volume V., page 89, 1875, which
magazine followed immediiatoly after Stewards Quarterly,
Andrew Archer of Fredericton, was a contributor to The Quar-
terly, signing himself "A Bowman,^^ this being a pleasantry upon the
name of Archer. He was a dentist by profession, but never allowed
himself to be styled Doctor.
Mr. Archer compiled "Archer's History of Canada,^' used for some
years in tFe New Brunswick Public Schools. He edited a weekly news-
paper, published at Fredericton about 1870, entitled Head Quarters,
and which had quite a good literary tone.
188 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
Charles H. Hallock, founder and first editor of Forest and
Stream, still writes for that publication. He lived in St. John and
carried on a business in ChubVs building as a stock and exchange
broker during the war of the American Rebellion. It was suppoeed that
his synxpathiee were rather with the South in that memorable struggle.
At the close of the war he returned to the United States.
Dr. Lucius Allison was the alleged writer of a clever and humorous
article, entitled "About Some Old Girls."
Mr. Hunter Duvar was a well-known contributor, both in prose
and verse to several of the Acadian magazines. Some of hi« writings
were well thought of. The Prince Edward Island Magazine containfl
some good examples of his work, as well as an obituary notice, pnib-
Il?hed with his portrait at the time of his death.
It would not be just to conclude this somenv*hat lengthy list without
a more extended referenoe to W. P. Dole, LL.D., who has been a willing
and valuable assistant in nearly all of the magazine enterprises which
have been launched in New Brunswick, from the first issue of Stewards
Quarterly to the present day.
The Shady Side — Unsuccessful men — ^Youth — Bubbles — and a
review of Gladstone's Juventus Mundi were contributed to Stewards
Quarterly, by Dr. Dole over the nom-de-plume of Laelius. Of these
'^ Youth " was the most popular.
An example of Dr. Dole's ability as a verse writer has already been
given. Another which simply bears the initial " C," and which appeared
in Stewart's Quarterly, is considered by him to be one of his best
efforts in verse.
Following immediately upon Stewart's Quarterly, appeared The
Maritime Monthly, edited by Mr. H. L. Spencer, the first number of
which was published at St John, in 1873. It was continued through
at least five volumes of six numbers each.
It was a well edited magazine, containing only original contribu-
tions, but it was perhaps not quite up to the standard of Stewards
Quarterly. It ventured somewhat into the realm of religious denomi-
national discussion and of local politics, possibly not to the furtherance
of the welfare of the magazine.
Many of those who had been contributors to Mr. Stewart's maga-
zine continued to support The Maritime Monthly, which was published
under the auspices of the " Maritime Monthly Club," the members
of which were as follows: —
Mr. John Boyd, at the time of his death the newly appointed gover-
nor of New Brunswick. He was a well known writer and lecturer.
Mr. H. L. Spencer, who has been elsewhere alluded to.
[lACK] ACADIAN MAGAZINES 189
Mr. John McMillan, of the fiim of J. & A. McMillan, booksellers
and publishers, by whom the magazine was printed. The firm oi Mc-
Millan was far in advance of the times, for many years carrying on an
establishment that had no equal in the Acadian provinces, and possibly
no superior throughout Canada.
Mr. Ezekiel McLeod, now a judge of the Supreme Court of New
Brunswick.
Kev. James Bennett, afterwards Doctor of Divinity, a minister of
the Presbyterian Church, a man of good literary attainments, but some-
what slovenly in his style and methods of work.
Mr. J. Newton Wilson, a merchant of St. John, and an occasional
contribuftor to the pages of the magazine.
Mr. T. M. Robinson, for many years connected with the Western
CFnion «Telegraph Company at St. John.
Two valuable papers which appeared were "The First Courts
and Early Judges of New Brunswick," a paper read before the
New Brunswick Historical Society, on November 25th, 1874, on the
occasion of the inauguration of the Society, by the late Joseph Wilson
Lawrence : and " Our Blind," by I. Allen Jack, A.B., now D.C.L., a
paper of eleven pages, the writer of which acknowledges valuable as-
sisftance from C. F. Fraser and M. H. Richey of the Blind Asylum,
Halifax, and from Dr. Wiggins, Principal of the Institution for the
blind at Brantf ord, Ontario.
Dr. Jack also contributed some verses and an article of 26 pages
entitled "^The Church, the State and the School.''
Rev. Moses Harvey of Newfoundland, Hunter Duvar, Mary Barry,
William Murdock, George J.Forbes^ Olga Stewart of Halifax, and the
late Edward Jack, C.E., were contributors.
C. M. and C. D. M. of Halifax, possibly one and the same writer,
but whose identity cannot at present be stated, contributed translations
from the German in verse.
Vol. Ill, No. 4, of The Maritime Monthly contained a three page
review of the literary work and lectures of Mr. John Boyd, after-
wards Senator and Governor elect of New Brunswick. These lectures
were delivered in New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, and some parts of the
United States, in no case for a pecuniary consideration, so it is stated,
but for the benefit of literary and educational institutions, libraries,
churches, public and private charities, etc. In this review are enumerated
with much minuteness of detail the services of Mr. Boyd in this particu-
lar, and an approximate financial value is set upon each item, the grand
total amounting to $26,300. It is also stated that " we do not include
in the above, several readings given by Mr. Boyd at sea, one of which
190 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
on the * Scotia/ in conjunction with Mrs. Scott Siddons, when he was
returning last from England, yielded $300 for the Seaman's Orphan
Asylum, Liverpool."
The modefefty of this last paragraph reminds one of a story related
at the expense of a brother merchant who was a near neighbour of Mr.
Boyd's, and who was wont to allude to the establishment in which he
was a junior as being conducted by " me and Mr. Turgar.^*
As Mr. Boyd was one of the Maritime Monthly Club, it would at
least have been in good taste had the article so highly eulogistic of
himself been suppressed.
In the fifth number of volume 4 appears a vigorous and scathing
review, twelve pages in extent, of a sermon upon "The Apostolic
Origin of the Church of England,'' by the Rev. Francis Partridge, now
Dean of the Cathedral at Fredericton, and at that time Rector of Rothe-.
say, N.B. The sermon referred to was preached in Trinity Church,
St. John, on the 2nd July, 1874.
From the literary .style of this composition, the well known opi-
nions of Rev. James Bennett upon such subjects, and -his connection
with the magazine, we may reasonably infer that the review was from
the pen of that well known Presbyterian divine.
Whether we concur in the views expressed by Dean Partridge or
not, we must at least admit that he was quite within his rights in
preaching such a sermon if he wished to, and like the eulogy of Mr.
Boyd we cannot l)ui feel that it would have been in the best interests of
the magazine had the article not been permitted to appear.
Soon after this date The Maritime Monthly appears to have be-
come embroiled with The Daily Telegraph, then edited by Rev.
William Elder, D.D. over the " Louisiana Diflficulty." Upon this topic
the Monthly takes occasion to remark that; —
" JjSLst month we expressed our candid convictions about the much
talked of Louisiana difficulty. We do not believe in forming conclu-
sions u,pon exparte statement of facts. Our remarks appear to have
offended The Telegraph. We were by it held up as a disgrace to
the " Canadian Press," for our fearless and independent expression of
opinion. We hope no more serious charge can be brought against the
" Canadian Press." We sincerely pity the editor who is capable of
flinging such impotent thunder upon such a flimsy pretext. But mira-
hile didu, we are told that we should be ashamed of ourselves for ex-
pressing opinions upon such a topic, different from The Telegraph, and
the great majority of leading newspapers, *and some very eminent men in
England and America. On the contrary we are not ashamed, but we
[jack] ACADIAN MAGAZINES 191
beg to enter our decided protest against the " back-boneless lubricity '*
of our contemporary's logic/*
In the same issue of The Maritime Monthly appears the follow-
ing extract from The American Canadian Gazette, published at Boston,
Mass.
" We see that a St. John paper, in the course of some censures on
The Maritime Monthly for February, makes much ado over its lack
of articles on Canadian subjects, and thinks the publication of the sixth
paper of the series on the " Valley of the Platte *' while but one or two
of the other contributions have a local significance, displays great want
of judgment. Such a criticism is either reprehensibly captious, or
arises from a notable ignorance of periodical literature. No leading
magazine or review in this country or in Europe is supposed to inva-
riably devote any considerable portion of its space to discussion of local
or national subjects, and some of them have contained almost inter-
minable series on subjects altogether foreign. — American Canadian
Gazette.
The editor of The Maritime Monthly thereupon takes occasion
to remark that "The Piatt Valley Papers will be continued next month.''
Evil days appear to have by this time fallen upon this magazine, for
the number last alluded to contains the notice that : —
"«l^us far it has been published at a pecuniary loss to its pro-
prietors. Shall it be sustained ? It is for our people to answer. Our
subscription list must be doubled — our advertising patronage must be
doubled — else the magazine must die. The proprietors have furnished
a magazine whieh is an honor to the country. Will the country allow
it to perish for want of support."
The country appears to have been deaf to this appeal, for soon
after its publication The Maritime Monthly ceased to exist
The University Monthly, published by the students of the University
of New Brunswick, Fredericton, N.B., was first issued in 1882, the first
number published bearing date March of that year. It is still con-
tinued, and is now in its twenty-third year. Prof. W. F. Ganong, who
has previously been mentioned, has a complete fyle upon his library
shelves.
On September 1st, 1882, the first number of The Wollestook Gazette
appeared, published in connection with the St. John Grammar School
Debating Society, with the following editorial stafE from among the
members of the Society, namely: — Theophilus Gushing, John A. Gal-
livan, David Russell Jack, Alexander W. Macrae and William C. Knowl-
ton. The publication was about quarto size, sixteen* pages in extent,
including three pages of advertisements, and the issue was limited to
192 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
two hundred and fifty copies. All the members of the editorial staflE,
none of whom were at that time over 18 years of age, took an active
interest in its promotion.. The magazine was issued monthly for a
y€ar, with commendable promptitude, and by earnest dunning sufficient
subscriptions were collected, which, with the assistance of the very
generous advertising patronage received from persons interested in the
welfare of the school, sufficed to meet all liabilities, with a surplus of
$8.15 in the treasury.
Mr. M. Chamberlain was much interested in the undertaking and,
in addition to his subscription, aided by literary contributions.
Messrs. Manchester, Robertson & Allison, Daniel & Boyd, through
Hon. John Boyd, afterwards Lieutenant-Governor of New Brunswick,
and Henry Jack were the principal advertisers, paying at the rate of
$40.00 per page per annum.
The venture was an ambitious attempt at schoolboy journalism and
created no little interest among the friends of the students.
The work was taken up during the folldwing school year by an
entirely new staff coneisting of Frank B. Ellis, now on the staff of
The St John Globe, G. S. Sinclair, H. E. Goold, and L. M. Jewett
Among the principal literary contributors during the second year were
G. S. Sinclair, now an Episcopal minister in the State of New York ;
G. M. Hayes, at present of the Finance Department, Ottawa; T. M.
Dieuaide, who is to-day upon the staff of The New York Sun,
F. S. Hartley, now a Baptist minister at Fredericton, N.B. ; W. C. Cross
and E. A. Powers.
In January, 1891, the first issue of Canada was published by Mat-
thew Bichey Knight, at Benton, N.B. The publication was issued
monthly at 50 cents per annum, the price being afterwards raised to one
dollar. Each number contained twelve pages, about 9 x 12 inches in
size in double columns.
It claimed to be " A Monthly Journal of Eeligion, Patriotism,
Science and Literature," and it appears to have made a vigorous bid
for popular favour. Many club offers were made, and it was announced
that every postmaster in Canada and the United States who sent
twenty-five cents in stamps would receive Canada for a year, and
would be appointed sole agent for his locality in addition to other
inducements whieh were enumerated.
The magazine contained little, if anything of historic interest or
permanent value.
The editor appears to have been addicted to the writing of
poetry, for in addition to numerous other advertisements to which his
name is appended, there is an announcement that " the poems of ten
[jack] ACADIAN MAGAZINES 193
years, by Matthew Richey Knight, price 40 cents, are for sale at the
oflBce of Canada, and by Knight & Co., Halifax, Nova Scotia."
For the benefit .of persons who may not be aware of the
geographical location of Benton, N.B., it might be added that it is a
post village in Carleton County, 19 miles from Woodstock, contains
one store, one hotel, a tannery end two saw-mills. No printing office is
mentioned in the Gazetteer, so that Canada was probably printed else-
where, Benton being merely the editorial and distributing centre.
Canada does not appear to have been continued for more than two
years at the most.
In the advertising columns of Canada, appears a notice of The
Echo, a monthly of current notes and events, social gossip, etc. Price
twenty-five cents a year, invariably in advance. It is doubtful if The
Echo could be properly classed as a magazine.
Nova Scotia Illustrated, a monthly journal published at 41 Sack-
ville St., Halifax, Nova Scotia, by J. H. Bradford, contained twenty-
pages. The first number of volume 1 was dated April, 1895.
In the same month appeared The Occasional Magazine, pub-
lished monthly at five cents a copy, 50 cents a year. Professor R. C^
Archibald, of the University of Mount Allison College, Sackville>
writes that he has Nos. 1, 2, 3, and that it was published by Smith &
Williams, Halifax, N.S., the size of page being 7^ x 5 inches.
The publication of l^he New Brunswick Magazine was commenced
with the July issue of 1898, by William Kilby Reynolds, and it con-
tinued through three volumes of six numbers each, being issued
monthly.
During this short period both the magazine and its editor passed
through many vicissitudes. Most of these ar€ of too recent occurrence
to admit of their discussion in a paper such as the present.
During the first year of its publication the magazine was a valu-
able one, but at the end of that period, its editor feding that he could
not obtain sufficient revenue from the venture to pay the cost of pub-
lication and his own maintenance, accepted a position with the
Intercolonial Railway of Canada, which required him to make Monet on
his headquarters. Finding that it was impossible to satisfactorily con-
duct the magazine from that point, and give proper attention to his
official duties, Mr. Reynolds, in the August issue of 1899, in a special
announcement informs the public that The New Brunswick Magazine
win in future be under the direction of Mr. John A. Bowes; from
whose printing office it was issued from the beginning. Nos. 4 and 5
of the third volume were j^-rinted, bound, placed in wrappers and ad-
dressed to the various subsci'ibers but no copies were distributed outside
Sec. II., 1003. la
194 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
the city of St. John. The sixth issue of Vol. III. was printed, but was
never bound or distributed, and is now, or was recently, still in the
hands of the binder awaiting its final disposition by the printer.
The Rev. W. 0. Raymond, LL.D., of St. John, was a warm friend
to the enterprise from its inception, and after its abandonment by
Mr. Reynolds, that gentleman made desperate efforts to keep it alive.
The third volume is, in itself, a monument to his industry and zeal,
nearly all the articles which it contains being from his pen, either
over his own name or the pseudonym of " Historicus.''
Dr. Raymond's articles on " Portland Point," which continued
all through the three volumes of the magazine, are of great historical
value, and are without doubt the leading feature of the magazine.
Probably second in importance and historical value and quite
unique in their character, was a series of compilations entitled
" Provincial Chronology," not signed, but which were the work of Mr.
Clarence Ward, who has been for the past nineteen years the Record-
ing Secretary of the New Brunswick Historical Society.
These consisted of notes Qf events of an historical interest, a mar-
riage notice and death notice of some prominent provincialist, one for
each day in the month, arranged in chronological order.
Other important contributors were Prof. W. F. Ganong, Ph.D.,
of Smith College, Northampton, Mass., a provincialist by birth, who
wrote, " Relics of the Acadian Period." **Thomas Carleton, Governor,''
" The Ashburton Treaty," " Where Stood Fort LaTour," etc., 1. AUen
Jack, D.C.L., writer of " Old Times in Victoria Ward " in three num-
bers, Jonas Howe, Placide P. Gaudet, Harry Pic^rs, of Halifax, and
Hon. Pascal Poirier.
The magazine was not a financial success, its number of paying
subscribers, or rather of those who promised to pay being limited to
about seven hundred.
As a literai'y work it was probably the best that had been produced
in the Acadian Provinces up to that date, with the possible exception
of Stewart's Quarterly.
The first volume contained 390 pps., the second 344 pps., and the
third 288 pps. The subscription price was $1.50 per annum.
The editor, William Kilby Reynolds, was a writer of marked
ability, having a love for historical study. He was careful as to facts
and wielding a graceful pen. He died in 1902.
We now note a new era in Acadian ^ragazino literature, one
where the illustrations from being an occasional embellishment,
became a feature of the magazine. In March, 1899, Vol. I, No. 1, of
The Prince Edward Island Magazine, edited and published by Mr.
Archibald Irwin, of Charlottetown, P.E.I., made its appearance as a
[jack] ACADIAN MAGAZINES 198
monthly, and from the outset it appears to have been a suceess. This
volume contains 436 pages of reading matter and is liberally illustrated.
A great variety of topics by many writers are touched upon, the object,
apparently, being to make the work of such a character as to appeal to
the natives of the Island, of various classes and individuality, whether
at hom<e or abroad.
At the end of this volume we find the following brief editorial
reference to the work of the magazine and its success during its first
year : —
"With this issue is completed Volume I, of Ths Prince
Edward Island Magazine. To those whose articles have filled our
pages we tender here our sincere thanks. It will doubtless make them
glad to know that the success which has come to the magazine, is much
greater than was expected when the first number was published, and
this we attribute to the quality of the work of our kind contributors.^*
The first volume as before stated, contained 436 pages of well written
and well illustrated articles of good variety. The magazine has now
completed its fourth year with no apparent diminution of vigor or
interest, and this may probably be accepted as suflBcient evidence that
its progress has been satisfactory both to the public and to the
publisher.
Among the contributors to this magazine, Lawrence W. Watson is
entitled to a foremost place, his articles on "The origin of the
Mailicitee,'' " Charlottetown in the Olden Times," "Autumn Howers *'
and " Among our Orchids *' all appearing in the first volume, and all
being worthy of preservation.
W. L. Cotton deals with John Hunter Du\ar and his poems. Mr.
Duvar will be wdl remembered by the readers of Stewards Quarterly
and The Maritime Monthly as a verse writer of ability.
Professor John Craven was a contributor of merit to Vols. 1 and
2, his principal articles being " Port Lajoie," " The Island of St. John
in 1721," and " The first settlement of Three Rivers," as well as some
verses.
Rev. Maurice Swabey, a Church of En^and clergyman now
deceased, was an occasional writer, and in addition to some of his
poems, there appeared, " Fax Hunting in Prince Edward Island in
1840-45." Mr. Swabey was a man of marked ability, if somewhat
eccentric, and he resided for a time in Prince Edward Island, and after-
wards in New Brunswick. In 1878, he published in London, England,
a small volume of poems of about 70 pages in extent, entitled " Voices
from Abcgweet, or The Home on the Wave."
Abegweet, as we all know, was the Indian name for Prince Edward
Island. After leaving New Brunswick, Mr. Swabey became Vicar of
196 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
St. Thomas, Exeter, England, at which place he remained until his
death during the past year, 1902.
Mr. Swabey's ^ memory is held in high esteem by many of his old
parishioners at St. Jude^s Church, Carleton, St. John, N.B., and many
anecdotes are related regarding him. Careless as to appearances and
an earnest conversationalist, we can almost see him now, as upon one
occasion he drove oflE the Carleton Ferry at low tide up the steep floats,
in a conveyance perhaps akin to the Wonderful Gne-Hoss-Shay des-
cribed by Oliver Wendell Holmes, in his poem entitled the Vicar of
Bray, when on the
First of November, flfty-flve;
This mornlnig i-he parson takes a drive.
Now, amall boys, get out of the way.
Here comes the wonderful one-hoss-etiay
Drawn by a rat-taHed, ewe-neck' d bay,
^ " Huddup! "said the parson, off went they.
Yes, off the boat and up the floats, the rat-tailed bay wandering
at his own will over the floats, now with one wheel dangerously jiear
the edge, almost over the water, the next moment the other wheel
mounting high upon the log which divides the footpath from the car-
riage way, a piece of an old clothes line for reins, with harness held
together with twine, board nails and pieces of wire, the parson earnestly
discoursing all the while, and his companion in momentary dread of a
fatality, or again in the words of Holmes,
" First a shiver, and then a thrill,"
Then something decidedly like a spill."
But to resume our subject after a somewhat lengthy digression.
In the issue for July, 1901, the editor of The Prince Edward Island
Magazine pays a high tribute to E. L. M., whose series of five articles
on Charlottetown fifty years ago, has much value as a contribution 'to
the historical literature of the Island, in part in the following words: —
" For the first time since the establishment of this magazine, we
are called ujion to announce the death of a contributor, and to testify
as far as the poor words at our command will allow, to the worth of a
most estimable and well-beloved woman. Tb many of our readers the
identity of the writer, E. L. M. may have been known. But it was not
known to all, that the initials were those of Elizabeth L. MacDonald,
the wife of Hon. Senator A. D. MacDonald of Charlottetown. The
majority of our readers will, we fell sure, mourn her death. By the
* A short biogrraphical sketch of iMr. Swabey, with portrait, about 1860, will
be found in Acadiensis, Volume 11., No. 4, pp. 245-8.
[jack] ACADIAN MAGAZINES 197
editor of this magazine, her loss is keenly felt; her interest in the publi-
cation was sincere and sympathetic, and hA assistance, so generously
given, was of great value/'
Other contributors of note were Jeremiah S. Clark, who is an
authority on Indian affairs as well as a gbod writer of verse, and enjoys
more than a local reputation, Hon. A. B. Warburton, D.C.L., who con-
tributed several valuable articles on educational matters; and May
Carrol, a writer of verg/e who contributed some good poetry, notably
"A Life,^^ "A Boating Song,'' "An Easter Lily/'
In the later numbers of the magazine " Tommy Hawke " becomes
quite a feature contributing a cleverly written series of short articles
and paragraphs, dealing in a humorous vein with almost any subject,
from the state of the weather, to the Sunday School Picnic.
About the same size as the magazine last mentioned, but typogra-
phically and in the quality of its illustrations very much inferior to it,
was The Cape Breton Magazine, Vol. 1, No. 1, of which bears date
September, 1901, containing fifty pages of printed matter. The price
was ten cents per copy, or $1.00 a year. Following the September issue
appeared a second issue of 50 pages described as the October and No-
vember issue. Nos. 2 and 3. After this, there appeared in December
of the same year. Vol. 1, No. 4, and in March, 1903, an issue styled
Vol. 1, Nos. 5, G and 7. In the last mentioned issue the announicement
was made that the magazine would appear in future as The Cape
Breton and Nova Scotia Magazine, but no future issues were forth-
coming. ^
It is stated that the publisher lost heavily by the large fire at
Sydney, and a well kno^^-n critic expresses the opinion that the publisher
lacked })usiness ability, and that the later issues of the magazine afforded
a good illustration of hownot to read proof.
The editor of the magazine was Robert P. Bell, and it was published
by the Bell Printing and Publishing Co., P. 0. Box 592, Sydney, Cape
Breton.
The articles of interest to students of local history contained in The
Cape Breton Magazine were "The Catastrophe at Swivel Point,'' by
J. Rhetiand : " An Idyll of Acadia," by Rev. C. W. Vernon. " First
Seventy Years of St. George's," an exceedingly valuable paper by the
Venerable Archdeacon Smith, D.D. : and " The Old Cape Breton
Christmas," by John J. McCabe.
It is seldom tliat the promoter of a magazine is able to summon to
his assistance such an array of talent of rec(^nized ability, within the
sphere if his own inmiediate rdationship, as was the case with Mr.
l\heodore Roberts, when in November, of 1902, he commenced at
198 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
Fredericton, X.B., the issue of " The Kit-Bag," ^ In the three numbers
already issued we find contributions in prose and verse by Charles Q.
D. Roberts, poe^ and novelist now of the city of New York, and Eliza-
beth Roberts MacDonald of Fredericton, a verse writer of ability,
brother and sister respectively, to the editor. Among the contributors
were also Bliss Carman, who needs no introduction to Acadian readers',
and his sister Jean M. Ganong, wife of Professor W. F. Ganong, Ph.D .
of Smith College, Northampton, Massachusetts, both of them first cou-
sins to the editor.
Mrs. Ganong contributed a short story to the second issue of the
magazine entitled " The Wall-Flower,^^ a love story that is somewhat
away from the stereotyped form, with which magazine readers have
been familiar for generations.
Theodore Roberts is himself a writer of verse of no mean ability,
many of his best productions having a freedom, an easy swing that is
not mere jingle, and a poetry of rythm that is charming.
Having previously edited The Newfoundland Magazine, published
at St. John's, Newfoundland, and having other experience gained in pro-
fessional editorial work elsewhere, Mr. Roberts did not, by any means
enter the arena of Acadian Magazine literature as a novice or an ama-
teur, with much to learn and many impracticable ideals to overcome.
In fact before making his bow to the literary public, to whom he looked
for support in the new enterprise, the announcement was made, through
the medium of advance notices in the press, that The Kit-Bag would
contain no amateur work, and that its readers might depend upon that
magazine containing only the finished work of professional writers.
Having thus deliberately cut himself off from association vàûiy or
as&iatance from amateur wTiters, of whom there are not a few of ability
in the Acadian Provinces, it remains to be seen whether Mr. Roberts
will l)e able to maintain that standard of freshness and originalité? which
is essential to the success of any magazine.
If the work of professional writers only is to lie utilized, a fund
must be created out of which to remunerate such contributors, as with
them fresh ideas and well written stories or verses mean dollars.
However, willing they may be at the outset to help along a good cause,
they cannot afford to continue without remuneration to contribute the
result of their best thought.
The first number of The Kit-Bag contained 32 pages of weli vriiHen
matter, the third contains but twelve, while the price has been incTeased
'- The Kit-Bag has now ceased to exist, three numbers only having been
published. Its editor, Mr. Theodore Roberts, has removed to Bermuda, where
he intends to reside for the wdnter. D. R. J., 1903.
[jack] ACADIAN MAGAZINES 109
from ten to fifteen cents per copy, the subscription rate still remaining
at $1.00 a year.
It is to be hoped, for the credit of this part of Canada that this
magazine may continue to flourish as it deserves to do, and long con-
tinue to be a credit to its editor and his assistants.
Another late effort in the realm of Acadian literature is a maga-
zine entitled Neith, published monthly at ten cents' a copy or $1.00
a year, by A. B. Walker, B.A., LL.B., Barrister ait Law, of St. Jahn,
N.B., the only coloured barrister in New Brunswick. The first issue was
dated February 1903, and its advent had been looked for with much
curiosity by the literary coterie of St. John. In fact it may be stated
that honours were easy as between Neith and the Local Election for
the House of Assembly. The coming of each was anticipated for some
time and the public curiosity having now been satisfied as to both issues,
the people of that city are seeking a new sensation.
The first issue of Neith contained 60 pages of printed matter
upon various topics, chiefly devoted to the negro race, and its alleged
wrongs. Portraits of several of the contributors appear, but the editor
has modestly withheld his own for a subsequent issue. That of his son
appears at the head of an article entitled '' Pleasures of the Imagina-
tion " of which he is the alleged writer. This article contains a smooth-
ness of composition, a grace of words, and a sequence of thought that
is really surprising in a wriier not yet out of his boyhood.
The Eev. W. 0. Raymond, M.A., LL.D., who is well known as an
authority on local history has contributed an interesting article entitled
"The Negro in New Brunswick,^* while Dr. Dole, who has been before
alluded to, as one who has cheerfully contributed gratuitously to the
assistance of many impecunious promoters of local literary enterprises,
graces its pages with a song.
We now come to the last of the magazines which will be men-
tioned in this ipaper, namely Acadiensis,
The origin of the name is too familiar to need any explanation to
such an audience as this.
It has been the chief aim of its promoter to make the publication
of such a character that neither he nor those who have so graciously con-
tributed to its literary success, should have any cause to be ashamed.
How far he may have succeeded in reaching towards this ideal, is for
others than himself to judge.
The magazine appears to have aroused more than a local interest^
and assurances are not wanting that its coming is looked forward to
with pleasurable anticipation in some of the centres of culture, both in
Europe and America.
200 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
Local history, and the writings of local men of letters are what are
particularly sought after. No short stories or similar works of fiction
having been admitted to its pages, it cannot, of course, compete with
the so-called popular magazines of the «day, either in price or embellish-
ments. It, nevertheless, represents the most ambitious effort at an
illustrated magazine that has yet been produced in the Maritime Pro-
vinces of Canada.
There has been no dearth of literary material from which to draw,
but careful editing is essential to the successful continuation of the
work.
The task of magazine editing, even in an amateurish way, while it
is exacting work, accompanied by many petty annoyances, is not without
its compensating pleasures. The many kindly letters received, the
friendly helps from unexpected directions, the interest in the work dis-
played by persons whom the editor has never seen, are all sources of
pleasure and gratification.
What the future of Acadiensis is to be, it is difficult to. say. A
little effort on the part of those who have both the material and the
ability at their command, to contribute a desirable article, even once a
year, or a kind word to a neighbour on behalf of the enterprise, would be
of material assistance to tho&ie who have borne the heat and burthen of
the day, and carried the work along to its present stage of development.
A strong effort has been put fori^h to make the work of value and
interest to Nova Scotians particulariy, and while this effort has been
partially successful, it must be remembered that to make the work valu-
able and interesting to the people of that province, it must have the
literary support and friendly co-operation of their own people.
This de«ircd assistance once secured, there could be little doubt
that the magazine oould be carried on successfully, and do a useful work
for many years, a work of which we Acadians who love our country, it^
traditions and its history, would have no reason to be ashamed.
It is perhaps worthy of mention that copies of Acadiensis may be
found in neariy all the Provincial libraries throughout Canada; in the
Lenox Library, Fifth Avenue, New York ; in the libraries of the Senate
and House of Commons at Ottawa; in the New Y'ork State Library at
Albany; The University Library at Cambridge, England; the Library of
the British Museum; the Royal Academy of History at Madrid, and in
many others of less importance.
While the subscription list ia not a large one, the magazine reaches
homes on the American con tin ont, scattered from the Atlantic to the
Pa^'ific coasts, and from the Klondyke to Southern California. The list
[jack] ACADIAN MAGAZINES 201
of European subscribers although small, also shows a wide sphere of in-
fluenee.
In the Salutatory article in which Acadiensis was introduced
to the reading public, one or two points were touched upon which, it
was hoped, would have aroused some discussion among the writers for
the press throughout our three provinces. Among others might be
mentioned the Union of the Maritime Provinces of Canada into one
province governed by men of broad minds and large ideas.
This is doubtless an old subject to many readers, but it is one
that is eventually destined to again return to prominence. There are
many ways in which such a union w^ould be of inestimable benefit to
the ipeople of our provinces.
Viewing the matter from a broad standpoint, it is difficult to see
in what manner any of the Maritime Provinces could fail to profit by
much an amalgamation.
We are, as at present constituted a divided people, having similar
aspirations, hopes and ideals, whether political, literary or otherwise.
We are all working, each in our own small way, for pretty much the
same objects, the advancement of education, the promotion of trade and
commerce, the upraising of the pursuit of agriculture as a meam» of
livelihood, and lastly for the upholding of the supremacy of the Em-
pire on the oceans of the world.
The Maritime Provinces have produced, and are now represented
in the parliament of Canada by some of the most able men in this fair
Dominion, yet these provinces do not command that position in the
eyes of the people of their country as a whole, • to which by reaaon of
their history, their geographical position, the character, ability and
integrity of their sons and daughters, they are justly entitled. Neither
do our literary men receive such recognition as is their due by reason
of their work and their accomplishments.
Last year there was published at St. John, an historical work of
national importance, namely the Winslow papers, edited by the Rev.
W. 0. Raymond, and yet two publications issued in the Upper Provinces
which profess to give an epitome of the historical publications of Can-
ada during the year, contained no mention of it.
Ontario claim* to be the literary centre of Canada, yet the city of
Halifax is, in point of settlement, older by many years than is the city
of Toronto. The city of St. John was incorporated half a century be-
fore the cities of Toronto and Montreal. King^s College, Windsor, has
been producing able men of letters for over a century, and we have
many other institutions of learning of which we have no reason to be
ashamed.
202 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
A house divided against itself cannot stand. Three provinces
having common interests, torn asunder by petty jealousies, envy and
rivalry, cannot expect to command that respect in the Council Halls of
the Dominion, which would be their lot were they to send tbeir repre-
sentatives forward, as voicing unitedly the will and sentiments of a
million of people.
Putting aside all differences, standing shoulder to shoulder, and
presenting a united front, there is no reason why, before the present
century shall have run its oourse, and a century is but as* yesterday in
the history of an Empire, there is no reason, I reiterate, why the
brightest diadem in the crown of the fairest daughter of the greatest
Emjpire that has been, should not be known to the world as the Pro-
vince of Acadia.
Some Acadian Magazines.
NoTB.— Several of the works Included in the following list are known to
fthe writer only by title, and consequently» have not been alludedi to In the
preceding article.
M ova tScotia Magazine, voXixme 1-5, Halifax, 1789-92.
Mova ISeoiia and Aeic Brunsicick or Historical, Literary, Theological and Mieoel-
laneous Repository, Halifax, 1806.
Acadian Magazine or Literary Mirror, vols. 1-2, Halifax, 1826-8.
foutKs Companion, I>r. Jaimes Paterson. 1823-4-5. S vole. Henry Chuft>l),
Printer.
The A' en? Brunswick Religious and Literary Journal, volume 1 complete, and
volume II., N06. 1-6, aJl putolished, 4to,462 pagres in all. Alexander
MclJeod, St. John, N.B., 1829. Only copy known is in the Toronto
Public Library.
Halifax Monthly Magazine, vols. 1-3, Halifax, 1830-3.
The Two Penny Magazine, St John, N.B. George Blatch, Ed., 1834. Weekly.
soon abandoned.
Mayflower, or Ladies* Acadian Newspaper (monthly), vol. I., Halifax, 1851.
The Amaranth, vol. 1-3, 1841-2, St. John, N.B. Robert Shl-vee, Ed.
The Aoto IScotia i\ew Monthly Magazine, 1842. Simson & Kirk, Halifax, Pub-
lishers. 8s. 6d. per annum.
The Wreath. Thos. Hill, Ed. 1845. One number, Doak & Hill, Fredericton,
Ptrs.
The Progress Magazine, 1866. One copy. Thos. Kirwin, Ed. P.E.I.
The Provincial, or Halifax Monthly Magazine, Halifax, 1852-3. Printed by James
Bowes & Son, and edited by Wm. Lawson, Halifax. N.S.
IStewart's Quarterly, St John, N.B., 5 vols., 1867-72. George Stewart, Jr., Ed.
Maritime Monthly, St. John, 1873; 5 vols., 6 Nos. each. H. L. Spencer and Rev.
Jam^s Bennett, D.D., editors. J. & A. McMillan, printers.
The British Sort h American Wesleyan Methodist Magazine. "Published monthly
by connexional authority." Vol. I., sixteen numbers, Sept, 1840 to Dec.,
1841, Inclusive; vole. II. to IV., 1842-4, 12 Nos. eac(h; vol. V., June, 1846.
and May, 1847.
[jack] ACADIAN MAGAZINES 208
The Mount Alliêon Academic Gazette, No. 1, dated Dec, 1853.
The Mount Alliêon Uazette, New -Series. No. 1. June, 1«63; No. 2, Dec., 1863. Two
lemies only.
Th*. Eurhetorian Argosy, vol. I., Jan.-June, 1875. Succeeding vol«. each con-
tained etgrht Nos. Still in existence and known a« the Argosy.
The Parish School Advocate, and Family Instructor for N.8., N.B,, and P.E.I.
No. I., Jan., 1858. Ed. by Alex. Munro.
The Instructor for N.S., A'.B., and P.E.I. Ed. by Alex. Munro, of Bay Verte,
N.B. St. John, 1860, 3 vols., more perhaps. '* Devoted to Education,
Agriculture and General Intelligence.'* Three nunribers of this publica-
tion which seems very little known are in the possession of W. F.
Gun on g, Ph.D., Northamipton, Mass.
The Schoolmwier Abroad, Samuel Miller, St. John, N.B. Two or three num-
bers, 1863. H. Chubb & Co., Printers.
The University Monthly, published by the students of the University of New
Brunswick, Fredericton. First No. Vol. I. No. 1, March, 1882. Now in
its 23rd year.
Wollestook Gazette, published monthly in connection with St. John Grammar
School Debating Society, St. John, N.B. First No. Vol. I., No. 1,
Sept. 1st, 1882. Vols 1-2, 1882-3 and 1883-4.
The Gjuardian, 1860, Jan.-Sept., 9 Nos. only. Bd/ward Manning ajid R. Aitkin,
editors. Barnes & Co., printers, St. John, N.B.
The Stamp Collectors* Monthly Gazette, George Stewart, Ed. Pub., St. John, N.B.
Wiithdraiwn tn 1867.
The New Brunswick Journal of Education, 1 vol., St. John, N.B., 1886. (Predeces-
Bor of E^ducational Review.) Ed., George U. Hay, fortnightly, for one
year.
Educational Review. George U. Hay, Ph.D., and A. H. McKay, of Halifax,
editors. 1887. 15 vols. Barnes & Co., printers.
Kings College Record, Windsor, N.S.. 1887, 25 vol*.; 215 laaues to Dec, 1902,
inclusive. PuWished by the Undergraduates of the University of Kings
_ College, Windsor.
Canada, vol. 1-2. 1891-2. Benton, N.B. Matthew Richey Knight, Ed. and Pub.
*'A monthly journal of Religion. Patriotism, Science and Diterature."
Aova Scotia Illustrated, Halifax., N.S. 20 pp.. No. 1, Apr., 1895.
The Occasional Magazine, Halifax, N.S. No. 1, Apr., 1895, 3 Nos.
The I^ew Brunswick Magazine, St. John, N.B. Vols. 1-3, 1898-99. WUllaan Kilby
Reynolds, editor. John Bowes, printer.
The Prince Edward Island Magazine, Chariot tetawn. No. 1, vol. I., March, 1899.
Still in existence.
Cape Brfton Magazine, Sydney, C.B. 4 Nos. issued, Sept., 1901, Mar., 1902.
Robert P. Bell, editor.
The Kit-Bag, Fredericton, N.B. First number, Nov., 1902. Only 3 numbers
issued. Theodore Roberts, editor.
Aeith, St. John, N.B. First issue. Mar., 1903, A. B. WaJker, B.A., editor.
Patterson & Co., printers.
Acadiensis, Sc. John, N.B. Vols. 1-2-3, 1901-2-3. David Russell Jack, editor.
Barnes & Co., printers.
Bktion II., 1903 [ 20B ] Trans. R. & C.
XI. — Latest Lights on the Cabot Controversy.
By Bt. Bev. Bishop M. F. Howley.
(Read May 19, 1003.)
Mr. Harrisse in his latest work " John and Sebastian Cabot/' essays
at great length to prove two points: One negative, viz., that "June
could not be the date of Cabot's landfall." The other positive, viz.,
that the site of the landfall was somewhere on the coast of
Labrador.
I will attack the former position first, and I think he can be
easily routed from it. The arguments by which he endeavours to sup-
port it, are all based on a mistaken foundation. He argues thus
(p. 63) : Cabot left England somewhere about the beginning of May
(1497). From a Bristol MS., we learn that the expedition started on
the 2nd of May. Harrise says " unfortunately BristoUian MSS. are
not always to be trusted. He allows, however, from other sources,
Pasqualigo, etc., that the expedition sailed sometime early in May.
We know for certain that Cabot had returned and was in London at
least as early as the 10th day of August following, "which implies
that he reached Bristol about five days before. This leaves only forty-
two days between the arrival of Cabot in sight of the New World (sup-
posing him to have sighted it on June 24th) and his return to England."
He then goes on to argue that " since it took him fifty-two days (from
2nd of May to 24th of June) to make the outward voyage, and since they
must have devoted some time to refit or repair their diminutive craft,
as well as to take in wood and water and renew the stock of victuals,
which could only be done by hunting and salting game"; and again
" since Pasqualigo asserts that they coasted three hundred leagues, which
is corroborated by Ayala who saw the map which John Cabot made,
of the lands newly discovered. . . . How can all this have been
accomplished in the limited space of time which the alleged landfall
on June 24th, leaves Cabot before returning to England? If we sup-
pose that owing to the westerly winds and gulf stream, he effected the
homeward voyage in one-third less time than was required for the
same passage when outward bound, that is thirty-four days instead of
fifty-two, as he was already back in Bristol on the 5th of August, he
would have taken necessary rest, made the indispensable repairs,
effected landings, renewed his provisions, and coasted nine hundred
miles, all within eight days!" (p. 64) If such argumentation had a
shadow of exactitude in it, it would merit the note of admiration with
206
ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
which the learned author closes his climax, but unfortunately as I hope
to show, it is based upon a most illusory and illogical foundation. It
is true that between the date admitted by all for Cabot's departure
from Bristol (May 2nd) and June 24th, the date we hold to have been
that of the landfall, there are fifty-two days. But it is quite a mistake
to argue that Cabot would have taken two-thirds of that time, or
thirty-four days, to return. In order to prove this, it will be neces-
sary to consider the circumstances connected with the outward voyage.
^^^4#*pn,f f^wwyy
CABOT14B7
fflîl
^s
In the first place, we know for certain, that Cabot did not steer a
straight course for the western world, but on the contrary having sailed
out through Bristol and the Irish channels and rounded Cape Clear,
he bent his course northward on the route to Iceland. He kept this
route for some days, sailing northward along the west sTiore of Ireland
and Scotland. We learn this fact from the letter of Don Raimondo
Soncini, Ambassador of the Duke of Milan, written on the 18th Decem-
ber, 1497, from London to Ludovico il Moro, Duke of Milan. This
document is of undoubted authority. The original is among the
^^ Corrispondenza Ducale " in Milan, and a copy exists in the British
Museum. These are the words referring to our present question. . . .
[howuiy] latest lights ON THE CABOT CONTROVERSY 207
partitosi da Bristo, porto occidentale et pox, alzatosi verso el septentrione
commincio ad navigare ala parte orientale (i.e., occidentale) lasciandosi
(fra qualche giomi) la tramontana a mano dritta"
These statements though meagre, are of the utmost importance.
We learn from them that Cabot did not sail out directly westward
across the Atlantic Ocean into the unknown seas, but crept along
northward on the well-known and well-beaten track to Iceland "for
some days.'^ 1 say this course to Iceland was a well-known one to the
merchants and navigators of Bristol. '^ Already since 1412," writes
Léonce Goyetche (Hist, of St. Jean de Luz), whale fishers had pene-
trated as far as Iceland.'' Towards the 3rdl quarter of the XV
Century (1475), the English traded with Iceland and a large commerce
was maintained with it by Bristol." (Justin Winsor; Columbus, p. 138)
Soncini also states that there was at this time " grandissima mercantia
di pesci coll' Islanda." Cabot was at this time one of the principal
captains sailing out of Bristol, and no doubt would have made several
voyages to Iceland.
We do not know how far Cabot sailed on this northern course,
before striking out to the westward, but if we take the expression
of Soncini, " for some days," in its ordinary acceptation of, say
" three or four days," we can make an approximate guess at the
distance. The voyagers on their return home, stated that the land
discovered was about seven hundred leagues distant, and that now
that they knew where to go, they could go there in fifteen days.
(Soncini.) This staitenaent must have been based on their actual obser-
vations and experience, and from it we argue as follows: We know
that the distance from Newfoundland to Bristol is about 1,900 miles,
we also know that the l-eague of Cabot's time was a little over ii
miles. Seven hundred leagues then, would equal about 1,900 miles
more or less. No other part of North America bears this relation to
England; and of no other part but Newfoundland or Labrador could
such a statement be made. Secondly, by a simple calculation we find
that if they could make 700 leagues or 1,900 miles in 15 days, their
average speed would be about 5J to 6 knots an hour, or a little over 130
miles a day, which is very good sailing. If, then, we apply this scale
to the northern detour of Cabot and say he sailed northward for four
days, he would have made about 530 miles or 8J degrees, and would
be in the latitude of 60^- degrees N. In other words, he would be
practically in the latitude of Cape Farewell in Greenland, or of €ape
Chidley in Labrador, and this is corroborated by the Historian Gomara,
who says Cabot sailed north till he came to the latitude of the " Cusp
of Labrador." He took the route to Iceland "until he came to the
latitude of the Cape of Labrador, until he reached the fifty-eighth degree
208 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
or more'' The cusp of Labrador, as he very appropriately calls it, is
Cape Chidley, and is a little above sixty degrees north latitude, (60 J °).
Turning then westward, he struck out bodly for the New World. We
must bear in mind that Cabotas desire and intention was, to strfke land
as far to the northward as possible, hoping to find a jpassage thence to
Cathay. Hence he would naturally make land first at Cape Farewell in
Greenland, at about 400 leagues distant, and thus is verified the state-
ment of those writers who tell us that Cabot found his new land at
400 leagues. But he did not stop there, he pushed onward another
300 leagues till he made his veritable landfall at 700 leagues from
Europe. To state where that landfall was, is not the object of the
present point of my argument. I am now only showing how illogical
it is for Mr. Harrisse to make any comparison between this round-about
voyage and the fair and straight voyage home. Having passed the
Cape of Farewell, they woxdd after a while be taken in charge by the
Arctic current and carried towards the south and westward, in spite
of any efforts of theirs to keep towards the northwest. I will return
to this ppint further on. The only conclusion I wish to draw at pre-
sent is, that Harrisse's argument is entirely false, and that there is no
comparison to be made between the long and straggling voyage out
against shead winds and many difficulties, of which Soncini says
^* avendo errato assai " " having wandered a great deal " ; and the direct
voyage home.
From the statement of tfie voyagers after their return, viz., that
*' now that we know where to go, we can go there in fifteen days,'*
(Soncini), I think that we are justified in believing tha-t they must
have made the journey home in that number of days. It was quite
possible, it would be a very good passage even at the present day, but
it is constantly done. With a very favourable time the voyage is now
frequently done in ten days by ordinary sailing vessels. I do not
mean to say that Cabot's men were right in thinking that they could
come out again to the new land in fifteen days. That is another
matter, and I believe they were mistaken. Theoretically, and consider-
ing simply the distance and the average speed of their ships under
favourable circumstances, it could be done. But they were evidently
not aware of the fact that practically owing to a prevalence of westerly
winds, currents, etc., the voyage out, is always nearly twice as long
as the voyage home.
To show that this estimate of fifteen days is not an exaggerated
one, but was quite an ordinary average voyage, I may here recall two
voyages which took place not very long after the time of Cabot, and
of which we have a certain knowledge. I allude to those of Jacques
Cartier in 1534 and 1536, about thirty-seven years after Cabot's first
[howlby] latest lights ON THE CABOT CONTROVERSY 209
voyage. In 1534 Cartier left Blanc Sablon, in the Gulf of St. Law-
rence on the 15th Augufit, late in the day, probably towards evening,
and arrived in St. Malo, on the 5th day of September. That would
give abou't twenty daye. But it is nearly three hundred miles further
than the voyage from the east coast of Newfoundland, end, moreover,
they had three days of dreadful storm and head winds, which reduces
the voyage to seventeen days. But the voyage of 1536 is more to
the point. . Cartier left the harbour of Benouse, near Cape Race, on
the east coast of Newfoundland on the 19th of June, in the evening,
and arrived at St. Malo on July 6i)h, that is to say in sixteen days!
But though the " homeward '' voyage could be done in fifteen or six-
teen days it ie not so with the "outward" voyage, as I have said.
Now then, they were home in Bristol, according to Harrisse's calcu-
lation on the 5th of August. If they made the return voyage in
fifteen days they would have left the New-found-land on July Sl-st,
and having in our suppoeition made land on June 24th, they would have
at least twenty-six days of sojourn in the New-land instead of eight
days only ae Harrisse's argues.
Now, could they do aU that is required by facts in 26 days? I
maintain that they undoubtedly could. As to " refitting and repairing
their craft " — taking wood and water. That would not require more
than three or four days at most. The idea of " renewing their stock of
victuals, which could only be done by. hunting and salting game/' is
purely gratuitous. They may no doubt, partly for amusement, have done
some hunting while the men were repairing the ship. They could
also fish as much as they wished, while coasting or harbouring. But
we have no reason to su^pjpose that they were short of provisions. The
whole voyage only lasted a little over three months. We know that on
the second voyage of Cabot, mede in the following year 1498, the ships
were fitted out for a twelve months' voyage. We have reason to doubt
that the same precaution had been taken on this occasion; particularly
when we remember the long delay of fourteen months consumed in
preparing and fitting out for this first voyage. Let us then allow a
week for resting, repairing, taking wood and water, fishing and hunting,
etc., and we have still 20 days for coasting along the shore, three
hundred leagues. According to our calculation already made, 300
leagues would be about 800 miles. If they merely coasted along shore
by daylight, harbouring at night; since at that season of the year in
Newfoundland there are about eighteen hours of daylight out of the
twenty-four, they could have actually coasted eighteen hundred miles,
or nearly eight hundred leagues in twenty days! But we do not sup-
pose that they did so; we give them ample time for entering harbours*.
Sec II., 1003. 14.
210 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
exploring bays and rivers, hunting, etc., and to do three hundred leagues
in twenty days, they would only require to have sailed fifteen leagues
or thirty-five miles a day, which would have occupied only six hours and
a half out of the twenty-four hours. All the rest of the time, namely
eighteen hours out of the twenty-four, might have been employed in
aleepiûg, hunting and exjploring. I think, then, I have clearly shown
that there is no foundation in Harrisse's argument, that the 24th of
June could not have been the date of the landfall, and that nothing
brought forward by him can shake the strong and unbroken chain of
tradition, which ha» always held that Cabot made his landfall on the
24th of June, and called the land found by him by the name of St.
John, after the great precursor, the Baptist, whose festival the church
celebrates on that day.
It is not necessary that I should here bring forward any proof of this
tradition. No one, I think, has ever before placed it in doubt, and it is
to be regretted that a writer of such learning and industry as Harrisse,
should have broached such an untenable theory. I will now proceed
to prove the second point of my thesis, namely, that the site of the
landfall was not Labrador, but St. John's, Newfoundland. Though
various points of the north eastern sea-board of America have been
championed by different writers as the site of the landfall, I think
the many differing theories may be reduced to two main heads or
classes : Namely, 1st, those who maintain that the landfall must hare
been somewhere on the east coast of Newfoundland or Labrador; 2nd,
those who believe, that Cabot, having passed Cape Race without seeing
it or any part of the coast of Newfoundland, drifted onwards some five
or six hundred miles further and struck some part of Cape Breton
Island or some land in the Gulf of St. Lawrence.
This latter theory is so absolutely impossible; so utterly irrecon-
cilable with the distances and courses already mentioned, and with
the facts which we now know conoeming this voy-age, that I cannot
conceive how any person oould for a m'oment maintain it. I pass it
by without delaying to refute it. I will merely say that the distance
instead of seven hundred leagues would be more than nine hundred,
that it could not possibly be done in fifteen days ; that considering the
well known fact that Oabot steered northward on the west coast of
Ireland till he reached somewhere about the 6(>th degree of north
latitude; then steered westwardly till he made Cape Farewell in Green-
land, and still continued trying to make land to the westward, it is a
physical impossibility that he could have escaped making either Labra-
dor or some part of Newfoundland. The learned Dr. Dawson, arguing
on this point, dmws a comparison between tiie voyages of Columbus
[howley] latest lights ON THE CABOT CONTROVERSY 211
and those of Cabot. He says that Columbus ^^ though sailing in a
latitude much further south than Caibot, and one in which the variation
is slighter, being about one podnt llj® (while that of Cabot, he says,
was 17f ®) yet when he (Columbus) made his landfall he had dropped
some 240 miles south from the latitude of the point of his departure;
it is altogether probable that John Cabot, with a point and a half
would have dropped some 360 miles to the south of his starting point
near Cape Clear, in latitude 53**. Thia would have carried him south
of Cape Race and to the next probaible landfall. Cape Breton/* With
every possible respect to the learned writer, there are many assertions
in this argument which I must contravene.
Firstly, The circumstances of the two voyages (Cabot's and Oolnm-
bus's) are so entirely different in all respects, climate, winds, currents,
natural phenomena such as ice, fogs, etc., that no argument a pari can
at all be admitted.
Secondly, The objective point and the intention of each voyager
was entirely different. Cabot, we know, was all the time trying to
make northwesterly. His object was to find a nor'west passage to
Cathay, and to avoid any possible oollieion with the more souithem
discoveries of Oolumibue, while Coiuanbus, on the contrary, was not
bound by any such desire or intention, he had a clear horizon beilore
him with no limit to the arc of his projected discovery, he sailed out
westwardily, but we know that several times he altered his course to the
southward. On Saturday, September 22nd, he changed hie course to
W. N. W., on account of a head wind, on the 23rd he again altered it
to W. On the 25th they thought they saw land to the S. W. and altered
their course to that direction; on the 27th they steered W. again.
Again, on October 7th, seeing birds coming from the S. W. they again
altered their course to that direction, and continued so till they reached
the 24th parallel, when they steered west (Winsor). From all this it
will appear that Dr. Dawson is not warranted in arguiing that Columbus
" dropped (unaware to himself) some 240 miles soirth of the latitude
of his point of departure " on account of the variation of the compass,
or of unknown currents, etc. The fact is, he knowingly, deliberately
and frequently changed his course to the southward.
Thirdly, It was not so with Cabot. He kept on towards the west
and north; we know that his object was to discover the northwest
passage, and that he feared to encroach in the least upon the territory
explored by Columbus southward. In fact, we know that De PueWa,
the Spanish ambassador in London did actually accuse Cabot of having
discovered only the lands first found by Columbus and having made
a false map so as to make them appear different! Yet, notwithstanding
212 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
all Cabot's efforts to keep northerly, he actually (as we shall see) fell
eouftherly some 750 miles before making land.
I hav-e shown already clearly that Cabot started on his western
course from a point about 60° north latitude, somewhere to the west-
ward of the Feroë Islands. About 400 leagues west from him, was
the southemmoet point of Greenland, Cape Farewell. In my " lecture "
on thifi subject I have giyen good reasons for believing tihat Cabot
was aware of the existence of this land, and that he determined to
" make»'* it, and rounding it, to steer westerly for Cathay. But eveoa
if 'he were not aware of it he could scarcely help " making " it. In
proof of this I quoted the example of a practical navigator, the Hon.
Captain Cleary who, about fifty years ago (1853), made this yery voy-
age. He left Copenhagen on October lâth, bound for St. John's,
Newfoundland. Russing out between the Orkneys and Shetlands,
latitude exactly 60° N.
" I tried all I could,'' he said, " to make southwardly duiing the
passage across, but I could not gain an inch that way. The first land
I saw was Cape Earewell, in Greenland. I was then carried south
and westward by the Arctic current and never saw land again till I
made Signal Hill, at the entrance of St. John's Harbour 1" The
force of my argument depends so much upon the fact of Cabot's having
made Cape Farewell, that I may be pardoned for briefly summarizing
here the remarks made at length in my " lecture " already alluded to.
We have now most authentie évidence of the discovery and eolonization
of Greenland, Markland, Helluland and Vinland in the ninth century
by the Norsemen, and although these colonies completely failed, yet
the Norsemen of Iceland never altogether lost sight of them, and the
existence of a land to the westward of Iceland was well known to the
learned in Europe, at the time of the voyages of Oolumbus and Cabot.
From the records of the Vatican library, we find that an ecclesiastical
connection unbroken for four hundred years was kept up with Green-
land. And among the Vatican MSS. is a Brief or Bull of Pope
Alexander VI., dated 1492, the very year of Columbus's first voyage,
appointing a bishop of the See of Gardar, in Greenland. The exis-
tence then of this land was well known, though its exact position and
contour were not clearly understood (it scarcely is so yet). In some,
early maps it is shown as a great peninsula jutting out from the north
of Europe, encircling Iceland and running down to latitude 60° in
the west of that island. In others, a little later, it is shown as a part
of the mainland of America. At all events, its existence was well
known to the learned and nautical men of the age and we cannot doubt
that Cabot knew of it, and knew that he should have to pass it, going
westward.
[howley] latest lights ON THE CABOT CONTROVERSY 213
We now come to consider more closely the exact site of
Cabot's landfall. Here, in Newfoundla»nd, we are divided in our
opinions, but our divisions are ofnly of a oomparatively mdnor nature.
We all hold the theory which I have above placed under the first
category, viz., the east coast of Newfoundland or scone part of Labrador
coast. When writing my " lecture " and obtaining the practical evi-
dence of men like Captain Oleary, I was of opinion that the landfall
was at Cape St. John, on the N. E. coast of Newfoundland, exactly in
latitude 50° N., and I brought forward many arguments to endeavour
to prove that theory. The learned Judge Prowse, K.C., LL.D., stood
out strongly for Cape Bonavista; James P. Howley, Esq., F.6.S., and
Geological Surveyor of Newfoundland, held for the point of Domino,
in Labrador.
Captain Oloary, when asked what he thought of the question of
Oaiboit's landfall, said, "He might have made Labrador coast near
Domino or Indian Tickle, or he mdght have inade some point on the
N. E. coast of Newfoundland, such as Gape St. John or C. Bonavista.
It would depend on the wind. But he couldn't make Gape Breton
having in view to make land westward of Greenland.'' Although I
brought forward what I considered many strong arguments in favour
of my theory of C. St. John, still I must confess I was not fully con-
vinced of the certainty of my case and was still open to conviction, if I
should receive any stronger arguments for some other poiut.
During a voyage across the Atlantic on board the Allan steamer
Peruvi^, in the summer of 1902, I had some conversations with the
amiaible and intelligent Captain Bennde, on the question of the Cabot
landfall. The subject was new to hiim. That is to say, he had never
given any special attention to it, and he was perfectly unbiassed con-
cerning the point in dispute. He, however, at once took a lively
interest in it. I gave him my " lecture '' on the subject. He perused
it attentively two or three times. Studied it out with his charts and
tables, and coming to me, he said emphatically, "I will stake my
reputation as a navigator that St. John^s, Newfoundland, was the
point of the landfall.^' I was surprised, but overjoyed to hear it, as
this would verify the old and favoured tmdition, and on receipt of
Captain Rennie's argument, together with a map marked by him
which he very kindlly gave me, I willingly gave up my theory of Cape
St. John. The Captain had worked out the case by nautical science
and practical knowledge, amd then applying his conclusions to the
chart, found that the spot indicated was St. John's ! The following
is the gist of his arguments and observations :
Starting from the hypothesis that Cabot reached Cape Farewell, in
Greenland, a fact which, after a perusal of the " lecture,'' the Captain
214 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
admitted to be absolutely out of readh of diapute, he argued as follows:
Between Cape Farewell, in Greenlaoid, and St. Jolin'fi, Newfound-
land, the mean variation, i.e., taking the variation of the half way
point of the distance, is, at the present day, or at least will be in 1905,
to whddh date the Admiralty Obart is calculated, 39-]^° W.
It has been ascertained by observations extending over many years
that there is a gradual decrease in variation. It is different at different
points in the ocean, but it is regular. T\hus, off the N". W. coast of
Scotland and the Orkneys it is a decrease of seven miles every year.
In the centre of the Atlantic it is six miles annually, and off the Grand
Bank of Newfoundland, five nriles per annum. In the region we are
now considering, namely, between Greenland and Newfoundland, the
annual decrease is. four miles. Now, if we consider this decrease as
going on regularly since the time of Cabot's voyage (1497) up to the
date of the chart (1905), we have the following result: The period of
time is four hundred and eight years. This number at four miles per
year will give 1,632 miles, or 27 J°. The variation, therefore, of the
present day is that much less than it was in Cabof s time, consequently,
in order to find out the vaiiation in Cabot's time we have to add
this amount to the present variation, thus, 32^** + 27J® = 67Vio**,
or, let us say, 661**. Cabot, therefore, steering due west by compass
from Cape Farewell, would in reality be steering W. 661*" S.,
or S. 23 J° W., i.e., S. S. W. This is precisely the true course from
Cape Farewell to St. John's! Moreover, the distance is exactly 800
miles, or 300 of Cabot's leagues. It will thus be seen that both course
and distance correspond in a marvellous manner to the accounts of
Cabot's voyage.
But we have now to account for the effect of the Arctic current
For this we have to allow about two miles an hour for lee-way. Now,
sailing as we have seen at the rate of about 130 miles a day, it would
take a little over six days to make the distance from Cape FareweU
to St. John's, or 144 hours. Allowing two miles an hour for lee-way,
this would bring him 288 miles south of his course. But we must
remember, firstly, he would not begin to feel the effect of this Arctic
current until he h-ad come within some two hundred miles of New-
foundland coast. Hence, we miuet at once reduce the lee-way by three-
quarters or more, say, to about 72 miles.
Secondly, on coming near the Newfoundland coast he would imme-
diately begin to feel the counteracting effect of the great northerly
*" set " running along the east coast of Newfoundland from Cape Eace
northerly, the neglect of observing which has been the cause of so many
steamers running ashore on our S. E. coast, when endeavouring to
round Cape Eace, and thinking they were giving it a wide berth
[howlby] latest lights ON THE CABOT CONTROVERSY 21B
This current then would entirely counteraot and oancel tihe effect of
the Arctic current on Cabot's little ship, so that we may leave out ol
our calculation the matter of current and lee-way, and so the brave
little Mattiihew would make straight for "the Narrows'' of St. John's;
and rough old " Sdgnal Hill," the very spot on which we have recently
erected the noble " Cabot Tower," waa really the first land seen by
Cabot. And the spot on which he hoisted the bann-ers of St. George
and St. Mark on the 24th June, 1497.^
' Wdth regard to the statement that Cabot coasted alon^r his Newfoundland
for 300 leafiTues (iiOO miles). This is easily accounted for, whether It waa
southerly or northerly is not stated. I once thought it might have been
southerly, on more careful consideration of the arguments heretofore adduced,
I now believe it was northerly. Having then rested a week at St. John's
they set out on their cruise along the shore, and aa they were anxiously
looking out for the N. W. passage they would natunally have penetrated to
the heads (or bottoms, as we say) of all the great Northern Bays, namely.
Conception and Trinity Bay, 50 and 80 miles deep respectively. Then they
would scour the inner recu>hes of Bonavista Bay, Notre I>ame Bay, and
White Bay, and coast along the Petit Nord Peninsula to near the Strait of
Belle IsSe. By this time they would have coasted fully 800 miles, and thence
they set their course for home. It is mentioned that in returning they saw
two large Islfeinds to starboard. These might be any of the numerous islands
off the N. shore of Newfoundland, eg., the Oray Islands, St Barbe Islands,
Twlllingate, or New World Island, Pogo Island, etc., etc.
Suction IL, 1903 . [ 217 ] Thans. R. 8. C.
XII. — The Copper Currency of the Canadian Banks, 18S7'1857,
By B. W. MoLachlan.
(Communicated by Dr. S. E. Dawson and read May 19,. 1903.)
Trade, which, from eaxly times in the Britiôh North Amjerican
colonies, had suffered from an insufficiency of currency, was still further
hampered, during the latter half of the eighteenth century, by the
almost total cessation of the coinage of silver at the Eoyal Mint.^
While this scarcity prevailed in the north there was abundance in
the south, through the wonderful activity of mints in Spanish America,*
and some of this abundance found its way northward.
This Spanish coinage, mainly dollars, so came to be the prevailing
currency in the British Colonies, and so influenced the circulation that
the dollar, in a manner, came to be considered the unit rather than the
pound, while many transactions, entered into by the government m
well as by individuals were expressed in " Spanish milled dollars.''
The dollar too was divided into so many shillings and these shillings,
although still calculated as twenty to the pound, were based not on the
pound sterling but on a standard known as the pound currency. Thus
the pound in the oolonios was reduced to meet the altered circum-
stances. The number of the shillings to the dollar varied in the dif-
ferent Colonies; for in Massachusetts it was six, in Pennsylvania seven
and a half and in New York eight.
In Nova Scotia, after it came under British rule, a different
standard still was adapted, which, from the capital of the province,
was called "Halifax Currency." By this currency the dollar was
divided into five shillings and ten sixpences which gave it an approach
to the decimal system. When this standard was first adopted the
dollar v^-as worth four shillings and sixpence sterling; on which rate
was bajied the old par of exchange. But Halifax currency followed
the decline in \'alue of the dollar untU it was finally fixed in 1837 by
the virtual adoption of the gold standard in the United States. Then
par of exchange, which hed been advanced from time to time, was
finally settled at nine and a half, the present rate.
After the revolt of the thirteen colonies, Halifax currency was
extended to the old Province of Quebec where, by the way, it is first
mentioned in a tentative currency promulgated in an ordinance issued
' Only a single silver colnagre, and that limited to £55.000 in shillinsr» and
sixpences, issued in 1787, was struck between the years 1758 and 1816.
' According to law the whole of the extensive products of the silver mines
of Mexico and Peru had to be coined before being exported.
218 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
by General Murray, the Governor, in 1764.1 Although the Halifax
shilling was then only incidentally mentioned it was not long before
the trade without any official recognition settled to do business by this
standard and Sir Guy Carleton was left no other alternative than to
promulgate it officially. This was done by an ordinance, passed
in 17 7 7, which rated the Spanish dollar as worth five shillings.*
While this change in the value of the shilling could be easily ad-
justed to the larger coins, it was impossible to make it fit in with the
lesser coins in copper; for a halfpenny sterling could not he made to
Ipass for more than a halfpenny currency whether the shilling circu-
lated for one and a penny or one and threepence. It will thus be seen
that any one importing legal copper coin could only do so at a heavy
loss while those exporting it stood to make las high as twenty per cent,
and even more, for the balance of trade was usually against the pro-
vince and exchange, as a result, often much above par. Under these
circumstances it can readily be understood that little if any legal
copper coins remained in the province and that the people had to
adopt such makeshifts as best they could to supply change.
Towaids the end of the eighteentli century, on the issue of a new
British coinage, the old coppers of 1770-1775 were shipped over to
Canada and for a time afforded a measure of relief; but, through the
ordinary loss by circulation and the increasing demands of a growing
population, this supply soon proved insufficient; and, as the stringency
became more severe, merchants began to import tokens from England
for the use of their own trade. While these were at first of fair size
ond value and therefore acceptable, «joon the element of profit in the
business led merchants to reduce the weight of their tokens by almost
one half and as their avarice increased to import them in greater and
greaiter quantities until the circulation became loaded down with
copper change. This too, notwithstanding the law on the statute-
books against '^ importing or manufacturing spurious or base copper
coin.'^ Such was the surfeit in copper change in 1817 that a petition
was presented from " divers inhabitant*' of Quebec ^^ claiming " that
there has recently been put into circulation a prodigious quantity of
copper of which a large proportion has since become depreciated."* A
similar petition was presented from Montreal " setting forth " that
'' the evil has now increased to such an extent as to acquire a speedy and
efficacious remedy;"* and, although a special committee was appointed
* Ordinances for the Province of Quebec. 1767, pagre 4.
' Ibid. (2nd series). Quebec, 1777, page 70. '
' Journals of the House of Assembly of Lower Canada. Quebec, 1817,
page 68.
* Journals of the Houee of Assembly of LK)wer Canada. Quebec, 1817,
pas-e 114.
Lm'lachlan] copper CURRENCY OF THE CANADIAN BANKS 219
and a number of merûhants of Quebec examined regarding the evil,
nothing wsls done save to suggest a moore stringemt enforcement of the
law of 1808 against importing spurious copper coin. This law was
simply a revision of the ordinance of 1777 above mentioned. In the
Provinces of Upper Canada and Nova Sootia the same evils aflEeoted
the circulation. In the latter provinjoe the government rose to the
occasion and grappled with the diflSculty by providing a special copper
coinage for the province.^
As a result of this discrediting of the spurious copper currency,
the stringent enforcemient of the law against its importation and
manufacture and the failure to provide an acceptable form of change,
there came another dearth of copper change. Still a remnant of the
old halfpence of George III, but Which had become so worn as to be
hardly legible, continued to circulate, wihich were the only truly legal
copper coin. Now some of the merchants, who for profit were ever
ready to provide the necessary change, precluded from importing
by the effectual supervision of the customs authorities, started coining
for themselves. And taking for their patterns the worn copper coppers
in circulation they produced something most barbarous in design and
execution. The obverse bore an indistinct head without any inscrip-
tion and the reverse a hideous caricature for Britannia or an indes-
cribable harp. These nondescripts the illiterate habitants accepted
without question while they rejected the well executed "Wellington
b nlf penny tokens ^^ of the previous decade. That the quantity issued
was large is attested by the fact that thirty varieties are known iri all
stagee of indistinctness and degeneracy down to plain discs of copper.
Mactaggart thus described the copper circulation of Canada in 1828;
*• While the French keep gabbling about quinze sous and trente sous,
which are perplexing to comprehend every sort of copper-piece is an
halfpenny. I have no lees than 120 different kinds, the greater part
of them old copper coins of Britain and Merchants^ tokens all over the
world. If a lot of farthings be taken into a smithery and receive a
blow from a sledge-hammer on the anvil, they will then be excellent
Canadian coppers, or half -pennies.'^ *
At a later date, when these imitations of worn coins had become
discredited, several tons of an English trade token dated 1812, having
the head of George III within a wreath on the obverse and a female
seated on a bale of goods on the reverse, were imported by Joseph
Tiffin, a prominent merchant of the time. Soon this token was
counterfeited and large quantities of such brass imitations were passed
' This oolnacre I have descnCbed in a communication to the Royal Society
of Canada, See Transactions, Vol. X., section II., pagre 35.
a Three years in Canada, 1S26-7-8. By John Mactaggart, London, 1829,
Vol. I., page 321.
220 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
off on an unsuspecting pubiic together with another base brass token
equally rude, dated 1820, bearing the head of George IV on one side
and a harp on the other. The latter does not appear to be an itnitation
but an origintal design. A number of clandestine mints for the coin-
age of these tokens were set up not only in Montreal and Quebec, but in
some of the more rural districts from which the issue became so enor-
mous that copper formed the bulk of the circulation. The receipts of
merchants in this currency at this time often reached from two to
three hundred doUare a day. About twenty-five varieties are known of
each. This coinage, varied with a sprinkling of the tokens of two firms,
J. Shaw & Co., of Quebec, and T. S. Brown & Co., of Montreal, and
continued to be received as accepted change until 1836. At that time
the currency is described in a memoir " On the Miserable State of the
Currency of the British North American Provinces ^' as follows : —
"The miserable coppers which are now in circulation consisting of
base coin and tokens of all descriptions and frequently pieces of sheet
cofpper which have never been impressed with any die and do not
^eigh more than a fourth or a half of the weight of an English
halfpenny/' ^
Although innocent traders were the greatest sufferers, none of
them made any move to improve matters. It was therefore left to the
market hucksters to take th-e initiative and they became for a time the
regulators of the copper currency. From day to day they extended
their censorship until few if any copper coins were left in circulation.
At this point the Bank of Montreal came to the rescue of the
people and imported a quantity of "Bank tokens'' from Birmingham.
These were well executed and therefore a great imipgpovement on the
miserable brass pieces to which they succeded; and of full weight too.
On one side they were impressed with a bouquet emblematic of the
three Kingdjoms with ears of wheat as indicative of Agriculture, Can-
ada's chief industry, and with maple leaves as representative of Can-
ada. This is the first occasion on a coin that the maple leaf was em-
ployed as a Canadian emblem. The value was given in French and,
by some mistake of the Birmingham makers, in the plural un sous.
The name of the Bank is wanting, the inscription being : " Bank token
Montreal.*' As this was not satisfactory to the people, a new token
was ordered like the first in every particular, even to the error sotis,
except that the inscription was changed to "' Bank of Montreal token."
* •• -Memoir on the Miserable State of the Currency of the British North
American Provinces submitted by R. Carter to Lord Glenelg." Canadian
Archives, vol. 24-1, pa,ge 96.
[m'lachlan] copper CURRENCY OF THE CANADIAN BANKS 221
About the same time " La Banque du Peu,ple *' * issued a coin simi-
lar in design but smaller in size and totally different in workmanship
and arrangement. The value un sou is given correctly. Its place of
manufacture was in the town of Belleville, New Jersey, at that time a
copper producing centre. As two or three die varieties' exist, and as
the coin is still quite common a considerable quantity must have been
issued.
Shortly after the appeamnee of the last, " La Banque du Peuple'*
issued a new un sou ako of the same general design but differing still
more in arrangement. As the letters in the inscription were sunk with
a graver instead of punches, which indicates that they were made in a
workahop not fully equipped, and a6 the dies were held by the Bank of
Montreal, I have come to the conclusion that this coin was struck in
Montreal. Some time before this Joseph Arnault, an engraver, had
come out from France and set up his atelier on Craig Street, near Côté.
The bouquet on this coin while con^sed of the same emblems is dis-
tinguished by a large maple leaf out of proportion as to size when
compared with the other plants. In the wreath too the maple leaves
are large and well formed. Much better than on the Belleville made
coin. All this would indicate an intense patriotism on the part of
some persons- connected with the bank. But still farther the intro-
duction of the star and the phrygian cap indicate that they were in
83'mpathy with the movement for the independence of Canada and with
the rebellion of 1837. From this fact the coin is called the " Rebellion
token.^^ It is much scarcer than any of the other un sou bank tokene.
The banks had hardly got their tokens well into circulation before
imitations began to appear, which imitations were, of course, much
lighter than the regular bank i&Kues having evidently been imported for
profit and not " for the convenience of trade.'^ A number of Montreal
firms took part in the introduction. Among the more prominent of
whom was Dexter Chapin, an exchange broker. The quantity thus im-
ported far exceeded that of the banks. So great was it, indeed that
over forty varieties are known. Some of these vcurieties" were struck
in Birmingham, others in the United States and a few in Montreal;
and curiously enough many by the same makers as furnished the bank
tokens. This fact is proved with respect to those from Birmingham
by the one variety, which bears on the reverse a bouquet exactly like
that on the Bank of Montreal token. All the other varieties from Bir-
mingham are intimately connected with each other by style of work-
manship and interchange of dies. Ax^d yet all express un sou correctly
while none of them are of such fine workmansliip as the regular bank
^ ThlB Bank not having received its charter waa at that time doincr businesi
under the name of Jacob de Wltte, Viger A Cie.
222 BOY AL SOCIETY OF CANADA
issue. Two varieties also of the false tokens from Belleville, N. J.,
reproduce the same bouquet as appears ou " La Banque du Peuple "
sou, Th-e similarity of the sou made by Joseph Arnault, to one of the
clandestine issue and the fact that many Sjgecimens occur struck over
the Canadian made bra^s tokens bearing dates 1812 and 1820, prove
that at least one vajriety of the un sou token was made in Montreal,
and that Arnault thus tried to rehabilitate the discarded tokens by
thus giving them a new dress.
Perhaps it was this incident that brought about the condemnation
of the un sous, which came again from the hucksters. These self
constituted censors of the Copper Currency excepted the issue of the
Bank of Montreal from the general condemnation; and, illiterate
though they were, the mark by which they determined the genuine
from the spurious was the error of the Birmingham maker. This con-
demnation would appear to have involved the issue of the " La Banque
du Peuple.''
Thife sudden withdrawal of such a large quantity of copper coin
again created a dearth in small change; w^ch dearth set the people
more ardently seeking for an adequate and permanent rdief and
towards which steps were taken early in 1837, both in Quebec and
Montreal. I have fortunately been able to lay my hands on a number
of documents bearing on this subject, on which I have been able to
base the following deductions. These documents have been culled
from the minute book of directors of the Bank of Montreal, from the
Archives of the Montreal Court House, from the Archives depart-
ment, at Ottawa, and from the State book, Ottawa. Some important
letters are missing still there is enough to settle many disputed points.
One of the documents states that a resolution passed at a " general
special session of the peace,'' held at Quebec, in June, 1837, asked the
Governor in Council to provide a supply of copper change aa it was
greatly needed.^ Although this resolution was favourably reported on by
the ConncU suggesting the importing of a quantity of British half-
pence, the suggestion being impracticable, no action was then taken.
But a more efficient remedy was set under way at Montreal by the Bank
of Montreal; for under date of June 9th, 1837, the following item is
minuted: " The subject of the Copper Coinage was again discus&ed.
The cashier was directed to import a quantity and obtain the con-
currance of the other banks." ^ An order for £5,000 worth of this coin
was entrusted to Albert Furniss * provided he secured concurrence of
' Appendix F, No. 2.
' Appendix C. No earUer mdnute was accesaible to me.
' Albert Furniss was a prominent and enterprising business man of that
time, being engaged in the metal trade. He was also connected with a num-
[m^lachlam] copper currency OF THE CANADIAN BANKS 228
the other backs. Otherwise it was to be for helf the annount. But
fromi the occurrence of the names of three other banks on the tokens we
know he succeeded in inducing them all to participate.
Nothing is mentioned in any of the documents r^arding the. adop-
tion of the design or to whom such design may be attributed. But in
any case it is very chaste and the most truly Canadian of any other
coin that has atptpeared. It can in fact be called the Canadian national
coin. The arms of Montreal were designed by Jacques Viger, elected
first Mayor, when the city received its charter in 1832. They are
almost alone among ciyic arms in Canada, in following true heraldic
rules. This may be attributed to the fact that Viger was an antiquar
rian of no mean order; and also a man of artistic taste. May we not
conclude that the typical Frenoh Canadian farmer (the habitant) of
the observe is also the suggestion of Viger.^ It must at least have
been the drawing of a man in sympathy with the Frenoh Canadian
people and at the same time of artistic talent. Every detail in that
costume, once so familiar in the streets of Montreal, was delineated and
the engraver followed the design so faithfully as to leave nothing to be
desired. There is the ttique bleiie, the frock over-coet of homespun,
étoffe with capuchon, the sash, ceinture ftéchiey and the beef mocassins,
souliers de bœuf. And in his hand the eveiiasting whip. Fumiss sent
the order to Scholefield & Son of Liverpool, who as factors or manu-
facturers' agents, with their head oflSce in Birmingham, passed it on
to Boulton & Watt, of the Soho Mint in that city, the real coiners.*
This firm which did work equal in finish to any of the national coin-
age, often undertook large contracts for the Government in that line,
when the Eoyal mint was unable to cope with the demand. In this
manner the extensive coinage of the well known copper penny and
two-penny pieces of 1797 were struek by them as were also a number
of foreign coinages about that time. Messrs. Boulton & Watfs con-
nection with the Royal mint led to the recognition of the bank tokens
as lawful " coin of the realm '^ in Canada, by not only the Provincial
but by the Imperial Government. They suggested to Scholefield & Son
that, as it was contrary to law to coin copper money without authority,
ber of MontreaJ enterprides, and it was he who established the first «ras works
in the city.
* Since writing the above I have come across a bank biU issued in Augrust,
1S36, by the Ban<iue Canadienne, which was carried on in St. Hyacinthe by
the firm of Archambault, Pacaud, De Liabruôre & Oie. The reverse of this
bill bears a tignre of a Habitant exactly like that on the bank tokens. As
this bill was engraved by Rawdon, Wright & Hatch, of New York, it is
evident that the same design was adopted for both the bill and the coin,
probably the latter was copied from the former.
* Appendix E, No. 2.
224 ROYAL GOCiETY OF CANADA
it would be well to apply for such authority. This suggestion Schole-
field senior followed.^ And after correspondence between the lords of
the treasury and the secretary for the colonies the matter was referred
to Lord Gk)sf ord, the Governor of Lower Canada, who after consult-
ing with his advisers replied that as a supply of copper change was
most necessary for the trade of the province, it was highly desirable
that the request be granted. At the same time he suggested that
as no copper coin had heretofore circulated in Canada for more
than a halfpenny, it was undesirable that any larger denomination be
coined.* But the suggestion came too late, as the pennies had already
been ordered and iprobably the* dies engraved.
In an ordinance of the Special Council, passed «in 1839, which
while purporting to prohibit the importing and manufacture of
" spurious copper or brass coin '^ provided for the supply of acceptable
copper coin, by permitting importation by individuals or corporations
under proper restrictions on the authorization of the executive. This
ordinance in this connjection oflBcially recognizes the coinage of 1837
in the clause which states that " provided always, that all coins shall
have the same relation to the British penny and halfpenny with those
recently imported by the Bank of Montreal.' This clause was inserted
as an amendment, after the bill had been introduced, at the instance
pf the Hon. Peter McGill and Turton Penn;* the one the president
and the other a director of the Bank of Montreal.
As the alternative order in case the other banks should not join
in the coinage was for £2,500, it may be inferred that the issue of the
Bank of Montreal was £2,000, and the City Bank, La Banque du
Peuple and the Quebec Bank £1,000 each. The only change in the
coins issued by the different banks was, that their name appeared as
the motto on the ribbon. Even those issued in Quebec by the Quebec
Bank bore the arms of Montreal.
In 1838 the Bank of Montreal gave Albert Pumiss another
order for £2,000 in tokens, half of which, that is 120,000 pieces was
to be in penny pieces and the other half 240,000 in halfpenny pieces.
This coinage arrived in June, 1839, and on its being opened by the
bank authorities it was found to be " of such a very inferior grade
that the oashier instructed the notary to protest against Mr. Furniss."'^
* Appendix B, No. 2.
* Appendix E, No. 6.
' Ordinances of Special CouncU of Lower Canada, Vol. IV., Montreal, 1839,
ohaip. V.
* Journals of Special Council oif Lower Canada, Vol. IV., Montreal, 1839,
page 11.
* Appendix C.
[m*lachlan] copper CURRENCY OF THE CANADIAN BANKS 22B
This protest, which was served on the 15th of June, claims that the
jBashier in a letter of the 26(th of November, 1838, instructed FunxiBS
to procure the ooins through Scholefield & Son, who had fur-
nished those of 1837, and that they should " be similar in respect to
weight and fineness of material," and the protest further claims that
Furniss " had procured the copper coin from some other manuf actury,
that the said coins are .... of base material different in all respects
in the manufacture, coinage and workmanship from those manufac-
tured the previous year, and are in fact utterly unworthy of
issue and disreputable to the manufactory," and further "that inas-
much as the said coins were ordered and manufactured .... for the
special . issue of the Bank of Montreal that none of (them)
should be issued .... which would prove to the discredit of the
institution.'"^ Three days lat^r Albert Furniss had a stronger pro-
test served on Gotterill, Hill & Co., of Walsall, England,* to whom
the order had been sent. Attached to this protest was a letter of
instructions to the notary in which it is stated that "the coin is to be
shipped for England to-morrow.^
These protests clear up some dark points in the history of ibis
coinage. Why are specimens of this issue so scarce? Were they
simply patterns for a contemplated coinage ? Had the bank ever any^
thing to do with them ? No Canadian numismatist had any knowledge
that such a large coinage had been struck, that it had really been
imported into Canada and then rejected and returned to the makers.
This coinage is unoflBcial, as no authorization either from the
Imperial or from the Provincial Governments was asked or obtained,
and then it does not even bear the name of the province, while it has
the name of the bank both on obverse and reverse.
A second unsuccessful attempt was made by Cotterill, Hill & Co.
to satisfy the bank, for in the fall of the year 1839, according to the
minute book, which statses under date 19th November; "letter received
from Mr. Furniss, also more coin but of lower grade than former ship-
ment."* This is the only record I have been able to discover respecting
the coinage of 1839, but it is sufficient for us to gather that another
shipment, of the same quantity as that of 1838, was struck from new
dies and sent out expec-ting that the bank would accept it The appear-
ance of the coin does not bear out the bank^s contention, that it was
of "lower grade.^'
* Appendix D, No. L
' Ibid, No. 2.
* Ibid. No. 3.
* Appendix C.
Sec II., 1003. 16.
226 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
As a variety of the penny piece occurs with the ribbon inscribed
'* Banque du Peuple/' it has been inferred by some that this bank was
to have participa*ted in the coinages of 1838 and 1839; but this is alto-
gether unlikely, as none of the 1838 coins nor of the 1839 halfpennys
are inscribed with the name of this bank. What in all probability
actually did occur, wa«, that Furnise in seeking to impress upon the
manufacturers in Walsall the necessity of producing as good a coinage
as that of 1837, sent over a penny as a pattern and that, as the penny
was one inflcribed " Banque du Peuple" on the ribbon, a die was made
like it, and that a quantity was struck oflf before the mistake "was
noticed. The fact that the letters on the ribbon of the 1839 coins are
incased, proves that such a sample was sent over and instructions given
respecting avoidance of the divergence on the coina of 1838.
The reverse of the coins of 1837 bearing the arms of 'Montreal
was retained for the coins of 1838, but a new obverse was adopted. The
^*rench inscription and the habitant were dropped because of the rebel-
lion of 1837, which, in Lower Canada, was attributed altogether to the
French Canadians. Consequently, for a time everything savouring
of that nationality, especially the costume worn by Papineau their
leader was not zealously denounced. The design adopted instead was
a corner view of the bank building, showing the St. Francois Xavier
street side as well as the front; from this they are known as "side
views " to distinguish them from the later " front views/'
The only difference between the coinages of 1838 and 1839, is in
the dates and the name of the bank on the ribbon, which on the for-
mer is raised, and on the latter in incused lettera This change was
no doubt an attempt to follow the coins of 1837 more closely. The
metal from which the tokens of 1838 were struck is more like brass,
showing that it had been alloyed with a certain percentage of zinc,
an alloy much used in the manufacture of saddlery hardware, the chief
industry of Walsall. Those of 1839 are of much purer copper.
The side views have long been eagerly sought after by collectors,
for thoy have always been scarce. On one occasion a fine impression
.«old as high as eighty dollars; but, from time to time, specimens have
been unearthed in Birmingham and sent out here, so that now they
seldom bring more than fifteen or twenty dollars. They are all equally
rare except the halfpenny of 1839, which is more frequently met with.
After these two abortive attempts the bank held off for a while
and did nothing in the line of a copper coinage for four years. In
the meantime the Provinces of Upper and Lower Canada had been
united, and the ordinance of 1839 above mentioned revised and
extended to the whole country. The Bank of Montreal, availing itself
of the clause providing for the supply of copper coin by banks or other
[m'lachlan] copper CURRENCY OF THE CANADIAN BANKS 227
institutions,! having applied to the 6overnor-Gheneral-in-Couneil for
the necessary authorization, was accorded the privilege to import such
coin to the extent of £5,000, any time before the Ist of January, 1845.*
Under this authorization the bank imported £2,000 in pennies and
halfpennies in 1842. It would appear that a heavy duty had been
placed on copper coin, for on the application of the cashier a permit
was granted to import this coinage free of duty.' In March, 1844,
£2,000 worth was brought out and in June, 1845, £1,000 more which
completed the £5,000 authorized in 1842. All the coins in both of
these shipments which are dated 1844, are halfpennies, for no corre-
sponding penny is known. This issue of 1844 is by far the largest of
any one denomination, as it numbered 1,440,000 pieces. Consequent-
ly, it is still by far the most plentiful.
One of the documents states that in 1845 the Bank of Montreal
obtained an authorization to import a further supply of copper coin
to the extent of £1,200.* But for some imrecorded reason, although
dies were prepared, no such coinage was put into circulation. Two
specimens exist struck from the dies of 1845. With this laet attempt
the Bank of Montreal drope out of the ibusineea of catering for the
supply of a Canadian copper currency and the charge devolved upon
another institution.
The design for the reverse of the coinage of 1842-4, is an exact
copy of that of 1837 except the date. The obverse which presents
a front view of the bank building while much better in execution and
finish, is not ao artistic in treatment as that on the coins of 1838. In
fact a front view does not afford as faivourable an opportunity for the
exercise of artistic taste ; while the inscription " Province of Canada,
Bank of Montreal" being too full also detracts from the pleasing
effect. For these reasons, as well as for their rarity, the side views
have always been more popular among collectors than the front views.
The similarity of treatment and workmanship, as well as the fact
that one of the dies of the 1837 tokens is muled with one of those of
1842,*^ proves clearly that the latter was executed by Boulton & Watt
of the Soho Mint, Birmingham.
No further effort was made to supply copper coin until 1850,
when the Bank of Upper Canada took up the task relinquished by the
* Provincial Statutes of Canada. 1841. Chap. VII., clauses 1 and 2.
* Appendix F, Nos. 6 and 7. The former is a draft by the Solicitor Gen-
eral, and the latter the Order-in-Council as adopted.
^ ■ Appendix F, No. 9.
* Appendix P, No. 19.
* Appendix A, No. 20.
228 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
Bank of Montreal. But before describing the coinage of this bank,
it will be well to describe one issued by the Quebec Bank.
In January, 1851, Noah Freer, cashier of the Quebec Bank,
wrote to the Hon. James Leslie, provincial secretary, asking permis-
sion to import copper coin to the amount of £2,000 sterling, on the
ground that it was urgently needed for change by the merchants and
traders of Quebec.^ This request remained under consideration until
the 12th of March, when it was refused because the Bank of Upper
Canada had been authorized to import £5,000 worth and that this
should be suflBcient for the requirements of the province, and further
that the coins had actually been landed in the United States.' On
the 21st of the same month the cashier replied urging more strongly
the need for small change, enclosing at the same time a petition from
a number of the principal merchants of Quebec setting forth the great
trouble they were experiencing ** for the want of a sufficient amount of
copper coin for change.**' Those merchants, some twenty in number,
contracted to take and pay for copper coin to the extent of £1,400, in
amounts varying from £25 to £250. This second request was also
refused for the same reasons as before, and because the Bank of Upper
Canada had promised to land a portion of the coinage at Quebec. Still
the cashier was encouraged by the promise that if the stringency
should continue the request would be considered later on.* Evidently
the quantity landed at Quebec was insufficient, for the cashier in
November of the same year sent in a third request. This was
acceeded to and the necessary authority by order-in-council, given to the
Quebec Bank to import copper coin to the extent of £2,000 sterling.*^
In September, 1852, the cashier again writes advising the government
that coins had been received, but that through some mistake only
£2,000 currency had been imported, whereas £2,000 sterling had been
authorized. The latter asked for extension of time for importing the
balance, some £500, and for authority to import a further quantity
amounting to £1,000.* This request was refused because the govern-
ment intended to pass a bill favouring the adoption of the decimal
system in Canada. This law, passed during the session 1852-3, was
only a tentative measure which declared dollars, cents and mills to be
legal forms of expressing money in Canada concurrent with pounds,
* Ai)a)endix F, No. 26.
" Ibid., No. 27.
» Jbid., Nos. 28 and 29.
* Appendix F, No. 30.
* Ibid,, Nos. 31 and 32.
' Appendix F, No. 37.
[m*lachlan] copper CURRENCY OF THE CANADIAN BANKS 229
shillings and penoe.^ With its acquiescense in this refusal the Quebec
Bank ceased its connection with the copper currency of the province.
In the issue of this bank there was a return to the original
habitant model of 1837. In fact the two obverses are alike in all
particulars, except that the word '* Bas " is omitted. The reverse has
the arms of the City of Quebec, in which Cape Diamond looms up in
the distance, with a female and heraldic emblems in the foreground.
In a small volume of testimonials and autotype plates, giving speci-
mens of their work, issued about 1878 by Ralph Heaton & Sons, the
Mint, Birmingham, the penny and halfpenny of the Quebec Bank are
illustrated f which shows that these tokens were manufactured by this
firm. They had lately come to the front a6 contractors for coinages,
both British and foreign, for during the interval between the last issue
of the Bank of Montreal and the first of the Bank of Upper Canada,
Boulton & Watt had retired from business and the Soho Mint had
been dismantled.
In February, 1850, the Bank of Upper Canada which had secured
the larger part of the government deposit, was granted a "license'^
under the authority of the act of 1841, td import copper coin to the
value of £5,000 sterling.' Again in November, 1851, a license for a
similar amount was granted; which issue is dated 1852. But, accord-
ing to a letter of the cashier the greater part of these coins did not
reach Canada until 1853. This delay as he claimed, was caused by
^'the great pressure on the mint for the gold and silver coinages of
the kingdom." He further states that the agents of the bank had
applied to the " Lords of the Treasury for leave to withdraw the dies
and metal from the mint " and have the' balance of the coinage com-
pleted elsewhere.* In September, 1853, the bank applied for another
permit to issue tokene amounting to £5,000 sterling, explaining that
there was " a great want of small change throughout Upper Canada;"*
and the coinage dated 1854 was imported accordingly. Again in 1856,
an application for a further importation was granted, this to the
extent for £10,000 worth of tokens.* This most extensive coinage,
which together with the three previous ones aggrega4;ed $125,000,
was more than the limited population of the Province of Canada
could well take up; for not more than half of the tokens of 1857
were ever issued. The balance remained stored in the vaults of
* statutes of the Province of Canada» 1852-3. Chap. 158.
* Ralph Heaton & Son .... Contract for the Coinaspe of ... .
Money Plate III.. Nos. 5 and 6.
» Appendix F, No. «.
* Appendix F. No. 44.
* Ihid,, No. 48.
* Ihid,, No. 52.
280 KOYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
the bank until after its failure in 1866, when they were sold for old
copper. Several tons of the penny pieces came into the possession of
E. Chanteloup, brass founder^ Montreal, by whom they were melted
down. In the meantime an act was passed by which all transactions
by and with the government should be calculated in decimal currency,^
when the government undertook a duty which it had long shirked, a
duty first rendered necessary, when the Halifax currency was adopted.
To meet the requirements of the new system a coinage of cents was
ordered in 1868, from the Royal Mint. But this coinage, which
amounted to 10,000,000 pieces, was issued altogether too soon, for the
people had not yet accommodated themselves to the new way of count-
ing. Consequently very little of it was put into circulation, except at
a discount of twenty per cent, until 1870, when the old base coppers,
that had gradually crept back into circulation, were demonetized and
withdrawn from circulation at the expense of the government, and
th« bank halfpennies and pennies raised in value so as to circulate for
one and two cents respectively. With the introduction of the decimal
system and the assumption of the function of coinage by the govern-
ment it eeased to be necessary for the banks to import copper tokens.
The design adopted for the obverse of the Bank of Upper Canada
tokens lacks any interest for Canadians, as it is simply a copy of the
legend of St. Greorge and the dragon as portrayed by Pistrucci on the
first British sovereign struck at the Royal Mint in 1817, and on the
crown of 1819. And the reverse, which bears the obsolete arms of the
old Province of Upper Canada, is even less interesting, as it lacks any
reference to Canada or any heraldic or artistic merit.
The letters of Thomas G. Ridont, cashier, of C. C. Trevelyan and
of Glyn Mills & Co.^ seem to imply that the whole of the coinage of
1850 and part aï that of 1852 were struck at the Royal Mint. But the
initials R. H. & Co. under the dragon on the obverse are clearly those
of Ralph Heaton & Co., afterward Ralph Heaton & Son, mentioned in
connection with the Quebec Bank coinage. They have for many years
contracted for large coinages when *^ great pressure on the Royal Mint"
made it necessary to have the work done outside. These coinages,
many of them for Canada, bear the initial H for Heaton. The con-
clusion reached is, that even the first coinage for the Bank of Upper
Canada was sublet to Ralph Heaton & Sons, and when the pressure at
the mint l>ecame too great to attend even to accepting and supervising
this order, the agi?nts of the bank were forced to treat with the
Hoatons direct. This latter conclusion is borne out by the fact that
the coins of 1854 are illustrated in Heaton's testimonial hook.'
» statutes of the Province of Canada, 1857, Chap. 18.
' Appendix. Nos. 44 and 45. • Plate III., Nos. 7 and 8.
[m'lachlanJ copper CURRENCY OF THE CANADIAN BANKS 231
Thus, without any adequate remuneration did the Canadian banks
come to relief of the public, suffering from the instability and insecurity
of their copper change,» by taking up a duty recognized as devolving
upon the government, a duty which it seemed unwilling or incapable
of performing. And yet it was not so much the want of trust on the
part of the people in the change, privately provided, that caused the
distress as its over-issue. Had it been just sufficient or a little less
than sufficient, buyers and sellers would have gone on tendering and
accepting it without question, one token was as good as another, for
use as a counter in exchanging commodities, so long as all accepted it.
It made no difference to the exchangers whether it was only worth one-
half or even a quarter of the value it represented. But just as soon
as these counters exceeded the requirements of the country, they came
to partake of the character of a commodity, in which character they
were well nigh worthless, if not to all, at least to most of the people
they became discredited and were refused. It was the element of profit
which the merchants had introduced into their provision of a circulat-
ing medium that was the root of the evil, and the» only true way for
averting such evil, a way proved by over 2,000 years of experience and
practice, is, that the supplying of the necessary circulating medium in
copper as well as in the nobler metals should be retained by the govern-
ment, and that from this duty all elements of profit should be
eliminated.
The failure on the part of the Provincial Government was th«
Tnore serious because, as has already been noted, the change in the
currency which practically led to the withdrawal of all legal copper
change from the province, left the people to the mercy of private
enterprise and consequently to the exploitation of unscrupulous traders,
from which they were only rescued by the disinterested intervention of
the banks.
And this vast quantity of spurious copper where has it gone ? How
much was imported and manufactured during the forty or nwre years
that it continued ? Shall we place it at double the issue of the 'banks,
say $300,000, and the $150,000 they provided how little of it stUl con-
tinues in circulation? How much of it did the banks, in accordance
with their license to issue, ever redeem?
If it took 15,000,000 counters to supply less than 2,000,000 people
with small change for twenty years (60,000,000 pieces have since been
issued in the whole of Canada), how many more have been required in
gold and silver? We get an idea how constantly these counters have
to be renewed. How expensive this provision of a medium of exchange
which disappears in the course of a few years. And yet when we con-
sider the vast aggregate transactions of the country exceeding many
282 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
thousand times the current value of this medium, the facility that it
gives to such transactions, and the difSculty and limited opportunity of
interchange of commodities, without such medium we arrive at its
inestimable worth, and that it is truly the least costly boon provided
by our government.
APPENDICES.
APPENDIX A.
Descriptive Li3t op Canadian Bank Tokens.
/. Vn tSou Tokens.
1 Ohv, BANK TOKEN, MONTREAL: A wreath composed of laurel leaves to
the left and a palm branch to the rierht enclosinsr un | sous.
Rev, TRADE A AGRiCTJLTUBE, LOWER CANADA; an emblematic bouquet com-
posed of roses, rose leaves, thistles, shamrocks, maple leaves and ears
of wheat. Size 28 millimetres.
Four minor varieties.
2 Ohv. BANK OF MONTREAL TOKEN ; wreath as last, enclosing UN | sous.
iter. SSame as last. Size 28 m.
Four varieties.
3 Ohv. BANQUE DU PEUPLE. MONTREAL*, wresth of maple leaves enclosing
UN I sou.
Rev. AGRICULTURE A COMMERCE, BAS CANADA', a bouQuet similar in composi-
tion, but different in arrangement. Size 27 m. Edge milled.
Two varieties. The execution especially of the wreath Is much
inferior to the last two.
4 Ohv. Same inscription as on last, but the wreath is composed of five large
maple leaves, and there is a small phrygian cap to the right and a star
to the left of the wreath.
Rev. AGRICULTURE & COMMERCE, BAS'CANADA ', a bouQuet similar in composi-
tion to No. 1, but difitering still more than the last in arrange-
ment ; one lar^e maple leaf is its most prominent feature. Size 27
m. Edge slightly milled.
The stars and phrygian cap were introduced, no doubt, by Arnault
the maker, who was a Frenchman, at the suggestion of the accountant
of the bank, who sympathized with the movement then being agitated
for the independence of I^ower Canada. From this the coin is known
I as "The rebellion token."
£m*lachlanJ copper CURRENCY OF THE CANADIAN BANKS 238
H, Habitant tokens or Paptneaus.
5 Ohv. PROVINCE DU BAS CANADA. DEUX SOUS; a man iD the costume of a
French Canadian farmer of the time (a habitant), standing facing
slightly to the right with a whip in his hand.
Rev, BANK TOKEN ONE PENNY; Arms of the City of Montreal. Argent
party par saltier gules. Chief a rose, dexter a thistle, sinister a sham-
rock and base a beaver, all proper ; enclosed within a garter inscribed
CONCORDIA 8ALU8. Motto, OR a rlbbon, in incused letters bank of
MONTREAL ; under the arms is the date 1837. Size 34 m.
Three varieties.
€ Obv. Same as last.
Rev, As last, but the motto is citt bank. Size 34 m.
Three >arieties.
7 Obv. Same as No. 5.
Rev. As No. 5, but the motto is banque du peuple. Size 34 m.
Two varieties.
8 Ohv, Same as No. 5.
Rev. As No. 5, but the motto is Quebec bank. Size 34 m.
Three varlertlee. It may be noted that while this token was issued
by a Quebec bank in the city of Quebec, it bears the arms of Montreal.
9 Obv. Same as No. 5.
Rw. NEW BRUNSWICK. ONE PENNY TOKEN. A full rigged ship, with sails
furled, to the left. Size 34 m.
This is a mule from the reverse die of the New Brunswick coinage ,
of 1843. Only two specimens are known.
10 Obv. PROVINCE DU bas CANADA, UN SOU; habitant as on^No. 5.
Rev. BANK TOKEN HALFPENNY ; armS on No. 5 with motto BANK OF
MONTREAL. Size 28 m.
11 Obv. Same as last.
Rev. As last, but motto is city bank. Size 28 m.
12 Obv. Same as No. 10.
Rev. As No. 10, but motto is banque du peuple. Size 28 m.
13 Obv. Same as No. 10.
Rev. As No. 10, but motto is Quebec bank. Size 28 m.
Hi. JSide Vietcs.
14 Obv. bank of MONTREAL, 1838. Comer view of the old building of the Bank
of Montreal, showing the St. Francois-Xavier street side as well as the
front.
Rev. Arms and inscription similar to No. 5, but without date and the motto
BANK OF MONTI EAL is in raised letters. Size 34 m.
Two varieties.
15 Obv. As last, but the date is 1839.
Rev. As last, but the motto is in incused letters. Size 34 m.
Two varletlas.
234 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
16 Obv, As No. 14, but date is 1839.
Rev, As No. 14, but the motto is banque du peuple, in incused letters.
Size 34 m.
l^'rom the motto it would appear that a coinage was proiKMed by
La Banque du Peuple in 1839, but as no corresponding halfpenny is
known, this is altogether unlikely.
17 Ohv. As No. 14.
Rev. As No. 14, but the value is halfpenny. Sise 28 m.
Three varieties.
18 Ohv, As No. 14, but the date is 1839.
Rev. As No. 14, but the value is halfpenny, and the motto BAinL of
MONTREAL ts In lucused letters. Size 28 m*
Three varieties.
19 Olv. As No. 14, but the date is 1839.
Rev. Plain. Size 28 m.
Only one specimen known, in the author's cabinet
IV. Front Vieujs.
20 0^17. PROVINCE OF CANADA BANK OF MONTBEAL. Front view of the bank
building.
Rev. Arms and inscription as on No. 5, but the date is 1842. Size 34 m.
21 Ohv. Same as last
Rev. Sajne as No. 6 (CKy Bank). Sdze 84 m.
This is evidently a mule by crossing the obverse die of a front view
penny of 1842, with the reverse of a City Bank penny of 1837, as it has
been occasionally met with in circulation* we are led to infer that
during the coinage of 1842 a die belonging to that of 1837 had accident-
ally been emi31oyed. This proves that the two coinages were executed
by the same firm.
22 Ohv. As No. 20.
Rev. As No. 5, but the date is 1842, and the value halfpenny. Size 28 m.
Two varieties.
23 Ohv. As No. 20.
Rev. As the last, but the date is 1844. Size 28 m.
Four varieties.
24 Ohv. As No. 20.
Rev. As No. 22, but the date is 1845. Size 28 m.
The only specimen 1 have seen is in the cabinet of Thos.
Wilson, Clarence, Ont, Another specimen was soda at auction in
London, England, in July, 1903.
25 Ohv. As No. 20.
Rev. VICTORIA DIE GKATIA REGiNA, 1843 ; head of Queen Victoria to the left
Size 28 m.
A mule with the obverse die of the New Brunswick coinage of
1843, only one specimen known, in the cabinet of the Ldhrary of Pardia-
ment, Ottawa.
[m»lachlan] CX)PPER CURRENCY OF THE CANADIAN BANKS 236
V, Quebec Bank Tokens.
26 Olv, PBOTiNCE DU CANADA DEUX SOUS ; a habitant as in No. 5.
Rev. QX7EBXC BANK TOKEIT ; til ewergue 1852 one fenny; the arms of the
City of Quebec In the foreground is a female, to the right, seated,
holding a cornucopia; by her side ia a shield, truies, a lion passant,
gardant proper; before her is a beaver and behind a bee-hive. In the
distance is Cape Diamond, surmounted by the Citadel and a ship at
anchor in the river in front Size 34 m.
27 Obv. As last, but the value is UN sou.
Hev. As last, but the value is halfpenny. Size 28 m.
y I. Bank of Upper Canada Tokens.
28 Obv. BANK OF UPFEB CANADA, 1850. St George on horseback to the right,
slaying the dragon ; under the dragon are initials R. H. d Vo.
