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B 1.061.285
!•
I
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PROCEEDINGS
OF THE
Indiana Academy of Science
1917
LEE F. BENNETT, Editor
INDIANAPOLIS:
WM It IIHIlFOItD, Cd.NTUACTOU FOR STATK I'ni.NTINlJ AND UINniN«;
1918
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^/\Uu^^^J^A^.4f<A^^
CONTENTS.
PAGE
Constitution 5
By-Laws 7
Appropriation for 1917-1918 9
Public Offenses — Hunting Birds — Penalty 10
Officers, 1917-1918 11
Committees Academy of Science, 1917 11
Officers of the Academy of Science' (A Table of) 12
Members 15
Fellows 15
Non-Resident Members and Fellowa 20
Active Members 24
Minutes of the Spring Meeting 39
Minutes of the Thirty-second Annual Meeting. 43
Program of the Thirty-second Annual Meeting 49
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CONSTITUTION.
ARTICLE I. %
Section 1. This association shall be called the Indiana Academy of
Science.
Sec. 2. The objects of this Academy shall be scientific research and
the diffusion of knowledge concerning the various departments of science ;
to promote intercourse between men engaged in scientific work, especially
in Indiana; to assist by investigation and discussion in developing and
making known the material, educational and other resources and riches
of- the State; to arrange and prepare for publication such reports of in-
vestigation and discussion as may further the aims and objects of the
Academy as set forth in these articles.
Whereas, The State has undertaken the publication of such proceed-
ings, the Academy will, upon request of the Governor, or one of the sev-
eral departments of the State, through the Governor, act through its
council as an advisory body in the direction and execution of any investi-
gation within its province as stated. The necessary expenses incurred
in the prosecution of such investigation are to be borne by the State; no
pecuniary gain is to come to the Academy for its advice or direction of
such investigation.
The regular proceedings of the Academy as published by the State
shall become a public document.
ARTICLE II.
Section 1. Members of this academy shall be honorary fellows,
fellows, non-resident members or active members.
Sec. 2. Any person engaged in any department of scientific work,
or in any original research in any department of science, shall be eligible
to active membership. Active members may be annual or life members.
Annual members may be elected at any meeting of the Academy; they
shall sign the constitution, pay an admission fee of two dollars and there-
after an annual fee of one dollar. Any person who shall at one time con-
tribute fifty dollars to the funds of this Academy may be elected a life
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member of the Academy, free of assessment. Non-resident members may
be elected from those who have been active members but who have re-
moved from the State. In any case, a three-fourths vote of the members
present shall elect to membership. Application for membership in any of
the foregoing classes shall be referred to a committee on application for
membership, who shall consider such application and report to the Acad-
emy before the election.
Sec. 3. The members who are actively engaged in scientific work,
who have recognized standing as scientific men, and who have been mem-
bers of the Academy at least one year, may be recommended for nomina-
tion for election as fellows by three fellows or members personally ac-
quainted with their work and character. Of members so nominated a
number not exceeding five in one year may, on recommendation of the
Executive Committee, be elected as fellows. At the meeting at which
this is adopted, the members of the Executive Committee for 1894 and
fifteen others shall be elected fellows, and those now honorary members
shall bcome honorary fellows. Honorary fellows may be elected on ac-
count of special prominence in science, on the written recommendation of
two members of the Academy. In any case a three-fourths vote of the
members present shall elect.
ARTICLE III.
Section 1. The officers of this Academy shall be chosen by ballot at
the annual meeting, and shall hold office one year. They shall consist of
a President, Vice-President, Secretary, Assistant Secretary, Press Secre-
tary, Editor, and Treasurer, who shall perform the duties usually per-
taining to their respective offices and in addition, with the ex-presidents
of the Academy,, shall constitute an Executive Committee. The Presi-
dent shall, at each annual meeting, appoint two members to be a com-
mittee, which shall prepare the programs and have charge of the ar-
rangements for all meetings for one year.
Sec. 2. The annual meeting of the Academy shall be held in the city
of Indianapolis within the week following Christmas of each year, unless
otherwise ordered by the Executive Committee. There shall also be a
summer meeting at such time and place as may be decided upon by the
Executive Committee. Other meetings may be called at the discretion of
the Executive Committee. The past Presidents, together with the officers
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and Executive Committee, shall constitute the council of the Academy,
and represent it in the transaction of any necessary business not espe-
cially provided for in this constitution, in the interim between general
meetings.
Sec. 3. This constitution may be altered or amended at any annual
meeting by a three-fourths majority of the attending members of at least
one year's standing. No question of amendment shall be decided on the
day of its presentation.
BY-LAWS.
1. On motion, any special department of science shall be assigned to
a curator, whose duty it shall be, with the assistance of the other mem-
bers interested in the same department, to endeavor to advance knowl-
edge in that particular department. Each curator shall report at such
time and place as the Academy shall direct. These reports shall include^
a brief summary of the progress of the department during the year pre-
ceding the presentation of the report.
2. The President shall deliver a public address on the morning of
one of the days of the meeting at the expiration of his term of office.
3. The Press Secretary shall attend to the securing of proper news-
paper reports of the meetings and assist the Secretary.
4. No special meeting of the Academy shall be held without a notice
of the same having been sent to the address of each member at least
fifteen days before such meeting.