Rev. BANK TOKEN. ONE PENNY. The seal of the old province of Upper
Canada, which consists of a sword and anchor crossed, with a toma-
hawk down the centre; above is a crown, below two comucopiœ, and
in the upper right corner a part of a Union Jack. Size 34 m.
The St George and the dragon figured on this coin is a copy of
Pistrucci*s design, which appeared on the first British sovereign
struck in 1817. Neither it nor the obsolete seal of the old province of
Upper Canada have any emblematic reference to Canada. The coinage
of this bank, although the largest, is the least national of any. The
initials R. H. & Co. stand for Ralph Heaton & Co., of Birmingham.
29 Obv. As last, but dated 1852.
Hev. Same as last Size 34 m.
30 Obv. As No. 28, but dated 1854.
Hev. Same as No. 28. Size 34 m.
Two varieties.
31 Obv. As No. 28, but dated 1857.
Rev. Same as No. 28. Size 34 m.
32 Obv. As No.28.
Hev. As No. 28, but the value is one half-penny. Size 28 m.
33 Obv. As No. 28, but the date is 1852.
Hev. Same as last Size 28 m.
34 Obv. As No. 28, but the date is 1854.
Hev. Same as No. 32. Size 28 m.
Two varieties.
86 Obv. As No. 28, but the date is 1857.
Rev. Same as No. 32. Size 28 m.
286
ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
■4
§11
^ <
CO
I
<
<
Q
SS38
§i§i
§ï
"•"-«■"of
é
*^ o o o
S
M Otflo
a_
-î Q o o
4^^ Mit
c
s
Û
Û
?:o
::?oc =
•-■^
^-3-5 -C
o
3
^
Jd
2
4
ra
i3
iiil
I
II
+++++++ *+ *+ ♦+ *+^
ï^ iC I'^ ifi t^ s t'^ J
m
s
4
4> -^ -C 'O "D 'd '^ tï
cg
Ë
B
4
«
Ji
j=
?oo
^e
-StJtS
■S-o
g
g
cxi
a
ÏTO o o 3 o o o
7*
X
is.
hrt I
•1*4
Î33
4
^5
3
¥à
4
gOOOÛOOO
e
sa
iliiiS§§
5
'5
£2
C S
S <
se
tf 0
1^
SI
[m*lachlan] œPPER CURRENCY OF THE CANADIAN BANKS 287
APPBNDIX C.
Documents Rblatino to the Copper Coins issued by the Canadian Banks.
Ewtraetê from Minutes of Diredorê of ike Bank of Montreal
Paere 128, 9th June, 1837.
The subject cyf the Cosxper Coin was again discussed. The Cashier
was directed to import a Quantity and 6btaln concurrence of the other
Banks.
Page 162. 10th Oct, 1887.
A letter from Albert FumHss. dated 6th inat.. re Copper Coins ordered
from England was submitted. Cashier was directed to reply that this
Bank would continue the order for one-^half the amount first required,
even without the assent of other Banks; but upon obtaining the assent
of the City and Peoples Banks, the whole £6,000 to be ilmiported by
•the first spring ships.
Page 166, 3rd Nov., 1837.
Steps taken to obtain from the Government a recommend-ation in
favour of the Importation.
Page 264, 14th June, 1839.
Coin arrived from England, but was of such a very inferior grade
that Cashier instructed notary to protest against Mr. Furndss for recov-
ery of damages and interest.
Page 295, 19th Nov., 1839.
Letter received from Mr. Fumiss and also more coin, but of lower
grade than former shipment
29th April, 1842.
Government authorize importation of Copper Coin by Bank of
Montreal to the extent^ of £5,000 any time between this and the year
1846.
APPENDIX D.
No. 1.
From the Archives of the Court House, Montreal,
H. Uriffin, 16()iS9, loth June, HiS9.
On this 16th day of June in the year of our Lord 1839, we, the under-
signed public notaries, duly commissioned and sworn in and for the Province
of Lower Canada, residing in the City of Montreal, in the said province, at
the special instance and request of the President, Directors and Company
of the Bank of Montreal, did go to the Counting house of Att>ert Furaiss,
Esq., of the said City of Montreal, merchant, and there 'being ajid cppeakinsr
to himself did declare unto him that, rwhereas the said Bank of Montreal
did order from the said Albert Furniss the importation in the year 1888 Irom
Ehigland of a large amount in money of Penny and Halfpenny pieces of the
description then given, which order was executed at the manufactory in
288 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
Liverpool of Messrs. Scholefleld & Son, to the entire satisfaction of the said
President, Directors and Company of the Bank of Montreal, and that, wiiere-
as, in consequence, the said Bank of Montreal, by and through their Cashier,
by letter bearing: date the 26 day of Nov. last past, did grive ointo the said
Albert Furniss another order for a further quantity of penny pieces and
halfpenny pieces; to wit, 120^000 penny pieces and 240,000 halfpenny pieces,
with such alteration in the stamp or die of the said Coin from «that of the
previous importation as in the said letter particularly set forth, with the
express direction that the said Importation of Copper Coin should be procured
from the said house of Scholefleld & Son, at Liverpool aforesaid, to be similar
in respect to wei«rht and flneness of material to the coin that had been fur-
nished by that house the previous springr, and by the same letter it waa
further stated that to meet the view of the said Scholefleld & Son thait the
said Cashier would direot the agrents of the said bank to pay for the said
coins on delivery of the bill of lading: and Invoice thereof with insurance;
and that whereas the said Albert Furniss did receive the said order and did
promise and undertake to procure the execution thereof, but disregarding:
the terms of the said order did oause the whole of the said quantity of
Copper Coins to be procured in En^rlsmd aforesaid from some manufactory
other than that of the said Soholefleld & Son, and which, on being shipped
at Liverpool aforesaid, was paid for in good faith by the agents of the said
bank in Liverpool aforesaid, and that whereas the said quantity of Coins
has been received in Montreal at the banking house of this institution, and
on opening the casks containing the said coins are discovered to be of base
material, different in all respects in the manufacture, coinage and workman-
ship from those manufactured the previous season by the said Scholefleld &
Son, and are, in fact, utterly unworthy of issue and disreputable to the
manufactory where the same was made, and we did also declare to the said
AVbert Furniss that in consequence of the premesis aforesaid the said Bajik
of Montreal could not issue the said coins, that the whole thereof would be
held to his future order and be at his entire risk, cnarge and expense, and
that the said Bank of Montreal should and would hold him, the said Albert
Furniss, resTK>nslble and liable for all costs, losses, changes, damages and
interests, exchanges, re-exchanges, hurts and injuries suffered and to be
suffered by the said Bank of Montreal, for and by reason and upon account
of the said coin having been made and shipi>ed different to and contrary to
the order and express direction of the said Bank of Montreal, through their
said Cashier, and which he, the said Albert Furniss, did promise and to
execute and perform. And at the same time we did direot that inasmuch as
the said coins were ordered and manufactured to and for the special issue
of the said Bank of Montreal, that none of the said coins should be by him
issued or suffered to be Issued or put into circulation which would prove to
the discredit of the said Institution against which and for all costs, losses,
charges, damages and interests, exchanges, re-exohanges, hurts and injuries
suffered and accrued, and that can, shall or may be hereafter suffered and
accrued to and by the said Bank of Montreal for, by reason and on account
of all and every the ipremesis aforesaid, and for which the said Bank can,
may or ought to protest, we, the said notaries, at the instance and request
aforesaid do hereby formally protest against the said Albert Furniss, and
against all and every other person and persons whomsoever it doth, shall
[m*lachlan] œPPEE CURRENCY OF THE CANADIAN BANKS 289
or may concern, and to the end that the said Albert Furniss or others con-
cerned may not pretend ignorance In the premeala, we, at the same time
served him «with a certified copy of these presents at his Counting house
aforesaid.
This done and protested at Montreal aforesaid, in the day, month and
year first above written, and sisrned by us notaries in testimony of the
premesis.
Thomas I. Pblton. H. Griffin.
N.P. N.P.
No. 2.
H. Uriltin, 16631, 18th June, Itm.
On this the 18 day of June, in the year of our Lrord 1839, before the under-
signed public notaries, duly admitted and aworn In and for the Province of
Lower Canada, residing in the City of Montreal, personally appeared, Albert
Purniss, Esq., of the said City of Montreal, merchant, who declared that,
whereas, in the month of November, 1838, he received an order, which he
did undertake to execute, from the Bank of Montreal, in Montreal, for the
Invportation from England in the spring of the present year for and on
account of the said Bank of Montreal a large quantity of copper coins, to
wit, 120,000 penny pieces, and 240,000 halfpenny pieces, according do a descrip-
tion minutely given, and that whereas the said Albert Furniss did transmit
the said order to the manufacturing house and firm of Cotterill, HIU & Co.,
of Walsal, in England, with the patterns, orders and directions, who shipped
the quantity of Copper Coin aforesaid, for the supply of the order aforesaid,
and that whereas the said coins, on the packages being opened by the said
bank on receipt of them in Montreal, have proved deficient in all respects
in the manufax^ture, coinage and workmanshlq;) from the orders and the
patterns, furnished, in consequence whereof the said Bank of Montreal have
rejected the said copper coin to be, In fact, utterly unworthy of issue, and
to be disreputable to the manufacturers, and have caused to be executed a
formal protest against the said Albert Furniss for all oosts, losses, chai^ges
and damages, interest and exchange, by reason thereof at the same time
protesting against the said copper coin being put into circulation.
Wherefore the said Albert Furniss did declare to protest and did request
of us. the said notaries, to extend this our formal protest against the said
house and firm of Cotterill, Hill & Co., the manufacturers and shippers of
the said copper coin, and for aJl costs, charges, dsimages, hurts, injuries,
interests, exchanges and re-exchantges already suffered or that can, shall or
may hereafter be suffered by the said Albert Furniss, for and by reason of
the premesis aforesaid, and for which the said Bank of Montreal are deter-
mined to hold responsible the said Albert Furniss, and otherwise for all
other matters and things for which the said Albert Furniss can, may or
ought to protest touching all or any of the premlsis aforesaid.
This done and protested at Montreal aforesaid, on the day, month and
year first above wirJititen, and figured by us notariée In testimony of premises.
Thomas I. Pblton, H. Griffin,
N.P. N.P.
240 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
No. 3.
The following letter addressted to " H, Griffin, JB$q.r it atiaehed,
D. Sir,
I think (aJthougih the furnishers of the Copper Coin make no difficulty)
that it IB advisiible to send the protest to them. The firm is CotteriU, HiU
& Co., oif Weisal, in Bn«land. I think it well also to have them (the ooppera)
condemned. Wdll you be bo grood as to do the needful, as I leave tor Upper
Canada this momin^r.
Yours, etc,
ALSBRT PURNI88.
Jun« 18. '39.
The Coin is to be shipped for Ensrland to-morrofw.
APPENDIX E.
From the Canadian Archivée.
No. L
tierieê Q, Vol, X4»-l, p. tn.
His Majsbtt'b Consulate,
New York, 19th May, 1887.
SlR«
I have the honour to state that a severe domestic affliction in a biuncb
of my fajnily residing in Lrower Canada called me to Montreal and Quebec,
at the time the New York Banks suspended payments in specie. Viewing
in the commercial derangement, and general bankruptcy In the United States,
an event well calculated to place Canada In an elevated point of view aa
sustaining her credit, while the United States with her overflowing Treasury
and extensive commercial operations were dazzling the world and had drawn
about Twenty-flve Millions of British Capital to be Invested in various secur-
ities, and chiefly chartered institutions In the United States, while very
little has been placed in the security of the Upper ïhrovince of Canada,
though most ample, these considerations led me to be much in consultation
with the merchants at Montreal and Quebec, as to the course most advisable •
to be pursued in the present crisis.
As the Banks at Montreal had ample to redeem their outstanding notes, it
was believed that if the Canadian Silver which is locked up in the Receiver-
General's chest at Quebec (about 800,000 dollars) was turned out, change for
the ordinary transactions would be afforded, and under that view I was
Induced to address a letter to Lord Gosford (a copy of which I have the
honour to enclose), but mpon further deliberation it was soon discovered
that it would be Impossible for the Canada banks to aiford further facilities
to the merchants if they continued to redeem their paper when the United
States banks had declined doing so, nor to continue operations by discon-
tinuing as the quantity of prodtice from the United States, which is gen-
erally brought to Montreal during the shipping season, exceeds £860,000.
all of which heretofore was paid in silver, and though carried into the
States, It was brought back by the banks, consequently, such would not now
be the case, therefore, under due deliberation, it was deeoned indlspensajble
[ii*lachlan] COPPEB CUBBENCY OF THE CANADIAN BANKS 241
that the banks in Osunada should suspend to i>ay specie, and in order to
Clifford Xacilltles of trade a credit would be eetablished at New York, and for
produce purohaaed, ^ve draft on that City or Bills on England for the
anK>unt; thus far as to the snerohants all is well, not &o to the oomsnunity,
as the want of a circulatintr medium has been long severely felt In His
Majesty's Provinces, and from iU-judged legislation iby an Act pasifed in
1830, great inconvenience has be^ the result, and now, so anuch so, that the
subject demands immediate attention. The Act refers to Pistareens, which
passed currently at a shilling, Halifax Curency, to lOd, and the half-Pis-
taresa, 6d, the consequence has been that all the silver of that denomination
was purchased and taken to ^ain, 'Whereby a great profit was realized
while His (Majesty's Gkyvernment did not replace the silver thus removed;
the difficulty .was not then felt as American half doUare and quarters were
freely brought in and thereby Canada lnd>eibted ito the United dtates for
its clrculatin-g medium, the loss of change was supplied by speculators (by
•the introduction of base ooin of copper of iwhlkah vast sums have ibeen Im-
ported from Birmingham and sold to the grocers at 5s. for 3s. 4d, the ordinary
rate. A gentleman conversing with sne on the state of the Copper Currency
put his hand into his pocket and gave without any previous selection several
of them, which I have the honour to foxrward. The sufferings and conse-
quences which wUl arise to the community at this crisis is of a most serious
character, and in order to avert rwihich, I venture to address you, sir, and
respectfully to suggest the sending out a copper coin to afford facilities
for th« daily business.
"British-American halfpennies and pennies." These, if sent rto the
Comimissary- General will pay the Troops and afford a large profit— ^low
their carriage and freight to be of the cost tn Canada of 4s. and they will
pass for 6s. I do not w^ish to see their full value, as I wish them to remain
in the Province— 4but 20 per cent. <will secure them remaining.
I have the honour to be, sir,
Your obedient servant.
J. Buchanan.
To Sir Gborgb Grst, Bart..
One of His Majesty's Under-Secretaries of State, etc., etc., etc..
Colonial Officb, London.
No. 5.
ISerks g. Vol «-♦SJ— 4, p. 9S7
•Birmingham, 3rd August, 1837.
Mt Lord,
My sons, w«ho are Merchants in this Town, have received an order for
Copper Tokens from Canada The letter which has been sent to them is
inclosed— it appears that much spurious copper money Issued by various
individuals, is in circulation in the Colony, the Bank of Montreei wishes
to introditce a sound Copper Currency ejid they profess, what we believe
to be really the fact, that they do not at all seek to make a profit by the
coinage they wish to introduce into that city, the amount they have written
for is about 5,000£ Currency, say 4.600£ Sterling. On application to Messi«
Boulton & Watt of this place, who are the principal Manufacturers of Copper
Seen., 1903. 16.
S42 ROYAL SOGIETT OF CANADA
Money— they tell us tha,t a penalty to incurred by the 67th of Georg<e 8d.
Chapter 46, page 817» by any person who coixia Copper Money, but that per-
miBskm ifl usually gAven on the applloation of parties wishing to circulate it.
Kot knowing -wihether Your LK)(rd8hIq;> is the proper person to make tdie
enquiry of, I am aure you -win excuse me if I am in error In writing to
you and will, I trust, direct me to the right quarter, or will gi^e me such
information as will enable my sons either to undertake the exeoution of the
order, or to decline it.
Apologizing for the present liberty,
I have the honour to be. My Liord,
Yr. mo. obt. servant,
Jos. 6CHOL.BFIBLD
The Rt. Honorablb Lord Glbnelg, etc.. etc., etc.
No. 2.
C. Archives, ISeries g, VoL 240—2, p. S13.
Treasury Chambers.
30th August, 1887.
Sir.
I am commanded by the Lords Commissioners of Her Majesty's Treasury
to request you wiU state to Lord Glenelg that an appUoation has been
addressed tx> their Lordships by Mr. Scholefleld of Birmingham, for permis-
sion to execute an order received from the Bank of MontreaJ in Lower
Canada for a coinage of Copper Tokens ifor circulation In that Province,
and as their Lordêhips find that Lord Olenelg i» already in possession of the
particulars of this application they request to be faroured with his oninion
as to the propriety and expediency of acceding thereto before thfey give any
directions on the suibjeot.
I am, air.
Your obedif»nt sf^rvant,
A. Y. Spearman.
James Stephen, Esq., etc. etc., etc.
No. 4.
P. 219.
Treasury Chambers,
21 Septemiber, 1837.
Sir.
With further reference to the Letter from this Department of 80th ulto.
and to your reply thereto, of 12 inst. respecting the application of Mr. Schole-
fleld, of Birmingiham, for permission to execute an order which he had
received from the Bank of Montreal for a coinage of Copper Tokens to be
circulated in Lower Canada; I am directed by the Lords Conxmissioners
of Her Majesty's Treasury to request that you will state to Lord Glenelg
that in the absence of any Information on the subject from the Governor of
Lower Canada, My Lords must defer giving their sanction for the trans-
mission of the Copper Tokens which the Montreal Bankin-g Company has
proposed to put into circulation in that Province, and that they have oaused
a communication to that effect to be made to Mr. Scholefleld; but My Lords
[m'lachlah] copper OUBRENOY OF TflE CANADIAN BANKS S48
have to request that Ixwd Olenelg will call upon the Qoveimor of Lower
Canada for en lononediiate repoart upon the proposition of the Montreal Bankp
Ing Company in order that thie Board may toe apprized whether ajiy objec-
tion exista to a compliance with Mir. Scholefleld's application.
I am, sir,
Your obedient servant,
A. T. Spearman.
Jab. Stephen. Esq., etc., etc., etc.
No. 5.
ISeries Q, Vol. SJ-^SJa, p. SOH,
Downing Street,
28 September, 1887.
The Earl of Gosford,
No. 272.
Mt LiORD«
I have the honour to tranamlt to you the copy of an application which
I have reoeirved from Mr. âcholeâeld, of Birmlnflrham, for permission to
execute en order which he bad received from the Bank of Montreal for a
Coinaere of Copper Tokens to be circulated in Lower Canada. The subject
belonging strictly to the cognisance of the liords of the Treasury» Mr.
8cholefleld was referred to that Board, Their Lordafhlps have informed him,
that in the absence of any Information on the subject from you they bave
declined to give their sanction to the tx>anamission of these tokens to Lower
Canada, but their Lordships have requested me to call on you, for an
Immediate report on the proposition of the Bank of Montreal in order tliftt
their Lordships may be apprised /whether any otojection exists to a com-
pliance with Mr. ScJholefield's application. I have, therefore, to request th«t
you will furnish me with the desired Report
I have, etc
aXJBNBIjGw
No. 6.
ISerieê Q, Vol. 23^-^1, p. lOd.
(No. 122.)
Castle op St. Lewis,
Quebec, asth Novemtoer, 1887.
Mt Lord,
With reference to your Dispatch of the 28th Septemiber last. No. 272,
enclosing eji application from Mr. Scholefleld, of Birmingham, on behalf
of the Montreal Bank for permission to execute an order for coining copi>er
tokens to be circulated in this Province, and requesting Information from
me on the proposition of the Bank.
I have the inonour to acquaint you that having laid the matter before the
Executive Council they have furnished me with a report on the subject,
in which I concur, setting forth the great inconvenience àrisin^r from the
want of a small and sound circulating medium to replace the base copper-
coin at present in use, and recommending that the tokens to be codned be
844 BOTAL 80GIEIY OF CANADA
of 9uch weisbt and value as to leave no remuneration to the Bank after
paying the expenses of tm^portation into the Province.
JiB the People cf the Qountry are acoustomed to aaabflm to any copper
coin the value of a halfpenny only, I would suggest «that in order to prevent
confufllon, no token of greater value than a halfpenny ehouild be coined.
Sncloeed is a Copy of the Report of Council.
I have the honour to be, My Ix>rd,
Your nrast obedient servant,
GO8FORD.
The Right Honorablb Lord Olbnbixi, etc, etc., etc.
No. 7.
Page HI.
To Hie Eœeéllmey The Earl of Goèford, Captain-General and Oovemor-m-
Chief of the Province of Lower Canada, eto., etc, etc.
Report of a Oonnnittee of ^e iwhole CouncU Present: The Honorable
Mr. Stewart, Mr. Pemberteon, Mr. Panet, iMr. Debartzch and Mr. iBbeppard.
on a Deepatoh from >Ix>rd Olenelg, dated 28th (Sept., 1837, on the proposition
of the JBaxsk of Montreal for a Copper Coinage for Liower Canada.—
Mat it plbasb Your BxcsLiiBNCT,
The Conunittee can haAre no hésitation dn Teoonunendlng that the appUca^
tion of Mr. Scholefield, on behalf of the Bank of Montreal, for permdssion
tx) execute an order for Copper Tokens to be oirculated in licrwer Canada
be granted.
It I is a nmtter of notoriety that the Copper Coin at present in circulation
ia almost entirely of a base and sipurious description and that groat Inoon-
venience consequently ariaee dn the conunon traneaotlons of life from the
want of a small circulating medium.
The Committee, however, would humibly recommend that the tokens to
be coined be of such weigiht and value as to leave no remuneration to the
Bank save the expenses of imiportation into this Province.
All which is respectfully submitted to Your Excellency's wisdom.
By order,
(Signed), J. Stewart,
Chairman.
Council Chambers, 22nd Nov., 1837.
Certified,
Georgb H. Rtulnd.
[M'LACHLAH] COPPER OURBBNOY OF THE CANADIAN BANKS 246
APPENDIX F.
No. 1.
Documenté from the Archives of the Secretary of State.
Oppicb op the Pbacb.
Quebec, Sth Jun^. 1837.
Sir.
We hatv^ the honour herewith to traiOffmlt for the purpose of belngr lo*l
before Hla Excellency the Govemor-in-Caiief, two Resolutions -adopted tihls
day at a General Special SesBion of the peace, especially oonvened to tate
into consideration the state of the copper currency now In circulation in
thle Oity and Dietrict And on the port of the Mafifistratee we respectfully
request, that His BxceUency wiai be pleased to take into his most favourable
oonskJeratlon the request and views of the Ma^ristrates contained In the
said Resolutions.
We have the honour to be, sir.
Your most oJbedlent hum>ble servanrts,
(Slgrned), Pbrrault & Scott.
Clerk of the Peace.
Thb Civil Sbcretart.
ISndorêed,
Referred to a Committee of the whole Executive Council for their opinion
and report on the first resolution.
By command,
W. Walcott,
Civil Secretary.
Quebec, 16 June, 1837.
No. 2.
Provincb op Lowbr Canada,
City of Quebec.
General âpeclal Session of the Peaoe un^er the Road and Police Act^-
convened more especially for the purpose of tsikin? Into conflideration
the state of the Copper Currency now in Circulation In thds City and
District, and to adopt any measures in relation thereto which may be
deemed expedient.—
Thursday, 8th June, 1837.
Resolu.-^u* une humble adresse soit présentée & Son Excellence le
Gouvemor en Ohef, exposant à Son Excellence qu'il resuite de noKnbreux
Inconvenlens du manque de Monnaie de Cuivre, et priant Son Excellence de
vouloir bien adopter telles mesures qu'il Jugera à propos pour importer du
Royaume Uni une quantité de AConinale de Cuivre ("pennyï" et "half-
pennyê**) legale, suffisante pour faire cesser la gène qui existe malzutenant
& cet égard.
Keêolved.--ThB,t an humlble address Ibe presented to His Excellency the
Gk>vemor-in-Ohlef, prasrinflr that eo soon as the amoimt of Assessments pay-
able on Public Buildiners In this City during the Current year, shall have
been duly established, settled and liquidated. His BxceUency wUl t>e pleased
£46 BOYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
to direct the Kecdver-Oeneral «to pay the same to the Road Treeaurer m
mall êUver Coined viz.: Three-pmny'lialfpmny, eevm-ptnee-Kalfpennif laaid one
9kUlinff and three-pence piece», to enaible the Road Treasurer therewith to pay
the Pay LlBts of public Worke of the Surveyior of Highways of this City.
OerUfled,
(Signed), PBRRAX7x;r & Scott.
Cl^k of the Peace and of the 9eesioiie of the Peace.
Na 8.
To h%8 Excellency The Earl of Goêford, Captain-General and Govemor-in-Chief
of the Province of Lower Canada, etc,, etc,, etc.
Report of a Coaxsmlttee of the iBxecutive Oouncil, Bresenit: The Honoraible
Mr. Smith, Mr. Stewart and Mr. Cochran, on Your Exorilency's Reference
to a Lietter tram the Clerks of the Peace with two Resolutions passed by .
the Ma«ii«trateB re9pectin«r the Coin in circulation.
Ajpproved,
(Slsrned), GosFORD.
Mat it pleas b Your Excbllbnct,
The Committee have taken into consideration your Excellency's Reference
from the Clerk» of the Peace, wKh two Resolutions assented to in General
Special Sessions of the Peace submitting to your Excellency the expediency
of adopting: measures of ofbtainki^ from -the United Kingdom a supply of
good Copper Coin for circulation in this Province, and also of directing that
the aonount of Assessments on the public Buildings in Que^bec for this Year,
be paid when ascertained in smeJl Silver Coin. The Committee aire of opitaifon
that for the relief of the present difflcuHiee In money circulation, especially
with respect to Copper Coin, it would be hi«rhly desirable that His Majesty's
Government be solicited to cause a supply of the legal Copper Coin of the
Realm consisting of pence and halfpence to the amount of £2,000 to be
sent out to this Country, through the Treasury I>epartment to be lodged
with the Receiver-General and paid out in discharge of Warrants from
time to time.
The Committee beg leave upon this head to refer to a Report made by a
•pedal Committee of the Legislative Council in ISas, followed up by an
address to the then Govemor-in-Chlef for the purpose of obtaining a supply
of Copper Coin. With respect to the other point submitted by the Magistrates
The Committee are also of opinion that it would be desirable that the amount
of the assessments on the Puiblic Buildings for the current year should,
when ascertained, be paid by the Receiver-General in such small Silver Coin
of the denomination mentioned by the Magistrates, as he may have in his
possession.
All of which is respectfully submitted to your Excellency's Wisdom.
i^y order,
(Signed), Wm. Smith,
Chairman.
Council Chambbrs,
29th June, 1837.
[h'lachlah] copper CUBEENOY OF THE CANADIAN BANKS 247
No. 4.
Castlb St. Lewis,
Quebec, 2lBt Novenmber, 1887.
Sir,
I am directed by the Governor-to-Chief, to tranemlt to you the aocom-
panylug Despatch with one Bncloeed from the Secretary of State for the
Colonieg, calling for information from this Government, relative to an order
from the Montreal Bank, to a House at Birmingham for a Coinage of CJopper
Tokens, & to request that you iwill be so good as to lay these Documents
before a Oammittee of the 'whole Executive Council, with a request that they
will favour His BxoeWency with such Information and observations on tihe
subject, as may enable Him to furnish the Report required by the Secretary
of State.
I have the honour to 'be, sfcr.
Your most obedient servant.
Walcott,
Civil Secy.
The Honorable the Chairman op the Executive Council.
No. 5.
Copy of a Report of a Committee of the Executive Council, dated 23d
March, 1842, and apiproved by His Excellency the Governor-General, on the
28th of the same Month, and the proposition of the Montreal Bank to Issue
certain Copper Coins as Tokens.—
The Committee of Coimcil have considered the proposition of the Montreal
Bank, made with the concurrence of the other Banking Institutions, to issue
as the Copper Coinage authorized <by the Act 4th and 5th Victoria, Cap. 17,
certain Coins or tokens, the same as those issued by the same Institution,
under the authority of an order in council of the Province of Lower Cajiada
of 18ch December, 1837.
This arrangement would, no douibt, be very convenient for many reaaons,
but as a certain limited amount of Coin is allowed to ibe put in circulation
under the late act, and as the redemption of the Issue, is, by the act,
obligatory upon the person, or body corporate, making the same, the Com-
mittee are of opinion that a nerw die should <be struck, in which case the
impression mig^t also be made applicable to present circumstances.
That all invidious reflections may ibe avoided, the Committee think it
would 'be prudent for the Bank, as it does not desire profit from the trans-
action, to send sun account of the expenses attending the Coinage, and impor-
tation, so that the same may be furnished to Parliament if called for.
Certified
(Signed), Wm. H. Lee
The Honorable Mr, Daly.
£48 BOTAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
No. 6.
Provincb of Canada.
His EwcdlefMy, etc.--
To The President, Directors and Company of the Bank of Montrtal,
Grbbtino—
Whereas,— 'Utae Presiâent, Dlrectara and Company of the Bank of Montreal,
have made ^pUcation for penmdaiion to import into the Province, or to
manufacture therein, copper coins under the authority of an act of the
Liegrislature of the said Pix>vlnce passed In the session held in the fourth
and fifth years of Her Majesty's rei«rn, Intituled, "An euot to prevent the
"(fraudulent manufacture, importatloi\, or circulation of spurious Copq;>er and
"Braas Ooto."—
Now Know Ye.^That I, the said Sir Charles Bagot, having taken the
said flippHcation into consideration, by virtue of the power in me vested by
the said act, have given and granted, and do hereby give and grant by and
with the advice and consent of Her tMaJeety's ESzecutive Council for tJie
said Province, authority and permission to the President, Directors and Com-
pany of the Bank of Montreal aforesaid to import into the said Provlikce
or to manufacture therein any amount of Copper Coin or tokens of the
description of pennies and halfpennies, not exceeding in nominal value the
sum of Five Thousand Pounds current money of this Province, such coin
or tokens to be equal in purity, weight and quality to five-sixths at the lee«t
of the British penny or halfpenny lawfully current in ttie United Kingdom
of Great Britain and Ireland. Provided aiways that the said Coin or Tokens
shall be stamped with the respective nominal value thereof and «with the
name of thé President, Directors and Company of the Bank of Montreal
aforesaid, and shall be payable and redeemable on demand at the said Bank
of Montreal, In confonmity in all respects with the provisions of the said
act. And provided also that the President, Directors and Company of the
Bank of Montreal aforesaid shall with all reasonable diligence, furnish to
the Governor, Lieutenant-Governor or person administering the Govemmeoft
of the said Province for the time being an account of the expenses incurred in
and about the inifportation or manufacture of the said coins or tokens, in
order that the same may be laid before the legislature of the said Province.
And I do hereby declare that the permission of these presents given and
granted shall (become void and of no effect by the violation or non-observance
of any of the conditions or provisions herein contained, but in case of the
- due observance and fulfilment thereof shall continue and be in force until
the first day of January, 1845, and no longer.
Given, etc..
This is my draught.
Kingston. 8th April, 1842.
(Signed), Chas. D. Day,
Sol. GenL
Endorsed,
SolicitorHGeneral's draft of Permission to the President, Directors and
Company of the Bank of Montreal to import and manufacture Copper Coin,
[m*lachlah] copper CURRENCY OF THE CANADIAN BANKS 240
No. 7.
Provincb of Canada.
His Excellency the Rlgrht Honorable Sir Charles Ba«ot, Kndght Grand
Oroee of the Most Honorsuble Order of the Bath, One of Her Majeety's
Honora/ble Privy Council, GovernorHQeneral of British North America,
and CfiMptain-Oeneral and Governor-in-Chlef in and over the Province of
Canada, Nova Scotia, Neiw iBrunawlck. and the Island of Prince Edr^ard,
and Vice-Adntiral of the same.
(Sisrned) Charles Baqot.
To The President, Directors and Company of the Bank of Montreal,
Grbbting —
WhereaSf-^T^e President, Directors and Company of the Bank of Montreal
have made application for permission to import into the said Province, or
to manufacture therein Copper Coins under the authority of an act of the
Législature of the said Province pajssed in the session held in the fourth
and fifth years of Her (Majesty's ReLgn, entitled "An Act to prevent the
fraudulent Manufacture, Imiportation, or Circulation of Spurious Copper,
and Brass Coin." Now Know Ye, that I, the said Charles Ba«ot, having:
taken the said application into consideration, by virtue of the power in me
vested, by the Said Act, have given and granted, and do hereby give, and
grant, by and with the advice and with the oonaent of Her Majesty's
Executive Council for the said Province, Authority and Permission to the
President, Directors and Company of the Bank of Montreal aforesaid, to
import into the Said Province, or to manuf axîture therein any amount of Copper
Coin or Tokens of the description of Pennies and Halfpennies, not exceeding
in nominal value the sum of Five thousand pounds current money of this
Province. iSuch Coin or Tokens to be equal in purity, weight, and quantity
to five-sixths at the least of the British Penny and Halfpenny lawfully
current in the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland.
Provided aluHiyê,—^ha.t the said Coin or Tokens shall be stamped with
the respective nominal value thereof, and with the name of the President,
Directors and Company of the Bank of Montreal aforesaAd, and shall be
payable and redeemable on demand at the said Bank of (Montreal, in con-
formity in all respects with the provisions of the said Act.
And provided also,— Thsit the President, Directors and Company of the
Bank of Montreal aforesaid shall, with all reasonable diligence, fumiidi to
the Governor, Ldeutenant-Governor, or Person adminSistering the Govern-
ment of the said Province for the time being, an account of the expenses
incurred in and about the importation or manufacture of the said Coins or
Tokens, in order that the same may be laid before the Legislature of the
said Province.
And, I do hereby declare that the permission by^ these Presents given
and granted, shall become void and of no effect by the violation or non-
observance of any of the conditions herein contained; but in case of the
due observance and fulfilment thereof, shall continue and «be in force until
the first day of January, One thousand Bight hundred and Forty-five, and
no longer.
SeO ROYAL SOCIETT OF CANADA
O-iven under my Hajid and Seal at Arnw, at Kingston, In Canada, this
Sixteenth day of AprU, 4n the Year of Our Lord One thousand Ei«lit hundred
and Forty-two, and In the fkfth year of Her Majecrty'a Rel«n.
By Hia Exoellency'a comnmnd,
(Sigrned), D. Dalt,
Secretary.
(Pencil notation).-^. C. 28 March, 1842— 43tate Book A, p. 329.
No. 8.
579. No. 710.
Benj,'n Uolmeê, E$q., M,P,P., Cashier Bank of Montreal
21 April. '42.
Sir,
I have the honour herewith to encloee to you by command of His Excel-
lency the Qovemor-Oeneral, a PermlBsion under the Privy Seal of the
Province of Canada, to the Preeident, Directors and Cknnpany of the Bank of
Montreal to innport or manufacture Copper Coin as requested in your com-
nnsnlcaUon of the 12th uK., the receipt of which you will have the goodness
to acknowledge.
I have, otc.
No. 9.
[Copy.]
Importation of Copper Coins Duty Free.
Report of a Committee of the Executive Council dated 12th November,
1842. Aprproved by His Excellency The Grovemor-General on the 25 Novem-
ber. 1842.
The Committee of Council are respectfully of opinion that the Inspector
General's decision to adnrit the Copper Coins, Mentioned in the Collector of
Customs letter of the 7 Noventber, 1842, free of duty was Correct, and they
recommend the adoption of the followiniç Order.
It is Ordered by His Excellency the Governor-Oeneral, by and with the
advice of the Executive Council, that the Copper Coins Imported by the
Montreal Bank under an arrangement with the Executive Government be
admitted free of duty.
Certified,
(Signed), E. Parent,
C. E. O.
To The Inspector General, etc., etc., etc.
A copy transmitted to the Collector of Customs, Montreal, on 26 Nov.,
1842.
J. C.
No. 10.
Bank of aiontreal,
Montreal, 25 January, 1844.
Sir,
I have the honour to inform you that under the authority of the order-
In-Council transmitted in your letter dated Kingston, 21 April, 1842, of which
order I beg leave to enclose a Copy, there was imported by the Bank of
Montreal a portion only of the Capper Coin therein sanctioned.
[m'lachlak] copper CURRENCY OF THE CANADIAN BANKS 261
Tihat now 4t is deshralyle tor IJbe oonveaience of the pubUc and to siipply
the demand for such coin, eapeciaUy in the WeBtem aection of the provin<:e
that the residue of the amount then authorized should be Imported by the
first spring iShXps.
Having: made application to the collector of this i>ort, William Hall, Elsq.,
to know whether he was authorized to admdt the residue, about £2,000 next
spiling, free of duty, Ills answer was, " not without an order from the Execu-
tive, as my instructions to remit the duty last year had reiCerence only to
the amount then imported."
'May I therefore request the (favour of your submitting to His Excellency
the aovemor-Oeneral the requeet of the Bank, that he wAH be pleased to
order the requisite instructions to the Collector of the Pont of Montreal to
enable the Bank to supply the demajid, and fulfil tbe object contemplated
by said order^in-Council, wiiich in its last clause limited the operation to
the first day of January, 1845.
I have the honour to be, sir.
Your most obedienit Servent,
(Signed), Ben J. Holmes,
Cashier.
No. 11.
Importation of Copper Coins duty free by the Montreal Bank,
By Permission from the Qovemor, dated 16 April, 1842, given under the
authority of an Order-dn-Council of the 28 March preceding, the Bank of
Montreal was authorized to invport Copper Coins to the Amount of £6.000.
The period within which such Importation was to be made is by said Permis-
sion limited to the 1 January, 1845.
The Bank intends to import the residue of the above sum, being about
£2,000 and they pray to be allowed to import it duty free, as was allowed
in a similar case by an Order-of-Councll of the 25 November, 1842.
The said importaUon made under the 4 and 5 Vict, ch. 17.
No. 12.
In Council,
21 March, 1844.
On the Letter from the CasMer of the Bank of Montreal, dated 26 Febru-
ary, 1844. requesting that the Collector of iMontreal may be instructed to
admit free of duty the residue of the Copper Coinage authorized to be issued
by the said Bank, under an Order-ln^ouncil of the 28 March, 1842, and sub-
sequent permission from the Governor-General of the 16 April ensuing.
Ordered, That ihe Collector of Customs at Montreal be authorized to
admit free of duty the residue of the said Copper Coinage — a>bout £2,000.
Certified,
E. Parent.
To the Provincial Secretary.
262 BOYAL 80CIETT OF CANADA
616 to 648.
B. Holmeê, Eêq,, Coêhier of the Bank of Montreal, etc., etc., «to., MontreaL
Sib. 29 March, 1844.
In reply to ymir letter of tbe 26 of Jaafuaiy laat, I have the honour» by
commaiMl of the Govenior-Oeneral to inform you that His Bxoellency has
been pleaaed to direot the Collector ot Customs a;t Montreal to admilt, free
of duty, the residue of the Copper Ooina«e authorized to he Imported into
the Province by the Bank of Montreal, under the Permission granted them
for that purpose by the late Governor-<}eneral, 9ir Chas. Bagot, on the 16 of
April, 1«42.
I have, etc.
W., Entd.,
W. H. JONBS, A. R. ROCHB.
No. 14.
61Ô on 343.
W. Hall, Esq., Collector of Customs, Montreal,
29 March. 1844.
Sir,
I have the honour by oomsnand of the Govemor^Oeneral to desire that
you ^U have the goodness to admH, .free of duty, the residue of the Copper
Coinage, (in amount, about £2,000), authorized to be imported into the
Provinoe by the President, Directors and Company of the Bank of Montreal*
under the Order^in-Council of the 28 of March, 1842, and the subsequent Per-
mission from the late Governor-Oeneral, Sir Chas. Bagot, of the 16 of AjMil
ensuing.
I have, etc.
W., Entd.,
W. H. JoNE3, A. R. Roche.
No. 15.
Bank of Montreal.
Sir, Montreal, 14 June, 1845.
With reference to previous comm,unications on the subject of supplying
the Province with approved Copper Coin, which was undertaken by the Bank of
Montreal, I beg leave now to state, that the residue of the contemplated supply
of that Coin, has now arrived — viz.: 49 Casks, Weighing 8 Tons, 17 Cwt,
23 lbs., 8 oz, on Board the Brig " Conrad," from I«iverpool, and that on appli-
cation to the Custom House for permit to land the same, the Bank is informed,
that a similar order to that given to the Collector last Spring Ls necessaxy.
Under these circumstances, may I request the favour of your obtaining
for thie Bank the requisite sanction from His Excellency the Governor-Oeneralf
that the Bank may be enabled to get the Ooln Landed, free of Duty as here-
tofore.
I have the honour to be, sir.
Your Most Obedient Servant,
(Signed), Benj. Holmes.
To The Hon. D. Daley, etc., etc., etc., Montreal.
[m'laghlam] GOPPEB CURRENCY OF THE CANADIAN BANKS 268
No. 16.
1503 to 178L
B, Holmes, Esq,, Bank of Montreal. 24 Jun«. 1846.
Sir,
I bave the honoiir by command of the Governor-Oeneral to infonn you
that the tesue of the permAt to land the Ckypper Colo mentioned in your letter
of the 14th InBt. haa been unavoidably delayed from its having been ascer-
tained that the instniiment authorisin^r the Importation thereof ceased to
be of force on the l0t of January last» so that a new instrument of like tenor
seems to be required in the case. Before this can be made out, it is neces-
sary you should state for His Excellency's information how much of the
£6,000 authorised in April, 1842, has not been invported, and YthaX 4s the
amount you wish to be allowed now to import in addition.
I have, etc.
No. 17.
Bank of Montrsal,
Sir. Montreal, 26 June, 1846.
I have the honour to acknowledge receipt of your letter of the 24 instant,
addressed to M, Holmes, on the ^Subject of the Copper Coin imported from
Qreat Britain for the use of this Bank, and in reply begr to State for the
information of His Excellency the lOovernor-Oeneral that the foUowinsr
Amounts have been recetved Jn virtue of the Order-in-Council dated April,
1842, viz.:
1842 19 August. Amount of Invoice £2,000 0 0
1844 1« April. " " 2.060 16 0
Total £4,060 16 0
In addition to <which there has been brought from England this Spring a
further sum of £1,003 Sterling, which completes as near as possible the
Amount Originally Applied for. Say, £6,000.
I further beg to inform you that the last mentioned Amount for which
Authority Is now required to pass the Customs, Is all that the Bank has
ordered, nor will it at present require any further Amount of Cofpper Coin.
I have the honour to be, sir,
Tour obedient servant,
(Signed), Wm. Gunn,
Ass. Cashier.
The Hon. D. Daly, Secretary Province of Canada, Montreal
No. 18.
1781 No. lOL
Bank of Montreal,
Montreal, 14 June, 1845.
Represents that in accordance <with an a^rreement previously entered into.
They have Imported per Brig *' Conrad " 49 Casks containing 8 Tons,
17 Cwts., 23 lbs. and 8 oz. Copper Coin, and request permission to land
the same.
Coin and Bullion are exempted from duty, but copper coin cannot be
manufactured or imported into the Province without the special permission
264 BOYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
of The Governor-General-in-OouncU — It beirngr provided that " »uch permissioii
shall contain a description of «the Coin or tokens to which K shall extend —
the quantky thereof to be imported or manufactured, and the time durin^r
which such permJIssIon shall he in force— a»d that such permission shall be
announced In the Official Gazette." As the Copper Coin in question has been
made in accordance with the provisions of the 1 and 2 Sec. 4 & 6 Vic. Cap 17,
I recommend that His Kzcellency may be pleased to grant the Bank of
Montreal, permission to land the same, 16th June, 1845.
(Signed),
of Customs.
No. 19.
Province op Canada.
His Escellency, etc.
To The Président, Directors and Companif of the Bank of Montreal.
QRBBTINa—
Whereas,— ^he Preeident, Directors and Company of the Bank of Montreal
have made application for permission to import into the Province of Canada,
or to manufacture therein Copper Coins under the authority of an act of the
liegislature of the said Province made and passed in the Session held in the
fourth and fifth years of Her Majesty's reigrn, intituled, "An Act to prevent
the fraudulent manufacture, importation or circulation of spurious Copper or
Basé Coin."
Now Know Ye^ that I, the said Charles Theophilus Baron Metcalfe^ etc,
etc., having taken the said application into Consideration, by virtue of the
power in me vested, by the said act, (have given and granted, and do hereby
give and grant, by and with the consent of Her Majesty's Executive Council
for the said Pttiovinoe, authority and permission to the President, Directors
and Company of the Bank of Montreal aforesaid, to import into the said
Province, or to manufacture therein any amount of Copper Coin or tokens
of the description of pennies or half -pennies not exceeding in nominal value
the sum of twelve hundred pounds current money of this Province, such coin
or tokens to 'be equal in purity, weight and quantity to flve-sixths, at the
least, of the British penny and half-penny lawfully current In the United
Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland.
Provided a/icay*,— That the said Coin or tokens shall be stamped with the
respective nominal value thereof, and with the name of the President, Direc-
tors and Company of the Bank of Montreal aforesaid, in conformity In aU
respects with the provisions of the «aid act. And provided also that the
President, Directors and Company of the Bank of Montreal aforesaid, shall,
with all reasonable diligence furnish the Governor, Lieutenant-Governor, or
person administering the Government of the said Province for the time being,
an account of the expenses incurred in and about the Importation or manu-
facture of the said Coin or tokens, in order that the same may be laid before
the Legislature of the said Province. And I do hereby declare that the
permission by these presents given and granted shall became void and of no
effect by the violation or non-observance of any of the conditions or pro-
visions herein contained, but in case of the due observance and fulfilment
[M'LACHLAH] OOPPEB CURRENCY OF THE CANADIAN BANKS 28©
thereof, shall continue and be In force until the first day of October, one
thousand elfirht liundred and forty-five and no longer.
Given, etc.
N.P.
Date. 4th July.
This is my draug-ht.
Montreal. 25th June, 1845.
No. 20.
Copy of a Report of a Committee of the Executive Council, dated 30
June, 1845, approved by His Excellency in Council on the same day.
On the AppUcation of the Bank of Montreal, that a Quantity of Copper
Coin Amounting to £1,003 Stg. imported from Great Brttain for the use of
the Bank, and which Completes as near as possible the amount origrinally
appUed for. say . £5,000. may be admitted /without duty.
The Committee recommend that the Collector of Customs at Montreal be
authorized to admit free of duty, the residue of the Copper Coinage, about
£1,003 Sterling.
Certified.
(Signed), E. Parbnt.
To The Provincial Secretary.
No. 2L
1599 on 1781.
W, UaU, Esq,, Collector, Alontrval,
2 July, '45.
Sir,
I have the honour by command of the Governor-General, to convey to
you His Excellency's instructions that you should admit free of duty the 49
casks of Copper Coin of the value of about £1,003 Sterling, imported on board
the Brig " Conrad " for the Bank of Montreal.
I have, etc.
Entd.,
W. R. B. W. H. JoNBS.
No. 22.
Copy Off a Report of a Committee of the Executive Council dated 4 July,
1845, approved iby His Excellency in Council on the same day.
On reconsideration of the Order-in-Oouncil of the 30 June last, authorising
the admission free of duty of a certain amount of Copper Coinage by the
Bank of Montreal.—
The Committee percei?ve that the permission formerly granted to the Bank
of Montreal expired on the 1 January last, and that in consequence they
require an extension of the said permission in order to take advantage of
the Order-inHCoimcil of the 30 June last.
Wherefore the Committee recommend to Your Excellency's approval the
draft of the Instrument required to that effect, prepared by the Jjaiw Officer
of the Crown, dated 28 June, 1845.
Certified,
(Signed), E. Parent.
To The Provincial Secrbtart.
266 BOYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
No. 28.
1874 «to 178L
B. Holmei, Esq,, Coêhier Bank of Montreal.
6 Ainrufft, '46.
Sir,
With reference to your totter of the 14 ciif June last, I ihave received the
commanâfl of the Oovemor-Oeneral to transmit to you the aoootnpanyin^
Instrument authorising the I^esldent, Directors and Company of the Bank of
Montreal to Import Iflie residue of the Oopper Coin contemplated by the Bank
under the pix>vtoions of the Act 4 and 5 Vict., Cap. 17, and upon which Instru-
ment the usiial fee of £8 6s. Od. currency, is paya/ble to this Department.
I am to take this occasion throu«^ you to caU the attention of the
President and IXrectors to the requirements of the enclosed, as also of the
former instrument of the same character in reference to <Uie Statement of tlie
expenses incurred in the importation and manufacture of the Coin authorised
by them to be imi>orted, and to request that the same may be fumJehed In
time for the next meeting of the Prov. Xieerislature.
I have, etc.
No. 24.
Bank op Montrbaij,
9 August, IMS.
Sir,
I have to acknowledge the receipt of your letter dated 6 instant, trans-
mitting an Instrument under the hand and seal of His BxceHency the Gov-
ernor-General, authorizing the Bank to Import Copper Coin, upon -wliich you
state the usual fee to be £3 6s., which sum I beg leave herewith to endoae
in liquidation of said claim.
For the information of His Excellency I beg to transmit herewith a state-
ment of the several importations effected under the «provisions of the Act
4 and 5 Vic, Cap. 17.
I have the honour to be, sir
Tour obedient servant,
(Signed), Bbnj. Holmes.
Cashier.
The Hon. D. Dalt, Provincial Secretary, etc., etc.
No. 25.
On 10 June, 1837, The Bank of Montreal, with the view of obtaining for
this Colony a sound copper currency, transmitted through Albert Pumiss,
Esquire, of this city, an order to Great Britain for the manufacturing of
copper coin on the following terms:—
"It has been determined by the Board of Directors of this Institution
to obtain an a^mount of copper coin equivalent to £5,000 Halifax currency,
reckoning 120,000 pennies and 240.000 ihalf-ipennles to the £1,000, the weight
and quality of the Copper, as also the size, thickness and fashion of the
pieces, that ds to say, the strong impression and raised edges to be similar
to the British penny and half-penny issued from the Imperial mint In 1831."
IMcLachlax]
Plate I.
SOUS'*'
^^>
[McLachlanJ
Plate II.
4\ '»
•'V- !
Av»i ■<
[McLachlan]
Plate III.
[McLachlan]
Platk IV,
rnco
29
33
\)''**4-.
[m*lachlan] copper CURRENCY OF THE CANADIAN BANKS 267
The Bank subaequently made further arrangements under an Order-ln-
Council dated 16 April, 1842, to import to the extent of £5,000, and on 19 August,
1S42, they did import ib:2,U00 Slg., the expenses incurred in the manufacturing
And importation of which was as under: —
Coin £2,000
Bn-gravlng I>i«8 20 £2,020
Insurance and Shipping charges .... 42 18 7
SterUng £2,062 18 7
and on 18 April, 1844, a further supply came to hand, the particulars of and
charges on which were as follows:
92 Casks of Coin, weighing 16 Tons, 2 owt. at 128 p. Ton £2,060 16
Dock and Town Dues £1 4 8
Cartage, Porterage and Bills of Liading 9 9
Commission 2s. 6d. p. package 11 10
Marine Insur. on 1,500 at 25; D. on 650 at 30.. .. 28 10
Stamps , 3 6
Commission on £2,114 15 8 at 1 per cent .... 21 3 75 2 8
Sterling £2,135 18 8;
In May last a final remittance was shipped, cofnpleting as nearly as*
possible the ajmount of the Order- in -Council for £5,000, on application on
arrival for its admission at the Custom house it was found necessary to apply-
again for authority, and the Order-iin-Council dated 4 July, 1845, was issued
on which the following amount was landed and has since been dispersed for
the acconmnodation of the public among the various agencies of the Bank
in Western Canada— particulars as follows, viz.:—
49 Casks Copper Coin weighing 8 Tons, 10 cfwL, at 118 Ton.. £1,008
Dock and Town dues £ 10 4
Cartage and porterage 5 0 6
Commission, 2s. 6d. package 6 2 6
Insurance on £1,100 at 25 13 15
Stamp 11
Bank Comm. on £1,028 19 11 at 1 per cent 10 5 10 36 5 2
Sterling £1,039 5 2
Bank of Montreal, 9 August, 1845.
No. 26.
Quebec Bank,
17 January, 1851.
8lK,
The Public in this City and district being subject to mxich Inconvenience
from the scarcity of Copper Coins, I am instructed by the President and
Directors of this Bank to request that you will be pleased to represent this
circumistance to His Excellency the Governor-General and move His Lord-
ship to grant permission for this Bank to import from England in the course
of the present year, the Sum of Two thousand pounds Sterling In pennies
Sec II., 1903. 17.
12 March, 1851.
268 ROYAL SOaETY OF CANADA
and halfpennies for circulation— the eald Coins to have the same relative
value to the Imperial penny and halfpenny, as those imported by this Bank
in 1838, in accordance with permission then «rranted by thie Provincial Govern-
ment under the provisions of the Or<iinanoe of the Special Council 2 Vict.,
Cap. 5.
I have the honour to be, sir.
Your Most Obed. Serv.,
(Signed). Noah Freer,
Cashîer.
The Hon. James Leslie. Provincteil Secretary.
No. 27.
28.^ to 105. p. 117.
Moah Freer, Esq,, Cashier Quebec Bank, Quebec.
Sir.
With reference to your fiMPCpUcatloii. on behalf of the Quebec Bank, for
permission for this Bank to import from England Ln the course of the pre-
sent year the sum of two thousand pounds sterling In pennies and half-
pennies for circulation. I have it in command from the Qovemor-General to
state for the information for the President -and Directors of the Quebec Bank,
that the Bank of Upper Canada obtained permission lately to make a similar
Importation to the amount of five thousand pounds, which His Excellency
considers equal to the wants of the circulation for some time to come.
Should this vdew, however, not be supported by experience. His Excellency
wiU readily, on proper representations be made, reconsider the application
of the Quebec Bank.
From information received, I am enabled to add that the copper coina
above referred to have actually arrived in the United States, and are daily
expected here.
I have, etc.,
J. L.
Quebec Bank!
21 March, 1851.
No. 28.
The Hon. J a. Leslie.
Sir,
I have had the honour to receive your letter of the 12 Inst, and, having
laid the same before the President and Directors of the Bank, I am instructed
to acquaint you thiat the inconvenience experienced In this portion of the
Province from the scarcity of Copper Coins, is not likely to be removed by
the permission grranted to the Bank of Upper Canada to import to the amount
of £5,000, the whole of which it is probable will be required to meet the
wants in Canada West.
Under these circumstances our Board request you will be pleased to
bring the matter -again to the notice of the Governor-General and solicit His
Excellency to reconsider the application of the Banlt. And in support of the
urgency of the Case, I am desired to enclose for His Lordshiip's information
the appeal which was made to this Institution for relief, by sundry Mer-
[m'lachlanJ coffer CDRBBBCY OF TH£ CANADIAN BANKS 269
chants and Traders of grreat reapectatbiUty In this City, in January last» upon
which our application was founded, and I sum to add that the Weekly pay-
ment for Wa^s to Mechanics and Iiabourers in this City, and in the Coves
and Ship Yards of this Port, during the Summer Montlis, Amounts to nearly
£10,000, and great difficulty is found in making change from the want of \
sufficient supply of Copper Coins.
I have the honour to be, sir.
Your Most Obed. Servt.,
(Signed), Noah Prbbr,
Cashier.
No. 29.
Uoah Freer, Esq,, Cashier Quebec Bank,
Sir,
We, the undersigned, being put to very great trouble and loss, for the
want of a sufficient amount of Copper coin for change. We would be greatly
obliged to the Quebec Bank if they would Import, say from one to two thou-
sand pounds worth. Should the directors comply with our request. We
a«ree to take and pay for the sums set against our respective names as soon
a« the coppers arrive.
Quebec, January 10, 1851.
McDonald & Logan Twenty- five pounds.
N. S. Henderson & Co Two hundred and fifty pounds.
L. & C. Têtu Fifty pounds.
Alex. Robertson Twenty-five pounds.
Sam. I. Shaw One hundred pounds.
Robert Shaw Twenty-five pounds.
E. Michon Twenty-five pounds.
Tho. H. Oliver Fifty pounds.
Geo. Besset Fifty pouxkds.
M. G. Mountain Twenty-five pounds.
E. & W. Poston Fifty pounds.
W. Hossach Twenty-five pounds.
George Hall One hundred pounds.
Wood & Peters One hundred pounds.
Pemberton Brothers One hundred pounds.
Geo. W. Osborne Fifty pounds.
R. Roberts & Co Fifty pounds.
D. Burnet Fifty pounds.
Geo. Binns, Synns & Co Fifty pounds.
Allan, Gilimour & Co Two hundred pounds.
Anderson & Paradis (W. P.) . . . . Fifty pounds.
No. 80.
J78 to 105, p. 157.
Moah Freer, Esq,, Cashier Quebec Bank, Quebec,
Toronto, 28 March, '51.
Sir,
With reference to your letter of the 21 inst.. urging the reconsideration
of the application of the Quebec Bank for permission to import Copper coins
on the ground that the whole of the Importation wh'ch the Upper Canada Bank
260 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
was permitted to make would probably be required to meet the wants in
Canada West, I am enabled to Inform you that a considerable part of this
last importation will be left for Issue at Quebec and Montreal on its arrival
by the first ships this spring via the St. Lawrence. The apprehension ex-
Kft-essed in your letter is then not likely to be realized. Should it be otherwise,
the Governor-General will not fail to take into consideration, any representa-
tions he may receive on the subject.
I have, etc.
Ent. A. R. R. W. H. J.
No. 31.
Quebec Bank,
The Hon. A, N, Morin,
17 November, 1851.
Sir,
With reference to my letters addressed to the Provincial Secretary, bearing
date 17 January and 21 March last, and to the answers received from tlie
Hon. J. Leslie of the 12 and 28 March last, I am Instructed by the President
and Directors of thds Bank, to request that you wUl be pleased to brins
the subject of that correspondence to the notice of His Excellency the Gov-
ernor-General, and to move His Lordship to grant permission for this Bank
to import from England in the course of next year. Two thousand pounds of
Copper Coins, pence and halfpence for circulation, imder the provisions of
Act 4 and 5 Vict, Cap. 17.
I have the honour to be, sir.
Your Most Obedt Servt.,
(Signed), Noah Freer,
Cashier.
(Pencil Notation.)
Quebec Bank— for authority to Import Copper Coins To Canada.
No. 32.
Extract from a Report of a Committee of the Honorable the Executive
Council on Matters of State, dated 19 November, 1851, approved by His
Excellency the Governor-ureneral-in-Council on the same day.
On the application of The President and Directors of the Quebec Bank,
dated 17 Xovember, 1851, that permission may be granted to that Institution
to import from England in the course of next year, Two Thousand Pounds
in copper coins, pence, and halfpence, for circulation, under the provisions
of the Act 4 and 5 Vict., ch. 17.
The Comtmittee are respectfully of opinion that the permission authorized
by the Act 4 and 5 Vict., ch. 17, be given to the Quebec Bank to import during
the space of one year copper coin in pence and halfpence, to the amount
not exceeding £2,000 sterling, on the condition published .by the above recited
Act, and that the notice required by Law be grlven accordingly in the Official
Gazette, and that M. Secretary Morin do grive the necessary instructions in
the matter.
CerUfied,
(Signed), W. H. Lee.
To the Honorable The Provincial Secretary, etc., etc., etc.
LM*LAciiLANJ COPPER CURRENCY OF THE CANADIAN BANKS 261
No. 83.
2339 on 105. p. 568.
^oah Freer, Eêq,, Cashier Quebec Bank.
QUBBBC, 21 Nov., '51.
Sir,
I have received the commands of the Governor-General to inform you,
in reply to your letter of the 17 instant, that His Excellency in Council is
pleased to grant to the President and Directors of" tbe Quebec Bank, the
permission authorized by the Act 4 and 5 Vict., Ch. 17, to import durdng the
space of one year Coin dn pence and halfpence, to the amount not exceeding
£2,000 Sterling, under tbe provisions of the said Act
The Instrument granting this permission will be prepared and transmitted
to you without delay, and the Notice required by the Act will be published
in the Canada Gazette.
I hrave, etc.,
A. N. MoRiN.
NOTICS.
Sbcrbtary's Office,
Quebec. 21 Nov., 1851.
His Excellency the Govemor-General-dn-Council has been pleased, to
grant to the President and Directors of the Quebec Bank, permission to*
Import for circulation, during twelve months from this date. Copper Coin in
Pence and Halfpence, to an amount not exceeding Two thousand pounda
Sterling, on the conditions prescribed by the Act 4 and 5 Victoria, Cap. 17.
By Command,
A. N. MORIN.
Secy.
No. 34.
2340 on 105, p. 563.
F, J. O, Vkauveau, tisq,, ISoL (fen.
QUBBSC, 21 Nov., 185L
Sir,
The Governor^Oeneral-in-Council, having been pleased to grant to the
President and Directors of the Quebec Bank, permission to Import for circu-
lation, during the space of one year from this date. Coin in pence ejoA halt'
pence, to the amount not exceeding £2,000 SterUng, I am to request that you
w*Il be good enough, in the absence of the Attorney-General to furnish me
with a draft of the Instrument required under the provisions of the Act 4
and 5 Vict., Ch. 17, for carrying His Excellency's directions dnto effect.
I have, etc.,
A. N. MoRiN.
No. 35.
Province op Canada.
Uis Excellency» etc, —
To the President and Directors of the Quebec Bank,
Greeting —
Whereas,— The President and Directors of the Quebec Bank have made
application for permission to import into the Province of Canada Copper Co^n
under the authority of an Act of the Legislature of the said Province passed
262 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
In the session thereof held In the fourth and fifth years of Her Majesty's
Reign, chaptered seventeen and intituled "An Act to prevent the fraudulent
mamiifaoture, im(portatlon or circulation of spurious copper or braae coin."
Now Know Ye,— That I, the sadd James, Earl of Elgin and Kincardine, being
Governor-General of Canada, having taken the said application into consid-
eration, by virtue of the power and authority in me vested by the said Act,
have given and granted and by these presents do give and grant by and with
the advice and consent of Her Majesty's Executive Council for the said
Province, authority and permission to the President ajid Directors of the
Quebec Bank aforesaid to Import into the said Province any a<mount of
copper coin or tokens of the description of pennies and halfpennies not exceed-
ing in nominal value the sum of two thousand poun-ds Sterling, such coins or
tokens to be equal in purity, weight and quality to five-sixths at the least
of the British penny or halfpenny lawfully current in the United Kingdom of
Great Britain and IrelajkL
Provided a2iray«,— That the said Coins or Tokens be stamped with the
respective nominal value thereof and with the name of " The Que4>ec Bank '*
aforesaid. In conformity in all respects to the provisions of the said Act,
and that the said President and Directors shall with all resisonable diligence
furnish to the Governor of the said Province for the time being an account
of the expensefl incuired In and about the Importation of the said Coin or
Tokens, in order that the same may be laid before the Legislature of the
said Province. And I do hereby declare that this permission shall remalm
In force until the expiration of twelve calendar months from the date of
these presents and no looser.
Given, etc.
This is my draught. (Signed), P. J. O. Chauvkau,
Quebec, Nov. 21, 1«61. Solicitor General.
No. 36.
2376 on 105, p. 581.
I^oah Freer, Ulsq., Ciuhier Quebec Bank,
Sir, Quebec, li8 Nov., 1851.
Adverting to M. Secretary Morin's letter of the 21 Instant, I have the
honour to enclose the accompanying Warrant of His Excellency the Gov-
ernor-General, authorizing the Quebec Bank to Import Copper Coin to the
amount therein mentioned, upon which a fee of Two pounds is payable to
this Deiyartmeiït.
I have, *^tc.,
E. P.
No. ^7.
Quebec Bank.
22 Sept., 1852.
(Pencil notation.) For extension of time for Importation of copper coins —
To C.
The Honorable A. A. ifortn, Provincial ISec,, etc, etc., etc.
Sir,
I have the honour to enclose for the information of His Excellency the
Governor-General, an Account of the expenses incurred, tn Manufacturing,
and importing into Quebec, Copper Coins to the value of Two Thousand
Lm*lachlan] copper CURRENCY OF THE CANADIAN BANKS 268
Pounds Currency, as required 'by the Warrant granted by His Excellency,
the Governor-GeneraU dated 21 November last.
I have also the honour to state, that in consequence of some Misunder-
standing, the amount imported has been only £2,000 Currency, instead of
£2,000 Sterling, as aumoriaed — and I have to beg on the part of this Bank,
that His Exicellency will be pleased to grant an extension of the period
allowed by the Warrant, so as to enable this Bank to import the balance
next season, together with an amount not exceeding One Thousand Pounds
Sterling, in addition thereto, similar to those already imported — of which
I send a Specimen herewith.
I have the honour to be, sir,
Your Most Obedient Ser.,
(Signed), C. Gbthinos,
Caahier.
No. 88.
Statemen.t of the expenses incurred by the Quebec Bank, in causing to
be manufactured, and imported into Quebec from England, 52 Casks Copper
Coins, containing 240,000 Penny Pieces, and 480,000 Halfpenny Pieces, equal
to £2,000 Currency, under the authority of a Warrant dated 21 November.
1851, granted by His Excellency the Governor- General.
£ s. d.
Paid Carriage in England 1116 1
Shkpping, Port charges and Bills of lading 10 5 6
Commission, 6 per cent 59 9 9
Insurance 28 12
Duty and Commission 7 18
Cost of dies 26 6
Freight, Labour and Cartage 13 17 3
10% per Cent. Prean. on £1,311 4 3 Stg. remitted.. .. 137 12 6
Expenses 295 11 1
Cost of Copper, Manufacturing, etc 1,167 12 11
Total Cost Sterling 1,463 4
Permitted to import p. Warant, £2,000 Stg.,--Cy.. .. 2,444 8 10
Imported 2,000
Short Imported— Cy 444 8 10
(Signed), C. Gbthinos,
Quebec Bank, 21 Sept., 1852. Cashier.
No. 39.
Extract from a Report of a Committee of the Honorable the Executive
Council on Matters of State, dated 1 October, 1852, approved by His
Excellency the Governor-General-in-Council, on the 2 October, 1852.
On the application of C. Gethings, Esquire, Cashier of the Quebec Bank,
enclosing an account of the expenses incurred in manufacturing and import-
ing into Quebec, Copper Coins to the value of £2,000, as authorized in Council
19 November, 1851, and statin^r that owing to some misunderstanding, the
amount invported was £2,000 currency, instead of sterling, as authorized, and
requested an extension of the period allowed by such order (viz., one year),
to enable that Bank to import the Balance next Season— together with an
additional amount of £1,000 sterling.
/
264 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
Pending the question relative to the chancre of Currency, the Committee
cannot recommend that the permission requested be canted.
Cftrtiflftd,
(Sigrned), W. H. IiBB»
To the Honorable the Provincial. Sbcrbtart, etc., etc., etc.
No. 40.
1607 to 2241 p. 668.
QuBBBC, 6 Oct, 1852.
C. Gethinga, Esq,, Cashier Quebec Bank, Quebec,
Sir,
The Governor-Geriepal ihad under consideration in Council your letter of
the 22 ult., enclosing an account of th^e expenses Incurred in manufacturinsr
and importing into Quebec, copper ooins to the value of £2,000, as authorised
by M. Sec. Morin's letter to M. Freer of the 21 of November last, and statlngr
that owing to some misunderstandiing the amount imported was £2,000 cur-
rency instead of sterling as authorized, and requesting an extension of the
period allowed, to enable the Bank to import the balance next season, together
wit^ an additional amount of £1,000 sterling. I am to inform you in reply
that pending the question relative to the change of currency. His Excellency
is not advised to grant the permission whioh you solicit.
I have. etc..
E. P.
No. 41.
The Honorable A, M, Morin, Secretary of Canada, Quebec,
Officb of thb Bank of Uppbr Canada,
Quebec, 3 Noveonber, 1851.
Sir,
I have the honour to refer you to the letter of License granted to this
Bank by His Excellency the Governor-Oeneral-in-Council, on the 23 of Febru-
ary, 1850, for the issue of £6,000 Sbg. in Copper Tokens— as authorized by
the Act 4 and 5 Vic, Cap. 17^^nd beg leave to inform you, that in the course
of the present year the whole of that amount has been imported from the
Royal Mint in Dondon and has been put into circulation in this Province. I
have further the honour to inform you, that this supply has not been found
sufficient for the wants of the country, there still existing a great scarcity
of Copper Coins in most parts of the Province. Under these circumstances,
I am directed by the Board humibly to solicit another Letter of License to
import and issue the like sum of Five thousand pounds sterling in Copper
Bank Tokens — of one penny and one halfpenny each, according to the restric-
tions and conditions of the said Act, and that the same may be in force
for one year.
It is intended, that should the above request be granted, the Bank will
apply for leave to have the coinage executed at the Royal Mint in London,
from the sam^ dies as before, and I most respectfully request that the same
may be recommended and allowed.
I have the honour to be, sir,
Your obedient Servant,
(Signed), Thos. G. Ridout,
Cashier.
[m*lachlan1 copper CURRENCY OF THE CANADIAN BANKS 266
No. 42..
Extract from a Report of a Committee of the Honorable the Executive
Council on «Matters of State, dated the 4 November, 1851, approved by
His Excellency the Governor-Gteneral-in-Councll on the same day.
On the Letter dated the 3 instant, of Thomas G. Ridout, Esquire, Cashier
of the Ban*k of Upper Canada, Soliciting' another Letter of License to import
and issue the further sum of £5,000 Sterlingr in Copper Bank Tokens of one
penny and one halfpenny each, accordinsr to the restrictions and conditions
of the Act 4 and 5 Vic, Cap. 17, and that the same may be in force for
one year.
The Committee are respectfully of opinion that the permission authorized
by the Act 4 and 5 Vic, Cap. 17, be given to the Bank of Upper Canada to
import during the space of one year Copper Coin in pence and halfpence
to the Amount not exceeding £5,000 Sterling, on the conditions published by
the above recited A-ct, and that the Notice required by law be given accord-
ingly in the Official Gazette, and that M. Secretary Morin do give the neces-
sary instructions in the Matter.
Certified^
W. H. Lbb.
No. 48.
rhomas O. Ridout, Eêq., Coêhier of the Bank of U. P., Quebec,
Sbcrbtary's Oppicb,
Sir, 6 Novenaber, 1851.
I am conmianded -by the Governor-General to inform you that His Excel-
lency has «had under his consideration in Council your letter soliciting for
the Bank of Upper Canada, a Letter of License, similar to that granted in
February, 1850, to import and issue the further sum of £5,000 Sterling in Cop-
per Bank Tokens of one penny and one halfpenny each, according to the re-
strictions and conditions of the Act 4 and 5 Vic, Cap. 17, and requesting that
the said letter may be in force for one year.
His Excellency in Council has been pleased to accede to the request of
the Bank.
The Letter of License is accordingly in course of preparation and will
be transmitted to you on receipt of the fee of £2 due thereon.
Sbcrbtary's Opficb,
Me9ê\ Deêharats d Dh^êhire. 6 November.
Gbntlbmen,
I am commanded by the Governor-Gteneral to direct you to insert the
accompanying notice in the next Official Gazette.
Sbcrbtary's Officb,
7 November, 1851.
His Excellency the Govemor-G«neral-in-Council has been pleased to au-
thorize the Bank of Upper Canada to issue during twelve months from this
date Copper Coin In pence and baUlpenee to an amount not exceeding £5,000
Stg. on the conditions presented by the Act 4 and 5 Vic, Cap. 17.
By Command,
(Signed), A. N. Morin.
266 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
Endorsed,
Memo.— A copy of the Order-ln-Councll within has been furnished from
the Colonial Office to the Governor-General's Secretary, with a view to the
necessary despatch being written. Col. Brown says that the matter will be
at once attended to.
E. A. Meredith.
November 16, *51.
No. 44.
Bank of Upper Canada,
Toronto, 31 Maroh, 1S53.
Sir,
In consequence of various delays made at the Royal Mint in London in
the coinage of the £5,000 of Copper Tokens authorized to be imported by
this Bank under authority of His Excellency the Governor-General's License
of the 4 Novem'ber, 1851, we have only up to the present time received £1,500
of that amount, the reason alleged being the great pressure on the mint for
the gold and silver coinage of the Kingdom, until at length the Master of
the Mint informed ooir agents, Mess. Glyn & Co., that he was unable to
execute the order. Under these circumstances the Bank directed o'ther parties
to be employed to comiplete the coinage— and Mess. Glyn & Co. having applied
to the Lords of the Treasury for leave to withdraw the Dies and metal from
the mint received in reply a letter from Sir C. C. Trevelyan, dated 9 Inst.,
a copy of which is herein enclosed— ^granting such leave, but at the same time
intimating that as the License of tihe Governor-General ctf Canada expired
on the 4 November, 1862, the coinage cannot be proceeded in until a fresh
License shall be obtained. I have, therefore, most respectfully to requeet
that the License of tihe 4 of Novemlber, 1«51, be extended to the 4 day of
November, 1853, within which time, I hope, that the balance authorized may
be coined and Imported into this Province.
I have the honour to be, sir,
Your obedient Servant,
(Signed), Thos. G. Ridout.
Cashier.
No. 45.
Copy of a Letter from Sir C. C. Trevelyan, relative to License for Copper
Coinage.
Treasury Chambers,
9 Maroh, 1853.
Gentlemen,
I am commanded by the Lords Commissioners of Her Majesty's Treasury
to acquaint you in reply to your letter of the 25 ult., that their Lordships
see no objection to the token coins required for the Bank of Upper Canada,
which, from the existing pressure upon the Royal Mint cannot be struck in
that Establishment, being executed by other parties, and that my Lords will
be prepared to authorize the Master of the Mint to deliver to you, or your
agents, the several Dies bearing the impress of the Canadian tokens on con-
dition of their restoration to the Mint when the coinage Is completed, so as
to secure the parties to whom they may be intrusted from the penalties, for
having in possession Dies for coining without lawful authority under the
Act 2 Willdam 4, Cap. 34, Sec. 10.
[m'lachlan] copper CURRENCY OF THE CANADIAN BANKS 267
My Lords observe, however, that the license grranted by the Governor-
General of Canada for the importation of this Coin into Canada, expired on
the 4 November last, and it appears to their Lordships to be necessary that
a fresh license should be obtained before they sanction any measure for the
coinage.
I am, etc., etc.,
(Sifirned), C. C. Trevbltan.
Extract oï a Jotter from Mess. Glyn, Mills & Co. with reference to the
above letter.
London. 11 March, 1852.
** We enclose the copy of a letter we have received from the Treasury
relative to the Token coinage. By this you will observe that an unexpected
obstacle .has been thrown in the way of ovar Agents, vdz., the lapse by time
of the license of the Governor-General of Canada for the Importation of the
Coin Into Canada. We have addressed the Treasury in reply requesting that
the Coinage may in the meantime be proceeded with and guarantying that the
License shall be forthcoming in time for the exportation. This you will be
pleased to obtain and forward to us. when we trust that every difldculty
will be met and all further delay obviated.
•* We much regret that so may delays have been occasioned by the author-
ities of the Mint. No exertion shall be wanting on our part to urge the
matter forward, and we have no dou1t>t of the speedy completion of the matter."
(Signed), Gltn, Mills & Co.
No. 46.
Extract from a Report of a Committee of the Honorable the Executive
Council on Matters of State, dated 9 April, 1853, approved by His Excel-
lency the Governor-General-in-Oouncil on the 19 April, 1853.
On the letter, dated 31 ultimo, from T. G. Rldout, Esquire, representing
that under the Idcenee grranted by Order-In -Council of 4 November, 1861. for
the importation of Copper Coin for the Bank of Upper Canada, to the extent
of £5,000. which license expired on the 3 Novem/ber lajst, a sum of £1.500 only
has been imported, owing to unexpected delays and extraordinary pressure
at the Royal Mint, the Master of which has since declared his inability to
complete the same — that the Treasury have consented to restore the Dies
with the view of having the remainder of the said sum struck off by other
rarties, on conddtkm of a renewal of the said license bedng obtained from the
Provincial Government, for which reneiwal the Bank now prays.
The Comonittee recommend that the license be extended to one year from
the present date.
Certifl«d«
W. H. LUB,
Ast. Q. C.
To the Honourable The Provincial Sbcretart, etc., etc., etc
268 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
No. 47.
Thomoê G, Kidout, E»q„ Coêhier liank of V. Canada, Toronto,
Sbcrbtart'8 Officb.
21 April. 186S.
Sir.
I am directed by the Governor-General to Inform you that HIb Excellency
has had under his consideration In Council your letter of the Slat ult., with
its enclosures requesting that, under the circumstances theirein mentioned,
the License granted by His Excellency in Council to the Bank of Upper Can-
ada for the importation tnto this Province of copper coin to the aimount of
£5,000. which License expired on the 4 November last, may be renewed ajid
extended to the 4 November next, and to state with reference thereto tliat
His Excellency has been pleased .to comply with tlie said request.
The License bas been handed in compliance with your request to the
agent of the Baxkk at this place.
I have. Ate..
(SVgned), A. N. Morin.
No. 48.
Bank of Upper Canada,
Toronto, 30 September, 1853.
Sir.
The Five thousand pounds Sterling in penny and halfpenny Copper
Tokens, imported from England by this Bank, under authority of the License
issued by the Govermnent of this Province in the year 1851, having been
placed In circulation, and there still being a great want of small change of
that description throughout Upper Canada. I have the honour to apply, on
behalf of this Bank, for another License for leave to import from Ehigland
a further supply of the like Copper Tokens, to the amount of Five thousand
pounds Sterling, and have to request that the same be in force for one year
from its date.
I have the honour to be, sir,
Your obedient Servant,
(Signed), Thos. G. Ridout,
Cashier.
The Hon. Pierre J. O. Chauvbau, Secretary of the Province of Quebec.
No. 49.
Extract from a Report of a Committee of the Honoursuble the Executive
Council on Matters of State, dated 7th October, 1853, approved by His
Excellency the Administrator of the Government in Council on the
same day.
On the Letter of Thomas G. Ridout, Esquire, Cashier of the Bank of
Upper Canada, dated 30 ultimo, stating that the Five thousand pounds ster-
ling, in penny and halfpenny Copper Tokens, Imported from England by
that Bank, under authority of the License issued by the Government of this
Province in the year 1851. having been placed in circulation, and there still
being a great want of small change of that description throughout Upper
[m*lachlan] copper CURRENCY OF THE CANADIAN BANKS 269
Canada, fae requests on behalf of that Bank for another License for leave
to import from England a further supply of the like Copper Tokens, to the
amount of Five Thousand pounds sterling, and that the same may be in
force for one year from its date.
The Committee humbly recommend that the License be granted on the
same terma as formerly.
Certified,
W. H. Lbe,
Actg. C E C
To the Honorable The Provincial. Sbcrbtart, etc., etc., etc.
No. 50.
Thomoê (r. Kidout, Esq,, Cashier Hank of U, Canttda, Toronto,
Sbcretart'8 Office,
12 October, 1853.
Sir,
I have the honour to acquaint you that the Administrator of the Govern-
ment has had under His Consideration in Council your letter of the SOth
ultimo, applying on behalf of the Bank of Upper Canada for another letter
of License in favour of that Bank to import and issue a further «um of
£5,000 Sterling in Copper Bank Tokens of one penny and one halfpenny
each, under the restriction and conditions of the Act 4 and 5 Vict., 17, the
said license to remain in force from one year from the date of its issue.
He has been pleased to accede to the request of the Bank and to direct
that the accompanying license be prepared.
There is a fee of £2 currency payable with License, wihich you will be
pleased to remit to this office.
I have, etc.,
P. J. O. Chaxtvbau.
Queen's Printer,
Secretary's Office,
12 October, 1853.
The Queen's Printer will please to cause the following notice to be Inaerted
in the next Canada Qa^zette.
Secretary's Office,
12 October, 1853.
Hi« Excellency the Adminisitrator of the Government in Council has been
pleased to authorize the Bank of Upper Canada to import during twelve
months from ithds diGUte Copper Codn dn pence and halfpence, to an amount
not exceeding £5,000 stg., on the condltiona presented by the Act 4 and 5
Vict., oh. 17.
By Command,
P. J. O. Chauveau.
No. 61.
Bank of Upper Canada,
Sir, Toronto, 18 October, 1853.
I have the honour to own the receipt of your letter of the 12 inst. stating
that HlB Excellency ham been plecused to accede to the request of the Bank
for another Letter of License to import £5,000 Stg. In Copper Bank Tokens
270 K>T^L TOdETY OF CANADA
from England, and beg leave to request that the said License may be deliv-
ered to Mr. Bradshaw, the Manager of this Bank at Quebec, who has been
instructed to pay the fees due thereon.
I have the honour to be, sir.
Your obedient Servant,
(Signed), Thob. G. Ridout,
Cashier.
The Honourable Pierrb J. O. Chauvbau, Secretary of the Province, Quebec.
No. 52.
Bank of Upper Canada,
Sir, Toronto, 6 November, 1856.
The Letter of License issued by Government on the 12th Odtober, 1853.
permitting this Bank to import from England Copper Tokens to the amount
of Five thousaiK!^ pounds crterling havdng been acted upon to that extent, I
am directed again, to apply on behalf cî this Bank for another License from
His Excellency the Governor-General to import from England a further
supply of Copper Coins or Tokens of the same stamp and fineness of the
former pence and halfpence, 'but under date of the year 1857, to the extent
of Ten thousand pounds sterling.
The Bank is induced to make this application in consequence of the great
scarcity of amall copper change which has for some time past existed through-
out the Province, and which, it is hoped, may be in some degree alleviated
by an early inwpor.tation in January or February next.
The copper from which the Bank Tokens are made has hitherto been
assayed at the Hoyal Mint and has proved to be the same purity as the
British penny pieces and V«ths its value, and the sanw course will be pur-
sued under the License now applied for.
I have the honour to be, sir,
Your obedient Servant,
(Signed), Thos. G. Ridout,
Cashier.
The Honourable The Secret art of the Province. Toronto.
No. 53.
Copy of a Re(port of a Committee of the Honourable the Executive Council,
dated 8 November, 1856, approved by HLs Excellency the Governor-
General in Council on the same day.
On the application of Thomas G. Ridout, Esquire, Cashier Bank of Upper
Canada, dated 6th Inst., stating that the Letter of License issued by Govern-
ment on the 12th October,. 1853, permitting that Bank to import from Eng-
land Copper Tokens to the amount of Five thousand pounds sterling, having
been acted upon to that extent, he is directed again to apply on behalf of
the Bank for another License to import from England a further supply of
Copper Coins or Tokens of the same stamp and fineness of the former pence
and halfpence, but imder date of the year 1857, to the extent of Ten thousand
pounds sterling.
The Committee are res^pectfully of opinion that the permission authorized
by the Act 4 and 5 Vict., ch. 17, be given to the Bank of Upper Canada to
[ii'LACHLAK] COPPER CURRENCY OF THE CANADIAN BANKS 271
Sixiipont during itih« space of one year Copi;)er Cotei In x>ence end halfpence to
the amount not exceeding £10,000 Sterling, on the conditions published by
the above recited Act. and that the notice required by law be given accord-
ingly dn the Official GazeUe, and that tHe Honourable the Provincial Secretary
do give the necessary instructions in the maitter.
Certified.
W. H. LiBB.
To the Honourable The Provincial Sbcrbtart, etc., etc» etc.
No. 54.
Thomas G, Hidout, Esq,, Voêhier Bank of V, Canada, Toronto.
Sbcrbtart'b Office,
SiK, 12 November, '56.
I have the honour to inform you 'that His Excellency the Governor-General
has had under his coosUleratLon in Council your letter of the 5th Instant,
applying on behalf of the Bank of Upper Canada for a Letter of License to
import from Bnfland a supply of Copper Coins or Tokens to the extent of
£10,000 sterling, of the same stamp and fineness of the pence and halfpence
imported under the «former Letter of License of 1853, but under date of the
year 1857. His Excellency has been pleased with the advice and consent of
His Executive Council to grant the Bank the necessary permission for the
space o(f one year sul>ject to the conditions as set forth tbds 4 and 5 Vict.,
chap. 17.
The necessary Letter of License is now being prepared and will be trans-
mitted to you on receipt of the usual fee of £2 paya«ble thereon.
Y..
G. A. M.
Sbcrbtary's Office,
Meêsrê. Desharatê d D,, Quem*ê Printerê, 12 November, '56.
Sirs,
I am commanded to direct you to Insert in the next Official Gazette the
following notice:
Sbcrbtary's Office,
8 November, 1856.
His Excellency the Governor-General has been pleased with the advice and
consent of His Executive Council to grant permission to the Bank of Upper
Canada to import dua-lng 4;welve months from this date Copper Coins ox-
Tokens in pence and halfpence to an ajnount not exceeding £10,000 Sterling
on the conditions prescribed by the Act 4 and 5 Vict., chap. 17.
By Command,
E. A. M.
Assistant Secy.
No. 66.
Secretary's Office,
R, T. Pennforth, Esq., Oov, Secretary, 12 November, '66.
Sir,
I have the honour to transmit to you herewith a copy of an order-ln-
councll on .the subject of Importation of Copper Coins to the extent of
£10,000 by the Bank of Upper Canada.
272 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
N(X 56.
Copy of a report of a Committee of the Honourable the Privy Council,
Approved by His Excellency the Govern or-General-in-Councll, on the
30th August, 1870.
On a meonorandum dated 26th Augruat instant from the Hon. the Minister
of Finance reporting thait great public inconvenience has been experienced
for sonne time back owing to the state of the Copper Coinage. That wbile
bronze cents and the Copper Coins of the United Kingdom are alone a legal
tender, the principal copper currency consists of Bank Tokens of the Bank
of Montreal, Bank of Upper Canada, Quebec Bank and Banque du Peuple,
all of which are of good quality and all authorized by law. That these coins
are only current at the rate of a halfpenny currency, while iKWtage and
other stamps are in cents. That it is essentially necessary to establish a
uniform copper currency, and after much consideration be ie of opinion that
if the Government would instruct its Departments to receive the bank tokens
at one and two cents respectively, the' public would do so likewise, and by
this means a great deal of inconvenience would be removed. He therefore
recommends that the necessary instructions be given.
The Committee advise that instructions be given accordingly.
(Certitlled),
J. S. COTfi,
Clerk P. C
ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
TRANSACTIONS
SECTION III.
MATHEMATICAL, PHYSICAL and CHEMICAL SCIENCES
PAPERS FOR 1903
Sbction III., 1903 [ 3 ] Tbanb. R. 8. C.
I. — On the Analysis of Cheese.
By Thomas Macfarlane.
(Read May 19th, 1908.)
It is admitted by most writers on the subject that the methods in
use for the examination of cheese are not at present all that could be
desired. To mention only a recent authority, the authors of "The
Book of the Dairy " state that in the investigation of ripe cheese "there
is no method which can be regarded as suitable or trustworihy." It
would serve no good purpose to endeavour to give in detail the various
processes which have been suggested or practised. It will be suflBcient
to say that, in the analyses recorded in Konig-s "Nahrungs-und Oentiss-
mittel" the processes employed are quite diverse in character so far
as regards the determination of the nitrogenous constituents, and in
the most of cases, the ^^SticJcstoffsubstanz" is obtained from. the nitrogen
percentage by multiplying it with the factor 6.25. In this manner a
sufficient approximation may, perhaps, be obtained for ordinary pur-
poses to the amount of total proteids contained in a ripe cheese, or to
the percentage of casein contained in it originally. But the method
cannot be regarded as scientifically accurate, and even for the practical
purposes of the dairyman, it has little or no value.
The adoption of such a method neglects the fact that the original
casein has undergone a complete change in the process of ripening, as
well as the consideration that it is of the greatest importance that the
practical cheese maker should be made aware of the nature of this altera-
tion and of the degree to which it has extended in -any sample of cheese.
With the object chiefly of developing a method of cheese analysis which
would be satisfactory from a practical point of view, I have thought it
advisable as far as possible to follow the plan of Manette and Musso, who
suggested making the following examinations : — " Determination of the
'* percentage of water and bodies volatile at 115° C; preparation of a
"carbon bisulphide extract; preparation of an alcoholic extract; pre-
" paration of a watery extract ; determination of the quantity of bodies
"insoluble in bisulphide of carbon, alcohol and water; determination of
"the ash; determination of ammonia; determination of the sum of the
"acids present; determination of the nitrogen; and, finally, the deter-
'• mination of the nitrogen and ash in the different extracts, as well as
" the determination of the nitrogen and ash in the residues of the dif-
^^ferent extracts." (Book of the Dairy, p. 274). A similar process of
ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
\
B
/
investigation has also been proposed by Duelaux. (Richmond's Dairy
Chemistry, p. 315).
The method employed for making these determinations was first
mentioned in an article by me contained in the "Analyst,** for April,
1893. It consists among other things, in the employment of a glass
tube filled with crysotile fibre (so-call«i asbestos), into which the cheese
is introduced and subjected to extraction by various solvents. The
whole apparatus used for these extractions is shown in the accompanying
sketch: — A is a flask of glaas or copper in which the
solvent used is boiled, either in the waterbath or over
a naked flame, as the nature of the reagent requires.
JB is a Stutzer extraction apparatus for holding the
substances operated upon contained in the smaller
tubes alx)ve referred to. This apparatus hag beea
named a Stutzer tube to distinguish it from the morer
complicated Soxhlet apparatus employed for the same
puqK)8e, and because it was first described by Dr. A.
Stutzer, of Bonn in Bockmann's " Chemisch-technische
Untersuchungs Methoden," (1884, p. 579). The only
difference in the newer apparatus is the introduction
of three projections from the glass sides to support
the interior extraction tubes. The latter are indicated
by C, and it is convenient to use at least two of them,
so that the determinations can \)c made in duplicate.
These tubes are also shown in Stutzer's description,
X. yL\ but since their more general use, they liave been men-»
N.^3^ tioned in some catalogues as ''Macfarlane tubes,"
which name might a«^ well be used for convenience of
description. D represents an ordinary' Liebig back-
flow condenser.
This apparatus is operated in the following man-
ner:— When heat is applied to the solvent in A, its
vapour passes up between th(» interior or Macfarlane
tubes and the sides of the Stutzer, and passes into tne
condenser tube, from which it returns in the liquid
form, j>asses through the material contained in tne
Macfarlane tubes, and flows into the flask to he
again volatilised. Tlio extraction is thus iierformed at almost the
boiling temperature of the solvent and is very effective. The complete
submersion of the contents of the Macfarlane tubes in the solvent is se-
cured by packing the fibre somewhat closely in the lower part of the
tube. The Macfarlane tube used in the analysis of cheese has an outside
diameter of 40 mm., and a greatest length of 75 mm., the depth of thb
S/<
[MACPARLANi] ON THE ANALYSIS OF CHEESE 0
wide part being 65 mm. In filling it with the fibre it has been found
advantageous to place a small pieoe of platinum or wire gauze over the
small opening at the bottom, to prevent the fibre from being drawn down
into it when the contents are being subjected to the action of the filter-
pump. The fibre itself is placed in the tube in successive loose layers,
fio that they can be removed and replaced singly when desired.
The series of operations which it seems necessary to make for ordin-
ary practical purposes in the analysis of cheese by the use of the appara-
tus just described are the following : —
I. Water and substances volatile at 98** C. After the Macfarlane
tube with its crysotile contents has been dried and weighed, all the fibre
except the layer at the bottom is removed, and the latter pressed down
to such a degree of closeness as to prevent too rapid percolation. 5
grammes of the cheese to be examined are then mixed with part of the
fibre (which had been removed and placed on a sheet of glazed paper) in
a small mortar, and kneaded up intimately with it. This mixture is
introduced into the tube, the mortar carefully wiped out with a little
more of the weighed fibre, which is also replaced in the tube, and then
the whole is covered up with the fibre still remaining on the glazed
paper. The tube is then placed in a rack with others, and dried in the
water-bath at 98° C. This effects a very perfect elimination of the
water, owing to the fine sub-division of the particles of the cheese, and
the insertion of the fibre between them. This is proved by the close
agreement of duplicate determinations. On cooling and weighing the
tubes, the loss in weight indicates the quantity of moisture and volatile
constituents present.
II. Butterfat and added oils. By subjecting the tube and its con-
tents to the action of petrolic ether of low boiling point in the above
described apparatus for 3 or 4 hours, all the fat is removed. The heat
is applied by means of a water-bath, and on this account the petrolic
ether should not contain any hydrocarbons of higher boiling point than
80** C. Of course, bisulphide of carbon or chloroform may be sub-
stituted for the petrolic ether, but the latter has the advantage of cheap-
ness. After the extraction, the tube is placed over the filter pump and
deprived of most of the solvent mechanically retained in it. It is then
placed in a tray with other tubes which have undergone the same treat-
ment, and heated in the water-bath for 2 hours, allowed to cool in the
desiccator and weighed. The loss gives the quantity of butter and other
fats.
III. Alcohol Extract. — The tube is next subjected to extraction by
alcohol of 92 or 95 p. c. by volume. The solvent is heated by direct
flame, and is contained for safet/s sake in a copper flask. The Stutzer
6 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
tube and condenser are used as in the preceding extraction. On freeing
the tube from excess of alcohol, drying and weighing it, the amount of
substance extracted by alcohol is ascertained. These substances consist
of some of the products of the alteration of the casein, and seemingly
of those which give to the cheese its characteristic flavour.
IV. Aqueous Extract. — This is obtained by taking the tube which
has been exhausted by alcohol, and treating it in exactly the same man-
ner with distilled water, or by allowing hot water to percolate through-
it. In this case a further quantity of soluble substance is removed,
which is also derived from the alteration of the casein. Its amount i»
ascertained by weighing the dried tube and noting its loss in weight
V. Casein. — The residue of insoluble matter remaining in the fibre
after the removal of the water soluble constituents consists, without
doubt, mainly of casein which has escaped alteration.
The following table T, contains a record of the results obtained in
the above described series of determinations on samples of cheese pur-
chased in the Canadian market. It will be observed that these analyses
have been made in duplicate : —
[macfablani]
ON THE ANALYSIS OF CHEESE
X
*Sp}M«0
Q U| ono99«o
9iqii[0B loqooiv ^
*8p|88
^ -«0 uf 89aode«3 ^
*BPI98«0
c5
35-00
36-04
35-70
36-30
41-10
41-08
«5
d
Sis:?:
CO : CO : CO
o9ooconAcoo5co n
•q«v
n 9
9
CO
. ajasiBo paj9)[«axi «
> -9npiB0H d
£: ^ 5S
? ? ^ S
S ^ ^ 9 ? S 9
CO 99 a t* ^ lb M
r^ rH vH vN r^ r^ vH
CO 00
s s
t» Ô0
9
a 9 9 9 $ 9
^ «o «o t^ cd f»
9
00
•^ o
? ?
O) o
^ ^ ^ 9 9 9 9
Q ^ O O ^ & O
•^•J
9
CO o5 w w
Ç- r»
I
*ajn^e]ojv
? ?6
9 ?
CO s
9
I
o o o o
•o »© »© «d
il
i
c4
-«^
o o o
•o »© •d
at
I
M
I
o 3 O 5-
^d K td s
I
S
s.
s
HH o o o
flo Ti td td
s
I ^ i
8
ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
•■PU
-^3 a] uduû9w«3 (£
1
g
•sptamQ
■qsv
^ g
? ; ?
Ei ^ ^
^ ^ ^
ta lo 09
C *ïaj*iïjâioH ft
9^f?999?^^^9^9
-^ g o »
<4< 1Û lO
n^J
*3JIiqsp]|^
H
^ I
0
O
-4
e:
S
12
Q
8 o
< i <
o
o
«a
El
H
J
M
I
e4
s:
I
_9 o o I
â -a -a â
O 9 O
•O -5 ts
E
I I
o o o o g
? S
[MACFARLANi] ON THE ANALYSIS OF CHEESE 9
In this table the columns I, II, III, IV and V, represent the per-
centages obtained by the operations given in the preceding description
under the same numbers. Owing to the variations in the quantity of
moisture present in the different samples, a comparison of these with
each other is rendered somewhat diflBcult, especially as regards the ex-
tent to which the casein has undergone alteration. In order to bring
out this point more cleariy, columns VII, VIII and IX, have been
added. The figure in VII consists of the sum of columns III, IV and
V, and may also be obtained by deducting the percentages of moisture
and fat contained in the sample from 100. It represents the casein and
the products of its alteration during ripening, and also includes the ash,
given separately in column VI. For the sake of convenience the namie
of " Caseids" is given to this group of substances, using the term in a
sense somewhat analogous to that of "Proteids.^* Column VIII is
headed " Caseones in Caseids,'' and indicates the percentage of the lat-
ter which is soluble in water, including the alcohol soluble, most of
which is also capable of being removed by water. The name "Caseone,"
was applied by Duclaux to represent the products of ripening, but their
quantity was ascertained by a tedious process of aqueous extraction per-
formed on the original cheese, and by ascertaining and deducting the in-
organic constituents. Duclaux^s figure would therefore differ from those
contained in column VIII, which not only include the ash proper of the
casein, but also the salt added in the process of manufacture. As an
index of the degree to which the process of ripening has extended in a
cheese the figures given in column IX, appear to be better applicable.
The alcohol seems to remove from the cheese less of the ash constituents
and the results in duplicates show a better agreement. The determina-
tion of "alcohol soluble caseone'* is therefore proposed as a practical test
of the degree of ripening, and it is anticipated that it will be found to
bear a distinct relation to what is known by practical men as the *T)reai-
ing down" of a cheese in the process of curing it. By reference to the
table it will be observed that the percentage of "alcohol soluble caseone**
in the caseids varies from 23.58 in the case of a Canadian cheese to
58.74 in the case of Camembert. It will also be seen that it is quite
high in the case of " Hague," which is a Canadian cheese, evidently
made from skimmed milk.
In order to obtain some idea of the nature of the substances ex-
tracted by alcohol and then 'by water from the dried and fat free con-
stituents of cheese, which have been called "caseids," determinations
were made of the nitrogen and ash contained in the extracts from certain
cheese samples, and Table 2 contains the results of this investigation.
In the analyses which this table contains, the caseids are calculated from
the total nitrogen of the cheese by using 6.35 as the factor for casein.
lO ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
The factors heretofore used for this purpose by different analysts vaiy
from 6.25 to 6.45, according to the percentage of nitrogen which they
believed to be present in pure casein. These two figures correspond re-
spectively to 16.0 and 15.5 per cent The average of the factors (6.35)
corresponds to a nitrogen percentage of 15.75, which is quite close to the
average of the analyses of Hammarsten and Chittenden (16.78), who
followed the same method of preparing pure casein.
Table II. explains itself. Interest attaches chiefly to the percent-
age of nitrogen contained in the organic matter of the alcoholic and
aqueous extracts. In the former this varies from 3.74 to 8.21 per cent,
while the aqueous extract contains a much larger proportion varying
from 11.33 to 15.19 per cent. No doubt these extracts contain different
bodies,- and in the case of the alcohol extract more or less lactose, lactic
acid or lactates may be present. Ât the same time it is to be remem-
bered that they are mostly products of the alteration of .casein and con-
tain less nitrogen than that substance. It is therefore reasonable to con-
clude that the process of ripening is accompanied by an elimination of a
certain quantity of nitrogen. Some of this in the form of ammonia is
contained in the alcohol extract probaUy combined with lactic acid and
may be liberated by heating with magnesia. But its quantity is small
compared with the total nitrogen of the alcohol extract, and therefore
other nitrogenous bodies must be present To ascertain the relative
quantities of these and ammonia in the alcohol extract, as well as the
quantity of free lactic acid, another series of examinations was under-
taken, the results of which are given in Table III. In the manipulation
necessary to obtain the figures contained in Tables II and III, I obtained
very substantial assistance from my son, Mr. A. C. Macfarlane. In the
Table III. series the volatile acids were also determined by distillation
and titratioD, their quantity being calculated as butyric acid and deduct-
ed from the loss on drying. In estimating the free lactic acid in the
dried cheese an extraction by ethylether was allowed to precede that by
alcohol, and the acidity of the extract is stated as lactic acid.
[macfablani]
ON THE ANALYSIS OF CHEESE
11
Table II.— Results of examining samples of foreign obeese, both by the ordinary
and extracting methods, and showing nature of the alcoholic and aqueous
extracts.
OKA
GRUTERB
ROQUEFORT
ORDINARY MBTHOD.
p. c
p. c
p. 0
p. c
p. C.
p. c.
p. c
p.c
Moisture
45*10
4600
34*76
34-10
32-70
34-70
49-40
47*80
Fat
26-90
24-48
3-11
24-86
24-48
8-11
26-00
29-10
3*04
24-96
29-10
3-94
30-10
23*16
3-65
27-96
23-16
3-66
27-40
19-21
3*91
28-70
Caseids(N x 6-86)
19-21
TotalAsh
3*91
oe-eo
97-90
98-80
92-10
89*61
89*49
99-92
99-62
Total Nitrogen
8-847
4-584
3*647
3-026
EXTRACTION METHOD.
Moisture
45-10
25-90
46-00
24-86
34*76
26*00
34-10
24*96
32*70
30-10
34*70
27*98
49-40
27*40
47*80
Fat
28-70
In alcoholic extract
5-72
5-84
9*54
13*26
11-84
10-70
11-10
In hot water extract
4-54
15-57
4-64
1606
4-24
21-62
7-24
13*06
5-48
16-35
5-70
2*89
6-84
In residue; by difference
2-15
Ash-
In alcohol extract
0-88
0-80
1-48
0-88
0-80
1-43
1-24
0-86
1-84
2-40
1.00
0-25
2-40
1-00
0-26
1*60
1-06
1-25
1-60
In hot water extract
1^
In residue; by difference
1-26
100 00
10050
100-00
....
100-00
100*00
100-00
100-00
Nitrogen—
In alcohol extract
0-424
0-626
0-526
0-664
0.440
0-027
0*879
0-704
In hot water extract
Per centage of nitrogen in organic
matter of—
Alcohol extract
7-26
11*33
5-52
16*19
3-74
11-44
8-21
18*40
Hot water extract
12
ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
Tablb IIL— Results of examining samples of Cheese by ordinary and extraction
methods, and showing nature of the Ethylether and other extracts.
OKA
GRUTBRB
ROQUEFORT
CAMEMBERT
CANADIAN
M.
ORDINARY METHOD.
p. c.
p. c.
p. c.
p. c
p. C
p. c.
p. C.
p. c
p C.
p. c
Moisture
43-eo
26*20
42-90
26-20
24-36
31-06
27-84
80-70
28-22
29-03
33-70
34*24
32-42
34-68
23 09
48-40
28-82
48-10
29-24
19-16
25-10
39-00
26*20
Butter fat
38-76
Caseids (N x 6*36)....
26-67
Ash, total
8-11
3-94
3-65
3-91
8-46
96-fr7
91-89
93-84
100-41
04*06
EXTRACTION METHOD.
Moisture, &c
42-78
42-06
31-06
30 70
30-88
29*66
44-97
44-59
23-11
2817
Butyric acid
0-82
0-84
ondeto
rmined
2-87
2-81
3-43
3-67
1-99
2-08
Butter fat
26-20
26-20
27-84
28-22
34-24
34-68
28-82
29-24
39-00
38-76
Organic matter-
In Ethylether extr't
0-59
0-83
0-70
0-92
1-06
1-13
1-68
1*32
0-79
0-03
Lactic acid in same.
0-17
0-17
0-14
0-14
0-07
0-07
0.20
0*20
0-01
o-oi
In alcohol extract. .
7-92
6-99
9-66
9-66
990
10-f?7
10-00
9-89
6*25
6*13
In hot water extract
7-00
6-80
6-80
5-18
6-24
6-66
5*48
4*66
3*70
4*62
In residue (by differ-
ence)
11-41
13-00
19-96
21-24
11-16
11-82
1-61
2-68
21*70
20'90
Ash-
In alcohol extract...
0-88
1-89
1-24
0-96
2-40
1-87
1-60
1-89
1-43
1*43
In hot water extract
0*80
1-22
0-86
2-08
1-00
1-54
1-06
2-02
2-02
2-02
In residue, by differ-
ence
1-43
0-00
1-84
100-00
0-00
0-26
0-24
1-25
0-00
0*00
0-00
100-00
100-00
100-00
100-00
100-00
lOOOO
100-00
10000
100-00
Nitrogen-
In alcohol extract as
combined ammonia
o-ws
0-049
0-068
0-100
none
As organic nitrogen
0-595
0-515
0-869
. . ...
0-840
0-426
In hot water extract
0-857
0-800
..r..
0-728
0-600
0-641
Per centage of nitro"
gen in the organic
substance of —
Alcohol extract
8-49
8-07
9-46
9-40
6-81
Hot water extract. .
12-24
12-77
11-66
12-59
17-32
[KACPABLAinB] ON THE ANALYSIS OF CHEESE ' 18
From Table III. it will be observed that the percentage of nitrogen
in the organic substance of the alcohol extract varies from 6.81 to 9.46,
showing again a much lower percentage than casein. As regards the
nature of this substance it is difficult to come to a conclusion concerning
it. Nearly all proteids have heretofore been regarded as insoluble in
alcohol. In Wroblewski's classification of these (The Analyst XXTTI,
p. 107), there is certainly mention made under his Group I of a sub-
division of ^^ albuminous substances soluble in alcohol/^ but these are
chiefly of vegetable origin, a prominent éïample being gliadin, one of
the constituents of gluten. Casein itself is classed as a compound pro-
teid or nucleo-albumin. The nitrogen percentage in the organic matter
of the aqueous extract is higher than that of the alcohol extract, but
lower than casein, and the substance would seem to be capable of classi-
fication among the peptones. Further investigation is required in order
to ascertain the true composition and nature of the substances con-
tained in these extracts.
Section III., 1903 [ IB ] Trans. R 8. C.
II. — The Rate of Decomposition of Potassium' Chlorate under the
Influence of Heat.
By S. B. Chadsey.
(Communicated by Dr. W. H. Ellis, and read May 20th, 1903.)
The experiments outlined in the following paper were carried out
with the object of obtaining a knowledge of the course of the changes
which potassium chlorate undergoes when subjected to the action of heat.
It was recently shown by Sodeau (J. C3iem. Soc, 1900, p. 138), that
pure potassium chlorate when heated yields only very small quantities
of chlorine, so that the changes consist almost entirely in the formation
of potassium perchlorate, potassium chloride and oxygen. The rate of
the decomposition of the chlorates of calcium and barium was studied
by Potilitzin in 1887. (J. Euss. Chem. Soc, 1887; Ber., 1887; Ref.
769). But as I have met with no reference to similar determinations
for potassium chlorate it seemed desirable to carry out a series of experi-
ments in which quantities of chlorate could be heated at various con-
stant temperatures and the products of the decomposition measured.
The chlorate used in the experiments was prepared from the com-
mercial "pure" salt by repeated recrystallization, and was shown to be
perfectly neutral and free from chlorides. Special precautions were
taken to prevent contamination with dust, and lint from filter paper was
avoided by allowing the chlorate obtained from the last recrystallization
to drain on unbaked porcelain. The purified product was dried at 110**,
pulverized and again heated at 110° for three hours to ensure the re-
moval of all moisture. Subsequent al)sorption of small quantities of
moisture was avoided by keeping the dried salt in a desiccator.
Amounts of 0-5 gm. enclosed in bulbs blown on tubes of soda glass,
20-25 cm. in length and 7 mm. in diameter, were heated in a small elec-
tric dental furnace (Dr. C. A. Timme, Berlin), of internal dimensions
8 cm. X 8 cm. x 4-3 cm. The tubes containing the chlorate were placed
horizontally in the furnace through a small opening in the fire-clay
door, and by this arrangement splashes of the molten chlorate were re-
tained by the upper surface of the bulb, and were not carried into the
cool parts of the tube.
The furnace was heated by means of the 110 volt public circuit,
regulated roughly by a large coil rheostat, and more closely by a lamp
rheostat in parallel with the latter (Fig. 1). But as the large varia-
tions in the voltage of this circuit prevented the maintenance of con-
stant temperatures a supplementary circuit of storage cells was arranged
16
ROYAL SOCXŒTY OF CANADA
to include the furnace and an ammeter of the main circuit as indicated
in Fig. 1. The direction of the current from these cells was opposed to
that of the main circuit and by adjusting the voltage of the cells so that
it was nearly or quite equal to the fall in voltage of that circuit between
the points a and h. Pig. 1, t. e., between the terminals of the furnace, any
considerable increase in the voltage of the main circuit traversed the cells
as a charging current, while any considerable decrease was corrected by
HaiMf HKeovtat
Fio. 1.
the discharge of the cells. By this means the fall of voltage between the
terminals of the furnace could be kept at any desired value, and constant
temperatures secured.
The temperatures were measured by means of a LeChatelier pyro-
meter, the rhodium platinum juncture of which was bound to the out-
side of the bulb containing the chlorate, by means of a thread of asbestos.
The accuracy of the readings of the pyrometer were tested by means of
steam, the vapor of sulphur, and the melting point of potassium chlorate,
and were found to be satisfactory.
In carrying out the experiments, the bulb with thermocouple
attached was quickly inserted into the furnace which had been previously
heated so that the temperature at which the (leconipositioii was to be
[CHAD8ÏY] DEœMPOSITION OF POTASSIUM CHLOEATE 17
effected could be attained in three or four minutes. At the expiration of
the time set for heatings the bulb was removed from the furnace^ and
allowed to cool in a desiccator. By repeatedly exhausting the desiccator
the removal of all excess of oxygen from the bulb was ensured so that it
could be weighed when filled with air.
In preliminary experiments the volume of the gas evolved from the
chlorate was measured over mercury and its calculated weight compared
with the loss of weight of the bulbs. As these corresponded as closely
as the readings of the volume allowed, the oxygen set free in subsequent
experiments was estimated by the loss of weight, and no attempt was
made to measure the gas.
The solid residue was examined for chloride and undecomposed
chlorate, as follows : A solution of the residue in 200<* was made, and
25^ of this titrated for chloride, with 10'* or 20»* silver nitrate — ^using
potassium chromate as indicator. From the amount of chloride found,
the weight of chlorate decomposed was calculated as well as the total
weight of oxygen evolved in this decomposition.
A second 25^* of the 200*^ solution, was examined for undecomposed
chlorate by the method of N". Blattn^r and J. Brassner (Zeit. Angerw.
Chem., 1900, p. 1185). Sulphur dioxide was passed through this por-
tion in order to reduce the chlorate to chloride, thus :
KCIO^ + 3S0^ + dH^O — KCl -r- 3H^80,
= KCl + SH^SO^
As the perchlorate is not reduced by sulphur dioxide, this operation may
be safely carried out. Excess of sulphur dioxide was immediately re-
moved by boiling and the sulphuric acid formed in the solution neutra-
lized with C. P. calcium carbonate (Precip). After cooling, the
chloride in solution was estimated by titration as before, and the excess
over that of the previous estimation used to calculate the amount of un-
decomposed chlorate in the residue.
This method was found to work very well, although some difficulty
was at first experienced with silver nitrate titrations when considerable
quantities of chlorate had been reduced. The precipitate of silver
chloride in these cases formed quickly into curdy masses which entangled
the red precipitate of silver chromate, and thus impaired the sharpness
of the end point. This was found to be due, not to the excess of calcium
carbonate, which exercises no influence upon the reaction, but to the
calcium sulphate formed in the neutralization. Even when the precipi-
tated sulphate was removed by filtration the chloride was still curdled.
Moreover, when a quantity of C. P. calcium sulphate was added to a
solution of pure sodium chloride and the excess filtered off, the filtrate
Sec. in.. 1803. 2.
18 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
showed the same phenomenon with silver chloride as before. It was
concluded therefore that suflBcient calcium sulphate goes into solution
to produce this efiEect. Since barium sulphate is almost completely in-
soluble, it was thought that by neutralizing the solution with barium
carbonate better results might be secured. In the presence of the pre-
cipitate of barium sulphate the titration was still unsatisfactory, but
when the solids were removed by filtration a finely divided precipitate of
silver chloride was produced and a sharp end point secured.
The diflBculty of filtering off the barium sulphate, however, and the
small losses of potassium chloride involved, rendered the process other-
wise unsatisfactory, and it was necessary, therefore, to follow the orig-
inal plan of using calcium carbonate. By working with known quanti-
ties of chlorate in test cases, it was found possible to secure results in-
volving an error of less one per cent, and in order to reduce this error
as much as possible, duplicate tests for the amount of chlorate were made
in all cases, and two reaaings for each duplicate, the second being made
after the addition of a known quantity of sodium chloride solution. The
average of the four readings so obtained was used in subsequent calcula-
iions.
Thus in one case : —
} Titration 1. (a) AgNO:, (corrected) o.G3*'<'
(b) " " 5.64«^
Titration 2. (a) AgNO;, (corrected) 5.59«^
(b) " " 5.62<^
Average reading ô.ôS"'
A number of sulphates were tested and all showed the power of co-
agulating silver chloride. Sodium phosphate was found to act in the
same manner.
The amount of chlorate changed to perchlorate was obtained by
difference and the weight of oxygen necessary for the formation of the
perchlorate was calculated. No determinations of the alkalinity of the
residue were made.
Since the total oxygen from the decomposed chlorate either escapes
as free gas or combines with other chlorate molecules to form perchlorate,
there should be a correspondence between the sum of the loss of weight
of the bulb and the weight of oxygen required for perchlorate, on the
one hand, and on the other, the weight of oxygen from the decomposed
chlorate. In the experiments it was found that the latter was always
slightly in excess, except in a few cases at high temperatures where a
small quantity of the salts had been carried over mechanically.
[chadsey] decomposition OF POTASSIUM CHLORATE 19
Eesults for one determination are given in the following :
Weight of chlorate heated — 0-5 gms. Temperature 500**. *
1. Weight of KCIO^ changed to KCÎ = 0.1566 gr.
x>. Weight of KCIO^ unchanged = 0.0738 gr.
3. Weight of KClOj, changed to KCIO^ = 0.2646 gr.
4. Weight of oxygen set free in (1) = 0.0613 gr.
5. Oxygen required for KCIO^ = 0.0345 gr.
6. Loss of weight of bulb = 0.0260 gr.
Now the sum of (5) and (6) should equal (4)
0.0345 _ 0.0260 = 0.0605
0.0613 — 0.0605 = 0.0008
In this connection is to be mentioned the continual increase in the
weight of the bulbs used in these determinations which amounted in
some cases to as much as 5 milligrams for one heating. It seems prob-
able that these two phenomena are to be attributed to the same cause.
Sodeau in his work with barium chlorate, J. Chem. Soc., 1900, p. 138,
found that at atmospheric pressure, practically no chlorine reached the
potassium iodide bulbs, through which the gases from the chlorate were
passed, but that at pressures reduced to a few mm., considerable quanti-
ties of iodide were decomposed, while the alkalinity of the residue was
very sliglitly different in the two cases. This seems to indicate that
heated glass may absorb small quantities of chlorine. It is unlikely,
however, that the total increase in the weight of the bulbs is due to
chlorine, for an increase of 0.0020 gms. would indicate that l-4j^ of the
total chlorine had been evolved and the results of Sodeau show that this
quantity is much too large. It is possible that a certain quantity of
. K^O reacts with the glass to form soluble manganates, so that it seems
very likely that a large part of the increase of weight is due to the ab-
sorption of oxygen.
General reasons for this may be made apparent by an examination
of the metliod of analysis and the results obtained. The reaction under
consideration may be qualitatively represented thus:
KCIO^ = KCl + KCIO^ -]- K^O + CI + 0
Now in the analysis the KCl is first estimated. It is evident that
the greater the amounts of K^O and CI, the less the amount of KCl,
and consequently the smaller will be the calculated amount of oxygen
liberated. By lessening the true amount of KCl, the amount of KCIO^
is increased, since this is obtained by difference and consequently the
amount of oxygen required for KCIO^ is made greater. Thu.s we have
the weight which is found to be greater, — namely the weight of oxygen
evolved, less than its true amount, while one of the parts of the sum
20 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
greater than its true amount, both of which tend to reduce the discrep-
ancy f)ointed out on page 19. On the other hand the absorption of
chlorine and possibly of potash by the glass will increase the weight of
the bulb, and therefore tend to increase the diflEerence or discrepancy re-
ferred to. But, as it has been shown that the chlorine and potash set
free are almost certainly smaller in amount than the increase in the
bulbs, there is still a deficiency in the following sum : —
(Weight of oxygen for KCIO^ + loss in weight of bulb) to be
accounted for. It appears quite possible therefore that this deficiency
may be accounted for by the absorption of small amounts of oxygen.
The accompanying Table No. S, contains a number of the results
obtained at different temperatures. The n\imbers given are the actual
weights found in connection with the 0*5 gm. of chlorate that was heated
in each case. Theoretically the difference between the numbers in
columns 9 and 4, given in column 6, should equal those in column 6, but
it will be noticed that the numbers in column 6 are always somewhat
greater than those in 6. At the same time it will be observed that the
increase in the weight of the glass varies both with the temperature and
the time of heating. These numbers in column 7 cannot be taken how-
ever as representing the total increase which the bulb originally received
owing to the nature of the treatment of the glass in cleaning. In this
process the bulbs were first heated in boiling water to heat the water
contained in them and thus ensure the dissolving of the whole of the
residue of KCIO^, etc. They were then filled with chromic acid solu-
tion and allowed to stand some time, after which they were washed suc-
cessively with water, alcohol and ether. It is evident, therefore, that a
certain amount of loss is almost certain during this treatment, so that
the numbers in column 7 may frequently be too small.
The increase seems to depend also upon the glass used. In experi-
ments conducted previous to the beginning of the series the results of
which are not given in the accompanying tables, tubes were used which
showed a greater increase than those of the latter series, although in both
cases, soda glass was used.
Thus in the case of one bulb, the increments for five successive ex-
periments at temperatures from about 500° to 540° are the following,,
expressed in milligrams: —
5-6; 2-9; 2-2; 5-6; 46; A total of 22-9 mg.
The glass was not changed in appearance until after it had been
in use for some time, when portions of its inner surface showed a large
number of fine checks as though the inner surface had become changed
somewhat in its character. After these checks appeared the tube soon
cracked, when put into the furnace, and had to be thrown away. Ow-
Cchadbby] decomposition OF POTASSIUM CHLORATE 21
ing to accidents only a few of the bulbs were used long enough to show
this change.
In subsequent experiments, bulbs containing pure sodium chloride
and small quantities of potash were heated to 500**. In each case the
turquoise blue manganates were formed and the bulb lost considerably in
weight. On the other hand bulbs heated to 560**, while a slow current
of pure oxygen was passed through them, did not show any increase in
weight. The latter experiment was suggested by the statement of Le-
Chatelier in his work on high temperatures, that heated glass absorbs
small .quantities of gases, but the negative result indicates that the ab-
sorption of free oxygen is too small to produce a change of weight in the
bulbs used.
The first experiments were conducted at 355** and at 360** for the
purpose of determining whether or not it is possible to bring about the
formation of a quantity of perchlorate, without at the same time, induc-
ing an evolution of free oxygen. Mention may be made of results ob-
tained by Fowler and Grant, when silver oxide was heated with potas-
sium chlorate. (J. Chem. Sec., 1890). In accordance with these re-
sults, perchlorate may be formed at the expense of the oxygen of the
silver oxide, while no free oxygen is evolved. It seemed possible that a
similar result might be attained without the introduction of a foreign
oxide, for since potassium chlorate yields both chloride and perchlorate,
together with oxygen during its ordinary decompositions, it might be ex-
pected that by gentle heating all the oxygen at first set free from the
decomposing molecules would combine with other chlorate molecules.
Under such conditions the only products of the reaction would be
chloride and perchlorate. In all experiments conducted to test this
point, however, no evidence was found of any change without the simul-
taneous evolution of free oxygen. At 355**, a temperature just below the
melting point of the chlorate, and at 360**, where the chlorate was fused,
no loss of weight occurred after the lapse of two or three hours-nor
was there any change in the quantity of chlorate. Decomposition, in-
deed, was not found to begin below 410**, and at 420** it was so slow that
at the end of three hours only 0-48j^ of the chlorate had been changed to
chloride. Since perchlorate is not decomposed below 500**, the test at
420** may be considered one in which the changes taking place are suffi-
ciently slow to permit the reaction under discussion if it were a possible
one. • It was found, however, that only a small percentage of perchlorate
was formed, while about 85j^ of the oxygen from decomposed chlorate
was evolved as free gas.
ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
Table I.
1
1
KCl
CKANOED TO
ATCÏÏO*
UNGHAIOED
OXYOEX
EVOLVED
(TOTAL - lOD
^ot^
1 hr.
0^00
0-00
100
40(r
2brs.
0^00
0-00
100
42(r
1 hr.
0-48
0-14
09 38
D-205
iwr
Shra.
1 12
0-46
98-42
0871
44Xf
l hr.
rea
0-B6
fi7-12
0-eae
44(r
ÏS hrs.
3 82
192
&4'46
l 96
44(r
» hr».
392
3^04
92 44
2*51
460"
1 hr.
382
sae
92*82
23fl
«œ
2 hm.
4fltr
3 br«.
660
8-30
8511
307
4«œ
1 hr.
7^30
7 80
84-00
3*74
4«r
î hf«.
ll'Sl
19 00
69-16
4*66
4ecr
3 hw.
10-06
28 40
55-52
6*7R
fiOO»
1 hr.
16 18
26-76
58'Oa
5*68
60(r
KhfH,
27*88
46 34
25 78
11 98
SOtP
3 hn.
31-32
62^
16*76
13 31
fiitr
1 hr.
20*82
34 78
44*40
U 35
5ir
2 hra.
37 œ
ff7'S0
6-44
17*40
5i(r
« hra.
43*08
62 16
4*78
25 09
52(r
1 hr.
30 40
42 8R
26*66
1536
52(r
2 hre.
520*
3 hrs.
01-68
:ë 60
694
50 18
630-
1 hr.
40 70
63 5i
^74
22*68
63(r
S hrs.
6e 60
^70
|-7t
43 47
MO*
a hï-8.
♦ , . .
, ► . . .
540*
èbr.
35-62
66-36
8-12
1603
Wr
1 hr.
40-08
46-42
7*60
aotN?
540*
2 hrs.
09-24
£604
6*72
61*39
54^
3 ht^.
85-04
1024
S-82
83*66
550-
10 min.
20-70
soaâ
20*14
12*30
560=
16 "
43-82
49-32
6'HG
26 U8
5E0"
30 "
60 62
42*90
6-48
36-25
660"
46 **
^-58
28-48
13^94^
67-24
Onkiiawi>
10 **
36 54
63-48
10 98
;4S-12
a
15 "
38 UO
63 30
8*70
37 99
«4
30 "
4Î-74
48 72
954
41-52
tcHADsiY] DECOMPOSITION OF POTASSIUM CHLORATE 23
Thus from Table 1 we find : —
Weight of oxygen from KCIO^ KCl = 0.0022 gr.
Weight of oxygen required for KCIO^ = 0.0003 gr.
Loss of weight (oxygen evolved) = 0.0017 gr.
We may conclude, therefore, that at least under ordinary conditions
the formation of perchlorate takes place only during the simultaneous
evolution of free oxygen.
The majority of the experiments were carried out at temperatures
separated by ten or twenty degrees, beginning at 400**. At each tem-
perature, with a few exceptions, three tests were made, lasting respec-
tively, one, two and three hours, for the purpose of ascertaining the rate
at which the reaction proceeds. The results of these experiments are
expressed by the numbers in Table 1, and by the curve diagrams. In
these the total quantity of chlorate heated is given the value 100, so that
the weights of chlorate changed to perchlorate and chloride, as well as
the weight remaining unchanged are expressed directly as percentages.
It is to be observed that the weight of chloride or of perchlorate is not
given, but the weight of chlorate that has changed to chloride or per-
chlorate. The oxygen is expressed in percentages of the total oxygen in
the chlorate.
The numbers in Table 1 show that the reactions take place more
slowly as they proceed. In other words the reactions appear to be re-
tarded by the presence of the resulting substances. Politzin (Loc. cit.),
in his investigations upon barium and calcium chlorates found that the
reactions in the case of these salts, as indicated by the amount of
chloride formed, are at first somewhat accelerated and then retarded.
Wheîher there is any original acceleration with potassium chlorate
can scarcely be shown by the method I have used, owing to the fact
that for short periods, the time required to attain the final tempera-
ture, viz., three or four minutes, is a larger fraction of the total time
than for longer periods. Original acceleration is, however, a matter
of very great frequency in chemical reactions, and it probably occurs
in this case. Subsequent retardation might, indeed, be expected, owing
to two circumstances. In the first place the increasing amount of
chloride, mixed with the chlorate results in the " dilution ^* of thft
reacting substance, and in the second place, the perchlorate former?
decomposes more slowly than the chlorate at the same temperature.
It is also evident that in the majority of cases the amount of
chlorate changed to perchlorate is larger than the amount changed to
chloride. This may be expressed by saying that the fraction
KCIO, — KCIO^
— — — - — is usually greater than unity. It may reach the
KCIO^ — KCl
S4 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
value 1-75 as in decampositions at 500**. But the decompositions at
420**, 440**, and one at 460°, show on the other hand values of this
ifraetion that are less than unity. Its values in these cases are: —
At 420° for 1 hr.
0-29
« 420» for 3 hre.
0-41
" 440° for 1 hr. or 2 hrs.
060
" 440° for 3 hre.
0-93
« 460° for 1 hr.
0-88
460° for 3 hre.
1-26
This seems to indicate that at the beginning of the decomposition
reactions, a part of the chlorate molecules undergo an atomic re-
arrangement, into a fonn which is capable of uniting with an atom of
oxygen to form the stable compound potassium perchlorate. If such
he the case, and if th« rearrangement takes place slowly the cause of
the low values of the above fraction is at once apparent. Otherwise
it is difficult to see why these values should not be as high at the
beginning of the reaction when the amount of unchanged chlorate
is at its maximum, as at a later stage when it has been more or less
diminished. That the constitution of potassium perchlorate differs
essentially from that of the chlorate, is, of course, evident from its
greater stability under the influence of heat, acids and reducing agents.
The numbers given in Table 1 do not express the quantities of
the products in a manner which indicates the equation which is best
fitted to represent the reaction, but calculations from them are given
in Table 2, which are better adapted to this purpose. It was pointed
'Out in 1885 by Dr. Teed (Proc. Chem. Soc.) that not only in the com-
monly used equation: —
2 KCIO^ = KCIO, + KCl -t- 0^
an erroneous one, but that no single equation will serve for all cases.
Individual decompositions can, he claimed, be expressed by equations,
of which the limiting ones are:
10 KCIO^ = 6 KCIO^ + 4 KCl + 3 0^
and 22 KCIO^ = 14 KCIO^ + 8 KCl + h 0^
This was in a large measure confirmed by Frankland and Dingwall
in 1887 (J. Chem. Soc, 1887, p. 274). The equation which they
found best suited to reactions which were incom'plete, viz.:
8 KCIO^ = 5 KCIO^ — 3 KCl — 2 0^
lies betwee.^ the limits given by Dr. Teed.
In Table 2, the total chlorate decomposed, is given the value 100,
and the weights of perchlorate, ohloride, and oxygen, are therefore
[chamey] decomposition OF POTASSIUM CHLORATE 28
expressed as percentages. The value for each^ as demanded by the
foregoing equations are given, and below are the calculated values for
a number of decompositions in which none of the perchlorate had
decomposed. The values are given for the oxygen in a number, of
cases, the first value being calculated from the actual loss of weight
of the bulbs, and the second (in brackets), from the total oxygen from
decomposed chlorate less the oxygen required for the perchlorate
formed. In every case, indeed, the larger value for the oxygen gives
a number in Table 2 nearer that required by the equations, and there
is in this an additional reason for assuming that a part of the oxygen
is absorbed by the heated glass.
Tablb II,
KClOt
KCI4
KCl
OXTOBK.
8 KClOt = 5 Ka04-ZKa-20i.,
10 KClOt = 6 KCIO4 and 4 KCl-S Oj.
22 KaOt = 14 KaO^ -8 KCl^-5 0> .
100
100
100
70-7
C7-8
71-9
22-8
24*8
221
6*6
7-9
6-9
Temp.
Time.
Kao^
KC104,
KCl
OXTOBN.
48œ
Ihr.
100
684
243
7-8
480-
2hrs.
100
62 0
27-4
101
600-
1 hr.
100
72- 1
21-9
5-2 (6-3)
600-
2hr8.
100
706
22*8
6-8 <6-6)
600^
3 hrs.
100
700
226
6-2 (6-4)
520*
1 hr.
100
707
22-7
60 <6'4)
550-
10 min.
100
70-9
22*6
606 (6 4;
The majority of results evidently approximate most closely to the
8 ZCZO3 equation, one very closely to that beginning with 22 KClO^^y
while two of them do not correspond with any of the three.
The maximum amount of perchlorate should therefore be obtained
by interrupting the reaction when, from each 100 grams of chlorate
heated, about 4-5 litres of oxygen have been evolved. This relation
appears to be independent of the temperature since this affects only
the rate of the reaction. Decompositions which have passed the point
where the perchlorate begins to break down, cannot be expressed by
any definite equation.
26
BOTAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
In aocordance with equation 1, viz.:
8 KCIO^ = 5 KCIO^ — 3 KCl — 2 0^
the amount of perchlorate found is 70*7 per cent of the weight of
chlorate decomposed. In this connection it is to be pointed out that
it seems to be impossible to change the whole of the chlorate sub-
mitted to heat as indicated by this equation^ or in other words the
reaction is never complete.
Table III.
1
1
2
1
3
OXTOEN
FROM
KClOt-
KCl
4
Oxygen
FOR
KCiO^.
6
DIFFERENCE
BETWEEN
(8) AND (4).
6
LOSS OF
WEIGHT.
7
nrCREASB IN
WEIGHT
OF BULB.
440
1 hr.
00037
00007
00030
00013
00008
440
2 bra.
00071
0-0013
00058
00037
0 0007
440
3 "
00076
0.U024
0-0062
0-0040
460
1 "
00076
00022
00053
00046
00006
400
3 "
00120
00064
00075
00060
0-0006
480
1 "
00144
00061
00003
0-0073
480
2 "
00232
00124
00106
00089
00017
480
3 ••
00316
00185
00130
00113
00007
610
1 "
00406
00227
00181
00163
00010
510
2 "
00725
00375
0-0350
00340
00012
510
3 "
00843
00357
00486
0-0490
0(016
520
1 "
00462
00255
00197
00186
00022
520
3 "
01008
00254
0-0754
00748
0-0036
630
2 "
01125
00223
00902
00901
00036
660
10 min.
00581
00037
0-0254
00242
00020
660
80 "
0-0990
00279
00711
0-0708
00032
620
45 "
01127
00186
00941
00932
00045
Below the temperature at which potassium perchlorate is decom-
posed, the reaction proceeds more and more slowly as tlie above condition
is approached, and it seems probable that an equilibrium state is finally
reached in which a certain amount of chlorate remains mixed with
the products of decomposition. Above the temperature of decom-
position of perchlorate, there is always a quantity of chlorate present
until the whole of the oxygen has been evolved. Evidence of this is
to be found ' in the numibers of Table 1, where it may be seen
[CHAD8EY] DECOMPOSITION OF POTASSIUM CHLORATE 27
that even when most of the perchlorate has been deeonnpoeed^ a con-
siderable amount of ohlorate remains. This is due to the fact, difl-
oovered by Dr. Teed, and afterwards confirmed by Frankland and
Dingwall, that potassium perchlorate in its d-ecomposition yields potas-
sium chlorate as one of its first products. It might be expected
therefore, that at temperatures above 500° little or no perchlorate
would be formed, or, if formed, that it would immediately decompose
to chlorate. Such, however, is very far from being the case, as may
•be seen in the diagram representing the formation of perchlorate. From
this we see that, whatever the temperature may be, the same percentage
of perchlorate is formed at some stage of the reaction, except in those
cases where, owing to the low temperature the reaction is very slow.
The perchlorate seems to reach a maximum of about 65 per cent of
the total chlorate heated. In the diagram we have represented the
weight of chlorate changed to perchlorate, and this multiplied by the
138-6
fraction _ ^ — gives the actual weight of the perchlorate. The highest
122*6
number given in the diagram is 57-5, and, consequently, the greatest
122-6
percentage of perchlorate actually found is 67-5 x = 66. It
138*6
is possible that this is not the highest percentage that may be formed^
for, owing to the conditions of the experiment it is manifestly almost
impossible to interrupt the decomposition at the exact point at which
the perchlorate content is highest. But a number of results obtained
at different temperatures approximate to this value, and^ in two cases^
lines of extrapolation indicate practically the same height on the diagram
as the maximum point.
It seems beyond doubt, therefore, that, whatever the temperature
may be, the reaction at first proceeds toward the formation of a definite
maximum of perchlorate. If the temperature be sufficiently high,
the perchlorate is then decomposed into chlorate^ chloride, and oxygen.
The only apparent difference in these cases is the difference in the
rate at which the reactions take place. At 650° the reaction has
advanced as far at the end of 15 minutes as in three hours at 600**.
The difference in rate between decompositions at 500° and decomposi-
tions at 650"° is very much greater than that between those at 450°
and those at 500°. A similar increase in rate for the next 50° would
mean that the reaction had become explosive. Whether such an ad-
vance takes place has not ueen tested, but it is improbable that it
does so.
It would doubtless be incorrect to suppose that none of the per-
chlorate is decomposed until the maximum amount has been formed.
28
ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
It is much more probable that the results shown in the perchlorate
diagram are due merely to the difference between the rate of formation
and the rate of decomposition of perchlorate until an equilibrium ratio
between the amount of perchlorate and the amount of chlorate has
been reached.
KCLO^ -KCL
[chadsey] decomposition OF POTASSIUM CHLORATE
29
KCLO. — -KCLO*
Section III., 1903
[81]
Trans. R. S. C.
III. — On the Resistance of a Hydrated Eledrolyte, and the relation to
the Density-Concentration Curve,
By Howard T. Baknes, D.Sc,
AfRiistant Professor of Physics.
AND
J. Guy W. Johnson, M.A.
McGill University, Montreal.
(Read May 19th, 1903.)
Since the eonmmnication ^ to the Eoyal Society last year in which
wc described the application of the fall of potential method to the
measurement of the resistance of an electrolyte in motion, we have
N( — ^
\
Jh.
\
measured the resistance of KCÎ and K^SO^ at different concentrations
hy the same method. Our object in continuing the work was to deter-
' Trans. Roy. Soc. Can., VIII, 135 (1902).
8S
BOYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
knine aether the change in the density curves for these salts could
be accounted for by a change in dissociation of the hydrated salt.
Such a change was indicated in the case of MgCl^y but before basing
any conclusions on these results we desired to study the matter further
Our apparatus differed from that previously described by us only in
the addition of a continuous electrical heating device, by means of
which the temperature in our water bath could be maintained constant.
We show a diagram of this apparatus in figure I.
A glass tube TH is fitted with a heating spiral of platinoid or
manganin wire, which is connected at each end with heavy copper lead«.
A continuous current of water flows through the tube into the tank
from a constant level device at H. This constant level device is fed
from the mains through the tube M and overflows at 0. The water,
which is cooler than the desired temperature m the tank, is heated
by the passage of a current from the 100-volt experimental circuit E.
Rheostats at R serve to adjust the current which is read off on the
ammeter at A. Two adjustments are possible, and both alter the
temperature of the tank. The head H may be raised or lowered, and
the current in TH may be adjusted at B, and observed on the ammeter.
By knowing what a change in head or current will produce on the
temperature of the tank, it was possible to compensate quickly for the
changes in temperature of the tap water.
The salts we used in our work were Merck's best, and solutions
were made with the purest distilled water. The strength of each
solution was adjusted roughly by means of a hydrometer, and then after
the measurements of resistance had been made, it was obtained accu-
rately by a pyknometer.
Table 1 contains our results for KnSO^ which we obtained at a
constant temperature of 25-5° C.
Table I. K^^SO^ at 2I)-5'' C.
d
R
W D
IFF. D (W+0-9972)-d
0767
117-63
1019
00231
0224
•0658
132-21
0871
00162
0185
0594
146 50
0788
00119
0166
0509
172 94
0671
00062
0140
0408
207-01
0542
00026
0106
0284
287-80
0380
00000
0068
0219
367-36
0298
00000
0051
0131
555-64
0186
00000
0027
0089
75669
0134
00000
0017
0060
1112 60
0099
00000
0011
0048
1643-23
0083
00000
0007
[bahnks] resistance OF A HYDRATED ELECTROLYTE
88
In the column under w we give the concentration in grammes per
cubic centimetre. These values are obtained by comparison with the
table of values in the original paper by one of us with Mr. A. P. Scott.*
They correspond to a slightly lower temiperature, but that will not
alter the relative values which we are concerned with. In the last
column we give the difference between a theoretical density^ calculated
by adding w to the weight of a cubic centimetre of water, and the real
density observed. This gives the weight of water displaced by the salt.
The next to last column contains the deviations from a theoretical
p^
(
}
1
I
1
\
\
'
\
A
\
P
\
«
1
V
t*-«JL
^
p^
^
^--.
^^
^^
^
C^
1*
^
c^
formula assuming that one molecule of salt displaces two molecules
of water. This holds very closely over a considerable range, but for
stronger solutions more water is displaced by the added salt. By
plotting this column with the density we obtain the curve given in
figure 2. This illustrates the change in the density curve very well,
and suggests some change in relation between the salt and water mole-
pule. Wo plot on the same diagram the resistance with the density.
The regularity of this curve shows that no change in dissociation^
in so far as it would be shown by a change in the conductivity, can
account for the discontinuity.
^ Jour. Phys. ChejZL* 2, S86 (1898).
Sec III., 1903., 3.
84 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
In table 2 we give the results for KCl and plot these in Pig. 3.
Table II. KCl. at 25-5o C.
d
R
W DiFF. D
(W+00972)— d
-1466
34-26
'3388
•0270
1884
•1164
41-73
-2062
•0196
•1470
1056
44 94
•2416
0177
•1332
0896
52 76
-2043
0144
•1119
0679
67-04
•1511
0086
•0604
0552
82 42
1247
0076
•0867
0435
10312
0980
0058
•0523
0848 •
127 76
0796
0047
•0420
0246
180-76
0562
0028
0288
0129
301-26
0313
0016
•0166
0058
651 53
0162
0009
•0076
0027
1402-81
0097
0006
•0042
A
■
it
,/
,
/
^^~
/
*.îî
/
y
y
■
/
X
1
/
r'
Î
/
-il
j^
>y
X
y
V
^
^
\
^
J^'
^
\
^■•^
*
>
•'-*-^
■^
o^
^
ml
<3-^
■
5 1
t «
ifi
i
^ Û
Only a slight indication of a change in relation is shown for the
KCl concentration curve, and here again the resistance curve is very
regular. The change in the density curves for a large number of salts.
[BARNKBJ RESISTANCE OF A HYDRATED ELECTROLYTE SB
which has been observed, cannot, we think, be attributed to a change
in dissociation of the hydrate as was first suggested.^ It is to be
accounted for by some change in the relation of the salt and water mole-
cule, which would not necessarily produce any change in the electrical
conductivity. We are not in a position at present to state the nature of
this relation definitely. Previous determinations of density, which have
been made, show a similar change in relation when reduced on the same
plan, but as a rule values of densities quoted have been read off from
a smoothed curve and therefore miss the point in question.
' Trans. Roy. Soc. Can., VI., 75 (1900).
Section III., 1903 [ 87 ] Tran». R. S. C.
IV. — On the Badioactivity of Metals Oenerally.
By J. C. McLennan, Ph.D.
Associate Professor of Physics, University of Toronto,
AND
E. p. BuBTON, B.A.
Fellow in Mathematics, University of Toronto.
(Communicated by President Loudon, and read May 19th, 1903.)
Introduction, In a former paper by the authors^ on the con-
ductivity of a mass of ordinary air confined within a large metallic
receiver it was shown that about 37 per cent of the conductivity waii
due to an exceedingly penetrating radiation which, traversing the air
in the room, passed through the walls of the receiver. It was also
shown that the conductivity of fresh atmospheric air, after being con-
fined in a metallic cylinder, rapidly fell to a minimum value, that a
gradual rise then took place, and that a steady state was reached after
some hours.
On account of the known decay of the constituent in atmospheric
air responsible for excited radioactivity, the fall in the initial con-
ductivity was attributed to its presence in the cylinder, and the subse-
quent rise to an emanation of a similar character given off by the walls
of the containing vessel; the steady state representing a condition of
equilibrium, where the rate of decay of this emanation was equal to the
rate at which it was produced.
It was also pointed out that the limiting value of the conductivity
thus reached varied with the metals forming the walls of the receiver.
In experiments with lead, tin and zinc the conductivity was highest
with lead and lowest with zinc. Tn view of these results, and on
account of the known complex character of the radiation from such
highly radioactive substances as radium and thorium, a series of experi-
ments was made to investigate still further the radioactivity of
ordinary metals.
As a result of these experiments, we find that when a cylinder of
any metal is enclosed within a second of the same material, insulated
from it, and surrounded by air or other gases, it gradually acquires a
negative charge, and after a short time reaches a state of equilibrium
at a definite potential below that of the enclosing cylinder.
* Phjrs. Review. Vol. XVI., Xo. 3, p. 184, 1903, and University of Toronto
Studies. Physical Science Series No. 2.
88 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
So far the experiments made indicate that the negative charge
acquired by the cylinder results from a process in which an excess
of positively charged corpuscles is expelled from its surface. This
process is probably identical with the a radiation observed by Buther-
ford^ and others in the highly radioactive substances radium, thoriujn
and uranium, and expérimente are now being made by the writers to
determine its relation to the effect observed by Guthrie* and deve-
loped by Elster and Geitel,* J. J. Thomson,* Richardson,^ Strutt* and
others, that a metal, platinum for example, when heated to a dull red
will discharge a negatively charged body placed near it, but not one
positively charged.
Experiments — Metal Effect. In these experiments cylinders of
aluminium, zinc, lead, tin and copper were used, the outer ones being
B^E
120 cms. in length and 2-^ cms. in diameter, and the inner 110 cms.
in length and 19 cms. in diameter. The measurements were made
with a quadrant electrometer whose sensitiveness was such as to give
a deflection of 1,000 mms. on a scale situated at one metre from the
needle for a potential of one volt.
The apparatus and its connections are shown in Fig. I., where A
and B represent the cylinders of the metal examined. The wire which
led from the inner cylinder to the electrometer was of brass and was
surrounded by a tube of the same metal to screen off induction effects.
This tube, as well as the outer cylinder B and the metallic screen over
the electrometer, was kept joined to earth during an experiment. The
inner cylinder and the free quadrants were earthed by means of the
brass rod D, which carried a platinum tip and made contact with a
small platinum plate attached to the connecting wire as shown in the
figure. The tube was provided with a small opening so arranged that
the withdrawal of the rod D did not affect the capacity of the system.
Plugs and supports of paraflSn wax provided insulation for the apparatus.
• Phil Mag., F©b., 1903, p. 177.
• Phil. Mag. [4], 46. p. 257, 1873.
■ Wied. Ann., 38. p. 27. 1889.
• Phil. Mag.. XLIV., 1897. p. 203.
• Proc. Camb., Phil. Soc, XL, p. 286.
• Phlll. Mag., Vol. IV.. Sixth Series. 1902. p. 98.
[m'lennan]
RADIOACTIVITY OF METALS
39
In making a measurement the connecting rod D was withdrawn
and the apparatus left intact. The inner cylinder B and the free
quadrants then slowly acquired a negative charge which finally reached
a limiting value. This value varied with the metal used in the con-
struction of the cylinders A and B, but did not vary with samples of
the same metal obtained from different sources. It was also the same
whether the needle of the electrometer was positively or negatively
^0C
•
1
jite
h"-
i?
_-j
U^'
m/*^
L^
f
f^ '
/
J^fm
»#**••
r^^
n^
PMfT.»*-
i^ w
\\^.^ ^J'l
^
V\^
^ 7int^
fl^
0&
Uy'^Éf" ' ^
\ — ^
"1
iiW
^m
^'-ma
•i^
r
/v^.^.
Ho»^0^
charged. With lead, tin and copper the limiting value was reached in
about one hour, but with aluminium and zinc not before four or five
hours had elapsed.
Readings for pairs of cylinders of these metals at 16 °C are set
forth in Fig. II., where curves are drawn with the time expressed in
hours for abscissœ and the negative potential attained by the inner
cylinder expressed in millivolts for ordinates. The limiting values for
the different metals are as follows:
MiUivoltfl.
Aluminium 178
Zinc 160
Lead 216
Tin 95
Copper 78
In experimenting with lead cylinders the pressure of the air m
B was reduced from 760 mms. to 20 mms. of mercury and a slight
drop in the limiting potential of about three or four per cent was
observed.
Measurements were also made with different gases at atmospheric
pressure between these cylinders, and it was found that the limiting
potential slightly increased with the density of the gas used. A set
40 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
of readings taken with hydrogen, air, oxygen and carbon dioxide is as
follows:
Millivolts.
Hydrogren 205
Air 216
Oxygen 220
Carbon Dioxide 233
Experiments were also made with lead by varying the diameter
of the inner cylinder. With cylinders 19, 13 and 4 cms. in diameter
respectively no difference was observed in the limiting potential, but
the time required to reach it slightly increased with the use of cylinders
of smaller diameter.
The experiments were idso varied by placing the lead cylinders
in a tank filled with water, the surrounding layer of water havii^ a
thickness of 13 cms. Under these conditions the limiting potential
was found to be unchanged.
It was also observed that this metal eflEect was produced when
Rontgen or Becquerel rays were allowed to traverse the cylinders.
With these radiations, however, the limiting negative potentials were
reached in the course of a few seconds and varied but little from the
values obtained for the different metals under ordinary conditions.
A amall quantity of radium chloride of activity 1,000 confined in a
glass phial was used as the source of Becquerel rays, and was placed,
in the experiment, on a support close to the outside of the cylinder
B. The effect was also produced with a quantity of uranium oxide
placed near the cylinder, but a much longer time was required than
with the radium to reach the steady state.
The following are the values of the limiting negative potentials
obtained imder the different conditions: —
Negative Potential in Millivolts
Metal
Natural
Radiation.
Ront^en
Rays.
Becquerel
Rays.
Aluminium
Zinc
179
160
216
95
73
179
176
175
98
72
179
180
Lead
201
Tin
100
Copper
69
Volta Effect, It is evident that, with cylinders of different metals,
the arrangement shown in Fig. I afforded a means of exhibiting the
[ic'lxnnan]
RADIOACTIVITY OF METALS
41
Volta effect and of approximating to a measure of the contact differ-
ences of potential for a series of metals.
With the rod D in position a difference of potential would exist
between the cylinders A and B. Its withdrawal would be followed by
a gradual equalization of these potentials which would result in a
charge being communicated to the connecting wire and the free
quadrants. This again would set up a current to the surrounding tube
C, and finally the free quadrants would attain a steady potential, the
current between the cylinders being equal to that between the con-
necting wire and its surrounding tube. The potential assumed by the
free quadrants under these circumstances, while approximating to,
would be less than the contact difference of potential for the metals
used in the two cylinders.
The values obtained in this way for any two given metals, while
differing in sign, should be numerically the same, whichever metal was
S60
^
^^fKT
:i^^
Ï
^^
r^
/"
^'
d
/
7
i
/
J-
— (^
c
m^
1^*7
JW
— e
f
^
)
A
f^—
fee
k
r~
t
_i
r —
7
L
y
*
^
/ÂJ
f.S
^
t
y
<
5
•«*
used for the inner or outer cylinder. But on trial with a number of
pairs of metals, it was invariably found that the readings differed
when an interchange was made of the metals in the cylinders. This
is illustrated by the curves in Fig. III., which give the results for the
metals, zinc and copper, the upper representing the negative potentials
acquired by the quadrants with an inner cylinder of zinc, and the
lower the positive potentials with one of copper. The final potentials,
it will be seen, are 627 and 304 millivolts respectively.
This result finds its explanation in the metal effect described above.
We have shown that, with zinc cylinders, the inner, in virtue of this
42
ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
effect, attains a potential of 160 millivolts below that of the outer,
while with copper the corresponding value is 73 millivolts. If then
we suppose the two " effects ^^ to act concurrently, the final readings
observed with the zinc and copper cylinders will represent their
algebraic sum. Denoting the metal effect for zinc by x and that for
copper by y and the Volta effect for the two metals by V, we have
Limiting: Potential
(millivolts)
V + ar =
527
V-y =
304
^ =
160
y =
73
from which we obtain the values 367 and 377 millivolt© for the contact
difference of potential for the metals zinc and copper, an agreement
sufficiently close to confirm our hypothesis.
Similar measurements have been made with all combinations of
the metals aluminium, zinc, lead, tin and copper, taken in pairs, with
jeo
/fn
-fmf
f4f¥^
SX
1^
.^
r — '
/
^
1-
/
}
3^
1
--'
^ÊÛ
"4
/
^
^^
,
a/i
i*//
^TSrf
Ml£
A
i Ai
vxf.
nié
xf
£VO
^
V
^O
f
\rf^
^ ^
. -^-
à^A
^^«
tc
1 /
>Za
^m
AàM
P»**W
■*
.■*v
I ./-(
V
^
f-
--
-*t-:
3
uniformly close results, the volta effects obtained in this way being
in every case proportionately less than the generally accepted values.
As an additional illustration of these measurements, the curves
representing the results obtained with an inner cylinder of lead and
an outer of each of the metals are shown in Fig. IV. Combining the
limiting potentials of these with the metal effect for lead, 216 milli-
[m'lknnanI radioactivity OF METALS 48
volts, the potential differences for the different pairs of metals are as
follows : —
Difference of Potential
(millivolts)
Aluminium ^
} 36
Zinc j
Lead } «
Tin } •' 37
Copper } 3^
values which are considerably below those generally adopted.
Conclusions. The gas between the two cylinders always contains
ia number of ions, and, on account of the greater rate of diffusion of
the negative ione, it is possible that an excess of these would impinge
upon the inner cylinder in a given time and thus leave it negatively
charged. The resulting potential, however, should be the same for
all metals on this hypothesis.
Again, it is possible that the very penetrating radiation which is
present in ordinary air may consist of negatively charged matter and
that the negative charge taken up by the inner cylinder represents the
amount of this radiation intercepted by it. But the high value
obtained for aluminium, together with the results obtained with
Eontgen rays, is against this conclusion.
It seems rather that a process is going on at the surface of the
metal, whereby an excess of positively charged corpuscles is being con-
tinually emitted, and that the steady state attained represents a con-
dition of equilibrium in which the current between the cylinders is
equal to rate of efflux of the positive charges.
SEonoN III., 1903 [ 46 ] Tbans. B. S. a
Y.—The Oxalates of Bismuth.
By Db. F. B. Allan.
(Communicated by Prof. W. Laah Miller, and read May 19th, 1908.)
Neutral oxalate of bismuth -BtjO, 3 C^Os H S2O was prepared by
Souchay and Lenseon (Ann. der Chem., 106, 246), by adding oxalic acid
to a solution of biamuth oxide in nitric acid. It was also prepared by
Muir (Jour, of the Chem. Soc. 1878, 193), who gave it the formula
-BtjOg 3 Cj^Os 6 H^O. SwartzenbuTg (Ann. der Chem. 64, 127) boiled
bismuth oxide with acid potassium oxalate and the product, dried at
100**, had the composition Bi^O^ 3 C^Oj^ 4 H^O. If this neutral
oxalate be boiled repeatedly with water, a basic salt is formed to which
various formulas have been given — StjO, ^ ^^2^8 H -^2^ (Heintz,
Pogg, Ann. 63, 90) Bi^O^ 2 C^O^H^O (Souchay and Lensson) and
BtjOg 2 0^0^ (Muir).
Owing to the easy decomposition of the neutral oxalate by water,
I have not been able te obtain it entirely free from basic salt. This
oxalate was used in a study of the basic oxalates similar to the researches
by the auiihor on the nitrates (Amer. Qhem. Jour., 26, 307), and
sulphates of bismuth (Amer. Cîhem. Jour., 27, 284). The salt was
stirred with water and with oxalic axdd solutions in a constant tem-
perature bath. Owing to the length of time required to get
equilibrium in monovariant systems, only divariant systems containing
a gaseous, a liquid, and one solid phase have been obtained.
Bi^O^
At 60** a basic salt, in which -^^-^=3.23, was found to be in
G2C/3
equilibrium with oxalic acid solutions up to .085 normal and in
stronger solutions the solid phase was the neutral salt This basic
salt was air-dried and analyzed, the bismuth being determined as the
sulphide and the oxalic acid in the filtrate by titration with
permanganate.
CalcTiûated for (
Bi^O» 2 C^O^H^O Found.
BitO. 74.16 74.14
CtOn 22.97 23.00
^tO 2.87 (2.86)
Miller and Kenrick (Trans. Eoyal Soc. Canada, 1901), have shown
that the number of possible phases in a given system is not changed
if a new constituent be added to the liquid phase provided that this
new constituent does not pass into the solid phase. This condition is
46 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
fulfilled if dilute ammonia is stirred with BtjOs ^ C%O^Hfi and there-
fore a divariant system still contains but one solid phase. Preliminary
experiments showed that the new basic salt obtained in this way was
acted on by quite dilute ammonia and in order to get this solid phase
in equilibrium with a larger range of concentrations of ammonia, it
was necessary to reduce the eflBciency of the ammonia in the reaction.
This can be done by adding to the solution any ammonium salt, thus
decreasing the amount of ionization and as ammonium oxalate is one
of the products of the reaction it is the best salt for the purpose.
At 76**, -BtjOa 2 C^OJS/) was stirred with .028 normal ammonium
oxalate and ammonia of varying concentrations and a new basic salt,
-o: Q
in which 77^= ^•^^> ^^ found to be in equilibrium with ammonia
solutions up to .115 normal. This salt when air-dried had the following
composition: —
Calculated for
8 Bifit 2 CtO,
Found.
BHO^
90.64
90.42
CtO.
9.86
9.47
When Bt,0, 2 Cfi^Hfi was stirred with stronger ammonia or
potassium hydroxide, bismuth oxide was formed and there was no
indication of the formation of another basic oxalate.
Souchay and Lensson have described the following double oxalates
Bi^ {C^O,), 7 K,C,0, 24 ff,0, Bi, (C,OJ, 11 K,C,0, 24 H^O and
Bi2 {C^O,), 15 (NH^)^ C^O, 24 H^O.
They dissolved bismuth oxalate in concentrated hot solutions of
the alkaline oxalates and the double salts crystallized on cooling the
solutions. Results obtained by stirring bismuth oxalate with ammonium
oxalate and with potassium oxalate threw doubt on the existence of
these complex double salts and Souchay and Lensson's experiments
have been repeated and the salts obtained were analyzed by Messrs.
DeLury and Phillips.
A 4 per cent solution of ammonium oxalate was boiled with
bismuth oxalate, using a reflux condenser, for half an hour, filtered
hot, and the microscopic crystals formed on cooling were dried, under
pressure, between paper. The ammonia was determined by boiling
with potash and titrating the solution which distilled over.
Calculated for
Bit (CaOj. (HJ, C,04 8 n^O Found.
Bi, 43.93 44.30
CO* 37.08 36 85
NH^ 3.81 3.78
HtO 15.18 (15.07)
[ALLAN] THE OXALATES OF BISMUTH 47
The high value found for bismuth and the corresponding low
values for oxalic acid and ammonia may be due to imperfect filtering
or to a slight admixture of basic bismuth oxalate. This salt has not
been previously described.
The preparation was then repeated using an ammonium oxalate
solution saturated at 26** and the double salt obtained at 50** gave
3.85 per cent NU^ and was identical with that previously analyzed.
When this solution was cooled to room temperature two kinds of
crystals were deposited which under the microscope were identified as
this double salt and anwnonium oxalate.
Bismuth oxalate was dissolved in a 20 per cent solution of potas-
sium oxalate and the double salt obtained consisted of small white
crystals. After the removal of the bismuth from the solution of the
salt in hydrochloric acid the filtrate was evaporated and ignited and
the potassium weighed as potassium chloride.
Calculated for
Bi, iCtO;)t K,CtO^ 9% F,0 Found.
Bi 40.90 40.91
CtO^ 34.56 34.54
K 7.69 7.69
H,0 16.81 (16.86)
21 per cent and 23 per cent solutions of potassium oxalate gave
the same double salt, but the deposit from a 26 per cent solution, at
50®, contained 36.1 per cent C^O^ and that from the same solution
on cooling from 50® to room temperature contained 51.9 per cent
C2O4 and these are probably mixtures of the double salt and potassium
oxalate. Svensson (B, 3, 314 )has described a double salt having the
composition Bi^ (Cfi^^ -8^2^204 2 H^O.
There is no evidence of the existence of the double salts described
by Souchay and Lensson and the substances analyzed by them appear
to have been mixtures.
In this paper three new componds have been described — 3 Bi^O^
2 C,0„ El^ {C20,)^ (NH,), C^O^ 8 H^O and Bi^ (C^O,), K^Gfi^ ^
Efi.
Section III., 1903 [ 49 ] Tkans. R. 8. C.
VI. — Researches in Physical Chemistry carried out in the University
of Toronto during the Past Tear.
Communicated by Pbop. W. Lash Milleb.
(Read May 19th. 1903.)
1. The Oxalates of Bismuth: — Dr, F. B. Allan. A study of tne
reactions between bismuth oxalate and water^ and between bismuth
oxalate and ammonia, from the point of view of the Phase Bule. Pub-
lished in full in this volume of the Society's proceedings.
2. The Chemical Kinetics of the system: Potc^sium iodide, ferrous
sulphate, chromic acid: — Miss C. C. Benson. Miss Benson^s paper ont
the rate of oxidation of ferrous sulphate by chromic acid, referred to
last year, has since appeared in the Journal of Physical Chemistry
(vol. VII., p. 1), and the research has been extended to include the
rates of oxidation of potassium iodide and ferrous sulphate in solutions
containing both. The results cannot be brought into harmony with
the requiremenfts of the " peroxide theory " advocated by Manchot
and others; but can, for the most part, be explained by a new theory —
the " Ferroiodion I^eory." The paper will appear in the May number
of the Journal of Physical Chemistry.
3. The composition of the surface layers of solutions of Amyl
Alcohol in Water: — Miss C. C. Benson. As the surface tension of
water is greatly diminished by adding a minute quantity of Amyl
alcohol, it seemed possible that the surface layers contained more of
the alcohol than the body of the liquid. Two years ago, at the sug-
gestion of Dr. Kenrick, Miss Benson made analyses of the froth pro-
duced by shaking aqueous solutions of amyl alcohol, and recently by
the aid of an improved apparatus, has been able to show that in the
froth — where the percentage of "surface layer" is greater, the per-
centage of amyl alcohol also is greater than in the body of the solution.
The paper has been sent to the Journal of Physical Chemistry for
publication.
4. The Rate of Oxidation of Pota^ium Iodide by Chromic Acid
at 0^ and at SO^ : — Mr. Ralph E. DeLury. Experiments undertaken
(in connection with those of Miss Benson) to throw light on the remark-
able catalytic action which ferrous salts exert on the reaction between
Sec. III., 1003. 4.
60 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
chromic acids and iodides. The rate is very closely proportioiiftL to
the concentiatioa ol the bichTomate, and to the square of that of the
acid; the effect of the iodide can be expressed by a formula of the
form dx/dt = mC + nC*. The temperature coefficient of the rate is
much lower than that of any other reaction yet studied. The paper
has appeared in the April number of the Jour. Phys. Chem.
6. The Rate of the formation of lodates in alkaline solutions of
Iodine: — Mr. E, Forster. This reaction has already been studied by
Schilow (Zeit. phys. Chem., 16) who, however, completely overlooked
the action of the potassium iodide on the rate. In colourless solutions
(excess of potash) the rate is proportional to the concentration of the
potassium iodide, to the square of the amount of iodine added, and
to the reciprocal of the concentration of the potash. In brown solu-
tions (for which a special method of analysis had to be devised) the
rate increases with increase in the concentration of the potash and is
retarded by potassium iodide. These facts point to the participation
of hypoiodous acid in the reaction. The experiments are not yet com-
pleted.
6. The " tnelting " of Sodium Acetate: — Mr. Oreen. The crystals
deposited from melted sodium acetate trihydrate were analyzed and
found to consist of the anhydrous salt The results of earlier analyses,
(Zettnow, 1866), which led to the crystals in question being considered
(as a lower hydrate, must be ascribed to the difficulty of separating
them from the supersaturated solution without bringing about deposi-
tion of the trihydrate. The solubility curves of the trihydrate and
of the anhydrous salt have also been determined. The so-called " melt-
ing point " is the temperature at which the two curves cross.
7. An acid Ferrous Sulphate: — Mr. R. E. H ore. Experiments
carried out under the direction of Dr. F. B. Kenrick.
8. The Rate of Migration of the Ions in solutions of Acetic Acid: —
Mr. J. W. McBain. One of the earliest triumphs of the van 't Hoff-
Arrhenius theory of solutions consisted in calculating the effect of
dilution on the conductivity of acetic acid. The calculation in ques-
+ -
tion assumes that the ions in the solutions are H and C^H^Oz, and
their rates of migration (obtained from determinations of the conduc-
tivity of hydrochloric acid and of sodium acetate) are made the basis
of the computation. Mr. McBain's measurements of the transference
[LAflH iiiLUCR] RESEARCHES IN PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY 81
numbers in solutions of acetic acid (up to the present no similar mea-
.Burements have been made with any of the weaker acids) give results
which are totally at variance with these assumptions, and which may
throw light on discrepancies observed elsewhere when the theory of
electrolytic dissociation has been pushed to extremes.
9. The Ferrous Sulphates and their Hydrates: — Dr, F. B. Km-
rick, A study of the system FeO^ 80^, H^O^ from the point of view
of the Phase Rule, leading to a systematic cataloguing of the various
hydrates and acid salts, and a determination of the conditions under
which they can exist. When working with solutions in concentrated
sulphuric acid, it was found impossible to dry the crystals without risk
•of decomposing them, but by dissolving ammonium sulphate in the
mother-liquor, and determining ammonia as well as iron and sulphuric
acid, the amount of mother-liquor adhering to the crystals could be
asewtained.
10. The loctericidal action of solutions of Phenol containing salts^
and the chemical potmtial of Phenol in the solutions: — Prof. W, Lash
Miller and Prof, J. J. MacKênzie. Solutions of various quantities of
Phenol and salts in water were shaken with Toluene and the distribu-
tion of the Phenol between the two solvents determined. The rate
at which Anthrax spores die in the same solutions was then determined.
The rate seems to be the same in all solutions that are in equilibrium
with the same solution of Phenol in Toluene, and is increased by in-
crease in the concentration of either Phenol or sodium chloride. The
experiments are not yet finished.
11. A convenient integral form of the Equations of Chemical
Kinetics: — Prof, T. R. Rosebrugh and Prof, W. Lash Miller. A partial
abstract of the contents of this paper is contained in ^^ Numerical values
of certain Functions involving e*" appearing in the present volume
of these Proceedings.
Sbction III., 1903 [ 83 ] Trans. R S. 0.
VIT. — Note on the application of Fourier's Series to the determination
of the forme of Came to fulfil given conditions of displacement^
velocity and accleration.
By E. G. CoKBR, M.A., (Cantab.), D.Sc. (Edio.)
Assistant Professor of Civil Engineering, McGill University, Montreal.
(Communicated by Dr. H. T. Bovey, and read May 19, 1903.)
The applications of cams for transmitting and modifying motion are
extremely varied on account of the ease with which any finite displace-
ment of one piece with regard to another can be produced, and by suit-
ably combining cams a tracing point can be made to occupy successively
any point on a curve in a plane, whether non-intersecting or otherwise*
This was early shown by Mr. Cowper, who in a lecture before 1.he Boyal
Institution arranged a model in which the tracing point produced a
curve forming the letters R. I., and other more complicated forms have
been produced since.
In general cams are designed to produce given displacements only,
and their forms are obtained by various artifices. If the requii-ed dis-
placement of the point considered be marked upon a plane in relation to
the angular displacement of the cam from a fixed zero line, then the curve
of displacements is evidently a one-valued function of the angle in
general, but there may be finite discontinuities corresponding to a sudden
rise or fall in the motion of the follower. If, therefore, a predetermined
motion is marked out in rectangular co-ordinates, the required cam sur-
face is at once produced by wrapping this curve round a right circular
cylinder, the periphery of which is equal to the length along the axis of a;
corresponding to a complete period of the displacement. This mode oi
the formation of a cam upon a cylindrical surface has this advantage, that
the inclinations of the cam curve to lines parallel to the axis of y, and to
the generating lines of the cylinder are equal. For motion to be possible
it is essential that the inclination of the cam be less than tan—^ jn, where
/i is the co-efficient of friction or analytically dy/dO < //.
If a curve in the x, y plane be plotted for which at some point of
the period o — 2 n, dy/dO > // then if every elemental value of dd be
altered in a constant ratio of k/\ it is always possible to find k such that
dy/kdO < fx and the required condition can always be fulfilled provided
dy/dO is not = db oo at any place. In that case motion is not possible
with the cam alone, but this can be overcome, at the discontinuity, by the
application of an extraneous force such as gravity, or the action of a
spring arranged to produce motion at the discontinuity. A simple
84 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
example is that of a cam operatÎDg a tilt hammer, which is raised
gradually and allowed to fall suddenly under the action of gravity.
For many cases motion of the follower is not parallel to the shaft
carrying the cam, but at right angles to it, and the cam surface most
then be traced in polar co-ordinates. The condition for movement to
be possible is now that the inclination of the cam curve to the radius
vector at the point shall be greater than ô or, where a = tan"^ fx or
analytically r-^ >tanl-^ — a. j As in most cases it is easier to fulfil
the conditions by drawing the displacement curve with rectangular
co-ordinates, it will be convenient to enquii*e what variation is produced
in transferring to polar co-ordinates.
The usual method of transference is to fix upon a minimum radius
vector to which corresponds a line in the x, y, plane distant b below the
lowest point of the displacement curve. The values of the ordinates cot
oft between this straight line and the curve of displacements are then
taken as polar distances at their appropriate angles, and a smooth curve
drawn through their outer ends, and if the curve is such as to satisfy the
criterion stated above, the required motion will be obtained.
It will be sufficient for our present purpose if we consider the case
of the transformation of a plane cam made up of lines inclined at the
maximum angle a » taw'^ /i.
If tp is the corresponding angle which the polar cam makes at any
radius r, (p^ then
rd <l)/dr = tan tp.
XT dr dr
. ' , r = tan a . tan f/\
= /i tan f.
The angle tf.^ is therefore variable, depending upon the value of r,
7t
thus when r = o t/' = o and when r = co , tp = -^,
This shows that for any possible case (excluding finite discontinu-
ities) a value of x can be found, such that the modified criterion can be
satisfied, and hence a polar cam curve can be constructed fi-om the Cartesian
curve of displacements.
It is moreover also possible to transform to polar co-oi*dinates with-
out change of angle, but this method of transformation involves an
alteration in the displacement given by the cam.
If we denote a point on the displacement curve by the rectangular
co-ordinates x, y, a polar diagram can be drawn, which has, point for
[ooker] determination OF THE FORM OF CAMS 88
point, the same incliaatlon to the circle struck from the origin as the
curve has to the axis of x.
If Uy V, be the new rectangular co-ordinates where u = rcos ^, v =
r sin (p. Then using the transformation
u -h zv = £*■*" '"^ = £* {cos y + t sin y)
and equating real and imaginary parts we obtain
r = £» , 0 = y
This transformation ensures that every straight line x = x^ becomes
a circle of radius r = e' about the new origin, while every straight
y = 6 becomes a radial line passing through the new origin at an angle
^ = d,y or generally lines parallel to the axis of y become transformed
into circles round a new origin and lines parallel to the axis of y become
radii from the new origin.
Let now the tracing point z in the x, y plane trace a part of the
cam curve such that at any point x, y the inclinatioa is /S^ then the
inclination of the transformed curve at the point u, v to the circle is fi
and hence the required transformation is accomplished.
The magnification is altered, however, as can be seen at once by
taking a line passing through the origin of co-ordinates in the plane xy at
an angle or.
We have y = mx where m = tan a
Hence r = evl'^ , ^ z= y
When y = 0 r=e'' = l
When y = 7C r = eV"*
The displacement from o — w is therefore eV* — 1 instead oimtc
By altering the scales ic is in general possible to make the displace-
ments equal.
Hence the conformai method of representation enables us to trans-
form a curve in the plane of x, y to polar co-ordinates with the angles
unchanged.
Application of Fourieb's Sebies to Cams.
It is shown in works on mathematics that any function of x of
period 2 tt which is finite and continuous can be repi*esented by a series
of the form
/(x) = A^ + A^ cos x 4- A2 cos *2 X -\- A^ cos 3 X +
+ Bj^ sin X + i?, sin 2x + B2 sin 3x +
86 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
and that the values of the constants are given by a series of definite
integrals, viz.:
1 /•^'T
1 /•2'r
A =^ J ^ f (x) cos mx dx
1 /•2"'
5^ = — / f (x) sin mx dx.
»2ir
nJ
And it can also be shown that no other expansion in a series of sines
and cosines can represent the fanction.
If the function j{z) is not finite everywhere the series may be diver-
gent, but if it is finite the series must be at least semi-convergent, while
if discontinuities occur it can be shown that the series will still represent
the function, except at the discontinuity, when the sum of the series for
this value of x is the mean of the arithmetic values of /(x) at that place.
In general, therefore, a curve representing displacements, velocities and
acclerations can be resolved into a series of sines or cosines, and since
integration of a series renders it moi*e convergent than before, it is
possible, starting from a velocity time curve, or an accleration time cui've,
to obtain a corresponding displacement time curve, from which a cam
can be constructed giving predetermined velocities and acclerations.
As a simple example let it bo required to determine the form of a
cam, which, for one half its stroke, gives a uniformly increasing velocity
to the follower, and for the other half a uniformly decreasing velocity.
It can easily be shown that a Fourier series representing the given
motion is
F= --^^sm c^t — - 5m3a?t + .. + — !— ^sm (2n-l) QDt-\-
where qd = —^ V
and this is obviously convergent, since the coefficients are so, and the sine
terms can only vary between ± 1. If now we integrate we obtain
5 + 5^ = -|^ \coi cot - l^cos 3 cot +^^^ cos (2n -1) a;< + . . j
a still more converging aeries, and hence the displacement can be deter-
mined and the cam drawn.
As another example, let \ia take an accleration curve in which a
uniform positive accleration is impressed upon the follower for one half
a revolution, followed by a uniform negative accleration of the same
numerical value. For this case
a = ij Lin œt + iin3œt+ .. + .j^sin (2n-l) œt + |
[coker] determination OF THE FORM OF CAMS 87
A eeries in which the convergonce depends apon the values of the sine
terms, since the sum of the coefficients is obvioasly divergent. On examin-
ation the maximum value of the series is found to be
n«i n 4
and the series is semi-convergent and may be integrated.
The integration produces a series of the same form as the previous
example and hence the displacement cam can be drawn.
Owing to the simplicity of the instances the resulting displacement
curve could be determined more easily by other methods, but if the
periodic curve is of more complicated form this would not be the case.
For instance, the curve to be analyzed may be made up of arcs of curves
of a higher order of single valued functions where it may be difficult to
evaluate the definite integrals involved. A graphical process may
then be resorted to, as indicated by Professor Clifford.^
This may be briefly described as follows : If the periodic curve to
be analysed be wrapped round a cylinder bO that, without altering the
value of the ordinates, it completely encircles the cylinder m times, then
it can be shown that the orthogonal projection of this curve on the
meridian plane, which passes through the zero point of the curve, will
enclose an area which is proportional to the coefficient A^, and, on a
plane at right angles the orthogonal projection will be proportional to B^,
Other methods have been described, such as that described by Langsdorf ,
which merely involves the construction of lines and circles.
In general, therefore, it is possible lo determine the displacement
curve when the accleration or velocity is prescribed.
It may also be noted that sine and cosine functions are not the only
ones into which the original curve can be analysed, for a function of x
can be expressed in terms of a series of zonal or cylindrical harmonics
in which the co-efficients are expressible in terms of definite integrals, as
in Fourier's series.
For ordinary purposes there is no advantage in these forms, as the
series becomes extremely complicated, and graphical methods of obtain-
ing the coefficients are more or less undeveloped.
^ Collected papers p. 201.
* Langsdorf— A graphical method of analysing distorted alternating current
waves. Physical Review, 1901, p. 184.
SKnoH IIL, 1903 [ 59 ] Tbanb. R. 8. a
VIII. — A Laboratory Apparatus for Applying Bending and Torsional
Moments Simultaneously.
By E. G. CoKEB, M.A., D.Sc.
Assistant Professor of Civil Engrineering, McOill University.
(Communicated by Dr. H. T. Bovey, and read May 19, 1908.)
The determination of the behaviour of materials under various
kinds of stress forms an essential part of the laboratory training of the
engineering student^ and various forms of testing machines are used
for applying stresses^ such as simple tension^ compression^ bending^
shear, and the particular case of shear produced -in twisting a bar by
an applied torque. Incidentally, cases of compound stress occur,
such as in the bending of beams, where it is not usually thought worth
while to eliminate the shearing stress from the bending stress on
account of its small effect in beams of moderate length in relation to
(their depth, but in general suitable means for the application of com-
.pound stress are rarely found in the laboratory, and in particular the
important case of bending combined with twisting is rarely experi-
mented upon, chiefly because the types of machine used for applying
bending or torsional moments, are not applicable for applying these
stresses simultaneously. The present paper describes an apparatus
for applying both kinds of stress in any desired proportion and imiform
in amount over the whole length of the specimen and is a modified
form of one described in a previous paper.*
The principle of the machine is illustrated by Kgure 1, in which
a rod AB oi circular section is suspended by rings C D from a bar jE?,
and twisting couples are applied by levers F 0 ot equal length and
loaded to the same degree, whereby a uniform twisting moment is
produced on the specimen between the levers. In practice, if the
outer end of the lever F is anchored to the ground the effect is the
same, and the twisting moment can be applied by a single weight sus-
pended from the lever 0.
The ends of the specimen are produced and at suitable distances
from each supporting ring loads are applied, so that the bending
moment at each ring is the same, and it therefore follows that the
bending moment between the supports will be of uniform amount. It
it usually preferable to have separate levers for applying the bending
moment which can be attached to the ends of the specimen.
* Appara^tus for measuring strain and applying stress. Trans. Roy. i-oc.
Edin., 1901.
eo
ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
In this arrangement the application of one stress in no way affects
the application of the other^ and an apparatus of this kind was used by
the author for some time and it worked very satisfactorily. It is,
however, too sensitive for ordinary use, as the freedom of motion of
a specimen suspended in this way is so great that every application
of a load disturbs the equilibrium of the test bar with reference to the
supporting beam, and it takes some time for the vibrations to die out;
moreover, since the weigh lever must be levelled before a reading can
be taken, some means must be provided to eflEeet this after each applica-
tion of the load, and this wa^s done by a right and left-handed nut
forming part of the link H, This serves very well for experiments up
to the yield point of a bar, but it is not a convenient arrangement if
the twist is to be carried further.
In order to overcome these objections a second apparatus was
designed in which the lever F and the adjusting link // were replaced
by a worm wheel, secured in a suitable casing and free to rotate about
an axis coincident with the centre line of the lever F, and this axis
was secured in fixed bearings. This arrangement permitted a test to
[ooKM] APPARATUS FOR APPLYING BENDING MOMENTS
61
be carried on to the breaking point, and the fixing of the axis efifectu-
ally stilled the vibrations, which were produced in the original arrange-
ment.
Figures 2 and 3 show the arrangement used in a small machine,
which was built through the kindly aid of Professor Bovey, F.R.S., and
which has been in regular use in the testing laboratory of McGill
University during the past winter session. Figure 2 is a face view of
the torsion head consisting of a casing A pivoted in bearings B and
fitted with a worm wheel operated by a worm C on the shaft D, pro-
vided with a hand wheel. The axles E, E rest on roller bearings to
eliminate friction, and one side carries an arm F and locking pin 0,to
fix the casing in the vertical plane when torsional moment only Is
applied. If both Idnda of stress are applied, the casing turns with the
bar, so that the twisting moment is always applied in a plane at right
62
ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
angles to the test piece. The specimens are turned from material of
square section, and one end is passed through the squared hole in the
worm wheels while the other end is secured in a similar way in the
imgh l&nx ahown by figure 8.
This lever coBOikMi a casting L having a central axis M carrying the
grip for the specimen, and supporteâ on friction rollers N, mounted in
Fig. 3a.
an encircling ring 0. The ring 0 has pivots perpendicular to the central
axis, and thin steel plates P, supported from a spindle Q above encircle
these and allow the weigh lever to turn about an axis in the plane of
the paper, while motion about the central axis is permitted by the fric-
tion rollers. This method of suspension permits bending and torsion
moments to be applied simultaneously, and any correction for the
friction of the pivots can be readily made, although in practice it is
found to be so small as to be negligible in general. The weight of the
lever arm R and stirrup S carrying the weights, is balanced by an
adjuslal>l<? weight T \i\yon tJie arm U; if the specimen is to be twisted in
opposite directions alternately a second weigh lever is fitted on the right
hand side instead of the balance weight. The weights are suspended.
[cokkr] apparatus FOR APPLYING BENDING MOMENTS 63
figure 3, from a ring pivoted on a circular knife edge, screwed on to tbe
weigh lever arm, and secured by clamping nuts on each side.
The general arrangement of the apparatus, with a test bar in posi-
tion, is shown in perspective in Fig. 3a, where it is seen that th«
specimen is stressed beyond its yield point by the oom:bined stresses
and is bent considerably, the angular distortion due to the twisting
moment is not apparent since the lever B has been brought
back to the horizontal by the worm-wheel gear. In determining
•the angle of twist of a specimen, use is made of an angle
measurer designed by the author/ which can be arranged to read
accurately on a bent bar. For readings before the yield point is
reached some such device is* necessary, but afterwards the worm-shaft
can be used, as the errors due to the twisting of the enlarged ends can
then be neglected. In the present arrangement the worm-wheel has
forty-eight teeth, so that one complete turn of the worm shaft corre-
sponds to a twist of 7^^. A graduated disc upon the shaft is divided
so that each division corresponds to five minutes of arc, which is suffi-
ciently fine for these relatively rough measurements. To prevent mis-
takes in reading, the worm-wheel is also divided to check the number of
revolutions of the worm shaft, since in testing most metals to destruc-
tion, one end must be twisted round several comiplete turns, and with-
out some counting device, mistakes in measurement are likely to arise.
As an example of the results obtained in a case of combined stress,
reference may be made to a few experiments on some samples of
wrought iron, all of which were cut from the same bar and turned up to
a standard size of 0.375 inches. The length of the specimen under test
was in all cases, four inches, and the calibration value of the measuring
instrument gave one minute of arc as corresponding to 8.68 divisions
of the scale. A specimen was first tested by applying a gradually
increasing torque without bending, and the bar failed with a torque of
about 285 inch pounds, the readings taken are shown in Table I., and
the stress-strain curve from these is plotted in Figure 4. Similar spe-
cimens to which bending moments of various amounts were applied
were then tested, and it was found that an increase in the bending
moment lowered the yield point of the material, but as long as the bar
remained perfectly elastic, no difference in the angular defiection
occurred, beyond what might be reasonably accounted for by unavoid-
able experimental error and also by the fact that the specimens differed
very slightly in diameter.
^ Philosophical Maerazlne, December, 1899.
64
ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
TABLE I.
Bending Moment (M) in inch pounds
Twisting
moment in
M =
0
If = 128 7
If =168
M = 217.7
inch pounds.
Reading
A
Reading
A
Reading
Reading
0
0
0
0
0
-161
-160
-160
-150
30
161
160
160
160
-160
—168
—160
-160
eo
321
817
320
810
-161
-157
-161
-161
90
481
470
481
480
—157
-168
-161
-157
lao
038
682
642
687
-160
-158
—161
-166
160
707
791
808
802
-161
-157
-160
-175
180
058
048
963
067
—167
-162
-197
210
1125
-180
1110
1160
Went off scale
at about 810
240
1306
Went off scale
Went off each
inch pounds.
-220
for a torque of
at about 225
270
1644
about 260 inch
pounds.
inch pounds.
285
Bar failed
The readingB obtained are shown in the accompanying table and
are exhibited graphically in Figure 4.
It is interesting to note that McFarlane^ has shown that the efifect of
tension is to lower the yield point for shear stress and since bending
produces tensional stress, this lowering of the yield point by bending
might be expected. Although compression stress is also produced by
the effect of bending, yet even if it tends to raise the jrield point as Lord
Kelvin* supposes, it is unlikely to have any influence here. The larger
question of the reason for the failure of a material when subjected to
stress of various kinds has been the subject of much speculation by
mathematicians and physicists and is still debatable. It may be inter-
esting to point out what bearing the various theories have upon the par-
ticular case of compound stress considered here, and the differences
which arise in applying the theories to obtain formulae for computing
the working strength of a material.
Theories of compound strength, — All cases of stress can be reduced
to the general case of three principal stresses in planes at right angles to
one another, and if the behaviour of a material under these simultaneous
stresses was accurately known, a correct theory could be formulated. In
the absence of such information various theories have been proposed from
» Art Elasticity, Enc. Brit.
[cokkb] apparatus FOR APPLYING BENDING MOMENTS 68
330
fco 9oo tSU)0 iéOO SOOO S^OO ilffOO 3QOO
/hvguJboA' dju^tcrrtiarv
See. UL, 1908. fi.
ee
ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
time to time^ and the one most .generally used by engineers is based upon
the assumption, that when one of the principal stresses reaches a limit
detennined by the material, failure takes place. This theory has been
adopted in general by engineers following the lead of Poncelet and
Bankine.
Another theory assumes that the material fails when a certain maxi-
mum strain has been reached, while a third theory adopts the view that
yielding takee place when the shear stress
exceeds a certain value. Each of these theo-
ries satisfactorily explains the lowering of the
yield point in simple tension by a simulta-
neous bending moment, but they yield
different formulae for purposes of calculation
of working strength.
If we consider the equilibrium of a tri-
angular element of a shaft of unit thickness,
then the bending moment will produce a
normal component of stress p on the fece AB, while the torsional
moment produces stress of value q on the faces AB, BC.
If on a third plane AC, the stress (p:^) is a normal (principal)
stress, then since the element ABC is in equilibrium, we obtain the
equations of condition.
Pn—p = qcot0 (1)
= q tan 0
(■i)
and eliminating 0 we obtain
p, = p/2 d= Vy/4 + 7'
where the — sign denotes the lesser principal stress say p*„.
According to the maximum stress theory the effect of p\ is neglig-
ible and failure takes place when Pn 5 f^ where / is the working strength
of the material. For a circular shaft writing
p = M/^ n 7^
and by analogy
we obtain
= M/inr^
M = (3f + ^/M^+ T) I 2
tlie formula generally used by engineers.
The greater strain theory takes into account the effect of the lesser
principal stress, and if e^ is the maximum strain in the direction of the
greater principal stress then when failure takes place we have
[cokbb] apparatus FOR APPLYING BENDING MOMENTS 67
where m is Poisson's ratio and this criterion results in the equation
M = (m— I) M /2m + (m + 1) s/W^T^/tm
The third theory adopts the view that failure occurs when the sheai
stress roaches the limit of resistance of the material. For principal
stresses of p^ and je>*, it is easy to show that the maximum shear stress
has the value p^ — p*^ leading to the equation
Recent experiments* appear to point to this last theory as the true
one.
* Guest. '* On the strength of Ductile Materlala under Oombined Strees.*'
Phil. Mag., July, 190a
SBcnoH III., 1903 [ 69 ] Trans. R. S. 0.
IX. — Seismology in Canada.
By R. P. Stupart.
(Read May 19th, 1903.)
Within the last decade systematic seismological surveys have been
began with central observing stations in several European countries.
In 1897, at the request of the Seismological Investigation Com-
mittee of the B.A.A.S., the Meteorological Service undertook the care
of two instruments for recording unfelt quakes, one of which was
installed at Toronto and paid for by the Dominion Qovemment, and
the other in Victoria and was supplied by the B.A.A.S. The instru-
ment used is similar to that supj^ed to some 38 stations in various
parts of the world, but more especially in 'the colonies of Great
Britain. These instruments are distributed as follows: —
(1) Africa Cape Town. (20) Japan .... ! Tokio.
(2) Africa Cairo. (21) Mauritius Royal Alfred Obser-
vatory.
(3) Australia Melbourne. (22) Mexico Mexico.
(4) ** Sydney. (23) New Zealand. . . WeUington.
(5) " .... Perth. (24) " " ...Christ-Church.
(6) Azores (2 instruments). (25) Portugal Coimbra.
(7) Canada Toronto. (28) Russia Irkutsk.
(8) Canada Victoria, B.C. (27) ** Tiflis.
(9) Ceylon Colombo. (28) *• Taschkent.
(10) England Shide, Isle of Wight (29) Scotland Edinburgh.
(11) " Kew. (30) " Paisley.
(12) *' Bidston. (31) S. America O>rdova (Argentina)
(13) Germany Strassburg. (32) " . ...Arequipa.
(14) Hawaii Honolulu. (33) Spain San Fernando.
(15) India Calcutta. (34) Syria Beyrut.
(16) '' Madras, Kodaikanal (35) Trinidad
(17) ** '* Vizagapatam (36) U. S. of AmericaPhiladelphia.
(18) " Bombay. (37) " Baltimore.
(19) Java Batavia. (88) Antarctic re-
gions .. . .ss. Discovery 1
It seems to me that in seismology the realms of investigation by
geologist and physicist are very close together.
Earthquakes are probably in most instances caused by the sudden
fracturing of the rocky crust of the earth under the influences of bend-
ing, and it has been found by investigation, that most of the larger
quakes with their accompanying land slips have a sub-oceanic origin
in regions where there is a pronounced slope in the ocean bottom.
For example, on the borders of the Tuscarora deep ofif the east
coast of Japan. Evidence seems to indicate tiiat volcanic action
70 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
at the summits of these slopes often follows a quake^ and it is a
debatable question whether this is due to the introduction of sea w^ter
by infiltration to the interior heat, or whether we must consider the
volcanic action started in some other way, and that the water vapour
expelled is from water held in the rock formation. Each of these
theories has supporters.
Since the installation of the seismograph at Toronto the instrument
îhùs recorded 462 quakes, and of this number 58 were large, such as
were probably recorded by all similar instruments on the globe.
The monthly average of disturbances is seven, but in September,
1899, thirty-four were recorded. The most pronounced disturbances
recorded have had their origin either near Japan, in Alaska or in
Mexico or Central America. The largest movement of all was that
caused by the Guatemala quake on April 18th, 1902, and which seems
to have been the precursor of the West Indian volcanic activity in ^lay.
The largest movement recorded at Victoria was from a Japanese
quake which occurred August 9th, 1901, and which caused a large sea
wave in the Pacific; also there is evidence that this quake loosened
and broke oflE large pieces of ice from the Alaska glaciers and to
it was indirectly due the loss of the S.S. " Islander '* in the Lynn Canal
on August 16th.
Two Alaska quakes of great severity occurred on the 3rd and 10th
of September, 1899, when large vibrations of the booms at Toronto and
Victoria were recorded. On September 4th, G. M. T., the initial move-
ment at Victoria began at 0.26,13, and at Toronto 4 minutes later.
On September 3rd, about 2.30 p.m., houses in Yakuta Bay, Alaska,
were rocked violently. On September 10th, three waves at intervals
of five minutes occurred.
A large earthquake which was recorded January 14th, Toronto,
Ih. 54.4m.; Victoria, Ih. 55.6m., becomes interesting when taken in
connection with the report of an enormous wave which devastated some
of the South Sea Islands on January 13th-14th of this year and which
is said to have been accompanied by a seismic disturbance. Did the
etorm set some vast sub-oceanic strata in motion?
But the work we have so far performed has been simply observa-
tional. The greatest care has been taken to have the time scale on
our traces very exact and the traces very clear. The measurements are
accurately tabulated and forwarded to the B. A. A. S. together with
prints of tlic larger disturbances, these are printed with the results
■obtained in other countries and the whole are made available to every
student of seismology. Briefly, the results show as follows: — That
disturbances begin with rapid short period tremors, which after an
interval varying with the distance from the origin are followed by large
LsTUPARTl SEISMOLOGY IN CANADA 71
waves, which, if regarded as surface waves have an almost constant rate
of 3 K second. Dr. C. G. Knott has arrived at the conclusion that
the large waves of earthquakes are transmitted through a comparatively
homogeneous medium beneath the crust, which, as they pass is forced
10 lise and fall like a raft upon an ocean swell. The reality of these
earth billows is well illustrated by our magnetic curves from the Agin-
court Observatory. See curves.
Ill;
7
Sbction III., 1903 [ 73 ] Trans. R. S. C.
X. — Numerical values of certain functions involving e-'.
By W. Lash Miller, Ph.D., and T. R Eosebrugh, M.A.
(Read May 10, 1003.)
In dealing with certain problems of Chemical Kinetics,^ equations of
the form
dz
^"^""^ (iA-zr(B-z)f^(iC^zy... (1)
are commonly met with. The tables published herewith were fii*st com-
puted (to a less number of decimal places) in order to furnish a ready
means of integrating them.
In Equation (1), A^ B, C, . . are positive constants, arranged in
order of magnitude, A being the smallest ; a, ytf, ;/, , . are any real quan-
tities; and z may range from 0 to any value less than A,
In Equation (1) making the substitution
Ay = A — z, (2)
there follows
-dy
Kdu =
yo (1 + hyf (1 + cy)y . . (3)
in which
JS:= kA""-^ (^B — Af{C—A)y...
Equation (8) may be written
Kdu =^^ . r^i^ + rys-'v' + fi/^... (4)
where (? =2;/? 6, r = \:^ftb\ s = i 2fi b^,t = ^ 2 /3 b'.
If 6, c, . . , are small (y being obviously less than unity), the series
in the exponent of e converges rapidly, and Equation (4) may be
(approximately) replaced by
Kdu = ^ .^y{l + ry' + ir'y* - sy' + ty*) (5)
Writing x for qy and integrating (with the lower limit u = 0, ^ = 0)
Ku =
-fe-^x-^ dx - ^fe-'^x^ dx+ ^fe-'x^^^dx^^ +,^ ''^ e'^ x'-^dx (Q)
1 The subject is more fully discussed in a paper which will shortly be published
under the title : T. R Rosebrugh and W. Lash Miller— A convenient integral form
of the Equations of Chemical Kinetics*
74 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
The caaos where or = 0, a = 1, and or = 2, are of particular importance
in the class of problems already referred to. Introducing these values
Equation (6) becomes*
a = 0, Ku = —Je'dx — 4/^"^ ^' ^^ C^)
a = 1, A-i/ = ^ /•-"'* <ix - ^fe'^x dx + ^Je~''x^dx (8)
a = 2,Ku = —Jf^'dx^^^fe''' dx + ^c"' x //x
_l±lJ^Je^:x?dx (9)
and by means of tables of those integrals computations can be carried out
with much less labour than if the method of integration by partial fractions
— assuming its applicability — were employed. This is particularly the
case when the factors in Equation (1) are numerous, or the exponents
large.
The most general form of Equation (1) may be written
Kdu =
:2^
y"" (1 + i/iv + hy + my + . . .)^ (i + ^ + /^' + ^^ly* + • • 0?^ . .
rom which the following values of g', r, 5 . . . . may be found
As fif y . . . may be negative, this form includes the cases where
factors are contained in the numerator as well as in the denominator.
When the indices are fractional, the method hero desonbed aftords a
means of integration where others fail ; it is, however, as already stated,
ted for e-^, the i
sUn of the variable limit n
lay be affected.
Thus;
/:.''
00
-X
X
-»
00
f dx
•^ X
=
f^-'dx
^ X
-X '^
X
-X
00
f t^ dx
= •
^ frr dx
-X
X
-X.
00
fe^xdx
=
ftr'x dj.
-r
- JO
X
OD
I e^x^dx = — f er^x^dx
[miller à rosebrugh] values OF FUNCTIONS INVOLVING e-x 78
subject to the limitation that the series in the exponent of c must converge
rapidly.
Of the integrals *
The first may be reduced to the second, the so-called ** Exponential
Integral '\Ei (-ar), and the fourth and fifth to the third, or Exponential
Function.
The Exponential Function has been tabulated by Mr. F. W. New-
man,* from x = 0 to X = 37, at intervals of .1 to eighteen decimal
places (sixteen exact), from x = 0 to x = 15.349 at intervals of . 001
to twelve decimal placesj from x = 15.350 to x = 17.298 at intervals of
.002, and from a: = 17.300 to x = 27.635 at intervals of .005 to
fourteen decimal places.
Tables of the same function have been prepared by Mr. J. W. L»
Glaisher^ from x* = 0.001 to x = 1.0 00 at intervals of .001, from x = 0.01
to X = 2.00 at intervals of .01, from x = 0.1 to x = 10.0 at intervals
of . 1, and from x = 1 to x = 500 at intervals of unity. In eveiy case
the first nine significant figures are given.
The Exponential Integral has been tabulated by Mr. J. W. L. Grlaisher*
from x = Otox= 1.00 at intervals of .01 to eighteen places, from 1.0
to 5.0 at intervals of . 1 to eleven places, and from 6.0 to 15.0 at inter-
vals of unity to eleven places.
For the problems with which we wore concerned, those intervals were
too wide, we have therefore constructed a table of the descending Expo-
nential Integral from x = 0 to x = 1.000 at intervals of .001, and from
X = 1.00 to X = 2.00 at intervals of .01, to nine decimal places.
The other three integrals have not hitherto been tabulated, so far as
we are aware.
OD
Valuts of l\'^ dxy from x = i) to x = l.OoO at intervals of .001
X
{Table /), and from x = 1.00 tox = 2.00 at intervals of .01 (^Table II).
These are Newman's values of e-' to the nearest digit in the ninth decimal
place.
In his *' Tables of the Exponential Function" Griaisher says : "The
last figure is therefore in general correctly given to the nearest unit, but
it may be in error by a unit where the tenth figure is a 4, 5 or 6.'* On
comparing Glaisher's table with that of Newman ûve cases were found
1 Cambridge Phil. Trans., XIII, 145 (1883).
2 Ibid, XIII, 243.
' Phil. Trans., CLX, 367 (1870).
76 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
between a: = 0 and a: = 2 (viz., x = 0.820, 1.28, 1.75, 1.93, 1.99) in
which there was a disorapanoy of one unit in the ninth decimal place, and
the tenth digit was 4 or 5.
There are two others in which the tenth figures are 2 and 8 rtaspec-
tively, viz. :
X Newman Glaisher
1.55 0.212 247 973 827 0.212 247 973
1.80 0.165 298 888 221 0.186 296 889
In both cases Newman's i*esult was found to be exactly the square of
his number for half the value of x.
Values of —^, from a:=0.100 to a:= 1.000 at intervals of .001 (^Tahle
III), and from x = 1.00 to x = 2.00 at intervals of .01 {Table IV).
These were obtained by division from Newman's values of e'*.
For use in calculating the Exponential Integral the fir8t, second and
following differences of the first seven decimal places were taken until
they were small enough to be followed readily, these served also to detect
errors in the first six places. At the beginning of the table, x = 0.100
to or = 0.210, the differencing was extended to the whole nine decimal
places.
The last six figures of — were then multiplied by the corresponding
value of X and the product compared with Newman's value of e-', thus
eliminating errors in the last three places. This verification was per-
formed on the type-written sheets ready for the printer.
OO CO
This table was then used in computing / ^ dx and / ^ ±i:,
^ X ^ x^
X X
Values of - from x = 0 to x = 0.100 at intervals of .001
{Table III). By division, from Newman's values of e-^ ; checked by
taking the first and second differences on the type-written sheets.
Tliese numbei-s were used in computing
? * 1
/-^ dx + lo(j^ X, and /_^* dx — log^ x
*^ X *^ V? •*•
X £
OO
Values of f— dx from x = 0. 100 to x = 1.000 at intervals of .001
X *^"
{Table 7), and from x = 1.00 ^o x = 2.00 at intervals of .01 {Table 11).
It was found impossible to obtain these from Glaisher's table by interpola-
tion. The table was consequentlj' built up from the values of e'^/x by
means of the relation
J . Ei {-X) = 0 .001 (1 + J J - tV ^' + T!^ -^' - V^ ^')(r-/x
[millkb à R08KBBUGH] VALUES OF FUNCTIONS INVOLVING ex 77
which may be deduced by Taylor's theorem, treating intervals of 0.001
as units. ^
The computation was carried out with ten places of decimals, and
every tenth value was checked by Glaisher's results, and found to agree
within a few units in the last place ; the tenth place was then rejected.
Incidentally the agreement furnishes evidence of the accuracy of Glaisher's
Table, at least as far as the ninth decimal place, and of our Table of e'^/x
as far as the seventh.
Following Glaisher,' the integration constant
;/ = 0.577 215 665
was adopted, whence Ei (-oo ) = 0.
00
Valuer of 1^ dx + log^ x from x = 0 to x = 0. 100 at intervals of
/ X
.001 (Table 7). As for x = 0, /— dx becomes infinite, interpolation for
low values of x would be impossible, ^y adding log^ x however, the
00
infinity is removed and this difficulty is avoided, /ill dx + loij^ x for
X ^
00
X = 0 having the value — ;/. By subtracting the logarithm, f^ dx
i ^
may be obtained.
The values in the Table were computed in the same manner as those
of f^dXy using^lfiz} in place of_^, and every tenth was checked against
y X X X
X
X
Glaisher's value for P^ dx. The numbers so obtained are negative,
/ X
For example :
00
for X = 0-050, /l£r dx + log, x = — 0.527 833 785
X -^
0»
hence /— ^ = — 0.527 833 785 — to^e^».050
i ^ = — 0.527 833 785 + 2.995 732 274
= 2.467 898 489
00
Yalue^ of ffl.dxfrom x = 0. 100 ^o x = 1.000 af intervals of .001
•^ x'
* The coefficients are those of the powers of x In the expansion of ^ .^ . v
See: Boole, Finite Differences.
> In Glaisher 8 Table the limits are the inverse of ours, hence the minus sign
prefixed to his numbers.
78 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
(Table /), and from x =^ l.OO to x = 2.00 at intervals of .01 (Table
II). Obtained by subtraction
^ Or X ^ X
X X
and checked by addition.
Values of fEl. dx — - — loge ^ from x = 0 to x = 0. 100 at in-
^ x* X
tervals of .001 (Table I). These numbera supplement the values of
00 00
/_^ dx in the same way that fSl dx + log^ x supplements those of
OD
y.£!f d.c. They were obtained by subtraction,
r
j£ldx-l.-log,x= ^^-(ffldx + loff. x)
«V •*> X X
00
and checked by addition. As in the case of f— dx + log^ x the num-
X -^
bers tabulated are negative in sign. For example: for a; = 0.00 1
op
fH dr — JL — log, a- = — 0.423 283 252
•^ j' X
oo
hence fSl dx = - 0A23 283 252 + 1000 — 6.907 755 279
= 992. (>G8 961 469
oo
Values offxer^ dx from x = 0 to x = 1.000 at intervals of .001
X
(Table 7), and from x = 1.00 to x = 2.00 at intervals of M (Table II),
Prepared from Newman's values of e-^ by multiplication, according to
the formula
oo
I xe-^dx = (1 + x) er^
X
ana checked by taking tii-st and second differences from a? = 0 to x = 1,
and first, second, and third diflferencos from x* = 1 to x = 2, on the typo-
written sheets.
oo
Values of Jx^er^ dx from x=0 tu x = 1. 000 at intervals of .001
X
(Table 1), and from x = 1.00 to x = 2.00 at intervals of .01 (Table II)
From Newman's Table of e*' by multiplication.
y xV^ dx = I 1 + (1 + :c)2 1 e-x
[bullrr à R08EBRUGH] VALUES OF FUNCTIONS INVOLVING e-x 70
checked by first and second differences between x = 0 and x = 1.000
and by first, second, and third differences from x = 1.0*» to a; = 2.00
on the type-wntten sheets.
Our thanks are due to Mr. B. F. Stupart, Superintendent of the
Meteorological Service, for the use of a 8-16 place arithmometer, which
together with a 6-12 place arithmometer and a 9 place comptometer from
the School of Practical Science, were of great assistance in computing
the tables.
TABLES.
Table I. x = 0 to x = 0.100 at intervals of .001, numerical
values of
Sldx — Jl — loge X-, f— dx + log^ x, fe'^ dx, I xr^ dx, and
x* X ^ X , r
00
fx^e-^ dr. '
X
a: - 0. 100 to a: = 1.000 at intervals of .001, numerical values of
00 OB 00 OD »
f^^dv f— dx, fer^dx. f ^^^ dx, and J x^er^ dx.
Table II. a; = 1.00 to x = 2.00 at intervals of .01, numerical
values of
OO OP tt • «
f£l dXf /— <^^9 /^ ^> / ^^^ ^« ^^ fj?e-^ dx.
X "^ X ^ X X X
Table IlL x = 0 to x = 0.100 at intei*vals of .001, numerical
values of .
X
X = 0.100 to a: = 1.000 at intervals of .001, numerical values of — .
X
Table IV. x = 1.00 to x = 2.00 at intervals of .01, numerical
g-X
values of — .
X
80
ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
TABLE 1.
X
— A
— B
fe-^a.