5. No bill against the Academy shall be paid without an order
signed by the President and countersigned by the Secretary.
6. Members who shall allow their dues to remain unpaid for two
years, having been annually notified of their arrearage by the Treasurer,
shall have their names stricken from the roll.
7. Ten members shall constitute a quorum for the transaction of
business.
8. An Editor shall be elected from year to year. His duties shall
be to edit the annual Proceedings. No allowance shall be made to the
editor for clerical assistance on account of any one edition of the Pro-
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8
ceedings in excess of fifty ($50) dollars except by special action of the
Executive Committee. (Amendment passed December 8, 1917.)
AN ACT TO PROVIDE FOR THE PUBLICATION OF THE RE-
PORTS AND PAPERS OF THE INDIANA ACADEMY
OF SCIENCE.
(Approved March 11, 1895.)
Whereas, The Indiana Academy of Science, a chartered scientific
association, has embodied in its constitution a provision that it will, upon
the request of the Governor, or of the several departments of the State
government, through the Governor, and through its council as an ad-
visory board, assist in the direction and execution of any investigation
within its province without pecuniary gain to the Academy, provided
only that the necessary expenses of such investigation are borne by the
State; and.
Whereas, The reports of the meetings of said Academy, with the
several papers read before it, have very great educational, industrial and
economic value, and should be preserved in permanent form; and,
Whereas, The Constitution of the State makes it the duty of the
General Assembly to encourage by all suitable means intellectual, scien-
tific and agricultural improvement; therefore.
Section 1. Be it enacted by the General Assembly of the State of
Indiana, That hereafter the annual reports of the meetings of the Indi-
ana Academy of Science, beginning with the report for the year 1894, in-
cluding all papers of scientific or economic value, presented at such meet-
ings, after they shall have been edited and prepared for publication as
hereinafter provided, shall be published by and under the direction of the
Commissioners of Public Printing and Binding.
Sec. 2. Said reports shall be edited and prepared for publication
without expense to the State, by a corps of editors to be selected and
appointed by the Indiana Academy of Science, who shall not, by reason of
such service, have any claim against the State for compensation. The
form, style of binding, paper, typography and manner and extent of illus-
tration of such reports shall be determined by the editors, subject to the
approval of the Commissioners of Public Printing and Stationery. Not
less than 1,500 nor more than 3,000 copies of each of said reports shall be
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published, the size of the edition within said limits to be determined by
the concurrent action of the editors and the Commissioners of Public
Printing and Stationery: Provided, That not to exceed six hundred dol-
lars ($600) shall be expended for such publication in any one year, and
not to extend beyond 1896: Provided, That no sums shall be deemed to
be appropriated for the year 1894.
Sec. 3. All except three hundred copies of each volume of said re-
ports shall be placed in the custody of the State Librarian, who shall
furnish one copy thereof to each public library in the State, one copy to
each university, college or normal school in the State, one copy to each
high school in the State having a library, which shall make application
therefor, and one copy to such other institutions, societies or persons as
may be designated by the Academy through its editors or its council.
The remaining three hundred copies shall be turned over to the Academy
to be disposed of as it may determine. In order to provide for the pres-
ervation of the same it shall be the duty of the Custodian of the State
House to provide and place at the disposal of the Academy one of the
unoccupied rooms of the State House, to be design^ated as the office of the
Academy of Science, wherein said copies of said reports belonging to
the Academy, together with the original manuscripts, drawings, etc.,
thereof can be safely kept, and he shall also equip the same with the nec-
essary shelving and furniture.
Sec. 4. An emergency is hereby declared to exist for the immediate
taking effect of this act, and it shall therefore take effect and be in force
from and after its passage.
APPROPRIATION FOR 1917-1918.
The appropriation for the publication of the proceedings of the
Academy during the years 1916 and 1917 was increased by the Legisla-
ture in the General Appropriation bill, approved March 8, 1915. The Act
making appropriation for the years 1917-1918 and 1918-1919 was ap-
proved March 6, 1917. That portion of the law fixing the amount of the
appropriation for the Academy is herewith given in full.
For the Academy of Science : For the printing of the proceedings of
the Indiana Academy of Science twelve hundred dollars: Provided, That
any unexpended balance in 1916 shall be available for 1917 and that any
unexpended balance in 1917 shall be available in 1918.
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10
PUBLIC OFFENSES— HUNTING WILD BIRDS— PENALTY.
(Approved March 15, 1913.)
Section 1. Be it enacted by the General Assembly of the State of
Indiana, That section six (6) of the above entitled act be amended to
read as follows: Section 6. That section six hundred two (602) of the
above entitled act be amended to read as follows: Section 602. It shall
be unlawful for any person to kill, trap or possess any wild bird, or to
purchase or offer the same for sale, or to destroy the nest or eggs of any
wild bird, except as otherwise provided in this section. But this section
shall not apply to the following named game birds : The Anatidae, com-
monly called swans, geese, brant, river and sea duck; the Rallidae, com-
monly known as rails, coots, mud-hens and gallinules; the Limicolae,
commonly known as shore birds, plovers, surf birds, snipe, woodcock,
sandpipers, tattlers and curlews; the Gallinae, commonly called wild
turkeys, grouse, prairie chickens, quails, and pheasants; nor to English
or European house sparrows, blackbirds, crows, hawks or other birds of
prey. Nor shall this section apply to any person taking birds or their
nests or eggs for scientific purposes under permit as provided in the next
section. Any person violating the provisions of this section shall, on con-
viction, be fined not less than ten dollars ($10.00) nor more than fifty
dollars ($50.00).