J xer» dx
fx^t" dx
.000
.001
.002
.003
.001
0.422 784 335
.423 283 252
.423 784 002
.424 283 585
.424 783 002
0.577 215 665
.576 216 915
.575 216 665
.574 217 914
.573 219 662
1.000 000 000
.099 000 600
.998 001 090
.997 004 496
.006 007 980
1.000 000 000
.999 999 600
.999 998 003
.099 996 609
.099 902 021
2.000 000 000
.000 000 000
1.099 099 997
.999 900 001
.909 999 979
.005
.008
.007
.008
.000
.425 282 253
.425 781 :m
.426 280 257
.426 779 008
.427 277 595
.572 221 908
.571 224 OKi
.570 227 896
.569 2:^1 6:17
.568 235 875
.995 012 479
.094 017 964
.903 024 443
.992 («l 915
.991 040 379
.999 087 542
.999 982 071
.999 975 613
.999 968 170
.999 ^è 742
.909 909 068
.999 999 928
999 999 886
.999 999 830
.999 990 760
010
.OU
.012
.013
.014
.427 776 015
.428 274 m)
.428 772 358
.429 270 282
.429 768 040
.567 240 610
.566 245 HI2
.565 251 570
.564 257 794
.563 264 513
.990 049 834
.989 060 279
.988 071 713
.087 084 i:i5
.986 097 544
.999 060 332
.999 939 942
.999 928 573
.999 916 229
.999 902 910
.909 999 660
.999 909 600
.999 999 420
.999 999 275
.909 999 006
.015
.016
.017
.018
.019
.430 265 a32
.430 763 059
.431 260 320
.4SM loi 416
.432 254 347
.562 271 728
.561 279 4:«
.560 287 643
.5a> 206 :i42
558 3(»5 535
.985 111 940
.984 127 320
.983 143 685
.982 161 032
.981 179 362
.999 888 619
.999 873 357
.999 857 J27
.999 839 931
.999 821 770
.999 998 888
999 996 661
.999 998 383
.999 998 062
.999 997 746
.020
.021
.022
.023
.024
.4:« 751 113
.433 247 713
.433 744 140
.4:i4 240 420
.434 736 526
.557 'Mh 222
.556 ;i25 40:i
.555 im 076
.554 347 242
553 358 901
.980 198 673
.979 218 965
.978 240 235
.977 262 484
976 285 710
.999 802 647
.999 782 663
.999 761 620
.999 739 621
.999 716 667
.999 997 373
.999 996 961
.999 996 600
.999 996 014
.999 995 474
.025
.026
.027
.028
.029
.435 232 468
.435 728 245
AM 223 857
A'M 719 305
.437 214 589
.562 371 a51
.561 383 693
.650 396 827
.540 410 452
.548 424 667
.975 309 912
.974 335 090
.973 361 242
.972 388 :367
.971 416 464
.999 692 660
.999 667 802
.999 (Ml 994
.999 615 241
.999 587 541
.999 994 888
.999 994 254
.990 993 670
.999 992 835
.999 992 045
.030
.031
.032
.033
.034
AM 709 709
A\^ 204 6a3
.4:W 699 455
.439 194 081
.43i) 688 515
.647 439 173
.546 454 270
.515 469 855
.544 485 IWl
.543 502 495
.970 445 534
.969 475 573
.968 50<J 582
.967 538 mV)
.966 571 505
.999 558 000
.999 529 316
.999 498 793
.999 467 332
.999 434 936
.099 991 200
.999 990 299
.999 989 338
.999 988 :314
.999 987 228
.035
.036
.0:37
.038
.039
.440 182 844
.440 tJ76 980
.441 170 952
.441 (m 760
.442 158 405
.542 510 .549
.541 5:^ 090
.540 555 120
.6:« 573 6:w
.538 692 643
.965 605 416
.9(U 640 293
.963 676 i:i5
.902 712 IMl
.961 750 709
.999 401 606
.999 367 344
.999 :332 152
.999 296 032
.999 258 987
.999 988 078
.999 984 802
.999 983 677
.999 982 223
.999 980 706
.040
.041
.042
.043
.044
.442 651 885
.443 145 L'03
.4i3 638 :i58
.444 131 \m
.444 624 177
.5:T7 612 136
.5:^ 632 115
.535 652 581
.5:« 673 5:«
.533 094 971
.960 789 439
.959 829 130
.958 869 781
.957 911 m)
.956 95:3 957
.999 221 017
.999 182 124
.999 142 311
.999 101 680
.999 069 932
.099 979 297
.999 977 721
.999 976 069
.099 974 338
.099 972 626
.045
.046
.047
.048
.049
.445 -116 842
.445 609 344
.446 101 684
.446 50:i «W
.447 085 872
.5:32 716 895
.531 739 304
.5:30 762 197
.52ÎJ 785 576
.528 809 438
.955 997 482
.965 041 962
.a54 087 :398
.953 133 787
.952 181 1:30
.999 017 368
.998 \m 892
.998 929 605
.998 884 209
.998 838 005
.999 970 632
.099 968 654
.999 966 600
.099 964 438
.999 962 197
.050
.447 577 725
.527 833 785
.951 229 425
.998 790 806
.999 960 866
A =
f^ dx — i — log, x; B= Â" dx + loge x
^ x^ X X X
[MILLER à robkbrugh] VALUES OF FUNCTIONS INVOLVING t'X 81
TABLE L
.050
.051
.052
.063
.054
.055
.056
.057
.058
.059
.060
.061
.062
.063
.064
.065
.066
.067
.068
.069
.070
.071
072
.073
.074
— il —B
00 OD OD
/«-' dx fxe^ dx A-'e-* dx
0.447 577 725 0.527 833 785 0.051229 425 0.998 790 806 1.099 050 865
.448 069 413 .526 858 616 .950 278 671 .998 742 883 .999 957 440
.448 560 929 .525 883 939 .949 328 867 .998 603 968 .999 954 921
.449 052 303 .524 909 726 .948 380 012 .998 644 153 .999 a52 306
.449 543 504 .523 936 005 .947 432 107 .998 593 440 .999 949 503
450 034 544 .522 062 766 .946 485 148 .908 541831 .999 946 780
.450 525 421 .521 990 010 .943 539 136 .998 489 328 .999 943 866
.451 016 136 .621 017 735 .944 504 060 .998 435 930 .999 940 849
.451 506 688 .520 045 942 .943 649 947 .998 381 644 .999 937 727
.451 997 079 .519 074 630 .942 706 769 .998 326 469 .999 934 499
.452 487 308 .518 103 799 .011 764 534 .998 270 406 .999 931 164
.452 977 375 .517 133 448 .940 823 240 .998 213 467 .999 927 718
.453 467 281 .516 163 577 .939 882 887 .998 155 626 .999 924 161
.453 957 025 .515 194 186 .938 043 474 .998 096 912 .999 920 492
.454 446 608 .514 225 274 .938 005 000 .998 037 319 .990 916 707
.454 936 020 .513 256 842 .937 067 463 .997 976 848 .999 912 807
.455 425 288 .512 288 889 .936 130 864 .997 915 501 .999 908 789
.455 914 387 .511 321 414 .935 195 201 .997 853 280 .999 904 651
.456 403 325 .510 354 417 .934 260 474 .907 790 186 .999 900 392
.456 892 101 .509 387 898 .933 326 680 .997 726 220 .999 806 010
.457 3S0 716 .508 421 856 .932 393 820 .997 661 387 .999 891 504
.457 869 170 .507 456 29:1 .931 461 892 .997 505 686 .999 886 872
.458 357 463 .506 491 206 .030 530 896 .997 529 120 .099 882 113
.458 845 596 .505 526 505 .929 600 830 .907 461 691 .999 877 224
.450 333 668 .501 562 461 .928 671 694 907 393 398 .999 872 205
.075 .450 821 379 .50:1 508 803 .027 743 486 .997 324 248 .999 867 05$
.076 .460 300 030 .502 635 621 .026 816 207 .097 254 238 .999 861 767
077 I .460 79(5 520 .501 672 914 .925 889 854 .997 183 372 .999 856 346
078 I .461 28:i H19 .500 710 682 .924 964 427 .097 111 652 .999.850 787
079 I .461 771 010 .490 748 925 .924 030 924 .997 030 078 .999 845 090
080 ! . 462 258 028 .498 787 642 .023 116 346 .906 965 654 .990 839 253
462 744 878 .407 82(J 833 .922 193 fïOl .996 891 :«0 .099 833 274
.463 231 567 .496 866 498 .921 271 959 .996 816 250 .099 827 151
.463 718 095 .405 006 aT7 .920 aîl 147 .996 740 202 .999 820 884
.464 204 464 .494 947 249 .919 431 256 .996 663 482 .999 814 470
.464 690 674 .403 988 333 .918 512 284 .996 585 828 .999 807 906
.465 176 723 .49:1020 801 .917 504 231 .996 507 335 .999 801107
.465 662 613 .492 071 020 .016 677 006 .006 428 003 .999 794 335
.466 148 344 .491 114 421 .915 760 877 .006 347 834 .000 787 320
.466 633 914 .490 157 394 .914 845 574 .996 266 829 .999 780 151
.467 119 325 .489 200 830 .013 031 185 .006 184 002 .000 772 826
.467 604 577 .488 244 754 .013 017 711 .006 102 323 .009 765 345
.468 089 669 .487 289 140 .012 105 150 .006 018 823 .000 757 705
.468 574 603 .486 333 096 .911 193 600 .096 9:14 496 .999 749 904
.460 050 377 .486 370 323 .010 282 762 .005 840 342 .000 741 042
.460 543 002 .484 425 110 .000 372 034 .005 763 363 .000 733 817
.470 028 440 .483 471 384 .008 464 016 .995 676 562 .999 725 62B
.470 512 746 .482 518 119 .907 656 006 .095 688 930 .999 717 072
.470 006 884 .481 665 323 .906 648 904 .995 600 496 .999 708 449
.471 480 864 .480 612 994 .905 742 708 .996 411 236 .909 699 657
.471 964 685 .479 661 135 .904 837 418 .995 321 160 .000 600 604
.081
.082
.083
.084
.085
.086
.087
.088
.080
.000
.001
.002
.09:1
.094
005
.006
.007
.008
.000
.100
/\
= f^^i--i-log,^.; B^f^
l =
X
Sec IIL, 1003. 6.
dx + hg. X
82
ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
TABLE I
X
-100
.101
.102
.10;^
.104
.105
.106
.107
.108
.109
.110
.111
.112
.113
.114
.115
.110
.117
118
.11»
.120
.121
.122
.123
.124
.125
128
.127
.128
.129
.130
.131
.132
.13:3
.134
.laô
.137
.1:^8
.139
.140
.141
.142
.143
.144
.145
.146
.147
.148
.149
.150
dx
7.225 450 222
.135 906 990
.048 207 252
6.962 296 377
.878 121 851
.795 633 182
.714 781 795
.635 520 951
.557 805 <J56
.481 592 581
.406 8;{9 991
.333 507 663
.261 556 829
.190 950 101
.121 651 428
.053 626 007
5.986 840 258
.921 261 757
.856 859 193
.793 602 313
.731 461 887
.670 409 659
.610 418 310
.551 461 416
.493 513 418
.436 540 580
.380 &15 962
.325 479 387
.271 327 406
.218 068 277
.165 680 93:^
.114 144 958
.m^ 440 501
.013 548 555
4.961 450 328
.916 127 829
.868 50)3 544
.821 740 475
.775 at2 123
.730 252 470
.685 555 959
.641 5:^7 48:^
.598 182 362
.555 476 333
.513 405 537
.471 956 497
.431 116 114
.390 871 647
.351 210 705
.312 121 234
.273 591 506
1.822 923 958
.813 925 019
.805 02.3 647
.796 217 930
.787 506 009
.778 886 081
.770 356 394
.761 915 245
.75:^ 560 978
.745 291 983
.737 106 694
.729 003 589
.720 981 184
.713 038 038
.705 172 746
.697 383 940
.689 670 288
.682 030 492
.674 463 287
.666 967 441
.669 541 752
.652 185 048
.644 896 186
.637 674 052
.030 617 557
.623 425 641
.616 307 266
.609 431 421
.602 627 119
.595 683 394
.588 899 305
.5'=^2 173 930
.575 506 371
.568 895 747
.562 341 199
.555 841 887
.549 396 989
.543 005 701
.530 380 828
.524 145 722
.517 961 182
.511 826 487
.505 740 932
.499 703 825
.493 714 490
.487 772 264
.481 876 499
.476 0-26 558
.470 221 819
.464 461 670
OD
^* dx
0.904 837 418
.903 933 033
.903 029 552
.902 126 97:^
.901 225 297
.900 324 523
.899 424 648
.898 625 673
.897 627 696
.896 730 417
.895 834 135
.894 938 749
.894 044 257
.893 150 660
.892 267 956
.891 366 144
.890 476 223
.889 585 193
.888 696 053
.887 807 801
.886 920 4:^7
.886 0:« 960
.885 148 369
.884 26:^663
.883 379 841
.882 496 9a3
.881 614 847
.880 733 673
.879 a53 379
.878 973 966
.878 095 431
.877 217 T74
.876 340 995
.875 4a5 092
.874 590 065
.873 715 912
.872 842 632
.871 970 226
.871 098 692
.870 228 028
.869 :«8 235
.868 489 312
.867 621 256
.866 764 069
.8cJ5 887 748
.865 022 293
.864 157 703
.863 293 977
.862 431 115
.861 569 115
.860 707 976
00
fe"' dx
0.995 321 160
.995 230 269
.995 i:« 566
.995 046 052
.994 952 728
.994 a58 597
.994 763 661
.994 667 919
.994 671 376
.994 474 033
.m^\ 375 890
.994 276 950
.994 177 214
.994 076 685
.993 975 362
.993 873 250
.993 770 349
.993 666 660
.99:3 662 187
.993 466 929
.993 350 889
.903 244 069
.993 136 469
993 028 093
.992 918 941
.992 809 015
.992 698 317
.992 586 849
.992 474 612
.992 361 606
.992 247 837
.992 133 303
.992 018 006
.991 901 949
.991 785 133
.991 667 560
.991 549 231
.991 430 147
.991 310 311
.991 189 724
.991 068 388
.990 946 305
.990 82:3 475
.990 699 901
.990 575 584
.990 450 525
.91K) 324 728
.990 198 192
.990 070 920
.989 942 913
.999 814 173
y
x^er^dLx
1.999 690 604
.999 681 550
.999 672 251
.999 662 760
.999 653 110
.099 643 273
.999 633 257
.\m 623 060
.91K) 612 682
.999 602 120
.990 591 373
.999 680 440
.999 669 320
.999 558 010
.999 546 510
.099 534 818
.999 522 033
.999 610 853
.999 498 fiTTZ
.999 486 103
.999 473 433
.999 460 661
.999 447 487
.999 434 211
.099 420 731
.999 407 045
.999 393 162
.999 379 051
.999 364 741
.999 350 220
.999 335 487
.990 320 540
.999 305 378
.999 ;i90 001
.999 274 406
.9i)9 258 592
.999 242 658
.999 226 303
.999 209 826
.999 193 125
.999 176 198
.999 159 044
.999 141 665
.999 124 055
.999 106 216
.999 088 145
.999 069 841
.999 051 304
.9}» 032 531
.9i)9 013 522
.998 994 275
[millbr é R08KBRUOH] VALUES OF FUNCTIONS INVOLVING e'X 83
TABLE I
.150
.151
.152
.153
.154
.155
.156
.157
.158
.150
.160
.161
.162
.163
.161
.165
.166
.167
.168
.170
.171
.172
.173
.174
.175
.176
.177
.178
.179
.180
.181
.182
.183
.184
.185
.186
.187
.188
.189
.190
.191
.192
.193
.194
.105
.196
.107
.108
.100
.200
QB OD 00 QB 00
J'^dx f-^dx fe-'dx Jxer^dx J 3?e-'dx
X X^ s *^ ' ' '
4.273 501506 1.464 461670 0.860 707 076 0.080 814 173 1.008 004 275
.235 610 105 .458 745 515 .850 847 600 .080 684 701 .008 074 700
.108 165 023 .453 072 766 .858 088 281 .080 554 400 .008 055 064
.161248 144 .447 442 848 .858 120 722 .089 423 660 .908 035 007
.124 846 237 .441 855 108 .857 272 021 .080 201 013 .008 014 888
.088 949 948 .436 309 262 .856 415 177 .989 150 520 .006 804 485
.053 549 284 .430 804 500 .855 550 100 .080 026 424 .008 873 737
.018 634 518 .425 340 370 .854 704 050 .088 892 506 .008 852 702
3.084 196 166 .410 016 378 .853 840 782 .088 75K 048 .008 831 601
.950 224 090 .414 531 085 .852 096 359 .988 622 780 .998 810 161
.916 711 982 .409 186 699 .852 143 780 .088 486 795 .008 788 471
.883 648 367 .403 880 025 .851 202 071 .088 350 005 .008 766 631
.851 025 583 .308 611 482 .850 441 205 .088 212 680 .008 744 3S8
.818 835 286 803 380 504 .840 501 188 .088 074 552 .008 721 803
.787 060 335 .388 186 806 .848 742 022 .087 035 713 .008 600 102
.755 710 791 .383 029 931 .847 893 704 .987 796 165 .998 676 287
.724 778 909 .377 909 249 .847 046 234 .987 655 900 .006 653 024
.604 230 132 .372 824 400 .846 100 611 .087 514 046 .008 620 554
.664 OO:^ 085 .367 774 979 .845 353 835 .087 373 270 .008 605 824
.634 333 571 .362 760 532 .844 508 003 .087 230 008 .006 581 835
.604 053 563 .357 780 652 .843 664 817 .087 087 835 .006 557 684
.575 946 203 .352 SHi 928 .842 821 573 .986 944 063 .006 533 071
.547 304 704 .347 022 057 .841 070 173 .086 700 501 .008 508 204
.510 022 796 .343 041 342 .841 137 615 .986 654 422 .998 483 262
.491 093 821 .338 193 604 .840 296 898 .086 508 558 .008 457 045
463 511 632 .333 385 630 .830 457 021 .086 361 000 .008 432 370
.436 270 130 .328 604 775 .838 617 083 .086 214 748 .008 406 527
.409 303 363 .323 855 750 .837 770 785 .086 006 806 .008 380 416
.382 785 510 .310 138 217 .836 042 423 .085 018 175 .008 354 038
.356 530 885 .314 451 793 .836 105 899 .985 768 854 .908 327 380
.330 503 028 .800 796 135 .835 270 211 .985 618 849 .998 300 464
.304 969 205 .305 170 808 .834 4H5 359 .985 468 ISO .008 273 254
.270 051 403 .300 575 742 .8:^3 601 340 .085 316 784 .008 245 780
.254 635 827 .296 010 333 .882 768 156 .085 164 728 .008 218 020
.220 915 805 .201 474 343 .831 035 804 .085 Oil 002 .008 100 002
.205 488 142 .286 067 446 .831 104 284 .084 858 576 .008 161 007
.181347 206 .282 480 326 .830 273 505 .084 704 483 .008 133 118
.157 488 332 .278 030 670 .820 443 736 .084 540 715 .098 104 248
.133 906 870 .273 618 168 .828 614 707 .084 304 272 .008 075 103
.110 508 268 .260 224 510 .827 786 507 .084 238 166 008 045 676
.087 558 070 .264 858 424 .826 050 134 .084 081 360 .008 016 064
.064 781 010 .260 510 500 .826 132 588 .083 923 913 .997 985 968
.042 265 547 .256 207 726 .825 306 868 .983 765 787 .907 956 687
.020 004 778 .251 922 540 .824 481 074 .083 606 005 .007 025 110
2.007 005 521 .247 663 770 .823 657 004 .083 447 538 .007 804 264
.076 233 774 .243 431 130 .822 834 668 .063 287 416 .007 863 121
.054 715 614 .230 224 350 .822 012 235 .083 126 633 .007 831 687
.033 437 201 .235 043 171 821 100 633 .082 065 188 .007 700 063
.012 304 776 .230 887 311 .820 300 853 .082 803 082 .007 767 048
.EOl 584 662 .226 756 581 .810 540 803 .082 640 822 .007 786 640
.871 003 221 ' .222 660 544 818 730 758 .082 476 004 .007 708 088
84 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
TABLE I
X
A' dx
/■^^
Je^dx
X
fxe^ dx
X X
.200
.201
.202
.208
.204
2.871 003 221
.850 646 947
.830 612 366
.810 596 081
.790 894 765
1.222 650 544
.218 569 130
.214 612 030
.210 479 000
.206 469 800
0.818 730 763
.817 912 432
.817 094 928
.816 278 241
.815 462 371
0.982 476 904
.982 312 8;)0
.982 148 laS
.981 982 724
.981 816 695
.205
.206
.207
.206
.209
.771 405 165
.762 124 057
.733 048 335
.714 174 916
.695 500 787
.202 484 193
.198 521 944
.194 682 824
.190 666 607
.186 773 008
.814 647 316
.813 833 076
.813 019 650
.812 207 037
.811 395 236
.981 650 016
.981 482 690
.981 314 718
.981 146 100
.980 976 840
.210
.211
.212
.213
.214
677 022 995
.668 738 640
.640 644 883
.622 738 936
.605 018 063
.182 901 986
.179 053 146
.176 226 a32
.171 421 X«
.167 637 942
.810 584 246
.809 774 067
.803 964 698
.808 166 187
.807 348 385
.980 806 938
.980 636 394
.980 465 213
.980 2g;i 394
.980 120 939
.215
.216
.217
.218
.219
.587 479 683
.570 120 863
.652 939 322
.535 932 425
.519 097 686
.163 875 953
.160 135 164
.156 415 375
.152 716 390
.149 038 013
.806 541 440
.805 735 302
.804 929 969
.804 125 442
.803 321 718
.979 947 850
.979 774 127
.979 599 773
.979 ^2A 788
.979 249 174
.220
.221
.222
.223
.224
.602 432 663
.486 934 960
.460 602 227
.463 432 154
.437 422 476
.145 380 066
.141 742 326
.138 124 639
.134 526 811
.130 948 661
.802 518 798
.801 716 680
.800 915 364
.800 114 849
.799 315 134
.979 072 934
.978 896 067
.978 718 575
.978 540 461
.978 361725
.225
.226
.227
.228
.229
.421 570 962
.406 875 434
.390 333 739
.874 943 774
.369 703 468
.127 390 010
.123 850 680
.120 330 500
.116 829 295
.113 346 897
.798 616 219
.797 718 102
.796 920 782
.796 124 260
.795 328 534
.978 182 368
.978 002 393
.977 821 800
.977 (540 590
.977 458 768
.230
.231
.232
.233
.284
.344 610 785
.329 663 731
.314 860 340
.300 198 686
.285 676 874
.109 883 139
.106 437 854
.103 010 881
.099 602 a59
.096 211 228
.794 533 603
.793 739 466
.792 946 123
.792 15:^ 574
.791 361 816
.977 276 331
.977 093 283
.976 909 624
.976 725 350
.976 540 481
.235
.236
.237
.238
.239
.271 293 044
.257 045 361
.242 932 041
.228 951 304
.215 101 416
.092 838 231
.089 482 914
.086 145 124
.082 824 709
.079 521 522
.790 570 850
.789 780 674
.788 991 288
.788 202 691
.787 414 882
.976 354 999
.976 168 913
.975 9S2 223
.975 794 932
.975 607 039
.240
.241
.242
.243
.244
.201 380 673
.187 787 394
.174 319 932
.160 976 658
.147 755 991
.076 235 415
.072 966 242
.069 713 800
.066 478 127
.063 258 904
.786 627 861 .
.785 841 626
.785 056 178
.784 271 514
.783 487 634
.075 418 548
.975 229 458
975 039 773
.974 849 492
.974 658 617
.245
246
.247
.248
.240
.134 656 349
.121 676 196
108 814 013
.096 068 311
.083 437 620
.060 056 052
.056 869 434
.053 698 916
.050 544 364
.047 406 647
.782 704 538
.781 922 225
.781 140 694
.780 359 943
.779 579 973
.974 467 150
.974 275 092
.974 082 445
.973 889 209
.973 695 387
.250
070 920 498
.044 282 634
.778 800 783
.973 500 979
y
x^e^dx
1.997 703 038
.997 670 141
.997 6:^6 948
997 603 459
.997 569 672
.997 535 586
.997 501 200
.997 466 514
.997 431 526
.997 396 2;^
.997 360 640
.997 324 741
.997 288 636
.997 252 025
.997 215 205
.997 178 078
.997 140 640
.997 102 893
.997 064 833
.997 026 462
.996 987 777
.996 948 778
.996 909 463
.996 869 833
.996 829 885
.996 789 620
.996 749 035
.996 708 131
.996 666 906
.996 625 359
.996 583 490
.99tî 541 297
.\m 498 780
.996 455 938
.996 412 769
.990 369 274
.990 325 450
.996 281 298
.996 236 816
.996 192 004
.996 146 860
.996 101 384
.996 055 575
.996 009 432
995 962 954
.995 016 140
.995 868 990
.995 821 502
.995 773 676
.995 725 511
.995 677 007
[MILLER é roskbruoh] VALUES OF FUNCrriONS INVOLVING e'X
TABLE I
86
X
f^'dx
X
Txer* dx
X
1' x^er^dx
X
.250
.251
.252
.253
.254
2.070 920 498
.058 515 625
.016 221 305
.034 036 463
.021 950 648
1.044 282 634
.041 175 198
.038 083 211
.035 006 548
.031945 084
0.778 800 783
.778 022 372
.777 244 738
.776 467 882
.775 601 802
0.973 600 979
.973 306 087
.978 110 412
.072 914 255
.972 717 520
1.995 677 007
.996 628 161
.995 678 974
.995 629 444
.996 479 572
.255
.256
.257
.258
.259
.009 989 530
1.996 124 799
.986 364 166
.974 706 865
.963 150 148
.028 898 097
.026 887 267
.022 850 674
.019 848 798
.016 861 624
.774 916 498
.774 141 969
.773 368 214
.772 505 232
.771 823 023
.972 620 205
.972 322 313
.972 123 845
.971 924 802
.971 725 186
.996 429 356
.995 878 794
.996 827 887
.995 276 688
.995 225 032
.260
.261
.262
.263
.264
.951 694 285
.940 337 570
.929 078 812
.917 916 840
.906 850 500
.013 888 737
.010 930 321
.007 986 164
.005 056 154
.002 140 181
.771 061 688
.770 280 920
.760 511 024
.768 741 897
.767 973 540
.971 624 996
.971324 240
.971 122 912
.970 921 016
.970 718 664
.995 178 063
.995 120 786
.995 068 180
.995 015 141
.994 961 792
.265
.266
.267
.268
.269
.895 878 656
.885 000 191
.874 214 005
.863 519 014
.852 914 149
0.999 238 136
.996 349 912
.993 475 401
.990 614 498
.987 767 099
.767 205 950
.766 430 128
.765 673 071
.764 907 781
.764 143 256
.970 616 527
.970 311 985
.970 107 782
.969 90:^066
.969 697 791
.994 906 091
.994 854 038
.994 790 631
.994 744 860
.994 689 758
.270
.271
.272
.273
.274
842 398 360
.831 970 610
.821 629 881
.811 375 169
.801 205 483
.984 933 101
.982 112 403
.979 304 902
.970 510 500
.973 729 098
.763 379 494
.762 616 496
.761 854 261
.761 092 788
.760 332 075
.960 491 958
.969 285 567
.969 078 620
.968 871 118
.968 663 064
.994 634 281
.994 578 452
.991 522 266
.994 465 722
.994 408 819
.275
.276
.277
.278
.279
.791 119 850
.781 117 308
.771 196 912
.761 357 730
.751 598 843
.970 960 598
.968 204 905
.965 461 922
.962 731 556
.960 013 713
.759 572 123
.758 812 931
.758 054 497
.757 296 822
.756 539 903
.968 454 457
.968 245 300
.968 035 593
.967 825 338
.967 614 536
.994 351 556
.994 293 038
.094 235 949
.994 177 603
.994 118 895
.280
.281
.282
.28:<
.284
.741 919 348
.732 318 351
.722 794 975
.713 348 352
.703 977 631
.957 308 300
.954 615 227
.951 934 403
949 205 739
.946 609 146
.755 783 741
.755 028 335
.754 273 685
.75:^ 519 788
.752 766 646
.967 403 189
.967 191 296
.966 978 864
.966 765 888
.966 552 372
.991 050 823
.994 000 888
.993 940 588
.993 880 422
.993 819 890
.285
.286
.287
.288
.289
ei>4 681 970
.685 460 539
.(r76 312 526
.667 237 113
.658 233 617
.943 964 536
.941 3:n 824
.938 710 923
.936 101 749
.933 504 218
.752 014 254
.751 262 616
.750 511 729
.749 761 592
.749 012 205
.966 338 317
.966 123 724
.965 908 5a5
.965 692 931
.965 476 733
.993 758 991
.993 697 725
.993 636 091
.993 574 087
.993 511 714
.290
.291
.292
.293
.294
.649 300 953
.WO 438 W7
.631 645 839
.622 921 779
.614 265 726
.930 918 246
.928 343 752
.925 780 654
.923 228 872
.920 688 327
.748 263 568
.747 515 678
.746 768 536
.746 022 141
.745 276 491
.965 260 002
.965 042 740
.964 824 949
.964 606 628
.964 387 780
.993 448 970
.993 385 856
.993 322 369
.993 258 511
.993 194 279
.295
.296
.297
.298
.299
.605 676 952
.597 154 736
.588 698 369
.580 307 153
.571 980 396
.918 158 938
.915 640 629
.913 133 322
.910 6;^ 940
.908 151 408
.744 531 587
.743 787 428
.743 044 012
.742 301 340
.741 559 409
.964 168 406
.063 948 507
.963 728 084
.963 507 139
.963 285 673
.993 129 673
.993 064 603
.992 999 337
.992 933 606
.992 867 498
.300
.563 717 417
.905 676 652
.740 818 221
.963 063 687
.992 801 014
8d
ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
TABLE I
.300
.901
.302
.303
.304
.305
.306
.307
.308
.300
.310
.311
.312
.313
.314
.316
.316
.317
.318
.819
.320
.321
.322
.328
.824
.826
.327
.330
.831
.332
.833
.334
.335
.336
.337
.338
.330
.340
.841
.342
.843
.844
.845
.846
.347
.848
.349
.350
00
.2
1.563 717 417
.555 517 546
.547 380 121
.530 304 487
.531 290 002
.523 336 028
.515 441 938
.507 607 115
.499 830 948
.492 112 833
.484 452 177
.476 848 305
.469 300 905
.461 809 137
.454 372 528
.446 990 521
.439 662 668
.432 388 123
.425 166 660
.417 997 643
.410 880 562
.403 814 873
.806 800 100
.889 835 729
.382 921 267
.376 066 222
.869 240 115
.362 472 467
.355 752 809
.349 080 675
.342 455 607
.335 877 151
.329 344 850
.322 858 292
.316 417 005
.310 020 582
.303 668 584
.297 360 594
.291 096 197
.284 874 984
.278 696 546
.272 560 486
.266 466 404
.260 413 014
.254 402 626
.248 432 159
.242 502 137
.236 612 188
.230 761 941
.224 951 a34
.219 179 107
0.905 676 652
.903 212 590
.900 759 167
.898 316 293
.895 883 901
.8a3 461 921
.891 050 282
.888 648 914
.886 257 747
.883 876 714
.881 505 746
.879 144 775
.876 793 737
.874 452 564
.872 121 192
.869 799 556
.867 487 591
.865 185 234
.862 892 423
.860 609 096
.858 335 189
.856 070 644
.853 815 398
.851 569 393
.849 332 568
.847 104 866
.844 886 227
.842 676 594
.840 475 910
.838 284 118
.836 101 161
.833 926 985
.831 761 535
.829 604 754
.827 456 591
.825 316 989
.823 185 898
.821 063 263
.818 949 aS3
.816 843 155
.814 745 580
.812 656 264
.810 575 130
.808 502 155
.806 437 281
.804 380 459
.802 331 640
.800 290 775
.798 257 818
.796 232 720
.794 215 435
/
e-» dx
0.740 81S 221
.740 077 773
.739 338 065
.738 599 090
.737 860 866
.TO7 123 374
.736 386 619
.735 650 601
.734 915 318
.734 180 770
.733 446 956
.732 713 876
.731 981 528
.731 249 913
.730 619 028
.729 788 874
.729 059 450
.728 3:« 755
.727 602 788
.726 876 549
.726 149 037
.725 423 261
.724 698 190
.723 973 854
.723 250 242
.722 627 364
.721 806 187
.721 083 74:}
.720 363 020
.719 643 017
.718 923 733
.718 205 169
.717 487 323
.716 770 194
.716 053 782
.715 338 086
.714 (523 106
.713 908 840
.713 195 288
.712 482 449
.711 770 323
.711 058 008
.710 ai8 2(J5
.709 638 212
.708 928 928
.708 220 353
.707 512 487
.706 805 328
.706 098 876
.705 393 130
.704 688 090
/
xer^ dx
0.963 063 687
.962 841 182
.962 618 160
.962 394 623
.962 170 570
.961 946 004
.961 720 925
.961 495 335
.961 269 236
.961 042 628
.960 815 513
.960 587 891
.060 359 765
.960 131 135
.959 902 003
.959 672 370
.959 442 235
.959 211 604
.958 980 476
.958 748 850
.968 616 729
.958 284 116
.958 051 008
.957 817 409
.957 588 321
.957 348 744
.957 113 678
.956 878 127
.956 642 090
.956 405 569
.956 168 565
.955 931 080
.955 603 114
.955 454 669
.955 215 745
.954 976 345
.951 7:^6 469
.954 496 119
.954 255 2i)4
.954 013 999
.953 772 2:W
.953 529 996
.953 287 2ja
.953 044 118
.952 800 479
.952 556 375
.062 311 808
.952 066 777
.951 821 285
.951 575 333
.951 328 921
J
x^e-'dx
1.992 801 014
.992 734 161
.992 666 910
.992 599 290
.992 531 290
.992 462 900
.992 394 148
.992 325 004
.992 255 479
.992 185 570
.992 115 278
.992 044 601
.991 973 640
.991 902 093
.991 830 260
.991 758 040
.991 685 433
.991 612 438
.991 539 055
.991 465 282
.991 391 119
.901 316 666
.991 241 622
.991 166 287
.991 090 650
.991 014 439
.990 937 925
.990 861 018
.990 783 715
.990 706 018
.990 627 925
.990 549 437
.090 470 551
.990 391 268
.990 311 587
.990 231 507
.990 151 029
.990 070 161
.989 988 873
989 907 194
.989 825 114
.989 742 633
.989 009 749
.989 576 462
.989 492 772
.980 408 678
.989 324 180
.989 239 277
.98i) 153 969
.989 068 254
.988 982 133
[miller a rosebrcgh] values OF FUNCTIONS INVOLVING 6"* 87
TABLE I
X
A' dx
/^^
00
fe-' dx
X
00
/'xe-* dx
X
/ x^e-*dx
X
.850
.351
.:^52
.353
.354
1.219 179 107
.213 445 805
.207 750 776
.202 093 674
.196 474 155
0.794 215 435
.792 2a5 915
.790 204 116
.788 209 990
.786 223 493
0.704 688 090
.703 983 754
.703 280 122
.702 577 193
.701 874 967
0.951 328 921
.961 082 052
.950 834 725
.950 686 943
.950 338 706
1.988 982 133
.988 895 606
.988 808 670
.988 721 327
.988 633 675
.355
.356
.367
.358
.359
.190 891 880
.ia5 346 514
.179 837 726
.174 365 190
.168 928 580
.784 244 580
.782 273 206
.780 309 326
.778 352 897
.776 403 876
.701 173 443
.7U0 472 620
.609 772 493
-.699 073 076
.698 374 351
.960 090 016
.949 840 873
.949 691 279
.949 341 236
.949 090 744
.988 546 414
.988 466 844
.988 367 864
.988 278 478
.988 188 672
.360
.361
.362
.363
.364
.163 527 ff77
.158 161 865
.152 831 131
.147 535 067
.142 273 366
.774 462 218
.772 627 881
.770 600 824
.768 681 003
.766 768 378
.607 676 326
.696 978 998
.696 282 368
.695 686 433
.694 891 195
.948 839 803
.948 588 417
.948 dae 585
.948 084 309
.947 831 690
.988 098 450
.988 007 884
.987 918 797
.987 825 846
.987 733 483
.:^65
.366
.:^67
.368
.369
.137 045 727
.131 851 850
.126 691 440
.121 5W 207
.116 460 m)
.764 862 906
.762 964 547
.761 073 260
.759 189 004
.757 311 740
.694 196 651
.693 602 801
.692 809 646
.692 117 182
.691 426 410
.947 578 428
.947 324 826
.947 070 785
.946 816 305
.946 561 387
.987 641 206
.987 648 614
.987 455 408
.987 361 886
.987 267 949
.370
.371
.372
.373
.374
.111 408 114
.106 378 68rt
. 101 381 :soi
.096 415 678
.091 481 545
.755 411 428
.753 578 028
.751 721 501
.749 871 810
.748 028 914
.690 734 331
.690 043 942
.689 354 243
.688 665 233
.687 976 912
.946 306 033
.946 050 244
.945 794 021
.945 537 365
.945 280 277
.987 173 690
.987 078 826
.986 983 639
..986 888 036
.986 792 012
.375
.376
.:<77
.378
.37i»
.086 578 634
.081 706 6-/7
.076 865 408
.072 054 568
.0(57 273 899
.746 192 776
.744 36:^ :«8
.742 640 624
.740 724 5:^4
.738 915 053
.687 289 279
.686 602 3:«
.685 916 074
.6H6 230 501
.684 545 613
.946 022 737
.944 764 810
.944 606 434
.944 247 630
.943 988 400
.086 695 672
.986 598 712
.986 501433
.986 4m 735
.986 30Ô 616
.380
.381
.382
.383
.384
.062 623 143
.057 802 050
.053 110 368
.048 447 852
.043 814 254
.737 112 144
.735 315 771
.733 525 807
.731 742 486
.729 965 604
.683 861409
.683 177 8JK)
.682 495 053
.681 812 899
.681 131 427
.943 728 745
.943 468 666
.943 208 164
.942 947 240
.942 685 895
.986 207 077
.986 108 117
.086 008 735
.985 908 982
.986 808 706
.385
.386
.:^87
.388
.389
.039 209 335
.034 632 854
.030 084 575
.025 564 263
.021 071 687
.728 194 915
.726 430 684
.724 672 776
.722 921 158
.721 175 794
.680 450 636
.679 770 526
.679 091 096
.678 412 343
.677 734 270
.942 424 131
.942 161 949
.941 899 349
.941 636 332
.941 372 901
.985 708 068
,98S} 60i{ 986
.985 505 492
.985 403 578
.986 301 230
.390
.391
.392
.393
.394
.016 606 616
.012 168 826
.007 758 090
.003 374 186
0.999 016 893
.719 436 652
.717 703 696
.715 976 895
.714 256 215
.712 541 625
.677 056 874
.676 380 166
.675 704 114
.675 028 748
.674 354 056
.941 109 056
.940 844 797
.940 580 127
.940 315 045
.940 049 554
.985 198 462
.985 095 269
.984 991 650
.984 887 606
.984 783 135
.395
.396
.397
.398
.399
.994 686 999
.990 381 283
.986 102 535
.961 849 543
.977 622 099
.710 833 088
.709 130 576
.707 434 a53
.705 743 491
.704 058 857
.673 680 039
.673 006 696
.672 334 026
.671 662 028
.670 990 701
.930 783 655
.939 517 347
.9:19 250 634
.ms 983 515
.938 715 991
.984 678 238
.984 572 918
.984 467 161
.084 360 981
.984 264 378
400
.973 419 996
.702 380 119
.670 320 046
.938 448 064
.964 147 886
88
ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
TABLE I
X
Z?-'^
/--
Je-dx
X
eo
fxer^ dx
00
f j^er'dx
X
.400
.401
.402
.409
.404
a. 973 419 996
.960 243 031
.965 091000
.960 963 705
.056 860 947
0.702 380 119
.700 707 246
.609 040 208
.607 378 973
.695 723 612
0.670 320 046
.669 650 061
.668 980 746
.668 312 099
.667 644 121
0.938 448 064
.038 170 735
.937 911 005
.987 641 875
.937 372 846
1.084 147 336
.084 (m 870
.988 931 975
.983 823 650
.988 714 895
.4a5
.406
.407
.408
.409
.952 782 629
.948 728 258
.944 607 942
.940 691 392
.936 708 418
.694 073 794
.692 429 790
.600 791 469
.689 158 801
.687 531 759
.666 976 811
.666 310 167
.665 644 190
.664 ^78 879
.664 314 232
.037 102 419
.936 832 005
.9:« 561 376
.936 290 261
.936 018 753
.983 605 710
.983 496 094
.983 386 046
.983 275 567
.983 164 656
.410
.411
.412
.413
.414
.932 748 836
.928 812 450
.924 899 106
.921008 507
.917 140 762
.685 910 311
.684 294 431
.682 684 088
.081 079 255
.679 479 903
.663 650 250
.662 986 032
.662 324 276
.661 662 283
.661 000 951
.935 746 a53
.935 474 560
.985 201 878
.934 928 806
.934 655 345
.983 053 312
.982 941 535
.982 829 327
.982 716 685
.982 603 609
.415
.416
.417
.418
.419
.913 295 395
.909 472 350
.905 671 444
.901 892 5a5
.898 135 362
.677 886 004
.676 297 531
.674 714 455
.673 136 750
.671 564 388
.660 340 281
.659 680 270
.659 020 920
.658 :«2 228
.657 704 195
.934 381 497
.934 107 26:^
.933 8:12 643
.9:« 557 640
.983 282 253
.982 490 099
.982 376 155
.982 261 776
.982 146 962
.982 031 712
.420
.421
.422
.423
.424
.894 399 849
.890 685 797
.886 993 041
.883 321 420
.879 670 770
.669 997 341
.668 435 584
.666 879 090
.665 3-27 831
.663 781 782
.657 046 820
.056 390 101
.655 734 039
.655 078 633
.654 423 882
.933 006 484
.932 730 334
.932 453 804
.932 176 895
.931 899 007
.981 916 027
.981 799 906
.981 683 349
.981 666 355
.981 448 923
.425
.428
.427
.♦28
.42i)
.876 040 929
.H72 431 743
.86^ 843 052
.865 274 700
.g(Jl 72(î m\
.662 240 918
.660 705 210
.059 174 6:i5
.657 (U9 \m
.056 128 77»
.05:^ 760 7a5
.653 116 342
.652 46:^ 552
.051 811 415
.651 159 929
.931 621 944
.9;n 343 904
.931 065 489
.930 786 700
.930 507 539
.981 331 055
.981 212 749
.981 094 005
.980 974 82:^
.980 855 202
.430
.431
.4:^2
.433
.434
.a58 198 401
.854 (WO 149
.&>1 201 6:«
.847 732 695
.844 283 197
.6S4 613 4*7
.653 103 147
.651 597 853
.650 097 5-JO
.648 602 \S\
.($50 509 095
.619 85.S 911
.649 209 'SU
.648 560 492
.547 912 255
.9:W 22S 005
.9-29 948 101
.929 607 827
.J)29 387 185
.929 106 174
.980 T,\r, 143
.980 614 644
.980 493 706
.980 372 328
.980 250 510
A'MS
.437
A%^
.43»
.840 852 901
.K37 441 {m
.834 049 878
.830 676 088
.827 322 222
.047 111 761
.645 020 246
.044 145 617
.042 609 848
.041 198 916
Ml 204 667
.640 017 726
.W5 971 431
.045 325 783
.644 680 7S0
.î)28 824 797
.J>2H 543 (>54
.928 200 947
.927 978 470
.927 095 042
.980 128 251
.9S0 00.) 552
.979 882 412
.979 75S «il
.979 034 808
.440
.441
.442
.443
.444
.82:) 986 341
.820 (VkS 908
.817 3<Î9 787
.814 0.^ 842
.810 825 941
.(\^ 732 7JW
.6:« 271 470
.im 814 909
.63.> 303 093
.6:« 915 998
.644 0:^6 421
.643 '.m 101
.642 749 635
.642 107 207
.641 465 421
.927 412 446
.î)27 128 890
.926 844 974
.926 560 700
.926 270 068
.979 510 344
.1)79 :iS5 437
.979 260 088
.979 134 297
.979 008 063
.445
.440
.447
.448
.449
.807 580 952
.804 :353 742
.801 144 184
.797 952 147
.794 777 505
.a32 473 601
.631 a35 881
.629 602 814
.628 174 \m
.026 750 554
.640 824 276
.640 183 772
.6:^ 543 908
.6:^ 904 684
.6as 266 099
.925 9i)l 079
.î>25 705 731
.î)25 420 (KiT
.ft25 i:« 981
.924 847 577
.978 881 385
.978 754 264
.978 026 699
.978 498 691
.978 370 2:18
.450
.791 620 132
.625 a31 310
mi 628 152
.924 560 820
.978 241 340
[MiLUW à ROBEBBUOH] VALUES OF FUNCTIONS INVOLVING erx 89
TABLE I
X
f^dx
i X
0.6*25 331 316
.623 916 644
.622 506 516
.621 100 910
.619 699 806
X
fxer* dx
X
^
J'x^e-'dx
X
.460
.451
.452
.453
.454
0.791 620 132
.788 479 902
.785 336 601
.782 250 378
.779 160 840
0.637 628 162
.636 990 842
.636 354 170
.635 718 134
.635 082 733
0.924 560 820
.924 273 712
.923 986 254
.923 608 448
.92:^ 410 294
1.978 241 840
.978 111 098
.977 982 211
.977 851 979
.977 721 801
.456
.456
.467
.458
.4â9
.776 087 956
.773 031 608
.769 991 677
.766 988 047
.763 960 599
.618 303 182
.616 911 017
.615 623 290
.614 139 080
.612 761 067
.634 447 968
.633 813 837
.633 180 340
.632 547 476
.631 915 245
.923 121 793
.922 832 947
.922 543 756
.922 254 220
.921 961 342
.977 590 177
.977 458 608
.977 8ÎW602
.977 194 129
.977 061 220
.460
.461
.462
.463
.464
.760 960 221
.757 993 797
.755 (m 215
.752 090 363
.749 162 129
.611 386 630
.610 016 349
.608 650 503
.607 288 973
.605 931 738
.631 283 646
.630 652 677
.630 022 340
.629 302 633
.628 763 554
.921 674 122
.921 383 562
.921 092 661
.920 801 421
.920 509 844
.976 927 884
.976 794 061
.976 659 800
.976 526 112
.976 389 966
.465
.466
.467
.468
469
.746 249 405
.743 352 080
.740 470 047
.737 603 198
.734 751 428
.604 578 778
.603 2:» 075
.601 K85 607
.600 545 357
.599 209 304
.628 135 ia5
.627 507 284
.626 880 090
.626 253 524
.625 627 583
.920 217 929
.919 1»25 678
.919 6:« OiW
.919 340 173
.919 046 919
.976 254 871
.976 118 329
.975 981 837
.975 844 897
.075 707 608
.470
.471
472
.473
.474
.731 914 631
.729 092 703
.726 285 542
.723 493 044
.720 715 107
.697 877 429
.596 549 714
.595 226 i:«
.593 900 684
.592 591 3:^
.623 002 268
.624 377 378
.623 75:^ 513
.62;^ l:^o 07i
.622 ^7 25:^
.918 73:^ S«
.«18 450 418
.918 HW5 171
.917 870 5î)ô
.917 575 690
.975 569 670
.975 431 882
.975 292 645
.975 163 457
.975 013 820
.475
.476
.477
.478
.479
.717 951 633
.715 202 520
.712 467 670
.70i) 746 985
.707 040 367
.591 280 Oa5
.589 972 86:^
.588 669 708
.587 370 582
.586 075 467
.621 883 056
.621 26:i 4H2
.620 642 529
.620 022 197
.619 402 485
.917 280 458
.916 \m 900
.916 689 016
.916 392 807
.916 096 275
.974 873 732
.974 733 194
.974 592 206
.974 460 766
.974 308 875
.480
.481
.482
.4Ki
.484
.701 :«7 722
.701 (HW 932
.699 003 964
Am ;«2 664
.603 714 959
.384 784 'MA
.583 497 lir7
.582 214 006
.r>S0 im 735
.579 039 425
.618 783 :i92
.618 164 OIH
AMI 547 0(î2
.016 929 823
.616 313 202
.915 799 420
.915 502 243
.915 204 746
.914 906 928
.914 608 792
.jy74 166 533
.974 023 740
.973 880 496
.973 736 798
.973 592 649
.485
.486
.487
.488
.489
.601 090 736
.08^ 479 965
Am 882 49;^
GKi 298 2&I
.680 727 155
.578 388 000
.377 120 4(J2
.375 85») 7W
.574 51 W 978
.573 ;«0 998
.615 697 197
.615 081 807
.614 4r,7 (W3
.613 852 873
.613 239 327
.914 310 337
.914 Oil rm
.913 712 478
.913 413 075
.913 113 358
.973 448 047
.973 302 0S)4
.973 157 488
.973 Oil 629
.972 8&Î 117
.400
.491
.492
.493
.494
.678 169 111
.673 624 03;^
.673 Oi»l 833
.670 372 428
Am 005 730
.572 088 836
.370 840 476
.569 595 902
.5(i8 :i55 095
.567 118 041
.612 626 394
.612 014 074
.611 402 :m
.610 791 269
.610 180 783
.912 813 327
.912 512 984
.912 212 :«»
.911 911 :S65
.911 610 089
.972 718 252
.J»72 570 934
.972 42:^ 162
.972 274 937
.972 126 257
.495
.496
.497
.498
.499
.665 571 656
.663 090 121
.660 021 043
.658 164 3:%
.655 719 926
.505 884 722
.564 655 123
.563 429 226
.562 207 017
.560 988 478
.609 570 907
.608 961 641
.608 3Ô2 984
.607 744 mSî
.607 137 494
.911 308 506
.911 006 613
.910 704 417
.910 401 912
.910 099 103
.971 flr77 124
.971 827 537
.971 677 496
.971 527 000
.971 376 049
.600
.653 287 724
.559 773 595
.606 530 660
.909 795 990
.971 224 644
90 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
TABLE I
.500
.501
.502
.503
.504
.505
.506
.507
.508
.509
.510
.511
.512
.513
.514
.515
.516
.617
.518
.619
.520
.521
.522
.523
.524
.525
.526
.527
.528
.529
.530
.531
.532
.&33
.534
go OD 09 QD 00
J^' d.t J^^àx Jer'dx J' xe-' dx j'x^e-'dx
Z Jy' X ^ X X X
0.653 287 724 0.559 773 595 0.606 530 660 0.909 795 990 1.971224 644
.650 867 «53 .558 562 351 .605 924 432 .900 492 573 .971 072 784
.648 459 634 .557 354 730 .605 318 811 .909 188 854 .970 920 469
.616 063 586 .556 150 717 .604 718 794 .908 884 833 .970 767 698
.643 679 432 .554 950 296 .604 109 383 .908 580 512 .970 614 473
.641 307 093 .553 753 452 .603 605 575 .908 275 891 .970 460 791
.638 946 493 .552 560 170 .602 902 372 .907 970 971 .970 306 655
.636 597 555 .551 370 434 .602 299 770 .907 665 754 .970 152 062
.634 260 204 .550 184 229 .601 697 772 .907 360 240 .969 997 013
.631 934 363 .549 001 540 .601 096 875 .907 054 428 .969 841 «09
.629 619 959 .547 822 352 .600 495 CT9 .906 748 324 .969 685 548
.627 316 918 .546 646 650 .599 895 883 .906 441 924 .969 629 131
.625 025 166 .546 474 420 .599 295 788 .906 136 231 .969 372 257
.622 744 6:i0 .544 305 646 .698 696 792 .905 828 246 .969 214 927
.620 475 239 .543 140 314 .598 098 394 .905 520 969 .969 057 141
:618 216 919 .541 978 410 .597 500 695 .905 213 401 .968 898 897
.615 969 602 .540 819 919 .596 903 893 .904 905 513 .968 740 196
613 7:« 216 .539 664 826 .596 306 788 .904 597 396 .968 581 037
.611 507 691 .538 513 118 .505 710 779 .904 288 962 .968 421 424
.609 292 958 .537 364 780 .605 115 366 .903 980 241 .968 261 352
.607 088 948 .536 219 798 .594 520 648 .903 671 283 .968 100 822
.604 895 594 .535 078 158 .503 926 325 .903 361 940 .967 939 836
.602 712 828 .6:« 939 845 .503 832 605 .903 052 362 .967 778 800
.600 540 580 .632 804 848 .692 739 659 .902 742 501 .967 616 487
.508 378 788 .531 673 150 .692 147 216 .902 432 857 .967 454 127
.696 227 384 .630 544 739 .691 555 364 .902 121 931 .967 291 309
.594 086 301 .529 419 601 .500 964 105 .901 811 224 .967 128 032
.591 955 47r5 .528 297 723 .690 873 436 .901 500 237 .966 964 297
.589 834 845 .527 179 090 .589 783 358 .901 188 970 .966 800 104
.587 724 341 .526 063 691 .589 193 869 .900 877 420 .966 635 453
.5a5 623 904 .524 951 510 .588 604 970 .900 565 604 .966 470 343
.583 533 460 .523 842 536 .688 016 650 .900 25:3 505 .966 304 775
.581 452 976 .522 736 754 .587 428 936 .«H) 941 130 .966 138 748
.579 382 :360 .521 634 152 .586 841 801 .899 628 481 .965 972 262
.577 321 561 .520 534 717 .586 255 252 .899 315 557 .965 805 317
.5a5 1 .575 270 519 .519 438 435 .585 669 290 .899 002 360 .965 637 913
.536 .573 229 172 .518 345 294 .585 083 914 .898 688 891 .965 470 051
.537 .571 197 459 .517 255 282 .684 499 122 .898 375 151 .965 im 729
.538 .569 175 324 .516 168 384 .583 914 915 .898 061 139 .965 132 948
.639 .567 162 705 .515 084 590 .583 331 292 .897 746 859 .9&1 963 707
.540 .565 159 544 .514 003 886 .582 748 252 .897 432 309 .964 794 008
.541 .563 165 784 .512 926 259 .582 165 795 .897 117 491 .964 623 849
.542 .561 181 367 .511 851 697 .581 583 921 .896 802 406 .964 45:3 230
.543 .559 206 234 .510 780 188 .581 002 627 .896 487 054 .964 282 152
.544 .557 240 330 .509 711 720 .580 421 915 .896 171 437 .964 110 614
.545 .555 283 598 .508 646 280 .579 841 783 .895 855 555 .963 938 616
.646 .553 335 981 .507 583 857 .579 262 231 .895 5:39 410 .963 766 159
.547 .551 397 425 .506 524 437 .578 683 259 .895 22:3 001 .963 593 242
.548 .549 467 875 .505 468 009 .578 104 865 .894 006 331 .963 419 864
.549 .547 547 276 .504 414 561 .577 527 049 .894 589 399 Am 246 027
.550 .545 635 574 .503 364 081 .576 949 810 .894 272 206 .963 071 730
[MiLLKB à boskbbuqh] VALUES OF FUNCTIONS INVOLVING 6"* 91
TABLE I
X
00 W 00 00 00
f^'' dx /— ^ Je-'dx Jxer^dx J'x^e^dx
JC X m X X Z X
550
551
552
55:^
554
0.545 635 574
.543 732 715
.541 838 645
.539 953 311
.538 076 660
0.503 364 081
.602 316 557
.601 271 978
.500 230 332
.499 191 608
0.576 949 810
.576 373 149
.575 797 064
.575 221 555
.574 646 621
0.894 272 206
.89:3 954 754
.893 637 043
.893 319 074
.893 000 848
1.963 071 730
.962 896 972
.962 721 755
.962 546 077
.962 369 939
555
556
557
558
559
.536 208 W3
.534 349 204
.532 498 294
.530 655 861
.528 821 855
.498 155 792
.497 122 875
.496 092 844
.495 Oa5 689
.494 041 398
.574 072 261
.573 498 476
.57Î 925 264
.572 352 625
.571 780 559
.892 6S2 366
.892 3(i3 629
.892 044 636
.891 725 390
.891 405 891
.962 193 341
.962 016 282
.961 838 763
.961 660 783
.961 482 342
660
561
562
563
564
.526 996 226
.525 178 925
.523 369 900
.521 569 102
.519 776 484
.493 019 959
.492 001 361
.490 985 594
.489 972 647
.488 962 607
.OTl 209 064
.570 638 140
.570 067 787
.569 498 005
.568 928 791
.891 086 140
.890 im 137
.890 445 884
.890 125 381
.889 804 629
.961 303 442
.961 124 080
.960 944 258
.960 763 975
.960 583 232
565
566
567
568
569
.517 991 997
.516 215 594
.514 447 225
.512 686 843
.510 934 404
.487 955 165
.486 960 609
.485 948 829
.484 949 814
.483 953 662
.568 360 147
.567 792 071
.567 224 562
.566 657 621
.566 091 247
.889 48:3 630
.889 162 383
.888 840 888
.888 519 150
.888 197 167
.960 402 027
.960 220 862
.960 038 236
.950 855 649
.959 672 601
570
571
572
ff73
574
.609 189 858
.507 453 161
.5a5 724 266
.504 003 126
.502 289 698
.482 960 034
.481 969 249
.480 981 186
.479 995 835
.479 013 185
.565 525 439
.664 960 196
.564 395 518
.563 831 405
.663 267 866
.887 874 939
,887 552 4(i8
.8b7 229 754
.886 906 800
886 583 604
.959 489 093
.959 305 123
.959 120 692
.958 985 801
.958 760 448
575
576
577
578
679
.600 583 937
.498 885 798
.497 195 236
.495 512 208
.493 836 670
.478 033 226
.477 055 947
.476 081 339
.475 109 390
.474 140 092
.562 704 869
.562 142 445
.561 580 584
.561 019 284
.660 458 645
.886 260 168
.885 936 494
.885 612 580
.885 288 429
.884 964 042
.958 564 684
.958 378 359
.958 191 628
.958 004 426
.957 816 768
580
581
582
583
584
.492 168 OT8
.490 507 890
.488 854 663
.487 208 554
.485 569 823
.473 173 433
.472 209 404
.471 247 995
.470 289 196
.469 332 996
.559 898 367
.559 3:i8 748
.558 779 689
.558 221 188-
.557 663 246
.884 639 419
.884 314 660
.883 989 468
.883 664 140
.883 338 682
.957 628 649
.957 440 068
.957 251 027
.957 061 524
.956 871 660
585
586
587
688
589
.483 938 325
.482 314 022
.480 696 870
.479 086 830
.477 483 861
.468 379 387
.467 428 358
.466 479 899
.465 534 001
.464 590 654
.557 105 862
.566 549 034
.555 992 764
.555 437 049
.554 881 889
.883 012 791
.882 686 760
.882 360 515
.882 0:^ 032
.881 707 322
.056 681 135
.956 490 249
.956 298 902
.956 107 094
.955 914 824
590
591
592
593
594
.475 887 922
.474 298 973
.472 716 976
.471 141 890
.469 573 676
.46:^ 649 849
.462 711 576
.461 775 825
.460 842 587
.459 911 853
.554 327 285
.553 7T3 235
.553 219 738
.552 666 796
.552 114 404
.881 380 383
.881 053 216
.880 725 823
.880 3JW 204
.880 070 360
.955 722 093
.956 528 901
.955 335 248
.955 141 134
' .954 946 559
595
596
597
698
599
.468 012 296
.466 457 711
.464 90!) 882
.463 368 772
.461 834 343
.458 983 613
.458 057 858
.457 134 679
.456 213 766
.455 295 410
.551 562 566
.501 Oil 279
.550 460 543
.549 910 358
.549 360 722
.879 742 292
.879 414 001
.879 085 487
.878 756 752
.878 427 795
.954 751 522
.954 556 025
.954 360 066
.954 16:3 647
.953 966 766
600
.460 306 557
.454 379 603
.548 811 636
.878 098 618
.953 760 424
92
ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
TABLE I
X
/>
j e-' dx
X
fxer^ dx
X
J'x^e-^dx
X
.600
0.460 806 5^
0.454 379 603
0.648 811 638
0.878 098 618
1.953 769 43A
.601
.458 785 377
.463 466 036
.648 268 099
.877 769 221
.a53 671 622
.602
.467 270 767
.462 664 997
.647 716 110
.877 439 606
.953 373 358
.603
.455 762 688
.461646 381
.647 167 668
.877 109 772
.95:^ 174 634
.604
.454 261 106
.460 740 176
.646 620 774
.876 779 722
.952 975 448
.605
.452 765 983
.449 836 875
.646 074 427
.876 449 455
.952 776 802
.606
.451 277 285
.448 934 968
.546 628 626
.876 118 972
.952 575 694
.607
.449 794 973
.448 036 948
.544 983 869
.875 788 274
.952 375 126
.608
.448 319 016
.447 139 304
.644 438 668
.875 457 :«2
.952 174 097
.609
.446 849 375
.446 246 028
.648 894 492
.875 126 Zn
.951 972 607
.610
.445 386 018
.446 363 112
.648 350 869
.874 794 899
.951 770 657
.611
.443 928 908
.444 463 647
.642 807 790
.874 468 349
.951 568 246
.612
.442 478 011
.443 676 324
.642 265 258
.874 131 688
.951 365 374
.613
.441 033 294
.442 601 435
.641 723 269
.878 799 617
.951 162 041
.614
.439 594 722
.441 808 872
.641 181 807
.873 467 436
.950 958 248
.615
.438 162 262
.440 928 626
.640 640 895
.873 135 046
.950 753 994
.616
.436 735 879
.440 060 687
.640 100 626
.872 802 418
.950 519 280
.617
.435 315 540
.439 176 060
.'689 660 694
.872 460 642
.950 344 106
.618
.433 901 214
.438 301 704
.639 021 403
.872 136 630
.950 138 471
.619
.432 492 866
.437 430 641
.688 482 661
.871 803 412
.949 932 376
.620
.431 090 465
.436 561 854
.587 944 438
.871 469 989
.949 725 820
.621
.429 693 978
.436 695 338
.587 406 762
.871 186 361
.949 518 804
.622
.428 303 372
.434 831 072
.636 869 624
.870 802 630
.949 311 327
.623
.426 918 615
.433 969 062
.636 833 023
.870 468 496
.949 103 391
.624
.425 539 677
.433 109 294
.635 796 968
.870 134 269
.948 894 996
.625
A2i 166 525
.432 251 761
.535 261 429
.869 799 821
.948 &S6 138
.626
.422 790 127
.431 396 456
.534 726 4;VS
.869 465 183
.948 476 822
.627
.421 437 455
.430 543 867
.634 191 975
.869 130 344
.948 267 045
.028
.420 081 476
.429 692 490
.533 0)8 051
.868 795 305
.948 056 809
.629
.418 7;il 158
.428 843 817
.53:^ 124 659
.868 460 070
.947 846 113
.6:^
.417 386 473
.427 997 338
.5:^2 591 801
.868 124 630
.947 634 957
.a3i
.416 047 389
.427 153 047
.532 059 475
.867 789 004
.947 423 'M2
.<«2
.414 713 878
.426 310 935
.531 527 682
.867 453 177
.947 211 206
.a'«
.413 {\H5 008
.425 470 995
.5:^ 996 420
.867 117 154
.946 998 732
.634
.412 003 451
.424 633 219
.530 465 689
.866 780 936
.946 785 738
.635
.410 746 477
.423 797 599
.529 935 488
.806 444 523
.9^46 572 284
.631»
.409 4:M 956
.422 964 128
.529 405 818
.860 107 918
.946 358 371
.637
.408 128 861
.422 132 798
.528 876 677
.865 771 118
.946 143 P99
.638
.4^)6 828 160
.421 'Sm 602
.528 348 064
.865 434 129
.945 929 168
.639
.405 532 827
.420 476 6:^2
.527 819 980
.865 096 948
.945 713 877
.640
.404 242 832
.419 Gôl 581
.527 292 424
.864 759 575
•945 498 128
.041
.402 958 147
.418 828 741
.5-.'6 765 395
.864 422 014
Mb 281 919
.042
.401 678 745
.418 008 004
.526 2:« 893
.864 084 262
.945 065 252
.643
.400 404 596
.417 189 365
.525 712 917
.863 746 323
.944 848 126
.644
.:«9 135 675
.416 372 814
.525 187 467
.863 408 196
.944 630 541
.645
.397 871 953
.415 558 345
.524 662 542
.8a3 069 882
.944 412 498
.646
.396 613 402
.414 745 951
.524 i;« 142
.862 731 381
.944 193 996
.647
.3Î)5 359 9i)5
.413 935 624
.523 614 266
.862 392 695
.943 975 035
.648
.394 111 706
.413 127 357
.523 090 913
.862 053 825
.943 755 616
.649
.3i)2 868 507
.412 321 144
.522 568 084
.861 714 770
.943 535 739
.650
.391 630 373
.411 516 976
.522 045 777
.861 375 532
.943 315 404
[MiLLiR à R08KBBUGH] VALUES OF FUNCTIONS INVOLVING e'X 93
TABLE I
5* 5? • « 00
jc X X ^ X X jt
dx
.650
0.301 630 373
0.411 516 976
0.622 045 777
0.861 376 632
1.043 315 404
.651
.300 307 276
.410 714 847
.521 523 992
.861 036 111
.043 004 611
.652
.380 160 190
.409 914 750
.521 002 720
.860 696 608
.042 873 350
.653
.387 946 089
.409 116 677
.620 481 086
.860 356 723
.042 651 660
.654
.386 727 948
.406 320 622
.610 061 764
.860 016 768
.042 429 483
.655
.385 514 740
.407 526 577
.519 442 063
.860 676 614
.942 206 868
.656
.384 306 439
.406 lU 537
.518 922 880
.860 336 200
.041 983 776
.657
.383 103 021
.405 944 493
.518 404 217
.858 005 787
Ml 760 236
.658
.381 904 460
.405 156 439
.517 886 072
.858 655 107
.941 536 238
.650
.380 710 730
.404 370 360
.617 368 444
.858 314 240
.941 311 784
.660
.379 521 808
.403 586 275
.516 851 334
.857 973 216
.941 086 872
.061
.378 337 668
.402 804 150
.516 334 741
.867 632 006
.040 861 503
.662
.377 158 284
.402 023 989
.516 818 665
.857 200 621
.940 635 677
.663
.375 983 635
.401 245 783
.515 303 104
.856 949 062
.040 400 304
.664
.374 813 603
.400 469 528
.514 788 058
.856 607 329
.940 182 654
.665
.373 648 436
.399 695 215
.514 273 528
.856 265 424
.039 955 468
.666
.372 487 840
.308 922 838
.513 759 511
.855 923 346
Am 727 805
.667
.371 331 880
.398 152 391
.513 246 009
.856 681 096
md 499 696
.6<VS
.370 180 533
.397 383 867
.512 733 019
.865 238 676
.939 271 132
.060
.369 033 775
.396 617 260
.512 220 542
.854 896 085
.939 042 108
.670
.367 801 583
.395 &52 563
.511 708 578
.a54 55:^ 325
.038 812 630
.671
.366 753 033
.395 080 770
.511 197 126
.854 210 396
.038 582 606
.672
.365 620 804
.394 328 874
.510 686 183
.853 867 299
.938 352 307
.673
.364 492 171
.303 560 868
.510 175 752
.853 524 033
.038 121 461
.674
.363 368 012
.302 812 747
.509 665 832
.853 180 602
.037 800 160
.675
.362 248 303
.302 057 5a5
.500 156 421
.852 837 0a5
.937 658 403
.676
.361 i:« (»24
.301 304 134
.608 647 519
.862 4»:) 241
.937 426 191
.677
.:iOO 022 151
.300 552 628
.508 139 125
.852 149 313
.9:i7 193 524
.678
.358 915 661
.380 802 082
.507 631 240
.851 805 220
.936 m) 401
.679
.357 813 534
.380 055 180
.507 123 863
.851 460 966
.936 726 824
.680
.356 715 746
.:^ 300 243
.506 616 092
.851 116 647
.9:36 492 792
.(Wl
.355 622 277
.387 565 137
.606 110 629
.850 771 967
.936 258 305
.682
.354 533 103
.386 822 866
.505 604 771
.850 427 225
.\m 023 363
.683
.353 448 206
.386 082 423
.505 099 419
.860 0S2 322
.935 787 067
.684
.352 367 560
.385 343 802
.504 594 672
.849 737 259
.035 552 116
.685
.351 291 147
.384 606 008
.504 090 230
.849 392 037
.935 315 812
.686
.350 218 945
.383 872 004
.503 586 301
.849 046 656
.935 079 053
.687
.349 150 934
.383 138 814
.503 083 057
.848 701 116
.934 841 840
.688
.348 087 090
.382 407 423
.502 580 225
.848 355 420
.034 604 174
.689
.347 027 396
.381 677 823
.602 077 896
.848 000 666
.034 366 054
.600
.345 971 829
.380 050 010
.501 676 069
.847 663 557
.034 127 480
.691
.344 920 \m
.380 223 078
.501 074 744
.847 317 302
.033 888 463
.602
.343 872 996
.379 499 720
.600 673 919
.846 071 072
.033 648 073
.60:i
.342 829 689
.378 777 231
.600 073 506
.846 624 508
.93:^ 400 030
.694
.341 790 4:«
.378 056 504
.409 573 772
.846 277 970
.033 168 663
.605
.340 755 196
.377 337 535
.499 074 448
.846 931 189
.032 927 814
.606
.339 723 969
.376 620 317
.498 ^5 623
.846 684 257
.0:^2 686 622
.697
.838 606 729
.375 904 844
.498 077 297
.845 237 172
.932 444 778
.698
.337 673 456
.375 191 112
.497 579 468
.844 889 937
.032 202 681
.609
.336 654 131
.374 479 113
.497 082 137
.844 642 552
.031 950 983
.700
.335 638 734
.373 768 843
.496 686 304
.844 105 016
.931 716 882
94 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
TABLE I
/
î^dx fe-' dx P xe-^ dx l' xh-^dx
X X X X
.700
.701
.702
.703
.704
0.335 638 734
.334 627 246
.333 619 647
.332 615 920
.:m 616 044
0.373 768 843
.373 060 296
.872 353 467
.371 648 348
.370 944 936
0.496 585 804
.496 088 967
.495 503 126
.495 097 780
.494 602 930
0.844 195 016
.843 847 3:i2
.843 499 500
.843 151 520
.842 803 303
1.931 716 832
.931 473 279
.931 229 275
.930 984 819
.980 739 911
.705
.7*16
.707
.708
.709
.330 620 002
.im 627 773
.328 639 342
.327 654 686
.326 673 790
.370 243 224
.369 543 208
.368 844 880
.368 148 237
.867 453 273
.494 106 574
.493 614 713
.493 121 345
.492 628 470
.492 136 088
.842 455 110
.842 106 700
.841 758 134
.841 400 425
.841 060 573
.930 494 552
.930 248 743
.930 002 482
.929 755 770
.929 508 608
.710
.711
.712
.713
.714
.325 096 635
.324 723 202
.323 753 473
.322 787 433
.321 825 050
.366 750 981
.366 068 358
.365 378 397
.864 690 092
.364 003 440
.491 644 197
.491 152 799
.490 661 892
.490 171 476
.489 681 549
.840 711 ff78
.840 862 438
.840 013 159
.830 663 737
.839 314 174
.929 260 996
.929 012 932
.928 764 419
.928 515 456
.928 266 043
.715
.716
.717
.718
.719
.320 866 339
.319 911 251
.318 959 779
.318 OU 906
.317 067 614
.368 318 488
.362 635 068
.361 953 339
.361 273 240
.360 594 767
.489 192 112
.488 703 164
.488 214 705
.487 726 735
.487 239 252
.888 964 472
.838 614 630
.838 264 648
.837 914 530
.837 564 274
.928 016 1«1
.927 765 869
.927 515 108
.927 263 897
.927 012 238
.720
.721
.722
.723
.724
.316 126 886
.315 189 705
.314 256 056
.313 325 918
.312 399 278
.359 917 914
.359 242 676
.358 560 047
.857 897 024
.357 226 600
.486 752 256
.486 265 747
.485 779 724
.485 294 187
.484 809 180
.837 213 880
.836 863 351
.886 612 685
.836 161 8a5
.835 810 950
.926 760 130
.926 507 573
.926 254 568
.926 001 116
.925 747 211
.725
.726
.727
.728
.729
.311 476 118 •
.310 556 421
.309 640 170
.308 727 351
.307 817 945
.356 557 770
355 800 530
.355 224 875
.354 560 798
.353 898 297
.484 824 569
.488 840 486
.483 356 888
.482 873 773
.482 391 140
.835 459 882
.835 108 680
.834 757 345
.834 405 878
.834 054 281
.925 492 864
.925 238 068
.924 982 823
.924 727 131
.924 470 992
.730
.731
.732
.733
.734
.306 911 937
.306 009 312
.305 110 051
.304 214 142
.303 321 566
.353 237 364
.352 577 996
.351 920 188
.351 263 934
.350 609 230
.481 008 990
.481 427 322
.480 946 135
.480 465 430
.479 985 204
.833 702 553
.8:Xi 350 694
.832 998 706
.832 646 589
.832 294 344
.924 214 407
.923 957 374
.923 699 895
.923 441 969
.923 183 597
.735
.737
.738
.739
.302 432 309
.301 546 354
.300 663 687
.299 784 292
.298 908 153
.349 950 071
.349 304 452
.348 6^ 368
.348 005 814
.347 358 786
.479 505 459
.479 026 193
.478 M7 406
.478 069 098
.477 591 268
.831 941 971
.831 589 471
.831 236 845
.830 884 093
.830 531 215
.922 924 779
.922 (m 515
.922 405 806
.922 145 651
.921 885 051
.740
.741
.742
.743
.744
.298 035 255
.297 165 5*4
.296 299 124
.295 435 860
.294 575 776
.346 713 279
.346 069 288
.345 426 808
.344 785 834
.344 146 363
.477 113 916
.476 6:17 040
.476 160 641
.475 684 719
.475 209 272
.830 178 213
.829 825 087
.829 471 837
.829 118 465
.828 764 970
.921 624 006
.921 362 516
.921 100 582
.920 838 202
.920 575 879
.745
.746
.747
.748
.749
.293 718 860
.292 865 094
.292 014 466
.291 166 961
.290 322 563
.343 508 388
.342 871 907
.342 236 913
.341 603 402
.340 971 370
.474 734 300
.474 259 803
.473 785 780
.473 312 231
.472 839 156
.828 411 352
.828 057 616
.827 703 757
.827 349 780
.826 995 683
.920 312 112
.920 048 400
.919 784 245
.919 519 647
.919 254 605
.750
.289 481 257
.340 340 813
.472 366 553
.826 641 467
.918 989 121
[millbb à bosbbbuoh] values OF FUNCTIONS INVOLVING erx 96
TABLE L
.750
.751
.752
.753
.754
.755
.756
.757
.758
.759
.760
.761
762
.763
.764
.765
.766
.767
.768
.769
.770
.771
.772
.773
.774
.775
.776
.777
.778
.779
.780
.781
.782
.783
.784
.785
.786
.787
.788
.789
.790
.791
.792
.703
.794
.795
.796
.797
.798
.799
.800
X X X X X » X
0.289 481 257 0.340 340 813 0.472 366 553 0.826 641 467 1.918 989 121
.288 643 032 .339 711 725 .471 894 422 .826 287 13;^ .918 723 193
.287 807 871 .339 084 102 .471 422 764 .825 932 681 .918 456 823
.286 975 761 .338 457 940 .470 951 677 .825 578 114 .918 190 010
.286 146 688 .337 833 233 .470 480 860 .825 223 429 .917 922 765
.285 :I20 638 .337 209 978 .470 010 616 .824 868 629 .917 655 058
.284 497 595 .336 588 171 .469 540 839 .824 513 713 .917 386 920
.28:^ 677 549 .335 967 805 .469 071 S&i .824 158 QSii .917 118 339
.282 860 48:1 .335 348 878 .4ft8 602 696 .82:^ 803 5:« .916 849 318
.282 (M6 385 .334 731 385 .468 134 327 .82:^ 448 282 .916 579 855
.281 235 241 .334 115 321 .467 666 427 .823 092 912 .916 309 952
.280 427 037 .333 600 682 .467 198 994 .822 737 429 .916 039 607
.279 621 760 .332 887 464 .466 732 029 .822 381 835 .915 768 822
.278 819 397 .332 275 662 .466 265 530 .822 026 i:« .915 497 697
.278 019 933 .331 665 273 .465 799 498 .821 670 314 .915 225 931
.277 223 357 .331 Om 291 .465 333 931 .821 314 388 .914 963 826
.276 429 656 .3:» 448 712 .464 868 830 .820 958 :«3 .914 681 281
.275 GiiS 815 .329 842 532 .464 401 193 .820 602 209 .914 408 297
.274 850 821 .329 237 748 .463 940 021 .820 245 957 .914 134 874
.274 065 663 .328 634 354 .463 476 313 .819 889 598 .913 861 Oil
.273 283 327 .328 032 346 .463 013 068 .819 533 131 .913 586 710
.272 503 800 .327 431 721 .462 550 287 .819 176 558 .913 311 970
.271 727 070 .326 832 474 .462 087 968 .818 819 879 .913 036 792
.270 ft>3 123 .326 234 601 .461 626 111 .818 463 094 .912 761 176
.270 181 948 .325 638 097 .461 164 716 .818 106 205 .912 486 122
.269 413 533 .325 042 959 .460 703 781 .817 749 211 .912 208 631
.208 647 863 .324 449 183 .460 243 307 .817 392 114 .911 931 702
.267 884 927 .323 856 764 .469 783 294 .817 034 913 .911 664 336
.267 124 714 .323 265 698 .469 323 741 .816 677 611 .911 376 633
.266 367 210 .322 675 982 .468 864 647 .816 320 206 .911 008 294
.265 612 404 .322 087 610 .468 406 Oil .815 962 700 .910 819 618
.264 860 284 /m 600 680 .457 947 834 .815 005 093 .910 540 505
.264 110 836 .320 914 887 .457 490 116 .815 247 386 .910 260 957
.263 364 049 .320 330 528 .457 032 854 .814 889 579 .900 980 974
.262 619 913 .319 747 497 .456 576 050 .814 531 672 .909 700 563
.261 878 415 .319 165 791 .456 119 702 .814 173 668 .909 419 690
.261 139 642 .318 685 407 .465 663 810 .813 815 565 .909 138 409
.260 403 284 .318 006 340 .455 208 374 .813 457 364 .908 856 684
.259 669 629 .317 428 686 .454 753 393 .813 099 066 .908 674 525
.258 938 564 .316 862 142 .454 298 867 .812 740 673 .908 291 931
.268 210 079 316 277 004 .463 844 795 .812 382 184 .908 008 904
.257 484 162 .315 IQUi 167 .463 391 177 .812 023 599 .907 725 442
.256 760 802 315 130 628 .452 938 013 .811664 919 .907 441647
.266 U» 989 .314 659 382 .452 485 301 .811 306 145 .907 167 219
.255 321 708 .313 989 428 .452 033 042 .810 947 277 .906 872 458
.254 605 952 .313 420 750 .461 581 235 .810 688 317 .906 687 263
.253 892 707 .312 853 373 .461 129 879 .810 229 263 .906 301 636
.2S3 181 962 .312 287 266 .450 678 976 .800 870 118 .906 016 ff78
.252 473 709 .311 722 433 .460 228 521 .809 610 881 .905 729 086
.261 767 934 .311 168 872 .449 778 518 .809 161 554 .905 442 163
.251 064 627 .310 696 ^8 .449 328 964 .806 792 136 .906 164 806
96 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
TABLE I
?»
f^' dx f-^^dx Jer^dx f xe-' dx J
x^e-'dx
.800 0.251064 627 0.310 506 578 0.440 328 864 0. 808 702 135 1.005 154 808
.801 .250 3a3 777 .310 035 540 .448 870 860 .808 432 627 .004 867 022
.802 .240 665 373 .300 475 770 .448 431 204 .808 073 030 .004 578 804
.803 .248 060 406 .308 017 266 .447 082 007 .807 713 344 .004 200 156
.804 .248 275 864 .308 360 004 .447 535 238 .807 353 ^0 .004 001 078
.8(fô .247 584 737 .307 803 002 .447 087 027 .800 003 706 .003 711 568
.806 .246 806 013 .307 240 225 .446 641 062 .806 633 758 .003 421 620
.807 .246 200 &<\ .306 605 700 .446 104 644 .806 273 722 .003 131 260
.808 .245 525 736 .306 143 413 .445 748 673 .805 013 600 .002 840 462
.800 .244 844 162 .305 602 361 .445 303 147 .806 553 303 .002 540 284
.810 .244 104 050 .305 042 530 .444 858 066 .805 103 100 .002 257 577
.811 .243 488 001 .304 403 044 .444 413 431 .804 832 723 .001 9a5 401
.812 .242 813 573 .303 046 574 .443 060 230 .804 472 261 .001 672 077
.81:^ .242 141 387 .303 400 423 .443 525 402 .804 111 717 .001 380 034
.814 .241 471 523 .302 855 480 .443 082 188 .803 751 088 .001 086 654
.815 .240 803 071 .302 311 768 .442 630 327 .803 300 370 .000 702 866
.810 .240 138 721 .301 760 256 .442 106 000 .803 020 587 .000 408 640
.817 .230 475 762 .301 227 051 .441 754 033 .802 668 714 .001) 2a3 887
.81S .238 815 085 .300 687 848 .441 313 300 .802 307 760 .890 008 007
.810 .238 156 680 .300 148 044 .440 872 306 .801 046 726 .800 613 400
.820 .237 600 530 .200 611 235 .440 431 656 .801 585 611 .809 317 467
.821 .236 846 610 .200 074 710 .430 001 443 .801 224 418 .800 021 108
.822 .236 105 002 .206 530 302 .430 551 671 .800 863 145 .808 724 322
.82:^ .235 545 580 .208 005 240 .430 112 340 .800 501 706 .808 427 112
.824 .234 808 300 .207 472 280 .438 673 447 .800 140 367 .80S 120 475
.825 .234 253 423 .206 040 507 .438 234 002 .700 778 861 .807 831 414
.826 .233 610 653 .206 400 000 .437 796 077 .709 417 270 .897 532 027
.827 .232 070 077 .205 880 465 .437 350 308 .700 055 621 .807 234 018
.828 .232 831 688 .205 352 108 .430 022 258 .798 693 887 .896 934 683
.829 .231 605 475 .204 825 096 .436 485 554 .798 332 078 .896 C)34 924
.830 .231 061 431 .204 290 155 .436 040 280 .797 970 194 .896 »W 741
.KM .230 429 544 .29:^ 774 373 .435 613 455 .797 608 2:« .896 034 135
.«^2 .229 799 H()6 .2îW 250 746 .435 178 050 .797 246 205 .895 7:« 106
.«;« .229 172 208 .292 728 271 .434 743 099 .796 884 100 .895 4H1 a54
.834 .228 546 741 .292 206 W4 .434 308 573 .796 521 923 .895 129 779
.835 .227 923 394 .291 686 763 .433 874 481 .796 159 673 .894 827 482
.ms .227 302 162 .291 167 728 .433 440 824 .795 797 352 .894 524 763
.KM .226 6K^ (m .290 649 822 .4:« 007 600 .795 434 959 .804 221 622
.KM6 .226 065 999 .290 1^3 056 432 574 808 .795 072 498 .893 918 060
.8:^9 .225 451 051 .289 617 423 .432 142 450 .794 700 065 .803 614 076
.840 .224 8:^8 181 .289 102 918 .431 710 523 .794 347 363 .893 309 672
.841 .224 227 IM) .288 589 5:19 .431 279 029 .793 984 692 .893 0O4 840
.842 .223 618 (kW .288 077 283 .430 847 965 .793 621 952 .892 699 601
.84:i .22:^011946 .287 5(î6 147 .430 417 333 .793 259 144 .892 393 935
.844 .222 407 299 .287 a56 126 .429 987 130 .702 896 268 .892 087 850
.845 .221 m\ 684 .286 547 219 .429 557 358 .792 533 326 .891 781 344
.846 .221 204 (I96 .286 039 421 .429 128 016 .792 170 317 .891 474 420
.847 .22(J 605 524 .285 532 731 .428 699 102 .791 807 241 .891 167 077
.848 .220 008 9(51 .285 027 144 .428 270 617 .791 444 101 .890 859 315
.849 .219 414 :«K) .284 522 657 .427 842 561 .791 080 894 .890 551 135
.850 .218 821 828 .28^1 019 268 .427 414 932 .790 717 624 .890 242 537
[miller à ro8ehbu(îh] VALUP:S OF FUNCTIONS INVOLVING erx 97
TABLE I
—
1 :-..-:
__--.-_ ^^^
X
OD
h-
J .- dx
X
/ .r^' dx
X
00
/ x-e-'dx
X
.850
.851
.852
.a53
.854
0 218 821 828
.218 231 241
.217 642 628
.217 a>5 984
.216 471 297
0.284 019 268
.283 516 974
.283 015 771
.282 516 656
.282 016 627
0.427 414 932
.426 987 731
.426 560 956
.42Ji 134 60Î)
.425 708 687
0.790 717 624
.790 354 290
.789 990 891
.789 627 4;^0
.789 26;^ 906
1.890 242 537
.889 933 520
.889 624 087
.889 314 236
.889 003 968
.855
.856
.857
.858
.850
.215 888 562
.215 307 769
.214 728 911
.214 151 979
.213 576 965
.281 518 679
.281 021 811
.280 526 019
.280 031 300
.279 537 652
.425 283 191
.424 a58 120
.424 43:^ 476
.424 009 25;^
.423 585 456
.788 900 319
.788 536 672
.788 172 9r»3
.787 809 193
.787 445 363
.888 693 284
.888 382 183
.888 070 666
.887 768 7a4
.887 446 385
.860
.861
.862
.863
.864
.213 (m 863
.212 4:i2 663
.211 863 358
.211 295 940
.210 730 402
.279 045 070
.278 553 553
.278 06:^ 097
.277 573 699
.277 085 356
.423 162 082
.422 739 132
.422 316 604
.421 894 498
.421 472 815
.787 081 473
.786 717 624
.786 353 516
.785 989 451
.785 625 327
.887 133 622
.886 820 444
.886 506 852
.886 192 846
.885 878 424
.865
.860
.867
.868
.869
.210 166 735
.209 604 9:«
.209 044 984
.208 486 885
.207 930 628
.276 598 066
.276 111 826
.275 626 6:^2
.275 142 482
.274 659 372
.421 051 553
.420 630 712
.420 210 291
.419 790 291
.419 370 710
.785 261 145
.784 896 908
.784 532 613
.784 168 263
.783 803 858
.885 563 689
.885 248 341
.884 932 680
.884 616 607
.884 300 120
.870
.871
.872
.873
.874
.207 376 204
.206 823 606
.206 272 827
.205 723 868
.205 176 693
.274 177 301
.273 696 264
.273 216 260
.272 737 285
.272 259 337
.418 951 549
.418 532 807
.418 114 483
.417 696 578
.417 279 090
.783 439 397
.783 074 882
.782 710 313
.782 345 690
.781 981 015
.883 983 222
.883 665 912
.883 348 190
.883 030 066
.882 711 512
.876
.876
.877
.878
.879
.204 631 :^25
.204 087 744
.203 545 947
.203 005 924
.202 467 667
.271 782 412
.271 306 509
.270 831 623
.270 :«7 752
.269 884 895
.416 862 020
.416 445 366
.416 029 129
.415 613 308
.415 197 002
.781 616 287
.781 251 507
.780 886 675
.780 621 792
.780 156 858
.882 392 568
.882 073 193
.881 753 417
.881 433 232
.881 112 638
.880
.881
.882
.883
.884
.201 931 172
.201 396 428
.200 863 4:a
'.200 332 173
.199 802 645
.260 413 046
.268 942 205
.268 472 368
.268 im 5:^2
.267 535 606
.414 782 912
.414 368 336
.413 954 175
.413 540 428
.413 127 094
.779 791 874
.779 426 840
.779 061 757
.778 696 625
.778 331 445
.880 791 636
.880 470 222
.880 148 402
.879 826 173
.879 503 636
.8a5
.886
.887
.888
.889
.199 274 844
.198 748 7<^0
.198 224 386
.197 701 717
.197 180 744
.267 068 855
.266 603 007
.266 138 160
.265 674 281
265 111 398
.412 714 173
.412 301 665
.411 889 570
.411 477 886
.411 066 614
.777 966 217
.777 600 941
.777 235 618
.776 870 249
.776 504 834
.879 180 492
.878 857 040
.878 533 181
.878 208 016
.877 884 246
.890
.891
.802
.893
.894
.196 661 462
.196 143 863
.195 «27 941
.195 113 689
.19^4 001 101
.264 749 496
.204 288 575
.263 828 &M
.263 369 661
.262 911 663
.410 655 753
.410 245 302
.409 8:15 262
.409 425 632
.409 016 411
.776 139 373
.776 773 867
.775 408 316
.775 042 721
.774 677 082
.877 659 167
877 233 684
.876 907 795
.876 581 502
.876 254 803
.895
.896
.897
.896
.899
.194 090 169
.19:^580 887
.193 073 248
.192 667 246
.192 062 874
.262 454 634
.261 998 572
.261 543 475
.261 089 338
.260 636 161
.408 607 599
.408 199 195
.407 791 200
.407 383 613
.406 976 433
.774 311 399
.773 945 674
.773 579 907
.773 214 097
.772 848 246
.875 927 701
.875 600 194
.875 272 283
.874 943 969
.874 616 262
.900
.191 560 127
.260 183 939
.406 569 660
.772 482 353
874 286 132
Sec. IIL, 1903. 7.
98 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
TABLE I
00 X 00 op oo
f—àx y— <i'- Jer'dx Jxe-'dx j'xh-'dx
K *^ a ^ x X X
000
0.101 560 127
0.260 183 939
0.406 569 660
0.772 482 353
1.874 288 132
901
.191 058 996
.250 732 672
.406 163 293
.772 116 421
.873 956 609
002
.190 659 478
.250 282 355
.405 757 333
.771 750 447
.873 626 685
903
.190 061 563
.258 832 987
.405 351 778
.771 384 434
.873 296 367
904
.189 565 246
.258 384 565
.404 946 629
.771 018 382
.872 965 629
905
.189 070 521
.257 937 087
.404:541 885
.770 652 291
.^72 634 500
906
.188 577 382
.257 490 549
.404 137 545
.770 286 162
.872 302 969
907
.188 085 822
.257 044 950
.403 733 610
.709 919 994
.871 971 039
006
.187 505 834
.256 600 287
.403 330 078
.769 553 789
.871 638 707
909
.187 107 414
.256 156 557
.402 926 950
.769 187 547
.871 305 976
910
.186 620 554
.255 713 758
.402 524 224
.768 821 268
.870 972 846
911
.186 135 249
.255 271 887
.402 121 901
.768 4W 953
.870 639 316
912
.185 651 492
.264 830 942
.401 719 980
.768 088 602
.870 305 387
913
.185 169 277
.254 390 921
.401 318 461
.767 722 216
.869 971 060
914
.184 688 608
.253 951 821
.400 917 343
.767 355 795
.869 636 334
915
.184 209 449
.253 513 640
.400 616 626
.766 989 339
.869 301 210
916
.183 731 824
.253 076 374
.400 116 310
.766 622 849
.868 965 689
917
.183 255 717
.252 640 023
.399 716 393
.766 256 326
.868 620 770
918
.182 781 123
.252 204 582
.399 316 877
.7^5 889 770
.868 293 455
919
.182 308 033
.251 770 051
.398 917 750
.765 523 180
.867 956 743
920
.181 836 446
.251 336 425
.398 519 041
.765 156 559
.867 619 6:^
921
.181 366 852
.250 903 704
.308 120 721
.764 789 905
.867 282 130
922
.180 807 747
.250 471 884
.397 722 800
.764 423 221
.866 944 230
923
.180 430 624
.250 040 964
.397 325 276
.764 056 505
.866 6a5 934
924
.179 964 979
.249 610 940
.396 928 149
.763 689 758
.866 267 244
926
.179 500 804
.249 181 811
.396 531 419
.76:^ 322 982
.865 928 159
926
.179 038 095
.248 753 574
.396 135 086
.762 956 175
.865 588 680
927
.178 576 846
.248 326 227
.395 739 149
.762 589 340
.865 248 806
928
.178 117 051
.247 899 767
.395 343 607
.762 222 475
.864 908 539
929
.177 658 704
.247 474 193
.394 W8 461
.761 855 581
.864 567 879
930
.177 201 800
.247 049 501
.394 553 710
.761 488 661
.864 226 826
931
.170 746 334
.246 625 689
.394 159 ;tô4
.761 121 712
.863 885 380
932
.176 292 299
.246 202 756
.393 765 392
.760 754 im
.863 543 542
933
.175 839 691
.245 780 698
.393 371 82:3
.760 387 734
.863 201 312
934
.175 388 503
.245 359 514
.392 978 648
.760 020 705
.862 858 691
935
.174 938 720
.244 939 202
.392 585 866
.759 053 649
.802 515 678
936
.174 490 3^J6
.244 519 758
.:m 193 476
.759 286 5(>9
.m2 172 274
937
.174 (m 406
.244 101 181
.391 801 478
.758 910 464
.861 828 480
938
.173 597 846
• .243 683 468
.391 409 873
.758 552 333
.861 484 295
939
.173 153 680
.243 266 617
.391 018 659
.758 185 179
.861 139 721
940
.172 710 900
.242 850 627
.390 627 835
.757 818 001
.860 794 757
941
.172 269 505
.242 435 493
.300 237 403
.757 450 799
.860 449 403
942
.171 829 485
.242 021 216
.389 &17 300
.757 083 574
.860 103 661
943
.171 390 839
.241 607 791
.389 457 708
.756 716 326
.859 757 530
.944
.170 953 558
.241 195 218
.389 0(W 145
.756 349 057
.859 411 011
.945
.170 517 040
.240 783 493
.388 679 571
.755 981 105
.«59 Ofrt ia5
.946
.170 083 078
.240 372 615
.:m 291 080
.755 614 453
.858 716 810
.947
.169 649 867
.239 962 581
.387 902 989
.755 247 119
.858 369 129
.948
.169 218 003
.239 553 389
.387 515 279
.754 879 761
.80S 021 061
.949
' .168 787 478
.239 145 038
.387 127 î)58
.751 512 3îK)
.a57 672 606
.950
.168 358 290
.238 737 524
.380 741 023
.754 144 996
.857 323 766
[millkr à KosKBRUGu] VALUES OF FUNCTIONS INVOLVING e'X 9Ô
TABLE I
X f^^ dx fSl^dLc le-'dx f xe^ dx Px^er^dx
X X^ X ^ X ■ X X
.950 0.168 358 290 0.238 737 524 0.386 741023 0.754 144 996 1.857 323 765
.951 .167 930 433 .238 330 845 .386 354 476 .753 777 582 .856 974 539
.952 .167 503 902 .237 925 000 .385 968 314 .753 410 150 .856 624 927
.953 .167 078 690 .237 519 987 .385 582 539 .753 042 699 .856 274 929
.954 .166 654 795 .237 116 802 .385 197 149 .752 675 230 .855 924 548
.955 .166 232 209 .236 712 445 .384 812 145 .752 307 743 .856 573 781
.956 .165 810 930 .236 309 912 .384 427 525 .751 940 238 .856 222 631
.957 .165 390 951 .235 908 202 .384 048 289 .751572 717 .864 871097
.958 .164 972 267 .235 507 313 .383 650 438 .751 205 180 .854 619 180
.960 .164 654 874 .235 107 243 .383 276 970 .750 837 625 .854 166 880
.960 .164 138 768 .234 707 988 .382 892 886 .750 470 057 .853 814 197
.961 .163 723 943 .234 309 548 .382 510 184 .750 102 472 .853 461 132
.962 .163 310 393 .233 911920 .382 127 8a5 .749 734 872 .853 107 684
.963 .162 898 115 .233 515 103 .381745 929 .749 367 258 .852 753 866
.964 .162 487 104 .233 119 003 .381 364 373 .748 999 630 .852 399 646
.965 .162 077 363 .232 723 890 .380 983 200 .748 631 986 .852 046 056
.966 .161 668 861 .232 329 490 .380 602 407 .748 204 332 .851 600 084
.967 .161261620 .231935 893 .380 221995 .747 896 664 .851334 732
.968 .160 855 627 .231 543 095 .379 841 963 .747 528 983 .850 979 001
.909 .160 450 878 .231 151 094 .379 462 311 .747 161 290 .850 622 890
.970 .160 047 366 .230 759 890 .379 083 038 .746 793 585 .850 266 401
.971 .159 645 088 .230 369 479 .378 704 145 .746 425 869 .849 909 632
.972 .159 244 039 .229 979 860 .378 325 630 .746 058 142 . .849 552 285
.973 .158 844 214 .229 591 031 .377 947 493 .746 600 401 .849 194 660
.974 .158 445 600 .229 202 989 .377 569 735 .745 322 656 .848 836 668
.975 .158 048 219 .228 815 733 .377 192 354 .744 954 898 .848 478 278
.976 .157 652 050 .228 429 251 .376 815 350 .744 587 130 .848 119 621
.977 .157 257 067 .228 043 570 .376 438 723 .744 219 a*» .847 760 387
.078 .156 863 297 .227 658 658 .376 062 472 .743 851 570 .847 400 878
.979 .156 470 723 .227 274 525 .375 686 598 .743 483 777 .847 040 992
.980 .156 079 342 .226 891 167 .376 311 099 .743 115 976 .846 680 731
.981 .155 689 149 .226 508 583 .374 935 976 .742 748 167 .846 320 094
.982 .155 300 140 .226 126 771 .374 561 227 .742 380 352 .845 959 083
.983 .154 912 310 .225 745 729 .374 186 853 .742 012 529 .845 597 698
.984 .154 525 657 .225 365 454 .373 812 853 .741 644 700 .845 235 938
.985 .154 140 173 .224 985 946 .373 439 227 .741 276 865 .844 873 805
.986 .153 765 998 .224 607 201 .373 065 974 .740 909 025 .844 511 298
.987 .153 372 701 .224 229 219 .372 693 095 .740 541 179 .844 148 419
.988 .152 990 703 .223 851 997 .372 320 588 .740 173 329 .843 785 166
.989 .152 609 860 .223 475 533 .371 918 454 .7J9 805 474 .843 421 642
.990 .162 230 165 .223 099 826 .371576 691 .739 437 615 .843 057 645
.991 .151 851 615 .222 724 873 .371 205 300 .739 069 752 .842 693 177
.992 .151 474 207 .222 350 672 .370 834 280 .738 701 886 .842 328 438
.993 .151 097 935 .221 977 222 .370 463 631 .7:^ 334 017 .841 963 328
.994 .150 722 796 .221604 621 .370 093 353 .737 966 146 .841597 847
.995 .150 348 784 .221 232 567 .360 723 445 .737 598 272 .841 231 997
.996 .149 975 897 .220 881 358 .369 353 906 .737 230 396 .840 865 777
.997 .149 604 130 .220 490 892 .368 984 737 .736 862 519 .840 499 187
.998 .149 233 479 .220 121 167 .368 615 936 .736 494 641 .840 132 228
.999 .148 863 939 .219 752 182 .368 247 506 .736 126 762 .839 764 901
1.000 .148 495 507 .219 383 934 .367 879 441 .735 758 882 .839 397 206
lOO
ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
TABLE IL
dx
00
dx
e-« dx
00
/
re-' dx
J
xh-^dx
1.00
0.148 495 507
0.219 383 934
0.367 879 441
0.735 758 882
1.839 397 206
1.01
.144 871 228
.215 741 623
.364 218 980
.732 080 149
.8:« 700 079
1.02
.141 353 368
.212 171 083
.360 594 940
.728 401 779
.831 966 634
1.03
.137 938 141
.208 670 559
.357 006 961
.724 724 130
.828 196 944
1.04
.134 621 920
.205 238 351
.353 454 682
.721 047 651
.824 391 686
1.05
.131 401 234
.201 872 813
.349 937 740
.717 372 386
.820 651 140
1.06
.128 272 758
.198 672 346
.346 455 810
.713 698 909
.816 675 687
1.07
.125 233 305
.195 335 403
.343 008 517
.710 027 631
.812 765 714
1.08
.122 279 823
.192 160 479
.338 695 526
.706 358 603
.808 821 608
1.09
.119 409 381
.189 046 118
.336 216 494
.702 692 472
.804 843 760
1.10
.116 619 171
.185 990 905
.332 871 084
.699 029 276
.800 832 563
1.11
.113 906 500
.182 993 465
.329 668 961
.695 369 408
.796 788 412
1.12
.111 268 778
.180 052 467
.326 279 795
.691 713 165
.792 711 704
1.13
.108 703 623
.177 166 615
.323 033 256
.688 060 836
.788 602 837
1.14
.106 208 351
.174 334 651
.319 819 022
.684 412 707
.784 462 214
1.15
.103 780 967
.171 555 354
.316 636 769
.680 769 064
.780 290 236
1.16
.101 419 173
.168 827 635
.313 486 181
.677 130 161
.776 087 306
1.17
.099 120 850
.166 150 040
.310 366 941
.673 496 263
.771 853 831
1.18
.096 883 963
.16:^ 521 748
.307 278 739
.669 867 650
.767 590 216
1.19
.094 706 554
.160 941 567
.304 221 264
.666 244 568
.763 296 869
1.20
092 586 740
.158 408 437
.301 194 212
.662 627 266
.758 974 198
1.21
.090 522 708
.155 921 325
.298 197 279
.659 015 988
.754 622 612
1.22
.088 512 714
.153 479 22^
.295 230 167
.665 410 971
.750 242 522
1.23
.086 655 078
.151 081 164
.292 292 678
.651 812 448
.745 834 337
1.24
.084 648 181
.148 726 188
.289 384 218
.648 220 648
.741 398 470
1.25
.082 790 464
.146 413 373
.286 604 797
.644 635 793
.736 935 331
1.26
.080 980 428
.144 141 815
.283 654 027
.641 058 100
.732 445 332
1.27
.079 216 622
.141 910 639
.280 831 622
.61^7 487 781
.727 928 886
1.28
.077 497 652
.139 718 989
.278 037 300
.633 925 045
.723 386 403
1.29
.075 822 172
.137 566 032
.275 270 783
.630 370 093
.718 818 297
1.30
.074 188 88:^
.135 450 9.58
.272 531 793
.626 823 124
.714 224 978
1.31
.072 5î)6 m\
.133 372 975
.269 820 056
.6:^2 284 330
.709 606 859
1.32
.071 043 915
.131 3:n 314
.267 135 302
.619 753 901
.704 964 ;^1
1.33
.069 529 860
.129 325 224
.264 477 261
.616 232 019
.700 297 865
1.34
.068 053 243
.127 353 972
.261 845 669
.612 718 8^4
.695 607 811
1.35
.mS 612 979
.125 416 84-1
.259 240 261
.601^ 214 613
.690 894 600
1.36
.065 208 014
.123 513 146
.266 660 777
.605 719 434
.686 158 640
1.37
.003 8:^7 335
.121 642 198
.254 106 960
.602 233 494
.681 400 ail
1.38
.062 499 961
.119 803 :«8
.251 578 553
.598 756 956
.676 620 109
1.39
.061 194 948
.117 995 919
.249 075 305
.595 289 978
.671 818 352
1.40
.a59 921 370
.116 219 313
.246 596 964
.591 832 713
.666 995 476
1.41
.a58 678 362
.114 472 903
.244 143 283
.588 \m 312
.662 151 886
1.42
.057 405 049
.112 756 090
.241 714 017
.584 947 921
.(«7 287 985
1.43
.056 280 610
.111 068 287
.239 :«8 922
.581 520 681
.652 404 177
1.44
.055 124 243
.109 408 923
.236 927 759
.578 103 731
.647 500 863
1.45
.a53 995 172
.107 777 440
.2a4 570 288
.574 697 206
.642 578 442
1.46
.052 m-l 650
. 106 173 292
.232 236 275
.571 301 2:^
.637 mi 315
1.47
.051 815 949
.104 595 946
.229 925 485
.567 915 W8
.632 677 878
1.48
.050 7(V4 367
.103 044 882
.227 6:r7 688
.564 541 467
.627 700 527
1.41)
.019 7:37 223
.101 519 593
.225 372 656
.5()1 177 912
.622 705 657
1 .50
.048 733 a58
.100 019 582
.223 130 160
.557 825 400
.617 693 661
[miller a RasEBRUon] VALUES OF FUNCTIONS INVOLVING e-x 101
TABLE II.
op 00 00 oo 00
J ^ dx f-^dx Jer^âx f xer^ dx fx^e^dx
1.60
1.61
1.52
1.63
1.64
0.048 733 858
.047 753 634
.046 795 93:<
.045 860 156
.044 945 721
0.100 019 582
.098 644 365
.097 093 466
.095 666 424
.094 262 786
0.223 130 160
.220 909 978
.218 711 887
.216 535 667
.214 381 101
0.567 825 400
.564 484 045
.651 153 955
.547 835 238
.644 527 998
1.617 693 661
.812 664 930
.607 619 854
.602 658 820
.597 482 216
1.55
1.56
1.57
1.58
L.59
.044 052 069
.043 178 651
.042 324 938
.041 490 420
.040 674 698
.092 882 108
.091 523 959
.090 187 917
.088 873 566
.087 580 504
.212 247 974
.210 136 071
.208 045 182
.205 975 098
.203 925 612
.541 232 333
.537 948 342
.634 876 119
.531 415 753
.628 167 334
.602 390 424
.687 283 827
.682 162 807
.5n 027 742
.571 879 008
1.00
1.61
1.62
1.03
1.64
.0:19 876 990
.039 097 128
.038 334 558
.037 588 839
.036 859 544
.086 308 334
.085 056 670
.083 825 133
.082 613 354
.081 420 970
.201 896 518
.199 887 814
.197 898 899
.195 929 574
.193 980 042
•524 930 m
.521 708 673
.518 494 592
.515 294 780
.512 107 312
.666 718 980
.681 642 030
.656 854 529
.651 154 845
.645 943 346
1.65
1.66
1.67
1.88
1.69
.036 146 257
.035 448 576
.0;i.i 766 110
.034 098 477
.033 445 311
.080 247 627
.079 092 978
.077 956 684
.076 838 413
.075 737 839
.192 049 909
.190 i:« 980
.188 247 066
.186 373 976
.184 519 524
.608 932 258
.505 769 687
.602 619 666
.499 482 256
.496 357 520
.540 720 392
.635 486 348
.530 241 572
.524 988 422
.519 721 252
1.70
1.71
1.72
1.73
1.74
.0:i2 806 253
.032 180 951
.0:n 569 070
.030 970 283
.030 384 266
.074 654 644
.073 588 518
.072 6:i9 155
.071 506 255
.070 489 527
.182 683 524
.180 866 793
.179 066 148
.177 284 410
.175 520 401
.493 245 515
.490 146 298
.487 059 922
.483 986 4.39
.480 925 898
.514 448 414
.509 162 260
.503 860 137
.498 667 390
.493 257 360
1.75
1.70
1.77
1.78
1.79
.029 810 711
.029 249 317
.028 699 788
.028 161 841
.027 635 197
.069 488 685
.068 503 447
.067 5:« 539
.066 578 691
.065 638 641
.173 773 W3
.172 044 864
.170 332 989
.168 638 147
.166 960 170
.477 878 344
.474 843 824
.471 822 379
.468 814 049
.485 818 873
.487 939 891
.482 613 818
.477 280 979
.471 941 205
.486 694 828
1.80
1.81
1.82
1.83
1.84
.027 119 587
.028 814 747
.026 120 423
.025 6:^ 366
.025 162 336
.064 713 129
.063 801 903
.062 904 715
.062 021 321
.061 151 483
.165 298 888
.163 654 137
.102 025 751
.160 41:^ 5(58
.158 817 426
.482 838 887
.469 868 124
.456 912 618
.453 970 397
.451 041 490
.481 242 172
.465 883 668
.450 619 833
.446 149 791
.439 775 258
1.85
1.86
1.87
1.88
1.89
.024 698 095
.024 243 418
.023 798 076
.023 361 859
.022 934 551
.060 294 968
.059 451 645
.058 620 994
.057 803 091
.a56 997 623
.157 237 166
.155 072 630
.154 123 662
.152 590 108
.151 071 809
.448 125 924
.446 223 72:^
.442 334 909
.439 459 505
.436 597 628
.434 396 050
.429 012 478
.423 824 &52
.418 2:« 479
.412 838 683
1.90
1.91
1 92
1.9:3
1.94
.022 515 948
.022 105 850
.021 704 062
.021 310 393
.020 924 661
.056 204 378
.a55 423 148
.054 653 731
.053 805 927
.053 149 540
.149 568 619
.148 080 387
.146 606 962
.145 148 198
.143 703 950
.433 748 996
.4:^0 913 925
.428 092 329
.425 284 222
.422 489 612
.407 440 707
.402 030 908
.396 636 664
.391 230 968
.386 823 410
1.95
l.t»
1.97
1.98
1.99
.020 546 682
.020 176 2W
.019 813 294
.019 457 ms
.019 108 879
.052 414 380
.051 690 257
.050 976 988
.aîO 274 :I92
.049 582 290
.142 274 072
.140 a58 421
.1:^9 456 856
.138 069 237
.136 695 4-25
.419 708 511
.416 940 928
.414 186 863
.411 446 327
.408 719 322
.380 414 180
.375 003 662
.369 591 839
.364 179 292
.:358 766 198
2.00
.018 767 131
.048 900 511
.135 335 283
.406 006 860
.353 352 832
loâ
ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
TABLE XXL
X
e-'—l
X
X
6-' — 1
X
X
X
.r
X
000
001
002
003
(m
1.000 000 000
0.999 500 167
.999 000 667
.998 501 499
.998 002 664
.050
.051
.052
.053
.054
0.975 411 510
.974 928 029
.974 444 888
.973 962 029
.973 479 509
.100
.101
.102
.10:^
.104
9.048 374 180
8.949 832 009
.853 230 899
.758 oÏ4 806
.665 627 860
.150
.151
.152
.153
.154
5.7:« 053 176
.694 355 620
.651 238 689
.608 690 992
.566 701 435
005
006
007
008
009
.997 504 161
.997 005 991
.996 508 153
.996 010 &45
.995 513 470
.055
.056
.057
.058
.059
.972 997 310
.972 515 431
.972 033 871
.971 552 630
.971 071 709
.105
.106
.107
.108
.109
.574 519 263
.485 138 189
.397 436 196
.311 366 6:^
.226 884 564
,155
.156
.157
.158
.159
.525 250 210
.484 353 784
.443 974 897
.404 112 544
.304 756 975
010
011
012
013
014
.995 016 625
.994 520 111
.994 023 928
.901 528 076
.993 032 553
.060
.061
.062
.06;}
.OW
.970 501 107
.970 110 823
.969 630 858
.969 151 211
.968 671 882
.110
.111
.112
.113
.114
.143 946 685
.062 511 252
7.982 538 013
.903 088 142
.826 824 174
.160
.161
.162
.16:^
.KM
.325 898 6S1
.287 528 302
.249 637 065
.212 215 880
.175 256 231
015
016
017
018
010
.992 537 360
.992 042 497
.991 547 963
.991 053 758
.990 559 882
.065
.066
.067
.068
.069
.968 192 871
.967 714 177
.967 235 801
.966 757 742
.966 279 999
.115
.116
.117
.118
.119
.751 009 947
.676 510 546
.603 292 249
.531 322 480
.460 569 754
.165
.166
.167
.168
.169
.138 749 722
.102 688 158
.067 063 541
.031 868 064
4.997 094 103
020
021
022
02:^
024
.990 066 3:{5
989 573 116
.989 080 225
.988 587 662
.088 095 427
.070
.071
.im
.073
.074
.965 802 573
.965 325 463
.964 848 669
.au 372 191
.963 896 029
.120
.121
.122
.123
.124
.391 003 639
.322 594 707
.255 314 496
.189 135 468
.124 030 975
.170
.171
.172
.173
.174
.962 734 215
.928 781 131
.895 227 751
.862 067 i:fô
.829 292 515
025
026
027
028
029
.987 603 519
.987 111 938
.986 620 (W4
.986 129 757
.985 ««» 156
.075
.076
.077
.078-
.079
.9a3 420 182
.962 944 651
.902 469 434
.961 994 531
.961 519 944
.125
.126
.127
.128
.129
.059 975 221
6.996 94,3 228
.9^4 910 808
.873 a54 525
.813 751 «71
.175
.176
.177
.178
.179
.796 897 262
.764 874 905
.7;W 219 122
.701 923 727
.670 982 678
030
031
032
033
031
.985 148 882
.IH4 (J58 9.33
.i)84 \m 310
.98:j OSO 012
.983 191 040
.080
.081
.082
.08:^
Ot^
.961 045 670
.\m 571 711
.960 098 0(w
.959 (J24 732
959 151 713
i:^
.131
.132
.i:i3
.i;«
.7.>1 5S0 238
.(KW 318 ^m
.638 946 932
.582 444 302
.526 791 527
.180
.181
.182
.183
.IS4
.640 390 063
.610 140 103
.580 227 145
.550 tU5 660
.521 390 238
03Ô
030
o;r7
038
m)
.982 702 393
.982 214 070
.981 726 072
.981 2;w :i98
.980 751 048
.085
086
.087
.088
.958 679 007
.9.58 206 614
.957 734 53:^
.957 262 im
.956 791 308.
.i:i5
.137
.i:w
.139
.471 969 716
.417 J«0 5:«
.3(M 746 176
.312 309 \m
.260 633 2tW
.1K5
.18(î
.187
.las
.189
.41^2 455 588
4a3 836 5:«
.4.% 528 002
.407 525 038
.379 822 787
040
(Ul
042
043
014
.m) 20-4 021
.979 777 318
.979 290 9:^)
.978 80^1 S82
.îr78 319 lis
.090
.091
.092
.093
.094
.956 320 1(U
.<>55 849 331
.955 378 809
.9.>4 ÎKXS 599
.954 438 700
.140
.141
.142
.143
.144
.2iH) 701 iVM
. 159 498 6(J5
.110 008 H49
.061 217 2<Î5
.013 lOi) 3(>2
.190
.191
.192
.193
liH
.352 416 494
.325 301 509
.•298 473 273
.271 \m 327
.245 659 300
ai5
046
047
048
(H9
.977 83:i 737
.977 :il8 (M8
.976 8(W 881
.97(i 379 4:J6
.975 895 310
.0{>ô
.()9t)
.ml
.098
.091»
.95:^ 969 m
.95:{ 499 833
.95:^ o:so 8a5
.952 562 207
.952 093 858
.145
.146
.147
.14M
.149
5.9a5 070 987
.918 '^^ ;i78
.H72 748 14<5
.H27 237 %S.\
.782 343 053
.195
.190
.197
.198
.lih)
.219 664 913
. li)3 939 973
.168 480 372
. 143 282 087
.118 341 173
aîo
.975 411 510
.100
.951 625 820
.150
.738 053 176
.200
093 fi.')3 765
[MiLLiR & RosEBRuon] VALUES OF FUNCTIONS INVOLVING e-x
TABLE III.
103
I
fr*
f-X
e-«
e-'
X
X
X
. ._ _
./;
X
X
X
X"
200
4.093 653 765
.250
3.115 203 132
.300
2.469 394 009
.350
2.013 394 542
201
.069 216 077
.251
.099 690 723
.301
.458 730 142
.a5i
.005 651 720
202
.045 024 396
.252
.(m 304 516
.302
.448 139 288
.352
1.997 954 892
20B
.021 075 081
.253
.069 043 Oil
.303
.437 620 780
.353
.990 303 664
204
3.997 364 565
.254
.053 904 732
.304
.427 173 90:^
.354
.982 697 648
205
.973 889 348
.255
.(m 888 227
.:^
.416 797 949
.355
.975 136 400
206
.950 646 001
.256
023 992 066
.306
.406 492 220
.aV)
.967 619 72D
207
.927 631 159
.257
.009 214 840
.307
.396 256 029
.357
.960 147 052
208
.904 841 52:i
.258
2.994 555 163
.SOS
.380 088 6i»5
.358
.a52 718 087
209
.882 273 855
.259
.980 Oil 672
.309
.375 989 547
.359
.945 332 455
210
.RtO 924 981
.260
.965 583 022
.310
.365 957 923
.300
.937 989 795
211
.837 791 786
.201
.951 267 891
.311
.355 993 170
.361
.9:30 089 746
212
.815 871 215
.262
.937 064 976
.312
.ai6 094 642
.362
.923 431 955
213
.794 160 269
.263
.922 972 994
.313
.336 261 701
.363
.916 216 070
214
.772 656 005
.2(M
.908 990 681
.314
.320 493 720
.364
.909 041 744
215
.751 355 530
.265
.895 116 792
.315
.310 790 077
.365
.901 908 633
216
.730 256 027
.28(5
.881 350 103
.316
.307 150 159
.360
.894 816 397
217
.709 354 697
.267
.867 689 406
.317
.297 573 'Sol
.307
.887 764 700
218
.688 648 815
.268
.854 133 512
.318
.288 059 083
.368
.880 753 211
219
.668 135 699
.269
.840 681 248
.319
.278 006 738
.369
.873 781 600
.220
.647 812 718
.270
.827 331 461
.3-20
.209 215 741
.370
.866 849 5-42
221
.627 677 286
.271
.814 08:^ 013
.321
.259 885 517
.371
.859 956 716
222
.607 726 866
.272
.800 934 783
.322
.250 015 498
.372
.853 102 802
223
.587 958 965
.273
.787 885 609
.323
.an 105 122
.:f73
.846 287 488
224
.568 371 136
.274
.774 931 581
.324
.2:32 253 835
.374
.839 510 459
225
.548 960 972
.275
.762 080 448
.325
.223 161 088
.375
.832 771 410
226
.629 726 114
.276
.749 322 213
.320
.214 126 342
.:i70
.826 070 035
227
.510 664 239
.277
.7:^i 658 834
.327
.205 149 061
.:377
.819 406 032
228
.491 773 069
.278
.724 089 286
.328
.196 228 719
.378
.812 779 102
229
.473 050 365
.279
.711 612 556
.329
.187 364 793
.379
.806 188 952
230
.454 493 924
.280
.699 227 648
.330
. 178 556 768
.380
.799 635 287
231
.436 101 585
.281
.686 933 578
.331
.169 804 136
.381
.793 117 821
232
.417 871 221
.282
.674 729 378
.332
.161 106 394
.382
.786 em 265
233
.399 800 745
.283
.662 614 091
.:s;«
.152 46:3 046
.383
.780 190 338
234
.381 888 102
.2W
.650 586 777
.331
.143 873 596
.384
.773 779 758
2:«
.304 131 275
«285
.638 646 506
.8a5
.135 337 571
.385
.767 404 250
236
.316 528 275
.286
.626 792 363
.336
.126 854 482
.386
.761 063 538
237
.329 077 105
.287
.615 02:^ 449
.:«7
.118 423 857
.387
.764 757 351
2:i8
.311 776 013
.288
.603 338 862
.338
.110 045 230
.388
.748 485 421
2;«
.29-1 022 938
.289
.591 737 735
.339
.101 718 139
.389
.742 247 481
240
.277 610 088
.290
.580 219 199
.340
.093 442 126
.390
.736 043 268
241
.260 758 a36
.2î)l
.568 782 399
.341
.085 216 740
.391
.729 872 522
242
.244 0:i3 792
.292
.557 426 493
.ÎM2
.077 041 534
.392
.723 734 985
243
.227 454 7a5
.29:3
.540 150 651
.343
.068 916 069
.393
.717 630 401
244
.211 014 895
.294
.534 9Î>1 053
.344
.060 839 907
.394
.711 568 618
245
.194 712 401
.295
.523 835 890
.345
.052 812 618
.3J)5
.705 519 087
246
.178 545 630
.29($
.512 795 :m
.340
.044 8:33 777
.396
.65)9 511 858
247
.162 512 929
.297
.501 831 691
.347
.030 902 903
.397
.693 536 588
248
.146 012 675
.298
.490 944 093
.348
.029 019 759
.398
.6K7 593 034
249
.i;^0 843 267
.299
.480 131 801
.349
.021 183 754
.im
.081 680 956
250
.115 203 132
.300
.469 394 009
.350
.013 394 542
.400
.675 800 115
104
ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
TABLE III.
e-'
e-^
e-'
€'*
X
.1*
X*
X
X
X
X
o;
.400
1.675 800 115
.450
1.416 951 448
.500
1.213 061 319
.650
1.048 999 655
.401
.669 950 277
.451
.412 :396 546
.501
.209 430 004
.551
.046 049 272
.402
.664 131 208
.452
.407 863 207
.502
.205 814 364
.552
.043 110 623
.403
.658 342 678
.453
.403 351 288
.503
.202 214 303
.553
.040 183 643
.404
.652 584 459
.454
.398 860 616
.504
.198 629 728
.564
.037 268 268
.4a>
.646 856 323
.455
.394 391 138
.5a5
.195 060 545
.655
sm 3&4 4a5
.406
Ml 158 048
.456
.38Î) 942 625
.506
.191 506 663
.556
.0:31 472 079
.407
.6:35 489 411
.457
.385 514 967
.507
.187 967 989
.557
.028 591 i:38
.408
.629 850 193
.458
.381 108 027
.508
.184 444 433
.558
.025 721 550
.400
.624 240 177
.459
.376 721 666
.509
.180 935 903
.659
.022 863 25:3
.410
.618 650 147
.460
.372 :355 751
.510
.177 442 311
.560
.020 016 185
.411
.613 106 890
.461
.368 010 146
.511
.173 963 568
.561
.017 180 286
.412
.607 583 194
.462
.363 684 718
.512
.170 499 586
.562
.014 3.55 494
.413
.602 087 852
.463
.359 379 336
.513
.1(57 OÔO 276
.56:3
.OU 541 749
.414
.596 620 655
.4W
.355 093 867
.514
.163 616 553
.664
.008 738 991
.415
.591 181 399
.465
.350 828 183
.516
.160 195 329
.565
.005 947 1(52
.416
.585 769 881
.466
.346 582 155
.516
.156 789 521
.566
.003 166 203
.417
.580 385 899
.467
.342 355 654
.517
.153 398 042
..567
.000 396 a54
.418
.575 029 255
.468
.338 148 555
.518
.150 020 809
.568
0.997 6:36 657
.410
.569 699 750
.469
.333 960 732
.519
.146 657 738
.569
.994 887 956
.420
.ft64 397 190
.470
.329 792 060
.520
.143 308 746
.570
.992 149 892
.421
.559 121 381
.471
325 &42 417
.521
.139 973 752
.571
.989 422 410
.422
.553 872 131
.472
.321 511 680
.522
.1:36 652 673
.572
.986 705 451
.423
.548 649 251
.473
.317 399 728
.52:3
.1.33 345 428
.573
.9K3 998 9(51
.424
.543 452 552
.474
.313 306 440
.524
.130 051 938
.574
.981 302 883
.425
.538 281 847
.475
.309 231 698
.525
.126 772 123
.575
.978 617 16:3
.426
.533 136 953
.476
.:305 175 :383
.52(5
.12:3 605 ÎX>2
.576
.975 Ml 745
.427
.528 017 687
.477
.301 137 378
.527
.120 25:3 199
.577
.973 276 575
.428
.522 923 866
.478
.297 117 567
.628
.117 013 935
.578
.970 621 598
.429
.517 855 313
.479
.293 115 834
.529
.113 788 032
.579
.967 976 762
.430
.512 811 848
•480
.289 132 066
.530
.110 575 414
.580
.9a5 'M2 OU
.431
.507 7a3 290
.481
.285 \m 149
.531
.107 376 Oa5
..581
.9(52 717 2ÎH
.432
.502 7ÎK) 48.3
.482
.281 217 970
.532
.104 189 7:30
.582
.1K50 102 558
.4:«
.497 830 2;\o
.48:3
.277 287 419
.5:33
.101 016 512
.58:3
.957 497 750
.434
.4i)2 885 381
.4H1
.273 :374 :J84
.534
.097 856 278
.5t^
.954 902 819
.4:iô
.487 964 752
.485
.209 478 756
.5:35
.094 708 dô\
.585
.952 317 712
.436
.48:3 0(W 179
.486
.2^5 600 427
.5:36
.091 574 4(56
.58(5
.949 742 380
.437
.478 195 495
.487
.261 7:39 287
.537
.088 4.52 741
.587
.947 176 76i)
.438
.473 346 53(5
.488
.257 8î)5 232
.5:38
.085 343 708
.588
.iM4 620 831
.439
.468 521 138
.489
.254 068 153
.539
.082 247 295
.589
M2 074 515
.440
.463 719 139
.490
.250 257 947
.540
.079 163 4:30
..590
.9:59 537 771
.441
.458 940 378
.491
.246 KM 509
..541
.076 092 043
.591
.937 010 549
.442
.4.>t IW 606
.492
.242 687 735
.542
.073 03:3 (KV4
.5J)2
.to 4in> 801
.443
.449 451 935
.493
.2:^8 927 523
.543
.069 986 422
1 .593
.931 98^1 477
.444
.444 741 939
.494
.235 183 771
.544
.066 952 050
• .594
.929 485 529
.445
.440 0.54 553
.495
.231 \m 378
.545
.06:3 92Î) 878
1 .595
.926 995 90i)
.446
.4:i5 389 623
.49()
.227 745 24-1
1 ..546
.060 919 8:38
, .596
.924 515 .5(59
.447
.430 746 iHW
.497
.224 a50 2(59
; .547
.a57 921 862
.597
.922 044 461
.448
.426 12(5 527
.498
.220 :371 :3.55
' .548
.054 9:35 8^4
1 .598
.919 582 538
.449
.421 528 m)
1 Am
.216 708 401
' .549
.051 sm 8:37
.599
.917 V2S) 753
.150
.410 9.51 418
.500
.21:3 ()()1 :n9
.550
.018 999 ()55
.(ÎOO
.914 i^ 060
[MILLER A bosebbuoh] VALUES OF FUNCTIONS INVOLVING erx lOB
TABLE ni.
e-«
e-*
«-*
e-*
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
.600
0.914 686 060
.660
0.803 147 849
.700
0.709 407 577
.750
0.629 822 070
.601
.912 251 412
.661
.801 112 123
.701
.707 687 642
.761
.628 364 im
.602
.909 825 764
.652
.799 083 940
.702
.705 973 114
.752
.626 891978
.608
.907 409 069
.663
.797 062 766
.703
.704 264 268
.753
.625 488 701
.604
.905 001 282
.664
.795 048 670
.704
.702 660 980
.764
.623 979 921
.605
.902 602 358
.655
.793 041 317
.705
.700 863 226
.766
.622 680 616
.606
.900 212 253
.656
.791 040 976
.706
.699 170 981
.756
.621 086 766
.607
.897 830 921
.667
.789 047 614
.707
.697 484 222
.757
.619 646 854
.608
.895 458 319
.658
.787 060 899
.708
.696 802 928
.758
.618 209 861
.609
.893 094 403
.659
.785 081 099
.709
.694 127 068
.769
.616 777 770
.610
.890 739 ISO
.660
.783 108 083
.710
.692 456 616
.760
.616 360 562
.611
.888 392 455
.661
.781 141 818
711
.690 791 560
.761
.618 927 719
.612
.886 054 335
.662
.779 182 278
.712
.689 131 870
.762
.612 509 224
.613
.883 724 729
.663
.777 229 418
.713
.687 477 525
.768
.611 096 050
.614
.881403 594
.664
.776 283 221
.714
.685 828 499
.764
.609 686 206
.615
.879 090 887
.665
.773 343 661
.715
.684 184 772
.765
.608 279 648
.616
.876 786 566
.666
.771 410 678
.716
.682 546 319
.766
.606 878 368
.617
.874 490 690
.667
.769 484 271
.717
.680 913 118
.767
.605 481 847
.618
.872 202 918
.668
.767 664 400
.718
.679 285 146
.768
.604 088 669
.619
.869 923 507
.669
.766 661 085
.719
.677 662 881
.769
.602 700 017
.620
.867 652 319
.670
.763 744 146
.720
.676 044 800
.7701
.601 316 678
.621
.865 389 311
.671
.761 843 703
.721
.674 432 381
.771
.699 935 621
.622
.863 134 444
.672
.769 949 678
.722
.672 826 108
.772
.698 659 644
.623
.860 887 677
.673
.758 062 039
.723
.671 222 942
.778
.607 187 724
.624
.858 648 971
.674
.756 180 769
.724
.669 626 878
.774
.695 820 046
.625
.856 418 286
.676
.754 305 808
.725
.668 033 888
.775
.694 466 492
.626
.854 195 582
.676
.752 437 158
.726
.666 446 951
.776
.693 097 046
.627
.851 980 822
.677
.750 574 779
.727
.664 865 046
.777
.691 741 691
.628
.849 773 966
.678
.748 718 648
.728
.668 288 149
.778
.690 890 412
.629
.847 674 975
.679
.746 868 723
.729
.661 716 242
.779
.689 043 192
.630
.845 383 811
.680
.745 024 989
.730
.660 149 801
.780
.687 700 014
.631
.843 200 436
.681
.743 187 414
.731
.658 687 308
.781
.586 860 864
.632
.841 024 813
.682
.741 365 969
.732
.6^080 239
.782
.585 025 728
.633
.838 856 903
.683
.739 530 628
.738
.655 478 076
.783
.588 694 677
.634
.836 696 670
.684
.737 711 362
.734
.658 930 796
.784
.582 367 410
.635
.834 544 076
.685
.735 898 145
.735
.662 888 380
.786
.581 044 206
.636
.832 399 084
.686
.734 090 949
.736
.650 850 806
.786
.579 724 949
.637
.830 261 659
.687
.732 289 748
.737
.649 318 055
.787
.578 409 624
.638
.828 131 762
.688
730 494 513
.738
.647 790 106
.788
.£77 098 216
.639
.826 009 359
.689
.728 705 219
.739
.646 266 939
.789
.676 790 706
.640
.823 894 413
.690
.726 921 839
.740
.644 748 534
.790
.574 487 083
.641
.821 786 888
.691
.726 144 347
.741
.643 234 872
.791
.573 187 329
.642
.819 686 749
.692
.723 872 716
.742
.641 725 932
.792
.571 891 4;«
.643
.817 693 961
.693
.721 606 920
.743
.640 221 694
.793
.570 599 371
.644
.815 508 489
.694
.719 846 934
•744
.638 722 139
.794
.669 311 186
.645
.813 430 298
.695
.718 092 731
.746
.637 227 248
.795
.568 026 711
.646
.811 359 353
.606
.716 344 286
.746
.635 737 001
.796
.566 746 080
.647
.809 295 619
.607
.714 601 573
.747
.634 251 379
.797
.565 469 228
.648
.807 239 063
.608
.712 864 668
.748
.632 770 363
.798
.564 196 142
.649
.805 189 661
.699
.711 133 244
.749
.631 293 933
.799
.562 926 806
.660
.803 147 349
.700
.709 407 677
.750
.629 822 070
.800
.561 661 205
106
ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
TABLE IIL
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
.800 0.561 661 205
.801 .560 399 326
.802 .550 141 152
.808 .557 886 671
.804 .556 635 868
.850
.851
.852
.853
.854
0.502 841096
.501 748 215
.500 668 399
.499 571 640
.498 487 924
.900
.901
.002
.903
.904
0.451 744 066
.450 791 668
.449 841883
.448 894 550
.447 949 811
.950
.951
.952
.953
.954
0.407 005 814
.406 261 278
.405 428 902
.404 598 677
.403 770 597
.805
.806
.807
.808
.809
.555 388 729
.554 145 238
.552 905 383
.551 669 149
.550 436 523
.855
.856
.857
.858
.850
.497 407 241
.496 329 580
.495 254 930
.494 183 279
.493 114 617
.905
.906
.907
.908
.909
.447 007 608
.446 067 931
.445 130 772
.444 196 121
.443 263 971
.955
.956
.957
.958
.959
.402 944 654
.402 120 842
.401 299 15:^
.400 479 580
.399 662 117
.810
.811
.812
.813
.814
.549 207 480
.547 982 085
.546 760 147
.545 541 810
.544 327 012
.860
.861
.862
.863
.864
.492 048 933
.490 986 216
.489 926 455
.488 889 639
.487 815 758
.910
.911
.912
.913
.914
.442 384 314
.441 407 136
.440 482 434
.439 560 198
.438 640 419
.960
.961
.962
.963
.964
.398 846 756
.398 033 491
.397 222 313
.396 413 218
.395 606 197
.815
.816
.817
.818
.819
.543 115 739
.541 907 977
.540 703 718
.539 502 938
.538 805 624
.865
.866
.867
.868
.869
.486 764 801
.485 716 757
.484 671 616
.483 629 867
.482 590 000
.915
.916
.917
.918
.919
.437 723 089
.436 808 198
.435 895 740
.434 985 705
.484 078 084
.965
.966
.967
.968
.969
.394 801 243
.393 998 351
.393 197 513
.392 398 722
.391 601 972
.820
.821
.822
.823
.824
.537 111 T74
.585 921 368
.584 784 394
.538 550 838
.582 370 688
.870
.871
.872
.873
.874
.481 553 505
.480 519 870
.479 489 087
.478 461 143
.477 436 090
.920
.921
.922
.923
.924
.483 172 871
.432 270 056
.431 369 6:n
.430 471 588
.429 575 919
.970
.971
.972
.973
.974
.390 807 256
.390 014 567
.389 228 899
.388 435 245
.387 648 598
.825
.826
.827
.828
.829
.531 193 930
.530 020 558
.528 850 542
.527 688 886
.526 520 571
.875
.876
.877
.878
.879
.476 413 737
.475 394 253
.474 377 570
.473 363 676
.472 352 562
.025
.926
.927
.928
.929
.428 682 615
.427 791 669
.426 903 073
.426 016 818
.425 132 897
.975
.976
.977
.978
.979
.386 863 952
.386 081 301
.385 :«o 6:17
.384 521 965
.383 745 248
.830
.831
.832
.833
.834
.525 360 586
.524 203 917
.523 050 552
.521 900 479
.520 753 685
.880
.881
.882
.883
.884
.471 344 218
.470 338 633
.469 335 790
.468 335 705
.467 338 341
.930
.931
.932
.933
.934
' .424 251 301
.423 372 023
.422 495 065
.421 620 389
.420 748 017
.980
.981
.982
.983
.984
.382 970 509
.382 197 732
.381 426 911
.380 658 039
.379 891 111
.835
.836
.837
.838
.839
.519 010 157
.518 469 885
.517 332 855
.516 199 055
.515 068 474
.885
.886
.887
.888
.889
.466 343 699
.465 351 767
.464 362 536
.463 375 998
.462 392 142
.935
.936
.937
.938
.939
.419 8T7 «31
.419 010 124
.418 144 587
.417 281 314
.416 420 297
.985
.986
.987
.988
.98i)
.379 120 119
.378 363 057
.:IT7 001 920
.376 842 700
.376 085 393
.840
.841
.842
.843
.844
.513 941 099
.512 816 919
.511 695 921
.510 578 093
.509 463 425
.890
.891
.892
.893
.894
.461 410 a58
.460 432 438
.459 456 572
.458 483 350
.457 512 764
.940
.941
.942
.943
.944
.415 561 527
.414 704 998
.413 850 701
.412 998 630
.412 148 776
.990
.991
.992
.99:j
.994
.375 329 991
.374 576 488
.37:^ 824 879
.373 075 157
.372 327 317
.845
.846
.847
.848
.849
.508 351 903
.507 24:^ 517
.506 138 255
.505 036 105
.503 937 056
.895
.896
.897
.898
.899
.456 544 803
.455 579 459
.464 616 723
.453 656 584
.452 699 035
.945
.946
.947
.948
.949
.411 301 133
.410 455 693
.409 612 448
.408 771 392
.407 932 516
.996
.997
.998
.999
.371 581 :i51
.370 837 255
.370 095 022
.369 354 646
.368 616 121
850
.502 841 096
.900
451 744 066
.950
.407 095 814
1.000
.367 879 441
[MILLER à robebrugh] VALUES OF FUNCTIONS INVOLVING e-x
TABLE IV.
107
X
X
X
X
1.00
1.01
1.02
1.03
1.04
0.367 879 441
.360 612 851
.353 524 451
.346 608 700
.339 860 271
1.50
1.51
1.52
1.53
1.54
0.148 753 440
.146 297 999
.143 889 399
.141 526 580
.139 208 507
1.05
1.08
1.07
1.08
1.09
.383 274 047
.326 845 104
.320 568 708
.314 440 302
.308 455 499
1.55
1.56
1.57
1.58
1.59
.136 034 177
.134 702 610
.i:i2 512 855
.130 363 986
.128 255 102
1.10
1.11
1.12
1.13
1.14
.302 610 076
.296 899 965
.291 321 245
.285 870 138
.280 543 002
1.60
1.61
1.62
1.63
1.64
.126 185 324
.124 153 798
.122 159 691
.120 202 193
.118 280 514
1.15
1.16
1.17
1.18
1.19
.275 336 321
.270 246 708
.265 270 890
.260 405 711
.255 648 121
1.65
1.66
1.67
1.68
1.69
.116 393 884
.114 541 554
.112 722 794
.110 036 890
.109 183 150
1.20
1.21
1.22
1.23
1.24
.250 995 177
.246 444 033
.241 991 940
.237 636 242
.233 374 369
1.70
1.71
1.72
1.73
1.74
.107 460 897
.105 769 469
.104 108 225
.102 476 638
.100 873 793
1.25
1.26
1.27
1.28
1.29
.229 203 837
.225 122 243
.221 127 261
.217 216 641
.213 388 204
1.75
1.76
1.77
1.78
1.79
.099 290 396
.097 752 764
.096 233 327
.094 740 532
.003 273 838
l.:30
1.31
1.32
i.;«
1.34
.209 639 841
.205 969 509
.202 375 229
.198 855 084
.195 407 215
1.80
1.81
1.82
1.83
1.84
.091 832 716
.090 416 650
.089 025 138
.087 6^7 687
.066 313 819
1.35
1.36
1.37
1.38
1.39
.192 029 823
.188 721 160
.185 479 533
.182 303 299
.179 190 867
1.85
1.86
1.87
1.88
1.89
.084 993 06:^
.083 694 963
.082 419 070
.081 164 050
.079 932 174
1.40
1.41
1.42
1.43
1.44
.176 140 689
.173 151 265
.170 221 139
.167 348 897
.164 638 166
1.90
1.91
1.92
1.93
1.94
.078 720 326
.077 628 998
.076 357 793
.075 206 320
.074 074 201
1.46
1.46
1.47
1.48
1.49
.161 772 612
.159 065 942
.166 411 895
.153 809 249
.161 256 816
1.95
1.96
1.97
1.98
1.99
.072 961 062
.071 866 541
.070 790 282
.060 731 938
.068 691 169
1.50
.148 753 440
2.00
.067 667 642
ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
TRANSACTIONS
SECTION IV.
GEOLOGICAL AND BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES
PAPERS FOR 1903
Section IV., 1903 [ 3 ] Tbakb. R. S. C.
I. — An Experimental Study on the Effect of the Blood-sera of Normal and
Immunized Ooats in Modifying the Progress of Tuberculous
Infection.
By Albert Qeobgb Nicholls, M.A., M.D., CM.,
lecturer in PatholosTt McGiU University, and Assistant Pathologist to the
Royal Victoria Hospital, Montreal.
From the J. H. R, Molson Lahoratorieê of Pathology.
(Communicated by Professor J. G. Adami, M.D., and read May 19, 1908.)
One of the most important subjects, if not indeed the most impor-
tent, occupying the attention of the experimental investigator in the
domain of medicine at the present time, is the discovery of some cura-
tive agent to be employed in that most dread and widespread disease to
which human beings are subject, tuberculosis. For the past fifteen
years some of the brightest intellects have been at work on this problem
with as much zeal and hope, albeit let us confess with more knowledge,
as was ever expended by the philosophers of old in the search for the
'' Philosopher's Stone '' or the " Elixir of Life.'' We have, however,
reluctantly to admit, that the collective result of these most searching
and extensive investigations, while beyond doubt it has increased our
knowledge of the nature of the tubercle bacillus and the morbid pro-
cesses induced by it, has lead as yet to but little practical advaxu^e. The
final solution of the problem has hitherto eluded our grasp, and investi-
gator after investigator has, like his prototype the more dramatic
alchymist of the dark ages, seen the golden vision fade from his eyes
when the prize was thought to be won.
The brilliant success that has crowned the efforts of experimenters
to produce an antitoxic serum for diphtheria and hydrophobia, and the
somewhat less valuable results that have been attained in tetanus, sep-
ticsemia, and typhoid fever, have excited the justifiable hope that a
similar remedy might be devised in tuberculosis. Here, however, the
problem has turned out to be by no means as simple as in the case of
the diseases just mentioned. Practical experience has shown that the
efiicacy of the antitoxic sera hitherto prepared is in direct ratio to the
virulence of the diseases in which they are employed. Unlike diph-
theria tuberculosis is* not a self-limited disease, nor does it kill by sep-
ticaemia. It belongs to that group of diseases to which leprosy, syphilis.
The experiments detailed In the following: paper were begun on the
initiative of the Hon. E. H. Bronson, of Ottawa, who has generously borne the
expense of the investigation, and hajs evinced throughout the most kindly
interest in the work.
4 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
and actinomycosis also belongs that have a notably slow progression^ pre-
senting, it is true, effects referable to a mdld intoxication, but also char-
acterized by the production of gross organic lesions (granulomata) in
various parts. Here it is obvious that a purely antitoxic serum, that is
to say, one that merely neutralizes the poisons elaborated by the tubercle
bacillus in the course of its growth, is hardly likely to prove effective.
Should it be possible to prepare such a serum, and, as we shall see, it
undoubtedly is, the disease would still progress. To be of real value a
serum would apparently need to possess germicidal as well as antitoxic
properties. Even in the days of the discovery of the diphtheria
antitoxin and before (1884), attempts were made to solve the problem
and the names of Héricourt and Bichet stand out as pioneers ,in this
line of research. Since then the number of workers has increased mar-
vellously, and the work of Koch, Maragliano, Babes, Maffuci and Di
Vestea, Behring, Niemann, and on this continent, Trudeau, and
DeSchweinitz, is a monument of painstaking research, scientific accur-
acy, and devotion to truth. No one who has not investigated the sub-
ject would credit the enormous amount of labour expended on this one
problem. A glance at the bibliography appended to this paper, which
represents merely one phase of the subject, namely that relating to
animal sera, will emphasize the truth of this remark.
The subject has been attacked in various ways. One class of inves-
tigator has attempted the cure of tuberculosis by means of drugs, a
mode which seems again of late to be coming into prominence. A sec-
ond school, of which Koch has for some years been the leading spirit,
has sought to produce immunity and cure the disease by the injection
of various toxins derived from the tubercle bacillus or chemical modi-
fications thereof. To this eatefrory of remedies b':»long tho various tuber-
culins,oxytubcrculin, tuberculocidin, and antiphthisin. By the injection
of these substances it is sought to stimulate the cells of the body to the
elaboration of an antitoxic substance in such amount as to neutralize
the poisons eliminated by the bacilli. The third series of experimenters
has- endeavored by the injection of various extracts of tubercle bacilli
or in some cases the living attenuated germs, to produce immunity in
certain of the lower animals, and then to use the blood scrum of ani-
mals thus fortified to combat the disease in other individuals. It is
Avith work of this last class that this paper alone will deal.
The first observation, and one that has led to all the rest, was that
of Hcricourt and Eichet. In 1888 they noted that if a rabbit, which is
\ery susceptible to this germ, be inoculated with the staphylococcus
pyosepticus, it may be rendered refractory to its* action by intraperi-
toneal injection of dog^s blood, an animal that possesses a natural immu-
nity to the infection. This suggested to their minds that the same
[nicholls] blood sera IN TUBERCULOUS INFECTION 8
thing might hold good in tuberculosis. Without entering into details^
the chief conclusions to which they arrived were (1) that in animals the
subject of experimental tuberculosis the injection of dog^s blood will
arrest the disease provided the germ be not too virulent, or will retard
it if it be very virulent. (2). The serum of a dog injected into a healthy
rabbit will prevent the development of experimental tuberculosis subse-
quently. (3) The serum of a dog previously inoculated with tubercu-
losis when injected into rabbits already tuberculized will aggravate the
disease. They did not believe that dog's serum possessed a specific
curative action in tuberculosis, although it seemed to have a powerful
action against some of the effects of the germ and exerted a tonic action
on nutrition (3.) Extract of dog's liver possessed similar properties.
In some of their later work they employed the ass (36). The blood of
the normal ass, like that of the dog, was found to retard the tuberculous
process, but the serum of an ass previously injected with tubercle bacilli
proved to be still more potent.
The special merit of Héricourt and Richet lies in the fact that they
were the first to see the possibility of producing by the injection of
tubercular virus a specific means of combatting the disease. It was^
Maragliano (17), however, who first demonstrated by scientific proofs
that a tubercular antitoxin did exist and applied it to the treatment of
human tuberculosis. His results were given to the French Congress of
Medicine at Bordeaux in 1895, and his subsequent investigations have
proved to be so brilliant and painstaking that a brief reference here will
not be out of place.
Koch's original tuberculin, at one time used largely for therapeutic
purposes, was prepared by heat, so that it did not represent the full
toxic properties of the bacillus, for, as Auclair has proved, certain vola-
tile poisons are given off in the course of preparation. These sub-
stances have been shown by Maragliano to cause convidsions when
injected into rabbits. The glycerine also used in the preparation is
toxic. Maragliano therefore employs a watery extract of bacilli. He
makes use of two toxins: A., prepared by concentrating a culture of
the bacilli over a water-bath at 100°C. for three or four days; and B.,
a culture filtered through a Chamberland filter at the room temperature
and concentrated in a vacuum at a temperature less than 30**C. For
inoculation purposes he uses three parts of A. and one of B. This mix-
ture is injected into horses beginning with a dose of two milligrammes
per kilo, of the body weight, increased gradually one milligramme a day
up to forty or fifty. The injections are stopped if the animals show
signs of fever or emaciation until recovery has taken place. The whole
process is spread over about six months. Before using the horse serum
thus prepared Maragliano waits three or four weeks until the urine is
6 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
free from toxic bodies. One c. cm. will counteract the smallest dose of
tuberculin that will produce a reaction in a tuberculous man. The
serum is said also to possess appreciable germicidal properties. Mara-
gliano has knowledge of 1,362 tuberculous patients treated by his serum.
Eighty per cent were benefited by it. The most favorable results were
obtained in afebrile cases with localized lesions. In cases of mixed
infection the serum was less useful. Maragliano has also shown that
the serum of tuberculous patients treated with his serum was two to
three times as antitoxic as it was before the injections.
MaflEucci and Di Vestea (56), have attempted to attain the same
end by using sheep, which are supposed to be refractory to tuberculosis,
employing the methods of Héricourt and Eichet and the " mithridatiza-
tion ^' method with Behring's antitoxin. They injected both dead and
living bacilli into the sheep, but found that the serum resulting fwaa
neither curative nor prophylactic, but at most caused some retardation
of the disease. They found moreover that while the serum was inno-
cuous for guinea-pigs in doses of two c. cm- per hundred grammes,
one-fifth of a c. cm. in rabbits produced a fatal hœmoglobinuria. When
added to a culture of tubercle bacilli in the proportion of four to one
some attenuation of the germs was* produced.
Niemann (69) has used goats. He injected for some weeks a tuber-
culin derived from a very virulent stock of bacilli until he was giving
fifteen c. cm. Then he injected an alcoholic precipitate from tuber-
culin that had been proved to be extremely toxic, beginning at first
with twelve to eighteen milligrammes and increasing after a month
to half to one gramme. He found that by the use of the antitoxic
serum thus prepared he could prolong the disease and claimed to have
observed good results in human beings.
The results of DeSchweinitz and Dorset (80), are somewhat similar.
They inoculated cows and horses with tuberculin and bacilli and found
that this conferred on their sera some powers of retarding the disease
in guinea-pigs. The serum of cows inoculated with attenuated bacilli
proved to be more potent.
Trudeau amd Baldwin (105), were able to produce a marked degree
of immunity in rabbits by the injection of attenuated cultures but the
serum of such animals did not appear to have gained antitoxic proper-
ties. In a large number of experiments with sheep, asses, rabbits, and
chickens inoculated with living germs, they thought that the sera thus
fortified possessed slight antitoxic properties. Their results were, how-
ever, not very convincing.
From the above mentioned observations it will be gathered that the
results of experiment are by no means uniform and not entirely satis-
factory. The best results- have been obtained where in addition to the
[nicholm] blood sera IN TUBERCULOUS INFECTION 7
toxins the substance of the germs has been employed as well, but even
in this case there is some discrepancy between the different observers.
In fact Maragliano is the only one who seems to be at all sanguine as to
the value of his serum.
The few observations I have made have been carried out on slight-
ly different lines from those hitherto published in the hope that they
would throw some light on a somewhat doubtful question and possibly
elicit some new facts. I have employed goats for the purpose, finding
them on the whole the most suitable. It used to be thought that goats
were absolutely refractory to tuberculosis but this is certainly not the
case. (See Colin. Compt. rend. Acad, de Se, Paris, 1891, CXIII,
219). It is true, however, that in a natural state they rarely suffer from
the disease. It is, however, possible to give them the disease by inject-
ing living virulent bacilli in considerable quantities into the circula-
tion, although subcutaneous injection will not sufiBce. They are there-
fore relatively immune. Being also hardy animals they stand the various
manipulations well. Â considerable quantity of serum can be obtained
from them which is of good quality and keeps well. Goat serum has
the further advantage, as Lépine has shown (Sém. méd. 1891, XI., 21),
that it produces much less hœmolysis when added to human blood than
does dog's serum. In spite of many advantages goats have not been
used to any great extent in this kind of work. Berlin and Picq, Boinet
and Niemann are the most noteworthy of those who have done so and
report good results. Bertin and Picq (6) found that rabbits previous-
ly injected with goat's blood were able to resist a subsequent infection
with tuberculosis, although they state that the injections had no effect
in animals already tuberculized.
The Effects of Normal Goat Sebum.
It is now a well recognized fact that the sera of several normal ani-
mals possess what may be termed natural antitoxic bodies, or perhaps
more correctly alexins. Thus, horse serum possesses about two or three
hundred antitoxic units against the diphtheria germ, and according to
Maragliano human serum possesses three to four hundred units against
the bacillus of tuberculosis. It was thought advisable, therefore, to de-
termine first whether normal goat serum could in any sense be considered
protective against tuberculosis. Should this prove to be the case, one
might then try to increase this up to a practical point
For the purposes of the experiment it was obviously necessary to
obtain the serum without contamination from bacteria and as nearly
normal as possible. To attain this the following method was adopted.
A large healthy male goat was taken, the hair was removed over the
course of the external jugular vein in the neck, and the skin washed and
sterilized by means of a solution of sublimate (1 — 1000). A large
8 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
Bterilized trocar attached by a rubber tube to a sterilized bottle was then
inserted into the vein and the blood allowed to flow into the vessel. The
serum was allowed to separate in a cold chamber^ the clear portion care-
fully decanted off, and one-quarter per cent of chloroform added as a
preservative. It was found that the serum thus prepared kept perfect-
ly well for some weeks.
Experiment I.
The first experiment was conducted under the following condi-
tions : Eight guinea-pigs and ten rabbits, presumably in good health
were taken, and their weight and temperature before inoculating were
ascertained. They were then numbered and kept in separate hutches.
On March 13th, 1902, they were inoculated, one-half intraperitoneally
and the other under the skin of the left leg, with a culture of the bacil-
lus- tuberculosis of extremely mild virulence, standardized as follows: —
A culture of the Bacillus Typhi Abdominalis, taken from old labora-
tory stock, was inseminated in l.b^ aoid broth and grown in the incu-
bator at the usual temperature for twenty-four hours. The culture
obtained was then killed with formalin vapour and used as a standard.
A glycerine-agar culture of the tubercle bacillus referred to was ground
up in a sterile mortar with sterile normal saline solution. This was
allowed to stand until the heavier portions had sunk to the bottom.
The opalescent supernatant portion was carefully decanted off and dilu-
ted with sterile normal salt solution until it reached the same degree of
opacity as the standard culture of the B. Typhi. Hanging-drops were
then examined under the microscope to see that there were no gross
masses of bacilli floating about. One cubic centimetre of this material
was then used for inocuktâng. Care was, of course, taken as far as pos-
sible to avoid contamination in the course of the various manipulations,
sterilized vessels and instruments being invariably employed.
The animals to be injected were shaved at the desired points and
the skin sterilized with bichloride, 1 — 1,000. The inoculations were
made with an all-metal syringe of five c. cm. capacity, previously boiled.
The reason for using a culture of weak virulence to begin with
was that guinea-pigs are very susceptible to tuberculosis and it was
inferred from observations already referred to, that should goat serum
possess any antitoxic powers these would be extremely slight.
One-half of the animals were inoculated subcutaneously over the
abdomen with two c. cm. of normal goat-serum every second day. Sub-
sequently the temperatures were taken every day and the weights* once
a week. Instead of estimating, as others have done, the effect of the
injections by keeping the animals until they died spontaneously, and tak-
ing into consideration merely the loss of weight, it was thought advis-
[nichollb] blood sera IN TUBERCULOUS INFECTION
9
able^ as wc were dealing with germs of such mild virulence and there
was a possibility of the animals recovering, to kill them at stated inter-
vals and determine the amount of luberculcsis by the naked eye and the
microscope. By this method an exact appreciation of the state of things
could be obtained. By arranging them in pairs according to weight it
was also po&sible to compare animals of approximately the same degree
of resisting power.
The subjoined table will give at a glance the more important
features of the experiment: —
Nos.
T.
BEFORE
INOC.
T.
AFTER.
WT.
BEFORE
INOC.
WT.
AFTER.
REMARKS.
G-Pig.
I.
100-8
101 8
425 grms.
477-5
Minimal tbc.
IV.
09-2?
103
420
443
? lymphatic tbc.
II.
08 ?
101-4
454
4527
Tbc. of teHtis
VI.
1024
103
443
480-5
Local tbc. in abdom. wall.
IIL
101-6
102-0
480
525
Slight tbc
VII.
101-8
102-4
340
377-2
Slight tbc.
V.
102
102-4
327
300
îtbc
VIII.
100
102-6
217
232
No positive tbc.
Rab.
I.
102-5
101-4
1880
1431
No tbc.
VI.
100-4
102-4
1432
1306
No tbc.
V.
101-4
1566
No tbc.
IX.
100-2
103-2
2142
1700
No tbc.
VIII.
1008
1475
The. of lung and pleura.
II.
102-4
101-6
1847
1667
No tbc.
VII.
1006
1033
1102
1322
No tbc
IV.
101 6
101-0
1032
1560
No tbc
X
1006
1510
Minimal local tbc.
III.
102-8
102- 1
2101
1646
Nolbc.
N. B.— In the above table the numbers in italics were given normal goat serum
The weights and temperatures after inoculation are average. The animals are
grouped in pairs according to weight.
In the above table I do not lay much stress upon the weights and
temperatures before inoculation inasmuch as observations were not made
for a sufficiently long time before the experiment was begun.
10 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
Two guinea-pigs and two rabbits died spontaneously before the con-
clusion of the experiment, apparently from some gastro-intestinal dis-
turbance. The rest of the pigs were killed after thirty days, and one-
half of the remaining rabbits about the same time. The first animals
killed presented so little pathological change that it was thought advis-
able to keep the remaining six for two weeks longer in the hope that the
lesions would be more marked. Autopsies were performed at various
times with the special object of determining the extent of the dis-
semination of the tuberculous virus, the effect of the serum injections,
if any, and the character of the bacilli of tuberculosis* found in the
various parts. Portions of the organs were examined microscopically,
both by the hœmatoxylin method and the modified Ziehl-Nielsen
method for tubercle bacilli. Smears were made from the organs and
btained for bacteria. Cultures were also taken from the organs.
Abstracts of the autopsy protocols are herewith presented : —
QUINBA-PIO I.
Inoculated March 18th with 1 ccm. of standard dilution of B. Tuberculosis
dntraperitoneally. Killed April 15th. Abdominal wall at site of inoculation
red and inflamed» containing^ a small caseous mass. Three ingruinal g^lands
on the left side enlargred, a smear from which gave tubercle bacilli. Spleem:
large, soft and pale. Other orgrans normal. Microscopical examination showed
the orgrans to be congrested, but without obvious tuberculosis. The inguinal
giands showed inflammatory hyperplasia. Cultures from the heart-blood, bile
«ind liver were sterile after thirty days.
GUINBA-Pia II.
Inoculated intraperitoneally. Died on twenty-fifth day. One or two
small nodules, not caseous, in the abdominal wall at the site of inoculation.
One minute elevated spot of yellowish colour on right testis and four or
flve similar ones on the left, surrounded by an inflammatory areola. Micro-
scopically, these were composed of granulation tissue, small round-cells,
and flbroblasts. Tubercle bacilli were demonstrated. Other organs normal.
Cultures from heart-blood and spleen, sterile after thirty-four day»-
Guinea-pig III.
Killed April 15tfh. Inoculated in left leg. Slight haemorrhage in region
t)f the inoculation wound. Two or three glands in the left inguinal region
enlarged, soft, and caseous looking. Smears from these gave the B. Tuber-
culosis. Other organs normal. Cultures from liver, bile, and heart-blood
sterile. Cultures from the affected glands and from the liver did not develop
tubercle bacilli.
Guinea-pig IV.
Killed April 15th. Inoculated in peritoneal cavity. Given goat serum,
2 ccm. every second day. Anterior abdominal wall intensely hemorrhagic
from the inoculations. Two or three ingruinal glands on the left side, and
a few mesenteric glands enlarge but fllms did not show tubercle bacilli. All
organs normal. Cultures from the heart-blood, liver, and bile, sterile.
[NICH0LL8] BLOOD SERA IN TUBERCULOUS INFECTION 11
OUINBA-PIO V.
Killed April 15th. Inoculated in left legr. Slight hœmorrhagre In region
of original inoculation. The glands in the left inguinal region were enlarged
and reddened, and a few mesenteric glands were swollen. Smears from
mesenteric glands showed no tubercle bacilli. All organs normal. Cultures
from inguinal glands, heart-blood, and bile, sterile.
OUINBA-PIG VI.
Killed April 15th. Inoculated intraperitoneally. Moderate hœmorrhage
at site of inoculation of serum with a hœmatoma in the left inguinal region.
At site of original inoculation the abdominal wall was thickened and con-
tained a small caseous focus. All organs normal. Cultures heart-blood and
bile, sterile. Giren «er«iii.
GUINBA-PIQ VIL
Inoculated in left leg. Given serum. Great extravasation of blood into
tissues of the thorax and abdominal wall. Glands of left inguinal region and
one or two retroperitoneal glands on the left side enlarged, reddened, and
the latter with some spots of opaque white. Stomach and inteêtines reddened
and distended with gas. Other organs normal. Cultures from heart-blood
and retroperitoneal gland, sterile; from liver, staphylcoccus albus.
GuiNEA-pia VIII.
Died on eighteenth day. Inoculated in left leg. Oivm serum. Site of
serum injections in the abdominal wall infiltrated, reddened, and acutely
inflamed. There was one small superficial focus with necrosis. The tissues
over the thorax were much infiltrated. Spleen: awollen. Kidneys: congested
with petechial spots. Mesenteric glands: enlarged and red, but not caseous.
Cultures from mesenteric glands, sterile; from suprarenal, staphylococcus
albus.
Rabbit I.
Inoculated in leg. Given serum. No local signs at point of inoculation,
All organs absolutely normal.
Rabbit II.
Killed in about thirty days. Inoculated intraperitoneally. One mesen-
teric gland enlarged, not proved to be tuberculous.
Rabbit IIL
Killed in about thirty days. No local signs at site of subcutaneous
inoculation in abdomen. All organs normal except the liver which contained
coccidia. A few mesenteric glands enlarged along the vessels as if from
hematogenic infection, but films from these showed no tubercle bacilli.
Rabbit IV.
Inoculated intraperitoneally. Killed May 12th. No local signs at site
of inoculation. All organs healthy looking. One or two enlarged glands
noticed in the mesentery. Smears from these did not show tubercle bacilli.
Rabbit V.
Died in thirteen day». Inoculated in leg. Given serum. Abdominal
and thoracic walls thickened, reddened, and very oedematous. One or two
12 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
mesenteric grlands sligrhtly enlarg:ed. Kidneys: cloudy. No signs of tuber-
culosis. Cultures from heart-blood, sterile.
Rabbit VI.
Inoculated in leg. No signs of tuberculosis.
Rabbit VII.
Inoculated intraperitoneally. Oiven serum. Slight congestion of the
abdominal wall where the serum was given. All organs healthy.
Rabbit VIII.
Died In thirteen days. Inoculated in leg. No local sigrns In glands of
groin. Upper lobe of left lung much shrunken, full of large scattered
caseous masses. Caseous pleurisy with thickening. One or two minute
tubercles In apex of right lung. Other organs normal. Peribronchial glands
caseous.
Rabbit IX.
Inoculated in leg. Given serum. All organs healthy. No local signs
of the inoculation of the serum.
Rabbit X.
Died on twenty-first day. Inoculated intraperitoneally. Oiven serum.
Subcutaneous tissues over site of Inoculation slightly œdematous and red-
dened. A small caseous yellow spot on inner side of abdominal wall at
site of original inoculation. Condition of gastroenteritis present which
had apparently caused death. No other signs of tuberculosis elsewhere.
Cultures from the heart-blood and liver» sterile.
It will be seen from the foregoing that of the guinea-pigs only one
(No. 2), gave evidence of any dissemination of the tubercle bacilli to
a distance from the site of the original inoculation. It had not received
serum. In Nos. 1 and 4 the inguinal glands were affected; the bacilli
were recovered in No. 1 which had not received serum, not found in
No. 4 which had. In No. 6, which had received serum, the infection
was strictly localized to the site of inoculation. In those inoculated in
the leg, viz., Nos. 3, 5, 7 and 8, all except one showed enlargement of
the inguinal glands. In only one that had not received serum were the
bacilli recovered (No. 3). One that had received serum did not develop
a local lesion (No. 8).
In the case of the rabbits, only one developed gi-oss tuberculosis
(No. 8), and this one had not received serum. This result was in gen-
eral what one would have expected as rabbits are much more refractory
to tuberculosis than are guinea-pigs. None of the culture tubes deve-
loped the specific bacillus, and when found in smears, they were in a
state of extreme fragmentation and degeneration, showing that the
infection was an extremely mild one. So far as I could see the inocu-
lations of serum had no effect whatever upon the temperature of the
animals receiving it, but the rabbits so treated lost weight rather rapid-
[nicholls] blood sera IN TUBERCULOUS INFECTION 18
ly, although the pigs were unaflEected. This was probably due to inter-
ference with the feeding, for the injections produced extensive areas of
coagulation-necrosis in the abdominal wall and in one or two instances
there was slight superficial suppuration. Apparently the injections of
serum had some slight deterrent eflfect on the development of the
tuberculous lesions, but it was felt that it was* unwise to draw any
positive conclusions from such a small series of animals, particularly
with so mild a germ, so a second experiment was undertaken on
similar lines but with several modifications suggested by the experience
with the former series.
JExperiment II.
Six guinea-pigs and twelve rabbits were placed under exactly the
same conditions as to food, exercise, etc., and weighed at intervals of a
week until an average normal weight was established. They were then
grouped in pairs as nearly as possible according to the weight Rectal
temperatures were taken daily for ten days to establish a mean normal
temperature. Both the weights and the temperatures were found to
vary in health between rather wide limits. The average temperature of
ihe pigs was from 102*" and 3-lOths to 102° and S-lOths; that of the
rabbits from 102° to 103° and 2-lOths.
All with the exception of two rabbits, which were retained as con-
trols, were inoculated with one c. cm. of an emulsion of a more virulent,
though still mild, culture of the tubercle bacillus in normal saline,
standardized as l>ef ore. One-half of the animals were given the inocula-
tion in the left leg subcutaneously; the other half, mtraperitoneally.
Three days after inoculation one member of each pair wa& given a sub-
cutaneous injection of one c. cm. of a fresh supply of normal serum
from the same goat, collected with the same precautions as before. This
was repeated every third day till the close of the experiment. The rea-
son for reducing the dose was that the injection of the larger amounts
of serum in the first series of animals produced much local disturbance.
Two rabbits were given serum alone without bacilli; so as to act as con-
trols. During the course of the investigation daily temperatures were
taken and the animals were weighed weekly. A few of the animals died
spontaneously before the six weeks allotted to the experiment had
elapsed, but the remainder were killed in pairs* on the same day A
post-mortem was made immediately under strict aseptic conditions. In
estimating the amount of disease resulting, I took into consideration
the dissemination of the disease in the various organs, the amount of
tissue destruction, the amount of repair, if any, the histological appear-
ance of the lesions, and the morphology of the bacilli found. This
necessitated the preparation of about two hundred microscopic pre-
14
ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
parations. The table herewith subjoined will give a general idea of the
conditions residting: —
Nos.
T.
BEFORE
INOC.
T.
AFTER.
WT.
BEFORE
INOC.
WT.
AFTER.
REMARKS.
G-Plg8.
I.
104-2
274-5
Adv. tbc
IV.
102-5
108-8
343-5grzn8.
3294
Ditto.
II.
102-4
108-6
413
397
AdT. tbc.
III.
102-3
103 9
450
351
Ditto.
V.
102-8
108-3
3305
310-2
Mod. tbc
VI.
102 4
1086
356-5
348-
Less ady. tbc.
Rabbits.
J.
102-9
104
17795
1999-6
Slight tbc.
II.
103
103-6
1902
1979-4
Ditto.
III.
102-2
103-6
1604
1665-2
Tbc minimal.
XII.
102*5
102-5
1043
1858-6
Slight tbc.
IV.
108-2
108-5
1301-5
1660-8
Mod. tbc.
XI.
101-0
102-7
13085
1458-2
Slight tbc.
V.
101-8
103-7
1717
1880
Slight local.
VII.
1085
1836-4
Less marked.
VIII.
102-5
103
2130
2280-6
Mod. tbc.
X
102
103 2
2199 5
1949-2
No tbc.
VI.
101-7
102-9
1781
1999-4
Control.
IX.
1031
103-3
1286-5
1676-4
Control.
N. B.— In this table animals are arranged In pairs. G— P V and VI and R. Ill,
V, VII and XII inoculated in leg, others intraperitoneally. Nos. in Italics were
giTen serum. Weight and temperature average.
Abstracts of autopsy protocols : —
GUINBA-PZa I.
Inoculated with one-half ccm. of a standardized emulsion in saline of
B. Tuberculosis intraperitoneally. Given normal goat serum» one ccm.
every third day, beginning June 9th. Died on twentieth day.
Site of inoculation in abdominal wall a large caseous sore, not, however,
from tuberculosis. Abdominal wall contained numerous miliary and conflu-
ent tubercles. Abdominal cavity contained much blood-stained fluid In
which thp B. Tuberculosis was demonstrated. Right pleural cavity ditto,
but no bacilli. Extensive caseous tuberculosis In peritoneal membrane,
retroperitoneal, perigastric, mesenteric, and anterior mediastinal glands.
[nicholm] blood sera IN TUBERCULOUS INFECTION 18
Spleen much enlargred and almost full of confluent caseous tubercles. Liver
full of miliary tubercles. Other orgrans free. Smears from the spleen, liver,
and anterior mediastinal glands gave B. Tuberculosis. Cultures from heart-
blood and spleen, sterile.
Microscopic examination. Heart: cloudy. Lung: Slight acute bronchitis,
collapse and hsemorrhaglc infarction, slight leucocytic inflltration in septa.
tSpleen: Large coalescing tubercles with central necrosis, and chromatolysis.
Cells chiefly lymphocytes. No attempt at fibrosis. Liver: Numerous large
miliary foci, of which the largest showed slight caseation. The tubercles
were in the portal sheaths, and were composed chiefly of lymphocytes
together with fairly numerous epithelioid cells staining well. No fibrosis.
The remaining liver cells cloudy and fatty. Kidney: Cloudy. Lymph-gland (1):
Large caseous foci with chromatolysis, very few epithelioid cells and no
fibrosis. Lymph-gland (2): Similar, but with slight proliferation of fibrous
tissue at the periphery of the caseous foci. Abdominal wall: Seotion showed
the muscle to be cloudy and in parts infiltrated with lymphocytes and numer-
ous epdthilioid cells. No caseation nor fibrosis.
GUINBA-PIQ IV.
Inoculated intraperitoneally. On twenty-first day some induration of
the abdominal wall was observed and in two days more a small pustule
formed. In three days this opened spontaneously, and smears gave moderate
numbers of tubercle bacilli. Killed July 30th.
At site of inoculation were numerous pearly and caseous masses in the
abdominal wail and over the peritoneal membrane generally. Great omentum
converted into a thickened oaseous mass. Spleen and liver much enlarged
and riddled with miliary tubercles. The diaphragm presented numerous
pearly tubercles. A few retroperitoneal and numerous mesenteric glands
enlarged and caseous. Lungs showed miliary tubercles; the anterior medias-
tinal glands enlarged and caseous. Kidneys, cloudy. Smears from the
mesenteric glands and peritoneal fluid, negative.
Microscopic examination. Heart: Cloudy. Lung: Fairly numerous tuber-
cles In the perivascular lymph spaces, consisting of lymphocytes and a few
leucocytes. No caseation nor flbrosls. Parts of the lung showed congestion
and alveolar catarrh. iSpleen: Great hyperplasia and large caseous masses.
Slight overgrowth of stroma. One giant-cell seen. Liver: Numerous and
rather large early tubercles in the portai sheaths consisting mainly of
lymphocytes. A few giant-cells seen, but no flbrosls. Lymph-gland: mark-
edly caseous, but without flbrosls.
An Interesting feature in this animal was that It aborted about one
month before death and the uterus was enormously enlarged and caseous,
while caseous matter had been discharged per vaginam.
GUINBA-PIG II.
Inoculated Intraperitoneally. In twenty-one days a very small lump
formed at the site of the inoculation. Died on the twenty-fourth day.
A small caseous dot found in abdominal wall at the site of inoculation.
Hsemorrhaglc peritonitis. Clear fluid found In both pleural sacs. The dia-
phragm showed no tubercles. Spleen very large, hœmorrhaglc, and fllled
with caseous masses. Liver much enlarged and fllled with what appeared
to be caseous Infarcts. Right lung contained a small caseous point sur-
16 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
rounded by a congrested zone. Anterior mediastinal glands enlarged and
caseous. One or two retroperitoneal glands and a few Inguinal ones enlarged
and possibly tuberculous. Small pearly tubercles along vessels of mesentery
of small intestine.
Great omentum» nodular and caseous. Other organs normal. Smears
from the spleen, liver, and anterior mediastinal gland gave B. Tuberculosis;
from peritoneal and left pleural fluid, negative. Cultures, sterile.
Microscopic examination. Heart: Cloudy. Lung: Some alveolar catarrh,
numerous lymphocytes and leucocytes in the septa and alveolar walls, with
slight cellular exudation into the alveolar spaces. Spleen: Enlarged, contain-
ing large confluent caseous masses with nuclear fragmentation. Exudation
chiefly lymphocytes. No fibrosis. Liver: Numerous large tubercules in the
portal sheaths, consisting mainly of lymphocytes, with in places caseation.
Ischœmic necroses. Liver cells cloudy and fatty. Lymph-glande showed numer-
ous small masses of caseation without peripheral fibrosis. Abdominal wall:
Muscle fibres swollen and cloudy, with masses of Isrmphocytes and fairly
numerous epithelioid cells between the muscle bimdles. No fibrosis. Supra-
renal and kidney, cloudy.
GUINBA-Pia III.
Inoculated intraperitoneally. Oiven one com. of goat serum every
third dag. Died in twenty days. Broken tooth and infected Jaw. Caseous
focus in the abdominal wall at the site of inoculation, containing B. tuber-
culosis. Numerous small tubercles on lower portion of the peritoneum.
Smears from these gave B. Tuberculosis. Great omentum contained large
caseous nodulea Spleen and liver contained miliary tubercles. Films gave
the specific bacillus. Diaphragm on under surface was covered with miliary
tubercles. The anterior mediastinal glands enlarged and caseous, and a
few retroperitoneal glands in the lumbar region enlarged, reddened, and
showing beginning necrosis. Other organs free. Broth cultures from the
heart-blood remained sterile.
Microscopic examination, heart and kidneys: Cloudy. One minute patch
of haemorrhage with alveolar desquamation in the lung with but few leuco-
cytes. ISplccn: Follicles congested, pulp hyperplastic. Some large caseous
areas without fibrosis. Liver: Cloudy and congested, with some fatty degen-
eration. Small miliary tubercles present, in only one of which was there
beginning central caseation. A few epithelioid cells. No fibrosis. Great
omentum: Full of caseous masses; one giant-cell seen. Suprarenal: Congested;
a very small area of interstitial Inflammation. Abdominal wall: Muscle fibres
dissociated by inflammatory products, cloudy and disintegrated. Caseating
tubercles with abundant lymphocytes fairly numerous epithelioid cells and
polymorphonuclear leuccocytes. No fibrosis.
Guinea-pig V.
Inoculated In leg. Given goat serum. On twenty-flrat day nodule with
infiltration of muscle at the site of inoculation. Killed on twenty-sixth day.
A caseous mass the size of a filbert found at site of inoculation. Two
Inguinal glands on left side enlarged and caseous and one on the right.
Retroperitoneal glands similar. Two or three mesenteric glands caseous.
Liver and spleen full of caseous masses. Minute tubercles in the great
omentum, not caseous. Lungs showed miliary tubercles, and one or two
of the anterior mediastinal glands enlarged, but not caseous. Kidneys,
[nicholls] blood sera IN TUBERCULOUS INFECTION 17
normal. Smear from the retroperitoneal glands gave B. Tuberculosip. Cul-
tures from the heart-blod and inguinal glands gave staphylococci, others
sterile.
Microscopical examination. Heart and kidneyn Cloudy. Lung: fairly
numerous miliary tubercles, some just beginning to oaseate. No fibrosis.
tipleen: Very extensive caseation. Liver: Numerous and large tubercles
'without caseation in the portal sheaths, consisting of abundant lympocytes
and fairly numerous epithelioid cells. Varioui glands showed caseous centres.
GUINBA-PIQ VI.
Inoculated in leg. On twelfth day induration about site oî (inoculation,
and one inguinal gland felt on the left side. On twenty-first day caseous
focus point in leg. Two inguinal glands felt. On twenty-second day got
cheesy pus from abscess which contained fragmented bacilli of Tuberculosis.
Killed on the twenty-sixth day.
At site of inoculation, a caseous abscess. A few inguinal glands on the
left side and several retroperitoneal glands enlarged and caseous. A few
small pearly tubercles on peritoneum in lower portion, but relatively few
on the diaphragm. Spleen enlarged, presenting a multitude of small pearly
tubercles. Liver contained numerous small caseous foci. Kidneys free.
A few mesenteric glands caseous. Lungs contain miliary tubercles. One
anterior mediastinal gland enlarged. Omentum contained a few tubercles.
Smears from the ingruinal glands and spleen showed B. Tuberculosis. The
amount of tuberculosis present was not nearly so great as in pig V.
Microscopical examination. Heart and kidneys: Cloudy. Lungs: Acute
congestion with infarction. Fairly numerous tubercles, one or two exten-
sively caseated, composed chiefly of lymphocytes. ISplecn: Fairly numerous
small tubercles with only slight caseation. Liver: Numerous large tubercles
in the portal sheaths without caseation, consisting of numerous lymphocytea
and fairly abundant epithelioid cells.
Rabbit I.
Inoculated intraperltoneally. Given serum. Killed on fiftieth day. One
caseous retroperitoneal gland was found just below right kidney, but smears
from this did not give tubercle bacilli. A small caseous tubercle in base
of right lung. Cultures, sterile.
Microscopic examination. Lung: Infiltration with lymphocytes and large
mononuclear cells in septa about the great vessels. Other organs cloudy or
normal.
Rabbit II.
Inoculated intraperltoneally. Killed on fifty-first day. One or two small
caseous masses on surface of the large bowel, films from which gave the
B. Tuberculosis. A few caseous looking streaks along the lymphatics of
the mesentery. Two small retroperitoneal glands enlarged. Cultures», sterile.
Microscopic examination. Modules from bowel: Caseous tubercles com-
posed chiefly of lymphocytes without giant-cells. Liver: Congested, numerous
polymorphonuclear, mononuclear cells and phagocytes containing pigment
and fragments of cells in the spaces between the liver cells. Other organs,
cloudy.
Sec. IV., 1903. 2.
18 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
Rabbit III.
Inoculated in leg. CHven senm. On twelfth day one inguinal gland
felt. Killed on fifty-fourth day. No signs of tuberculosis at site of inocula-
tion. One or two glands found enlarged in the left leg, but no caseation
elsewhere. * Positive evidence of presence of tuberculosis not found. Cul-
tures, sterile. Microscopical examination. Organs, cloudy.
Rabbit XIL
Inoculated in leg. On twenty-first day a small (hard papule at site ot
inoculation. Killed on forty-fourth day. Infiammatory infiltration with
caseation was found along the track of the inoculation, film from which
gave moderate numbers of tubercle bacilli. Three or four retroperitoneal
glands on the left side were enlarged and appeared to contain minute tuber-
cles, films, however, did not reveal the baciUua A few minute pearly
tubercles were found in the mesentery along the course of the vessels. One
or two mesenteric glands slightly enlarged.
Microscopical examination. Site of inoculation: Muscle fibres swollen,
cloudy, dissociated, and disintegrated. Considerable caseation with abundant
lymphocytes. Epithelioid cells were rather more numerous than in the oase
of the pigs.
Rabbit IV.
Inoculated intraperitoneally. Killed fifty-first day. Small caseous mass
at site of inoculation. Numerous minute pearly tubercles noted on posterior
part of peritoneum low down; also in lesser omentum and over stomach. Liiver
contained scanty pin-point tubercles. Lungs contained fairly numerous
caseous tubercles the size of millet seeds. Smears from the lung and omen-
tum gave B. Tuberculosis. Culture from blood, sterile.
Microscopical examination. Lung: Several miliary tubercles composed
chiefiy of epithelioid cells with rare lymphocytes. No caseation nor fibrosis.
Spleen: hyperplasia of follicles. Liver: Contained miliary tubercles of small
size, composed chiefly of epithelioid cells with a few lymphocytes at the
periphery.
Rabbit XL
Inoculated intraperitoneally. Given serum. Died on forty-first day.
Much emaciated. The base of the left lung was rather reddened and con-
tained a large miliary tubercle. A smear from this gave the specific bacillus.
A few whitish miliary foci found elsewhere in the lung.
Microscopical examination. Lung: Showed several rather diffuse areas of
inflammatory infiltration composed of lymphocytes and epithelioid cells. No
caseation nor fibrosis. Spleen: Slight hyperplasia, contained numerous phago-
cytes with blood pigment. Other organs negative. This rabbit apparently
died from the efCect of the inoculations which had brought about some hœmo-
lysis.
Rabbit VII.
Inoculated in leg. On twenty-first day a very small papule felt at site of
inoculation. Killed on fifty-fifth day. Abscess with puriform matter and
numerous tubercles at site of inoculation, containing numerous tubercle
bacilli. One or two mesenteric glands enlarged. Culture from blood, sterile.
Microscopic examination. Site of inoculation: Caseous tuberculosis with
[nicholm] blood sera IN TUBERCULOUS INFECTION 19
rather numerous epithelioid cells, Isnnphocytes and polymorphonuclears. One
or two giant-cells present Meêmierio gland showed simple hyperplasia.
Rabbit V.
Inoculated in leg. Givm serum. On twelfth day (two glands enlarged
in left inguinal region and one on the right Killed on fifty-fifth day. A
collection of tubercles found on the fascia of the left leg at site of Inoculation,
extending up the leg along the lymphatics. Rather dry. One retroperitoneal
and two mesenteric glands enlarged.
Microscopical examination. All organs normal, or at most cloudy. Cul-
tures from blood, sterile.
Rabbit Vin.
Inoculated intraperitoneally. On twenty-first day slight induration at
site of inoculation. Killed on the fifty-first day. Infiltration the size of
a pea at the site of inoculation which gave B. Tuberculosis. The psoas
muscle on the right side inflamed, reddened, and on cutting into it it appeared
caseous. Numerous pearly miliary tubercles scattered over peritoneum,
mesentery, and omentum. Diaphragm showed a few miliary tubercles. A
few retroperitoneal glands enlarged and caseous. ' A few rather large tuber-
cles in the lower lobe of the right lung; one or two in right Possibly a
few minute tubercles in the liver. Spleen enlarged, but not visibly tuber-
culous. One or two mesenteric glands enlarged. A smear from the abdom-
inal wall and also from the spleen gave the B. Tuberculosis. Culture from
blood, sterile; from retroperitoneal gland, staphylococcus.
Microscopical examination. Lung: one or two small miliary foci com-
posed of lymphocytes and epithelioid cells, without caseation. Small round-
celled infiltration in the septa. Spleen: Congested, hjrperplasia of follicles.
Liver: A few minute collections of lymphoid cells with slight fatty degenera-
tion. tSection of Wound: Chronic granulation, with fragmentation and swelling
of the muscle fibres.
Rabbit X.
Inoculated intraperitoneally. Otven serum. On twenty-first day slight
induration at the site of inoculation. Died on forty-seventh day. Large
subcutaneous abscess in right flank caused by the Inoculations. All organs
found normal, except for congestion or cloudiness.
It was found in the course of this experiment that after the injec-
tion of the bacilli the average temperature of the animals was raised one
degree. The average temperature of all the animals, both pigs and
rabbits, was 102.52*" before inoculation; after, it was 103.41** in those
animals not receiving serum and 103.62 in those given it. In the case
of the control animals that were given serum alone (Nos. VI and IX.),
the temperature in one was only slightly elevated, in the other normal.
We may thus conclude that the injection of the serum had no effect on
the temperature curve. With regard to the weights the result was dif-
ferent. The animals receiving serum lost 22.27% of their body weight;
thoee not receiving it lost only 10.45^. As a rule rabbits inoculated
20 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
with tuberculosis ipreserve their nutrition surprisingly well until towards
the last when they go down hill rather rapidly. The injection of the
serum, although given in less than half the quantity employed in the
first instance still caused considerable local disturbance, and this was
aggravated by the animals scratching themselves so that the loss* of
weight is no doubt to be Attributed to the interference with their feed-
ing and the general irritation.
In comparing the results I found, as was expected, that the guinea-
pigs are much more susceptible to tuberculosis than are rabbits, lofeing
weight rapidly from the first and presenting marked lesions when
killed. These facts led me to keep the rabbits under observation some
three weeks longer, in the hope that thus the residting disease would be
more pronounced. This however did not prove to be thé case.
After a careful consideration of the extent and nature of the
lesions produced in the pigs it could not be said that the injection of
the goat serum had the slightest effect in inhibiting the action of the
bacilli. The results in the case of the rabbits were rather more pro-
mising. The mofet marked difference was found in rabbits III. and
XII. Number three which had been given serum presented no positive
appearance of tuberculosis, while its mate, number twelve, presented
caseation at the site of inoculation and tubercles on the peritoneum.
On the whole the lesions were slightly more marked in the case of the
rabbits not receiving the serum. In corroboration of this finding may
be cited the results of the first experiment where the only two animals
that developed tuberculosis were those that had not been given serum.
It is of course hazardous to draw too positive conclusions from such a
small number of animals but it would appear so far as we have gone
that normal goat serum does have a slight retarding effect on the pro-
gress of tuberculous infection. Whether this action is specific or not is
another question. Eecent work has shown that the serum of other ani-
mals, such as the dog, the ass, and the horse, as well as normal saline
solution possess- similar properties.
Till": Effp:cts of Seuum of Immunized Goats.
Having drawn this conclusion it was thought advisable to attempt
to confer upon the serum more active antitoxic properties. The method
adopted was based on that employed in the production of diphtheria
antitoxin, namely the introduction of the toxins of the bacillus into the
system of an animal until it was immune to the effects, and then using
its serum as a curative agent. As has been pointed out most of the
work on these lines has proved to be a failure or at most has had a very
limited meed of success. Tiiis is possibly due, at least in part, to the
[kicholls] blood sera IN TUBERCULOUS INFECTION 21
fact that the toxins and extracts of the tubercle bacillus used for immu-
nizing purposes have been obtained by heat or by various chemical pro-
cesses so that they do not represent the full toxic properties of the
bacillus. To obviate this objection Koch^s new tuberculin .(Bacillen-
emulsion) was employed. Perhaps a word or two of explanation as to
the nature of this substance may not be out of place at this juncture.
Koch takes a definite weight of tubercle bacilli, filters them from
all culture fluid, grinds them up with two hundred parts of 1/50 nor-
mal soda solution, and then centrifugalizes. He then pouTS oflE the
supernatant fluid, adds weak acid to the residue until only slightly alka-
line, and finally dilutes with a standard weak solution of oarbolic acid
and salt to the extent of one to three thousand. Glycerine is also add-
ed, and the final emulsion represents five milligrammes of pulverized
bacilli in every cubic centimetre. (Deutsche med. Woch., Nov. 28,
1901). The injection of this into tuberculous persons- brings about a rise
of temperature of one and a half to two degrees centigrade. The dose
of the first injection is 0.0025 milligramme rapidly increased two or
five-fold until the reaction appears.
To obtain convenient amounts for injection, the bacillus emulsion
was' diluted according to Koch^s directions with a standard diluting
solution containing 0.8% sodium chloride and 0.5% carbolic acid.
Three strong healthy goats were subjected to the injection of the
bacillus emulsion in gradually increasing amounts, the whole procedure
extending over about seven months. The reason for spreading the
injections over so long a period is that it had been found by Marag-
liano and others that the animals stand it better and the results are
more satisfactory. It was determined beforehand by culture experi-
ments that the emulsion was sterile. The injections were given subcu-
taneously in the neck under strictly aseptic conditions once a week
until towards the end of the allotted period. Previously, however, the
normal temperature for the goat was ascertained. The anwunt of the
emulsion injected was at first .0025 milligrammes repeated once a week
for three weeks and cautiously increased until at the end of three
months the goats were receiving 0.015 milligrammes*. Subsequently the
amount injected was doubled each week, until at the end of seven
months 15 milligrammes was reached. After the first three months also
the temperature before inoculation was taken as well as afterwards,
twice in the following twenty-four hours. The normal temperature of
the goat varies between 101 and 103 degrees Fahrenheit. In only one
case did the injection (of 10 mmg.), cause a rise of temperature from
.102° to 103** and 3-5tHs, but this was only 3-5ths of a degree above the
maximum normal variation. The subsequent injection was lessened to
7.5 mmgs., and then again increased. During the last few weeks while
22 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
such large amounts were being employed the injections were only given
once in from ten to fourteen days. After the animals were considered
immune to the emulsion a period of three weeks was allowed to elapse,
until all excess • of the toxin should have been eliminated from the sys-
tem. One of the goats was then bled from the jugular with the same
precautions as before adopted and the serum used for the purposes of
the experiment. Tested by the Arioing-Courmont method as to its
powers of agglutinating a homogeneous culture of the tubercle bacillus
(kindly furnished me by Prof. Courmont), it gave a positive reaction in
a dilution of one to fifty.
This power of agglutimation might, no doubt, have been greatly
increased, as has been shown by Koch, but it was deemed sufficient for
the immediate purposes of the experiment.
Experiment III.
In carrying out the third experiment I have laboured under con-
siderable difficulties. Owing to the great disturbance caused by the
injection of the serum in guinea-pigs it was thought better to use rab-
bits exclusively. Ten rabbits were taken, their temperature was noted
daily for a week to establish a normal average, and their weight was
recorded. They were then grouped in pairs according to their weight.
Four were injected intravenously through the auricular vein; four
intraperitoneally; and two in the left 1^, with one half c. cm. of an
emulsion of a mild tubercle bacillus in saline solution standardized as
before. One member of each pair then received one c. cm. of the for-
tified goat serum. Unfortunately, after the experiment was well start-
ed, rabbit septicœmia broke out in the hutches and about half of the
animaJs had to be replaced. At the end of a month several of the
remaining animals were killed but it was found that the germ was not
virulent enough to produce characteristic lesions. The animals were
therefore reinoculated with the same quantity of an emulsion made
from a mild germ received from Dr. DeSchweinitz, of the Bureau of
Animal Industry, Washington. In addition two other rabbits were
inoculated in the anterior chamber of the eye, aflfording a convenient
means of watching «the progress of the tuberculous* infection. At the
end of another month four rabbits were killed and again no lesions
were discovered, a condition of things that was a little surprising when
it was found that the disease progressed steadily although slowly in the
case of those inoculated in the eyes. The results of more than two
months* work was almost nil, although it served to indicate the effect
produced by the antitoxic serum on the healthy organism. The aver-
age temperature before inoculation of the rabbits which did not receive
serum was 102.9° and the average weight 1,865 grms. After the injec-
[NICH0LL8] BLOOD SERA IN TUBERCULOUS INFECTION 28
tioL of the tubercle germs the average temperature was 102.7° and the
weight 1,878 grms. The average temperature before inoculation with
tuberculosis of the rabbits that did receive serum was 103.2° and the
average weight was 1360 gnns.; after inoculation with tuberculosis and
after receiving antitoxic serum the average temperature was 103.2° and
the weight 1673. Thus, as the culture inoculated was innocuous, the
conclusion is that the antitoxic serum had no effect on the temperature
while it apparently stimulated nutrition as the animals receiving it had
markedly increased in weight, and in truth appeared in fine condition.
This latter result, so different from that of the first two experiments, is
explained from the fact that by a modification of the method the injec-
tions produced but little local disturbance, and the amount of irritation
was reduced to a minimum. Finally as the experiment had to be con-
cluded rather hastily, six guinea-pigs were taken, their normal tem-
perature ascertained, and they were grouped in pairs as before accord-
ing to weight. Two were inoculated in the left leg with a standardized
emulsion of relatively mild bacilli (one c. cm.), and the remaining four
intraperitoneally with the same amount. One member of each pair was
given one c. cm. of antitoxic serum subcutaneously every second day.
Numbers III. and VI., inoculated in the leg, died on the second day of
the experiment, and presented no evidences of tuberculosis. Number
IV. died on the ninth day and its mate was killed on the eleventh.
Numbers I. and V. were killed on the fourteenth day.
Autopsy protocols: —
GUINBA-PIO L
No signs of tuberculosis at the site of inoculation In the abdominal wall.
No peritonitis. Two retroperitoneal glands on the left side were slightly
enlarged but not caseous. Films from these did not show the bacillus tuber-
culosis. ISpleen: Slightly enlarged and containing fair numbers of small
greyish dots resembling early tubercles; films from the spleen, however, did
not reveal the specific bacillus. A few small pearly nodules of greyish
colour seen in the great omentum. A small yellow streak was seen in the
Tirer not unlike a tubercle, but a smear from this did not show the tubercle
bacillus.
Microscopical examination. (Jrcat omentum: The greyish dots referred
to proved to be early tubercles. Lung: Slight bronchitis and peribronohitis.
Liver: Cloudy. ISpleen: Marked hyperplasia of the Malpigfhian bodies; no
obvious tuberculOAls. This animal had been given serum,
OUINEA-PIO V.
•Mate of the last, receiving no serum. No signs of tuberculosis at site of
inoculation in the abdominal wall. Two small retroperitoneal glands were in
evidence, not caseous. One tubercle on right iesiis. A few mesenteric
glands were slightly enlarged. Spleen much enlarged and full of whitish-grey
24 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
dots the size of pin-heads resemblinfir tubercles. Smears from the spleen ^ave
tubercle bacilli.
Three isolated tubercles the size of hemp-seeds noticed in the liver. Films
from these showed the specific bacillus. The great omentum was notably
thickened, bein^ converted into a transverse cord of firm gpelatinous appear-
ance. The pleural cavities contained a fair quantity of rather blood stained
fluid. In this case the amount of tuberculosis was «rreatly in excess of that
in the last animal.
QUINBA-PIO II.
CHven serum. iSllght redness and oedema at the site of the injection of
the serum. No sisms of tuberculosis at the site of Inoculation in the abdom-.
inal walL Two retroperitoneal glands near the pelvis swollen, but not
caseous; films gave a few tubercle bacilli. Some minute pin-point nodules
of pearly grey appearance were found in the omentum. Two larger nodules
also found in the omentum, one of which was caseous. Other organs normal.
Microscopical examination. Abdominal wall: Considerable extravasation
of leucocytes about the blood-vessels. Infiltration between the muscle fibres
of leucocytes and considerable numbers of epithelioid cells. Muscle-fibres
cloudy. No caseation. Retroperitoneal gland-. Hyperplastic, but not caseous.
lAioer: Fatty, one or two minute areas composed of, in the main, clear
mononuclear cells, resembling epithelioid cells. Spleen: Much congested with
hsrperplasia of the Malpighian follicles; no caseation. Kidney: Normal. The
nodules in the great omentum proved to be early tubercles.
GuiNBA-Pio rV.
Two glands enlarged but not caseous under the skin near the site of the
Inoculation, with congestion of the vessels in the neighbourhood. One retro-
peritoneal gland on the left side near the pelvis considerably enlarged and
oaseous. A film from this gave the B. Tuberculosis. A few mesenteric
glands near the cœcum enlarged but not caseous. In the great omentum were
numerous small gelatinous tubercles and caseous foci. Other organs free.
Microscopical examination. Liver: Congested and cloudy. Kidney: Cloudy.
Lung: A few small well defined rounded areas about the vessels composed
mainly of cells of epithelioid type, but with a few leucocytes; no caseation.
tSpleen: Considerable blood-pigment noticed. Hyperplasia of the Malpighian
follicles. Retroperitoneal gland: Fairly extensive central caseation. This
animal had not been given serum. Comparing this animal with its mate
(No. II.), the amount of tuberculosis was notably greater, and this was even
more marked when we take into account that the duration of the disease
was two days less.
While this experiment was in progress the two rabbits that had
previously been inoculated in the anterior chamber of the eye were kept
under observation. One apparently had received some secondary
infection at the operation as the eye was very rapidly destroyed
and no safe conclusions could be drawn from it. The other proted
more sati- factory however. For about two weeks the small caseous
massi in the anterior chamber resulting from the injection slowly
enlarged to about twice its original size. With this there was consider-
[nicholm] blood sera IN TUBERCULOUS INFECTION 28
able swelling and injection of the iris with exudation and marked con-
junctivitis. One c. cm. of the fortified serum was then given every third
day. Following upon this the acute iritis and conjunctivitis subsided,
and during the next three weeks that the animal was kept under obser-
vation while the disease undoubtedly progressed and subsidiary tuber-
cles formed, there were no evidences of acute trouble, and the progres-
sion of the tuberclosis was somewhat slow and indolent.
With regard to temperatures, the average of all the pigs was 102.4®
before inoculation. After inoculation the average of those receiving
serum was 102.3®; of those not receiving it, 102®.
Conclusions.
From these various results it would look as if the injection of the
antitoxic serum exercised a certain amount of restraining influence
upon the extent and development of the disease although it is equally
clear that it was not powerful enough to neutralize the infection or
prevent its* extension. Under ordinary circumstances I would hesitate
to draw these conclusions from such a small series of animals were it
not for the fact that my results are in perfect accord with work pre-
viously done on somewhat analogous lines. As a result of this study,
taken in the light also of the results of other observers, I am led to the
following conclusions: —
(1) That normal goat serum when injected into guinea-pigs and
rabbits is practically innocuous, only rarely producing any hœmolysis.
(2) When injected with care it appears to stimulate nutrition
rather than otherwise.
(3) Normal goat serum possesses a slight amount of antitoxic
power against tuberculosis in rabbits.
(4) This natural antitoxic power may be considerably increased by
injecting the goat with gradually increasing doses of Koch^s New Tuber-
culin (Bacillenemulsion) until immune to its effects*.
(5) Antitoxic serum produced in this way has some power in
retarding tuberculous processes, although it is not strong enough to
cure them.
(6) The injections of the antitoxic serum have no effect on tem-
perature.
I believe, therefore, that it is possible to prepare an antitoxic
s'eruml for use in tuberculosis that will in a notable degree retard the
disease in certain of the lower animals. Whether we shall be able to
increase its power so as to bring about cure is another matter. In the
case of the protective serum I have produced I did not expect even such
26 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
good results as I obtained, for the reason that its agglutinative power
was* comparatively low (1 — 50) and it was possible to have increased
this enormously. Possibly the serum of a goat treated by the tuber-
culin to saturation would give still better results. There would, how-
ever, be a limit to this procedure for the glycerine in Koch's emulsion
would prove toxic when injected in any amount, producing hœmoglo-
binuria. Some method would therefore have to be devised whereby all
the products of the tubercle bacillus could be injected without any for-
eign substances. In my opinion the various antituberculosis sera that
have hitherto been produced have very questionable clinical value when
applied to human beings. Of course after the announcement of any
new curative agent there is always an outcry in its favour, but, in the
caaeof tubereuloeis, serum after serum has been placed upon the mar-
ket, only to be weighed in the balances and found wanting. The only
serum that is still being used is that of Maragliano, an^ he is so con-
vinced of its utility that an institute has recently been established in
Italy for the treatment of tuberculosis by his method, to which he sup-
plies serum gratis. The profession, however, appears to be strongly
sceptical, for there ia no rush to his* laboratory from aU parts of the
world such as there was when Koch's ill-starred tuberculin was first
announiced. Maragliano's reported results, namely sixty per cent or
thereabouts of improvements, are not much in advance of the figures
furnished by any first class sanatorium, such as the Saranac Lake,
Loomis, Muskoka, and Gterbersdorf institutions, which are from forty
to sixty per cent of cures in the early stages. It is moreover very diflS-
cult to, estimate the value of any curative agent in the case of such a
variable and insidious disease as tuberculosis. Many cases do well when
placed in suitable surroundings with proper care and diet without drugs,
and the disease is notoriously liable to unexpected remissions. The
results of the serum treatment are not so good that we can yet aban-
don the attitude of expectant hope, nor should we pause in our
attempts to obtain a still more potent serum. It may indeed well be
that we have reached the possible limit of efl&cacy in the sera prepared
by the methods hitherto adopted, and Koch is quite possibly right
when he says that immunity to the action of the toxic products of the
tubercle bacillus does not necessarily mean immunity to tuberculosis.
We probably need some serum powerful enough to destroy the bacillus
in the tissues or which, perhap», will stimulate the body cells to ela-
borate a germicidal substance. The germicidal properties of the sera
hitherto prepared do not appear to have been accurately observed and
the subject will bear further study. Possibly advances in this direction
will have to be made on the lines of Behring's recent work, who has
[NiCHOLLs] BLOOD SERA IN TUBERCULOUS INFECTION 27
Fucceeded in producing immunity in calves by injecting them with an
attenuated human bacillus. If not, the problem will have to be attacked
on quite different lines. We are confronted with a problem of no ordi-
nary magnitude as every one will readily admit.
In conclusion I wish to express my thanks to the Hon. E. H. Bron-
son, of Ottawa, whose public spirit and generosity have made this
research possible; to Dr. 11. Mf, Kinghorn of Saranac Lake, and Dr. H.
Wolferstan Thomas of Montreal, for cultures supplied; and to Prof es-
sor J. 6. Adami for many valuable hints during the progress of the
investigation and his kindness in presenting this paper.
BIBLIOaRAPHY.
1. Beret ta. On the use of I>ofir*s Serum in the Treatment of Tuberculosis.
British Med. Journ.. 1891. II. 1041.
2. Bardet Rapport sur un travail présenté par M. le docteur Bemhelm:
" Transformation du sang de chèvre et tuberculose," Bull, et mém.
Soc. de thérap. Paris, 1891, 237.
3. Hérlcourt et Richet. Nouvelles observations sur la transfusion du sang
de chien pour obtenir l'immunité contre la tuberculose.
Etudes expérimentales et clin. s. la tuberculose. (Verneuil et al.)
1891. III.. 139.
4. Ortigosa. Las inyecciones de suero de sangre de perro en los tuber-
culosos. Cron. méd., Valencia, 1891, XIV., 142.
5. Hérlcourt et Richet. De l'immunité contre la tuberculose par les
transfusions de sang de chien tuberculisé. Compt. rend. Soc. de biol.»
Paris. 1890. 9. s. IL. 630.
n. Berlin et Picq. De la transfusion du sang de chèvre comme traitement
de la tuberculose. Compt. rend. Soc. d. blol., Paris, 1890, 9. s. IL, 719.
7. Lépine. Sur l'application & l'homme de la methpde de traitement de la
tuberculose de MIM. J. Hérlcourt et C Richet. Semaine méd., Paris,
XI., 2L
Also Tribune méd., Paris., 1891, 2 s., XXIV., 144.
8. Hérlcourt, Langlois, et Salnt-Hilaire. Effet thérapeutique des Injections
de sérum de chien (hœmocyne) chez l'homme dans le cours de la
tuberculose. Compt. rend. Soc. de biol., Paris, 1891, 9 s., III., 45.
9. Grancher. Les injections de sérum de chien et de chèvre aux tubercu-
leux. Union méd., Paris, 1891, 3 s., LL, 461.
10. Hérlcourt et Richet. Nouvelles expériences sur les effets des injec-
tions de sérum dans la tuberculose. Compt. rend. Soc de biol.. Par.,
1891, 9 s., III.. 335.
IL Falcone. Sulla terapia delte. tubercolosl mediante le inlezione di siero
di sangue di cano. Progresso med., Napoll, 1891, V., 417.
12. Hérlcourt et Richet. Influence sur l'infection tuberculeuse de la trans-
fusion du sang de chiens vaccinés contre la tuberculose. Compt.
rend. Acad. d. se., Paris, 1892, CXV, 842.
18. Bemhedm. Immunization tuberculeuse et sérothérapie. Congr. p.
l'étude de la tuberculose. Paris. 1893. III., 286.
28 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
14. Babès. Essais de traitement de la tuberculose par l'injection du sérum
de chiens rendus rêfraotalres à cette maladie. Congrr. p. l'étude de
la tuberculose. 1893, Paris, 1894, III.. 255.
15. Szekely. The cure of Tuberculosis with serum. UJabb gyogyszer. es
gyogymod. Budapesth. 1895. 9.
16. Hovent. Le traitement sérothérapique de la tuberculose. Scalpel.
Liège, 1895-6. XLVIII, 127.
17. Maragliano. La cura délia tubercolosi'col siero antitubercolare. Cron.
d. clin. med. dd Genova. 1893-5. 839.
18. Semmola (On Miaragliano's method). Progresso med., Napoli, 1895. IX.,
213.
Ibidem.. 1896. XH., pt. 1. 206.
19. Maragliano. La sieroterapia neltei tuberculosa Riforma med.. Napoli,
1895, XL. pt. 4. 207.
Also: Ibidem.. 1896, XII.. pt 1. 206.
20. Boinet. Traitement de la tuberculose humaine par le sérum de aang
^ de chèvre inoculée avec de la tuberculine. Compt. rend. Soc. de bioL,
Pteir.. 1895. 10 s.. IL. 543.
Also: Oaz. d. hOp. de Paris, 1895, LXVIIL. 875. and Congr. franc.
de méd.. 1894. Par.. 1895. L. 538.
2L Carrien. De l'injection de lymphe du chien dans le .traitement de la
tuberculose. Attl. d. XI. Congr. med. intemaz.. Roma. 1894. III..
med. Int.. 128.
22. Cale. Serotherapy in bone and Joint Tuberculosis. Med. Rev., St.
Louis. 1895. XXXIL. 219.
28. Dupaquier. iSerum therapy of Tuberculosis. New Orleans Med. and
Surg. J., 1895-6. n.s.. XXIIL. 136.
24. Maragliano. Rev. de la tuberculose. Juillet. 1896.
25. Babès. Zeltschr. f. Hygiene. Bd. XXIIL, H«t. 3.
26. Lemen (Paquln'a method). New York Med. Journ., 1895, LXIL, 337.
27. Broca et Charrin. Traitement des tuberculoses cutanées par le sénun
de chiens tuberculeux. Compt. rend. Soc. d. biol.. Par., 1895, 10 s.,
IL. 605.
28. Héricourt et Richet. A propos de la sérothérapie dans la tuberculose.
Compt. rend. Soc. d. biol.. Par.. 1895. 10 s.. IL, 15.
29. Lemiere. La sérothérapie de la tuberculose. Journ. d. se. méd. de
Lille, 1895, IL. 208.
30. Baquin. Treatment of Tuberculosis by injections of Immunized Blood
Serum. Journ. Amer. Med. Assoc, 1895, XXIV., 842.
Ibid.. XXVL. 668.
3L Loeb. H. W. (Paquin's method). New York Med. Journ., 1895. LXIL. 425.
32. Rappin. Préparation de serums contre la tuberculose. Gaz. méd. de
Nantes, 1894-5, XIIL, 109.
38. Semmola (Maragliano method). Nice-med., 1895-6, XX., 25.
34. Simonena (Maragliano method). Oac. med. catal., Barcelona. 1895.
XVIIL, 561.
35. Ribas Perdigo (Maragliano method). Gac. med. catal., Barcelona, 1895.
XVIIL, 706.
36. Héricourt et Richet. Expériences sur la sérothérapie dans la tuber-
culose. Compt. rend. Soc. de biol., Par., 1895, 10 s., IL, 13
[NICH0LL8] BLOOD SERA IN TUBERCULOUS INFECTION 2Q
87. Redon et Chenot. Sérothérapie dans la tuberculose. Compt. rend. Soc
d. biol., Par., 1895, 10 s., IL, 493.
88. Héricourt. Le sérum du chien dans le traitement de la tuberculose.
(C. Richet) Physiol, trav. du labor. 8. Par., 1895, III.. 1358.
89. Héricourt et Richet. Effets des Injections du sang d'animaux tuber-
culisés. Ibid., 317.
40. Mariani. La sieroterapia nella tubercolosi. Bull d. Soc. Lancisiana
d. osp. di Roma, 1895-6, XVI., 27.
4L Babès et Proca. Sur la sérothérapie de la tuberculose. Compt. rend.
Acad. d. se.. Par.. 1896, CXXII., 37.
42. Maragliano. Quattro centurie di cas! trattati col siero antitubercolare.
Gazz. med. lomb., Milano. 1896. LV., 151.
43. Cresclmanno (Marag-liano method). Riforma med., Napoli, 1896, XIL,
pt. L, 705.
44. Vigenaud (Maragliano method). Bull, et mém. Soc. méd. d. hOp. de
Paris, 1896. 3 s., XIIL. 461.
45. Hayden. Report of Results and Recoveries obtained by the use of
aniti- tubercle serum. Journ. Amer. Med. Ass., 1896. XXVI.. 965.
46. Bemheim. Immunisation tuberculeuse et sérum thérapie. Compt. rend.
Soc. de Biol.. Par., 1896. 10 s., III.. 291.
47. Paquin. Serotherapy in the Treatment of Tuberculosis. Journ. Amer.
Med. Ass., 1896. XXVL, 760.
48. Maragliano. Ija sieroterapia nella tubercolosi. Clin. med.. Firenze,
1896. IL, 33.
49. MaragGlano. Proposito della communicazione de Babès suHa siero-
terapia nella tubercolosi. Gazz. d. osp.. Milano. 1896. XVII., 334.
50. Cattaneo (Maragliano method). Gazz. d. esp., Milano. 1896, XVII.. 331.
5L Fasano. La sieroterapia della tuberculosi. Gazz. d. osp., Milano, 1S96,
XVIL, 27L
52. Chamberlin. The Treatment of Tuberculosis with the Antitubercle
Serum. Virginia Med. Month, Richmond, 1895-6, XXII., 1266.
53. Shropshire (Paquin method). New York Med. Journ.. 1896, LXIIL. 15.
54. Bacque (Maragliano method). Limousin med., Limoges. 1896, XX, 18.
55. De Bernard! (Maragliano method). Gazz. d. osp.. Milano, 1896. XVII.. 61.
56. Maffucci und Di Vestea. Experimentelle Untersuchungen ueber die
Serumtherapie bel der Tuberkelinfektion. Contralb. f. Bakter.. Jena,
Abt. I., 1896, XIX., 208.
Also: Semaine méd.. Par., III.. 545.
57. Maragliano. II siero antitubercolare e la sua antitossina. Trans. Presse
med.. Par., 1896, 273.
Also: Berl. klin.. Woch.. 1896. XXXIIL. 773.
58. Oil va (Maragliano method). Riv. veneta di sc. med., Venezia, 1896,
XXV., 383.
59. Paquin. Tuberculosis and its Treatment. Med. Rev., St. Louis. 1896.
XXXIV., 25.
60. Paquin. Serotherapy in the Treatment of Tuberculosis. St. Louis
Clinique, 1896, IX.. 386.
61. Paquin. The Modern Treatment of Tuberculosis. New York Med.
Journ., 1896. LXIV.. 548.
62. Taylor (Paquin method). South. Califor. Pract.. Los Angeles. 1896,
XL, 368.
so ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
es. Mitchell (Baquln method). North Amer. Pract., Chicago, 1896,, VIIL, 400.
64. Bandiera (Maragttano metlhod). Boat. Med. and Surg. Journ., 1896,
CXXXIV., 10.
65. TommasoU (Marasliano method). Qiom. ital. d. mal. ven., Milano,
1896, XXXI., 616-17.
66. Marcantonio. Proprieta terapeutiche del siero dl sangue e deU'estratto
Idro-alcoolioo di viacerl di cane sottoposto ad uno spéciale trattamento
d'immunlzzazione alia tubercolosi. Supp. al Pollclin., Roma, 1896-7,
in., 680.
67. Faquin. Specific Medioation in Tuberculosis of Man and Beast Journ.
Amer. Med. Ass., 1897, XXVIII., 220.
68. Taylor (Faquin method). South. Oalifor. Fract., Los Angelos, 1897,
XII., 57.
69. Niemann. Ueber Tuberkuloseheilserum. MUnchener med. Woch., 1897,
XL.IV., 69.
70. Coeter. Action du sérum antituberculeux sur une tumeur flbro-tubercu-
leuse de la face. Presse mêd. belge, Bruxelles, 1897, XLIX., 114.
71. Giovanelli. Contributo alla sieroterapia anti-tubercolare. Gazz. d.
osp.. Mil€Uio, 1897, XVUL, 517.
72. Scarsi (Maragliano method). Gazz. med. lomb., Miliano, 1897, LVL, 165.
75. Fileti (Maragliano method). Giorn. ital. d. maL ven., Milano, 1897,
XXXIL. 89.
74. Hager (Maragliano method). MUnchener med. Woch., 1897, XLIV., 858.
76. Liumbau (Maragliano method). Arch, internaz. di med. e. chir., Napoli,
1897, XIII., 198.
76. Faquin. Further cases treated by Antitubercle Serum. Journ. Amer.
Med. Ass., 1897, XXIX., 98.
77. Parker. The Use of Normal (horse) Serum in the Treatment of Tuber-
culosis. Virgin. Semi-Monthly, Richmond, 1897-8, IL, 234.
78. Anderson. My experience with Faquin's Antitubercle Serum. Journ.
Amer. Med. Ass., 1897, XXIX.. 369.
79. Hinsdale. Remarks on the treatment of Tuberculosis by the anti-
tubercle Serum. Best. Med. and Surg. Journ., 1897, CXXVII., 416.
80. De Schweinitz and Dorset. Some Products of the Tuberculosis and the
Treatment of experimental Tuberculosis with Antitoxic Serum. New
York Med. Journ., 1897, LXVI., 105.
Also: Trans. Amer. Ass. of Phys., 1897, XII., 205.
8L Richardson. Serum Treatment of Tuberculosis. Nat. Med. Rev.,
Washington, 1897-8, VIL, 286.
82. Silvestrini. Contributo sperim. alia studio della vaccinazione e della
sieroterapia nell'infezione tubercolare. Settimana med. de. speri-
mentale, Firenze, 1897, LL, 461.
83. Ferran. Investigaciones sobre la suérotérapia en la tuberculosis. Inde-
pend. med., Barcelona, 1896-7, XXVIIL, 517.
Also: Gaz. med. catal., Barcelona, 1898, XXI., 65.
84. Reffan. Investigaciones sobre la sueraterapla en la tuberculosis. Rev.
med. de Sevilla, 1897, XXIX., 16L
85. De Schweinitz. Some results in the Treatment of Tuberculosis with
Antituberculosis Serum. Nat. Med Rev., Wash., 1897-8, VIL, 28L
86. Nascimbene (Maragliano method). Gaz. med. lomb., Milano., 1898,
LVIL, 67-9.
[NICH0LL8] BLOOD SERA IN TUBERCULOUS INFECTION 81
87. Baciialll (Maragliano method). Bull. d. sc. di Bologna., 1898, 7 8.» DC, 81
88. Ralmondl e Moscuccl (Maragliano method). Acad. d. flsiocrlt in Siena,
1898. 4 8., DC, 155.
Al8o: Arch. ital. dl din. med, Mllano, 897, XXXVL, 872.
89. Serra. Sderoterapia antitubercolare. Raccoglitore, Forli, 1898, 6 8.,
1, 281.
90. Ulricih (Maragliano method). Ho6p.-Tid., Kjbenh., 1898, 4 R., VI., 629.
Al8o: Therap. Monatschr., Berlin, 1898, XII, 547.
9L Edwarde. Antitubercle Serum in Tuberculosis. Med. Rev., St Louis,
1898, XXXVII., 243.
92. Prloleau (Paquin method). Joum. Amer. Med. Ass., 1898, XXXI., 687.
Also: New York Med Joum., 1897, LXV., 872.
98. Lemen. Three Years of Serum Therapy in Tuberculosis. New York
Med. Joum., 1898. LXVII., 672.
94. Maksutoff. Immunization and Serumtherapy in Tuberculosis. Bol-
nitsch. saz. Botkina, St. Petersburg, 189S, IX., 1829: 1402: 1458.
95. Berlioz. Traitement de la tuberculose par les serums médicamenteux.
Dauphinê méd, Grenoble, 1898, XXIL. 145.
Also: Bull. gen. de thérap. Par., 1899, CXXXVII., 113.
96. Laudouzy. Rapport sur l'emploi des serums et de toxine dans le traite-
ment de la tuberculose. Rév de thérap. med.-chir.. Par., 1898, LXV., 605.
Also; Presse Méd., Paris, 1898, IL, 49.
97. Waxham. The Serum Treatment of Tuberculosis. J. Amer. Med. Ass.,
1898, XXX., 859.
98. Denison. The Antitoxin Treatment of Tuberculosis or the direct (tuber-
culin preparations) versus the indireot (animal serum) method of
immunizsution against Tuberculosis . J. Amer. Med. Ass., 1893, XXX.,
290.
99. Dunwody. Tuberculosis permanently cured by Serum. Tri-State Med.
J. and Pract., St. Louis, 1898, V., 6.
100. Potter. The Serum Therapy of Tuberculosis. Phil. Med. J., 1898, I., 888.
lOL Kolb (Maraglano method). Vereinsbl. d. pfftlz. Aertze, 1898. XIV., 8.
102. Peron. Sérotihérapie tuberculeuse naturelle chez l'homme. Compt.
rend. Soc. d. biol.. Par., 1898, 10 s., V. 974.
103. Crescimanno (Maragliano method). Sieroterapia. Roma, 1898, IL, 126.
104. Maragliano. La sieroterapia vel trattamento délia tubercolosi. Cron.
d. clin. med. di Genova, 1898-9, V., 225.
106. Trudeau and Baldwin. A Resume of Exper. Studies on the Prep, and
Effects of Antitoxic Serum in Tuberculosis. Trans. Ass. Amer. Phys.
Phila., 1898, XIII., 111.
Also: Amer. Journ. Med. Sc, 1898. n.s. CXVL, 692; and 1899, n.s.
CXVIL, 56.
106. Parker. Serum Therapy in Tuberculosis. Journ. Amer. Med. Ass.,
1899, XXXIL, 73.
107. Bridges. Report on cases treated with Paquin's Antitubercle Serum.
Charlotte Med. Journ., 1899, XIV., 342.
108. Maffucci et Dl Vestea. Recherches expér. sur la sérothérapie de la
tuberculose. Rév. de chir.. Par., 1899, XIX., 276.
109. Nauss. Tuberkulose-Immunserum und Lungenschwindsucht. Aerztl,
Rundschau. Mtinchen., 1899, IX., L; 17: 33: 49: 65.
82 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
110. Situbbert. The Statiatdca upon Serotherapy in Tuberculosis. Med.
News. New York. 1899. LXXIV.. 294.
111. Bditorial. Serum treatment of Tuberculosis. Joum. Amer. Med. As«.,
1900, XXXIV., 112.
112. Héricourt. La sérothérapie. Paris. Ruff, 1930. p. 336,
113. Mantovani. Contribute alia sieroterapia nella tubercolosi. Cron. di
Clin. med.. Qenova, 1900. VII., 4, 10.