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11
INDIANA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.
Officers, 1918.
President,
E. B. Williamson.
Vice-President,
Charles Stoltz.
Secretary,
Howard E. Enders.
Assistant Secretary,
Philip A, Tetrault.
Press Secretary,
Frank B. Wade.
Treasurer,
William M. Blanchard.
Editor,
Lee F. Bennett.
Executive Committee:
Arthur, J. C, Dryer, Chas. R., Mendenhall, T. C,
Bennett, L. F., Eigenmann, C. H., Naylor, Joseph P.,
Bigney, a. J., Enders, Howard E,, Noyes, W. A.,
Blanchard, W. M., Evans, P. N., Stoltz, Charles,
Blatchley, W. S., Foley, A. L., Tetrault, P, A.,
Branner, J. C, Hay, O. P., Wade, F. B.,
Burrage, Severance, Hessler, Robert, Waldo, C. A.,
Butler, Amos W., Jordan, D. S., Wiley, H. W.,
Cogshall, W. a., McBeth, W. A., Williamson, E. B.,
Coulter, John M., Mees, Carl L., Wright, John S.
Coulter, Stanley, Moenkhaus, W. J.,
Culbertson, Glenn, Mottier, David M.,
Curators:
Botany J. C. Arthur.
Entomology W. S. Blatchley.
Herpetology 1
Mammalogy L A. W. Butler.
Ornithology J
Ichthyology C. H. Eigenmann.
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12
Committees Academy of Science, 1918.
Program.
C. C. Deam, Bluffton
Frank B. Wade, Shortridge High
School, Indianapolis
John S. Wright, Indianapolis
Norninations,
Stanley Coulter, Lafayette
W. J. Moenkhaus, Bloomington
J. P. Naylor, Greencastle
State Library,
W. S. Blatchley, i^58 Park Av-
enue, Indianapolis
A. L. Foley, Bloomington
Amos W. Butler, State House, In-
dianapolis
Biological Survey,
Herbert S. Jackson, Agr. Experi-
ment Station, West Lafayette
Richard M, Holman, Crawfords-
ville
M. S. Markle, Richmond
Will Scott, Indiana University,
Bloomington
Distribution: of Proceedings,
Howard E. Enders, West Lafay-
ette
Wm. M. Blanchard, Greencastle
U. O. Cox, State Normal, Terre
Haute
George Osner, West Lafayette
Membership,
¥, M. Andrews, Bloomington
M. L. Fisher, West Lafayette
Mason L. Weems, Valparaiso
Auditing,
Glenn Culbertson, Hanover
RoLLo Ramsey, Bloomington
Relation of the Academy to the
State.
R. W. McBride, 1239 State Life
Building, Indianapolis
Glenn Culbertson, Hanover
H. E. Barnard, State House, Indi-
anapolis
John S. Wright, 3718 Penn. St.,
Indianapolis
W. W. Woollen, 1628 Penn. St.,
Indianapolis
Publication of Proceedings,
Lee F. Bennett, 825 Laporte Av-
enue, Valparaiso
Robert Hessler, Logansport.
George N. Hoffer, West Lafayette
R. R. Hyde, Terre Haute
James Brown, 5372 E. Washington
St., Indianapolis
Advisory Council,
John S. Wright
R. W. McBride
Glenn Culbertson
Stanley Coulter
Wilbur Cogshall
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13
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15
MEMBERS.*
FELLOWS.
Anderson, H. W., Urbana, 111 tl912
Department of Botany, University of Illinois.
Botany.
Andrews, F. M., 901 E. 10th Street, Bloomington 1911
Associate Professor of Botany, Indiana University.
Plant Physiology, Botany.
Arthur, Joseph C, 915 Columbia St., Lafayette 1893
Professor (Retired) of Vegetable Physiology and Pathology,
Purdue University.
Botany.
Badertscher, J. A., Bloomington 1917
Professor of Anatomy, Indiana University.
Anatomy.
Barnard, H. E., Room 20 State House, Indianapolis 1910
Chemist to Indiana State Board of Health, State Food Admin-
istrator.
Chemistry, Sanitary Science, Pure Foods.
Beede, Joshua W., 404 W. 38th St., Austin, Texas 1906
Bureau of Economic Geology and Technology, Univ. Texas.
Geology.
Behrens, Charles A., West Lafayette, Ind 1917
Professor of Bacteriology, Purdue University.
Bacteriology.
Bennett, Lee F., 825 Laporte Ave., Valparaiso 1916
Professor of Geology and Zoologry, Valparaiso University.
Geology, Zoolog^r.
• Every efTort has been made to obtain the correct address and occupation of each
member, and to learn in what line of science he is interested. The first line contains
the name and address ; the second line the occupation ; the third line the branch of
science in which he is interested. The omission of an address indicates that mail ad-
dressed to the last printed address was returned as uncalled for. Information as to the
present address of members so indicated is requested by the secretary. The custom of
dividing the list of members has been followed.
t Date of election.
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Benton, George W., 100 Washington Square, New York, N. Y 1896
Editor in Chief, American Book Company.
Bigney, Andrew J., Moores Hill, Ind 1897
Professor of Biology and Geology, Moores Hill College.
Biology, Geology.
Bitting, Mrs. Katherine Golden, Washington, D. C 1895
Miscroscopic Expert, Pure Food, National Canners Laboratory.
Botany.
Blanchard, William M., 1008 S. College Ave., Greencastle, Ind 1914
Professor of Chemistry, DePauw University, Greencastle, Ind.
Organic Chemistry.
Blatchley, W. S., 1558 Park Ave., Indianapolis 1893
Naturalist.
Botany, Entomology, and Geology.
Breeze, Fred J., Hunter Avenue, Bloomington 1910
Graduate School, Indiana University.
Geography.
Bruner, Henry Lane, 324 S. Ritter Ave., Indianapolis 1899
Professor of Biology, Butler College.
Comparative Anatomy, Zoology.
Bryan, William Lowe, Bloomington 1914
President Indiana University.
Psychology.
Butler, Amos W., 52 Downey Ave., Irvington 1893
Secretary, Indiana Board of State Charities.
Vertebrate Zoology, Anthropology, Sociology.
Cogshall, Wilbur A., 423 S. Fess Ave., Bloomington 1906
Associate Professor of Astronomy, Indiana University.
Astronomy.
Coulter, Stanley, 213 S. Ninth St., Lafayette 1893
Dean School of Science, Purdue University.
Botany, Forestry.
Cox, Ulysses O., P. O. Box 81, Terre Haute 1908
Head Department Zoology and Botany, Indiana State Normal.
Botany, Zoology.
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Culbertson, Glenn, Hanover 1899
Chair Geolog^r, Physics and Astronomy, Hanover College.
Geology.
Cumings, Edgar Roscoe, 327 E. Second St., Bloomington 1906
Professor of Geolog^r, Indiana University.
Geology, Paleontology.
Deam, Charles C, Bluffton 1910
Druggist, Botanist, State Forester.
Botany.
Dryer, Charles R., Oak Knoll, Fort Wayne, or Terre Haute 1897
Geography.
Dutcher, J. B., 1212 Atwater St., Bloomington 1914
Associate Professor of Physics, Indiana University.
Physics.
Eigenmann, Carl H., 630 Atwater St., Bloomington 1893
Professor of Zoology, Dean of Graduate School, Indiana Uni-
versity.
Embryology, Degeneration, Heredity, Evolutipn and Distribu-
tion of American Fish.
Enders, Howard Edwin, 107 Fowler Ave., Lafayette 1912
Professor of Zoolog^r, Purdue University.
Zoology.
Evans, Percy Norton, 302 Waldron Street, West Lafayette 1901
Director of Chemical Laboratory, Purdue University.
Chemistry.
Foley, Arthur L., Bloomington 1897
Head of Department of Physics, Indiana University.
Physics.
Golden, M. J., West Lafayette 1899
Formerly Director of Laboratories of Practical Mechanics,
Purdue University.
Mechanics.
Hathaway, Arthur S., 2206 N. Tenth St., Terre Haute 1895
Professor of Mathematics, Rose Polytechnic Institute.
Mathematics, Physics.
2—11994
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Hessler, Robert, Logansport 1899
Physician.
Biology.
Hoffer, George N., Littleton St., West Lafayette 1913
Federal Agent, Purdue University Experiment Station.
Hufford, Mason E., Bloomington 1916
Physics.
Hurty, J. N., Indianapolis 1910
Secretary, Indiana State Board of Health.
Sanitary Science, Vital Statistics, Eugenics.
Hyde, Roscoe Raymond, 636 Chestnut Street, Terre Haute 1909
Assistant Professor Physiolog^r and Zoology, Indiana State
Normal.
Zoology, Physiolog^r, Bacteriology.
Kenyon, Alfred Monroe, 315 University St., West Lafayette 1914
Professor of Mathematics, Purdue University.
Mathematics.
Kern, Frank D., State College Pa 1912
Professor of Botany, Pennsylvania State College.
Botany.
Koch, Edward W., Eli Lilly Co., Indianapolis 1917
Department of Research, Eli Lilly Co.
Physiology.
Logan, Wm, N., 320 S. Fess Ave., Bloomington 1917
Professor of Economic Geology, Indiana University.
Geology.
McBeth, William A., 1905 N. Eighth St., Terre Haute 1904
Assistant Professor of Geography, Indiana Normal School.
(Geography, Geology, Scientific Agriculture.
McBride, Robert W., 1239 State Life Building, Indianapolis 1916
Lawyer.
Middleton, A. R., 629 University St., West Lafayette 1908
Professor of Chemistry, Purdue University.
Chemistry.
Moenkhaus, William J., 501 Fess Ave., Bloomington 1901
Professor of Physiology, Indiana University.
Physiology.
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Morrison, Edwin, 80 S. W. Seventh St., Richmond 1915
Professor of Physics, Earlham College.
Physics and Chemistry.
Mottier, David M., 215 Forest Place, Bloomington 1893
Professor of Botany, Indiana University.