114. Spicer. The Serum Treatment of Tuberculosis. Med. Fortnightly, St.
Louis, 1900. XVII.. 372.
115. MaragUano. Sopra alcuni studi sperimentali dei prof. Maffucci e Di
Vestea sui sieri antitubercolare. Gazz. d osp., Milano. 1901. XXII.. 18.
116. Banti. Legge e sieri. Riv. crlt. di cHn. med.. Firenze. 1901, n.. 217.
117. Joaias et Roux. Essai sur le traitement de la tuberculose pulmonaire
chez les enfants par le sérum musculaire. BulU gén. de thérap., Paris,
1901, CXLI.. 249.
118. Maragliano. Per la cura speclflca délia tubercolosi. Gazz. d. osp.,
Milano. Dec. 7th, p. 1457. 1902.
119. Fiera (Maragliano method). Gazzeta Degli Ospedali e délie Cliniche.
May 10, 1903.
120. Caffarene. On the Agglutinating and Antitoxic Power of Normal Horses
and Horses Immunized against Tuberculosis. Gaz. degli Osp. e delle
Cliniche, June 7, 1903.
Sktion IV., 1903 [ 88 1 Trans. R. S. C
II. — Notes on Tertiary Plants.
By D. P. Pbnhallow.
(Read May 19, 1903.)
Among the undetermined material in the Peter Redpath Musenm
of McGill University, my attention has been directed to a collection
of fossil woods secured by the late Dr. 6. M. Dawson during the pro-
gress of the survey .under the British North American Boundary Com-
mission in 1873-4. The leaf impressions belonging to the collection
were studied and reported upon somewhat fully by "tthe late Sir William
Dawson, and they require but little further consideration at this time;
the specimens of wood, however, were studied less critically and referred
provisionally to several well known <renera and species.^ When this
material came into my hands, I found that transverse sections had been
cut from some of the specimens, while the great majority had not
been sectioned at all. With three exceptions, the sections employed
by Sir William Dawson for his diagnoses could not be found, while
those which were available were found to be unsuited to the purposes
of critical study, and they could not be fully identified vvith the hand
specimens. It was therefore found desirable to commence de novo
and by a careful selection, based upon preliminary sections, it became
possible to exclude a large number of the specimens as unfit for further
study, and to secure a number in which the structure was well pre-
served. The study of these specimens has occupied much time, but
the final results as embodied in the following ipsLges, may be regarded
as accurately representing our present knowledge of these plants as
presented by the stem structure. During the progress of the work it
was found possible to identify nearly all the forms originally described,
and to correlate them with recognized species or genera.
All the specimens were in the form of highly silicified fragments
of great hardness. Some of them presented strong external evidence
of structure, while others revealed structure only after sectioning.
Many of the fragments were angular, showing that they had been
found in place, or else that they had been broken from larger speci-
mens, while all the smaller specimens, which were in the numerical
majority, were rounded and well worn through the action of water,
indicating that they had been acted upon in place for a long time,
or else that they had been transported over a considerable distance,
* B. N. A. Bound. Comm., 1875. App. 330-831.
Sec. IV.. 1903. 8.
84 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
and, therefore, from some point farther north in the direction of the
headwaters of the streams local to the region. An examination of
the adjacent territory is therefore desirable.
Kanging northward and westward from near the International
Boundary, there is an extensive area of 7,500 square miles which Dr.
Dawson d^ignated as the Missouri Coteau. Against the southwest
side of this area there is another of about 12,000 square miles known
as the Plateau of the Lignite Tertiary. These areas collectively con-
stitute the Third Prairie Steppe, the southern face of which lies but
a short distance to the north of the 49th parallel.^ From the Plateau
of the Lignite Tertiary, the Porcupine Creek flows down to the level
of the Second Steppe and crosses the International Boundary at about
106 deg. west longitude. Other streams originating in the same
plateau flow through the Great Valley at about the 104th meridian.
As both these localities are coterminous and represent very nearly
the same horizon^* they may be dealt with, for the purposes of the
present paper, as essentially one, although as already shown,^ the
floras are slightly different. iTom this it will appear within the
limits of probability that the water-worn fragments had their origin
within the areA of the Lignite Tqftiary Plateau, while the others,
found in place, originated near its southern face.
In his original report upon these plants, Sir William Dawson
directed attention to the fact that tl^ plant* of the Porcupine Creek
Group and those of the Great Valley Group are " for the most part
identical with those " found common to the Fort Union Series of the
United States. They are " also similar to plants collected by Dr.
Eichardson in the Lignite Series of the Mackenzie River, as described
by Heer, .... they also approach very closely to trie so-called
Miocene floras of Alaska and Greenland, as de>cribed by Heer; and
in their faciès and in several of their species, they coincide with the
Miocene flora of Europe. If we were to regard the affinities of the
plants merely, and to compare them with the Miocene of other coun-
tries, and also to consider the fact that several of the species^ are
identical with those still living, ana that the whole faciès of the flora
coincides with that of modern temperate America, little hesitation
would be felt in assigning the formation in which they occur to the
Miocene period. On the other hand, when we consider the fact that
the lower beds of this formation hold the remains of reptiles of Meso-
zoic type, that the beds pass downward into the rocks holding Baccu-
lites and Inocerami, and that a flora essentially similar is found
> B. N. A. Bound. Comm., 1875, 287-296.
" Ibid, App. 327.
' Ibid.
i
tPKNHALLOw] NOTES ON TERTIARY PLANTS 88
associated with CretafCeous marine animal remains both in Dakota and
in Vancouver's Island, we should be inclined to assign them at least
to the base of Eocene. In my judgment, any precise decision as to
^heir geological age is premature, and it is rash to identify the beds,
on the evidence of plants alone, with particular subdivisions of the
icrtiary elsewhere, .... but in the meantime, it is sufficient
to hold that we have here a flora which in Europe would be regarded
as miocène, but which in America probably began to exist at a much
oarlier date.'' ^
Jn a more recent revision of the flora of this region, however,^
this statement was subject to some modification, since " the truth
appears to be that they constitute a transition from the upper part
of the Cretaceous to the Eocene, and that the analogies which have
been sought to be established between them and European Miocene
deposits are altogether fallacious, and based upon the similarity of an
American flora of early Eocene date with one found in Europe at a
later period.* This opinion is later confirmed on the lasis of data
advanced by Newberry and Lesquereux, and it is accepted as established
that the Porcu^pine Creek and the Great Valley Groups are equivalent
to the Souris Eiver beds, and that they lie above the Willow Creek
Series which defines the transition from the Middle Laramie or Upper
Cretaceous, to the Tapper Laramie or Eocene.^
From a stratigraphical study of the series at Porcupine Creek
and at Great A^alley,* the 'late Dr. G. !M. Dawson was also led to place
tliese deposits in the Eocene. Since that time but little new evidence
has been offered with respect to their age, but such as it is, it serves
to confirm previous conclusions. In 1881 Mr. R. G. McConnell, of
the Geological Survey, examined the entire region, and in his report
published in 1882, ho states that " the Porcupine Hills consist of
rocks forming the upper part of the Laramie and mark the axis of a
wide synclinal."' In a letter recently received from ^îr. J. F. Whit-
■eaves, Mr. McConnell is quoted as saying that '" these beds are undoubt-
edly above the Willow Creek Series, and that, so far as known, they
overlie it conformably."
* B. N. A. Bound. Comm., 1875. App. 327-328.
^ Trans. R. Soc. Can., I.. Iv., 15, 16, 1882.
■ Ibid., IV., Iv., 19, 20, 1886.
* Ihid. 93-100.
* Kept. Gteol. Surv. Can.. 1882. IOC, 96C. 106C. 112C, 113C.
se ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
Taxodium distichum, Bich.
FifiT. L
Eocene of the Great Valley and Porcupine Creek Groups; North Saskatche-
wan; Souris River; Red Deer River; Elko Station, Nevada; Evans-
ton; Alaska? Carbon?
Miocene of the Similkameen River; Horse-Fly River. B.C.; John Day Valley,
Oregon.
Bib. :— Trans. R. Soc. Can.. VIII.. iv.. 1902. 51, 68.
ï'ran»ccr«e.— Growth rings rather broad, the structure much altered by decay
and pressure; the spring wood compressed to an angle of 45 degrees
and details obliterated. Summer wood dense, very variable in thick-
ness, the transition from the spring wood abrupt. Medullary rays
resinous, conspicuous. Resin canals wholly wanting. Resin cells
numerous and prominent; in the spring wood with dark resin
masses, normally in tangential bands; in the summer wood fre-
quently in tangential bands, chiefly appearing devoid of resin
mafises.
Radial.— UBiy cells of one kind only, the walls thick when not reduced by
decay; the terminal walls thin, straight or curved; the lateral walls
with bordered pits 1-2 per tracheid, when of the latter number in
radial series, oval or round, the lenticular-oblong orifice diagonal to
the cell axis.
Tançmtiah—BAya rather high, all of one kind and uniseriate; the cells broadly
oval.
AiDong the woods sectioned lor the first (?) time was one which
cannot be identified with any of the descriptions or figures given by
Sir William Dawson, and it is thus possible that it escaped his notice
altogether. On the other hand, the original hand specimen may have
been lost, and this alternative is suggested by certain references to
be noted later. The wood had evidently been subjected to extended
decay, while it was subsequently brought under the influence of pres-
sure whereby secondary alterations were developed. That the wood
was also one which offered a high degree of resistance to decay is
likewise apparent in the special character of the alterations effected.
In the transverse section the very strongly developed summer wood
has been so far altered that the secondary layers of the thick walls are
greatly swollen so as to nearly obliterate the cell cavities and thereby
destroy essential features of structure. Nevertheless, it is quite pos-
sible to readily establish the point of contact with the spring wood
because of the lateral compression which, following decay, has forced
the lines of structure over to an angle of about forty-five degrees to
the normal. The medullary rays are very prominent and they may
be readily followed throughout their entire course by reason of the
[PENHALLOW] NOTES ON TERTIARY PLANTS 37
somewhat abundant resin they contain. Resin canals are altogether
absent, but resin cells are both numerous and conspicuous. In the
spring wood they are well defined by virtue of the dark resin masses
which they hold, and there is reason for the belief that they fall into
more or less well defined tangential banda such as constitute so char-
acteristic a feature of Taxodium. In the summer wood, the resin
cells lying along the inner face are not infrequently located in well
defined bands. Throughout the greater extent of the summer wood
where they are abundant, they are usually devoid of resin and are
then to be recognized as. empty or nearly empty cells which thereby
acquire great prominence, in an otherwise reddish-yellow tissue.
The longitudinal sections were found somewhat difficult to study
on account of the dislocation of parts. Nevertheless, the radial sec-
tions show the medullary rays to be devoid of tracheids; but the most
significant fact for diagnostic purposes is the occurrence on the
lateral walls of the ray cells, of distinctly bordered pits. These struc-
tures are 1-2 per traoheid, oval or round and with a lenticular-oblong
orifice which is diagonal to the axis of the ray. When the pits are
two in number, they fall into radial series. These facts point without
question to the general affinities of the plant, and show that it is
beyond all question one of the Taxodie».
In his original description of these plants, Sir William Dawson
^specifies Cupressinoxylon, species (c), which may be the same as the
one now in question, as he says it approaches the wood of Taxodium
or Cryptomeria, but " it may have belonged to Glyptostrobus." ^ Now,
the genus Taxodium has hitherto been wholly unknown to these de-
posits through its wood, and to a very limited extent only through
its foliage, and there is, therefore, very little to support the assumption
that this is the wood of a true Taxodium except the evidence to be
derived from the internal structure, and this is so similar that there
seems to be little room for hesitation. On the other hand, however,
the alteration of structure by decay and compression is such as to lead
one to exercise caution in expressing a final opinion in a case where
comparatively slight differences, readily obscured by such conditions
of preservation as are here represented, might make all the difference
between one genus and another. Glyptostrobus europaeus is a well
recognized species of the Porcupine Creek and Great Valley Series
as iworded by Sir William Dawson, where it has been identified through
its leaves.- The very close relationship between Glyptostrobus and
Taxodium at onoe directs attention to the possibility that the wood
belongs to the former, rather than to the latter genus.
* B. N. A. Bound. Comm., 1875, App. 331.
' Ibid.» 328, 329.
88
ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
In this connection, however, it is to be recalled that certain species
of Glyptostrobus (G. horsfieldii) have been referred to Podocarpus,
while the genus as a whole was transferred to Taxodium by Bentham
and Eooker, and this relation is recognized in the Index Kewensis.
The most recent revision, however, as given by Eiohler in Engler &
Prantl, still gives Glyptostrobus a distinct status as a valid genus
within the T>axodiea&, whereby it is definitely separated from all rela-
tionship with Podocarpus. From this it would appear that the ques-
tion now resolves itself into a choice between Podocarpus on the one
hand and Taxodium or Glyptostrobus on the other.
An analysis of the characteristics of the woody structure of the
common Bald Cypress has already been given, and the close similarity
of the fossil has been noted. According to the usual diagnoses for
the leaves, these organs are "alternate, spirally disposed, sessile, nar-
rowly linear, acute ; those of the flowering branches smaller scalelike."*
Schimper's diagnosis for fossil representatives of the genus read»
" Folia disticha, complanato-patentia, linearia, basi angustata," while
for the species T. distichum miocenum we have the somewhat addi-
tional characters "basi angustatis, breviterque peiiolatis/"^ These char-
acters uniformly constitute the basis for the recognition of fossil species,
and they are quite distinct in certain particulars from those which are
commonly held to pertain to Glyptostrobus.
Although not recorded in his list of plants from the Porcupine
Creek and Great Valley, I nevertheless find in the Museum collection
some badly preserved specimens of leaves of an imdesignated specie»
of Taxodium which are described as collected by Dr. G. M. Dawson
during the progress of the B. X. A. Boundary Onmiiission Survey in
1873-74, from the Upper Laramie of Porcupine Creek. A very careful
examination of these specimens shows that they cannot be distinguislied
from other Tertiary spei'imens which are labelled Taxodium distichum.
These latter were derived from three separate localities.
Several other specimens of Taxodium an» also in the Museum col-
lection. One lot is from the Upper Laramie of the Nortli Saskatchewan,
and was collected by Mr. Tyrrell in 1886. A second lot was obtained
from the Lignite Tertiary of the Souris River by Dr. Solwyn in 1880,.
while the third lot wss found in the Miocene of the Similkameen
River, B.C. In all these cases the plant is represented by the foliage
which is most beautifully presen-ed, and it therefore readily admits
of a verification of the statement whieh the name implies, that the
specimens cannot be differentiated from the existing Taxodium dis-
tichum to which they have been correctly referred.
' Britton, lU. Flor. N. U. S. & Can.
* Pal. Vég., IL, 322, 323.
[PBNHALLOw] NOTES ON TERTIARY PLANTS S9
Prom this, therefore, it is clear that Taxodium distichum occurs
in the Porcupine Creek and Great Valley Groups, and it is in a high
degree probable that the wood and leaves belong to the same plant.
But in view of the element of doubt which still attaches to the
wood on account of its state of preservation, it is necessary to examine
additional evidence bearing upon Glyptostropus and Podocarpus, and
to ascertain if a process of elimination will strengthen or diminish the
force of the arguments in favour of Taxodium.
Schimper's diagnosis of the foliage of fossil Glyptostrobi gives
" Folia spiraliter disposita, sparsa, lineari-subulata," while, for the
most commonly known specific form (G. europœus) it reads "Foliis
squiamiformis, adpressis, basi decurrentibus, in ramulis nonnullibus
vero linearibufl patentibus distichis," from which it will readily be
seen that the essential distinction between Taxodium and Glyptostro-
buB rests entirely upon the form and character of the 1^ base which
h narrowed and very short petiolate in the one case, and decurrent in
the other, and it is just this difference which is represented in the
various diagnoses of fossil species. While the genus is widely repre-
sented in Cretaceous and Tertiary rocks, especially by the well-known
G. europaeus, it has nev^r enlarged beyond very narrow limits, and
at the present time it is represented by only two living species (G.
heterophyllus and G. pendulus), both of which are peculiar to China.
In the absence of the wood of these trees, we are forced to rely upon
the foliage of the fossil species which, though abundant in the same
deposits, affords no conclusive evidence as to its connection with the
wood now under discussion.
As already pointed out, Glyptostrobus horsfieldii has been trans-
ferred to Podocarpus where it falls in the section Dacryocarpus as the
most nearly allied to Taxodium. As exhibited in P. dacrydioides,^ the
foliage presents a striking similarity to that of fossil species of Glyptos-
trobus, is shown by the decurrent base and by the more general features
given in commonly accepted diagnoses: — " Folia diformia, alia praeser-
tim ramulorum fertilium parva, squamiformia, conferta, saepiusque ap-
pressa, alia, ramulorum sterilium, distiche patentia, anguste, linearia
V. fere subulata." A careful examination of typical specimens of
Glyptostrobus in the collections of the Peter Redpath Museum fton-
dantly confirms the resemblance thus indicated, whence it becomes
necessary to submit the wood to a detailed comparison with that of
the fossil. The wood selected for this purpose is that of Podocarpus
machrophyUa, Don., from Japan. The diagnosis is as follows: —
Transverse.— Growth rings narrow, becoming very broad towards the centre
of the tree. Spring wood composing "/„ of the growth ring ;
' Engler & Prantl, Pflanzenfamilien.
40 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
tracheids medium to small, thicklsh walled, passing erradually into
the very thin summer wood. Summer wood of three to four tracheids
as in Thuya or Cupressus; the tracheids squarish, not very thick
walled, but strongly flattened in the outer row. Medullary rays
numerous, distant from 2—5 rows of tracheids. Resin canals wholly
wanting. Resin cells very numerous throughout the entire growth
ring, more or less in tangential rows, resinous contents not promin-
ent or massive, the color chiefly in the walls.
jKadia/.— Grain much contorted. Resin cells numerous and prominent, about
15 to 1.75 mm. Bordered pits on the radial walls of the tracheids
medium to small, in one row, one-half the width of the tracheid, the
lenticular orifice diagonal, rather open. Medullary rays of resinous
color, but the resin not massive; cells all of one kind, chiefly straight;
the upper and lower walls thick and variable in width, strongly but
distantly pitted; the terminal walls thin, not pitted or locally
thickened, straight or often strongly curved; pits on the lateral walls
small, 1—2 per tracheid, when of the latter number in vertical series,
the oblong orifice at right angles to the cell axis.
Tangential— Hsiya very numerous and variable in height; strictly uniseriate;
the cells variable in size, chiefly broadly oval or round, thick walled,
not conspicuously resinous.
The characteristics thus set forth clearly establish the relations
of Podocarpus to the type of Cupressus or Thuya/ rather than to that
of Taxodium.^ It may nevertheless be well to indicate the chief
characteristics in which the latter differs from the former. The sum-
mer wood of the growth ring is almost invariably double, constituting
a well defined character which, in addition to the usually great thick-
ness of the summer wood, serves to separate the genus from all other
allied types. While in Podocarpus the rays are ver^ numerous and
rarely separated by more than five rows of tracheids, in Taxodium
they are distant from 2-11 rows. In radial section the resin cells
are only «about 2 per 1.75 mm., thus making them at least seven times
less numerous (15 per 1.75 nmi.) tlian in Podocarpus. The pits on
the lateral walls of the ray cells are upwards of seven in number, lying
in radial series, while in Podocarpus there is usually only one pit to
each tracheid, and when there are two, they lie in vertical series with
the oblong orifice also vertical.
A careful consideration of these various details brings us to the
very obvious conclusion that the wood cannot be that of Podocarpus,
while it may be that of Glyptostrobus. But, as the only support for
the latter lies in associated leaves, while for Taxodium we have not
only the associated leaves but a stem structure which is, in all e.^ential
respects that of the existing Tertiary distichiim, we feel that there is
ample justification for referring the wood to the latter.
* Taxaceae & Coniferae. Trans. R. Soc. Can., II.. iv., 50.
" Ihid., 51.
[piNHALLOw] NOTES ON TERTIARY PLANTS 41
Sequoia lanosdorfii, (Brongn) Heer.
Figs. 2-4.
Miocene of John Day Valley, Oregron; Mackenzie River and Horsefly River.
B.C.: Green River Group, Col.
Eocene of Alaska and the Great Valley Group, N.W.T.; Fort Union Group;
Porcupine Creek.
Cretaceous of Nanaimo and Port McNeil.
Bib. :— Dawson. Trans. R. Soc. Can.. XI., Iv.. 56, 1895; Penhallow. Trans. R.
Soc. Can.. VIII., iv.. 44, 68, 1902; Dawson, B. N. A. Bound. Comm.,
App. A, 831, 1875.
In his description of plants from the Great Valley Group, Sir
William Dawson distinguished a wood which he assigned to the genns
Cedroxylon, but he observed that it might represent the wood of Thuya
intemipta which occurs in the Porcupine Creek Group, noting also
that the structure resembled that of Thuya occidentalis.* It is pro-
4>able that these observations applied in part at least, to the wood
now under consideration, which cannot be distinguished from that of
Sequoia langsdorfii derived from Vancouver and from the Horsefly
River, B.C.* A revision of the original diagnosis of this species, based
upon all available material, would be as follows: —
ï'raii»©cr«f.— Growth rings medium, strongly defined. Tracheids of the spring
wood squarish, large, 52 x 52 microns, the walls 14 microns thick.
Summer wood of three to six tracheids in thickness, the transition
from the spring wood rather abrupt Resin cells rather numerous
throughout the growth ring and scattering. Resin canals usually
absent, but occasionally appearing in a rudimentary form on the
outer face of the summer wood.
itodiaZ.—Medullary rays devoid of tracheids; the parenchyma cells equal to
about four tracheids, somewhat constricted at the ends; the upper
and lower walls thin and entire; the terminal walls not pitted,
straight or curved; the lateral walls with no recognizable structural
details.
TangentiaL—MeôuWsLry rays uniseriate or rarely 2-seriate in part, the oval or
round cells about 31.5 microns broad.
Sequoia langsdorfii is a species which has long been known to the
Tertiary of both Europe and America, where it is both abundant and
of very general distribution. Until recently, however, our knowledge
of it has rested entirely upon the remains of foliage and fruit, and
from these data alone, it has come to be regarded by palaeobotanists
generally, as the prototype of the living Sequoia sempervirens. Thus,
as long ago as 1869, Schimper directed attention to tlie very close
* B. N. A. Bound. Comm., App. A, 331.
' Trans. R. Soc. Can., VIII.. iv., 44. 68, 1902.
42 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
resemblance and expressed the belief that the two were identical.^
In 1891 Solms-Laubach reiterated this view, but in a much more
cautious manner, directing attention to the near approach to the recent
S. sempervirens.* More recently Zeiller has given expression to the
prevalent view in saying that it is to be regarded as the direct ancestor
of S. sempervirens of California, from which it cannot be distinguished
by any important characters.* Elsewhere it has also been shown that
there is good reason for the belief that we now have a knowledge of
the wood of this species,* a belief which is greatly strengthened by
more recent studies of the «ame type of wood from other localities
where it has been found in a more perfect state of preservation, and
by the great similarity — it might almost be said by the identity —
which it presents to Sequoia sempervirens.
There is, therefore, no real reason why this species should not
be accepted at once, as Sequoia sempervirens, and its original name
relegated to the position of a synonym.
One feature of very great interest attadiing to this plant, is the
fact now made apparent, that it at one time flourished within the
region of the Great Plains from which it must have been driven by
causes similar to, perhaps identical with those which also drove the
'Douglas fir back to its present position in the mountain region. It
certainly flourished in the Great Plains region as late as the Lignite
Tertiary, and there is every reason to suppose that it may have been
there as late as the Glacial period. At all events, both this tree and
Pseudotsuga douglasii should be carefully looked for in any future
explorations of the later Tertiary formations.
Sequoia burgessii, n. sp.
Figs. 5-8.
Eocene of the Great Valley and Porcupine Creek Groups.
Bib. :— B. N. A. Bound. Comm., 1875, App. A, 331. Cat. Cret. and Tert Fl.
30.
Among the woods from the Great Valley studied by Sir William
Dawson in 1874, one specimen was designated by the name of Cupressin-
oxylon species (a). This was characterized by the occurrence of the
bordered pits in two rows, by the long resin cells and the presence
in the medullary rays of resin canals. It is, therefore, possible to
identify the present species as the one to which this description was
» Pal. Vég., IL, 314.
* Fobs, Bot,, 58. 1891.
■ El. de Pal., 271, 1900.
• Cret. & Ter. Plants. Tranô. R. Soc. Can., VIII., iv., 44. 68.
[PBHHALLow] NOTES ON TEBTIAEY PLANTS 48
applied.* The opinion was expressed that the wood might belong
to one of the Sequoias represented in the beds by leaves and fruit. A
more detailed study of this wood enables us to determine to what extent
these references are justified.
Tranêverêc—The growth rings are rather narrow and diBtinguished by a nar-
row but rather dense zone of summer wood, which is rather abruptly
defined from the spring wood. The tracheids of the latter are very
large, squarish and thin-walled, while in the former the 4—9 rows
of cells are thick walled. The entire aspect of the section is such as
to immediately call to mind the similar structure of Sequoia semper-
virens, while it also recalls the structure of S. langsdorfli from Van-
couver and the Queen Charlotte Islands. * In the latter, however,
a point of difference is to be noted in the conspicuously thicker walls
of the tracheids of the spring wood. Resin cells are numerous and
to be at once recognized by their uniformly dark color, due to the
abundance of the somewhat massive resin they contain. These cells
are found abundantly throughout the growth ring, but most numer-
ously on the outer face of the summer wood. Here again we get a
point of very strong resemblance to S. sempervirens, but of diver-
gence from S. langsdorfli.
No evidence is presented by the specimens in transverse section
to show that resin canals formed a part of the original structure^ and
in this there is a well defined deviation from the characteristics of both
S. sempervirens and S. langsdorfli, in both of which imperfectly
t)rganized resin canals appear on the outer face of the summer wood,
though not with great or regular frequency. In one or two instances,
•within the summer wood of a single growth ring, small, rounded spaces
were to be seen, strongly suggestive of former resin canals. They were
«bout 116 microns in diameter, or equal to about two or three tracheids.
There was absolutely no evidence of structure, however; the edges of
the openings showed that structures of the size of canals could not have
wcupied the spaces, although upon comparison with the resin canals in
S. sempervirens, the openings were found to be about equal to the
average size of those structures, inclusive of the epithelial cells. Fur-
ther examination disclosed the fact that similar openings in Cupressus
could be referred to local crystallization and consequent obliteration
of structure, and when this was joined to the additional fact that the
longitudinal sections gave no evidence of resin canals, but exhibited
local areas of crystallization which could be correlated with those of
the transverse section, the conclusion that resin canals were absent
became fully justified.
* B. N. A. Bound. Comm., 1875, App. A, 331.
' Trans. R. Soc. Can., VIII., Iv., 1902. 44.
44 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
The numerous medullary rays are chiefly one cell wide, but occa-
sionally one of greater width is to be seen, and it then shows numerous
large thyloses in its central portion.
RadiaL— In the radial section the details of structure are not as well defined
in consequence of the extent to which alterations had been developed
through decay. It was, therefore, not possible to make afi clear a
specific diagnosis as would have been desirable, in order to establish
exact relations with other species, but enough were recognizable to
justify certain conclusions. Under a moderately low power the
medullary rays may be seen to be composed of elements of one kind
only, t.«., parenchyma cells, while the walls appear to be thin and
not pitted. Nevertheless, under a higher power it may be seen that
decay had operated to such an extent as to obUterate all structural
markings. Resin cells are frequent in the wood and at once to be
recognized by their abundant, dark coloured and granular, resinous
contents. The individual cells are several times longer than broad,
and terminated by transverse walls. They present no structural
peculiarities which might serve to differentiate this wood from that
of other Sequoias.
The tracheids occasionally present sufficiently well preserved
structure to permit a recognition of the bordered pits which are chiefly
in two rows and large as in S. sempervirens. In this respect it differs
from S. langsdorfii where the pits are more generally in one row, and
the affinity thus appears to be in the direction of S. gigantea.
One of the most remarkable structural features is exhibited in
the presence of numerous thyloses in certain of ttie medullary rays,
due to the development there of resin canals. This feature will be more
appropriately discussed in connection with the tangential section.
Tangential.— The resin cells are seen to have the same aspect as in the radial
section, being about 2—3 times longer than broad, and as in the
latter, a very thorough search has abundantly proved that there are
no resin canals penetrating the structure in a longitudinal direction.
The relative positions of the transverse and longitudinal sections
was such that structures belonging to the one must have been shown
in the other if present, and I therefore feel no hesitation in the
statement that resin canals traversing the wood longitudinally, do
not constitute a structural element of this species. The full signifi-
cance of this fact does not appear until the longitudinal, and especially
the tangential sections are bA>ught under examination. Tangen-
tially the medullary rays are seen to be of two kinds, a fact noted by
Sir William Dawson in 1875.* In the first case the most numerous
rays are of the ordinary, uniseriate type, and present nothing which
will serve to dlsinguish them from the simple rays of other species
of Sequoia. In the second case one may notice a number of rays of
* B. N. A. Bound. Comm., App. A, 331.
[PENHALLow] NOTES ON TERTIARY PLANTS 48
the fusiform type. These are quite as abundant as in any of the
Coniferae where they normally occur, and as in other cases, they
are characterized by the presence of a central resin canal. In their
general aspect they sugrerest the type common to the genus Pin us, in
that the central tract broadens out somewhat abruptly, the cells are
all thin walled, and the resin canal of the central tract contains an
abundance of thin-walled thyloses. No similar structure is to be
found in any of the existing species of Sequoia. The only approach
to it is to be found in S. sempervirens, where certain of the medullary
rays broaden out into a fusiform shape by the development of cells
which become 2-seriate through the central portion, but in none of
the numerous specimens of this species examined by me, have I yet
found anything approaching the possible structure of a resin canal.
The 2-seriate character of the ordinary rays, is also a feature ot
the wood now under discussion, and this feature makes the resem-
blance to S. sempervirens much stronger, though it by no means
establishes identity.
Under the name of Sequoia magnifica, Dr. F. H. Knowlton has
descrribed a fossil species from the Yellowstone National Park ^ which
so closely resembles S. sempervirens that Dr. Knowlton says it is
"hardly to be separated by any well defined characters/' and that
there can be " no doubt that the living redwood is the direct descendant
of this remarkable tree that was once so abundant in the Yellowstone
National Park.'' ^ S. burgessii resembles this fossil in many essential
features, but differs from it in the very essential fact that it has con-
spicuous resin canals in the medullary rays, which Dr. Knowlton
informs me are certainly wanting in S. magnifica. Under these cir-
cumstances it is necessary to distinguish the specimen from the Great
Valley Group by a separate name, and for this purpose it seems appro-
priate that the work of my friend, Dr. T. J. W. Burgess, who served
ar Botanist to the British North American Boundary Commission, and
who did valuable work in studying the existing îiora of that region,
should be recognized. The complete diagnosis of Sequoia burgessii
as now known is as follows: —
Tran9ver$e.— Growth rings chiefly narrow but variable, the rather narrow but
variable summer wood dense, the transition from the spring wood
abrupt. Tracheids of the spring wood large, squarish and thin
walled. Resin canals wholly wanting. Resin cells numerous
throughout the growth ring, but especially on the outer face of the
summer wood; with dark, massive resin. Medullary rays chiefly one
cell wide, occasionally broader and bearing a resin canal with large
thyloses.
iîadta/.— Bordered pits large, in 1-2 rows. Medullary rays often with a large
resin canal bearing thyloses; the cells all of one kind, the upper and
» U. S. Geol. Surv., Mon. XXXIII., Part II., 761, pi. CXI.
» Ibid, 782.
46 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
lower walifl thin and much altered by decay, the lateral walls devoid
of recognizable markings.
Tani7ni/irt/.— Ordinary rays 1 or sometimes 2-serlate In parts; fusiform rays with
large resin canal containing thyloses.
(/UPRESSOXYLON DAWSOXI, D. sp.
Figs. 9-lL
Eocene of the Great Valley and Porcupine Creek Groups, N.W.T.
Bib. :— Dawson, B. N. A. Bound. Comm.. 1875, App. A, 331. Knowlton. Cat.
Cret. and Tert. Floras, 80.
It is difficult to identify the wood under consideration with the
material examined by Sir William Dawson in 1875, but in all probability
it is embraced in what he then designated as Cedroxylon, a portion of
which, at least, represents Thuya interrupta.^ It may also be repre-
sented by the two species designated as (e) and (b).
The transverse section shows rather broad growth rings with a
spring wood composed of large, squarish and thin-walled tracheids
■which recall the structure of Cupressus macrocarpa or C. thyoides, a
resemblance greatly strengthened by the gradual passage of the spring
wood into a thin summer wood composed of 2-4 rows of radially flat-
tened tracheids with somewhat thicker walls. The very prominent
and resinous rays suggest a further relation to C. macrocarpa, while
on the other hand, the very numerous resin cells direct attention to
both C. goveniana and C. nutkaensis — particularly to the former.
In radial section the resinous rays are found to be devoid of
tracheids, the terminal walls of the cells are straight or curved, while
the lateral walls are marked with oval or rounded pits, often several
to the tracheid. The radial walls of the wood tracheids are marked
by bordered pits which usually lie in one row or sometimes two rows,
thus establishing a resemblance to C. macrocarpa where the pits are
often in pairs, but more particularly to C. lawsoniana in which the
pits are in one or sometimes two rows.
In the tangential aspect the wood is seen to have resinous rays
of the uniseriate type, the cells of which are very resinous and trans-
vxjrsely oval or oblong. Three modern species present similar char-
acteristics, viz., C. gaudaloupensis, C. goveniana and C. macrocarpa.
Among these the resemblance to the latter is very close. From these
facts we may conclude that the wood is a specimen of Cupressus, most
nearly related to C. macrocarpa among existing species. As identity
cannot be fully established through the material at hand, it seems
* B. N. A. Bound. Comm., 1875, App. A, 331.
[PEKHALLOw] NOTES ON TERTIARY PLANTS 49
critical compaarison with this last species, especially from the stand-
point of the longitudinal sections, shows a want of agreement in some
very important respects. The accompanying list of dimensions may
be introduced here to show in part, the resemblance to Populus bal-
samifera. While such data have no absolute value for diagnostic pur-
poses, they are nevertheless useful as supplementing other data, and
will be referred to later.
Comparison of Cells and Cell Walls.
Size of Cells. Thickness of walls.
Spring wood. Spring wood.
Rhamnacinium porcupinianum 20.0 ^ 9.37//
Populus balsamifera 21.3 fi 9,21 fi
Populus fremonti 22.5 u 6.25//
Salix longifolia 13.7// 6.25//
Salix bigelovii 14.5// 6.25//
Rhamnus caroliniana 15.3 // 4.7 //
Rhamnus purshiana 14.2 // 3.1 //
In 1896 Felix described a wood from the Yellowstone National
Park to which he applied the name of Rhamnacinium radiatum.^ As
figured and described, this wood bears a remarkable resemblance to
our specimen which is again comparable with another wood from the
Yellowstone National Park described by Knowlton in 1899,^ and referred
by him to Ehamnacinium radiatum, though regarded as such with some
hesitation, on account of its striking resemblance to a poplar. It
would thus appear that there is considerable doubt attached to the
identity of this fossil, which it is important to remove; and the diffi-
culty is greatly increased by the very striking resemblance which is to
be found between the structural details of the wood of the Ehamnaceae
and the Salicacese. It, therefore, becomes necessary to determine
1st. If our specimen belongs to the Khamnaceœ or the Salicaceœ.
2nd. If to the latter, whether it is a Salix or a Poplar.
3rd. If to the former, whether it is identical with the Rhamnacinium
of Felix, or with the somewhat doubtful one of Knowlton,
or with both.
To the solution of these questions I shall endeavour to bring evi-
dence derived from existing species of both families, in the hope that
it may furnish a final answer.
The state of preservation of the specimen is such that considerable
difficulty has been experienced in obtaining a diagnosis which I could
* Zeitschr. d. Deutsch. geol. GeselL, 1896. 252.
' Flora of the Yellowstone Nat. Park, 769.
Sec. IV., lî)fa 4.
CO ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
feel certain satisfied every requirement. For the most part all traces
of organic matter have disappeared, and it is only here and there that
regional areas still retain enough carbonaceous matter to make the
parts stand out with prominence. Elsewhere, the structure is repre-
sented entirely by a transparent, siliceous cast which makes it exceed-
ingly diflBcult to bring out the details. In addition to this, most of
the details of the cell wall have been obliterated by decay, while the
structure of the vessels has been largly replaced by crystals of silica.
By first carefully studying the details of structure in Populus, Salix
and Rhamnus, it was possible to determine what elenuents shoidd be
looked for, and in this way it has been possible to obtain a diagnosis
which, while it is deficient in one or two respects, is nevertheless so
complete as to enable us to answer the questions at issue with a fair
degree of accuracy. This diagnosis is as follows: —
Tranêverse.— Growth ring^s rather broad, the thin and inconspicuous summer
wood of 2 — I flattened ceUs. MeduUary rays distant 4—8 ceUs, 1—4
ceUs wide. The wood ceUs rather thick waUed, small, in i'adial rows.
Vessels numerous throughout the growth ring, becoming abruptly
smaller in the region of the summer wood; radially oval or oblong,
in radial series of 1—7, sometimes in tangential series and then form-
ing irregular groups; in one row, sometimes two rows, between each
pair of rays.
jRo^fial.- Medullary ray high, the cells of two kinds; the low, central cells
about 3 — 4 times longer than high, numerous and about one-half the
height of the high, less numerous and chiefly terminal, short cells,
which are about as long as high or sometimes longer; the lateral
walls multiporose when opposite a vessel. Vessels with multiseriate,
hexagonal pits with transverse, slit-like pores. Scalariform vessels
not determinable. Wood parenchyma cells thick- walled, three times
longer than broad.
ranyen^ia/.— Medullary rays of two kinds; the uniserlate rays upwards of
twelve cells high, the cells large, oblong, all of one kind; the multi-
seriate rays from 2—4 cells wide, lenticular and composed of two
kinds of cells, the smaller numerous and composing the principal
structure, the larger and less numerous terminal and single, often
extended into a single series or interposed between areas of the
smaller cells. Vessels as in the radial section.
It is now in order to secure an answer to the first question, as
to whether this wood belongs to the Rhamnaceaî or the Salicaceae,
and the answer will, to some extent, involve also, the second question
as to whether it is a poplar or a willow. These two families present
many features in common. In the RhamnaceaB the wood cells lie in
radial rows, they are chiefly small, rather thin walled and the structure
as a whole, is somewhat open and soft. In the Salicaceae the wood
cells also lie in radial rows, they are rather large and the walls are
[pEXHALLow] NOTES ON TERTIARY PLANTS CI
somewhat thick, especially ^o in two cases shown by an examination
of seven species of poplars and nine species of willows, though it is to
be noted that as between these two genera, the walls are much thicker,
and the structure as a whole is more dense in Salix than in Populns.
In the table already presented, comparison has been made with those
two species of poplar and willow which most nearly resemble the fossil,
while two indigenous species of Ehamnus are also brought into com-
parison. From this it will become apparent that so far as these cases
go, the structure of Ehamnus is composed of much smaller and thinner-
walled cells than in the Salicaceœ, and that the fossil distinctly ap-
proaches P. balsamifera. But we cannot draw final conclusions from
such data, since the willows and the poplars show that very considerable
variations in the eize of the wood cells obtain as between one species
and another, and we have no evidence in support of the idea that an
Eocene or Miocene Ehamnus may not similarly have had relatively
large cells.
In both Bhamnaeese and the Salicaceœ, the growth rings show
a very poorly defined summer wood which consists of 2-4 radially
flattened cells with somewhat thicker walls. In Ehamnus caroliniana
even this distinction is almost obliterated, but it persists in the Sali-
caceae as a whole, with considerable constancy. Both families possess
a strong point of resemblance in the numerous vessels which, in trans-
verse section, become abruptly smaller in thç region of the summer
wood, are disposed in radial series, and also form groups in which the
cells fall into radial series of 1-7 or sometimes more. In the Salicaceœ
such radial exteneion is almost exclusively developed, but in the Rham-
naceae there is also a tangential extension of a more irregular character
whereby the series often broadens out into an irregular group. This
constitutes a somewhat definite differential character, though one of
minor importance. In the radial and tangential sections the vessels
are of two kinds in EhaihnUs, but only of one kin's in the Salicaoeae,
and this feature is one which acquires definite importance for differen-
tial purposes. Many of the vessels in Ehamnus and all the vessels
in the Salicaceœ diow multiseriate, hexagonal pits which are rarely
oval, the pore of which is a transverse, narrow slit. In addition to these
the Ehamnaceœ also exhibit numerous and prominent scalariform ves-
sels with narrow and somewhat distant bars, a feature which is entirely
wanting in the Salioaceœ.
Longitudinal sections of the wood of Ehamnus show somewhat
prominent wood parenchyma in the region of the vessels. These ele-
ments are thin-wallod and several times longer than broad in E. caro-
liniana, but rather thick-walled and 2-3 times longer than broad in
82 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
E. purshiana. In the Salicace» the cells are narraw and many time?
longer than broad.
In transverse section the m'fedullary rays of the Salicaeeae are
chiefly one cell wide, while in the Eihamnaceœ they are from 1-3 cells
wide. In the tangential section, where some of the most characteristic
features are to be found, a careful examination of seven species of
poplars and nine species of willows shows that the rays are almost
all of one kind and uniseriate. Partial exceptions occur among the
poplars in P. fremonti in which the rays become 2-seriate in part;
and among the willows in S. longifolia and S. bigelovii where the rays
are more commonly 2-seriate through the central portion. There are
two kinds of cells, however, distinguishable by their difference in size
and situation, being primarily terminal or again sometimes inter-
spersed. This twofold form of the cell is a striking feature of the
Khamnaceae in which the larger cells are chiefly terminal, but in R.
purshiana they occasionally lie in the central portion of the ray which
then becomes contracted to one cell in width.
In the radial section the rays of Rhamnus show two kinds of cells
so distributed that the low, relatively long and more numerous cells
lie in the centre, while the high, very short cells occupy the margins.
In R. caroliniana the walls of all the cells are thin and devoid of pits,
and the same is also true to a large extent of R. purshiana, which
nevertheless not infrequently shows the entire ray to be composed
of thick-walled cells, the walls of which bear numerous fijie pits^
and through these features mere is developed a very striking similarity
to the fossil. In the Salicaeeae two kinds of cells are also present,
and in their relative dimensions and positions, they somewhat closely
resemble those of the Rhamnacese, though in some respects they more
nearly resemble those of the fossil. So much variation is possible in
details of this character that one must not place too much reliance
upon them, although they might serve to influence a final decision.
Where the cells of the medullar}^ ray lie opposite a vessel, they are
always perforated with rounded pores disposed in two or more series,
and this character, which is common to the Salicaeeae, Rhamnaeea? and
the fossil, offers no opportunity for differentiation.
A careful comparison of the foregoing facts with the diagnosis
of the fossil, will show that the latter resembles the structure of
Rhamnus in the following particiilars: —
Ist. The aggregation of the vessels in transverse section.
2nd. The presence of (both scalariform? and) pitted vessels.
3rd. The presence of wood parenchyma,
4th. The multiseriate character of the medullary rays in transverse section,
5th. The uniseriate and multiseriate rays of the tangential section.
[PENHALLOW] NOTES ON TERTIARY PLANTS S8
€th. The presence of two kinds of cells in tanfirential section, and their relative
positions.
7tli. The two kinds of cells shown in radial section, their disposition and rela-
tive dimensions.
By the first five of these characters the genus is also separated
from the Salicaoeae, while it also seems probable that the distribution
of the two kinds of cells in tangential section, is more nearly like
that of the Bhamnace» than of the Salicaceœ. From these consider-
ations it is evident that our fossil must be held to be a Bhamnacinium
rather than either a Populus or a Salix. it is true that three species
of poplar (P. genetrix, P. richardeoni, and P. arctioa) have been found
somewhat abundantly both at Porcupine Creek and in the Great Val-
ley,^ wliile tlic same localities also show leaves of Salix raeana;* but
on the other hand, the leaves of Bhamnus concinnus and another
undesignated species, are well known forms in the deposits at Porcupine
Creek and Great Valley,' so tnat evidence from this source does not
lend material support to one or the other possibility. It now remains
to determine in what respects our fossil is related to the specimens
of Felix and EjQowlton.
While our specimen and that of Felix are undoubtedly related
generically, they differ in such respects as to justify the belief that
they may represent different species. In the B. radiatum of Felix,
he describes the numerous medullary rays as having only one row of
vessels between each pair. In our specimen, on the contrary, each
pairs of rays embraces one or frequently two rows of vessels. The
most marked dissimilarity is to be found in the proportions of the two
kinds of cells in the medullary rays. In R. radiatum the large cells
are terminal and do not appear to extend into a single series which
forms so prominent a feature of our specimen. It is possible that
this character does not possess very great importance, but I am hardly
inclined to accept this view in consideration of the difference in this
respect which obtains between Bhamnus caroliniana and B. purshiana,
and I should therefore be disposed to consider the material from Por-
cupine Creek as representing a distinct species for which I would sug-
gest the name of B. porcupinianum. Among existing species of North
American Bharanaceae, the nearest approach seems to be to B. carolin-
iana, both with respect to the general character of the transverse section
and the structure of the medullary rays. The Bhamnacinium of
Knowlton cannot be compared so accurately, as his description does
not include some of the essential data, but from a careful comparison
* Trans. R. Soc. Can., IV., iv., 27; B. N. A. Bound. Comm., 1875, App. A. 330.
' B. N. A. Bound. Comm., 1875, App. A. 330.
•Ibid.
64 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
of his figures and deecriptions with those of Felix, I have little hesita-
tion in regarding the two as belonging to the same species.
RhAMNACINIUM TRI8ERIATIM, n. Sp.
Pigs. 17-20.
Eocene of the Porcupine Creek and Great Valley Groups.
Bib. :— B. N. A. Bound. Comm.. 1875, App. A. 331.
The wood originally referred to by Sir William Dawson as that
of a poplar, really comprises two species which are to be referred with-
out question, to the genus Rhamnacinium. The first of these has
already been described, and the second, which differs from it in essen-
tial features, may now be diagnosed as follows: —
2f'roiWf?er«c.— Growth rings rather narrow. Summer wood not conspicuous»
narrow and composed of 2 — 4 radially flattened and somewhat thicker
walled cells. Wood cells in radial rows, rather thick walled.
MeduUary rays numerous, from one to three cells wide. Vessels
numerous in radial rows; not large; radially elongated elliptical or
oval, when double in radial or tangential series; gradually diminish-
ing in size and number toward the summer wood where they are
small or entirely wanting.
itodiai.— Rays numerous, the cells of two kkids with their lateral walls multf-
I>oro8e when opposite a vessel; the short and higher marginal cells
thick walled and pitted, variable, rarely twice longer than high,
usually of the same length, often interspersed; the narrower central
cells about four times longer than high, thick walled. Scarlariform
vessels numerous and conspicuous. Pitted vessels not determinable.
Wood parenchyma not determinable.
Tangential— Ra-y cells of two kinds; the unlserlate rays chiefly small and few;
the multiserlate rays narrow and high, the cells of two kinds; the
small and thick-walled cells chiefly 3, or sometimes 4-serla/te. the
large, thinner walled cells oval or oblong, terminal and uniseriate,
often interposed between regions of smaller cells. Vessels as In the
radial section.
Among existing species of Rhamniui which it has been possible to
bring into comparison, the resemblance is in many respects closest to
R. purshiana, from which, however, it differs in the general aspect of
the transverse section, and in the detailed structure of the medullary
ray. The radial aspect of the medullary ray is very similar to what
may be seen in Salix longifolia with respect to the relative distribution
of long and short cells. The great excess of the multiseriate over
uniseriate rays, is also another feature which establishes similarity
with Rhamnus purshiana, and this resemblance is further emphasized
by the generally triseriate character of the larger rays. It only remains
[pwiHALLow] NOTES ON TERTIARY PLANTS 66
to point out that the chiefly 3-seriate form of the larger rays as seen
in the tangential section, has been selected as the basis of specific diflfer-
entiation.
Biological Considerations.
The present studies have served to give emphasis to the fact that
in the Coniferae, certain species show more or less well defined devia-
tions from the structural characteristics which may be regarded as
constituting normal specific or generic features. It was shown some
years since that in those coniferous woods which have resin passages
traversing the stem longitudinally, there are also similar resin passages
extending radially through certain of the medullary rays which thereby
become specially altered,^ and the law of association thus indicated,
has been found to be so constant for the Xorth America Conifer»,
that where one of these structures is found the other may be inferred.
Nevertheless, it was pointed out at that time that certain well defined
exceptions to this law are to be recognized in species of Abies and
Sequoia, where imperfectly organized resin passages traverse the wood
longitudinally, but without a trace of corresponding canals in the
medullary rays. At that time the possible significance of these facts
did not appear, and they were looked upon as of a sporadic nature and
therefore of litth significance, but the more recent discovery that
they have persisted in some cases since Cretaceous time, has invested
them with a new interest and makes it important that their relation
to the general course of development should be ascertained.
Although the material at hand is not very extensive, it neverthe-
less seems desirable to examine the data it present» with a view to
determining the bearing of the facts upon the evolution of the species,
and at least to establish a basis which may serve as the starting point
for further treatment as additional material may appear in the future.
In order to gain a clear conception of the nature of the facts in
question, and their full significance from the standpoint of develop-
ment, it will be necessary to briefiy review certain structural characters
of the Conifer» and establish their bearing upon the relations of the
various species and genera, and for our present purpose it will be
useful to consider the Taxaceap and Coniferae as a whole. While the
present discussion relates exclusively to the anatomical characters
developed within the xylem region, and therefore takes no cognizance
of those characters of folia«:e and infioreî»cence upon whicli relations
are more commonly established, it will nevertheless come within the
scope of our present purpose to eventually compare the relations deter-
* Tranc. R. Soc. Can.. XL. Iv.. 39.
156 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
mined in the two ways and see how far the results may be reconciled
with one another.
The anatomical details of the vascular cylinder which may be
held to poi!>8ess value for diagnostic purposes, stated in the supposed
order of development, are as follows: —
1. Spiral tracheids.
2. Uniseriate rays.
3. Resin cells.
4. Ray tracheids.
5. Resin passages.
6. Fusiform rays.
7. Thyloses in the resin canals.
8. Cells of the medullary rays of two kinds.
Of auhardinate diagnoêtie value.
9. Resin cells in bands.
10. Resin cells scattering throughout the growth ring.
11. Resin cells few and scattering on the outer face of the summer wood.
Spiral Tracheids. — The spiral bands developed on the inner face
of the tracheid wall may be held as primarily designed to afford a
greater measure of mechanical support to the structure in which they
occur. In the progressive alteration of the wall, such thickenings
tend to disappear, being absorbed in the more general thickening of
the secondary growth, which becomes a prominent feature in the
tracheids of the Gymnosperms and the great majority of the Angio-
sperms. Their obliteration as distinctive markings is, therefore, in
direct relation to the higher organization of plants, and as elsewhere
shown, their occurrence always serves to establish a definite connection
with the lower Gymnaspernis or even with more primitive forms among
the Cyeadofilices.^ Their permanent surv'ival in the Taxaceae, there-
fore, not only serves to give this group a well defined connection with
more primitive types, but it also serves to separate it definitely from
the Conifene in which, as a whole, such structures are wanting or at
least rare, and to which it is inferior in position.
So far as the North American Conifene can supply evidence —
and the same will hold true also of the exotic Cedrus, Agathis and
Araucaria — progressive development has resulted in the final obliter-
ation of the sj)irals and their replacement by bordered pits which arise
in natural succession.- It is, however, true that the tendency toward
the development of spirals persists in the most highly developed types
of the ConiferjB. This is expressed in the periect formation of vspirals
' Trans. R. Soc. Can., II.. iv., 39; Ibid, VI., iv.. 57.
= Ibid., II., iv., 39; VI., iv., 57; M. iMlc. Jnl., 1869, 67-70.
[PKNHALLOw] NOTES ON TERTIARY PLANTS S7
in some species for which they constitute distinctive features, or their
imperfect development and sporadic occurrence in others. In Pseu-
dotsuga this tendency finds its most complete expression, and the genus
may be differentiated from all those to which it is otherwise related,
by the constancy with which the spirals are developed, and the per-
fection of their formation. As to the precise phylogenetic significance
of this fact, we are not in a position with respect to present data, to
draw final conclusions, but two explanations offer possible lines along
which solution may be reached. In the one case the spirals may be
regarded a> atavistic. While this hypothesis could be supported with-
out difficulty from the standpoint of analogy, it does not seem to be
wholly justified by the extent, of development and the constancy and
completeness with which the spirals occur. On the other hand, they
may be viewed as vestigial structures representing features which have
been left over in the gradual development of the genus, end isolated
by obliteration of intermediate types which originally connected Pseu-
dotsuga with the Taxaceœ or their prototypes.
In Larix americana the outer tracheids of the summer wood some-
times develop very distinct spirals, and the same is also true of some
of the hard pines, notably Pinus taeda — but in none of these cases
do the spirals become so constant in occurrence or so perfectly developed
as to constitute a reliable differential character. They are clearly
sporadic. Here, then, we find the tendency toward the recurrence of
primitive characters expressed in the most highly developed Conifer»
where they would seem to be expressions of the law of atavism rather
than of the nature of vestigial structures.
Uni^eriate Rays. — Uniseriate rays are a structural feature common
to all the Taxaceœ and Coniferae without exception, and their occur-
rence offers no evidence of special phylogenetic value. In most cases
the uniseriate form is maintained without variation, while in some
cases, as in Sequoia and Cupressus, there may be a more or less pro-
nounced tendency toward the formation of a more complex structure
as expressed in the fact that they become 2-seriate in part, in which
case the central portion broadens out while the extremities retain
their uniseriate character. This tendency is not expressed with any
degree of constancy, and it may appear in certain species of a genus,
the others of which show no tendency. It is, therefore, not possible
to employ it as a differential character having phylogenetic value, with
any degree of success. It nevertheless may be held to possess a certain
element of value as the first expression of a tendency toward the forma-
tion of those more highly organized rays of the fusiform type which are
distinguished by the presence of rcsm passages.
68 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
In relation to the spiral tracheids, the uniseriate rays are unques-
tionably secondary in development, as their reduction from the mul-
tiseriate form common to the lower Gymnoeperms, and so conspicu-
ously developed in the Cycads, has followed the reduction of spirals
to bordered pits, and they are, therefore, to be held in general, as
evidence of a higher type of development.
Resin Cells. — The non^esinous wood of the Taxaceae constitutes
a well defined means of separating this family from the Coniferae in
which the resin is a prominent feature. In this latter family, the
resin is always derived from specialized structures of a more or less
complicated nature. These are resin cells and resin passages, and
the two may be discussed separately.
The resin cells in transverse section are to be distinguished by
the presence of resinous contents^ or by the colour which they naturally
possess; and where the plane of section passes suflSciently near to the
terminal wall, the latter is seen to have the general aspect of a sieve
plate. It is upon this latter feature that one is sometimes obliged to
rely exclusively, as in Abies, Larix and Tsuga, although certain features
of form and relation to adjacent elements, may assist in the final deter-
mination. The resin cells are variously distributed in different genera,
being rarely grouped, and these differences may be utilized as differ-
ential characters though of subordinate value, inasmuch as there is no
sharply defined variation, but one form may readily occur in another
gCQUs to which it does not strictly belong.
In longitudinal section the resin cells are seen to be long-
cylindrical with square terminations (Pigs. 24, 25 and 29). The length
is very variable in different species and so far, there seems to be no
specific relation between length and either genus or species, a view
which is strengthened by the observation that even in the same species,
notable variations occur according to situation, as to whether in the
spring or the summer wood (Figs, 246, c and 25a, b). Thus, in Sequoia
gigantea (Fig. 25a, 6) the cells from the spring wood which contain
an abundance of resin, are less than two-thirds the length of those
from the summer wood which contain little or no resin. Also in
S. sempervirens, a similar difference occurs, only that the cells from
the spring wood are less than half those from the summer wood. And
so for all other genera. The cells commonly bear simple pits on the
radial walls, but in Sequoia sempervirens these sometimes show transi-
tions into bordered pits (Fig. 24c), and it commonly happen^^ that in
the summer wood the colls L î immediately internal to tracheids vdih
square ends and bordered pits (Fig. 24c), or they may even fall within
the same series as in Abies amabilis (Fig. 29a, 6), where a is coterminous
with b at its upper end. In these genera, which normally have no
[PKNHALLOW] NOTES ON TERTIARY PLANTS 69
lesin passages, there is sometimes a more or less marked tendency for
the resin cells to become massed in evident preparation for the develop-
ment of more complicated structure. This is true of Sequoia gigantea,
and it may also be found in Juniperus communis, Libocedrus decurrens
and Cupressus gaudaloupensis. Where such aggregations occur, the
tendency is always for the individual cells to become shortened up and
approach an isodiametric form precisely a^ in the epithelium cells of
the resin passages of Sequoia sempervirens (Rg. 24 on the left), or of
Abies amabilis (Fig. 27). From this it is clear tiiat the parenchymatous
resin cells of the wood may undergo transformation in two directions,
passing into tracheids with bordered pits on the one hand, or, on the
other hand, becoming shorter and shorter according to situation and
aggregation until they pass into short cells capable of entering into
the composition of a resin passage. The logical conclusion to be
derived from this evidence is, that the resin passage is the final expres-
sion of peculiar aggregation of resin cells, and from this point of view
it represents the higher form of development. In this connection it
only remains to point out that the terminal walls of the resin cells are
commonly perforated like a sieve plate, although this feature is not
always clearly defined in longitudinal section. When the cells are
reduced to isodiametric forms, the pits become more prominent and
irregular, and may apply to all the walls (Fig. 24).
The resin cells are characteristic features of 66.6 per cent of the
genera of North American Coniferae, in which no other provision is
made for the secretion of resin, or at least a very occasional and imper-
fect one. This group would include all of the Cupressineae, the Taxo-
diinae, and the Abietineœ as represented by Tsuga and Abies. In 16.6
per cent of the genera, the res-in cells are accompanied by more special-
ized resin passages. This group would include Pseudotsuga and Larix,
and, as exceptions to the general course of development, certain species
of Sequoia and Abies. Finally, 16.6 per cent of the genera are wholly
devoid of resin cells as represented by Picea and Pinus, where their
places are taken by resin passages. An examination of this distribution
will at once make clear the fact that the resin cells are characteristic
of the more primitive typos, and that they, therefore, represent the
more simple and primitive form of the secretory organ — a fact which
will receive confirmation from other points of view.
It has been noted that the resin cells present different formal of
distribution in the transverse section, and it is of importance to ascer-
tain what relation, if any, this bears to the final development of resin
passages and so to the relations of the various genera.
In the genus Juniperus, as represented by six species, the prom-
inent and often numerous resin cells are disposed in well defined bands
60 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
which are concentric with other parts of the structure. The same
fact appears prominently in Taxodium distichum with respect to the
summer wood, but in the spring wood there is a strong tendency to
wider dispersion. The same facts also apply to Libocedrus, but the
tendency to dispersion is more marked than in Taxodium, whence it
approches the latter on the one hand and Cupressus on the other. In
Cupressus, C. nootkatensis and C. gaudaloupensis approach Taxodium
and Libocedrus in the tendency to the formation of bands, but in C.
nootkatensis the principal tendency is toward wide dispersion which
is fully expressed in five other species. In Sequoia, the cells are
widely dispersed, rarely becoming concentrated into a definite band.
Thuya is characterized by the widely dispersed cells, and in this genus
the segregation may be said to attain its most complete expression.
These relations are such that they will be found to represent develop-
mental phases in such a manner that segregation is a feature of the
more advanced types, while aggregation belongs to the more primitive
types. This view is based upon the general fact that with an advance
toward the higher forms in which resin passages are developed, the
latter replace the resin cells which become fewer and more scattering
as there is an advance toward, or an actual development of the resin
canals. This statement will again come under consideration shortly,
but it should be noted at this point that the views thus set forth seem
to involve some important exceptions, the nature of which is not quite
clear, and further inquiry in this direction is needed. Thus, if we
accept the sequence of genera adopted by Eichler,^ that which is pre-
sented here upon the basis of purely anatomical data would require
some modification; while yet again, both Agathis and Araucaria, which
contain no resin passages, do contain the representatives of resin cells,
and these structures exhibit the same general distribution as in Cupres-
sus, often becoming massed in small groups as seen in transverse section.
But there is some reason for the belief that further investigation will
permit of an explanation of these exceptions whereby they may be
harmonized with the theory of succession set forth.
In Tsuga, Pseudotsuga and Abies, as also in Larix, the change in
the direction of extrenje segregation has progressed so far that the
resin cells are reduced to relatively or even absolutely small numbers
wholly localized on the outer face of the summer wood. The culmina-
tion of this phase of distribution appears to be reached in Abies, in
which it is often difficult to recognize the few cells which remain.
It may be shown on other grounds, as well as from a more general
morphological standpoint, that these four genera represent a distinctly
^ Engler & Prantl, ÎÏ.. 65 et seq.
[PKMHALLOw] NOTES ON TERTIARY PLANTS 61
higher type of development than those of the preceding groups, whence
we may infer that the number and distribution of the resin cells stand
in direct relation to sequence in development — not necessarily of the
plant as a whole, but of particular structural features — leading eventu-
ally to their replacement by more highly organized resin canals. This
view gains force from the additional fact that while in Tsuga there
are no specialized resin passages, these structures appear sporadically
and of an elementary structural form in Abies, but become more fully
organized in Pseudotsuga and Larix. Finally, in Picea and Pinus
where the resin passages attain their most perfect organization, it is
at the expense of the resin cells which are there completely wanting.
Resin Passages, — Eesin passages occur in the wood of Pseudotsuga,
Larix, Picea and Pinus, or in 33.3 per cent of the North American
genera. In the first two the resin passages are associated with resin
cells, but no such association occurs in either Picea or Pinus where
there is a complete replacement. But it has elsewhere been shown
that resin passages do occur sporadically in Sequoia and Abies, though
without the corresponding association with radial passages in the medul-
lary rays.^ In more recent studies of Cretaceous plants, it has tran-
spired that the same character is also found to be a common feature
of Sequoia langsdorfii, whereby it becomes even more possible to regard
this well known species as the predecessor of, and undoubtedly identical
with the existing S. sempervirens.^ In the latter the resin passages
are characteristically found to be disposed on the outer face of the
summer wood (l^g. 23) — thus falling within the first formation of
spring wood of occasional growth rings. They almost always form a
continuous row, the individual passages being much crowded together.
They vary greatly in size and, while some are fairly perfect, others
are so imperfectly organized as to appear as nothing more than a
collection of resin cells, which they are in reality. The entire aspect
is such as to at once convey the suggestion that there has been imper-
fect development of some sort. This impression is confirmed by a
study of the longitudinal sections in which the passages are found not
to be continuous canals as in Picea or Pinus, but structures which
present varying aspects. At more or less frequent intervals the struc-
ture opens out so as to develop a well defined central canal, but above
and below these regions the surrounding epithelium cells so encroach
upon the passage as to completely close it, and in this we gain an
explanation of the varying dimensions and structural aspects presented
by any given transverse section. The cells of the epithelium are
* Trans. R. Soc. Can., II., Iv., 45.
' lUd,, VIII., iv., 44.
62 * ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
short-cylindrical and very often have pitted walls (Fig. 24a). They
commonly contain resin and become more elongated the further they
are removed from the canal, until they finally pass into much elongated
wood parenchyma cells, the terminal walls of which bear bordered pits.
The genus Abies naturally belongs to that group of conifers dis-
tinguished by the absence of resm passages and fusiform rays. This
is conspicuously true of A. balsamea, A. fraseri, A. lasiocarpa, A. mag-
nifica, A. amabilis, A. concolor, and A. grandis, but in A. nobilis and
A. bracteata we meet with important exceptions to this rule, in that
they show resin passages in the transverse section. In A. nobilis (Fig.
28), these structures lie chiefly in the central region of the summer
wood where they form a continuous row. In A. bracteata (Fig. 26),
they more commonly lie on the outer face of the summer wood as in
Sequoia sempervirens and in both species the structural similarity to
Sequoia is very marked. A longitudinal section through a resin pas-
sage shows again that the general relations between the epithelium
cells and those of the wood parenchyma are the same as in Sequoia,
but a notable difference between the two genera appears in the fact
that the passages of Abies are, on the whole, more perfectly organized
(Fig. 27). The relations between resin cells and the accompanying
wood parenchyma with bordered pits is further emjrfiasized in Abies
aniabilis (Fig. 29», 6), where resin cells with simple pits are found
to lie in series coterminous with the wood parenchyma having bor-
dered pits. Abies also affords somewhat conclusive evidence as to the
relations between resin cells and resin passages. In all the first named
species where no resin j>assages occur, resin cells are well defined;
but in A. bracteata and A. nobilis, they are found with considerable
difficulty, seeming to suggest that they have been replaced by the
former. This replacement becomes more clearly understood in the
light of the facts already presented, which go to show that the resin
passage is, after all, only a final expression of certain conditions of
aggregation in the resin cells, whereby the formation of resin becomes
more centralized.
Our studies of the resin passages go to show that while Sequoia
gigantea, Juniperus communis, Libocedrus decurrens and Cupressus
gaudaloupensis manifest a definite tendency toward the formation of
resin passages, these structures are never fully organized. In Sequoia
sempervirens, on the other hand, suoh resin j>assages are imperfectly
developed, though they are never associated with radial canals such
as occur in Picea or Larix. As this species is now known to extend
far back into Cretaceous time, it is evident that this character is one
which has survived for a great length of time, and may therefore be
regarded as truly fixed and characteristic of the species.
[PBNHALLOW] NOTES ON TERTIAKY PLANTS 63
Bay Tracheids. — In Libocedrus, Sequoia, Taxodmm and Thuya
the medullary ray consists entirely of parenchyma cells, but in all the
other genera there are in addition, what De Bary has distinguished
as tracheids, structures which he characterizes as cells which resemble
the parenchyma cells of the ray in form and position, and the walls of
which, where they border upon équivalent elements or on the tracheids
of the bundle, have bordered pits of smaller size than those of the
latter, and they further have irregular thickening ridges projecting
inward like teeth, on their upper and lower walls.* This last feature
is exclusively characteristic of the genus Pinus, and it is confined there
to the section embracing the hard pines. In Juniperus such tracheids
oocxir very rarely, being found, so far as I am aware, among the six
North American species, only in J. communis var alpina in which
they are very sparingly developed. In Cupressus, out of six species,
they are to be met with only in C. thyoidés and C. nootkatensis. In
the genus Abies they are confined entirely to A. balsamea among the
Xorth American species, and to A. excelsa among European representa-
tives!, as pointed out by De Bary many years since.* Juniperus, and
more es|:eeially Cupressus and Abies, thus form a group which stands
between Libocedrus, Sequoia, Taxodium and Thuya on the one hand,
and all the remaining genera on the other, with respect to their ten-
dency toward the develo-pment of ray tracheids.
In Tsuga, Pseudotsuga, Larix, Picea and Pinus, the tracheids form
a constant and characteristic feature of the ray structure, and they
attain their highest development in the hard pines where they are fur-
ther distinguished by the development of teeth-like projections from
the upper and lower walls. It thus appears that 33.3 per cent of the
N. A. Coniferœ (genera) are wholly devoid of ray tracheids; 25 per
cent diow them sparingly and sporadically, and 4.7 per cent are
invariably characteristic of their presence.
Fusiform Rays. — In addition to the simple, uniseriate rays which
characterize Cupressus, Sequoia, etc., certain genera also exhibit a
more complicated form of the ray which, from its general outline as
represented in tangential section, has been designated as the "fusi-
form ray.^'* This form is determined by the fact that the central
tract is occupied by a resin passage which traverses the ray throughout
its entire length, and is indistinguishable in point of structure, from
the passages traversing the wood longitudinally. As a necessary
result of the presence of the resin passage, the central region of the
ray also becomes more or less multiseriate. In Pseudotsuga and Larix
* Comp. Anat. 490-491.
* Ihid.
■ Tranfl. R. Soc. Can.. II.. Iv.. 39.
64 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
the terminals of the ray are strictly uniseriate, and they broaden out
abruptly in the immediate neighbourhood of the resin passage, a fact
which also holds true for Picea. In all these genera also, the elements,
including the epithelium cells, are all thick-walled, and the central
canal is small. In Pinus, on the other hand, the central canal is
large and commonly filled with thy loses; the epithelium cells are
thin-walled and large, while the neighbouring cells of the wood paren-
chyma are also large and thin-walled; the rays are generally much
broader than in the preceding genera, and, as a whole, the structure
shows a stronger tendency to broaden out from the terminals, a fact
which often finds expression in rays of strictly lenticular form. The
characteristics noted are so well defined as to permit a very exact
differentiation between Pinus on the one hand and the other three
genera, and on this basis it is quite safe to refer nearly, if not quite
all species of Pityoxylon to the genus Pinus. From these consider-
ations it is evident that 25 per cent of the North American genera
possess fusiform rayis as permanent and well defined characters, while
75 per cent are devoid of them.
So far as I am aware, there is no existing species of Sequoia which
shows even a remote tendency to the formation of fusiform rays, but
in S. burgessii from the Lignite Tertiary of Porcupine Creek and
Great Valley, one of the most prominent structural features is the
occurrence of very well defined fusiform rays, the central canal of
which is filled with thyloses (Fig. 8). The unusually large s!ze of
the resin passage at once serves to recall the large, structurally similar
and similarly situated mucilage canals of Cycas revoluta. As already
noted, no suggestion of sucli structures is to be met with among the
North American Conifer», but in Araucaria glauca I have found rare
examples of a similar development, though in all cases so far observed,
the resin passage has been but imperfectly organized. That this
character is wholly exceptional in the genus Sequoia as a whole, can-
not be doubted, and it is unknown more recently than the Eocene.
How far back in geological time it may have been devclopeil, it is
at present impossible to say, but it gives conclusive proof that in
Sequoia burgessii we have the culmination of a short side line of
development probably within early Tertiary time.
Thyloses in the Resin Passages. — According to generally accepted
views, the appearance of thyloses indicates a local, pathological con-
dition ^ since they usually arise as stated by Do Bary,^ in old or dnm-
* Agricult. Ledger, Calcutta, 1901, No. 8. 129. 180; Jn'l. Bot., X., 1872, 321-323;
Ward. Timber and some of its Diseases, 1889, 75; Hartlg. Lehrb. d. Baum-
krankheit, 1882, 133.
- Comp. Anat., 170.
[pjWHALLowJ NOTES ON TERTIARY PLANTS 66
aged, large, tubular tracheae whereby the internal cavity is partially
ar completely filled with parenchymatous cells which, when their
course of development is once established, may continue their growth
after the manner of a tissue. They are familiar structures in the
Monocotyledons and in the Dicotyledons, especially in those having
long-lived, woody stems; and I have also found them in the vessels of
Pteris aquilina where they oflfer a striking exception to the general
law of distribution. Their occurrence in plants is, on the whole,
of such a nature that their development is associated with a
higher type of development in the organism as a whole, and
the principle thus indicated may be applied with propriety to
smaller groups. In the Coniferae the thyloses make their appearance
in the resin passages of certain genera where they follow the same
course of development as already noted for vessels, and inasmuch as
their appearance is related in the first instance to the €ige of the
structure, they may likewise be interpreted as factors indicative of
relative degrees of development whenever they become constant.
In Picea thyloses are developed definitely in P. nigra, P. alba,
P. pungens and P. sitchensis. In Pseudotsuga they are developed
but sparingly, while in Larix they are apparently wanting. These
variations appear to be related to the thickness of the walls in the
epithelium cells in such a way that the thinner the walls the more
generally are thyloses developed. The pines normally show thyloses
in the resin passages, a feature which is so constant and so generally
absent from the other genera as to constitute a differential feature of
some value.
Sequoia burgessii from the Lignite Tertiary presents a remarkable
example of the development of thyloses in the resin canals of medul-
lary rays (Fig. 7), and their occurrence in this species becomes of
special interest from a biological point of view.
Ray Cells of Two Kinds. — The only other structural feature which
calls for comment in this connection, is the occurrence of two kinds
of parenchyma cells in the medullary ray. This relates entirely to
the genus Pinus where it is again confined chiefiy to the section of
hard pines. The distinctive difference relates to relative thicknesses
of the cell wall whereby one is thin and not pitted, while the other
is thick and pitted as in the soft pines.
If upon the basis of the foregoing considerations, the various
genera are arranged according to the law of frequency, they will fall
in the order given in the subjoined table, where the sequence expresses
the approximate relations in development as based upon purely struc-
tural grounds, but without attempting to finally determine the precise
Sec. IV., 1903. 5.
«6 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
affinities. In order to ascertain how far these résulta accord with
those derived from general morphological data, the sequence may
be compared with lihat given by Eichler. The principles employed in
•determining the sequence of genera, are as follows: —
l8t. The eight characters which may be resrarded as fixed and of primary im*
portance, are assigned values in the order of their supposed develop-
ment. They are indicated by x.
2nd. Characters which have become eliminated in the process of development,
are assumed to have the same value as those which survive, and they
are indicated by —
^rd. All sporadic characters are indicated by (1) but are assigned no value.
-4th. The distribution of resin cells, t>eing associated with an advanced develop-
ment, are given the highest position in the series, but being of subor-
dinate value as a character, only half values are assigned.
[pknhallow]
Si
« î
ë w
to
NOTES ON TERTIARY PLANTS
i i S £
d si -ë i J
n 49 ^
i ï
1 M
67
! ^ '
! 1
<^11IBA ^|ro[UII||{
iO u» ^
É S S§ ^ s
POOM 'CIIItB JO 9<>1IJ
J9)nO UO ({^^3 U|S^
ta
: ^ M M K 1 1
in
: ; S £ S H H M 1 | | i i |
-«piiiiqu|eil#3a|q»H
::«hhSSS|IIIII
QC
: : ■ : . :
M
uffjoj Q| fi9SO[Iqx
t--
: ■ : : : S
:
■■
3 M
'OXVI UUOf}SElJ
O
: ] \ ] : 5
i
: M M H M
*i999S«Wl ttt«9S
lO
! ! !.. ^
1 S : K N M K
^fftqomi) i«H
*
::£:::S;£mhmhh
-«nw nisaa
fl9
: :HMK»<HHKHKHt 1
'■X«i »3vMdfliiiQ
«
-ffpï^qauji lufds
^*
w M 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 ! S 1 1 S i
H a s §
?. ^ Î i
- ' ' " ^ " i
^ 1 1 3 1 1 1
:
t f
s i
8
1
1
) 1
1
'
H
ï
*"
1
S 1
: s
(
68 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
Bringing these results into comparison with the sequence estab-
lished by Eichler on a more general morphological basis, it will be
seen that there is a very general agreement, perhaps quite as much
as could be expected to result from an examination of relationships
from such diverse points of view. If further, we attempt to express
these results by a curve, it will appear somewhat more clearly how
certain genera fall into groups which do not necessarily imply genetic
relationship, but rather the fact that similar positions in development
have been attained by different genera quite independently, though
along similar lines.
The precise significance of these facts cannot be determined from
the limited amount of material at present available for that purpose,
nor would it be wise to attempt the formulation of any final conclu-
sions, but it does seem appropriate to point out that in considering
any data in extension of the present studies, a correct interpretation
ot all the facts will be gained most satisfactorily in the light of tne
Mutation Theory which De Vries has so carefully elaborated. As
leading to this end, the present facts suggest that
1. The various sporadic characters are tendencies toward higher phases of
development which do not become fully expressed, and they there-
fore represent imperfect parallelisms along lines of development
which attain full expression in other genera.
2. The occurrence of resin passages in Abies cannot- be traced, at present,
beyond existing species, and such structures afford no evidence, as
yet, of phylogenetic value.
3. Sequoia represents a transitional group having q. strong tendency to varia-
tion, with respect to the development of resin canals and fusiform
rays in succession to the simple resin cells and uniseriate rays.
4. Sequoia gigantes represents the more stable member of the genus, devia-
tions being most marked among existing species, in S. sempervirens.
5 Sequoia represents the terminal member of a short side line which passes
through Taxodium and gives off further side lines as expressed in the
formation of fusiform rays in S. burgessii, and imperfect resin pas-
sages in S. sempervirens.
[PBNHALLOW]
NOTES ON TERTIARY PLANTS
69
Cuzve JvrSeqmnϝt
70 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
EXPLANATION OP ILLUSTRATIONS.
1. Taxodium diitichum. Transverse section, z 46.
tSequoia lançêdorfiL
2. Trans verse section, z 62.
8. Radial section, z 62.
4. Tangential section, z 62.
Sequoia hurgetHÛ
6. Transverse section, z 46.
6. Radial section, z 52.
7. Radial section showing large thyloses in the resin canal of a fusiform
ray. z 180.
8. Tangential section showing uniseriate rays, and large fusiform rays
with resin canals filled with thyloses. z 62.
Cuprtuomylon daw9im%,
9. Transverse section showing characteristic features of structure, z 62.
10. Radial section showing bordered pits in two rows, z 180.
11. Tangential section showing characteristic, uniseriate rays, z 62.
Pêeudot9ug9 mioemo,
12. Transverse section showing structure comparable with the fine grained
" yellow fir." z 48.
18. Tangential section showing characteristic fusiform rays, z 160.
/?AaiR«uiciiitfifii poroifpiiifaiififli.
14. Transverse section showing characteristic features of structure, z 62.
16. Radial section showing the high and numerous rays, z 62.
16. Tangential section showing the fusiform, multiseriate rays, x 52.
Rhcmnacinium triêeriatim,
17. Transverse section showing the more numerous vessels of a more
simple character than in R. porcupinianum. x 46.
18. Radial section showing the two kinds of cells and their distribution.
z 46.
19. Tangential view of a ray through a uniseriate portion, interposed be-
tween multiseriate regions, x 200.
20. Tangential view of a triseriate ray of the more simple and more com-
mon form. X 200.
Rhamnacinium porcupinianum.
21. Radial section of a ray, showing in part, the different character of the
cells and the perforations of the lateral walls, x 200.
22. Tangential section of a ray showing contact of the uniseriate and
multiseriate regions, x 200.
Sequoia sempervirenê,
23. Transverse section showing nature and distribution of resin passages.
X 55.
[PENHALLOW] NOTES ON TERTIARY PLANTS 71
24. a. Radial section throuflrh a resin passage showing epithelium cells on
the left and parenchyma cells on right passing into tracheids with
bordered pits, x 2(K).
b. Resin cells from the spring wood showing massive forms of resin.
z 200.
c. Resin cells from the summer wood lying radially internal to a
tracheid with bordered pits, and showing transitional form, x 200.
Sequoia gigantea,
26. Radial section showing at
a. Cells from the spring wood filled with resin, x 200.
b. Cells from the summer wood devoid of resin and of much greater
length. X 200.
Ahies hracteaia,
26. Transverse section showing nature and distribution of resin pcuBsages.
X 4e.
27. Radial section through a resin pcuBsage showing the thick- walled
epithelium cells on the left, immediately next to the canal, and
elongated wood parenchsrma cells with simple pits on the right
x200.
Abies nohiliê,
28. Transverse section showing structure and disposition of the resin
passages, x 46.
Ahie$ amabUis,
29. Radial section showing details of resin cells, x 200.
a. Tracheids of the wood parenchyma with bordered pits, the lower
end coterminous with the upper end of
b. Resin cells of the ordinary type, with simple pits.
; f
I."
■ r
I
[PINHALLOW]
NOTES ON TERTIARY PLANTS
78
Fio. 2.
[PINHAIXOW]
NOTES ON TERTIARY PLANTS
73
riG. 4.
[PINHALLOW]
NOTES ON TERTIARY PLANTS
78
Fig. 1.
Pio. 2.
[PENHAULOW] NOTES ON TERTIARY PLANTS
73
Fig. 4.
[PSNHALLOW]
NOTES ON TERTIARY PLANTS
77
X'^A.
-^r-f
yr-
c^^
H^-
Fio. 5.
Fia. 6.
[pen H allow]
NOTES ON TERTIARY PLANTS
7^
Fio. 7.
Fio. 8.
[piNHALLOw] NOTES ON TERTIARY PLANTS
81
Pio. 10.
[PEWHALLOW]
NOTES ON TERTIARY PLANTS
83
Pia. 11.
Fio. 12.
[PENH allow]
NOTES ON TERTIARY PLANTS
88
Fio. 14.
[PENHALLOW]
NOTES ON TERTIARY PLANTS
87
Fio. 16.
[PKNHALLOW]
NOTES ON TERTIARY PLANTS
89
Pio. 18.
[PBNHALLOW]
NOTES ON TERTIARY PLANTS
91
^oo^ ^CDCDO^DDOQOlf^o
Fia. 19.
Pig. 20.
Pig. 21.
[PIKHALLOW] NOTES ON TERTIARY PLANTS
98
Pia. 24.
Fio. 26.
[PENHALLOW |
NOTES ON TERTIARY PLANTS
95
Fig. 27.
Fig. 2S.
"®"
& (g) "or
> v/CTo o > oo» J [GZHZ
ft Q
Fig. 29.
SacTioN IV., 1903 [ 97 ] Tranb. R. 8. C.
III. — Notes on some Interesting rock-contacts in the Kingston
District, Ont.
By R. W. Ells, LL.D.
(Read May 19th, 1908.)
Tn a former paper before this society the writer described in some
detail the relations and distribution of the Potsdam and Calciferous
formations of the Ottawa and St. Lawrence basins. It was there pointed
out that no stratigraphical break occurred between the two, but that the
Potsdam sandstone division, as developed in Canada, represented merely
the downward extension, through transition beds, of the Calciferous
division in which the rocks are to a large extent dolomitic, into sand-
stones and conglomerates in which calcareous matter is practically absent.
Since that date much detailed work has been done by the Geological
Survey in the area bounded by the St. Lawrence, Ottawa and Rideau
rivers, and the extension of the latter water-way southward along the
line of the Rideau canal to Kingston. The rocks which surround the
Archaean axis which extends across the St. Lawrence river from Ontario
into the state of New York, crossing that river between Brockville
and Kingston, have been mapped over a large area.
The distribution of several of the lower members of the Palaeozoic
series in this district is somewhat irregular. Thus on the eastern side
of the Archœan axis the several formations, from the basal beds of the
Potsdam to the top of the Lorraine, succeed each other with great regu-
larity, except where their normal position is disturbed locally through
the agency of faults, while on the south side several important gaps
occur, owing to local peculiarities of deposition, so that the actual
sequence of formations there seen is quite different from that found on
the north side of the axis.
The rocks of this Archaean axis consist of granites, granite-gneiss,
crystalline limestone, quartzite, etc., which are similar to those of the
Grcnville series north of the Ottawa river, and are undoubtedly the con-
tinuation of this series to the south-west, both in eastern Ontario and in
the northern portion of the state of New York east of the St. Lawrence.
The granites occur sometimes as large masses and sometimi*s as dykes
and are generally reddish in colour. They cut all the rocks of the
Grenville series proper, and are, therefore, regarded as of later date. In
the intermediate basin of the Ottawa these rocks were eroded prior to
the deposition of the Palaeozoic sediments, so that there is a wide valley
98 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
between the crystalline series of the Ottawa and tiiat of the Kingston-
Brockville area, which is now occupied by these newer sediments.
While there are many interesting contacts visible at different places
as the result of the intrusive nature of the granites through the other
crystalline rocks of the Grenville and Hastings «eries these have been so
frequently referred to in various papers and reports that they need not
here be further considered. The same remark also applies to the peculiar
faulted contacts east of the St Lawrence, which occur in connection with
the great Champlain fault. The object of the present paper is to
describe some of the contact phenomena which are visible in connection
with the deposition of the Palaeozoic sediments upon the eroded surfaces
of the crystalline rocks of the Kingston district.
In the portion of the province of Quebec, west of the Champlain
fault, as well as in eastern Ontario, the Potsdam sandstone forms the
lowest division of the Palaeozoic series and is regarded by Canadian
geologists as representing the base of the Cambro-Silurian or Ordovician
system. Its thickness in Canada is nowhere great, rarely reaching 100
feet, except in the area adjacent to New York state east of the St. Law-
rence, the thickness of the formation evidently increasing in that direc-
tion, but south of the Canada line it develops rapidly and has a thick-
ness of some hundreds of feet. It is here, by the United States geolo-
gists, regarded as forming the upper member of the Cambrian system
from the presence of Cambrian fossils in the lower portion of the forma-
tion, though the transition beds into the overlying Calciferous are the
same on both sides of the St. Lawrence.
In many places throughout the Rideau-Kingston district the basal
beds of the Potsdam formation consist of a coarse conglomerate which
is made up of pebbles of the old crystalline rocks, sometimes of large
size, and well rounded, embedded in a sandy but sometimes calcareous
paste, the latter being usually found when the conglomerate rests upon
the crystalline limestone as is occasionally the case along the Bideau
lake, where this basal conglomerate is in places well displayed.
This conglomerate passes upward into more regular sandy beds in
which there are occasional layers also containing pebbles which, how-
ever, consist for the most part of white quartzite, and these sandstones
graduate upward without break into strata which become calcareous till
the rock finally passes into a dolomitic limestone which constitutes the
Calciferous formation.
Between the sandstone proper and the dolomite there are certain
layers known as the transition beds which range in thickness from five
to forty feet, and these are often highly fossiliferous, the fossils being
[kllb] notes on rock-contacts IN KINGSTON DISTRICT 99
generally silicified and standing out of the sandy portion of the strata,
through the decomposition of the calcareous portion of the layers.
In the lower part of the Ottawa river basin the regular succession of
formations continues upward till it includes the red Medina shales; but
ascending the river above Ottawa city the lower divisions gradually dis-
appear and the rocks which rest upon the original floor are successively
higher in the scale, till on Lake Temiskaming these consist of the Upper
Silurian limestones. A similar condition of deposition is found along
the north side of the lower St. Lawrence. Thus, at the St. Maurice in
rear of the city of Three Rivers the Potsdam sandstone rests upon the
crystalline rocks, but farther east this sandstone disappears till in the
vicinity of the city of Quebec the Trenton limestone is the lowest for-
mation, the contact of this with the Archaean gneiss being well exposed
on the Ste. Anne river, a short distance above the Montmorency Falls.
In the area south of the Rideau lake and thence to the St. Lawrence
at Brockville and for some miles east, the Palaeozoic formations are
practically confined to the two lowest divisions. On the upper Rideau
lake, however, the succession upward again includes the Chazy shales
and limestone which cap the Highest part of the ridge south of that lake
in the township of Crosby, between Newboro and Westport. In this
area the overlying formations, if ever deposited, have all been denuded.
In the great area between the Ottawa and the St. Lawrence it is very
probable that several of these upper formations at one time existed,
since traces of several of them are still found at widely separated points
throughout this portion of the province.
Along the St. Lawrence river, as far west as a point midway between
Gananoque and Kingston, the passage beds between the Potsdam and
Calcif erous can still be recognized ; but west of a line drawn from this
point to the upper end of the Rideau chain of lakes the Calciferous is
not seen with the single exception of the area in Crosby referred to. At
many places the only remaining deposit is the sandstone which is found
at intervals along the St. Lawrence to within a few miles of Kingston
and at a number of places along the line of the Rideau canal to the
height of land at Newboro on west Rideau lake. Where the Potsdam
sandstone is not developed in this area the lowest sediments consist of a
few feet or sometimes inches of a greenish marly shale or sometimes an
arkose which fills in the hollows of the underlying granite or gneiss.
Frequently in this area the overlying rocks directly upon the sand-
stone are bluish limestones with shaly partings, which, in physical
characters, strongly resemble certain beds of Chazy age which occur in
the Ottawa basin. Where the sandstones are not deposited these lime-
stones rest directly upon the granite or other crystalline rocks of the old
lOO ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
series. This overlying limestone series first comes into view along the
road between Kingston and Gananoque, near what is known as Pitts
Ferry, and as the lowest beds of the limestone hold fossils which have
been determined as belonging to the Black River formation, there is a
manifest gap in the regular sequence through the lack of deposition of
the Chazy shales and limestones. The Calciferous dolomites are also
practically absent in this place.
At Barriefield opposite Kingston city, and for several miles to the
north along the shore of the St. Lawrence as well as on the roads in this
direction, and along the course of the Rideau canal northward, the sand-
stone itself is absent and the limestones of Black River age are the
lowest member of the Palœozoic series. In some places these are under-
laid by thin beds of arkose forming a marly deposit of a greenish-grey
colour, and holding small scattered pieces and coarse debris of the under-
lying reddish granite, and these beds pass upward directly into the lime-
stone portion. In places these marly beds contain fossils among which
a small orthoceratite is the most abundant, and in some layers these are
very numerous. In so far as these have been examined they represent
species which may possibly pertain to the Chazy, though the evidence
points rather to Black River forms.
These contacts of the Black River limestones with the underlying
crystallines are at the same level as the contacts of the Potsdam sand-
stone elsewhere in the vicinity. The limestone formation of Barriefield
and of Kingston city extends northward along the canal for some miles
without any intervention of the sandstone. Occasionally the lower beds
hold fossils among which a Leperditia is probably the most plentiful,
and pieces of Teiradinm, apparently T. fibratvm occur.
In the southern part of Kingston city these limestones, which con-
tain hard and dolomitic fine grained beds resembling lithographic stone,
pass upward into massive limestones which abound in large fossils of
characteristic Black River age such as Stromatocerium rugosum, Colum-
naria II alii, Tetradium fibratum, Adinoceras Bigshyi, etc., with other
forms which are found throughout the formation as developed in the
Ottawa basin. All the strata lie in a nearly horizontal position except
where deposition has occurred on a sloping rock surface such as a
rounded granite or other crystalline rock mass, when the strata conform
in dip with the slope of the underlying rock and sometimes present a
qua-quaversal structure.
A similar arrangement of strata and formations is seen in the state
of New York, adjacent on the east side of the St. Lawrence river. Thus,
in the area east of that part of the river between Brockville and Pres-
cott, the Potsdam is succeeded upward by the Calciferous or Beekman-
(elm] notes on rock-contacts in KINGSTON DISTRICT lOl
town formation, and this in turn is overlaid by the Chazy in regular
order as in the Ottawa basin ; but on the south side of the great Archaean
mass in that state, while the sandstone is well exposed in a number of
places, and has there been fully described under the name of the Potsdam
formation, and the Calciferous is also occasionally seen, the Chazy
formation appears to be absent as in the area about Kingston, and the
Black River frequently appears to be the lowest member of the series
developed. While the intimate association of the Chazy and Black
Eiver to the Potsdam formation as found in New York may be to some
extent explained by the agency of faults by which the intervening Calci-
ferous has been cut out this is not always the case, and in the Kingston
district in Ontario the superposition of the Black River formation upon
the sandstone or on the crystalline rocks cannot thus be accounted for.
On Howe Island in the St. Lawrence, about three miles above the
town of Gananoque, several of these relations are well seen. On the
east end of the island the underiying rock is a reddish granite, in places
with gneissic structure, and on this are a few feet of sandstone with in-
terstratified beds containing scattered pebbles of quartzite from the ad-
jacent rocks of the Grenville series. Similar features are seen in the
unmistakable Potsdam rocks of Charieston lake and at other places
where these beds are overlaid by Calciferous dolomites, so that there is
but little reason to suppose that the sandy beds along this pari; of the
St. Lawrence are assignable to any higher horizon. Going west along
the island the sandstones are overiaid by blackish-grey or dark cheriy
and sometimes nodular limestones which extend along the shore for a
distance of a mile into Rush Bay. Here there occurs a heavy series of
shales, grey, green, red and black, which in some respects resemble por-
tions of the lower Chazy of the Ottawa basin. They pass upward
directly into dolomitic limestones with interstratified shale bands, simi-
lar in character to the limestones of Kingston and Barriefield. The
only fossils seen in these shales are a species of Leperditia, but the lime-
stones are apparently of Black River age, representing the lowest por-
tion of that formation. It is possible, however, that some of the lowest
beds may be referable to the Chazy formation, but even in this case the
whole of the Calciferous is lacking.
One of the most readily accessible localities where some of these
interesting contacts may be observed is at Barriefield hill opposite
Kingston. All around the shores of the lower part of Lake Ontario
the rocks consist of hard, dark, often dolomitic limestones, as well as
on the shore east of Kingston harbour, but in Deadman's Cove, which is
on the east side of Barriefield ridge, the red granite outcrops in large
masses. The surface of the granite has been eroded and the irregulari-
102 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
ties are filled in with a deposit of greenish arkose or calcareous marl
which in places has a thickness of a foot or more and which forms the
lowest part of the limestone series. There is here no trace of the sand-
stones or of the Calciferous dolomites. On the crest of the hill are
several outcrops of the granite around which the limestone has been
deposited, the strata dipping from it in every direction at angles of ten
to fifteen degrees, while elsewhere the limestone is in a nearly horizontal
attitude.
The limestones extend west to Kingston Mills on the Rideau canal^
forming an escarpment north of the Cataraqui river. Near the Mills
which place is marked by a series of locks on the canal, the granite and
gneiss again appear, and the same contact of the limestone is here ob-
served as at Barriefield. On the line of the Grand Trunk railway, south
of the canal crossing, a heavy cutting has been made in the granité,
which is cojitinued southward into the contact formation of arkose and
limestone for a hundred feet or more. Just at the contact with the
granite the shaly arkose contains an abundance of fossils, mostly small
orthoceratites of a species which are rarely elsewhere found in the rocks
of this area, resembling what has been described as Nanno, var. aulema»
These are closely packed together as if deposited on a shore by the
action of waves, which have forced the organisms against the granite
shore line. The marly arkose at this place has a thickness of four to
six feet and passes up into hard dolomitic limestones practically devoid
of fossils, as is the case with much of the lower portion of the limestone
formation of this area. The elevation of the railway in this cutting i»
about 66 feet above the shore of Lake Ontario. In the lowest beds
of the limestone formation resting on the granite east of the locks at this
place a Leperditia, similar to that found on Howe island, also occurs
with other fossils of Black River age.
Further west in the township of Camden East, orthoceratites
similar to those which occur in the cutting at Kingston Mills are found
in a similar green marly shale and arkose, resting on crystalline rocks.
These fossils apparently represent the lowest fossiliferous zone of the
limestone formation in the basin west of Kingston.
Going northward along the line of the canal above the locks at
Kingston mills, after passing an area of granite and well bedded gneiss
and quartzite which form a somewhat prominent feature along the
east side of the area of drowned lands above the locks, an area of Pots-
dam sandstone with conglomerates in the lower part comes to the
river. The sandstones are both reddish and gray in colour, the
former tint being due to the presence of disseminated red haematite.
The pebbles in the conglomerates are mostly of white quartz, and
£buj5] notes on rock-contacts IN KINGSTON DISTRICT IDS
some of the strata of the sandstone show much false bedding. This
locality is locally known as Gildersleeve's quarry.
These Potsdam strata rest upon the eroded surface of granite
and gneiss with which are occasional bands of crystalline limestone.
They have a thickness of not far from 60 feet, and lie in a nearly
horizontal position, except where inclined, owing to conditions of
deposition on an irregular floor. They do not show any sign of fault-
ing, and are capped directly a short distance inland by Black River
limestone with thin shales at the base. The limestones are precisely
similar to those seen at Kingston and Barriefield hill, and the whole
series, including the sandstones which thin out at the eastern limit
to a few inches only, rest in a basin on the Archaean rocks. No fos-
sils are found in the sandy beds, with the exception of Scolithus mark-
ings, but there are a number of concretions, the most important of
which assume the form of long cylindrical tree trunks which stand
upright in the sandstone and have a length of thirty to forty feet,
with a diameter of three to four feet. Around the base of the
•quarry are also a number of rounded, generally small concretions which
by the quarry men have been regarded as representing the fruit from
the supposed fossil trees. These smaller concretions are found at
several other localities where the similar sandstones are developed,
as about Knowlton lake.
Further north the sandstone beds occur at a number of isolated
points as at Jones* Ealls and around the shores of several of the lakes
along the canal route, but the overlying sandstone formation is not
seen nor any trace of the Calciferous till we reach the outcrops at
West Rideau lake already referred to.
To the west of the Rideau canal similar deposits of sandstone
are to be seen at several places, in the area north of Kingston. Around
the shores of Dog lake they form cliffs and have a thickness of 75
to 100 feet, with interstratified irregular bands of conglomerate. The
Took is both red and gray and the formation contains pocket} deposits
of red haematite, some of which are sufticiently large to mine locally.
Among the most interesting of these contacts are several seen
around the south side of Loughborough lake near the village of Bat-
tersea. Very full descriptions of the rocks of this locality have been
^ven by Mr. A. Murray in the Report for 1852-53, now long out
of print
The sandstones are seen both along the south side of the lake at
this place as well as along the road thence to Dog lake. About the
village of Battersea, which is underlaid by massive red granite for the
most part, the sandstone, both red, white or gray, forms irregular shaped
areas resting on the granite, and on the lake shore it is seen in
104 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
low cliffs, of from 10 to 40 feet in height. As to the general character
of the sandstone, Murray says, " The rock is for the most part of red
and greenish colours, generally fine grained, having pebbles of opaque
white quartz distributed scantily and irregulariy through it. At some
parts it is of a pale greenish colour, striped with reddish* or yellowish
layers, and at others it is a neariy pure white, fine-grained siliceous
sandstone. Some portions also are bright red and very ferruginous,
and others are a coarse quartz conglomerate."
The sandstones are frequently penetrated by cylindrical mark-
ings which are probably the Scolitlius linearis of Hall. Capping the
sandstone directly a few feet of a green mariy rock occurs, which passes-
directly upward into the limestones, which are frequently dolomitic
and form a lithographic stone. These form escarpments of filfty or
more feet in height and surround the entire south half of the lake,,
where they are capped by the characteristic massive limestones of
Black Biver age with fossils of that formation. These massive beds
occur at about 100 to 150 feet from the base of the limestone series»
There is no trace of the Calciferous in this direction nor of the Chazy
formation unless, indeed, certain beds of the lower portion of the
limestone formation may be assigned to that horizon, which in view
of the fossil determinations in similar limestones and shales near
Kingston does not now seem to be possible.
Similar conditions as to deposition of the Potsdam sandstone
and the overlying limestone formation are also to be seen at the south
end of Knowlton lake further to the west where also the surface of
the red sandstones is marked by the occurrence of sub-globular, con-
cretionary fermgino-arenaceous masses, sometimes a,s large as an
orange, but oftonor about the size of a walnut, giving the surface a
mammillated structure. In the overlying limestones at the base the
small fossil Leperditia is in places quite abundant.
The most westerly of these contacts is seen along the line of the
Kingston and Pembroke railway about two miles north of Harrowsmith
station. Here the crystalline rocks, for the most part granitic, are
well exposed to the east of tlie railway and are capped by a few feet
only of red and green sandstone. These are overlaid by a small thick-
ness of green marly shales which constitute the base of the limestone
escarpment; the position of all the beds throughout, from the base of
the sandstones to the top of the limestones is uniformly nearly hori-
zontal, and nowhere is there any evidence of unconformity between
the two series though the Calciferous and Chazy formations are absent.
The principal point at issue in the; study of these contacts as
shown on the two sides of the Archaean axis of the Brookville-Kingston
area is the difference in the relative succession of the several forma-
[ells] notes on rock-contacts IN KINGSTON DISTRICT 108
tions between the Potsdam formation and the Black River limestone
formation. This is further accentuated by the fact that differences
of elevation do not apparently affect the peculiar conditions of deposi-
tion over large areas.
An illustration of this peculiarity of deposition is seen in the
sandstone area in which Gildersleeve's quarry is located. Thus, at
the quarry itself the sandstone has a thickness of not far from 60 to
70 feet, but at the eastern side of the basin, about two miles distant,
the exposed thickness is only a few inches, and at Kingston mills, a
few miles further east, at the same level there is no trace of the sand-
stone at all. There is no sign of faulting anywhere in these rocks.
Owing to the apparent stratigraphical conformity between the
lowest sandstones and the overlying formations there is no visible reason
why the Calciferous dolomites shoxdd not succeed the Potsdam sand-
stone on the south as well as in their regular order on the north of the
axis. Murray, in 1852, records the presence of calcareous sandstone
further west, in a section on the Crow river near the Marmora iron
works, with light brownish gray limestone and greenish shades which
underlie the lithographic beds of the district, the lowest portion of
which he regarded as possibly of Calciferous age, with a thickness of
about twenty feet, while the next twenty feet of the section might be
possibly regarded as of Chazy age, the upper portion being characterized
by the peculiar large fossils of the Black River formation as in the
southern part of Kingston city. It is possible, however, that
with the exception of six to eight feet of the basal beds which
rest upon the gneiss and which may probably represent the
Potsdam, the rest of the section is the equivalent of that seen on
Howe island in the St. Lawrence or the lower beds of Barrie-
field hill and Kingston Mills. Unless it is possible to correlate the
lower 100 feet of this limestone series with the Chazy of the Ottawa
basin it is necessary to extend the Black River formation downward
to a very much greater thickness than is found an3rwhere else in eastern
Ontario, since the true Black River strata with the characteristic fos-
sils of the Ottawa river basin occupy <mly the upper portion of the
formation. In this case we must conclude that the fossils of the
lower part, which are few in number comparatively speaking, must
pertain to the upper Chazy, notwithstanding their apparent resemblance
to some forms found in the Black River limestones elsewhere. That is
certain forms must be common to the two formations of the Chazy and
Black River limestones. Even then we have no trace of the lower por-
tion of the Chazy represented in the Ottawa basin by about 100 feet of
Sec. IV, 1903. &
106 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
greenish and sometimes red coloured shales, or of the dolomites of Calci-
ferous age.
From a consideration of the facts regarding the deposition of the
several formations of Palaeozoic age in this district, it would seem that
in this portion of the province of Ontario as also in a part of the state
of New York adjacent on the east, the regular sequence of these forma-
tions has been affected by causes not directly observable at the present
time, by which certain members of the geological scale have been omitted.
Such gaps have not been caused by faulting, but are due rather to local
differences in elevation which have affected certain portions of the area
in question, since practically on the same present general level, and with-
in a comparatively limited space, we find different formations ranging
from the Potsdam to the Black River, constituting the lowest beds which
rest upon the Archœan floor. Otherwise, if we regard the several forma-
tions from the Potsdam upward as having been deposited with equal
regularity, it would appear that prior to the deposition of the lower por-
tion of the Black River formation, both the Calciferous and Chazy with,
in many places, all the Potsdam have been removed by denudation before
the Black River limestone was deposited. In this case it is remarkable
that all the similar formations on the north side of the Archaean axis, a
short distance to the north, should have escaped such denudation,
especially in view of the fact that the whole country northward from the
vicinity of Kingston to the Ottawa is comparatively level and not now
affected by marked elevation in any part.
From an examination of the logs of several deep borings, made in
the townships of Bertie and Willoughby in the Niagara peninsula, it
would appear that similar gaps in the geological scale to those which
occur in the Kingston district are a feature of the district In two of
these borings which were sunk to a depth of over 3,000 feet in the search
for natural gas, the succession of formations downward is regular from
the Onondaga to the Trenton, but the next underlying formation was
found to be a yellowish sandstone, regarded by the drillers as of Calci-
ferous age, but which may represent some portion of the Potsdam sand-
stone, since throughout the eastern area the true Calciferous consists for
the most part of dolomitic limestone. In this case the Black River, the
Chazy and the Calciferous dolomite are all absent, so that the conditions
of deposition in that district are similar to those already described as
occurring at and near Kingston.
It would, therefore, appear that some marked but well defined
change of level occurred in the area south of the Kingston-Brockville
Archaean axis at the close of the Potsdam, which was also materially
reduced in thickness. This is in marked contrast to the conditions
[blls] notes on rock-contacts IN KINGSTON DISTRICT 107
which prevailed north of that axis throughout the Ottawa basin; and
it may be supposed that, at a certain stage in the deposition of the
sandstone formation, the surface was raised above the level of the
sea and so remained till the beginning of the Black Biver time through-
out the whole extent of Lake Ontario. Then by gradual subsidence
the conditions for the deposition of the Black River and Trenton lime-
stones were again resumed, at first in shallow water, producing shales
and fine conglomerates until the submergence gradually became greater^
60 that marine limestones were laid down, and the succession of for-
mations upward thence continued in regular order. The reasons for
these apparently somewhat sudden and, in places, local changes of
level at the period of deposition of these old sediments have not yet
been satisfactorily explained.
Such- peculiarities of deposition are not, however, confined to the
part of the St. Ijawrence basin under consideration. Similar unequal
phases of elevation and subsidence are readily recognized in the Ottawa
basin ; in that part of the province of Quebec north of the St. Lawrence
river below Montreal; and in New Brunswick and Nova Scotia.
Thus, on Lake Nipissing at the head of the Ottawa river basin on
the west, the lowest sediments, resting on the crystalline rocks, îiave
been found to contain fossils of Black River age, while in the same basin
at the northern end of Lake Temiskaming, the basal beds belong to the
horizon of the Niagara formation or are a part of the Upper Silurian
series. Along the lower St. Lawrence below Montreal, the Potsdam,
Calcif erous, Chazy and the succeeding formations are regularly developed
as far east as the St. Maurice river ; but, below this, the Laurentian rocks
are overlapped successively by the Calciferous and newer formations
until at the Montmorency Falls below Quebec the basal beds upon the
gneiss are of Trenton age. This irregularity in deposition is not due to
the agency of faults on the north side of the St. Lawrence, though great
displacements of strata are due to this cause in the country to the south.
In New Brunswick there are many gaps at different points. Some
of these apparent unconformities are due to faults, but in the eastern
area along the Gulf of St. Lawrence, the rocks of the great Carbonifer-
ous basin which consist for the most part of conglomerates, sandstones
and shales of the Millstone grit division, are directly overlaid by soft red
beds of upper Carboniferous, or, as they are sometimes styled, of
Permian age. In this case the great thickness of strata belonging to the
productive coal formation which are so well developed in the Spring-
hill, Pictou and Sydney basins of Nova Scotia, are practically absent
and have apparently never been deposited. Similar overlaps of the
upper formation upon Millstone grit or lower Carboniferous are seen
in the last named province along the south side of Northumberland
108 BOYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
Strait, in the counties of Cumberland, Colchester and Pictou. These
unconformities evidently represent periods of elevation extending for
long intervals of time, in which the rocks of the Millstone grit division
were raised above sea-level and again became submerged at the begin-
ning of upper Carboniferous time. So also about the shores of Minas
basin, the soft red beds of Triassi<5 age were deposited upon Devonian or
lower Carboniferous sediments, showing in this case even greater inter-
vals or gaps in the deposition of the Carboniferous strata. It is evident,
therefore, that these gaps or breaks, sometimes of great extent, in the
order of deposition, cannot be assigned to any one period in the earth's*
history, but have affected many formations, ranging from the earliest
of the sedimentary rocks to those which in eastern Canada are regarded
86 the most recent in order of time.
Sbction IV., 1903 [ 109 ] Trans. R. S. C.
IV. — An attempt to classify Paîœozoic Batrachian footprints.
By De. G. F. Matthew.
(Read May 21st, 1903.)
Having had occasion to seek generic names for certain Batrachian
and other footprints obtained at the Joggins shore in Nova Scotia, which
have just been described in the Bulletin of the Natural History Society
of New Brunswick, I was surprised at the diversity of usage which
prevails in the application of generic names to these impressions.
The name Sauropus was used by Lea in 1849 for a common form of
track of the coal measures, and was applied by Dr. J. W. Dawson and
otliers to footmarks of the Paîœozoic. But Dr. 0. P. Hay says this name
was given to tracks of Triassic age by Hitchcock, (presumably at an
eariier date), he therefore substitutes Palœosauropus for all the Carboni-
ferous tracks called Sauropus by authors.
This claim of the inapplicability of Sauropus to the Palaeozoic forms
is not without reason, for undoubtedly the animals which made the foot-
marks on the Carboniferous mud flats were of different genera from those
which wandered along the shores of Triassic estuaries.
But as the forms which bear the name of Sauropus, and were pro-
duced on the Carboniferous flats are quite diverse from each other, they
cannot all come under one generic name, of Palœosauropus; Sauropus
primœvus of Lea, for instance, is quite different from 8. Sydnensis of
Dawson. Other species included under Palœosauropus can with advant-
age be included under generic names given by other writers, previous to
the publication of Dr. Hay's list.
For the tjrpe of footmark represented by Sauropxis primœvus, no
less than four different generic names have been used, these being given
to as many different species, these are Thenaropus, Notolacerta, Anthra-
copus and Sauropus. And a similar diversity of generic names may be
found in several other groups of theee footprints.
To find a common basis of classification is difficult. There is sug-
gested as a primary division the grouping into TJrodela and Anoura of
the recent Amphibians; but setting aside the fact that the relation be-
tween the Labyrinthodonts (which probably made most of the Paîœozoic
footmarks), and the orders of modern Amphibians above named, is a
distant one, the impression of the tail in these tracks where it does occur
is very unreliable. In some the supposed print of the tail is so heavy,
as to raise the suspicion that some other marking has been mistaken for
it; in others the trail occurs intermittently, and in others it occurs in an
impossible relation.
no BOYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
Also it may be remarked that the supposed tail mark may in some
cases, if not in most, be due to the belly dragging along the mud or
sand, on which the impressions have been made. The exactness with
which the "tail" mark usually runs along the middle of the space be-
tween the foot-marks appears to point to such an origin. And this ia
noticeable even where the track is curved, and where one might expect
the tail mark to sweep toward the outer side of the curve. In the case of
one track this "taiF' mark was found strongly marked on the crests of
the ridges of a Carboniferous ripple-marked layer, and yet the sand was
so firm that no footprints were preserved.
In the scheme given in the following list the basis of arrangement
is the number of toes, as shown by the prints on the layers of the rock,
and as a subordinate character the weight and strength of the impres-
sion.
Sir William Dawson has used the form of the impression as a basis
of classification and divides these footmarks into Hylopua (="digiti-
grade"), and Sauropus (=" plantigrade''). In this way he has associated
together footmarks* of a type which other writers have separated. His
classification brings together the prints of animals that had five toes and
(though with a question mark) others that had three, into one genus.
Also, it brings together under Sauropus, 8. unguifer in which the tracks
are near the usual chirotherian pattern, and 8. Sydnensis, a species
which had an elephantine tread.
E . Butts is also broad in his* use of his genus Notolacerta, which
contains digitigrade prints, with five toes on each foot, and planti-
grade prints with five toes on the hind foot and four on the front.
Apart from the fact that 0. C. Marsh noticed and indicated by sev-
eral generic names the variations in the form of the footprints described
by him, the chief cause of the diversity of genera in the Palœozoic foot-
prints is that each author has described only one or a few prints, and
each has given new generic names. It is to reduce this redundancy of
names to something like method and order, that the author has under-
taken to present the following list, in which the footmarks are divided
into related groups with leading generic names.
This arrangement is only to be considered tentative, and is
arbitrary in that one character, namely the number of toe marks of
the hind and fore feet is chiefly relied on for classifying. The
arrangement is also incomplete, in that the author has not sufficient
information of some species that have been described, to place them
in the series. And, furthermore, it should also be stated that no
attempt has been made to classify with these Batrachian tracks, others
that may have been described from the Palaeozoic deposits of Europe.
[matthïw]
PALEOZOIC BATRACHIAN FOOTPRINTS
111
For the convenience of those wishing to use the "tail" impres-
sions as a means of distinction, a separate column is introduced describ-
ing this mark.
In this table the prints showing five toe marks for each foot are
taken first, and then those showing less numerous* toes. Minor
divisions are based, or the slenderness or stoutness of the toes as
shown by the impressions, the weight of the heel, etc.
The geological horizon (L. (7.=Lower Carboniferous and C
=Middle CarV>onifcrous) and the date of publication axe shown in
columns, as well as the number of toes on each foot, as shown by the
figures and descriptions of the several species.
And here I may remark that in the old method of representing
those impressions by drawing and wood-cut there is wide scope for
the exercise of the imagination, therefore, I may say that in their
accurate representation there is more than usual advantage in the
use of the camera, as the object is thus brought before us exactly as
it appears^ and we can apply to it the written description of the
naturalist who has made observations upon it.
To the anatomist there may seem but small advantage in recording
the aspect of the footmarks of an animal whose skeleton is unknown,
but I will venture to say that fac-similes of footprints such as the
camera preserves for us, will appeal to the unskilled observer more!
forcibly than a description of the anatomical details of the extinct
reptile itself, as given in the usual descriptions of species.
There is also the hope that of the footprints cited in the following
catalogue, some at least may eventually be referred to the creatures
which made them, by the discovery of their skeletons. In the mean-
time their footprints recovered from the hardened mud flats of the
Carboniferous age, may tell us some few incidents of their life-history.
Classification of Palaeozoic Batrachian Footprints—United States
AND Canada.
-<
GROUl»S AND GENERIC
AND
SPECIFIC NAMES.
KIND OF
IMPRESSION.
NUMBER
OF TOES.
REMARKS.
TUnd
Foot.
Fore
Foot.
III. 1,1a
C
LC
Group 1. — Notolacerta,
E. ButtH, 1891.
Notolacerta Missourien-
sis, Butta, '91
Toes slender.
Toes pointed
5
5
5
5
5
5?
Track has a me-
L3&4
Group 2. — H y I opus,
J. W. Dawson, 1894.
Hylopus <*94), HardiuRi
('63), Dawson
dian groove.
112
ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
Classification of Paljsozoic Batrachian Footprints— United States
AND Canada.
P9
O VI
I. 3 &4
III. 3 . .
III. 4.
II.3&4
LC
C
C
groups and generic
AND
specific names.
Hylopus, "OI^Logan! Ç6Si,
Dawson.
Hylopus, caudifer (*63),
Dawson
Hylopus, minor
Group S.—Pseudobrady-
pus, n. gen.
Sauropus unguifer (78),
Dawson
kind of
impression.
I.l & 2
II. 2..
c
C
C
LC
C
Group A,—Dromopu8f
O. C. Marsh, 1804.
Dromopus agilis (*94),
sn
Marsii
Group 5. — Batrachich
nus, Woodworth, 1900
Batrachichnus plain
villensis ('()0), I. B,
Woodworth .
Dromopus celer (*03),
G. F. Matthew
Toes pointed
Irregular
heavy.
Heavy
Heavy heel...
Toes slender.
Toes slender.
Toes slender.
Group 6. — ITirnaropus,
A. T. King, 1845.
(Sauropus) heterodacty
lis ('45), King
Notolacerta Jacksonen-
sis ('91), Butts
C
C
Collettosaurus Indian
ensis ('76), E. T. Cox.,
Sauropus priniievus ('49)
Lea
NUMBER
OF TOES.
Hind Fore
Foot. Foot.
Thenaropus ( ? ) Mc
Naughtoni 03, Matt..
Group l.—LunnoptLS, O.
C. Marsn, 1894.
Lininopus vagans ('94),
Marsh
Anthracopus Ellangow-
ensis (*79), Leidy. ..
Heavy
Heavy
Heavy
Heavy
Heavy
Broad
Broad
4?
5?
5
REMARKS.
Type defective.
Interrupted me-
dian groove.
Continuous me-
dian groove.
Long claws.
Shows phalan-
ges.
Median groove.
Interrupted me-
dian grove.
Only the fore (?)
foot known.
Only the forefoot
[MATTHEW] PALAEOZOIC BATRACHIAN FOOTPRINTS 113
Classification op Paubozoic Batbachian Footprints— United States
AND Canada.
H
GROUPS AND generic
and
SPECIFIC NAMES.
KIND OF
IMPRESSION.
NUMBER
OF TOES.
remare:s.
Hind
Foot.
Fore
Foot
III. 6...
Group 8. — Baropus,
0. C. Marsh, 1&4.
Baropus lentus (9i),
Marsh
Long heel. . .
Heavy heel..
Heavy short.
Heavy short.
Toes slender.
Toes slender.
Slender
Slender
Slender
4
4
4
4
3
Î
4?
1?
4?
4
4
3
3
?
3
Î
Î
î
C
C
C
C
III. 5,5a
Baropus unguifer C03),
G. F. Matthew
Group 9. — NanopuSj
0. C. Marsh, 1891.
, Nanopus caudatus ('91)
Marsh
Three toes have
claws.
Intermittent me-
II. 2....
Sauropus Sydnensis 063)
Dawson «.
Group 10.— Apatichnusi
Hitchcock.
Hylopusd) trifidus, '94,
Dawson
TT . ^9\ , ... , '(H
dian groove.
Toes distinct
from sole.
C
C
No forefeet visi-
ble.
Tracks of fore-
feet.
Dawson
II. 1...
Group 11. — Omithich-
nites, A. T. King,
1815, (Hitchcock, 183*^)
Ornithichnites galllnu-
loides (*45), King
0 culbertsoni
(*45) King
c
c
c
The apparent
fourth toe may
be a long heel.
Crucipes parva ( '91 ),
Butts
Heavy median
groove.
Unplaced Tracks.
C— Cherotherium Reiteri, Wm. D. Moore, 73. C.~Sauropus, antiquior, Dawson.
Dev. Thinopus antlquus, Marsh '96. C— Allopus llttoralis, Marsh. Notam-
phibla magna, E. Butts, 91-92.
SphaBropezium leptodactylum, A. T. King, '45. S. pachydactylum, A. T.
King, *45. S. ovoidactylura, A. T. King, '45. S. thaerodactylum, A. T.
King, *45. According to Lyall these species of King are artifects, (fide O. P. Hay).
The above scheme is based upon the number of toe marks pre-
served in the impression made by the animal on the mud or sand.
It will be seen that several authors have given the same generic name
to tracks* that are very diverse. I have quoted the generic names as
given by the several authors, so that those who consider that the foot-
114 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
prints are not naturally placed in this scheme can suggest improvements.
The reference to the supposed print of the tail given in the
margin will suggest a different arrangement to those who think this
character has sufficient regularity and permanence to be of value as
a primary means of classifying the impressions.
Taking the form of the footmark and the number of the prints
left by the digits as a primary basis for classification, one may make
the following remarks on the groups indicated.
Group 1 is distinguished by having five slender toes on each foot.
Notolacerta Missouriensis of E. Butts ('91) — PI. III., figs. 1 and la. —
may be taken as the type of this group.
Dawson's name Hylopus has been retained for the 2nd Group —
PI. I., figs. 3 and 4. It contains two species described by Sir William
Dawson from the Lower Carboniferous beds of Nova Scotia, as he
asserts they have five toes on each foot. ( ?) The species are Hylopus
Hardingi and H. Logani. H. caudifer is placed here as it is included
in Hylopus by Sir William, but his figure gives only four toes and
shows a good sized sole. This group needs* further elaboration.
Group 3 is established to contain a remarkable type of footmark
distinguished by the possession of long claws on both feet and by having
a heavy heel mark, the paws, therefore, had great grasping power, such
as was possessed by the sloths. A fuller description of this type will be
given in a future communication to the society — PI. III., fig. 4.
At Group 4, we pass from the tracks presenting impressions of five
toes on both feet to the much larger division, in which, while the hind
foot shows the print of five toes, the fore foot has only four. Here fall
most of the footprints of the Palœozoic that have been described, and
they are classilied in this scheme according to the form and heaviness
of the toe and heel marks.
Group 4 Timy bo represented by Marsh's Dromopus agilis — PL II.,
figs. 3 and 3^7 — from the coal measures of Missouri, which possesses
lor.g .«lender toes. To it may be referred Notolacerfa missouriensis,
Butts.
Group 5, Batracliichnus plainvillensis of Woodworth, and a new
species from the JogginvS, Dromopus celer. The footprints of these
two are very much alike, in fonn and size, but one shows a strong tail
impression and the other none.
Under the name Thenaropus, King described several species of
footprints which he afterward transferred to the genus Sphaeropezium.
lie in the first instance described Thenaropus hetcrodactylis without
a name in connection with the species of Sphieoropezium subsequently
transferred. In the second communication (some months later, to the
Am. Jour. Sci.), he requested that the name Thenaropus should be
[MATTHEW] PAL^X)ZOIC BATRACHIAN FOOTPRINTS 116
retained for T. heterodactylis. As this request was made (1845-46)
before t'he present rules of nomenclature were established, it seems
to the author that this request should be respected; he has, therefore,
adopted this name for the group. The next name in point of
antiquity would be Saiiropus used by Isaac Lea in 1855 for S. primœvus,
a species closely allied to King's type, but having an interrupted "tail^'
mark.
Group 6 has many representatives: Thenaropus heterodactylis,
King may be taken as the type of this group — PI. I., figs. 1 and 2 —
which contains also Sauropus primœvus, King; Gollettosaurus India-
nensis, Cox, and Notolacerta Jacksonensis, Butts. A new species from
the Joggins, Thenaropits ( ?) McNaughtoni, seems to fall here. In this
group the toe marks are heavier and shorter than in the preceding one.
Group 7, also has five toes on the hind foot and four on the fore
but the impressions left are broader and more massive than those of
Iftie preceding group. Limnopvs vagans, Marsh, may be taken as the
type of this group. — PI. III., fig. 2.
Group 8, includes forms which have four toes on both fore and
hind feet, and is well represented by Marsh's species Baropus Unttis —
PL III, fig. 6. — B. unguifer, a new species from Joggins, N.S., placed
here provisionally, is perhaps the type of another genus.*
Group 9, is typified by a curious little footprint described by
Marsh, Nanopus caudatus, from the coal measures of Kanz as PI. III.,
figs. 5 and 5a. — Sauropus Sydnensis, Dawson, from Cape Breton, N.S.,
by the number of its toe prints would fall here, but it differs in impor-
tant respects. It may be compared with King's Sphœropezium thœro-
dactylum, which, however, has more numerous toes.
Group 10 is instituted for a part of the tracks described by Sir Wm.
Dawson, under the name of Hylopus, doubtfully. They do not agree
with his diagnosis of that genus, and they differ from the common
omithoid reptilian tracks of the Trias in the breadth of the palm, and
the obscurity of both it and the toes — ^Pl. II., fig. 2. They are tem-
porarily placed in a Triassic genus.
As representative of Group 11, the two footmarks described by
King under the name of Ornithichnites, may be taken — PI. II., fig. 1 —
with tracks resembling those of certain birds. Crucipes parva of E.
Butts, may be included here notwithstanding the supposed heavy tail
mark.
This win be described as crenus Barillopus.
116 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
EXPLANATION OF PLATES.
Plate I.—Thenaropu8 heterodactylis. King. Flgr. 1. Hind foot, showingr Impres-
sions of the claws; reduced ^. Fig. 2. Forefoot; reduced H>
Fig. 3. Hylopuê Hardingi, Dawson, Track; reduced %. Fig. 4.
The same. Hind and forefoot Natural size. H.B. The re-
duced figure shows only four toes on the forefoot
Plate n.— Fig 1 OmitliichninieB galîinuloideê» King. Also showing claw marks;
reduced %. Fig. 2. Apatichnus trifidus. Hind foot; magnified Vi-
Fig. 3. Dromopu8 agUiè, Marsh. Hind foot, showing phalanges.
Fig. 3a. Fore foot; both natural size.
Plate in.— Fig. 1. Notolacerta Misaourienais, Butts. Hind foot. Fig. la. Fore-
foot; both natural siz£ Fig. 2. Limnopus v<igan8. Marsh. Fore
and hind foot; natural size. Fig. 3. Hylopus oaudifer, Dawson.
Hind foot (?); natural size. Fig. 4. Pseudohradypus unguifer, Daw-
son. Series showing the hind feet, greatly reduced. Fig. 5.
Nanopu8 caudatus. Marsh. Hind foot. 5a forefoot; both natural
size. Fig. 6. Baropus lentua. Marsh. Series of footprints in
pairs; the forefoot in advance; reduced Vu*
[MATTHEW] PALiEOZOIC BATRACHIAN FOOTPRINTS. Plati L 117
Lmatthew] PALiEOZOIC BATRACHIAN FOOTPRINTS. Plate U. 110
Lmatthew] PALiEOZOIC BATRACHIAN rOOTPRINT8 Plate III. 121
Z
^a
See. IV., 1008. 7.
SscnoN lY., 1903 [ 123 ] Tban8. R. & C.
V. — Mineral and Crown Land Grants in Nova Scotia.
By Edwin Gilpin, Jr., M.A., D.C.L.
(Read May 19th, 1903.)
The recital of the grants made by the sovereigns of France, Spain
and England to the early explorers of the eastern coasts of North
America has an interest more sentimental than practical, as far as Nova
Scotia is concerned. Here scaree a trace of these grants remains. The
buffetings of this land back and forth left in 1713 a few acres cultivated
by the Acadians, a few stockades, and a few fishing stations. The cap-
ture of Port Royal, afterwards called Annapolis Royal in 1710, marked
the end of French rule in Nova Scotia.
After the treaty of Utrecht, the seigneurs who remained and took the
oath of allegiance were to be allowed to keep the lands they were legally
possessed of; but those who had left the province and returned, were en-
titled to hold land only from the sovereign of England on the payment
of the customary quit rents. A few submitted, but they gradually dis-
posed of their rights, and finally their lands were issued under Crown
Land grants.
Although Nova Scotia was now finally ceded to Great Britain, and
the New Englanders were determined to keep the French as far away as
possible, little effort was made to effect permanent settlements. The
best lands, those of the intervales of the Bay of Fundy, were in the
hands of the Acadians, who yielded a grudged neutrality passing into
active unfriendliness whenever intercourse was sought by the English.
The Government was administered from Annapolis until a capital
was established at Halifax in 1749. The land records of the Annapolis
administration are contained in a small book and present few points of
interest. Grants were made for house lots within the banlieu of the
garrison, and for fishing stands at Canso, Pubnico, etc. In 1732 a grant
was made to Major Cope and others of lands at Joggins, Cumberland
County, with permission to dig coal at a royalty of Is. 6d. per chaldron.
It is reported that a few cargoes were dug and shipped to Boston.
In 1736, we find that the council practically granted to themselves
and the principal settlers two lots of 50,000 acres each, with permission
to dig all minerals and coals, one lot lying west of Chignecto Basin, and
the other on the east side of the Avon river. These grants were escheated
in 1760.
The Annapolis records show that attempts were made to exact rents
from the Acadians.
124 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
The difi5culty experienced in collecting these rents, which were re-
garded by the Government as a mark of submission, doubtless had its
influence when the question of the expulsion of the Acadians was de-
bated.
The settlement of the country was threatened by war with France in
1744, and upon the fall of Louisburg in 1745, the English Government
determined that the security of their colonies and the reduction of the
French power in Canada, could be effected only by having a stronghold
near the mouth of the St. Lawrence.
On the conclusion of the war with France in 1748, the provincial
authorities took up the question of colonization. Reports were sub-
mitted by Goreham and by Morris (the latter afterwards Chief Surveyor
of Crown Lands) favouring settlements by New Englanders, and point-
ing out suitable localities. The home authorities, however, decided to
make a headquarters settlement at Halifax, to send out English colonists,
and to make London, not Boston, the basis of the province. This was
done the following year.
The French Acadians refusing to take the oath of allegiance were
expelled in 1755. War with France in 1754, followed in 1756 by the
Seven Years War retarded the growth of the colony, and hindered the
scheme of settling the Acadian lands in 1756.
The lands of the Acadians were the only cultivated districts after
the occupation of Nova Scotia by civilization since 1605. The extent of
the settlement was officially stated by the Government of Nova Scotia to
amount to 100,000 acres of intervale and dyked land, and to an equal
amount of cleared upland. Presumably, from the information available,
the total amount of cleared land did not exceed 125,000 acres, as the
Acadians do not appear to have been numerous enough to have been
forced to the severe lalour of clearing the forests.
Many of the French after the lapse of years returned and received
grants at Clare, Pubnico and other parts of the province.
It will be seen that the French occupation of Nova Scotia did not
leave any question of mineral titles.
The settlement of Halifax was followed in 1753 by the planting of a
German colony at Lunenburg.
In October, 1758, a proclamation was made, throwing open the aban-
doned lands of the Acadians. Numerous enquiries were addressed to
the provincial agents in New England towns, which led to a second pro-
clamation giving fuller details of the conditions of the settlement. As
before, in 1748, the English Government did not approve of this scheme
of colonization, as it forestalled arrangements contemplated for sc^nding
out settlers from England. The English, however, engaged in a fierce
[gilpik] land grants IN NOVA 800TIA 128
war with France, had little time to study the details of colonizing
Nova Scotia.
On May 29th, 1759, grants were passed of the townships of Horton
and Cornwallis, followed by grants of similar townships at Granville,
Oobequid, Onslow and Annapolis. This tide of immigration from 1769
to 1761 was from the New England colonies.
It was followed by one of Irish and Scottish nationality from 1761
to 1763, and by Loyalists during and after the war with the United
States.
So general had been the tide of settlement that in 1763 there were
nineteen townships, containing 1,861,000 acres of land, and settled by
1797 families. In 1767 there were thirty townships with a population of
13,374.
In 1763, Cape Breton was ceded to England, and passed under the
administration of the Governor of Nova Scotia. It was erected into a
separate province in 1784, and re-annexed to Nova Scotia in 1820. Its*
mineral reserves will form a separate note.
The accompanying table shows the sequence of the mineral reserva-
tions. Up to the year 1763 coal was not reserved. Afterwards it was
reserved, except in a few cases between the years 1763 and 1767. From
the year 1808 iron ore was reserved. It follows, therefore, that in many
of the older townships grants issued between 1769 and 1786 the Crown
does not profit by the mining of this ore. This is notably the case in the
grants of Guysboro, Londonderry, Nictaux and Clementsport, and in
numerous large blocks of land granted to the Loyalists, and early Scotch
settlers in Antigonish, Pictou and Colchester counties.
The grant of the township of Annapolis may be taken as an example
of the contradictory and confusing manner in which the mineral grants
were handled. On August 4th, 1759, the township was set off to contain
100,000 acres, and grants issued thereunder to 112 of the 200 shares.
On October 6th of the same year, 46 more shares were conveyed. On
the 12th of the same month 36 more shares were allotted. In these,
there was no reservation of minerals. However, on October 30th, 1766,
these grants were surrendered and new ones issued, containing reserva-
tions of gold, silver, coals, etc. In addition in many of the old grants
some of the lots were not occupied, or were abandoned. These lots were
frequently applied for under later grants, thereby introducing much
confusion about the mineral reservations.
The reservations of 1808 continued in force until the mineral grants
were taken out of the hands of the Provincial Government.
In the year 1826 numerous applications for coal leases were con-
sidered by the English Treasury. As it appeared that in the year 1788,
His Majesty's Government had recommended that a grant of the minerals
126 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
in Nova Scotia be issued to the Duke of York, and that on the report of
the Attorney-General the form of the grant had been practically decided
in 1792, the grant was concurred in and formally issued on August 25th,
1826.
By this grant the King gave to His Royal Highness Frederick Duke
of York and Albany, all the mines of gold and silver, coal, ironstone,
limestone, slate-stone, slate-rock, tin, copper, lead and all other mines
and ores and all Beds and seams of gold, silver, coal, ironstone, limestone
slate-stone, slate-rock, tin, clay, copper, lead and ores of every descrip-
tion belonging to His Majesty in the province of Nova Scotia, except
such mines as by virtue of any grant or lease given by the sovereign or
any governor of the province, had been opened, and were at the date of
the grant then in course of working.
This sweeping grant was transferred to the General Mining Asso-
ciation of London, who promptly opened extensive coal mines in Cape
Breton, Pictou and Cumberland counties, after buying out several
parties mining on a small scale under leases from the Provincial Gov-
ernment.
Some years after the passage of the grant it was pointed out that
it was virtually a perfecting of the original grant, proposed in 1788,
Cape Breton being then a province separate from Nova Scotia, when it
was reannexed to Nova Scotia in 1820, six years before the grant issued
On the principle of interpretation of grants in favour of the Crown, the
contention was considered to be well founded that the minerals in Cape
Breton did not pass with the grant. A subsequent declaration ex-
tended the grant so that it would include the Cape Breton minerals.
The Governors of Nova Scotia were probably advised confidentially
of this proposed grant of 1788, for no attempt appears to have been
mode to open any coal mines on a practical scale. In 1784 the leasing
and even the oflicial working of coal appears to have been discouraged
by an order of the Privy Council.
At first this cession of the mineral rights of the province was re-
garded with approbation as large sums were expended in opening and
working mines. Gradually public opinion changed and the grant was
denounced as improvident and oppressive. After repeated attempts to
induce the English Government to cancel the grant, an arrangement was
arrived at in 1858, whereby the General Mining Association retained
large tracts of coal in the counties of Cape Breton, Pictou and Cumber-
land, paying a royalty on the sales; and their other mineral rights re-
verted to the Government of Nova Scotia. The province, therefore,
resumed control over all the minerals in its ungranted lands, and in the
lands granted between August 25th, 1826, and the date of the settlement.
[GILPIN] LAND GBANTS IN NOVA SOOTIA - 127
and over all the minerals reserved in lands granted prior to the Duke of
York^s grant.
Upon the completion of the surrender Chapter 2 of the Acts of 1868
came into force. It was intended to give certain mineral rights to those
receiving grants during the period of the Duke of York's lease, and to
define more clearly the extent of the reservations made in general terms
in grants passed prior to 1826. The Act did not apply to any minerals
not vested in the Crown by the surrender, or to any expressly reserved,
or granted, but to reservations in general terms or otherwise ambiguous.
By virtue of the Act all grants prior to 1858, subject to the above
reservation, were to be construed to read, as if the Crown reserved gold,
silver, copper, lead, tin, iron, coal and precious stones, and the grantees
received all other minerals.
The curious sight was thus presented of the Government of Nova
Scotia, fighting for years to remove the monopoly of the General Mining
Association, and, when successful, immediately inundating the people
with mineral rights. As a matter of fact, the grantees wanted only the
minerals useful for domestic purposes, such as clay, slate, stone, lime-
stone, etc., and as a matter of business all other minerals known or to be
discovered should have been retained for the future revenue of the
province.
This reservation continued in force in all grants until 1892, when
the Crown reserved all minerals except limestone, gypsum and building
material.
At the present day the procury of title to minerals, the property
of the owner of the land is attended with much diflBculty. Loose occu-
pation, imperfe^ît descriptions, non-division of property, squatters'
titles, etc., confront those charged with the task of searching titles for
would-be purchasers. Tt will be necessary for the Government to devise
legislation which, preserving equitably whatever mineral rights the
owner of the soil may be entitled to, will give to investors the security
of title enjoyed by those acquiring leases of Crown minerals.
Cape Breton.
In the fall of 1763 after the inclusion of the island of Cape Breton
in the Government of Nova Scotia, the project of its colonization was
taken up by the Lords of Trade. It was then uninhabited except by a
few traders and fishermen at Louisburg, Sydney and St. Peters, and by
small scattered fishing communities planted by the French.
It was decided that first information should be submitted as to its
resources in the way of lumber, arable land and coal. Governor Parr
128 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
was accordingly instructed to procure such a report. Captain Samuel
Holland was ordered to make the necessary examination and report.
The report was submitted in the spring of 1767.
In the meantime, rumours of the fertility and value of Cape Breton
were widely circulated, no doubt caused by the delay in opening the
island to settlers. We find accordingly, that in 1764, the Duke of Bich-
mond applied for a grant of the whole island. In the same patriotic
strain Brigadier-General Howe and his associates wanted a grant of the
coal, and so on with Sir Samuel Fluyders and others.
Up to 1767 it appears that a small number of licenses of occupation
had been granted. Although continually, especially in 1769, numerous
applications were made for grants, the Lords of Trade refused to enter-
tain them.
In 1770, as fishermen and smugglers were constantly stealing coal
from the outcrops of the seams on the shore, a proclamation was issued
forbidding any one to dig or remove coal. The policy of not encourag-
ing settlement in Cape Breton continued up to the year 1784. I am not
aware of the reason for this continued delay in the opening up of this
island. As mentioned already in these notes. Nova Scotia proper had
since 1759 been laid out into townships and had received a steady inflow
of settlers from New England, followed by Loyalists and others. It may
have been that the application of the Duke of Richmond for the land and
minerals of the island suggested its reservation from settlement, with a
view to its being ultimately handed over to a member of the Boyal
family. As already mentioned, this plan of disposal of the island was
entertained in 1788, and finally carried into effect in 1826, as far as the
mineral rights were available.
It is deeply to be regretted that the Government of Great Britain
had not at first adopted a s}'stem of colonization; for Cape Breton lost
half a century, and its settlement was practically deferred until the dawn
of the last century.
In 1784, Cape Breton island was erected into a separate province
and Major DesBarres, an officer of high attainments and extensive
acquaintance with Nova Scotia, was appointed governor. The policy of
exclusion had been reversed on the appointment of Lord Sydney as
Secretary of State for the Colonies, and the Governor-General of the
Maritime provinces ws& directed to see that in future land grants
reservations were made of all gold, silver, copper, lead and coals.
The first grant was issued May 17, 1786, to H. W. Perry, of a lot
of land at Sydney, the new capital of the island, named after Lord
Sydney,
A number of grants were made to Loyalists, who, however, in many
cases did not become permanent settlers. As an example the case of the
[oilpik] land grants IN NOVA SCOTIA 129
Mira grant may be cited. This was issued June 26th, 1787, to Jotham
White and one hundred Loyalists from New York State, and embraced
100,000 acres on the shores of Mira river. Very few of the grantees went
into possession, and the grant was escheated. The Transactions of the
Nova Scotia Institute of Science contain a note by the writer on the
history of this grant which was made the subject of several legislative
enactments, involving the title of the iron ore beds recently discovered
on it
In 1790, the Secretary of State for the Colonies ordered that no
further grants be passed on. The issue of grants already passed on con-
tinued up to March 17th, 1893, when 179 grants had issued. These
grants contained the reservations prescribed by the Governor-General,
referred to above.
The conversion of the small holdings of the Scottish Highland
estates into grazing grounds, led to an extensive and long continued
emigration. This flowed at first to Canada, but in 1802, the pioneer ship
of the direct Cape Breton immigration arrived at Sydney. The tide
reached its height in 1817, and the last ship arrived in 1828.
With these settlers came many soldiers, disbanded from Scottish
and English regiments, all settling in Cape Breton and Eastern Nova
Scotia.
From 1790 to 1811, it would appear that settlers received warrants
of survey, Crown licenses, etc., and at the latter date Crown leases at will
were issued. For a number of years past and up to 1826, coal was inter-
mittently mined under short licenses.
Upon the re-annexation of Cape Breton to Nova Scotia in 1820,
steps were taken to put the Crown lands and grants into better shape,
and the Surveyor-General was directed to lay off lands in lots of 100 and
200 acres under tickets of location, to be replaced later on by grants if
the applicants proved to be bona fide settlers.
At this date it would appear that : —
229,220 acres were occupied in fee simple.
98,600 acres were occupied under Crown leases.
15,000 acres were taken up under tickets of location.
342,000 acres were held under warrants of survey, petitions and by
squatters.
After 1820 the Crown lands were issued under the regulations and
reservations in force in Nova Scotia.
The following abstract of reservations may prove of interest : —
The first grant was issued May 17, 1786, to H. W. Perry, reserving
all mines of gold, silver, lead, copper and coals, (Book A, page 9). This
reservation continued down to and including the grant of September
10th, 1804 (Book C).
ISO ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
No grants appear to have been issued in 1805 and 1809. The
grants issued in other years down to and including the grant of March**
30th, 1810, to Wm. White et al, situated at Eastern Margaree in the
county of Inverness, refer to "conditions as in all (or other) grants/'
(See Book C.)
From this date onwards there were many Crown leases. No grants
however, appear to have been issued until February 6th, 1818, when one
was recorded of land at Kinloch, between Broad Cove and Mabou, in the
county of Inverness, to Alexander McDonald (Book D, page 346). The
reservations in this grant were "all mines of gold, silver, copper, lead
and coals, gypsum, slate and other quarries.'^
Book E is taken up with the record of Crown land leases, tickets of
occupation, location, etc.
This reservation continued in grants found in Book F down to and
including a grant, dated June 14th, 1820, to Christie McNeil. (Book
F, page 190.)
The re-annexation of Cape Breton to Nova Scotia now took place,
but the Cape Breton records Tshow the issue of leases and grants applied
for and passed on prior to the date of the proclamation, extinguishing
the Government of Cape Breton. (October 9th, 1820.)
The final issue of grants took place on December 28th, 1820. The
first being to Clement Hubert, of land at Arichat Harbor, Isle Madame,
in which the reservations were only gold, silver, copper, lead and coals.
(Book F, page 198.)
Questions having arisen as to the titles of the various tenancies at
will, leases, etc., an Act was passed by the Legislature of Nova Scotia,.
Chapter 11, Acts of 1851, confirming all the laws, statutes, ordinances,
customs and usages in force in Cape Breton, between 1784 and 1820.
Since this date the terms and conditions of Crown land grants in
Cape Breton are the same as in Nova Scotia proper.
In 1854 to make the land titles of Cape Breton as issued prior to
1820, agree with those of Nova Scotia proper, chapter 43, enacted for
the settlement of titles to land, that all persons in Cape Breton in un-
disputed possession of lands, who had applied for a grant, should receive
one free of further charge.
This legislation of course did not interfere with the regular grants
already issued or with the reservations therein, but allowed all holding
leases, tickets of survey or location, etc., to get a deed from the Crown,
and a formal registry thereof. The Act conferred no mineral privileges
on those holding land under such titles, as they originally conferred no
mineral rights. Consequently in 1826 the Duke of York^s grant took
all the minerals under the Crown leases, tickets of Icxation, etc.
[oiLKK] LAND GRANTS IN NOVA SCOTIA 181
The legislation of 1858, however, already referred to, gave these
grantees important mineral rights, equally with those receiving Crown
Land grants between 1826 and 1858.
These notes may be closed by a reference to later legislation affect-
ing mineral rights.
By Chapter 3 of the Acts of 1899, the Legislature gave the Governor
in-Council power to lease under such conditions as appeared proper, for
a term of years, for lumbering purposes. Crown lands not suitable for
farming purposes.
Under this legislation a lease was made of all the ungranted lands
in the counties of Inverness and Victoria to a company undertaking to
put on foot extensive lumbering operations.
In the lease the reservations of Chapter 16, Acts of 1892, already
referred to, as reserving all mines and minerals "excepting limestone,
plaster and building materials^' are amended as follows: — "Reserving
all mines and minerals, mineral paints and oils, gypsum or plaster.^^
As regards the lessees it is quite reasonable that they should agréer
to divest themselves of the gypsum and incidentally of the limestone and
building material as they received a most valuable franchise. The lease
of this tract estimated to contain 500,000 acres of land, stipulates that
the Crown can issue grants to bona fide settlers over any portion of it.
So that in any such grants in fee the reservations of 1892 quoted above
would apply. Presumably, however, the Govemor-in-Council could
lease for working, as Crown minerals, any gypsum, limestone or build-
ing material, if not included in any fee simple grant applied for prior
to the issue of such lease for working.
182
ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
RB8BBVATIOK8 FROM 1781-1892, A.D.
GOLD, 8ILVKR,
GOLD, SILVER,
PRBCIOUB STONES,
OOT^n RTT.VKR
GOLD, SILVER,
PRBGIOU8 8TONB8,
LAPIS LAZULI,
LEAD, OOPPER
LAPIS LAZULI.
LRAD, COPPER
AND 0OAI4I.
Mk^ kt \j\Mtk tm\%
AND COALS.
Book L-Pages 6, 64,
and 57, no reser-
vation, but priv-
ileice of digging
coal (see refer-
ence to grants,
Government of
AnnapolU) 1731-
1760, A.D.
Book S.— Reservation
as above, save
paRes 11, 63, 71,
117, 135, 178. 210,
222.
1769-1780, A.D.
{No reserwUions,)
8. Above reserva-
tions all through
1759-1763, A.D.
4. Same reserva-
tions as above
except pages 114,
116 and 117, with
•
no definite reser-
17611763.
vations.
Book 6.-Page« 1-150;
Book 6.-Pages 161-
168; 171,177-211;
Books.— Pages 824,
341, 343 386, 392,
1763-1766, A.D.
109-176; 214-220;
230, 250 255, 266-
223-238; 242-247;
400.
276, 304, 383, 389.
258-263; 280-301;
307-321 ; 327-338 ;
345-380; 394-896;
403-410.
Book 6.-Page8 1-140;
152-1667715.
Book 6. -143-150; 168-
Book e.-Pages 304,
323, 329, So, 371,
Book 6. - 605-661
300; 306-313; 325-
667-675; 678-692,
327; 331-348; 353
377, 401-427 ; 431-
699 ; 703-714: 718-
763; 779 (end).
369 ; 373, 375; 381-
435; 444; 454-466;
399; 429; 436-442;
473 490; 504, 519,
624, 531, kS, 580,
445450; 467-471;
493-502; 606-517 ;
593-603 ; 664, 666,
526-530; 533-535;
676, 693-697 ; 766,
538-574; 582-592;
768.
(1763-1768. A.D.
701.
Book 7. —Page
Book 7.— Pages
Book 7.— Pages
Book 7.-185188;
15
1-3
16-39 ; 43 51
191-196, 198-206;
113
41, 55, 59, 62
61, 66, 80
208, 211-219 ; 223-
128
&7, 77, 82-86
88-98; 104-109
225, 230 ; 234-244.
136
101, 107
116125; 131-134
(end).
145 + coals
138140
143, 162 ; 175-179
147
149
210, 220, 231-233
152
164-158161
197
164-166
222
182-184
227
190-207
228
(1765-1767, A.D.)
[oilpin]
LAND GRANTS IN NOVA SCOTIA
Reservations from 1781-1802, A.D.
188
SOLD, SILVER,
PRECIOUS STONES,
LAPIS LAZULI.
Book 8.—
Book 8.—
Book 9.-Page 20.
GOLD, SILVER,
PRECIOUS STONES,
LAPIS LAZULI,
LEAD, COPPER
AND COALS.
Book 9— Pages 37. 57,
02, 77, 160 152,
180, 814.
Book lO.—Pages 40,
BoOkll.-PageH2,27,
262,290,842.
Book 12.-Pages 183.
241 (plus coals)
Book 18.— Page 50.
Book 10.— Pages 87,
116, 127, M6, 150.
188, 220, 240.
GOLD, SILVER
AND COALS.
GOLD, SILVER,
LEAD, COPPER
AND COALB.
Book 11.— Pages 43.
80, 04. 1(3, 143,
201,206.
Book 12.— Pages 27,
Book 18.— Page 48.
Book 8.— Pages 8, 7
12; 16 20, 26^
88^, 59-71; 78,
84-90, 104-106, 127,
185, 145; 190^205,
234-250.
Book 9.— Pages 14,
65, 61, 65, 70, 73.
84. 85, 91-108. 107,
114-120 ; 124-185,
142-148 ; 160-171,
196.
Book 10.— Pages 82,
157, 169, m, 220,
288,354.
(1771-1T78, A.D.)
Book ll.-Pages 110,
151, 243, 260. 288.
203,205.
(1772-1775 A.D.)
Book 12.-Pages 60,
62.
(1775-1783, A.D.)
Book 18.—
Book 8.— Pages 1, 4,
5, 14, 22, 32-34,
57, 73-76, 80-82.
04-101, 100-122,
120-183,
147-187 :
287 257,
(end).
(17671771, A.D.)
137-141 [
207 231,
262, 268,
(17881785, A.D.)
Book 9. —Pages 112,
16-18, 21-85, 88-54,
5880, 71, 75, 70.
82, 87 (minus cop-
per., 80. 105, 100-
113. 122, 137 140,
154167, 174-187,
103, 108-811, 817-
323 (end).
(1767-1T72, A.D )
Book 10.— Pages 4-
38, 4250. 66-80.
84,80-112.118-122,
128 144. 153-155,
162 185 ; 190104,
200-216 : 222-226,
231238, 244-283;
201-352; 856-864|
(end).
Book 11.— Pages 8-
23; 20 41; 46-85,
02-08, lOS, 114-1.%,
147, 154 200 ; 211-
241 , 245 267, 265-
285; 207 330, 845-
858 (end).
Book 12.— Pages 1-
26; 20-37, 41-57,
64-133, 136 (minus
gold), 138-170;
184-230.
Book IS.-Pages 1-
41 ; 52101, 108
(minuM copper),
104-258 (end).
Books 14-21. above
reservations all
through.
(Bk. 14. Bk. 21.)
(1784. 1807, A. D.)
184
ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
Resbrvationb from 1731-1802, A.D.
GOLD, SILVER AND COALS
AND OTHER
MINES AND MINERALS.
GOLD, SILVER, COAL, IRON-
STONE, LIMESTONE,
SLATE STONE, SLATE ROCK,
TIN, COPPER, LEAD
AND ALL OTHER MINES,
MINERALS AND ORES.
GOLD, SILVER, COAL, IRON,
TIN, COPPER, LEAD,
PRECIOUS STONES.
Books A to P, and part of
Book R.
(Book A-Bk. P.
1808-1833, A.D.)
Books Q— Z, and part of
BookR.
Books 12.26 (pages 1-50 in
Book 25.)
(Book Q— Book Z,
1833-1847, A.D.)
(Book 12— Book 25) new
series.
(1830-1858, A.D.)
(pa^es 51-end
in Book 251).
(Book 25. Book M.)
1858-1802, A.D.
Note.— No minerals granted Aug. 25, 1826 to Aug. 25, 1858. See Duke of York's
grant.
Sbction IV.. 1903 [ Î38 ] Trans. R. 8. C.
VI. — Francis Bain, OeologisL
By Lawrence W. Watson, M.A.
(Communicated by R. W. Ells, LKD., and read May 19, 1903.)
It were an injustice to merit and to science were the memory of
Francis Bain allowed to remain only with those who shared his affec-
tion, with the larger company of those who enjoyed the charm of his
companionship, or even with the many who are proud to claim fellow-
citizenship with him in his native province of Prince Edward Island.
Although he was possessed of rare natural talent and richly
endowed with intellectual gifts, it is his development of this inheritance
under many adverse circumstances which constitutes a strong claim upon
puhlic recognition. Hampered by the exacting demands of a f armeras
life, companionless in his pursuits from rural isolation, with little more
than an elementary education, lacking the stimulus which learned socio-
ties so generally afford, and without the aid of literature which his com-
paratively limited means debarred him from acquiring, he was* up and
doing before the little worid around him was aware of his worth.
His geological attainments are all the more admirable because of
the limited extent of territory which could come under his observation,
and the unvarying character of the few constituent formations, for the
most part singularly, but characteristically, barren of aids to geological
study. To this narrow scope for observation and the absence of local
scientific institutions which could take cognizance of his investigations
and give them publicity, must be attributed in large part the compara-
tive obscurity of the name of Francis Bain in the annals of Canadian
geology. Unquestionably, had he lived upon the mainland, with its
wider field of work and its auxiliaries to scientific study, there would
have been little need to thus introduce him to the scientific world.
While Mr. Bain may appear, in comparison with other geologists, to
have accomplished but little, the circumstances which limited possibili-
ties in his case, must be borne in mind. It must rather be conceded that
he accomplished almost everything possible for him in the field of local
geology and much in other departments of natural science.
Daniel Bain, architect, and grandfather of Francis, was born in
Thurso, Caithness county, Scotland, in 1763. At the age of thirty-five
he married Janet, daughter of Francis Watters of the same place. To
these were bom seven children, of whom, William, the third son, was
educated in the schools of the capital city, finally attending the School
of Arts^ where he distinguished himself in mathematics. Having
learned the trade of a stonemason, he undertook the contract for the
186 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
construction of some public buildings; but, meeting with financial loss,
he detennined to emigrate to Montreal. The vessel in which he crossed
the Atlantic called at Pictou, Nova Scotia, for supplies. Hearing here
that cholera was epidemic in Montreal, Bain abandoned his intention of
proceeding thither and determined to remain in Pictou, working at his
trade. Here he made the acquaintance of Mr. J. William Dawson, after-
wards Sir William, and after the expiration of two years he sent for his
parents, removing with them to Charlottetown, Prince Edward Island.
Later he bought a farm at Caithness Cove, West River, opposite Char-
lottetown on the west, and here lived with his father and mother except
when employed in the city as stone cutter, mason and builder, in which
last capacity, associated with a Mr. Watts, he built the provincial gov-
ernment building.
In 1839 he married Ellen, youngest daughter of William Docken-
dorflE, owner of the farm adjoining his own. Of this marriage were bom
four children, William, [1840], Francis, [February 25th, 1842], Jane,
[1843], and Jacob [1846], of whom the eldest died at the age of
twenty-two years, and the remaining brother and sister survive the sub-
ject of this sketch.
Daniel Bain, died in 1851, three years after the demise of his wife,
and in the following year William died, leaving his widow to manage
the farm until her sons were able to share her responsibilities.
The children all attended first a school taught in her own house by
Mrs. Eoss, wife of the Baptist minister of North River, and afterwards
the school established in the district by the provincial government. At
the age of thirteen or fourteen years, Francis attended, for one winter
term, Dr. Leeming's class in the Infants' School-room in Charlotte-
town. Four or five years later he attended the Central Academy for
one term, living in Charlottetown while engaged in his studies; but at
the expiration of this time, the illness of his elder brother forced him
to return to his work on the farm. By the death of the latter in 1862,
and the marriage of his sister, (the younger brother, Jacob, having
meanwhile removed to a home of his own), Francis was left alone to
manage the affairs of the farm. In 1876 he married Caroline, daughter
of David Clark, farmer, of Cavendish, to whom were born six sons
and three daughters.
As a boy Francis Bain was of a retiring disposition and fond of
reading and study. After he had been forced to abandon his attendance
at school he continued his study of the classics and mathematics, to
which, in later years, he added the study of French and German. He
early developed a liking for natural history, and every opportunity
found him at his favorite pastime of collecting entomological, concholo-
[WATSON] FRANCIS BAIN, GEOLOGIST 137
gical, botanical and geological specimens. He had artistic tastes of no
mean order, as attested by his accurate drawings of plants and insects.
From time to time he read papers* or delivered lectures to the
Literary and Scientific Institute in Charlottetown, and also to the
Natural History Society of Prince Edward Island, of which he was an
interested promoter, and afterwards an enthusiastic supporter until his
death. He contributed ariicles to various scientific publications, to reli-
gious* papers and very frequently to the local press. Fond of poetry
from his youth and of committing it to memiory, he naturally coloured
his writings with a beauty of expression as remarkable as it is pleasing.
In 1890, he published '' The Natural History of Prince Edward
Island,^^ a small volume of one hundred and twenty-three pages, devo-
ted to the geology, botany and zoology of the province. This little work
was authorized for the use of schools on the Island. This publication
was followed in the next year by hie ^' Birds of Prince Edward Island^'
(eighty-seven pages), representing the fruit of his life-long study of
birds, native and visitant. In July of the same year the Natural His-
tory Society published a " List of Prince Edward Island Plants," the
joint production of Mr. Bain and Mr. John MacSwain. Mr. Bain sup-
plemented this list in 1892 by additions, comprising thirty flowering
plants, three ferns and sixty-five algae, and again in 1894, by a list of
fifteen mosses, three liverworts, fifteen lichens and twenty fungi.
In the spring of 1892, Mr. Bain delivered a course of lectures upon
Botany, under the auspixîes of the university extension authorities of
Mount Allison College, Sackville, New Brunswick. Later in the year,
when borings were undertaken in connection with the proposed tunnel
tJider the Straits of Northumberland, between Capes Traverse and Tor-
mentine, Mr. Bain was appointed geologist by the Dominion Govern-
ment for this work, in which capacity he acted for four months ending
October 12th.
In June, 1894, he injured his left shoulder while lifting a heavy
weight, and in consequence, lost the use of his left arm. Shortly after-
wards he suffered a slight stroke of paralysis. During the summer he
lectured in Charlottetown upon Geology for the Summer School of
Science. After a rest of a faw weeks he visited Boston in hopes of
regaining his accustomed health, but within three weeks after his
return he was again stricken with paralysis, from which he never
recovered. A third attack ensued which ended fatally on the 23rd of
November, 1894. Two days later the mortal remains of Francis Bain
were laid to rest in the Baptist cemetery in Wiltshire near his old home.
His was an attractive personality. Quiet, unassuming, kindly, ever
ready to help when his assistance was desired, a pleasing conversa-
tionalist, a warm friend, a fond husband and father. His knowledge of
Sec. IV.. 1903. 8.
188 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
chemistry and his industry made him a successful farmer, whose advice
was much sought after, and whose opinions carried indisputable weight.
An active member of the Baptist church, he gave evidence of strong
religious convictions in an unobtrusively consistent, upright life.
The work of Francis Bain is deserving of recognition, not so much
for its extent as because of the perseverance with which he prosecuted
his studies, with little of the encouragement which others, less gifted by
nature, have profited by. He seemed to have reached the stage which
demands expansion where expansion was impossible, or of diflScult
attainment. Recognizing with Sir William Dawson, Dr. Ells and others
the true position in the Permo-Carboniferous of the St. Peter^s and
Goveraor^s Island rocks, as well as those of Gkllas Point and the west-
ern shore of Prince Edward Island, and conceding the otherwise almost
universal occurrence of the Permian in the province, he, however, asso-
ciated a much more extensive and more distinctly defined existence of
the Trias than other geologists seemed willing to grant. WhUe, possibly,
he was somewhat overinfluenced by enthusiasm in favour of his convic-
tions, and, at times, hasty in his conclusions, his opinions must be
regarded with respect as the outcome of conscientious study and obser-
vation. And if his isolation and the circumstances of his surroundings
debar him from a rank among the foremost of Canadian scientists, he
must, nevertheless, be accorded an honourable place as the first, and so
far the greatest, naturalist which his native province has produced. His
name is associated with Tylodendron Baini, Dawson, a species dis-
covered by him and so-named by Sir William Dawson in 1890.
The Natural History and Antiquarian Society of Prince Edward
Island are about to place in Queen Square gardens in Charlottetown,
as a tribute to his memory, a large errant glacial granite boulder, bear-
Hig a bronze tablet, inscribed: —
Francis Bain, Geologist.
1842-1894.
Erected by the Natural History and Antiquarian Society of Prince
Edward Island, 1903.
Papers by Francis Bain.
Among the papers contributed by Mr. Bain to scientific journals
may be mentioned as probably the first in point of time, an article,
published in the Canadian Naturalist, Montreal, January, 1881, vol.
IX., 2nd series, on " Fossils from the Red sandstone series of Prince
Edward Island." This paper contains, iu addition to the geological
description of the southern part of the island, a list of fossil plants col-
[WATSON] FRANCIS BAIN, GEOLOGIST 189
lected from the north side of Hillsborough Bay and from the south side
of lot 65. The sandstones and shales of this area are reddish and brown
in colour, and were formerly classed by Sir William Dawson as of
Triassic age. The species obtained by Mr. Bain included among others
Calamités suckovii, C. gigas, Pecopteris arioresccns, P. rigida, Knorria,
and Walchia gracilis, which were held to ally this part of the formation
more closely to the upper Carboniferous or Permian than to the Trias.
The thickness of the rocks of this division, as seen at Eice Point at the
south-west entrance of Hillsborough Bay, opposite St. Peters island, is
given as 1,241 feet, and Bain clearly distinguished these rocks* from
those found at New London on the north side of the island, which he
still supposed might be regarded as of Triassic age from the finding in
the strata of that place the remains of the curious fossil reptile which
was known as Baihygnathus borealis, and which was described by Profes-
sor Leidy, in 1854. (Pro. Acad. Nat. Sci., Philadelphia.)
In the Canadian Record of Science, vol. I., 1884-5, a second paper
was published in connection with somewhat detailed remarks by Sir
William Dawson. This paper was read at the May meeting of the Boyal
Society of Canada, 1885, and was entitled " Notes on the Geology and
Fossil flora of Prince Edward Island.^'
In this paper Bain arranged the rocks of the island under three
heads or divisions, viz. : —
1st. A lower series of greyish, brown and red sandstones and shales,
styled by Sir William Dawson Permo-carboniferous, with an estimated
thickness of 800 feet. The contained fossil plant» were regarded as of
distinctly Carboniferous age, and included Calamités suckovii, C. cistii,
C. cannœformis, Dadoxylon Acadianum and Trigonocarpum, which were
associated with forms of a Permian character.
2nd. A middle series, conformable to the lower, or nearly so, con-
sisting of red sandstones and shales, having an estimated thickness of
about 2,000 feet; in which the shales with calcareous sandstones pre-
dominate in the lower portion. These are found over the greater part
of the island but in the western area the thickness becomes greatly
reduced. The contained fossil plants recognized were Calamités gigas,
Pecopteris arlorescms, Walchia, stems of Araucarites allied to the Wal-
chia, and impressions of large and thick leaves like Nœggeratia, with
Dadoxylon Edvardium,
The strata are regarded as slightly disturbed by three anticlinal
lines having a course approximately parallel to the Cobequid range in
Nova Scotia. Near the summit of this division beds of quartzose con-
glomerate occur, and are found on the Murray Harbour road and about
140 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
the head waters of the North Eiver, as well as at other places near the
centre of the island. These rocks were regarded as of Permian age.
drd. Â series of horizontal beds of red shales and sandstones^
lithologically similar to the rocks of div. 2, which were regarded as
resting upon the denuded strata of the most northerly anticline, and as
occurring along certain portions of the north side of the Island, as at
New London and in the vicinity. The rocks of this division he sup-
posed might safely be assigned to the Trias, and the thickness of the
formation was estimated at 150 feet only. Similar strata are found at
Cape Turner to the east, and occasional impressions of plant stems are
found, though generally too indistinct for accurate information. The
age of the rocks of this division was based on the fossil Bathygnathus
already referred to. As a whole, the plant remains were supposed to
belong to species somewhat distinct from those found in the rocks of
division 2.
Regarding the structure of the Prince Edward rocks as a whole.
Bain held that the most northerly anticline was found at Cape Tryon
on the north shore, and that another appeared at Campbell's Cove.
Among other fossil plants found by Bain was the species known
as Tylodendron, a form very like Knorria, which was referred to Sir
William Dawson and described by him under the name T. Baini, in
the Memoirs or Bulletin of the Redpath Museum of McGill University,
1890.
In the Auk, Vol. HI., 1885, Mr. Bain published a short note on the
last known occurrence on Prince Edward Island of the Wild Swan.
Among other papers written by Mr. Bain, but which have apparent-
ly never been fully printed, the articles being delivered as lectures in
Charlottetown and elsewhere in the Island or communicated to the
local press, may be mentioned the following : —
Bibliography of Francis Bain.
Books:
The Natural History of Prince Edward Island, authorized for the use of
Schools by the Board of Education. Charlottetown, G. Herbert Hazard,
publisher, 1890.
Birds of Prince Edward Island, their habits and characteristics. Printed
by Hazard and Moore, Charlottetown, 1891.
Articles:
Canadian Science Monthly. Published. Kentville, N.S.
Vol. III., 1&«5, No. 2, February. Birds in Prince Edward Island. Two
notes—" Snow-flea," and " Rough Caterpillar."
Vol. III., 1885, No. 3, March. Shells of Prince Edward Island.
Vol. III., 1885, Nos. 4 and 5, April and May. Butterflies of Prince
Edward Island, 12 species.
[watbon] FRANCIS BAIN, GEOLOGIST 141
Vol. III., 1885, No. 6, June. Qlacial Moraines in Prince Edward Island.
Vol. III.. 1885, No. 7, July. Cranberry Sports.
Vol. III., 1885, No. 8, Augrust. Botanical and Entomolosrical notes in cor-
respondence column, signed F. Bain.
Vol. III.. 1885, No. 9, September. Winter Birds in Prince Edward
Island. Reprinted from the "Auk."
VoL IIL, 1886, Nos. 10 and 11, October and November. Bounding the
Trias.
Canadian Naturalist, Montreal.
Vol. IX, 1881, No. 9. Notes on Fossils from the Red sandstone system
of Prince Edward Island. Read at meeting of Natural History Soc.,
Montreal, 188L January 31^ 1881,
Canadian Record of Science, Montreal.
Vol. I., No. 3, July, 1885. Notes on the Oeologry and Fossil Flora of
Prince Edward Island, by F. Bain and Sir William Dawson. Read
before the Royal Soc. Canada, May, 1885.
Vol 11., April, 1887. Notes on a Permian Moraine in Prince Edward
Island.
Science.
Vol. XXI., No. 527, March 10th, 1893. The Permian in Prince Edward
Island.
Illustrated Christian Weekly.
Vol. XIV., No. 14, April 5th, 1884. Northern Birds In Winter.
No. 28 July 12th, 1884. Some Northern Birds.
Protestant Union, July 9th, 1885. Science and Religious Feeling.
Lectures and Papers read beifore the Literary and Scientific Institute,
Charlottetown, P.E.I.
Geology of Prince Edward Island, February 27th, 1888.
The Ice Age in Prince Edward Island, February 27th, 1883.
Darwinism, November, 25th, 1886.
Land Marks in Geological History, December 27th, 1886.
On the Boulder Forntation in Prince Edward Island.
The Geology of the proposed Straits Tunnel, Nat Hist. Soc., Janu-
ary 13th, 1891.
The Study of our Asters, April and July, 1889. Nat. Hist. Soc.
Red Sandstone of Prince Ed^-ard Island, April 28th, 1890. Nat. Hist.
Soc.
An Ancient River. Unpublished manuscript
The Tylodendron. The last paper written by Mr. Bain, a few days
before he was stricken with paralysis, and unpublished.
Mussel-mud, prize essay for Provincial Exhibition, and published in
the Daily Examiner newspaper, Charlottetown, Nov. 20th, 1891.
Notes of a Naturalist. Fourteen papers published in the Dally Ex-
aminer, Charlottetown, 1881-82-83.
Daily Examiner.
Geology of Prince Edward Island, January* 1882.
Geology of St Peter's Island, February, 1882.
Ancient Glaciers of Prince Edward Island, March, 1S82.
Those February Storms, March, 1882.
Tunnelling the Straits, April, 1882.
142 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
When was Prince Edward Island separated from the mainland, April,
1882.
The Coal Held under Prince Edward Island, April, 1882.
Cape Turner, August, 1882.
Our bright Blue-Jay, January, 1883.
Age unto Age, March, 1883..
The Highlands of Prince Edward Island, April, 1888.
Our own Coast, April, 1883.
Cape Wolfe, June, 18S3.
The Sand-hills, June, 1883.
Rustico, August, 1883.
The Erosion of our valleys, August, 1888.
Birds of Prince Edward Island, January, 1886.
On the Western shore,, October, 1885.
In New London, September, 1886.
St. Peter's, November, 1886.
Our Lobsters and Oysters, August, 1887.
Destruction of the Lobster fishery, August, 1887.
The Waterworks Spring, June, 1S8S.
Over to Pictou, September, 1888.
Articles and Letters on Rust in grain, November, 1889.
The Tylodendron, November, 1889.
Rock strata underlying the city, (Chariot tetown). December, 1889.
Underground ways of the city, December, 1889.
Governor's Island, January, 1890.
Notes on the exhibit of Grasses at the Provincial Exhibition, Septem-
ber, 1890.
An Interesting Problem, December, 1891.
Improving our Climate, February, 1892.
Tormentine and the Tunnel-borings, November, 1892.
Crossing the Capes.
Chignecto Post. The Geology of Sackville. February, 1892.
Section IV., 190S [ 148 ] Trans. R. 8. C.
VII. — A Submerged Tributary to the Oreat Pre-Glacial River of the Oulf
of St. Lawrence.
By H. S. Poole, D.Sc.
Associate of the Royal School of Mines.
(Read May 19. 1903.)
The chart of the Gulf of St. Lawrence has an interest for the geo-
logist, as well as value for the navigator and the geographer. It tells
of much more than the mere depth of the water and the position of
the shore lines and it certainly suggests more of the unseen than many
similar publications.
When the isobaths that stud the surface of the chart are noted and
contoured, more is portrayed than would otherwise be suspected.
The whole story which these contours and soundings disclose, it is
not here proposed to review. Part of it has already been written, and
its importance has been fully recognized in the case of the broad valley
that carried onward the St. Lawrence river through the gulf and Cabot
Strait to the ocean, to the abyss of the Atlantic, 100 miles beyond the
existing shores.
The part of the gulf to which reference will now be made, lies on
the south side of the great valley. It was a high plateau when the St.
Lawrence river rolled its erosive floods past it to the sea, and contours
on the charts of its surface indicate a previous existence of a complete
drainage system, only partially disguised by subsequent deposits and the
obliterating effect of waves and currents as the water rose and covered
the land. The drainage of the region stands revealed when it is
elevated a few hundred feet or more above its present level. It was
chiefly concentrated in two main channels, one on the east and the
other along the west confines of the area, both discharging northward
into the ancient great river. The channel to the west was an extension
of the present Baie des Chaleurs, and received the waters of the Meta-
pedia, the Eestigouche and, by a branch of the estuary, the Miramichi,
and other streams of northern New Brunswick; while the eastern chan-
nel carried to an embouchure near the island of St. Paul, in Cabot
Strait, the rivers that now empty into the gulf from the eastern dis-
tricts of Nova Scotia, and the western parts of Cape Breton.
The necessary data not being at hand to enable the whole of the
area to be contoured, the eastern channel only has been worked out.
It is the one shewn on the accompanying map. When the subject was
144
ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
taken up there was no set purpose to find a departed river or to develop
such a structure as the map shows. There was no expectation of such
a result being reached, but as order and plan seemed to grow under the
pencil and eraser, the work developed into system as represented.
Through paucity of information, infrequent soundings in many parts,
some minor license required to be exercised to supply the want of
detail, and in such places, fewer brooks and branches to the river are
shown than must have existed.
The method pursued in working out the structure was* by running
contour lines in the manner ordinarily adopted in plotting land sur-
veys, and which actual observation has justified. When so treated, the
^^^VA V
^;^qd^Uo 4^^^
undersea floor was found to take on a structure with depressions metho-
dically arranged, decreasing in depth as distance landward increased
from the edge of the plateau taken at 100 fathoms. Then connecting
the embayments along these contours by lines of shortest distance, a
system of drainage stood revealed along continuously descending
grades, such as would be occupied by flowing streams over a similar land
surface.
There are certain features of the submerged river courses that
may be of suflScient interest to note. There is the greater proximity of
the river fo the present shore line where the coast is bolder and the
oldest and hardest rocks touch the sea, determining in the early stages
of the previous cycle the direction of the drainage parallel to the hill
langes. This parallel feature is also noticeable in the mounds, once
islands, which, indicated by the contours under water, likewise suggest
a continuation seaward of the geological structure of the coast terrace
[poole] PRE-GLACIAL RIVER OF GULF OF ST. LAWRENCE 148
occupied by Carboniferous Limestone and later deposits. The fork in
the main channel marking the junction of the Margaree river, is fol-
lowed upstream by a broad interval many miles in length. While much
of the surface smoothed over by the later deposits presents but gentle
undulations, there are parts more elevated, suggestive of low hills in
range with the general shore line, and in other places the contours
crowd together, indicative of steep, if not precipitous banks. The
soundings record but few exposed rocks and no jagged peaks, remnants
of older formations projecting through the Carboniferous strata, no
inarked break or sharp deflections that would suggest changed condi-
tions along the general course of the main stream, but rather a con-
tinuation of the river flowing in measures no older than the Carbonifer-
ous Limestone.
This river system gathered the waters of western Cape Breton, of
the counties of Pictou and Antigonish, and of eastern and northern
Prince Edward Island. It also carried oflf half the drainage of a large
irland now represented by the group of the Magdalen. The fountain
head of this preglacial stream would be that of the Pictou rivers, giv-
ing it a total length of some 200 miles. An important branch joined
the main stream from the westward flowing between the Magdalen and
Prince Edward Island at a depth below the present shore line of 240
feet. But the sea currents and the glacial drift have obscured the
structure of this part of the gulf more than on the courses of the main
stream.
Nothing is ghown on the map of the ancient drainage of George
Bay and its connection with the Strait of Canso, the course also of a
contemporary preglacial river.
Shoal ground lying between Port Hood and Cape George marks a
connection of the old rock range of the Cobequid, through Pictou and
Antigonish counties across the bay, with the continuation through
Inverness county. Doubtless there were channels on the faulting that
changed the direction of the range and influenced the sub-aerial ero-
sion, but no conclusion was reached as to the direction of the flow into
or from George Bay.
With the location of the affluents of the submerged river, the story
il has to tell is not ended. It bears the stamp of family lineaments, of
parent streams that irrigated the same fields in previous cycles. How
many there were has not been made out, nor the relation borne by the
river to the important epoch when the deposition of the thick workable
coal seams marked a period of subsidence. But it does seem as though
there were some relation between the patches of Coal Measures bearing
workable coal fields and the area confined between the old rocks of the
146 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
hills ranging from Cape Chignecto to Cape North, and the reappear-
ance of the Carboniferous Limestone series in the anticlines paralleling
the ranges on the gulf side. The southern of these anticlines extends
from Shepody bay through Wallace eastward, and is buried under Cape
Bear of Prince Edward Island. The eastern anticline is exposed in the
Magdalen Islands, paralleling the Cape Breton coast.
A marked feature of the submerged river system is the varied
extent of the foreshore erosion, indicative of age. The charts of their
contours record the recession of the shore line to an unequal degree, the
least where the main channel makes its nearest approach to the old
rocks of Cape George, Cape Mabou and Cape St. Lawrence and the
greatest on the Prince Edward Island coas-t, where measured by the
Bcale of relative hardness of the respective series of rocks on the oppo-
site shores, data are furnished for an estimation of the period of
time that has elapsed since the present stage of erosion was entered
on. No conclusion has been reached as to the depth below the
present shore Une at which this stage began to operate, but if
we assume for the sake of illustration 20 fathome, then one mile froni
shore at Cape Mabou is the equivalent of some ten miles at East Point,
and more than twenty-three miles at Cape Bear while Point Prim has
suffered a loss of fourteen miles at half that depth.
A still greater elevation was necessary for the erosion of the lower
reaches of the river with a depth of 90 fathoms, while no less than 2,500
feet would be required to give to the ancient river channel through the
gulf an inclination to the ocean. This degree of elevation would allow
of the erosion of the present river estuaries and mud filled harbours.
The data furnished by the river seem at least sufficient, without
assuming fault limitations to the Prince Edward Island rocks, whether
Permo-carboniferous, Permian or Triassic, to account for the absence
east of Pictou and on the Cape Breton coast of any remnants of the
bof ter series. On elevation occurring, the drainage off the high land of
the older and more resisting rocks round the gulf would be more effec-
tive along the contact and as denudation proceeded, the channels would
follow with the softer strata of the new series, and be wider and deeper
as we do find them on the east and west sides to the outlets on the great
St. Lawrence ancient valley. It would also be necessary to assume a
somewhat greater elevation to have occurred northward. On the coast
of Nova Scotia west of Pictou, the stages of the cycle had not advanced
S(. far as along the tributary rivers and the more exposed gulf shores
when subsidence took place; the lateral river of this part (represented
by the Straits of Northumberland), has been formed by the drainage
off the older rocks of the southern rim, but being less exposed and pro-
[pooLi] PRE-GLACIAL RIVER OF GULF OF ST. LAWRENCE 147
tected by the comparative narrowness of the sea erosion at the head of
the gulf had not proceeded so far, and so it occurs that Bay Verte and
Amet Sound still retain, resting on the older series*, outliers of the
Prince Edward Island or gulf deposit.
Similar and contemporary conditions seem also to have prevailed
outside Cabot Strait, on the eastern side of Cape North, where a deep
estuary received the streams from St. Ann% the great Bras d^Or and
Sydney harbor. More exposed than the gulf to the action of ocean
currents^ there has been more obliteration of the original features; still
there is no difficulty in developing here also, a system of drainage for
the ocean floor, in times preglacial, when the region was greatly ele-
vated, and when the many rivers that now discharge directly into the
sea, were all tributaries to that majestic stream, the ancient Eiver St.
Lawrence.
Section IV., 1903 [ 149 ] Trans. R. S. C.
VIII. — On the Relation of Moisture-content to Hardiness, in Apple
Twigs?-
By Fbank T. Shutt, M.A., F.I.C., F.C.S.,
Chemist, Dominion Experimental Farms.
(Read May 19, 1903).
For several years past, the writer, associated with the Horticulturist
of the Experimental Farm, Mr. W. T. Macoun, has been carrying on a
series of experiments in the farm orchards at Ottawa, to ascertain the
effect of various methods of cultivation and treatment on the soil's
moisture-content at different periods throughout the growing season; the
present research was suggested by certain results obtained in that in-
vestigation.
It has of recent years been generally conceded that the manage-
ment of the orchard soil, under ordinary circumstances, should be
such as to furnish during the spring and early summer months an abund-
ance of moisture for the growth of the tree and the development of
its fruit, but tEat, later in the season, vegetative growth should
be checked and the " ripening '* of the wood promoted by the with-
drawal of excessive moisture from the soil by the growth of a " cover
crop.*' Regarding this as correct, and in the adoption of any system
that «has for its object, or rather for one of its objects, the early
ripening of the season's growth, it is obvious that we indorse the view
that in the ripening of the wood there is a loss of water from its
tissues ; in a word, that ripening may be considered largely as a drying
out process, and that those varieties whose growth ripens best (loses
most water) will prove the hardiest.* We should expect to find
* This paper is to be regarded merely as a preliminary note. The Investi-
gation is still being carried on, and, if subsequent results confirm those
here recorded, it is proi>osed to make a fuller presentation of the subject at
the next meeting of this Society.
■ Hardiness, or the aibiUty of Uie new growth to pass the winter without
injury, is a very important consideration when selecting varieties for a com-
mercial orchard in a northern latitude. The term, naturally, Is a relative
one. There are among varieties of apple, well recognized degrees of hardi-
ness; and, even for the same variety, the hardiness may vary according
to the severity of the winter and possibly certain other factors, e.g., the
location of the orchard, the character of the soil and the time in the autumn
at which vegetative growth ceases. It is thus seen, that while hardiness
may be largely an inherited quality, it is one that may be influenced by
environment.
180 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
that the moisture-content of the twigs (new growth) of an apple
tree as winter approaches would be an indication as to their power
to resist frost. The smaller the percentage of water at that time —
and throughout the winter — the hardier would be the variety.
To test the correctness of this conclusion, the writer last January
asked Mr. Macoun to select in the farm orchard ten varieties which
would represent respectively those which are practically frost proof,
those which are killed back in severe winters, and those which almost
every winter suffer to a greater or less degree. From these trees it
was proposed to take scions periodically and determine their moisture-
content. The following are the varieties chosen by Mr. Macoun, in the
order of hardiness, as deduced from his experience at Ottawa: —
Dachess of Oldenburg ^
Yellow Transparent }- Group I. Hardiest.
McMahon White
Wealthy ,
> Group II. Less Hardy.
Scott's Winter
I
}
}
Scarlet Pippin ) Group HI.
V Probably less hardy than
Walworth Pippin j Group II.
Hebble White \
Group IV.
Boy's Delight Y
Least Hardy.
Blenheim Pippin j
Regarding these, Mr. Macoun, after inspecting the trees last
week. May 15th, 1903, reports as follows: — "Of the ten trees selected
for this test I find upon examination that three only show winter
killing, the other seven varieties having proved hardy to the tip —
though some of them apparently suffered in other ways from the
winter. The tender varieties are: (1) Bo/s Delight, with terminal
buds killed and twigs in a few instances killed back 3 inches; (2) Hebble
White, showing terminals of twigs in many instances killed back about
3 inches, and (3) Blenheim Pippin, evidently the most tender of all —
terminal buds killed and wood killed back 3 to 6 inches, and in some
cases more."
The first specimens were cut for analysis on January 23rd,^ and
have been taken fortnightly since that date. At these periods, three
or four scions were taken from each tree. These were approximately
divided each into two portions, so that in addition to the determination
^ The investigation should rather have commenced about the time the
leaves began to fall in the autumn, but unfortunately It was not thought
of till nearly the end of January.
[shutt]
HARDINE8S IN APPLE TWIGS
ISI
of water in the whole twig, estimations of the water in the basal and
terminal portions, respectively, could be made.
The data obtained from the first determination, arranged in the
order of the moisture-content of the whole twig, are as follows: —
Percentage of Water in Apple Twigs, January 23rd, 1903.
Variety
Basal
Portion
Terminal
Portion
Whole
Twig
45 55
45 10
45 30
45 45
46 96
46 14
45 02
47 51
46 15
44 72
47 67
46 20
44 74
47 75
46 25
46 82
48 72
47 70
47 13
49 92
48 58
49 09
48 82
48 91
47 50
50 36
48 98
48 93
51 58
50 24
Yellow Transparent
McMahon White...
Duchess
Walworth Pippin..
Boy*s Delight
Wealthy
Scarlet Pippin
Hebble White
Scott's Winter
Blenheim Pippin —
From these results it may be observed: (1) That there is a dif-
ference of practically 5 per cent in the moisture-content between the
extremes of the series.
(2) That, while certain of the varieties furnish data almost iden-
tical, the increase in moisture-content is more or less continuous and
gradual throughout the series.
(3) That the terminal portion of the twig (except in the case of
one or two varieties) contains more water than the basal portion, the
dilFerence being, approximately, 2 per cent.
Comparing the order of the varieties arranged according to
moisture-content, with that made by the Horticulturist, at the sume
time keeping in mind Mr. Macoun^s report of May loth, it will be
seen that there is a sufficient agreement between them to warrant
the conclusion, that there is a distinct relationship between moisture-
content and hardiness. Thus, the varieties Hebble White and Blen-
heim Pippin, placed by Mr. Macoun in the least hardy group (Group
IV.), are Nos. 8 and 10 respectively in the series according to per-
centage of moisture. Again, it is significant that the members of
Mr. Macoun^s hardiest group (Group I.) are the three first on the
list according to water-content (i.e., contain least moisture), and that
their position is practically the same on both lists. It is true that
182
ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
the same order is not maintained throughout both series, but such
could scarcely be expected. We should point out that the differences
in moisture-content between several of the varieties are within the
limits of error, and that the differences in hardiness for these varieties
ab expressed by Mr. Macoun's list, are as yet somewhat indefinite, for
they have been determined from an extremely limited experience.
From January 23rd, until the time of writing. May 18th, eight
fortnightly determinations of the moi&ture-coatent of these apple
twigs have been made. Instead of inserting all the data so obtained —
data, it may be said, which are in close accord with those of January
23rd, — ^I have prepared the following table, giving the averages of the
estimations made on the several dates upon which the twigs were
collected, and arranged in the order of their water-content: —
Percentages op Water in Apple Twigs.
The Average of 8 Bi-monihly Examinations, Jan. 2Srd to May 15th,
Variety
McMahon White...
YeUow Transparent
Duchess
Walworth Pippin...
Boy's Delight
Wealthy
Scott's Winter
Scarlet Pippin
Hebble White
Blenheim Pippin
Basal
Portion
Terminal
Portion
Whole
Twig
44 87
46 95
45 79
45 19
46 60
45 82
44 94
47 48
46 00
45 36
48 18
46 58
45 28
48 47
46 75
47 31
48 74
48 06
46 95
49 44
48 21
47 00
49 65
48 23
48 68
50 31
49 74
49 12
51 15
50 01
In all essential features this table confirms the results of the first
examination. The same six varieties arc at the head of each list,
almost in the same order. In the last four, Hebble White now stands
No. 9, a position more in accord with ^Ir. Macouii's report. It is quite
probable that future experience may show the position of Boy's Delight
to be higher up in the scale of hardiness than that assigned to it this
year by ^Ir. Macoun.
In the data furnished by this investigation extending over four
months, it would seem, therefore, that we have direct and definite
proof that there is distinct relationship between the moisture-content
[shutt] hardiness IN APPLE TWIGS 188
of the twig and its power to resist the action of frost, and that those
trees whose new growth contains the largest percentage of water as
winter approaches, are in all probability the most tender.
Further, it seems likely that, if hardiness is dependent upon the
degree of ripeness of the new growth (indicated by moisture-content),
then it is quite possible that it is a quality that can be materially
affected by judicious cultural methods. Hardiness, as we have re-
marked, is evidently something more than an inherited tendency.
It seems probable that it is a quality largely under the influence of
the soil condition as regards moisture and temperature in the late
summer and autumn months, and probably these factors, rather than
the severity of the succeeding winter, determine the tree^s immunity
from frost. If in northern latitudes vegetative growth be early
arrested, and ripening of the new wood thus induced, either by arti-
ficial means (pruning and cover crops), or by a dry and cold autumn,
varieties now considered tender might prove hardy.
The determinations of the moisture-content will be made at the
regular intervals until the end of May, and then discontinued until
the autumn, when the work will be again taken up. The data obtained
on this season's growth at the opening of winter, will be of a very
important character; for, if the deductions wo have made in the pre-
ceding statement are correct, the differences at that time in moisture-
content between the hardy and the tender varieties should be the
largest — ^the former containing the least water; the latter, the most
water.
Sec. IV., 1903. 9.
Section IV., 1903 [ 165 ] Trans. IL S. C.
IX. — Bibliography of Canadian Entomology for the Year 1902,
Contributed by the Rev. C. J. S. Bethune, D.CL.
(Read May 19, 1903.)
Aldrich, J. M.
The Formation of Greneric Names. Canadian Entomologist, XXXIV,
129 (May. 1902).
ASHMEAD, W. H. .' *
Classification of the Fossorial, Predaceous and Parasitic Wasps, or the
■Super-family Vespoidea. Canadian Entomologist, XXXIV, 79-8S (April,
1902); ib. 131-137 (June); ib. 163-166 (July); ib. 203-210 (August); ib. 219-
231 (September); ib. 268-273 (October); lb. 287-291 (November).
Ball, E. P.
Some new Bythoscopidœ from British Columbia and the Southwest
Canadian Entomologist, XXXIV, 808-813 (December, 1902).
Banks, Nathan.
New genera and species of Acarians. (Describes a new species,
Hoploderma çranulata, from Ottawa.) Canadian Entomologist, XXXTV,
171-176 (July, 1902), figures.
Bethune, C. J. S.
Editorial Notes and Reviews. Canadian Entomologist, XXXIV,
(1902); 32nd Annual Report Entomological Society of Ontario, 1901.
Bethune, C. J. S.
Obituary notice (with portrait) of Miss Eleanor A. Ormerod, LKD.
32nd Annual Report Entomological Society of Ontario, 1901, 121-125.
Bethune, C. J. S.
How insects pass the winter. Farmer's Advocate, Liondon, XXXVII,
940-1 (December 15, 1902), figures.
Bethune, C. J. S.
General Index to the Reports and Bulletins of the Experimental Farms
of the Dominion of Canada, 1887-1901; pp. 194. (Includes Dr. Fletcher's
Entomological Reports and Bulletins.) Published by the King's
Printer, Ottawa, 1902.
Bird, Henry.
New Histories and Species in Hydrœcia. (Plate with coloured figures
of the nine species, three of which are described for the first time.)
Canadian Entomologist, XXXIV, 108-118 (May. 1902).
BURMAN, W. A.
Entomological Notes (from Winnipeg). Ottawa Naturalist, XVI, 109
(August, 1902).
106 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
Chaqnon, g. 2,*
Notes Entomologlques. Le Naturaliste Canadien. XXIX. 129-181
(September, 1902).
Chapais, J. C.
La Calandre d«s Greniers iCalandria granaria); La Sélandrie de la
Ronce (Monophadnus rubi). Le Nat. Can., XXIX. 65-70 (May, 1902).
CocKBRBLL, T. D; A., and John McNary.
Notes on the Mouth-parts of Bombus. Can. Ent, XXXIV, 71-72
(March. 1902).
Evans. J. D.
Notes on Insects of the Year. 82nd Annual Report Ent. Soc., Ontario,
1901, pp. 26-27.
EVANB. J. D.
Collecting at Light In 1901. 32nd Annual Report Ent Soc, Ontario,
1901, p. 82.
Fisher, Gborgb E.
Report of the Inspector of San José Scale. Annual Report of the
Ontario Department of Agriculture. 1901, Vol. 1, No. 54. 16 pages.
Fisher. Georqe E.
The San José Scale. 32nd Annual Report Ent. Soc., Ontario, 1901. pp.
3-6. 33rd Annual Report Fruit Growers* Assoc., Ont, 1901, pp. 18-25.
Fisher, George E.
Th« Spruce Gall-louse. Chermvs abietis. Can. Horticulturist, XXV. 377
(September, 1902) figures.
Fletcher, James.
Report of the Entomologist and Botanist. Experimental Farms
Report, Ottawa, 1901, pp. 197-262 (plate and 19 figures).
Fletchkr, James.
Insects, Fungous Diseases, Treatments. Evidence before the Select
Standing Committee on Agriculture and Colonization. House of Com-
mons, Ottawa, March 20. April 2 and 3, 1902. pp. 56.
Fletcher, James, et al.
Report of the Entomological Branch of the Ottawa Field-Naturalists
Club. Ottawa Naturalist, XVI, 114-118 (August. 1902).
Fletcher, James, and Gibson. Arthur.
The Life History of the Variable Cut worm, Mamcstra Atlantica, Grote.
Can. Ent., XXXIV, 279-284 (November, 1902.)
Fletcher. James.
The San José Scale in Ohio and Ontario. 32nd Annual Report Ent.
Soc, Ontario, 1901, pp. 7-10.
Fletcher, .Tames.
The Painted Lady Butterfly, Pyrameis cardui, Linn. 32nd Annual Report
Ent. Soc. Ontario, 1901. pp. 54-57.
[bcthune] bibliography OF CANADIAN ENTOMOLOGY 157
Fletcher, James.
Entomologrical Record. 1901. 32nd Annual Report Bnt. Soc., Ontario,
1901, pp. 99-108.
Fletcher. James.
Farmers' Friends and Foes (a series' of 66 articles containing replies to
enquiries respecting: noxious and beneficial insects). Montreal Weekly
Star, January 1 to November 5, 1902.
Fletcher. James.
The Asparasrus Beetles. Montreal Witness, Aug, 5, 1902,— The Buffalo
Moth., ib. Sept. 16, 1902.
Fletcher, James.
Injurious Insects of the Year. Montreal Weekly Star, Oct 29, 1902.
French, G. H.
The Yellow-wingred Catocalœ. Can. Ent, XXXTV, 95-98 (April, 1902),
figures.
Fixes, Thomas W.
A Tortoise beetle new to Quebec. (A British species introduced into
Canada, Cassida viridis» Linn.; feeds upon burdock and thistle.) Can.
Ent., XXXIV, 273-4 (Oct., 1902).
Fixes, Thomas W.
The importance of Entomological Studies to the Community at large.
(Presidential Address.) 82nd Annual Report Ent. Soc, Ontario, 1901,
pp. 13-21 (figures).
Fyles, Thomas W.
Crickets. 82nd Annual Report Ent Soc, Ontario, 1901, pp. 90-94
^figures).
Gibson, Arthur.
Notes on the Larvœ of Arctia virgo» Linn. Can. Bnt., XXXIV, 23-26
(January, 1902),
Gibson, Arthur.
Additional Notes on the Life History of Arctia phalerata, Harr. Can,
Ent., XXXIV, 50-51 (Feb.. 1902).
OiBsoN, Arthur.
Note on the Larvœ of Penthina hebesana. Walk. Can. Ent,, XXXIV, 182
(July, 1902).
Gibson, Arthur, and Fletcher James.
The Life History of the Variable Cut worm, Mamestra Atlantiea, Orote.
Can. Ent., XXXIV, 279-284 (Nov., 1902).
Gibson, Arthur.
An interesting Caterpillar (Macrurocampa marthesia). Ottawa Naturalist,
XVI, 161 (Nov., 1902).
Gibson, Arthur.
A Day at the Mer Bleue (Eastman's Springs, Ont). 82nd Annual
Report Bnt Soc, Ontario, 1901, pp. 110-112.
158 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
0RB080N, PBRCT B.
Presidential Address to the North-west (Canada) Entomolo^cal
Society. 82nd Annual Report Bnt. Soc, Ontario, 1901, pp. 116-120
(figures).
Orote, a. Radcxjffb.
Notes on Mr. Lyman's papers. Can. Ent, XXXIV, 75-76 (March, ld02).
OROTB, a. RADdilFFB.
Changes in the colour of Butterflies. C^an. Ent, XXXIV, 04 (April,
1902).
Orotb, a. Radcliffs.
Callosamia angullfera. Can. Ent, XXXIV, 814 (Dec, 1902).
Habrinoton, W. Haqub. "■
Note on Piiyophthorus eoniperda, Schwarz. Can. Ent, XXXTV. 72-7S
(March, 1902).
Habrinoton, W. Hague.
A Canadian Anoplonyx (Describes a new species, A. Canademis), Can.
Ent, XXXIV, 93-94 (April, 1902).
Harrinqton, W. Haoub.
Fauna Ottaiwaensis-Hyinenoptena : fiuper-Fatmily U, dphe^oidea.
Ottawa Naturalist, XV, 21B-224 (Jan., 1902).
Heath, E. Firmstonb.
A few notes on the Lepidoptera of 1901 in Southern Manitoba. Can.
Ent, XXXIV, 88-36 (Feb., 1902).
Johnson, Charles W.
New North American Diptera. (Describes four new species, one of
which, PêUocephala grandiSf is from Rouville Co., P. Que.) Can. Ent.,
XXXIV, 240-242 (Sept., 1902).
Johnston, James
Notes on Insects of the Year. 32nd Annual Report Ent. Soc, Ontario,
1901, pp. 27-28 (flgrures).
Kino, George B.
CoccidsB of British North America. (Describes a new species,
Eulecanium frawini, from Ottawa, and g'ives a list of Canadian species
with their geoerraphical distribution.) Can. Ent XXXIV, 158-161
(June. 1902); ib. 166 (July), Errata.
LOCHHEAD, Wm.
Report of the Inspector of Fumigation Appliances. Annual Report
of the Ontario Department of Agriculture. 1901, Vol. I. No. 18. 16 pages.
LOCHHEAD, Wm.
Spray Calendar; directions for treatment of Insect î^ests and Pliuit
Diseases. Ontario Agricultural College, Bulletin 122, pp. 12.
LOCHHEAD, Wm.
The story of the Cabbage Butterfly. Nature Study or Stories in
Agriculture. Ont Agric. College, Bulletin 124, pp. 37-42 (figures).
[bbthune] bibliography OF CANADIAN ENTOMOLOGY 159
LOCHHBAD, WM.
Injurious Insects of the Season of 1901. 82nd Annual Report Bnt
Soc, Ontario, 1901, pp. 43-50 XâfiTures).
LOCHHBAD, Wm.
The Hibernation of Insects. 82nd Annual Report Ent. Soc., Ontario,
1901, pp. 74-78 (figures).
LOCHHBAD, Wm.
Nature Study Lessons on Mosquitoes. 82nd Annual Report Shit. Soo.»
Ontario, 1901, pp. 94-98 (figures).
LOCHHBAD, Wm.
^otes from the Bfological Department, Ont. Agric. College; The home
of the San José Scale; the Hazeltine Moth-Catcher. Can. Horti-
culturist, XXV, 5-6 (Jan., 1902). The Plum-twig Gall-mlte. lb. XXV,
150-151 (April, 1902), figures.
Ltmak, Henrt H.
Synonymic Notes. Can. Ent., XXXIV, 27-28 (Jan., 1902). A correction
of Generic names proposed in the preceding article. Can. Ent.,
XXXIV. 52 (Feb.. 1902).
Ltman, Henrt H.
Notes on Lycœna Scudderii, Edw. Can. Ent.. XXXIV. 126-128 (May. 1902).
Ltman, Henrt H.
Mr. Grote's criticisms. Can. Ent.. XXXIV. 167-169 (July. 1902).
Ltman, Henrt H.
What is a (3enus? (Discusses the names Ammalo. Cycnia. Euchœtes
and Pygarctia. with fi£rures of aberrations in venation.) Can. Ent.,
XXXIV, 187-192 (Aug.. 1902).
Ltman, Henrt H.
Hydrœcia nelita. Strecker. (This name «haa priority over H. ((TorfffMi)
œrata Lsrman.) Cïan. Ent. XXXIV. 274 (Oct.. 1902).
Ltman, Henrt H.
The North American Fall Webworms. 82nd Annual Report Ent Soc,
Ontario, 1901. 57-62 (plate).
McNart, John, and Cockerell, T. D. A.
Notes on the Mouth-parts of Bombus. Can. Ent, XXXIV. 71-72
(March. 1902).
MoPFAT. J. Alston.
Notes on the season of 1901. 82nd Annual Report Ent Soc. Ontario»
1901, pp. 60-53 (figures).
Moffat. J. Alston.
AnoBia Archippus does not hibernate. 32nd Annual Report Ent Soc.,
Ontario. 1901, pp. 78-82 (figure).
OUBLL.ET. C. J.
Liste des Coléoptères les plus remarquables capturés dans la Province
de Québec en 1899, 1900 et 1901. Le Nat Can.. XXIX, 82-87 (June, 1902);
108-105 (July); 120-124 (Aug.); 139-141 (Sept).
160 ROYAL SOCIEfY OF CANADA
Pearsall, Richard F.
Life History of Lyda fasoiata, Norton» family Tenthredinldœ. Can.
Ent.. XXXIV. 214-216 (Aug.. 1902).
Pkttit, R. H.
The egg of the Water Scorpion. Ranatra fusoa. Can. Ent. XXXIV.
212-213 (Aug.. 1902). figures.
Robertson Charljss.
Synopsis of Halictin». Can. Ent. XXXIV. 248-250 (Sept. 1902).
Rot. Elias.
L'Onthophagxis nuchicornis. Linn. Le Nat Can.. XXIX. 81-82 (June.
1902).
Roy. Elias.
Encore Un. (Records the finding of the grreen Tortoise beetle.
Casêida thwiicica, HI. (^nce proved by Dr. Fyles to be C. viridts, Liim)
at Quebec.) Le Nat Canadien. XXIX. 145-149 (Oct. 1902). figures.
Saunders. Wm.
Bees and Fruit 33rd Annual Report Fruit Growers' Assoc. Ont, 1901«
pp. 31-34.
Smith. John B.
Three new Noctuids from British North America. Can. Ent. XXXTV,
29-32 (Feb., 1902).
Smith. John B.
Hydrœcia Americana. Speyer. or Hydrcecia Atlantica, Smith. Can.
Ent. XXXIV. 32-33 (Feb., 1902).
Stevenson. Charles.
Commercial Entomology, or Insects and Insect-Products met with in
Commerce. 32nd Annual Report Ent. Soc, Ontario, 1901, pp. 113-115.
Stevenson, Charles.
Un nouveau Rhopalocêre pour la Province de Québec (Records the
capture of Cœnonympha inornata, Edw.. at Piedmont in the Laurentides.)
Le Nat. Can., XXIX. 179 (Dec, 1902).
TwEDDLE, Joseph.
Report of Committee on Codling Moth for the year 1901. 33rd Annual
Report Fruit Growers* Assoc, Ontario, 1901, pp. 7-9.
"Walker, E. M.
The Canadian species of Trimerotropis. Can. Ent., XXXIV, 1-11 (Jan..
1902), plate. (Describes and figures three new species.)
Walker, E. M.
A preliminary list of Acridiidœ of Ontario. Can. Ent., XXXIV, 251-
258 (Oct., 1902).
Walker, E. M.
A collecting trip in South-western Ontario. 32nd Annual Report Ent.
Soc, Ontario, 1901, pp. 85-90.
[bkhun«] bibliography OF CANADIAN ENTOMOLOGY 161
Walker, E. M.
Entomolosrlcal Record; Orthoptera. 82nd Annual Report Ent See.,
Ontario, 1901, pp. 108-109.
Webster, F. M.
The Trend of Insect Diffusion in North America. 82nd Annual Report
Ent Soc., Ontario, 1901, pp. 63-67 (maps).
Webster, F. M.
The imported Willow and Poplar Curculio, Cnfptorhynchuê lapathi, Linn.
32nd Annual Report Ent Soc, Ontario, 1901, pp. 67-73 (figures).
Webster, F. M.
The common cheese mite, Tyroglyphus siro, livingr in Sporotrichum
globuliferum. 82nd Annual Report Ent Soc., Ontario, 1901, pp. 73-74.
Williams, J. B.
The food of the Grass Snake (Cutworms). 32nd Annual Report Ent
Soc, Ontario, 1901, p. 115.
Williams, J. B.
Scudder's Blue iLyeœna Scudderii). Ottawa Naturalist, XV, 234 (Jan.,
1902).
Winn, Albert F.
The Milkweed at dusk (attracting insects). 32nd Annual Report Ent
Soc., Ontario, 1901, pp. 82-84 (figures).
YOUNQ, C. H.
Notes on Insects of the Year. 82nd Annual Report Ent. Soc, Ontario,
1901, pp. 24-26 (figures).
Sbction IV., 1903 [ 163 ] Trans. R. S. C.
X.— Bibliography of Canadian Zoology for 1902, exclusive of
Entomology.
By J. F. Whiteaves.
(Read May 19, 1903.)
Mammalia.
Bishop, Watson L.
The Star-nosed Mole (Condylura cristata), its breeding habits, etc
Trans. Nova Scotia Inst. Sc., Vol. X, pp. 348 and 849.
Brooks, Allan.
Mammals of the Chilliwack District, B.C.
Ottawa Naturalist, Vol. XV, pp. 289-244.
Halkstt, Andrew.
Observations of Animals native in the Algonquin Park. (Contaixm
notes on some common mammals, birds, etc.)
Ottawa Naturalist, Vol. XVI, pp. 156-161.
HUARD, L'ABBB V. A.
Ii'Ecureil volant de Labrador. (The squirrel referred to is Soiuropteruê
salrinuê makkovicenêii, Bonnborger.)
Le Naturaliste Canadien, Vol. XXIX, pp. 152 and 163.
MOORB, W. H.
A Hybrid of Sheep and Deer.
Ottawa Naturalist. Vol. XVI, pp. 162 and 163.
Birds.
Allen, J. A.
The American and European Herring Gulls. (The author maintains
that Laruê Smithêonianus is not distinct ftom L. argentatus. The former
name is to be eliminated from the A.O.U. check list.)
The Auk. VoL XIX, pp. 283 and 284.
Ames, J. H.
Ontario Bird Notes. (Records the capture of a pair of Little Blue
Herons (Ardea OErulea) and a Canada Jay at Aylmer. Ont., not P.Q.;
and of a Pine Grosbeak at Whitby.
The Auk, Vol. XIX, p. 94.
Solution of the Ornithological Mystery. (Consists of some notes on
a live Yellow Rail iPorzana NovehoraceMi») taken near Toronto.)
Idem. Vol. XIX, pp. 94 and 95.
BEAUPRE. E.
Note on the breeding of the Short-eared Owl {Abio aecipitrinus) near
Kingston. Ont.
Ottawa Naturalist. Vol. XVI. p. 108.
164 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
Bkthune. Rbv. Dr. C. J. S.
Recollections of the Passenger Pieraon.
Ottawa Naturalist, Vol. XVI, pp. 40-44.
BlGELOW, Hbnrt 6,
Birds of the Northeastern Coast of Labrador.
The Auk, Vol. XIX, pp. 24-8L
Clarkb, Dr. C. K.
Ornithological notes from Kingston, Ont.
Ottawa Naturalist, Vol. XVI, pp. 87 and 88.
COUBEAUX, EUQENE.
Synopsis of the Birds of the Saskatchewan Valleys and Tributaries.
Ottawa Naturalist, Vol. XV. pp. 245-249.
Contributions to the Natural History of the North- West Territories.
No. 2, Bird Notes.
Idem, Vol. XVI, pp. 44-46.
Deans, Ruthven.
Unusual Abundance of the Snowy Owl (Nfctea nfctea) in New England
and Canada,
The Auk. Vol. XIX. pp. 271-288.
Elliott, Robert.
The Parula Warbler.
Ottawa Naturalist, Vol. XVI, p. 96.
Fleming, J. H
Cory's Bittern.
The Auk, Vol. XIX, p. 77.
American Avocet and American Three-toed Woodpecker in Toronto.
Idem, Vol. XIX, p. 79.
Further notes on the Snowy Owl in Toronto.
Idem, Vol. XIX, p. 400.
Notes and additions to Birds of Parry Sound and Muskoka.
Idem, Vol. XIX, pp. 403 and 404.
HOBSON, W. D.
Capture of the White-eyed Vireo near Woodstock, Ont.
Ottawa Naturalist, VoL XVI, p. 163.
Howe, Reginald Heber, Jun.
Occurrence of the Barn Owl in Canada.
The Auk, Vol. XIX, p. 79.
The Labrador Savanna Sparrow. (Now called Passerculus êavanna
labradorius.)
Idem, Vol. XIX. p. 85.
Kbays, J. E.
The Cardinal an Established Resident of Ontario.
The Auk, Vol. XIX, pp. 205 and 206.
[wHOTAVEs] BIBLIOGRAPHY OF CANADIAN ZOOLOGY 168
Kells, W. L.
Nesting of some Canadian Warblers.
Ottawa Naturalist, Vol. XV, pp. 225-233.
Notes on some Winter Birds.
Idem, Vol. XVI, pp. 53 and 54.
Nesting: of some Canadian Warblers.
Idem. Vol. XVI, pp. 144-148.
Nesting of some Canadian Warblers (Second Paper).
Idem, Vol. XVI, pp. 178-186.
Kennard, Fred. H.
The Yellow-crowned Nigtot Heron Qfycticorax violaceus) In Nova Scotia.
(Records the capture of three specimens in Shelburne and Yarmouth
counties.)
The Auk, Vol. XIX. pp. 396-397.
Lucas, Dr. P. V.
Birds of New Zealand.
Journ. and Proc. Hamilton Scientific Assoc, No. XVIII, pp. 20-29.
Macoun, W. T.
Bird Notes.
Ottawa Naturalist, Vol. XV. p. 266.
Moore, W. H.
The Winter Pringrillidœ of New Brunswick.
The Auk, Vol. XIX. pp. 199-202.
The Bobolink's Love for Its Home.
Ottawa Naturalist, Vol. XV, pp. 235-236.
What the Swallows did.
Idem. Vol. XVI, pp. 121 and 122.
Notes on some Canadian Birds.
Idem, Vol. XVI, pp. 130-134.
Norris. J. Parker. Jun.
Nesting of the Tennessee Warbler in British Columbia. (The locality
from which a nest and set of four eggs of this species were taken is
Carpenter Mountain, Cariboo.)
The Auk. Vol. XIX. pp. 88 and 89.
OuiMET, Gustave.
Le Départ et le Retour des Oiseaux.
Le Naturaliste Canadien, Vol. XXIX, pp. 49-51.
Richmond, Charles W.
The Correct Name for the Canadian Pine Grosbeak. (The author
claims that it should be Pinicola enucleator leucura (Muller).
The Auk, Vol. XIX. p. 85.
Saunders. W. E.
The Ipswich Sparrow in its Summer Home.
The Auk, Vol. XIX. pp. 267-271.
The Spots on the Eggs of the Great Blue Heron.
Ottawa Naturalist, Vol. XV. pp. 282-284.
166 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
Saunders, W. E.
The American Scoter In Middlesex (Ont).
Idem, Vol. XV, pp. 284 and 285.
Birds of Sable Island.
Idem, Vol. XVI, pp. 15-81,
Bird Notes. (The Lioner-tailed Jaegrer in Ontario; the White Pelican In
Ontario, etc.)
Idem, Vol. XVI, pp. 55 and 56.
Canadian Humming birds.
Idem, Vol. XVI, pp. 97-103.
Early Nesting In 1902.
Idem, Vol XVI, pp. 107-109.
Whitbavbs, J. F.
The Gold«n Eagle (Aquila chryaœtoa) in Ontario.
Ottawa Naturalist, Vol. XV, p. 249.
Note on the nesting of the Northern Raven (CorvtM canw prineipalia) in
CJanadia.
Idem, Vol. XVI, p. 86.
Additions to the Geological Survey's Collection of Eggs In June, 1902.
Idem, Vol. XVI, p. 96.
The Acadian Sharp-tailed Sparrow {Ammodramuê caudacutus suhvirgatus).
(Records the discovery of a nest of this species, w^ith four eggs, at
Wolfville, N.S.)
Idem, Vol. XVI, p. 162.
Reptiles, Batrachians and Fishes.
HUARD, L'abbe V. A.
Une Salamandre iAtnhlystoma) Nouvelle dans la province de Qubeec.
The species, as determined by Professor Macoun, is A. Jefferêonianum,
var. latérale.
Le Naturaliste Canadien, Vol. XXIX, pp. 33-35.
Les Lamproies.
Id^m, Vol. XXIX, pp. 166-169.
Whiteaves, J. F.
A Canadian Two-headed Snake.
Ottawa Naturalist, Vol. XVI, p. 148.
Invertbbrata.
Dall, Dr. W. H.
Synopsis of the family Venerldœ and of the North American species.
(Includes a revision of the nomenclature of the Veneridœ of the
Atlantic and Pacific coasts of Canada.)
Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus.. Vol. XXVI, pp. 335-412.
MacBride, Prof. E. W.
The development of Echinus csculcntus.
Proc. Royal Soc, London, Vol. 69, pp. 268-276, with text figures 1-8.
[WHITKAVES] BIBLIOGRAPHY OF CANADIAN ZOOLOGY 167
Stafford, Dr. J.
Notes on Worms.
Zooloerischen Anzeiger, Bd. XXV. pp. 481-483.