Morphology, Cytology.
Naylor, J. P., Greencastle 1903
Professor of Physics, DePauw University.
Physics, Mathematics.
Payne, F., 620 S. Fess Ave., Bloomington 1916
Associate Professor of Zoology, Indiana University.
Cytology and Embryology.
Pohlman, Augustus G., 16 Yale Ave., University City, St. Louis, Mo. 1911
Professor of Anatomy.
Embryology, Comparative Anatomy.
Ramsey, Rolla R., 615 E. Third St., Bloomington 1906
Associate Professor of Physics, Indiana University.
Physics.
Ransom, James H., 323 University St., West Lafayette 1902
Professor of General Chemistry, Purdue University.
General Chemistry, Organic Chemistry, Teaching.
Rettger, Louis J., 31 Gilbert Ave., Terre Haute 1896
Professor of Physiology, Indiana State Normal.
Animal Physiology.
Rothrock, David A., Bloomington 1906
Professor of Mathematics, Indiana University.
Mathematics.
Schockel, Barnard, Terre Haute 1917
Professor of Physical Geography, State Normal School.
Scott, Will, 731 Atwater St., Bloomington 1911
Assistant Professor of Zoology, Indiana University.
Zoology, Lake Problems.
Shannon, Charles W., 518 Lahoma Ave., Norman, Okla 1912
With Oklahoma State Geological Survey.
Soil Survey, Botany.
Digiti
zed by Google
20
Smith, Albert, University St., West Lafayette. 1908
Professor of Structural Engineering.
Physics, Mechanics.
Smith, Charles Marquis, 152 Sheetz St., West Lafayette 1912
Professor of Physics, Purdue University.
Physics*
Stone, Winthrop E., Lafayette 1893
President of Purdue University.
Chemistry.
Van Hook, James M., 939 N. College Ave., Bloomington 1911
Assistant Professor of Botany, Indiana University.
Botany.
Wade, Frank Bertram, 1039 W. Twenty-seventh St., Indianapolis. . 1914
Head of Chemistry Department, Shortridge High School.
Chemistry, Physics, Geology, and Mineralog^r.
Waterman, Luther D., 226 Pratt St., Indianapolis 1916
Physician.
Williamson, E. B., Bluffton 1914
Cashier, The Wells County Bank.
Dragonflies.
Woollen, William Watson, Indianapolis 1908
Lawyer.
Birds and Nature Study.
Wright, John S., care Eli Lilly Co., Indianapolis 1894
Manager of Advertising Department, Eli Lilly Co.
Botany.
NON-RESIDENT MEMBERS AND FELLOWS,
Abbott, G. A., Grand Forks, N. Dak., Fellow 1908
Professor of Chemistry, University of North Dakota.
Chemistry.
Aley, Robert J., Orono, Me., Fellow 1908
President of University of Maine.
Mathematics and General Science.
Digiti
zed by Google
21
Branner, John Casper, Stanford University, Calif.
President Emeritus of Stanford University.
Geology.
Brannon, Melvin A., President University of Idaho, Moscow, Idaho.
Professor of Botany.
Plant Breeding.
Burrage, Severance, Waco, Texas 1898
United States Public Health Work.
Campbell, D. H., Stanford University, Calif.
Professor of Botany, Stanford University.
Botany.
Clark, Howard Walton, U. S. Biological Station, Fairport, Iowa.
Scientific Assistant U. S. Bureau of Fisheries.
Botany, Zoology.
Cook, Mel T., New Brunswick, N. J., Fellow 1902
Plant Pathologist, New Jersey Experiment Station.
Botany, Plant Pathology, Entomology.
Coulter, John M., University of Chicago, Chicago, 111., Fellow 1893
Head Department of Botany, .Chicago University.
Botany.
Davis, B. M., Oxford, Ohio.
Professor of Agricultural Education.
Miami University.
DufF, A. Wilmer, 43 Harvard St., Worcester, Mass.
Professor of Physics, Worcester Polytechnic Institute.
Physics.
Evermann, Barton Warren, Director Museum.
California Academy of Science, Golden Gate Park, San Fran-
cisco, Cal.
Zoology.
Fiske, W. A., Los Angeles, Cal., Occidental College.
Gilbert, Charles H., Stanford University, California.
Professor of Zoology, Stanford University.
Ichthyology.
Goss, William Freeman M., 61 Broadway, N. Y., Fellow 1893
President The Railway Car Manufacturers Association.
Digiti
zed by Google
22
Greene, Charles Wilson, 814 Virginia Ave., Columbia, Mo.
Professor of Physiology and Pharmacology, University of
Missouri.
Physiology, Zoology.
Hargitt, Chas. W., 909 Walnut Ave., Syracuse, N. Y.
Professor of Zoolog^r and Director of the Laboratories Syracuse
University.
Hygiene, Embryology, Eugenics, Animal Behavior.
Hay, Oliver Perry, U. S. National Museum, Washington, D. C.
Research Associate, Carnegie Institute of Washington.
Vertebrate Paleontology^, especially that of the Pleistocene
Epoch.
Huston, H. A., New York City, Fellow 1893
Secretary, German Kali Works.
Jenkins, Oliver P., Stanford University, California.
Professor of Physiolog^r, Stanford University.
Physiology, Histology.
Jordan, David Starr, Stanford University, California.
Chancellor Emeritus of Stanford University.
Fish, Eugenics, Botany, Evolution.
Kingsley, J. S., University of Illinois, Urbana, 111.
Professor of Zoology.
Zoology.
KleinSmid von, R. B., President Univ. of Arizona, Tucson, Ariz.
Knipp, Charles T., 915 W. Nevada St., Urbana, Illinois.
Professor of Experimental Physics, University of Illinois.
Physics, Discharge of Electricity through Gases.
Marsters, V. F., Kansas City, Missouri, Care of C. N. Gould, Fellow 1893
Geologist.
McDougal, Daniel Trembly, Tucson, Arizona.
Director, Department of Botanical Research, Carnegie Insti-
tute, Washington, D. C.
Botany.
McMullen, Lynn Banks, State Normal School, Valley City, N. D.
Head Science Department and Vice-Pres. State Normal School.
Physics, Chemistry.
Digiti
zed by Google
23
Mendenhall, Thomas Corwin, Ravenna, Ohio.
Retired.
Physics, "Engineering," Mathematics, Astronomy.
Miller, John Anthony, Swarthmore, Pa., Fellow 1904
Professor of Mathematics and Astronomy, Swarthmore College.
Astronomy, Mathematics.
Moore, George T., St. Louis, Mo.
Director Missouri Botanical Garden.
Botany.
Noyes, William Albert, Urbana, 111., Fellow 1893
Director of Chemical Laboratory, University of Illinois.
Chemistry.
Reagan, A. B.
Superintendent Deer Creek Indian School, Ibopah, Utah.
Greology, PaleonfAlogy, Ethnology.
Smith, Alexander, care Columbia University, New York, N. Y.,
Fellow 1803
Head of Department of Chemistry, Columbia University.
Chemistry.
Springer, Alfred, 312 East 2d St., Cincinnati, Ohio.
Chemist.
Chemistry.
Swain, Joseph, Swarthmore, Pa., Fellow 1898
President of Swarthmore College.
Science of Administration.
Waldo, Clarence A., 401 West 18th St., New York City 1893
Mathematics, Mechanics, Geology and Mineralogy.
Wiley, Harvey W., Cosmos Club, Washington, D. C, Fellow 1895
Professor of Agricultural Chemistry, George Washington Uni-
versity.
Biologlical and Agricultural Chemistry.
Zeleny, Chas., 1003 W. Illinois St., Urbana, 111.
Professor of Experimental Zoology.
Zoology.
Digiti
zed by Google
24
ACTIVE MEMBERS.
Aldrich, John Merton, 316 S. Grant St., West Lafayette.
Federal Entomological Station.
Zoology, Entomology.
Allen, William Ray, 212 S. Washington St., Bloomington.
Zoology, Indiana University;
Allison, Evelyn, 435 Wood St., Lafayette.
Care Agricultural Experiment Station.
Botany.
Anderson, Flora Charlotte, 327 South Henderson St., Bloomington.
Botany, Indiana University.
Atkinson, F. C, 2534 Broadway, Indianapolis.
Chemistry, American Hominy Company.
Baker, William Franklin, Indianapolis, care Eli Lilly Co.
Medicine.
Balcom, H. C, 1023 Park Ave., Indianapolis.
Botany.
Bamhill, Dr. John F., Indianapolis.
Professor of Surgery, Indiana University School of Medicine.
Barr, Harry L., Veedersburg.
Botany and Forestry. ^
Bates, W. H., 403 Russell St., West Lafayette.
Associate Professor of Mathematics, Purdue University.
Mathematics.
Beals, Colonzo C, Russiaville.
Botany.
Berteling, John B., 215 S. Taylor St., South Bend.
Medicine.
Binford, Raymond, Richmond.
Professor of Zoology, Earlham College.
Zoology.
Bishop, Harry Eldridge, 1706 College Ave., Indianapolis.
Food Chemist, Indiana State Board of Health.
Black, Homer F., Valparaiso.
Professor of Mathematics, Valparaiso University.
Mathematics.
Digiti
zed by Google
25
Bliss, G. S., Fort Wayne.
Medicine, State School for Feeble Minded.
Blose, Joseph, Spiceland.
Physics.
Bond, Charles S., 112 N. Tenth St., Richmond.
Physician.
Biology, Bacteriolog^y, Physical Diagnosis and Photomicrog-
raphy.
Bond, Dr. George S., Indianapolis.
Professor of Medicine, Indiana University School of Medicine.
Bourke, A. Adolphus, 2304 Liberty Ave., Terre Haute.
Instructor, Physics, Zoology, and Geography.
Botany, Physics.
Bowers, Paul E., 213 W. 9th St., Michigan City.
Medicine.
Breckinridge, James M., Crawfordsville.
Chemistry.
Brossman, Charles, 1616 Merchants Bank Bldg., Indianapolis.
Consulting Engineer.
Water Supply, Sewage Disposal, Sanitary Engineering.
Brown, James, 5372 E. Washington St., Indianapolis.
Professor of Chemistry, Butler College.
Chemistry.
Bruce, Edwin M., 2401 North Ninth St., Terre Haute.
Professor of Chemistry, Indiana State Normal.
Chemistry.