Cephaloçonimus atnericanus (new species). (Is a description, with figrures,
of a new Canadian trematode, from the duodenum of two species of
troga,)
Centralblatt ftir Bakteriologie, etc., Bd., XXXII. pp. 719-726, with
one unnumbered plate.
The American Representatives of Distoma variegaium.
Zoologrischen Jahrbtichem, Bd. XVI, pp. 895-912, pi. 33.
The American Representatives of Distoma cygnoides.
Idem, Bd. XVH. pp. 411-424. pi. 19.
Sterki, Dr. V.
Some notes of the North American Caliculinœ, with new Species.
(The senus Caliculina, the author states, was indicated without a name
by Temple Prime in 1865. and named by Clessin in 1870. It includes
several small fresh water bivalves that differ from Sphœrium proper,
in their thinner test, smoother surface and calyculate beaks.
Calyculina transverêa (Say) and C. securis. Prime, are common in Canada
east of the Rocky Mountains, and C. partumeia (Say) and C. truncatum)
(Linsley) are said to occur in that region. But, Dr. DaJl, in a Revision
of the Cyrenacea, in the Proc. of the Biol. Soc. of Washingrton for
Feb. 21, 1903. says that Calyculina is sjoionymous with Museulium, Link.
1807. and that the latter is only a subgrenus of Sphœrium,)
The Nautilus, Vol. XVI, pp. 88-93.
Whiteaves, J. F.
Notes on some Fresh-water and Land shells from Keewatin, Northern
Ontario and British Columbia.
Ottawa Naturalist, Vol. XVI. pp. 91-93.
MISCELIjANEOUS.
Author's name not given.
Bioloerical Station Of Canada.
Ottawa Naturalist. Vol. XVI, pp. 46-52.
MacBridb, Prof. E. W.
Inaugural Address of the President of the Natural History Society of
Montreal. October, 1901.
Canadian Record of Science for January, 1902. Vol. VIII, pp. 479-492.
Ottawa Field Naturalists Club.
Report of the Zoological Branch for 1901.
Ottawa Naturalist, Vol. XVI, pp. 135-137.
ScHMiTT, Dr. Joseph.
A Summer Colony at Anticosti.
The Auk. Vol. XIX. pp. 181-183.
Fin d'été k Anticosti.
Le Naturaliste Canadien, Vol. XXIX. pp. 161-166.
Section IV., 1903 [ 160 ] Trans. R. S. C.
XI. — Botanical Bibliography of Canada, 1902.
By A. H. MaoKat, LL.D.
(Read May 19, 1903.)
Campbell, Robert.
History of the Progress of Botany in the Nineteenth Century. Read
13th March, 1902, in Somerville Course of Lectures, Natural History
Society of Montraal.
Montreal Asters and Golden Rods. Read 29th March, 1902, in Somerville
Course of Lectures, Nat. Hist. Soc, Montreal.
Campbell, R. H.
The Lesser Maples. In Rod and Gun in Canada, Vol. iv.. No. 2, p. 56.
July, 1902, Montreal
Canadian Forestry Association.
Numerous references to the applications of Botanical Science to Forest
industries in its Annual Report, 128 pages, 1902, Ottawa.
Measuring Standing Timber, Temiscamlng Fires, etc., in " Rod and
Gun in Canada," Vol. ill.. No. 8, pp. 16—20. Jan., 1902, Montreal.
Forest Fire Protection in Ontario, The Red Pine, Forestry in Nova
Scotia. /Wd, No. 9, pp 12—15. Feb., 1902.
British Forestry Bulletins, etc., Hid, No. 10, pp. 17—20. March, 1902.
Third Annual Meeting Canadian Forestry Association, etc., Ihid, No. 11,
pp. 17—20. May. 1902.
Control of Forests, etc., In '* Rod and Gun in Canada," Vol. iv.. No. 3,
pp. 105—107. Aug., 1902, Montreal.
The Douglas Fir, Forest Reserves, etc., Ihid, No. 4, pp. 141—146. Sept,
1902.
Practical Forestry, The Basswood, etc., Ihid, No. 5, pp. 175—181. Oct,
1902.
A Working Plan for Forest Lands, The Ash-leaved Maple, etc.. /6ûf, No.
6. pp. 210—212. Nov., 1902.
The Black Walnut, etc.. Hid, No. 7. pp. 262—267. Dec, 1902.
Ganonq, W. F.
A Preliminary Synopsis of the Grouping of the Vegetation (Phyteo-
graphy) of the Province of New Brunswick; reprinted from Bulletin,
Nat. Hist. Soc. of N.B., No. xxi.. pp. 47—60. St John, 1902.
Botanical Observations in " Notes on the Natural History and Physio-
graphy of New Brunswick," No. xx.. Vol. iv., pt. v., pp. 427—471. St
John, 1902.
Sec. IV., 1003. 10.
170 ROYAL SOCIETY^OF CANADA
Greene, Edward L.
Some New Canadian Seneclos, Ottawa Naturalist, VoL xv.. No. 11, pp.
250—251. Feb.. 1902. Ottawa.
Some New North-Weetem Compœitœ. Ottawa Naturalist, VoL xv.. pp.
278—282. March, 1902, Ottawa.
Five New Ranunculi, Ottawa Naturalist, Vol. xvl.. No. 2, pp. 35 — 39.
May, 1902, Ottawa.
New North-Westem Plants, Ottawa Naturalist, VoL xvl., No. 2, pp.
35—39. May, 1902, Ottawa.
Acer Macounii, In ** Pittonia," VoL v., pL 26, p. 3. Sept.-Nov., 1902,
Washington, D.C., U.S.A.
Viola Canadensis, In " Pittonia," Ihid, p. 24.
Romanzoffia Mctcounii. In ** Pittonia," ibid, p. 37. Also R. rubella and
R. glauca, pp. 37 and 38.
Chrysothamnus Macounii, In " Pittonia," ibid, p. 63.
Viola Brainardii, In "Pittonia," ibid, pp. 89 and 90. Also V, peramœna,
p. 95; V. prionosepala, F. consors, V, Watsoni, V, nesiotica, V, melissœfolia,
y\ Dicksonii, and V, nodosa, pp. 99 — ^106.
Hat, Geo. U.
Some Features of the Flora of Northern New Brunswick, Trans. Roy.
Soc, Can.. Second Series, Vol. viii.. Section iv., pp. 125—134. 27th May,
1902. Ottawa.
Observations of Plants, 1901. Bulletin Nat. Hist. Soc of New Brunswick,
No. XX., Vol. iv., pt. v., pp. 499 and 500. 1902, Saint John.
Botanical Observations in the " South Tobique Lakes," Ibidem, pp.
472—482.
Holm, Theo.
On the Genus Arctophila Rupr. Ottawa Naturalist, Vol. xvL. No. 3. pp.
77—85. June, 1902, Ottawa.
IHNB, E.
Neue Phsenologlsche Lltteratur. References to Canada, page 28 of
" Phaenologische Mlttellungen." Sonder- Abdruck aus den Abhandlungen
d. Gesellsch., xlv., Bd., NUrnberg.
Macoun, James M.
Contributions to Canadian Botany, Ottawa Naturalist. Vol. xv., No.
12. pp. 267—275. March, 1902, Ottawa.
Notes on the Willows of the Chilliwack Valley. British ' Columbia.
Ibidem, pp. 275—276.
Taraxacum in Canada. Ibidem, pp. 276—277.
[mackay] botanical BIBLIOGRAPHY OF CANADA 171
Macoun, John.
Catalogrue of Canadian Plants, Part vit» Lichenes and Hepaticœ, a volume
of 318 pages. Oeologlcal Survey of Canda, 1902, Ottawa.
Macoun, W. T.
Notes on the Arboretum and Botanic Garden, Central Experimental
Farm, Ottawa. Ottawa Naturalist, Vol. xvi.. No. 6, pp. 123—129.
A Day at Norway Bay, P.Q. Ibidem, pp. 137—138. Sept., 1902, Ottawa.
MacKay, a. H.
Phenolosrical Observations, Canada, 1901. Proc. Royal Society of
Canada, 2nd Series, Vol. viii., pp. cxviii-cxxxix. 1902, Ottawa.
Phenolo£rical Observations in Nova Scotia and Canada, 1901. Trans.
Nova Scotia Institute of Science, Vol. x., pp. 486—606. 1902. Halifax.
Labrador Plants collected by Prest in 190L Ibidem, pp. 507—508.
Critical reports of stafT of compilers of Phenological Observations In
Nova Scotia, 1901. Journal of Education, April, 1902, pp. 68—63. Halifax.
Notes and Comments on the Schedules of Phenologrical Observations
in Nova Scotia, by the Phenolosrical Compilingr Staff, ten pages.
Halifax, 1902.
Ottawa Field-Naturalist Club.
Annual Report of the Botanical Section. Ottawa Naturalist, Vol. xvi..
No. 4, pp. 104—106. July, 1902, Ottawa.
Natural History Society op New Brunswick.
Report of its Committee on Botany. Bulletin, No. xx.. Vol. iv., pt. v.,
pp. 496—498. 1902. Saint John.
Pbnhallow. D. p.
Osmundites Skidegatensis, n. sp. Trans. Royal Society of Canada, 2nd
Series. Vol. vlii., Sec. Iv., pp. 3—29 (includingr 6 pp. of illustration). Read
27 May. 1902, Ottawa.
Notes on Cretaceous and Tertiary Plants of Canada. Trans. Roy. Soc,
Can., 2nd Ser., Vol. viii.. Sec. iv.. pp. 31—91 (including 28 illustrations,
8 new species. 17 sp. annotated from Vancouver and Queen Charlotte
Islands, 32 from Red Deer River, and 12 from Horse-fly River, B.C.).
Read May, 1902, Ottawa.
Review of Eléments de Palœohotanique. Zeiller, R. Science xlll, 606, 1900;
Aaner. Nat., xxxv., 609.
A Decade of North American Pala&obotany. Près. Address, Baltimore
Meetlngr iSoc. Plant Morphol. and Physiol. Science, xiil, 161, 190L
Studies m Fossil Botany. A Review. Scott. D. H. Science, xiil., 386.
The Mesosolc Flora of the United iStates, A Review. Ward, Lester F.
Science, xiil., 904.
The Jurassic Flora of Great Britain. Seward. A. C A Review. Amer.
Nat., xxxv., 606.
172 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
Penhallow, D. p.
Address on the Progress of Fruit CuUure In the Province of Quebec.
Ann. Rept. Pom. Soc. of the Prov. of Quebec, 1900, lli.
The Wood-Pulp Industry of Canada. Montreal, March, 1902.
Robinson, Charles Budd.
Early Intervale Flora of Eastern Nova Scotia. Trans. Nova Scotia
Institute of Science, Vol. x., pp. 502—606. 1902, Halifax.
Rod and Gun in Canada.
Nova Scotia Forests; an editorial article on W. A. Hendry's Report on
the Forests of Nova Scotia to the N.S. Legislature, 1884, VoL Iv., No. 2,
pp. 56—68. July, 1902, MontreaL
The White Spruce. Ibidem, pp. 19—20; and Reply to Criticism of the
Forestry Bureau, Ccuiada, pp. 24—26. June, 1902.
Saunders, William.
Further Experiments in Plant Breeding at the Experimental Farms.
Trans. Roy. Soc., Can., 2nd Ser., VoL vlli.. Sec. Iv., pp. 115—128 (includ-
ing 6 figured). Read 27th May, 1902, Ottawa.
Van Hornb, Miss.
Some of the Mushrooms of Canada. Read 24th April, under auspices
of Natural History Society of MontreaL
Section IV., 1903 [ 173 ] Trans. R. S. C.
XII. — Bibliography of Canadian Oeology and Palœontology.
By H. M. Ami, M.A., D.Sc., F.G.S.
Of the Geological Survey of Canada.
(Read May 19, 1903).
Adams, Frank D., and John T. Nicholson.
"An Experimental Investigation into the flow of Marble."
Canadian Record of Science, Vol. Vni., No. 7, pp. 426-436, January,
1902 (issued 7, in, 1902).
Adams, Frank D.
(Geological Structure of the Montereglan Hills).
Science, United States, Vol. 15, No. 391, pp. 1009-1010. (June 27th,
1902) (New York) (Abstract of the paper read before the Royal
iSoclety, Canada. G. ,U. Hay.)
Gteology of the " Haliburton and Banopoift Areas."
iSummary Report of the (]^eological Survey, Cïanada, for 1901, pp.
146-148, issued April 15th, 1902, Ottawa.
Ami, Henrt M.
" On tihe possible occurrence of a Coal Area beneeith the Neo-Cïarboni-
ferouB or Permian Strata of Pictou Ckmnty, N.S." Canadian Min.
Inst., read before Oeun. Min. Inst., March, 1902, 7 pp.
On Belinurus Kiltorkensls, Bailey.
American Geologist, Vol. 29, No. 3, p. 188, March, 1902, Minn.
" The Great St. Lawrence— Chamiplain— Appalachian Fault of America
and some of the Geological problems connected with It."
■ Abstracts of Proc. (^ologioal Society, London, No. 764, Session
1901-1902, pp. 129-130-131 (discussion), London, England, June, 1902.
"Artesian Wells, palœontology, archœology, bibliographies."
Summary Report G^eological Survey of Canada, for 1901, pp. 258-
266, Ottawa, Canada. April 15th, 1902.
"Brief description of the Map of the Ottawa district"
The Ottawa NaturaUst, Vol. XVI, No. 9, pp. 187-189, December,
1902, Ottawa, Canada.
"Bibliography of Dr. George Dawson."
Canadian Record of Science, Vol. VIII, No. 8, pp. 503-516, July 1902,
Montreal, Quebec.
Separate issue, December 17th, 1902.
" The Meso-Carboniferous age of the Union and Riversdale for-
mations of Nova Scotia." Read before the Geological Society,
America, Jan. 2nd, 1902. (Abstract.)
Science, Vol. XV, No. 368, p. 90, New York City, January 17th, 1902.
Notes on the Albany meeting of the G^eological Society of America,
held December, 1900.
Canadian Record of Science, Vol. VIH, No. 7, pp. 471-477. Jan. 1902.
174 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
Ami, h. m.
Annual Report of the Geologrical Section of the Ottawa Field
Naturalist'fl Club, tar the year 1901-1902. Addreeeed to the Council of
the O.F.N.C. (Read January 14th, 1902.)
Ottawa Naturalist. Vol. XV, No. II, pp. 254-262, February 6th, 1902.
" The Union and Rlversdale formations in Nova Scotia." (Discussion
and correspondence.)
Science, N.S., Vol. XV, No. 875, p. 392, March 7th, 1902, New York
City, N.Y., U.S.A.
The Oaimjbrlan age of the Dictyonenta Slates of Nova BcoWa.
Greologlcal Magazine, Vol. 9, May, 1902, pp. 218-219, London, England.
Field-Notee on the Gteology of the Country about Chelsea.
Otta/wa Field Naturalists' Excursion, Chelsea, Seiptemlber 6th. 1902.
Ottawa Naturalist. Vol. XVI, No. 7. pp. 149-151. October 6th, 1902,
Ottawa, Canada.
Review of Whiteaves's ** Catalogue of Marine Invertebrata of Baatern
CiEUiada. Geological Survey of CJaniada, 271 pp.. No. 722, October, 1901,
Ottawa." Geological Centralbaatt, Xieipzic, Bd. II., No. 21, pp. 729-
730 1902.
"On the succession of Strata In Sastem Ontario." The (Geological
Society of America. Scientific American. Supplement No. 1360, Voi.
LiIII, p. 21798, January 25(th, 1902, New York. Abstract of pac>er by
B. O. Hovey.
Review of Dr. G. F. Mattiiew's pisuper, "Are the St. John plant beds
Carboniferous?"
The Ottawa Naturalist, Vol. XV, No. 12, p. 286. March, 1902, Ottawa,
Canada.
Appendix. PrelinUnary lists of «the Organic Tomalns ooourring in the
various Geological formations comprised in the Map of Ottawa Dis-
trict, including formations in the Provinces of Quebec and Ontario,
along the Ottawa River, pp. 49G-77G.
Annual Report Geological Survey of Canada, Part G, Vol. XII
(Appendix to Report, by R. W. Ells), No. 741,
The Ordovician Succession in Eastern Ontario. (Read before the
Geological Society, America, Rochester, December 31st, 1901.
Science, Vol. XV, No. 368, New York, January 17th, 1902, p. 82
(Abstract.)
(With note on discussion, by Bailey Willis, W. M. Davis, and
Hon. C. D. Walcott.) New York City.
Bailey, L. W.
" New Brunswick."
Summary Report Geological Survey, Canada, for 1901, pp. 190-204,
1902 (Ap. 15), Ottawa, Canada.
" On some modes of occurrence of the Mineral Albertite."
Trans. Royal Society, Canada, 2nd series. Vol. VIII, Sect. 4, pp.
77-83, with plate, 6 figures. Received February 4th, 1902, marked
1901.
" On some Geological correlations in New Brunswick."
Trans. Royal Society, Canada, 2nd series. Vol. VII, pp. 143-160.
marked 1901. Received at Ottawa, 24th February, 1902.
[ami] bibliography OF CANADIAN GEOLOGY 175
Barlow, A. E.
"On the Nepheline rocks of Ice River, British Columbia."
Ottawa Naturalist. Vol. XVI, No. 3 (June. 1902), pp. 70-76, Ottawa.
June. 1902.
Petrogra'phlcai and microscopical charajcters and descriptions of rocks
from Eastern shore of Lake Winnipeg.
Geological Survey of Canada, Annual Report, Vol. XI, pp. 26G-27G.
To accompany Report of J. B. Tyrrell, East side of Lake Winni-
peg, dated 1901. Ottawa. Issued 1902.
"The Sudbury District."
Summary Report of the Geological Survey, Canada, for 1901, pp.
141-145, April 15th, 1902, Ottawa. Canada.
" Dr. Alfred R. C. Selwyn, C.M.G., F.R.S., Director of the Geological
Survey of Canada, 1869-1894." (Obituary notice with portrait.)
The Ottawa Naturalist, Vol. XVI. No. 9 (portrait), pp. 171-177.
December, 1902, Ottawa, Canada.
(Separates distributed 20th December, 1902.)
Bather, F. A.
A Record of, and an index to the Literature of EJchinoderma pub-
liabed during the year 1901.
Bell., Robert.
Summary Report (geological Survey Department for 1901 (R. Bell,
acting Director). 269 pages, Ottawa, Canada.
Reviewed by H. S. Williams in American Journal of Science, 4th
series. Vol. XIII, No. 78, June, 1902. pp. 473-474, New Haven. Conn.
Map. Geological Map of the Dominion of Canada.
Western Sheet, No. 783, Scale 50 miles to the inch, Ottawa, 1902.
Blakemore, W.
The iron ore deposits near Kitchener, British Columbia.
The Engineering and Mining Journal, Vol. LXXIII. No. II, pp.
382-383, March 15th, 1902, New York, United States. Read before
the Canadian Mining Institute, March 6th, 1902.
Bonnet, T. G.
"A sodalite syenite from Ice River Valley. Canadian Rocky
Mountains."
Geological Magazine, Vol. 9, May, 1902, pp. 199-205 (May), London,
England.
Boyd, D. G.
Michipicoten Mining Division.
Eleventh Annual Report, Ontario Division of Mines, 1902, pp. 74-78,
Toronto, Ontario. Printed by order of the Legislative Assembly
of Ontario.
Brewer, William M.
"Progress in Mining and Smelting." Boundary Mining District.
British Columbia.
The Engineering and Mining Journal. Vol. LXXIII, No. 18, May
8rd. 1902, pp. 617-620. Illustrated by photo and diagrams.
176 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
Brewer, William M.
Boundary Cireek Mlnlnfir District proiper. "Minlngr and Smeltlngr/'
British Columbia.
Tlhe Ensrineering and 'Mining Joumal, 1902.
McKee Creelc, Atlin Minlngr Division, British Columbia.
Engrin. and iMin. Journ,, Vol. 73, No. 7, p. 243-3. Feto. 16th, 1902.
"Alberta Territory, Canada. Coal fields on Crow's Nest Pass Brancii
of the Canadian Pacific Railway."
Bngto. and Mlniner Jour.. Vol. 73, No. 22. p. 757-8. May 31. 1902.
Brock, R. W.
The Boundary Creek District, British Columbia.
Summary Report, Canadian Geological Survey, 1901, pp. 46-67. April
15th, 1902. Ottawa, Ontario.
The Ore deposits of the Boundary District. British Columbia.^
The Engineering and Mining Journal. VoL 78, No. II, pp. 885-S87,
Meu>ch 15th. 1902. New York City, New York. (Read before the
Canadian Mining Institute, March &th. 1902.)
Brooks, William.
*• Notes from the Atlin District." BriUsh Columbia.
Engineering and Mining Journal, VoL 74, No. 22, November 29th,
1902, pp. 707-708. (Illustrated.) New York City.
Brown. R. M.
Oaspé Point; a type of cuspate foreland.
Journal, Geological, Vol. I, October, 1902, p. 343, 1902.
BucHAN. John S.
" Some notée on Mount Royal." Illustrated.
Canadian Record of Science. Vol. 8. No. 8. pp. 517-525. July. 1902,
issued November, 1902. Montreal. Quebec.
Carter, W. B. H.
The Mines of Ontario.
Eleventh ïteport Bureau of Mines for Ontanlo, pp. 231-298, 1902.
Printed by order of the Legislative Assembly of Ontario.
Chalmers, Robert.
" On borings for natural gas, petroleum and water, also notes on the
surface geology of parts of Ontario."
Summary Report of the Geological Survey Dept. for 1901, pp. 158-
169, April lath, 1902, Ottawa, Canada.
Coleman, A. P.
Syenites from Port Coldwell.
Eleventh Report Bureau of Mines, Ontario, pp. 208-213, Toronto.
Printed by order of the Legislative Assembly of Ontario.
" Iron ranges in Nortlh-westem Ontario."
Eleventh Report of the Bureau of Mines, Ontario, 1902, p. 128-151,
Toronto. Printed by order of the Legislative Assembly of Ontario.
The Huronian Question.
The American Geologist, Vol. 29, No. 6, June, 1902, pp. 325-334,
Minn., U.S.A.
[ami] bibliography OF CANADIAN GEOLOGY 177
COLBMAN, A. P.
Neoïiheliiie and other Syenltea near Port CoMwell, Ontario.
XVII, American Journal, Science, 4th series. Vol. XIV, No. 80,
Aufirust. 1902, pp. 147-155, August, 1902, New Haven.
"The duration of the Toronto Intergrlaclal period."
American Geologist, VoL XXIX, No. 2, pp. 71-79, February, 1902,
Minneapolis, Minn., U.S.A.
Rock Basins of Helen Mine, Mlchiplcoten, Canada.
Bull. Geological Society, America. Vol. 13, pp. 298-804, pt 46, figures
1 and 2, Rochester, Nefw York. (Read heifore the Geological Society
of America.) Rochester, December 31st, 1901.
Science, N. series, Vol. XV, No. 368, pp. 88-84, January ITth. 1902,
New York City, N.Y., U.S.A.
Nepheline sjrenites and other syenites near Port Coldwell, Ontario.
American Journal of Science, Vol. 14, pp. 147-156, August, 1902,
New Haven.
CoLBMAN, A. P., and A. B. Willmott.
" The Mlchiplcoten Iron region."
Eleventh Report Bureau of Mines, Ontario, pp. 152-185, Toronto,
Ontario.
Printed by order of the Legislative Assembly of Ontarla
Geological Map of Mlchiplcoten Iron Range.
Eleventh Repwt of the Bureau of Mines for Ottawa, Ontaria
Scale, 40 chains to 1 Indh. Two sections and legend.
(CoPB, E. D.)
"Catalogue chronologique des publications, par Perslifoir Fnazer."
Annales de la Société Géologique de Belgique, Vol. 29, 77 pp, Liiége,
Belgique, 1902.
Crobbt, W. O.
•'Origin ahd relations of the auriferous veins of Algoma (Western
Ontario."
Tedhnology Quarterly, Vol. XV, No. 2, June, 1901, pp. 161-180
(Abstnacts from Prof. A P. Coleman's Report) Author's Edition.
(See also Report Bureau of Mines.)
Daly, R. A.
" The Geology of the region adjoining the Western part of the Inter-
national Boundary Line."
Summary Report of the (Geological Survey Department for 1901,
pp. 37-49, April 15th, 1902, Ottawa, Canada.
" The (Geology of the North East Coast of Labrador."
Bull. Mus. Comp. Zoology at Harvard College, VoL XXXVIIL
Geological Series, Vol. V. No. 5, pp. 205-270, plates 1 to 11 (one to
eleven), Cambridge, Mass., U.S.A., February, 1902.
178 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
Donald. J. T.
The Jdmestanea of the Phillipsburgh Railway ajid Coal Company.
Engrin. and Mining Join^n., Vol. 73, No. 19, p. 667. May, 1902.
DowuNO, D. B.
The West side of James Bay.
Summary Report Geological Survey, Canada, for 1901, issued 1902,
April 15th, 1902, pp. 107-115, Ottawa, Canada.
Drbssbr, J. A.
•* Petrognaphy of Shefford and Brome Mauntalne."
Summary Report of the Qeologrlcal Survey Department for 1901,
pp. 183-187, April 15th, 1902, Ottawa, Ontario.
"A petrographical contribution to the Oeology of the Eastern Town-
ships of the Province of Quebec."
American Journal of Science, 4th series, VoL XIII, No. 29, July,
1902, pp. 43-48 (1902) (Sketdh Map.)
Dumais, p. H.
" Quelques aperçus sur la géologie du Sasruenay."
La formatine du lac Saint John. Continué de la page 182, Vol. 27.
Le Nat. Canadien, Vol. 29 (9e de la 2 série). No. 10, Oct. 02, pp. 149-
152, Quebec.
" Quelques aperçus sur la géoloigie du Saguenay."
Le Nat. Canadien, Vol. XXIX (IX de la 2nd série). No. H, Novem-
bre, 1902, Quebec, pp. 172-175.
Ellis, W. H. (Prof.)
" Analysis of Anthrazolite from Hudson's Bay."
Science, U.S., No. 391, p. 1014, abstract (% p.) iSamiple brought by
O. R. Meikle, Long Island, Hudson's Bay.
Ellb, R. W,
" The Carboniferous Basin in New Brunswick."
Trans. Royal Society, Canada, 2nd series, 1901-1902, Vol. VII, sec-
tion IV, Ottawa, Canada, pp. 45-56. Read May 23rd, 1901.
"Notes on the geology of Minos Basin.'*
" Acadia AtJhenseum," Vol. XXVIII, No. 4, pp. 153-162, February,
1902, Wolfvllle, Nova Scotia.
" The district around Kingston, Ontario."
Summary Report Geological Survey department for 1901, pp. 170-
183, Ottawa, Canada,
" Marl deposits in Ontario, Quebec, New Brunswick and Nova Scotia."
The Ottawa Naturalist, Vol. XVI, pp. 59-69, June 3rd, 1902, Ottawa,
Canada. Separatee.
Faribault, E. R.
Nova Scotia Gold Fields.
Summary Report Geological Survey Department for 1901, pp. 214-
221, April 15, 1902, Ottawa, Canada,
Fletcher, Hugh.
" Klnigs and Hants Counties, Nova Scotia."
Summary Report Geological Survey Department for 1901, pp. 208-
214, with map, April 15th, 1902, Ottawa, Canada.
[ami] bibliography OF CANADIAN GEOLOGY 170
Frazbr, Persifor.
Catalogrue chronologlqiie des puWlcation-s de Edward Drinker Cope,
profeaseuT de geolo^rie de l'Université de Pennsylvanie de 1850 & 1897.
Annales Soc. Qeol. Belgrlque, Vol. 29, Liège, 1902.
Gbolooical Survey Department.
Summary Report Geological Survey Department for the year 1901,
pp. 269, 13 sketch maps.
(R. Bell, axîtdng Director and staff.) Printed by order of Parlia-
ment, April 15th, 1902.
Gibson, Thomas W.
Eleventh Report of the Bureau of Mines, Ontario, 1902, pp. 309.
Maps, Toronto, Canada, 1902 (pp. 9-61.)
Gilpin, Edward, Jr.
Report on the Mines of Nova Scotia.
Report Department of Mines for the year ending September, 1901,
pp. 87, and XXXI, Halifax. Nova Scotia, 1902.
Grant, C. C, Col.
"Geological Notes" (continued.)
Journ. and Proc. Hamilton Association, Session 1901-1902, No.
XVIII, pp. 48-52. Preceded on pp. 46-47, and followed on p. 53 by
three plates of fossils?
Coral Reefs, Modern and Ancient.
Journal and Proc. Hamilton Association, Session 1901-1902, No.
XVIII, pp. 43-45, 1902, Hamilton, Ontario.
" Opening Address, Geological Section for Session, 1901-1902."
Journ. and Proc. Hamilton Scientific Assoc, Session 1901-1902, No.
XVIII, pp. 33-42, Hamilton, Ontario. November, 1902.
•• Evolution vs. the fall of Man.'*
Journ. and Proc. Hamilton Association, Session 1901-1902, VoL
XVII, pp. 62-«7, Hamilton, Ontario, November, 1902. Ethnological.
Groom, Prof. T.
'* The Great St. Ijawre»nce-Cham?plain-Appalachlan Fault and some of
the Geological Problems connectfed with it."
Pioc. Geological Society, London, No. 764, Session 1901-02, p. 131,
London, June, 1902. (Abstract.)
Grabau. a. W.
Spirifeir mucronâtus and its derivatives. (Read before the Geol.
Society, America, Pittsburg, Pa., June, 1902.)
Noticed in American Geologist, Vol. 30, p. 134, August, 1902.
Grabau, a. W., and Hbrvby W. Shimer.
Hamilton GJroup of Thedford, Ontario.
Bulletin of the Geological Society of America, Vol 13, pp. 149-186,
August, 1902, Rochester, New York, U.S.A.
" Stratigraphical and Faunal succession in the Hamilton Group of
Thedford, Ontario." (Read before the Geologrical Society of America,
December 31st, 1901. Rochester, New York.)
Science. U.S., Vol. XV, No. 368, pp. 82-88, January 17th, 1902, New
York City, MacMillan & Co.
180 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
OWXLXJM, J. C.
Glaciation in the Atlin district» British Columbia.
Journal Geology, Vol. 10, pp. 182-185, February, March, 1902.
•• North ThoropfK» River and Tote JIaune Cache District."
The British Columbia Mining Record, VoL IX, No. 1. pp. 26-28
(illustrated), January, 1902, Victoria, British Columbia.
Harrinqton, B. J.
"George Mercer Dawson" (with portrait). Biographical sketch.
Canadian Record of Science, VoL Vni, No. 7, pp. 418-425, January,
1902 (issued March, 1902.)
Hat, G. U.
Section of the (Geological and Biological Sciences, Royal Society of
Canada.
Science, U.S., VoL 15, No. 891, pp. 1009-1012, June 27th, 1902.
Hatcock, Ernest.
Fossils, possibly Triassic in the Glaciated fragments in the boulder
clay of King's County, N.S. Rec'd for pub., December 18th, 190L
Trans. Nova Scbtian Institute of Science, pp. 376-378, June, 1902.
"The Geological History of the (3kLspereau Valley."
Trans. Nova Scotia Work of Science, VoL X, pp. 861-875. (Rec'd
for publication. December 18th, 1901.) Issued from press, and
distributed June, 1902. Plate VIL
Hoffmann, G. C.
" Chemistry and Mineralogy."
Summary Report of the G^eological Survey Department for 1901,
pp. 280-239, April, 1902, Ottawa, Canada.
"Ocouarence of Chrompioolite In Canada."
American Journal of Science, VoL XHI, March, 1902, pp. 242-248,
New Haven, 1902.
HovBY, E. O., and R. P. Whitfield.
Catalogue of the types and figures, speclmeais, In tlhe paleeontologioal
collections of the Geological Department, American Museum of
Natural History.
VoL XI, Bull. American Museum of Natural History, pp. 1-500,
1898-99-1901-02. Refers to numerous types from Canada.
INQALL, £. D.
" The progress of mining in Canada."
Summary Report Geological Survey Department for 1901, pp. 289-
244, April 15th, 1902, Ottawa, Canada.
JOHNBTON, J. F. B.
" Eastern part of the Abitlbi region."
Summary Report of the Geologrical Survey Department for 1901,
pp. 128-141; map. April 15tlh, 1902, Ottawa, Canada.
Kain, S. W.
Report on archœology.
Bull. Natural History Society, New Brunswick. No. XX, pp. 494-
495, 1902, St. John, New Brunswick.
[ami] bibliography OF CANADIAN GEOLOGY 181
Kbilhack, K.
Geoloffiedhes CentraJblatt.
Bd. II» No. 18, pp. 545-546» 568-669. Reviews of papers» hy Dtresser»
Whlteaves.
IiAFLAMMB» PrOF. J. C. K.
"GeolofiTlcal Explorations of Antlcostl."
Summary Report Geolosrlcal Survey Department for 1901» pp. 188-
194» April 15tlh» 1902» Ottawa» Canada.
Lambb, L. M.
Red Deer river» Alberta» wltb paiseootolofilcal peuper added on Trionyz
foveatus» Leidy and Trlonyx vagans» Cope» from the Cretaceous
Rocks of Alberta (with four plates.)
Summary Report of the Geological Survey Départent for 1901,
pp. 80-85, pis. I-IV» 1902» Ottawa» Canada.
New Genera and^ species from the Belly River series (Mid-Cretaceous.)
(Geological Survey» Canada, Contribution to the Can. Pal.» Vol. m,
pp. 25-81» plates 4 to 20» 1902» Ottawa, Canada.
New Oenera and species from the Belly River series (Mid-Cretaceous.)
Geological Survey, Canada, Contribution to the Can. PaL, VoL III
(Quarto) Pt. 2. On Vertebrata of the Mid-Cretaceous of the
North West Territory, pp. 25-81, 21 plates. Issued 18th September,
1902.
(IjAMBB» L. M.) review.
"A review of the genera and species of Canadian palSBozoic coraJs."
C^anadian Record of Science, VoL 8, No. 7, pp. 499-500, January, 1902,
issued March 7th» 1902» by Rev. ur, R. Campbell.
Lapworth. Charles.
"The Great St Lawrence-Champlain- Appalachian Fault and some
of the Geological problems connected with it" (discussion.)
Proc. Geol. Soc.» London» No. 764» pp. 130-131» June» 1902. London»
Bn^cland.
Lbach» W. W.
"Crows Nest Coal Field."
Summary Report Geological Survey Department for 1901, pp. 67-
79, April 15th» 1902» Ottawa, Canada.
Matthew, G. F.» Review of Work by.
'* Hyolithes gracilis and related forms from the lower Cambrian of
fthe St. John Group."
Trans. Royal Society, Canada. 2nd series» Vol. VII, section 4, pp.
109-111 (1901). Issued March» 1902» received at Ottawa, March 30th,
1902.)
" Studies in Cambrian faunas of Eastern Canada."
Science» N.S.» No. 391» Vol. XV, pp. lOlO-lOU (June 27th, '02), New
York City. (Abeti^act by G. U. Say.) Inserted between 466-469.
182 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
Matthews. G. F.
'* Cambrian Rocks and fossils of Cape Breton."
Summary Report Geological Survey Dept for 1901 (April l&th,
1902), pp. 221-230, Ottawa, Canada.
" Ostracoda of the basal Cambrian Rocks in Cape Breton."
Canadian Record of Science, Vol. VIII, No. 7, for January, 1902,
issued February. 1902, Montreal, pp. 487-468, two pkutee, Inaerted
between pp. 466-469.
"Additional notes on the Cambrian of Cape Breton with descrip-
tions of new species."
Bulletin of Natiiraa Hiatory. N.S., No. XX, Vol. IV, pt 5, pp. 377-
425, 5 plates.
Reviewed anonymously In American Journal Science, VoL 13, No.
76, April, 1902, New Haven, p. 324.
" Additional Notes on the Cambrian of Cape Breton."
Bull. Nat. Hist. Soc., N. Br. Can., No. XX. Vol. IV, part V, St.
John, N. Br., pp. 377-425 (one table facing p. 879, one pagre of
exrata, plates 13-18, January, 1902.
(I>ie Geograiphisohe Ver1>reditan« and Entwickelun^ dee Camibnian, von
Pritz Fr*K>h. Breslau.)
Review of Recent Geological Literature, Amer. CreoL, VoL 29, No.
2, pp. 117-119, February, 1902, Minneapolis, Minn., U.S.A.
(Uelber die Borkholmer Schidht dn Silui^ibiet von Carl Wiman). BulL
Gieol. Inet. Upsala, No. 10, Vd. V, pt 2, 1900.
See Review of Recent Geolo^cal Literature, Amer. Geol., Vol. 29,
No. 2, 1902, February, Minneapolis, Minn., U.â.A.
'* Stratigiiaphy versus Paleontologry In Nova Scotia," (Discussion and
CorrespondencAj
Science, N.S., Vol. XVI, No. 404, pp. 513-514, 1902, September 20th.
" A backward step in palœobotany."
Trans. Roy. Soc, Can., 2nd series. Vol. VII, Sect. IV, pp. 113-122,
1902. Named 1902. (Issued March, 1902.)
Review of Bidrag till Kanna domen om Trilobibernas Byggnad af.
Job. Ohr. Moberg. (Af tryck ur Geol. forent Stockholm, fohhandl. Bd.
24, H. 5, 1902.)
Amer. Geol., Vol. XXX, p. 390, 1902.
Matthbw, W. D.
"The skull of Hypisodus, tftie smallest of the artiodaxîtyla with a
revision of the Hypertragulidœ.
BulL Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., Vol. 16, Art. 23, pp. 311-316, September
25th, New York City, 1902.
McCONNELL, R. G.
" The Yukon District"
Summary Report Geological Survey Department for 1901, pp. 23-
37, April 16th, 1902, Ottawa, Canada.
" Note on the so-called basal granite of the Yukon Valley."
Amer. Gteol., Vol. 30, No. 1, pp. 55-62, July, 1902, Minneapolis, Minn.,
U.S.A.
[ami] bibliography OF CANADIAN GEOLOGY 183
McEvoY, J.
•' Geological and Topogrraphical Ma/p Of the Crows Nest Coal Fields,
Eaat Kootenay District, B.C." ScaJe 2 miles to one inch. Geologrical
Survey of Canada.
Issued November 7th, 1902, Ottawa. Printed by onder of ParlJa-
ment.
Meissnbr, C. a.
"Some of the pyrites deposits at Port au Port, Neiwfoundland."
" The Eng-ineening and Mining Journal, Vol. 73, No. 18, pp. 626-627.
With map (.May 3, 1902) New York.
Mendenhall, W. C. ,
The Outlook in the Klondyke.
The Engineering and Mining Journal, Vol. 73, No. 18, p. 615, May
3rd, 1902, New York City.
Miller, W. G.
" The Eastern Ontario Gold Belt."
Eleventh Report of the Bureau of Mines, Ontario, pp. 186-207, 1902,
Toronto, Ontario. Printed by order "of the Legislative Assembly
of Ontario.
Outline Map of the Eastern Ontario Gold Belt To accompany Report
of W. G. Miller.
Eleventh Report of the Bureau of Mines, 1902. Scale, 4 miles to 1
inch.
" Lake Temiscaming to Height of Land."
Eleventh Report Bureau of Mines, Ontario, 1902, pp. 214-230, Toronto,
Ontario. Printed by order of the Legislative Assembly of Ontario.
Nattress, Thos. (with determinations by J. F. Whitbavbs).
"Ttoe Comlferoua exposure in Anderdon."
Eleventh Report Bureau of Mines, Ontario, pp. 123-127, J902, Toronto.
Printed by order of the Legislative Assembly of Ontario.
Obalski, J.
Mining operations on the Province of Quebec for the year 190L
Forming part of the Ann. Report, Dept Lands, Mines and Fisheries,
!for fiscal year 1900-1901, Quebec, 1902, 47 pages.
OSANN, A.
" Notes on certain Archœian rocks of «the Ottawa Valley."
(Tranel. by N. N. Evans.) Oeol. Surv. Canada, No. 763, Part O.
Ana, Rep., Vol. XII, 84 pages, 11 plates, Ottawa, 1902.
OSBORN, H. F.
" Distinctive characters of the Mid-Cretaceous fauna."
Geol. Surv., Canada, Contrlb. to the Can. PaL, VoL III (quarto),
pt. II, on investigation of the Mid-Cretaceous of the North West
Territory, by H. F. Oebom and L. M. Lambe, 21 i>ag<es (issued Sep-
temiber ISth, 1902), Ottawa.
184 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
Parks, W. A.
" The Country East of >îipigon Lake and River."
Summary Report Geological Survey Department for 1901, pp. 108-
107, April 15th, 1902, Ottawa, Ontario.
Penhallow, D. p.
(Cretaceous and Tertiary Plants of Canada.) (Abstract)
Science, N.S., VoL 15, No. 891, pp. 1011, June 27th, 1902. In Rep.
of Piroc Boyl. Soc., Cam, (Toronrto Meeting, 1902, by G. U. Hay.)
Pooua, H. S.
"The Coal Problem in New Bnmswlck."
Summary Report Geol. Surv. Dept for 1901, pp. 204-206, April 15th»
1902, (Xtawa» Canada. PrJinted bygorder of FarUament.
Prbston, H. L.
" Niagara Meteorite."
Journ, QeoU Vol. X, pp. 518-520, July- August, 1902.
RBID, HARRT FlBLDINa.
The variations of Glaciers, VII.
Joum. of Geol., Vod. 10, Na 8, pp. 818-817, Canada,p. 815-816, April-
May, 1902.
Previous Référencée.
L— lb., Vol. m, pp. 278-288, Canada.
IL— lb., Vol. V, pp. 878-883, Canada,
IIL— lb.. Vol VI, pp. 473-476, Canada,
IV.— lb.. Vol. Vn, pp. 217-225, Canada,
v.— lb.. Vol. VIII, pp. 154-159, Canada.
VI.— lb.. Vol. IX, pp. 250-254, Canada.
RlKS, Heinrich.
" Analyses of red felspar from Bedford, Ontario, Canada."
U.S. Geol. Surv. The production of flint and felspar in 1901.
lE^xtr. from Miaiing Resources of U.S. for 1901, D. T. Day, Washing-
ton, 1902, p. 8, (% p.).
SOMERBFELBTT. E.
Review of Report, by J. McEvoy, on Geol. and Not. Res. of Country.
(Crow's Nest Coal-Flelds.)
Neues Jahrbuch fUr Min. Greol. und Pal., p. 430 (% p.) I Band,
Drittes Heft, May, 1902.
ScHUCHERT, Charles.
Palseozoic seas and barriers in Eastern North America,
Report N.Y. State Palœontologist, 1901, p. 633-663, maps and illustra-
tions, July, 1902, Albany, New York.
(SB1.WTN, Alfred R. C.)
Biogrraplhioal sketdh of "Dr. Alfred R. C. Selwyn, C.M.G., F.R.S.,
Director of the Geologrical Survey of Canada, 1869-1894," by Dr. A. E.
Barlow, Ottawa, with portrait.
Ottawa Naturalist, Vol. XVI, No. 9, pp. 171-177, December, 1902,
Ottawa, Canada^
[ami] bibliography OF CANADIAN GEOLOGY 185
(Selwyn, Alfrkd R. C.)
Obituary Notice. (Anonymous.)
Canadian Mining Review, Vol. 21, No. XI, November 30th, 1902,
Ottawa, pp. 265-266 (portrait)
Senegal. C. O.
" Mapping and Engraving."
Summary Report Geological Survey Dept. for 1901, pp. 244-251,
April 15th, 1902, Ottawa, Canada.
SiiiMER. H. W.. and A. W. Grabau.
" Stratigraphical and Faunal Succession in the Hamilton Group of
Thedford, Ontario. (Read before the Geol. Soc. of Amer., December
31st, 1901) Rochester, N.Y.
Science, N.S., Vol. XV, No. 368. pp. 82-83, January 17th. 1902
(abstract). New York City.
" Hamilton Group of Thedford, Ontario."
Bull. Geol. Society, Amer., Vol. 13, pp. 149-186, August, 1902,
Rochester, New York, U.S.A.
Shutt, F. T.
Report of the chemist.
Central Experimental Farm, Dept. of Agriculture. Ann. Report
Exp. Farms, for 1901, pp. 153-155, reference to Ottawa, Ontario.
Printed by order of ParliiameTit, 1902.
Spencer. Arthur C.
" The Pacific Mountain System in British Columbia and Alaska."
(Read before the Geol. Soc. of Amer., at the Pittsburg Meeting, June»
1902.)
Noticed: Amer. Journ.. Vol. 30, pp. 133. August, 1902.
•• The Pacific Mountain System of British Columbia and Alaska."
Science, Vol. 16, p. 261, August 15th, 1902.
Spencer, J. W.
" The Windward Islands of the West Indies." (Read, 2nd Nov., 1901.)
Trans. Can. Int., No. 14, October, 1902, Vol. VII. Part 2, 1902, Toronto,
Ontario, pp. 351-370. With eight plates, six map charts, and
illustrations.
Te ALL, J. J. H., and H. B. W.
•* Dr. George Mercer Dawson (Obituary Notice.)
Anniversary Address of the President, Vol. 58, pp. 55, 1902.
Thatcher, J. B.
A correction of Prof. Osborn's note entitled, ** New Vertebrates of the
Mi d-Cretaceous. ' *
Science, Vol. 16, No. 21. 1902.
Tristram, Rev. Canon H. B.
*• Thp Cahow« of the Bermudas."
Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., 7th series, Vol. 9, No. 54, pp. 447-448
June, 1902.
Sec. IV., urn, 11.
186 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
Ulrich, E. O., and Charles Scuuchbrt.
Palaeozoic seas and barriers in Eastern North America.
Rep.. N.y.. State Geologist, for 1901, pp. 633-663, Albany, N.Y., July,
1902.
Verrill, a. E.
•* The * Oahow * of the Bermudas," an extinct bird.
Ann. Magr. of Nat. Hist., January, 1902, 7th series. Vol. 9, No. 49, pp. 26-
31, London, 1902.
Walcott, C. T>.
Outlook of the Oeologrist in America.
Bull. Geol. Soc, Amer., Vol. 13, pp. 99-118, February, 1902. (Rec'd
at Ottawa, 28-3-1902). Rochester, N.Y., references to Canadian Work.
See also T. O. Hovey's notice in Engin, and Min. Journ., N.Y. City.
1902.
Walker, A. E.
** Obituary."
Journ. and Proc, Hamilton, Session 1901-02, No. XVIII, p. 118
(portrait), November, 1902, Hamilton, Ontario.
Weatherbbe. D'Arcy.
•' Memorandum of boring opera^tions with the Government drills.
Boring Machines/'
Report of the Dept. of Mines, Nova Scotia, for the year ending, 80th
September. 1901, pp. 73-76, Halifax, N.S.
Wells. J. W.
" Arsenic In Ontario."
Eleventh Report of the Bureau of Mines, Ontario, pp. 101-122, 1902,
Toronto, Ontario. Printed by order of the Legislative Assembly of
Ontario.
\V'HiTE, David.
" Stratigraphy versus Palœontolosy."
Science, Vol. 16, p. 232. August 8th. 1902.
" Stratigraphy versus Palaeontology in Nova Scotia."
Science, N.S., Vol. XVI, No. 397, pp. 232-235, August 8th. 1902, New
York City.
Whit eaves, J. F.
*' On tlie Grenus Paucnka, Barrande, with a description of a second
Si»ec es of that genus from the Devonian Rocks of Ontario."
Ottawa Nat., Vol. XV, No. 12, pp. 263-265. March 8th, 1902, Ottawa,
Canada. (Separates issued March 10th, 1902).
*• lleview of Cat. of Marine Invertebrata of Eastern Canada."
Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist. 7th series, Vol. 9, No. 50, p. 156, London,
L:iiS-land, 1902.
*• Palaeontology and Zoology."
Summary Rerort (leol. Surv. Dept. for 1901. Printed by order of
Parliament. April 15th, 1902. i)p. 251-25S, Ottawa, Ontario.
[ami] bibliography OF CANADIAN GEOLOGY ;187
Whiteaves, J. F.
" On the G^nus Trlmerella, with descriptions of two supposed new
species of that genus from the Silurian rocks of Keewatin " (with two
plates.)
The Ottawa Nat., Vol. XVI, No. 7, pp. 139-143. October, 1902, pt 1.
Whitfield, R. P., and E. O. Hovbt.
" Catalogrue of the types and ngrured specimens in the Palseontolofirical
collection of the Geologrical Department, Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist."
Vol. XI, Bull. Ann. Mus. Nat. Hist.. Vol. XI, pp. 1-600. 190L
Numerous Canadian species listed.
Wilcox. W. D.
" Recent explorations in the Canadian Rockies."
National Geogr. Mag., Vol. 13. pp. 141-168. May, 1902. Issued in
June. 1902.
Williams, H. S.
Correlation papers. " Fossil faunas and their use in correlating
geological formations."
Amer. Journ. Sc, 4 ser.. Vol. 13, No. 78, June. 1902.
WlLLMOTT. A. B.
" The nomenclature of Lake Superior formations."
Journ. of Geology. Vol. X, No. 1, January-February, 1902, March,
1902, pp. 67-76.
**The mineral industries of Sault Ste. Marie."
Eleventh Report Bureau of Mines for Ontario, pp. 91-100, Toronto.
Printed by order of the Legislative Assembly of Ontario.
" The Michipicoten Iron region."
Eleventh Report Bureau of Mines, Ontario, 1902, pp. 152-185, Toronto.
Printed by order of the Legislative Assembly of Ontario.
Map of the Helen Mine. Scale 300 ft. to 1 inch.
To accompany Eleventh Report of the Bureau of Mines. 1902
Hypothetical sections along west boundary of Helen Claim. Scale,
600 ft. to 1 inch.
WiL.soN, Dii. Alfred W. G.
'* Some recent folds in the Lorraine shales." Illustrated, 4 plates. 1
figure.
Can. Rec. Sc, Vol. 8, No. 8, pp. 525-531, July, 1902. Issued, November,
1902. Montreal, Quebec.
•• The Country West of Nipigon Lake and River."
Summary Report Geol. Surv. Dept, for 1901. PP. 94-103. April. 1902,
Ottawa, Canada. Printed by order of Parliajnent.
Wilson. W. J.
"Western Part of the Abltibi region."
Summary Report Geol. Surv. Dept. for 1901. pp. 115-128, Ottawa.
Canada. April 15th. 1902.
188 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
WiNCHBLL. N. H. (Review.)
Review of Summary Report OeoL Surv. J>ept. for 1901, Ottawa (April
15th, 1902), pp. 269, 13 sketch maps.
Amer. GeoL. VoL 30, No. 1. pp. 64-65. July, 1902.
" The Sutton Mountain." (Editorial comment.)
Amer. G^eoL, Vol. XXX, No. 2, pp. 118-120, Au^rust, 1902. Maintains
view that rocks of Sutton are Archœan.
Woodward, Henry.
"The Canadian Rockies, pt L On a collection of Middle Cambrian
fossils obtained by Edward Whymper, Esq., F.R.G.S., from Mount
Stephen, British Colimibia."
Geol. Mag., N.S., December 4th, No. 462, Vol. 9. No. 13. December,
1902. pp. 529-544. December, 1902.
"The Canadian Rockies, pt. 2. On a collection of Middle C^ambrian
fossils obtained by Edward Whsnnper, Esq., F.R.G.S., from Mount
Stephen, British Columbia."
(3eo. Mag., N.S., December 4th, No. 461, VoL IX, pp. 502-505,
November, 1902.
Wright, G. F.
The rate of lateral erosion at Niagrara.
Amer. OeoL, Vol. 29, pp. 140-143, March, 1902. Minneapolis. Minn.
Wright, Joseph.
"On the Marine faima of the boulder clay." (Read before the Brit.
Amer. Adr. Sc, Sect C. Geologry, September, 1902, Belfast meeting.
OeoL Ma«r.> N.S., No. 461, pp. 518-519. December 4th. Vol. IX. No.
XI, November, 1902, Iiondon. England.
Section IV., 1903 [ 189 ] Traks. R. 8. C.
XIII. — Some Aspects of the Development of Comparative Psychology.
By Wesley Mills, M.A., M.D., Etc.
Professor of Physiologry In McGiU University, Montreal, Canada.
(Read May 19, 1903.)
It is probably most satisfactory in every way if an address ia to
be general, that it shall have its foundation in the line of reeearch
which has most engaged the author for a number of years past. In
harmony with this principle it was open to me to choose some subject
bearing either on the anatomy and physiology of the nervous system,
or one dealing with animal intelligence. To have treated the former
in a way satisfactory to myself, would have implied considerable
illustration and the use of the lantern, which could likely not be carried
•out without breaking in on an evening, and that was more than I
cared to ask the section to do. Hence the selection of — Some Aspects
of the Development of Animal Intelligence, as the topic of this
address, the treatment of which must, in the nature of the case be
incomplete.
It is no doubt true that man is more dependent on his environ-
ment than any other animal, if we restrict that term to the material
world about us, but the very expression '' Every man is the product of
his age,'^ conveys the truth that the greatest genius can get only so
far beyond the average thought of his time. As Darwin long ago
pointed out, the most important factor in man's environment is man
himself. One has scarcely emerged from infancy before the accumu-
lated forces of the ages in human traditions and knowledge begin to
mould the developing human being, and determine what he shall be.
So that, be as independent and original as anyone may, he is still in a
sense a product of his environment. Of anything analogous to this
among the lower animals tliere is little, consequently in taking account
of the state of comparative psychology as it is to-day, and the steps
by which it has been brought to its present development, one cannot
for a moment lose sight of the general trend of thought and the whole
sum of forces that we term environment. If it be a fact, as it is, that
men ta-day regard animals in a wholly different light from that of the
Middle Ages and long after, it is because our general philosophy of life
and our point of view have greatly changed.
Art is in an especial way the reflection of the thought and feeling
of the time, and one cannot but know the indifference with which the
old masters treated nature and especially animals; they were with them
190 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
simply objects in most instances to fill in a scene, either in the fore-
ground, or more frequently the background. Man was with them, as
with the masses of the people, the centre in this mundane universe ; and
all things had to be represented as correspondingly subordinated to
him. It was only comparatively recently that animals were painted,
simply because they were animals and not the mere servants or play-
things of man. It is impossible to conceive of a Landseer in the age
of Dante, and one is not greatly surprised that even so eminent a
philosopher as Descartes should have regarded animals merely as
automata. Not a few in this room can remember the time when with
the masses the attitude towards the dog might be summed up in the
question. What good is he? The idea that a dog might be a creature
worthy of serious study with a view of ascertaining his place in the
psychological scale, certainly did not enter into the minds of men
generally prior to Darwin. But that great transformer, the doctrine of
organic evolution, has wrought wonders for psychology as well as
biology. When man conceived of the world as developing, rather than
as completed, the whole attitude of the reflecting animal man was
changed.
It is absolutely impossible to understand the rapidity of the pro-
gress of comparative psychology, or even the change of front, within
80 short a period as twenty years, without bearing in mind this cardinal
facft. How truly incomprehensible to most . scientists even must
have been fifty years ago, such a problem as that which has attracted
the attention of some of the best biologists and psychologists of late,
namely, the degree to which consciousness extends back and down into
the lower strata of the animal kingdom. It is now even asked
why we should deny all glimmerings of consciousness to plants, even
whether there is not a nexus between the animate and the inanimate of
a kind more intimate than we have supposed. Even after men began
to concede that animals were more than mere living machines worked
by their senses — if they even gave enough attention to the subject to
get that far — it was some time before intelligent people got beyond
" instinct," the rough-and-ready cant phrase with which to place an
animal in a classification that separated it immeasurably from man.
People hardly conceived of man as a creature with as many instincts as
the brutes. Kapidly, however, of late have the masses begun to realize
that not instinct alone but intelligence must be invoked to explain
animals. As a natural consequence of this change — this preparation
of the soil of the human mind to receive new idea.< — there oame a wave
of enthusiasm which led some of those who were naturally lovers of
animals, and also serious students of the nature of their inner life to <:n
too far — to attempt to explain the animal too fully by the man, t(^ road
[MiLi^j DEVELOPMENT OF COMPARATIVE PSYCHOLOGY 191
into him all that characterized the creature of the highest intelligence.
ITowever, this is, on the whole, scarcely to be regretted, for interest
was through this sympathetic bond awakened and prepared the way for
that critical investigation of animal psychology, which at an earlier
period would have been premature.
Naturalists at a time prior to what may be termed the laboratory
period, had no^ed the habits of animals with loving interest, but had
not subjected them to a very critical analysis, and certainly had scarcely
dreamt of correlating the mental life of even the highest groups of
animals with that of man. Darwin had set the example of investigat-
ing the mental life of animals and of man by the same method of close
observation. A study of his dog and his child were to him of equal
interest scientifically, and his records remain among the most valuable
of their kind to this day.
Sir John Lubbock soon followed after with admirable studies of
insects. Huxley remained the critic, and his attitude in regard to
animal intelligence, is one of the features of that great man's mental
character not readily understood. To think that so pronounced an
evolutionist should have held views not greatly different from those
of Descartes, is truly surprising. Lubbock had worthy fellow-workers
in McCook, Forel, the Peckhams* and others. Probably no man did
more, in Great Britain at all event?, to stimulate the interest not only
of scientists, but that large body of people who read to a greater or
less extent the more popular of the scientific journals, than Romanes.
He wHfl in a position to devote much time to the subject, and hi^
numerous letters and the replies they called forth in "Nature,'' have
been among the most telling influences of our own time in advancing
this subject. He has embodied his views in works, that in spite of all
the destructive criticism of the last half dozen years, remain valuable
both as storehouses of fact and examples of helpful critical analysis.
Within at the most ten years another great change has taken place.
The biologists began to be more accurate, systematic and comparative
in their observations, and mor^t important of all, a different class of
thinkers entered the field. If the biologists can be compared to the
spearmen or the axemen of the army, the psychologists are the bowmen.
They brought to the task, at all events, more skill in mental analysis
and perhaps a clearer comprehension of the pro])lems to be solved.
They were, moreover, ]>etter prepared to correlate the data of animal
and human psychology and find what was common to both, as well as
draw sharp lines of distinction, if indeed, such lines can be dxawn. If,
on the one hand, the naturalists had been spasmodic, unsystematic and
rather loose in their contributions and superficial in their analyses, the
psychologists showed a tendency to substitute words and definitions for
192 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
realities. Arm-chair animal psychology has no doubt been evolved
from insuflBcient data — an affair of words rather than of things — never-
theless great good has resulted for all, as we have been brought to what
may be termed the experimental and critical age of comparative
psychology.
It was most fortunate, that as successor to Romanes in Great
Britain, the subject should have been taken up by a man so thoroughly
prepared for his task a& Lloyd Morgan, who is at once a biologist, a
psychologist and a master of the pen. His works, in spite of the
critical acumen they show, can be read by anyone with a moderate
knowledge of biology and a sympathy with the subject of animal intel-
ligence. And that has given them a wide circulation, a most important
matter for the education of large numbers of persons to brooder and
truer views of the relations of man and his fellow-creatures. This is
surely of the utmost importance, if we are to look to a right mental
attitude as of more to man than food and raiment.
Still later we see a rise within a very few years of a class of investi-
gators, that I presume would prefer to be called the experimental
school, but whom I shall designate the laboratory school and the indivi-
duals the laborators, for I do not grant that they were the first
experimenters. Their researches have practically all been such as can
be readily carried out in the laboratory, a fact which explains at once
to a large extent, their excellencies and their defects, especially the
latter. This school has, on the whole, been destructive. If it has
on the one hand brought few bricks to the pile, it has on the other
boldly attempted to overturn some edifices that were relatively of
ancient date and regarded by many with considerable respect. The
nio?t extreme representatives of this school deny to animals, not only
reasoning and every form of intelligence )>roper, but even imitation and
memory. The whole psychic life of animals not to be explained by
instinct, was for them the result of the operation of the law of associa-
tion of ideas; all else was illusion and delusion; previous workers were
regarded as prejudiced in favour of animals; they were adjuclored to
have written as if they held a brief for animals as creatures that
mentally were very like man, differing not »o much in qualities as in
the degree to which they were developed.
All this is wrong, utterly wrong, according to this very modem
school, and claiming that anecdotes were rather misleading than help-
ful, that observations were of little value at the best, it was maintained
that there had really, up till then, been no experiments worthy of the
name, and that now, for the first time, was there something to be pre-
sented on which reliance might be placed, in spite of the fact tha^t
some, at all events, of the experimenters had neither biological
[mills] development OF COMPARATIVE PSYCHOLOGY 193
knowledge nor special experience of any kind with animals, and were
plainly prejudiced at the outset against the views that the common
sense of mankind, as well as the consensus of opinion among naturalists
had held to be worthy of consideration. One of this school, perhaps
to be considered the leader, claimed that with his method one only
needed "a pair of eyes.'^ This experimenter proceeded to place cats
in cages 20 inches long, 15 broad and 12 high, and because they did
not, under the stimulus of hunger, speedily manipulate certain
mechanisms successfully he, on this and similar evidence, employing
also dogs and other animals, proceeds to demolish in very summary
fashion, the fundamental conclusions of hosts of observers who had
several of them occupied many years in their, tasks. Some of
these condusians seemed to be al)solutely against common sense. Here
we had, indeed, a violent reaction against that excess of credulity, which
it must be confessed had existed, and it again was the natural reaction
against that indifference to animals which had characterized preceding
ages.
As the experimental methods of the laborators are now attract-
ing so much attention, it will be worth while to examine them a little
more fully. I elsewhere criticised, some four years ago, the methods
and conclusions of the chief agnostic of this school, Dr. Thomdike,
and I see now no reason to change the opinions I then expressed.
Indeed, since that time the experience, and I may add the failures of
others working along the same lines, have only strengthened the force
of my convictions.
Mr. L. T. Hobhouse made a number of experiments on the dog,
the cat, the monkey, the elephant and the otter. In the main these
tests were carried out under conditions somewhat more natural than
those of the experimenters of the school in question, but still they do
not differ suflBciently to free them from the force of the objections
which may be urged against all such ways of determining the nature
of animal intelligence. Nevertheless, Mr. Hobhouse, using similar
methods, came to very different conclusions from Dr. Thomdike, so
that it would appear that something more than "a pair of eyes^^ is
necessary for the solutions of the problems of animal psychology. Mr.
Hobhouse from all his experiments and a critical examination of those
of others, together with the weighing of the evidence afforded by the
most extended and accurate series of consecutive observations on
mammals available, came to the conclusion that "on their own lines
and in their own way, some of the more understood mammals hanre*
powers equivalent to fhose of the ape." He also in criticism of the
experimental method says, " so a dog may show not merely highly deve-
loped hunting instincts, but real cleverness in the adaptation of past
194 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
experience when it is a question of catching a hare, but he may be also
an intolerable dullard about opening a box." Herein lies a great truth
which the experimenters have failed in general to note. No animal
and no man is equal to his fellows in all respects, and we know that
some very able men, some men of undoubted genius, are exceedingly
slow in certain directions.
To test an animales intelligence by mechanisms, seems to be about
on a par with gauging the nature of a man's intellect by certain '^ puz-
zles '' in which, as is well-known, many able men are indeed '•' intoler-
able dullards.'' A set of experiments better adapted for the examina-
tion of the intelligence of the group in question, white rats, was that
of Mr. Small. He used a maze, which was so arranged that when the
animal secured the food that was put in the central portion, he was
free from the maze and could return to his cage. The shortest path
to the food was 105 feet, and there were 27 corners to be turned.
It is a very noteworthy fact that when monkeys wore tried in a §imilar
maze they did no better than the rats, in fact scarcely as well. But
how fallacious it would be to conclude that the rat's intelligence is
equal to that of the monkey. However, Mr. Small seems to have been
a somewhat cautious investigator, and his work, including observa-
tions systematically carried out on the psychic development of
young white rats — which he has been good enough to say was suggested
by my own series on our domestic mammals and birds — his experi-
ments with the white rat and his discerning criticism of the work of
others, had not a little advanced the subject of animal psychology.
Tn quite another class and altogether less open to criticism, ara
certain oxperiments made by Mr. Hobhouse. Ile ascertained how a
dog, left upstairs in a building would get to his master who called him
from outside. While some of the laborators have almost wholly
ipniorod the individuality of animals, this criticism does not apply to
Mr. Hobhouse. As this writer seems to me to have taken, on the
whole, alyout the broadest, safest and most helpful views of animal
intelligence, 1 feel justified even in so general a treatment of the >iib-
ject, as the occasion permits in calling further attention to them.
Passing by his discussion of instinct for the present, after pointing out
that Dr. Thorndike's experiments with cats, dogs and chickens were
*^ quite outride the range of the animal's ordinary experience," he savs.
^' What Mr. Thorndike's experiments prove so far, is not that cats and
dogs are invariably educated by the association process, that is by
habituation alone, but on the contrary that at least some cats and doi^s
conform in at least one point to the method of acquisition bv concrete
experience — they learn in a very few instances."
lifiLis] DEVELOPMENT OF COMPARATIVE PSYCHOLOGY 195
Mr. Hobhouse was one of the first to recognize clearly, though 1
do not say adequately, that the success of the animal in certain situa-
tionfl depends largely on the degree to which it can attend to anything
in hand. It Ls not snflBcient that an animal be stimulated, as by
hunger and the sight of food — to instance a favourite stimulus used
by the laborators — the animal must, if it would succeed in certain
complicated situations, be able to exercise an inhibitory influence and
direct its attention to the essential points in the solution of a pro-
blem, and in this respect, not only do groups but individuals differ
greatly. Speaking generally, the poodle has the power of attention
above every other breed of dogs, so far as the learning of tricks is
concerned, yet in the hunting field the pointer or setter is incompar-
ably his superior, even in this matter of attention. But there is much
in Mr. Hobhouse's generalization, " that an animal can shift its atten-
tion to this or that object, or change within the sphere of perception,
but it apparently cannot follow out the structure of any complex
object with any minuteness and accuracy,'' and I would add that it is
just here that man is so far in advance of the animal and some indivi-
duals, especially among men, superior to others.
The experimental examination of this point, so far as animals are
concerned, offers an inviting and possibly fruitful field. Mr. Hobhouse
found the Rhesus monkey less attentive than his dog, and not more so
than the cat. But attention can be cultivated, as was shown by the
improvement of this writer's dog Jack. Both the dog and the cat,
he tells us, showed a general appreciation of what was to be done, they
became excited when preparations were made for a fresh experiment,
even if it was of a new kind. Speaking of another dog, Mr. Hobhouse
says, " but apparently she was guided by what in the human being we
should call common sense," an opinion, which of itself, suflBces to show
that though conservative he docs not belong to the extreme agnostic
school of comparative psychology. On p. 222 of his book, Mr. Hob-
house presents the following summary : " On the whole, then it would
seem that animals are influenced by similarity of relations. Not that
they dissect out the common element which constitutes a cla^s
identity; they have not solved the problem which' has baffled logicians;
it is rather that they have a concrete perception of the man or animal,
house or locality, with which they are familiar; that such an object
contains many objects in various relations, and that when they meet
another object, similar in general character, t.6., really in its con-
stitutive relations to the first, they know how to deal with it. This
implies that they have the power of grasping an object as a whoie
including distinct elements which I have called Concrete Experience,
and the power of applying this experience, which I have called
li^6 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
Practical Judgment/* And again, he makes the following compre-
hensive statement, which is worth quoting in full : " However, this
may be, we have some ground for thinking that the more intelligent
animals have a knowledge of surrounding objects which they apply in
action; that they are capable of learning to act in accordance with
physical changes which they witness; that they may be influenced by
the. general similarities which unite individuals of the same class, and
can guide their action in dealing with any object by the relation in
which it stands to that which they desire. Further, evidence has been
brought that in the process by which they learn, not repetition of
instance, but concentration of attention is the important point.
Lastly, it is suggested that in soma cases they not only merely learn
to meet a given perception with a certain motor reaction, but also to
combine and adapt their actions so as to elffect physical changes which,
as they have learned, aid them in gaining their ends."
" We have thus gone over all the points enumerated on p. 134,
as descriptive of Concrete Experience and Practical Judgment, and
have seen some ground for imputing each and all to the higher
animals. At no point, perhaps, is the evidence conclusive, but it is to
be remembered that these functions are indicated so that evidence of
capacity for one is indirect evidence of capacity for another. We have,
therefore, a set of independent arguments all pointing in the same
direction, and it is on this convergence of evidence rather than on
decisive proof at any point, that our hypothesis must rest.**
But little credit has been given to animals by the laborators for
inhibition or self-restraint. Their experiments were not calculated i^
bring this quality into bold relief — quite tho contrary. Such experi-
ments often tend to cause mental disorder, so that one is not observing
the animal at its best, but at its worst. Mr. Hobhouse, however, has
not wholly neglected this subject, for he remarks that ''the self-restraint
of the pointer is the result of severe training, but we must not regard it
as the result of mere blind habit superseding blind impulse, for, as
Diezel remarks, the same dog who will refrain from following a hare
in his masters presence, will eagerly chase it if unobserved. The
impulse is not instinct, but is controlled by the knowledge of results.**
This subject is another on which fruitful work might be done; and
here again one finds the greatest difference between individual animals
as also between individual men. The difficulties in carrying out ex-
periments on monkeys, because of their restlessness, are great and Dr.
Thcrndike and Mr. Kinnaman deserve great credit for their persev-
erance, thoug^h I must say I should not liave expected the most satis-
factory results from some of their tests. Dr. Thorndike points out that
the monkeys represent progress in mental development from the gene-
[MILLS] DEVELOPMENT OF COMPARATIVE PSYCHOLOGY 197
ralised mammalian type towards man in several directions, as in their
sensory and motor equipment, but he is inclined in accordance with his
views of animal intelligence and psychology generally to make all things
pivot on the association process. He says, " Let us not wonder at the
comparative absence of free ideas in the monkeys, much less at the ab-
sence of inferences or concepts. Let us not wonder that the only de-
monstrable intellectual advance of the monkeys over the mammals in
general is the change from the few narrowly confined practical asso-
ciations to an amplitude of all sorts, for that may turn out to be at the
bottom the only demonstrable advance of man, an advance which in
connection with the brain acting with increased delicacy and irritability
brings in its train the functions which mark off human mentality from
that of all other animals.'' And in his paper on the Evolution of the
Human Intellect, he expresses the opinion that the '' Intelloctual evolu-
tion of the race consists in the increase of the nu^mber, delicacy, com-
plexity, prominence and speed-formation of such associations. In man
this increase reaches such a point that apparently a new type of mind
results which conceals the real continuity of the process."
1 cannot but think myself that this is but a small part — a mere
chapter of the whole .story, and that by believing this to be the whole
we retard progress. I wish to point out, however, that there does not
seem to be the same objection to the methods of the laborators when
applied to lower vertebrates. Dr. Thomdike^s own studies on a fish,
Fuiidulus, with a low type of brain; the investigation of Yerkes and
Bosworth on the cray-fish; that of Y^'erkes on the turtle; those on birds
by various observera; and others to which the limitations of time do
not permit me to allude, all seem to be in the right direction; all the
more as in the case of fishes, turtles and other aquatic creatures ordi-
nary observations must, in the nature of the case, be very restricted.
We should surely expect that simple association processes would play a
larger part in the psychic life of such creatures than in that of mam-
mals. But when it is urged that association processes with instinct
explain all, or practically all in the mental make-up of animals, I must
enter a most vigorous protest.
Mr. Kinnaman is not sure, as a consequence of his investigations
on the monkey, and as Dr. Thomdike believes, that they have no "free
ideas'' — to use the terminology of the latter, and expresses his views
regarding the monkey and animals generally, as follows : "Whether
these animals have ' free ideas ' and general notions beyond the mere
^recept' and are capa]>le of real analogical reasoning, cannot be posi-
tively determined. If they do the processes certainly do not rise to the
level of full reflex consciousness. Y^'et there is no way of knowing, be-
198 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
cause there is no certain way of having the consciousness that the ani-
mal has. But that these monkeys have often acted objectively just as
human beings act when they have tbese mental activities is most certain.
I am inclined to believe that the human and animtd consciousness are
not really different in kind but only in degree; the difference in degree,
however, is very groat/' Mr. Hobhouse believes that there come
points in growth where change of degree becomes change of kind,
and refers to the fact that water may become vapour or ice according to
the rate of vibration of the constituent molecules. However, analogies
are proverbially dangerous.
With this writer's other views on the relation of human and animal
intelligence as exprc-ssed in the following words, I find myself in accord:
'* Human intelligence develops out of a lower form by growth in this
feature of Comprehension on the one hand and Articulateness on the
other, by which the higher stage of animal intelligence was marked off
from the lower. Mind, it is suggested, differs from mind in the degree
in which these powers are developed, in the experience which it can
comprehend and in the articulateness with which it can comprehend
it.^^
A noteworthy recent contribution to our subject is the address of
Prof. C. S. Minot to the American Association for the Advancement of
Science on " The Problem of Consoiousness in its Biological Aspects,"
from which it appears that the professed psychologists are not doing all
the thinking on psychology or philosophy. His general attitude may
be understood from the following passage: "We must look to biolo-
gists for the mighty generalisations to come rather than to the philoso-
phers, because great Tiew thoughts are generated more by the arcumu-
lation of observations than by deep meditation. To know, observe.
Observe Tiiore and more and in the end you will know. A generalisation
is a mountain of observations; from the summit the outlook is broad,
the great observers climb to the outlook while the mere thinker struggles
to imagine it. The best that can be achieved by sheer thinking on the
data of ordinary human experience, we have already as our glorious in-
heritance. The principal contribution of science to human ,progre8S is
the recognition of the value of accumulating data which are found out-
side of ordinary human experience." Minot^s cardinal principle is thus
expressed: *^The function of consciousness is to dislocate in time the
reactions from sensations." '* Conscious inhibitation is thus distinct
from reflex action; the potential reaction may, however, be stored up
and eflect future conduct. Consciousness has a selective power mani-
fest both in choosing from sensations received at the same time and in
combining sensations received at different times. It may make syn-
[mills] development OF COMPARATIVE PSYCHOLOGY 199
chronous impression dysynchronous in their effects and dysynchronous
impressions synchronous, which statement is but a paraphrase of the
original, — the function of consciousness is to dislocate in time the re-
actions from the sensations."
" Our eyes, ears, taste, etc., are available because they supply con-
sciousness with data. Our nerves, muscles, bones, etc., are available
because they enable consciousness to effect the needed reactions." His
view of animal consciousness is thus forcibly expressed: "The con-
ception of homology, both of structure and of function lies at the base
of all biological science, which must be and remain incomprehensible
to any mind not thoroughly imbued with this conception. Unless those
who are deficient in this respect can fail to understand that the evi-
dence is overwhelming that animals have a consciousness homologous
\yith the human consciousness, the proof is conclusive. As regards at
least mammals — I think we can safely say as regards vertebrates — the
proof is the whole sum of our knowledge of the structure, functions and
life of these animals. As we descend the animal scale, to lower animals
there is no break and therefore no point in the descent where we can
say here animal consciousness ends and animals below are without it.
It seems inevitable therefore to admit that consciousness extends far
down through the animal kingdom, certainly at least as far down as
there are animals with sense organs, or even the most rudimentary
nervous system. It is unsatisfactory to rely chiefly on the anatomical
evidence for the answer to our query. We await eagerly the results
from psychological experiments on the lower vertebrates. A sense
organ, however, implies consciousness, and since such organs occur
among ccelenterates, we are ready to assign consciousness to these ani-
mals.''
" The series of considerations which we have had before us lead
directly to the conclusion that the development and improvement of
consciousness has been the most imjwrtant, really the dominating factor
in tlie evolution of the aniinal series.^'
Minot is of those who would not deny consciousness absolutely to
even vegetable organisms, for he says : " A frank unbiased study of con-
sciousness must convince ever}' biologist that it is one of the funda-
mental phenomena of at least animal life, if not, as is quite possible, of
all life."
On adjustment and communication between individuals he thus
expresses himself: " It is interesting to consider the evolution of adjust-
ment to external reality in its broadest features. In the lowest animals
the range of the possible adjustment is very limited. In them not only
is a variety of possible actions small, but they cover also a small period
200 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
of time. In animals which have acquired a higher organism the adjust-
ments are more complex, both because the reactions are more varied and
because they cover a longer period of time. Thus the jelly fish depends
upon such food as happens to come within its reach, seizing from
moment to moment that which it encounters; but the lobster pursues
its food, making complicated movements in order to reach and seize it.
One can trap a lobster easily; I doubt if one can trap a jelly fish at all.
The next great advance is marked by the establishment of communi-
cation between individuals of the same species. About this phenomena
we know exceedingly little; the investigation of it is one of the most
important duties of the comparative physiologist. Its bionomic value is
obviously great for it allows an individual to utilise the experience of
another as well as its own. We might indeed compare it with the addi-
tion of a new sense, so greatly does it extend the sources* of information.
The communication between individuals is especially characteristic of
vertebrates, and in the higher members of the sub-kingdom it plays a
great role in aiding the work of consciousness. In man, owing to arti-
culate speech, the factor of communication has acquired a maximum
importance. TJie value of language, our principal medium of commu-
nication, lies in its aiding the adjustment of the individual and the race
to external reality. Human evolution is the continuance of animal
evolution, and in both the dominant factor has been the increase of the
resources available for consciousness.*'
Professor Minot believes that consciousness is a real and dominant
factor in the evolution of animals, that it affects the vital processes :
"' There i^ in my opinion no possibility of avoiding the conclusion that
consciousness stands in immediate causal rohition with physiological
processes.''
Wliilo I may not be ready forthwith to admit that Minot's dictum
in regard to consciousness is perfectly satisfactory, it has been gratifying
to me to find so many views similar to those wliich I have been myself
accustomed for the past f(*w years to elaborate in my lectures to
students, expressed so clearly and vigorously in this address.
H. S. Jennings, who has worked much on the reactions of infu-
soria, after criticising the conclusions of Hodge and Aikins, which he
concludes go too far, refers to Minot's views. He thinks that by this
writer's criterion we should clearly have to attribute consciousness to
Stentor, for at times this creature inhibits reactions to stimuli, while
airain it reacts strongly. Jennings is not, however, satisfied with
Minot's criterion for he believes that, ^^ Unconscious mechanisms can be
constructed and indeed do exist, in which there is a dislocation in time
[mills] development OF COMPARATIVE PSYCHOLOGY 201
between the action of an outer agent upfon the machine and the reaction
of the machine similar to what we find in organisms/*
I can do hut scant justice to a highly critical, profound and sug-
gestive paper hy H. Heath Bawden on " The Psychological Theory of
Organic Evolution." He passes in review the work of Binet, Cope,
Loeb and others. Professor Loeb lays stress on what he terms " asso-
ciated memory,*' by which he means, "that mechanism by which a
stimulus brings about not only the effects which its nature and the
specific structure of the irritable organ call for, but by which it brings
about also the effects of other stimuli which formerly acted upon the
organism almost or quite simultaneously with the stimulus in question.**
Consciousness ceases with " associated memory,** as in sleep, anaesthesia,
etc. According to this test Loeb fails to find consciousness in Infu-
soria, Coelenterates and Worms, and doubtfully in many higher forms.
He is quite certain of consciousness only in many of the higher verte-
brates. Bawden thinks Loeb errs, and while be believes that this* crite-
rion may be good for determining the degree of mammalian conscious-
ness, he believes it too restricted to apply to the whole animal kingdom,
much less to the plant world. Romanes held that " consciousness was
that which enables the organisms to learn to make new adjustments or
to modify old ones in accordance with the results of its own individual
experience.** " Purposivene&s means simple adaptation of means to
ends; consciousness means the ability to vary the use of means to as:
end. The former may be quite automatic, the latter alone must be
conscious.** (Bawden).
Baldwin says, " Consciousness is the new thing in nature, the thing
which organisms show in all cases, their latest and finest adjustment
and the central fact of consciousness, its prime intrument, its selective
agent, its seizing, grasping, relating, assimilating, apperceiving — in
short, its accommodating element and process — is attention.**
Probably in no direction has more solid advance been made within
the last ten years than in the psychology of instinct, impulse, habit and
kindred subjects. Professor Lloyd Morgan's best contributions have
been in this realm. In this* he has been both the observer and the
thinker, and his biological training has been at once a preparation for
the task and a ground of confidence for the reader of his works. His
" Habit and Instinct *" embodies much of the best that has been attained
in that department. He, however, wisely draws on the stores of others
and in these subjects the data are more abundant and reliable probably
than in any other department of the whole field. The investigations
of the Peckhams on insects deserve in this connection special mention.
Sec. IV., 19a3. 12.
202 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
' All agree that it is here that man and the animals stand on common
ground. There is scarcely a prominent writer on human psychology
who has not treated at greater or less length of the subject of impulse,
instinct and habit. However, a great field is yet open notwith-
standing all that has been done, including such bold attempts as that
of Professor Baldwin and others, to determine the sphere of these fun-
damental activities in the course of organic evolution in general.
Tihe limitations of this address will not jpermit of extended re-
ference to this subject in which some of the best work of the last decade
has been done. But at least a word must be said of the investigations
of I'rofeJMSor Qroos whose books on the play of animals and play in the
human being are mines of learning and full of suggestive, highly in-
teresting and generally valuable information. Mr. H. B. Marshall has
also quite recently devoted an entire work to the subject of " Instinct
and Reason.'^
It seem? to me that development in this subject has been retarded
by an inadequate appreciation of what I conceive to be of the greatest
moment: — that the qualifications of the investigator are of quite as
much importance as the method, probably a great deal more. Pro-
fessor Groos has thus referred to the equipment of the individual who
would study animals in one of their asjjpcts : " The author of the psy-
chology of animal play should have in reality, not alone two but many
souls within his breast.** He would have him combine with all the
varied ideas and experiences of a man who has traversed the round
globe, the special knowledge of the director of a zoological garden, and
also that of him who has penetrated the life secrets of the forest, and
who can moreover take the ipoint of view of a student of aesthetics. If
these are the qualifications for a special investigation of animal play,
they are surely not less called for in the other realms of comparative
psychology. However, many who are not qualified to do the highest
kind of work in this department of investigation, can, if they will, make
contributions of accurate observations, but they must be slow to draw
conclusions and have a saving modesty which can hardly be claimed
as the most distinctive characteristic of the present day investigator,
but which so often caused Charles Darwin to pause.
Tio more than one has it seemed desirable that some correlation
between the animal and the human mind should be attempted and this
could be best done by comparing the former with the human within a
relatiyely short time after birth. Already a goodly store of material is
available, but special child study to this end is one of the needs of the
hour.
[millb] development OF COMPARATIVE PSYCHOLOGY 208
Summary,
The évolution of comparative psychology has followed in the main
the evolution of biology and of psychology, and the general trend of
human thought.
T\lien man^s mental attitude towards nature in general changed,
animals also were regarded in a new light.
Until comparatively recently the contributions to the subject have
been characterised by many-sidedness, but at the same time by loose-
ness and often inaccuracy, with a tendency to undue credulity and
anthropomorphism.
'The " experiments '' of the laboratory school of comparative psy-
chology have been chiefly \-aluable in their negative and indirect results.
A large proportion of the tests used thus far have been inadequate and
often positively misleading; but they have also indicated the directions
in which we need not hope to succeed, and suggested more fruitful
methods. These experiments have shown that under even unfavourable
conditions animals may form new mental associations with surprising
rapidity.
The laboratory methods have proved themselves best adapted to the
study of invertebrates and the lower vertebrates.
The most fruitful work thus far done has been the observation of
the development of animals from birth upward by the consecutive or
(fairly) continuous method, together with such exjRerimentation as has
been carried out under freer and more natural conditions generally than
those under which the laborators* worked.
It is important that similar observations and experiments be made
on other of our domestic animals and especially on wild animals.
In all cases the investigator should be, if possible, a man with a
knowledge of animal life in general, and a special knowledge of the ani-
mals to be subjected to critical observation ; and if he can combine this
with a scientific acquaintance with both biology and psychology, so much
the better. The sooner it is realised that the man is as important a6'
the method, the better for the development of comparative psychology.
Much light is likely to oome to comparative psychology from judi-
cious child study and it is important that both biologists and psycho-
logists turn towards and if possible work in concert in dealing with so
large a field as comiparative psychology.
204 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
LiITBRATURB.
laUBBOCK, Sir John.
Ants, BeeB and Wasps.
D. Appleton & Co., New York, 1883.
On the Senses, Instincts and Intelligence of Animals. 18d7.
Romanes, G. J.
Animal Intelligence.
Mental Evolution in Man. 1899.
Thorndike, E. Li.
Animal Intelligence. Monograph, Suppleanent to Psychological Review
1898.
The Mental Life of the Monkeys.
Ibid,, 1901.
The Evolution of the Human Intellect.
Popular Science Monthly, Vol. 60, No. 1, Nov., 19C1.
The Intelligence of Monkeys.
Ibid,, Vol. 69.
SliALL, W. S.
Notes on the Psychic I>evelopnkent of the Young White Rat
American Journal of Psychology, Oct., 1899.
Experimental Study of the Mental Processes of the Rat, XL
Ibid,, 1901.
HOBHOUSE, L, T.
Mind in Evolution .
MaoMillan & Co., 1901.
Mills, Wesley.
The Nature and I>evelopment of Animal Intelligence.
MacMillan & Co., 1898.
Psychological Review, Vol. VI, No. 3.
KiNNAMAN, A. J.
Mental L#ife of Two Macacus Rhesus Monkeys in Captivity.
American Journal of Psychology, Vol. 13.
MiNOT, C. S.
The Problem of Consciousness In its Biological Aspects.
Science, N.S., Vol. 16, No. 392.
Jennings, H. S.
Studies on Reactions to Stimuli in Unicellular Organisms.
American Journal of Physiology, Vol. 8, No. 1, 1902.
Bawdbn, H, Heath.
The Psychological Theory of Organic Evolution.
The Journal of Comparative Neurology, Vol. XI, No. 3, 190L
Cope, B.
Origin of the Fittest, 1887.
Primary Factors of Organic Evolution, 1895.
[MiLis] DEVELOPMENT OF COMPARATIVE PSYCHOLOGY 208
LiOXB, J.
Comparative Physiolofiry of the Brain and Comparative Psychology,
1900.
BiNBT, ALFRBD.
The Psychic Life of Micro-organisma.
Baldwin, J. M.
Mental Development of the Child and the Race.
•Maomillan and Co., 1895.
Marshall, H. R.
Instinct and Reason.
New York, 1898.
Pbckham, G. W., and E. G.
Instincts and Habits of the Solitary Wasps, 1898.
Morgan, C. Lloyd.
Habit and Instinct, 1896.
Animal Behaviour, 1900.
m
w
L>C/CNA PftEUOARGIOLUS
VAR. NIGRESCENS '
THECLA 6TR1GOSA
VAR. LIPAROPS
PHYCIODES HANHAMI
LYC-CNA PSFUOARGIOLUS
VAH. AHGENTATA '
Vah AkGtNTATA '
LYC/CNA P8EU0ANGIOLU8
VAH. NIGRESCENS i
THECIA STRIGOSA
VAB. LIPAROPS '^UNDEdSioel
PHYCIOPES HANHAMI S
THECLA HEATHII ' 'uNDtRilOl'
LYC-ÏNA PSEL'DARGIOlUS
VAH. ARGENTATA ^
Section IV., 1903 [ 207 ] Tbans. R. 8. C.
XIV. — Descriptions of some New Species and Varieties of Canadian
Butterflies.
By James Fletcher, LL.D., F.L.S.
(Read May 19, 1903.)
I submit herewith descriptions of 3 species and 3 varieties of
Canadian diumal lepidoptera, specimens of which have been in my
collection for many years, and of which a continued study convinces
me that it is wise to characterize them for the benefit of other students
of Canadian butterflies. It is possible that some of these may be only
local races, but they are so constant that I believe them to be well
worthy of recognition. In describing these forms, I have endeavoured
to compare them with their nearest allies, as a description, even when
accompanied by a plate, is far more intelligible when a new form can
be compared with a well known standard. My thanks are due to Dr.
Henry Skinner, of Philadelphia, who very kindly undertook the ar-
rangement and preparation of the specimens illustrated on the plate
given herewith, and also from his own cabinet provided some specimens
which were better for illustration than the actual types used in the
descriptions. I have also to express my gratitude to the American
Museum of Natural History for a beautiful painting of Thecla heathii
which was specially made for the purpose and used for the accom-
panying illustration, on account of two of the wings in the type speci-
men being imperfect It is well here to mention that this painting is,
in my opinion, almoet as perfect as a drawing can be and represents
exactly the appearance of the type in every mark and spot as well as in
colour an-d sh-ape. Mr. Wan. Beutenmuller very kindly undertjook per-
sonally the supervision of this painting.
The names used in this paper are those in the recognized check
lists of diumal lepidoptera now used by American entomologists, viz. :
the "List of Lepidoptera of Boreal Ameriea,** by Dr. J. B. Smith, 1891,
and "A Synonymic Catalogue of the North American Rhopalocera,''
by Dr. Henry Skinner, 1898. Up to the present time the names given
by Dr. S. H. Scudder in his magndfiîoent work " The Butteirflies of the
Eastern United States and Canada,^* have not been adopted by col-
lectors in labelling their collections. These names, however, are, I be-
lieve, for the most part well founded, and it is merely a matter of time
before they will be generally accepted.
208 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA •
Phyciodbs hanhami, n. sp.
(Hanham's Crescent.)
Sexes similar both in colour and markings. Alar expanse^ males
37-38 mm., females 40-43.50 nun.
Upperside. Wings bright orange fulvous darkened towards base
and bordered with a clear black margin, which is widest at apex of
primaries. The base and cell marked as in P. nycteis and with the
same " tangle of black lines *' mentioned by Dr. Scudder in his descrip-
tion of that species; the basal area, however, is never so black as in
nycteis and in some specimens the ground colour is hardly darkened
at all. All the veins of both wings are lined with dark brown.
Fia. 1.— p. NYCTBI8, Db.-Hew.
The white marks of the under surfaces of both wings are repeated
above as light yellowish contrasting spots, giving the species a much
brighter appearance than nycteis, in which this feature does not occur
even in the forms of that variable species where the fulvous colour pre-
dominates on the upper surface. A striking character in which Han-
hami differs from both P, nycteis and Melitœa harrisii, a species which
it also resembles, is the absence on the secondaries, above, of the median
black line which in those species divides the fulvous discal area on
almost all specimens. There is a more or less complete series of sub-
marginal ocelli in the interspaces between the submarginal and median
veins, but these are smaller and less distinct than in the two species
named and in some specimens are obsolete. Fringes white, interrupted
with black at the tips of the nervures. Underside. Fore-wings fulvous
brown, marked with brown streaks and pale spots after the pattern of
M, harrisii, but much paler and less contrasting, owing to the absence
of black marks. Apical area very little darkened. There is a sub-
marginal series of nacreous lunules in all the interspaces except th^
lowest, and inside this a sinuous series of pale spots. Margin fulvous,
narrow, wider than in nycteis, but always narrower and more regular
than in M. harrisii. Hind wings with colour areas distributed as in
nycteis, but much less contrasting, the basal area being bright fulvous
and the brown field at apical margin less intense in colour. At base
[flïicheb] descriptions OF CANADIAN BUTTERFLIES 209
are 5 large nacreous spots and a dash inside the internal vein. The
triple mesial band is wide, distinct^ and nacreous^ the spots of the same
shape and comparative length as in nycteis ; but the outer ttansverse tra-
versing line is somewhat angled where it crosses the nervules, that is, is
made up of short, almost straight dashes as in M. harrisii, not of rounded
crenations as in nycteis. The outer margin of this band is, as in
nycteisy not clearly defined, a character in which both of these species
differ from M. harrisii, where this is distinctly the case. Beyond the
mesial band is a row of 5 ocelli, the central one of which is white, ringed
with brown, and tihe two outer ones on each side of this are black, shaded
inwardly with fulvous and pupilled with white. The most conspicuous
character of this species and one by which it is easily separated from
nycteis, is the complete series of large marginal silvery lunules which
occur on every interspace, as in M. harrisii. In hanhami, as in nycteis,
the pattern below is outlined in brown, while in harrisii the margins
of the spots are black, thus producing the well-defined and distinct
pattern which is characteristic of that species. Body above black, ful-
vous on sides, silvery beneath. Abdomen banded narrowly witii
white, above. Antennae black above, banded with white, bright
fulvous beneath. Palpi silvery white, fulvous at tips. I must
acknowledge that I refer this species with some hesitation to the old
genu^ Phyciodes. The general appearance and venation seem to make
it congeneric with nycteis; but, at the same time, the upper sides of
some specimens resemble closely extreme forms of M. harrisii, in which
the yellow colour predominates, and in addition, the shape of most of
the markings beneath is similar to iJiose of that species. On examining
a good series of specimens, the venation comes rather under the genus
Charidryas, characterized by Scudder, and as figured by Holland in
the Butterfly book, than under Cinclidia. Although, as stated, the
markings resemble more closely those of harrisii in shape, the distribu-
tion of the colour areas is more as in nycteis. There is also in the
mottled appearance of the underside a resemblance to P. mylitta which
is congeneric with nycteis.
Distribution: Manitoba (Eastern, Central and Southern), Minne-
sota. The first specimens of this insect seen by me were in the
collection of Mr. A. W. Hanham, at Winnipeg near which place,
at Bird's Hill, he had taken them late in June, 1895. Subse-
quently I took several specimens at the same place and at Brandon in
the beginning of July. Mr. L. E. Marmont finds the species not un-
common at Rounthwaite, Man., and Mr. Norman Criddle takes it also
at Aweme, Man. Dr. Wm. Barnes writes me that he has specimens from
near Minneapolis, Min.
210 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
Described from 12 specimens (6 males and 6 females). The types
of both sexes, which are figured, are deposited in the U. S. National
Museum, at Washington. The species is named after Mr. A. W. Han-
ham, an enthusiastic and indefatigable collector, who has done so much
towards working up the insect fauna of Manitoba and British Columbia.
Thecla 8TRIG0SA, Harr., var. liparops, n. var.
(The Bright-eyed Hair-streak.)
In the Canadian Entomologist for November, 1896, p. 315, I re-
ferred to the Manitoban form of Thecla strigoaa and expreseed the
opinion that this form was WH)rthy of at least varietal recognition. This,
as far as I have seen, always shows the large, rich f ulvoufl, well defined
blotches which are represented on the plate herewith. The ordinary
form of T. strigosa is shown in the accompanying woodcut (Fig. 2.)
I have examined during the last fifteen years a great many speci-
mens of this variety from Manitoba, and all without exception showed
iihe two large fulvous eye-like spots on the primaries. Mr. E. F. Heath,
who formerly took the insect in numbers at Cartwright, Man., writes : —
" I have never taken this form without the fulvous patch on the primar-
ies in both sexes, and I have certainly taken and seen over one hundred
specimens. Four or five years ago and for years prior to that it was
very abundant here ; now it seems to have disappeared. I do not come
across one in a season.^*
Mr. L. E. ^Marmont, of Rounthwaite, Man., who has lived and col-
lected in Manitoba for many years, writes : — "I .have only 9 specimens
of your variety liparops of strigosa just noiw; but
Wall have the large fulvous blotch on the fore wings.
In one female it is fainter than the others, but
quite noticeable; in another female the primaries
are almost entirely fulvous with only a blackish
border.'^
Occasional specimens of the eastern 2\ strigosa
show a more or less poorly defined fulvous blotch
on the upper side of primaries, but such specimens
in my experience have proved to be of decidedly
rare occurrence. Dr. Scudder thinks that
Pg. 2.— Thecla STRIGOSA, Boisduval and Leconte intended to represent
Harris, Eastern fomi. ^^^^^^ ^^ ^^^^ ^f rp Hp^rops ' what we
now know as T. strigosa, Harris. T can hardly think that this
is the ease; but it seems well to preserve the name; so, I suggest
that it should be used for the variety found in Manitoba, which
' Histoire générale et iconographique des Lépidoptèree, p. 99; PI. 31, flg. 1.
[plbictbr] descriptions OF CANADIAN BUTTERFLIES 211
conatairtly sbowB on the primaries above a bright clearly defined
blotchy and this was the chief character from which the name
liparops was derived. On discussing th-e reference by Dr. Scudder of
Harris's strigosa to Boieduval and Leoonte's plate, with Mr. W. H.
Edwards some years ago, the latter wrote as follows: ^^ Scudider says
this is strigosa of Harris, but no one would know it from the figures.
The description is done from the figure and not from the insect; there-
fore, liparops represents no insect but merely the said figure, and for
that reason I reject the name. The first time the in&ect was described
was by Harris, and his name provaiLs.'' In addition to the laige and
handsome golden fulvous, almost quadrate patch which occupies nearly
half the area of the primaries, the secondaries are also frequently orna-
mented with a fulvous cloud at the anal end, near the tails. The un-
derside of the western form is of a darker brown than in the type, with
the wihite lines mucih paler, these in some specimens being alimost
obliterated.
Described from 10 specimens taken at several places in Manitoba:
Beulah (Dennis); Cartwright (Heath); Aweme (Griddle); Brandon
(Fletcher); Rounthwaite (Marmont).
The t3rpe8 described herewitlh are deposited in the United States
National Museum, at Washington.
Thecla heathii, n. sp.
(Heath's Hair-atreak.)
Described from one female (not a male, as stated on the plate)
Alar expanse, 26 mm.
Upper side. Blackish brown (when taken), as in T. calanus. Costa
at base finely edged in front with yellow as in calanus and acadica.
Underside. Fawn brown, faintly washed with white from the
base almost up to a submarginal band of large pearly gray blotches
which occur on all the wings. On the primaries, these are four in
number and ovate. On the secondaries, there are five square blotches
and a long whitish spur running up the inner margin. Exterior to
these blotches is an incomplete series of marginal lunules, as in several
other allied species of the genus; consisting of, at the anal angle, be-
tween the internal and submedian veins, a few scarlet scales shaded
exteriorly with as many white ones and bordered inside and outside
with black; between the submedian and first median veins is a large^
wide and shallow white lunule, without any scarlet scales; between tiie
first and second median veins, a scarlet crescent outlined on both sides
212 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
with black and shadeid externally with white; between the second and
third median veins is a small red lunule one-third the size of the last,
shaded externally with white.
The specimen here described and figured has no tails to the
secondaries, but, from the appearance of the ends of the veins and the
marginal pattern, as well as* the presence of a few longer scales at the
end of the first median vein, I have no doubt that originally tails
existed.
On the primaries the ovate blotches are bordered on each side by
a broad band about two-thirds their own width, and darker than the
ground colour of the wings. On the secondaries the series of square
blotches is outlined on both sides by an almost black angulated line.
Beyond tihe cell on all the wings is a large, dark, oblong quadrate
blotch; the fringe on all wings is dark. Eyes ringed with pearly
white; palpi white, tipped beneath with black; antennae black, ringed
with white; club orange below and at the tip.
Locality. — The type was taken by Mr. E. Firmstone Heath near
his home in the picturesque valley of the Long River, a few miles from
Cartwright, in Southern Manitoba. This spot is about ten miles north
of the boundary of North Dakota and about twenty-five miles north-
east of the Turtle Mountains. This valley, near Mr. Heath's house,
is about a mile wide and is well wooded with scrub oaks {QuerciLS ma-
crocarpa), ash-leaved maples {Acer Negundo), aspen and balsam poplars
(Populus tremuloides and P. bahamifera) , Saskatoon-berry {Amelaiychier
alnifolia), white thorn {Cratœgus coccinea), wolf -berry {Symphoricarpus
occidentalis) y prairie roses, wild plum {Prunus nigra), a few American
elms, choke-cherries and various willows. Mr. Heath tells me that it
was taken in July about twenty-five years ago, and, although he has
been keenly on the look out ever since, he has never seen another
specimen. It is a remarkable form, and, as will be seen from the
accom^nying plate, which is an excellent representation, bears very
little resemblance to any described species.
The species of Thecla occurring at Cartwright at the season T.
heathii was taken, are T. acadica, T, calantes, T. strigosa, var. Uparops,
and T. titus. The pattern of the underside of the insect here de-
scribed in no way resembles that of any of these, and I can hardly
think that it is a suffused albinic variety of any of them.
The type which was generously presented to me by Mr. Heath, after
whom it is named, is deposited in the United States National Museum
at Washington. The painting from which the figure in the plate was
made, is in my own collection.
[plïpchek] descriptions OF CANADIAN BUTTERFLIES 218
LYC-ffiNA P8EUDAROIOLU8, Bd.-LeC, VET. AROENTATA, n. vaT.
(The Manitoba Blue.)
The beautiful variety of the coanmon Spring Blue butterfly figured
herewith is the prevailing form in Central and Southern Manitoba,
where it has usually been named by collectors var. neglecta. From this
latter, however, it differs in having the black marks of the underside
less distinct, in some specimens these are almost entirely obliterated
so as to present a dear nearly unspotted surface of silvery white. The
illustration given herewith does not quite represent the colour of the
underside, rather too much of the red pigment having been used,
which gives it a warm tint not seen in nature. The shade of blue of
the upper surface in both sexes is, as a rule, paler than in other forms
(or varieties) of pseudargiolus. In the females the discal area of
primaries is silvery white with a blue reflection and a more decided
flush of blue at the ba^e.
Described from 18 specimens (12 males and 6 females) collected
at Cartwright and other places in southern Manitoba, as well as in
south-eastern Assiniboia. The types of both sexes are deposited in
the XJ. S. National Museum at Washington.
Lycjena ÇSEUDARGI0LU8, Bd.-Lec., var. nigrescens, n. var.
(The Kaslo Blue.)
An interesting variety of i. pseudargiolus has been sent to me
by Mr. J. W. Cockle, from Kaslo, on Kootenay Lake, British Columbia,
where it is the common spring form. The most conspicuous diflfer-
ence between this and the other described varieties of the stem species,
is the large amount of black on the upper surface of the females. This
darkening forms a wide black border on the costal and outer margins
of primaries, and spreads over the whole surface of the secondaries
which merely show a little blue on the folds between the veins. The
blue of the disc of primaries is a dark purplish blue, as in var. piasus,
and is frequently irrorated with black scales*. The upper side of the
male is a deep rich violet blue, almost of the same shade as in amyrt-
tula. The underside of this variety is remarkable and spechnens of
both sexes may be found which, if the underside alone were seen,
might be referred to neglecta, violacea, luda or marginata, and some
eveai combine characters of all of these. One beautiful form which
214 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
frequently occurs^ has an irregular discal dark blotch of confluent spots
on the secondaries beneath as in Iticia, and the clear marginal and sub-
marginal spots of violacea. This form Mr. Cockle, who has collected
this butterfly for several years and has been much interested in it, con-
siders to be most typical of the variety. In all forms of this Kaslo
Blue the eye-like spots of the marginal band are distinct, a character
in which it differs from piasus. Some specimens, beneath, show the
marginal band of marginata either with or without the confluent discal
patch.
Described from 16 specimens (8 males and 8 females). Types of
both sexes deposited in the IT. S. National Museum.
Pamphila manitoboides, n. sp.
(The Nepigon Skipper.)
In the annual report of the Entomological Society of Ontario for
1888, I described the larva of a Pamphila belonging to the comma
group which Dr. Scudder and I had taken in small numbers in the first
week of July at Nepigon, Ont., north of Lake Superior. In subsequent
years I have found the butterfly as early as the last week in June. In
low lands the favourite flower visited seems to be Mertensia paniculata,
but on the higlier rocky ridges along the Nepigon river, this skipper
seems to confine itself almost entirely to the inconspicuous wliitc flowers
of rotentilla Iridcniata. It is extremely shy, active and difficult to catch.
This species is rather smaller than P. manitoba, but the markings
of both sexes above are very similar to those of that species, although
the colours are ditrerent. In munit ohoides the upper side is a rich
tawny brown with a wide very dark brown margin. None of the spats
at apex of the primaries are hyaline, and th'e bases of both primaries
and secondaries show a much less broken field of brown colour than is
the case in manitoba. The male and female above are perhaps rather
more like the figures of P. Colorado, given by Dr. Scudder on plate X,
fig. 17 and 18, in his paper " On the Species of tl>e Lepidopterous Genus
Pamphila/' in the Memoirs of the Boston Society of Natural History,
Vol. IT, Tart 111, Number TV (1874), except that the tone of colour is
of a more fuscous brown and the border is darker, giving more contrast
with the light shades.
Underside. A bright ta,wny brown in fresh specimens, primaries
much darkened at the base. The whole tone of colour of the under-
side, including the dark shade at the base of primaries, and the washed
out appearance of all spots, both on primaries and the mesial band of
Live Music Archive
Librivox Free Audio
Metropolitan Museum
Cleveland Museum of Art
Internet Arcade
Console Living Room
Books to Borrow
Open Library
TV News
Understanding 9/11