Bushey, Alfred L., 210 Waldron St., West Lafayette.
Botany, Agriculture, Purdue University.
Butler, Eugene, 337 Pearl St., Richmond.
Physics and Mathematics.
Bybee, Halbert P., University Station, Austin, Texas.
Geology, University of Texas.
Canis, Edward N., R. F. D. No. 17, Clermont.
Officeman with William B. Burford.
Botany, Psychology.
Digiti
zed by Google
26
CaparOy Jose Angel, Notre Dame.
Professor of Physics and Mathematics, Notre Dame University.
Physics.
Carr, Ralph Howard, 27 North Salisbury St., West Lafayette.
Professor of Agricultural Chemistry, Purdue.
Chandler, Elias J., Bicknell.
Farmer.
Ornithology and Mammals.
Chapman, Edgar K., 506 S. Grant St., Crawfordsville.
Professor of Physics, Wabash College.
Clark, Elbert Howard, Hiram, Ohio.
Mathematics.
Clark, Jediah H., 126 East Fourth St., Connersville.
Physician.
Medicine.
Clarke, Elton Russell, 1433 Lexington Ave., Indianapolis.
Zoology.
Cloud, J. H., 608 E. Main Street, Valparaiso, Ind.
Professor of Physics, Valparaiso University.
Physics.
Collins, Anna Mary, Irvington, Indianapolis.
Student of Zoology, Butler College.
Collins, Jacob Roland, 711 Vine St., West Lafayette.
Instructor in Physics, Purdue University.
Conner, S. D., 204 S. Ninth St., Lafayette.
Chemistry, Experiment Station.
Coryell, Noble H., Bloomington.
Chemistry.
Cotton, Wm. J., 5363 University Ave., Indianapolis.
Physics and Chemistry.
Crampton, Charles, 515 Olive St., Texarkana, Texas.
Psychology.
Cromwell, Hobart, Salem, Ind.
Zoology.
Crowell, Melvin E., Cambom, B. C.
Chemistry and Physics.
Digiti
zed by Google
27
CuUison, Aline, East Chicago, Indiana, Box 404.
Instructor, Botany, in East Chicago High School.
Damron, Oliver E., Valparaiso.
Mathematics, Valparaiso University.
Daniels, Lorenzo E., Rolling Prairie.
Retired Farmer.
Conchology.
Davis, Melvin K., 215 W. 12th St., Anderson.
Instructor, Anderson High School.
Physiography, Geography, Climatology.
Dean, John C, University Club, Indianapolis.
Astronomy.
Demaree, Juan B., State House, Indianapolis.
Deputy State Entomologist.
Botany.
Denny, Martha L., Arbutus Apartments, Bloomington.
Graduate Student in Zoology, Indiana University.
Deppe, C. A., Franklin.
Franklin College.
Dietz, Harry F., Federal Horticultural Hall, Washington, D. C.
Entomology, Eugenics, Parasitology, Plant Pathology.
Doan, Martha, Richmond.
Professor of Chemistry, Earlham.
Dolan, Jos. P., Syracuse.
Dostal, Bernard F., Philadelphia, Pa.
Laboratory of Physics, University of Pennsylvania.
Douglas, Benjamin W., Trevlac.
Fruit Culture.
Downhour, D. Elizabeth, 2307 Talbott Ave., Indianapolis.
Zoology and Botany, Teachers College.
Driver, Chas. C, 416 E. 4th St., Bloomington.
Graduate Student in Zoology, Indiana University.
DuBois, Henry M., 1408 Washington Ave,, LaGrande, Oregon.
Palaeontology and Ecology.
Duncan, David Christie, State College, Pa.
Assistant Professor Physics, Pennsylvania State College.
Digiti
zed by Google
28
Earp, Samuel E., 643 Occidental Building, Indianapolis.
Physician.
Edmonson, Clarence E., 822 Atwater Street, Bloomington.
Graduate Student, Physiology, Indiana University.
Physiology.
Emerson, Charles P., Hume-Mansur Bldg., Indianapolis.
Dean Indiana University Medical College.
Medicine.
Epple, Wm. F., 234 Pierce St., West Lafayette.
Assistant in Dairy Chemistry, Experiment Station, Purdue
University.
Essex, Jesse Lyle, 262 Chauncey Ave., West Lafayette.
Chemistry, Purdue University.
Estabrook, Arthur H., 219 E. 17th St., Indianapolis.
Genetics, with State Board of Charities.
Evans, Samuel G., 1452 Upper Second St., Evansville.
Merchant.
Botany, Ornithology.
Felver, William P., 325^ Market St., Logansport.
Railroad Clerk.
Geology, Chemistry.
Fisher, Homer Glenn, Johns Hopkins Medical School, Baltimore, Md.
Student in Medicine.
Fisher, L. W., 16 Salisbury St., West Lafayette.
Student, Zoology, Purdue University.
Fisher, Martin L., Lafayette.
Professor of Crop Production, Purdue University.
Agriculture, Soils, Crops, Birds, Botany.
Foresman, George Kedzie, 110 S. 9th Street, Lafayette.
Instructor in Chemistry, Purdue University.
Froemming, Albert H., Station D., R. R. 3, Milwaukee, Wis.
High School Instructor.
Fulk, Murl E., 1793 E. 24th St., Cleveland, Ohio.
Anatomy.
Fuller, Frederic D., 4220 West 28th St., Bryan, Texas, Experiment
Station.
Chemistry, Nutrition.
Digiti
zed by Google
29
Funk, Austin, 404 Spring St., Jeifersonville.
Physician.
Diseases of Eye, Ear, Nose and Throat.
Galloway, Jesse James, Geology Department, Columbia University.
New York City.
Geology, Paleontology.
Gatch, Willis D., Indianapolis, Indiana University Medical School.
Professor of Surgery.
Anatomy.
Gates, Florence A., 3435 Detroit Ave., Toledo, Ohio.
Teacher of Botany.
Botany and Zoology.
Gidley, William, 123 Russell St., West Lafayette.
Professor of Pharmacy, Purdue University.
Gillum, Robert G., Terre Haute.
State Normal School.
Glenn, Earl R., New York City.
The Lincoln School of Teachers College, Columbia University.
Physics.
Goldsmith, William Morton, Gunnison, Colo.
Colorado State Normal School.
Biology.
Gottlieb, Frederic W., Morristown.
Care Museum of Natural History, Assistant Curator, Moores Hill
College.
Archaeology, Ethnology.
Greene, Frank C, 30 N. Yorktown St., Tulsa, Okla.
Geology.
Hadley, Murray N., 51 Willoughby Bldg., Indianapolis.
Physician.
Hammerschmidt, Louis M., Studebaker Building, South Bend.
Science of Law.
Hanna, U. S., Bloomington.
Professor of Mathematics.
Hansford, Hazel Irene, 110 S. Fess St., Bloomington.
Graduate Student in Botany, Indiana University.
Digiti
zed by Google
30
Happ, William, South Bend.
Botany.
Harding, C. Francis, 503 University St., West Lafayette.
Head of Electrical Engineering, Purdue University.
Harman, Paul M., Ill N. Dunn St., Bloomington.
Physiology.
Heimburger, Harry V., St. Paul, Minn.
Instructor in Biology in Hamline University.
Heimlich, Louis Frederick, Littleton St., West Lafayette.
Instructor in Botany, Purdue University.
Hemmer, John Edwin, Bloomington.
Graduate Student in Botany, Indiana University.
Hendricks, Victor K., 615 Frisco Building, St. Louis, Mo.
Assistant Chief Engineer, St. L. & S. F. R. R.
Civil Engineering and Wood Preservation.
Hess, Walter E., Greencastle.
Professor of Biology, DePauw University.
Hetherington, John P., 417 Fourth St., Logansport.
Physician.
Medicine, Surgery, X-Ray, Electro-Therapeutics.
Hinman, Jack J., Jr., State University, Iowa City, la.
Senior Water Bacteriologist and Chemist, Laboratories for State
Board of Health.
Chemistry and Biology.
Hoffman, George L., 321 Fourth St., Logansport.
Bacteriology.
Hoge, Mildred Kirkwood (Mrs. Aute Richards, Crawfordsville, Ind.)
Recently Instructor in Zoology, Indiana University.
Hole, Allen D., 615 National Road, Richmond.
Professor Earlham College.
Geology.
Holman, Richard M., Crawfordsville.
Professor of Botany, Wabash College.
Houseman, H. B., 901 Wabash Ave., Crawfordsville.
Instructor in Chemistry, Wabash College.
Huber, Leonard L., Hanover.
Zoology.
Digiti
zed by Google
31
Hurd, Cloyd C, Crawfordsville.
Zoology.
Huchinson, Emory, Norman Station, Ind.
Zoology.
Hutton, Joseph Gladden, Brookings, South Dakota.
Associate Professor of Agronomy, State College.
Agronomy, Geology.
Hyslop, George, 65 Nagle St., New York City.
Cornell Medical School.
Iddings, Arthur, Hanover.
Geology.
Imel, Herbert, South Bend.
Zoology.
Irving, Thos. P., Notre Dame.
Physics.
Jackson, Herbert Spencer, 940 7th St., West Lafayette.
Botany, Agricultural Experiment Station.
Jackson, Thos. F., Carter Oil Co., Tulsa, Okla.
Geology.
Jacobson, Moses A., West Lafayette.
Instructor in Bacteriology, Purdue University.
James, Glenn, West Lafayette.
Mathematics, Purdue University.
Jordan, Charles Bernard, West Lafayette.
Director School of Pharmacy, Purdue University.
Kaezmarek, Regedius M., Notre Dame.
Professor of Zoology.
Knotts, Armenis F., 800 Jackson St., Gary.
Nature Study.
Kohl, Edwin J., 105 Fowler Ave., West Lafayette.
Lee, C. O., Russell St., West Lafayette.
Leigh, Howard, 307 N. 7th St., Richmond.
Student in Zoology, Earlham College.
Liston, Jesse G., R. F. D., No. 2, Lewis.
High School Teacher.
Geology.
Digiti
zed by Google
32
Loomis, Nathaniel E., 127 Waldron St., West Lafayette.
Assistant Professor of Chemistry, Purdue University.
Physical Chemistry.
Ludwig, C. A., R. R. 1, Brookville.
Botany.
Ludy, L. v., 600 Russell St., West Lafayette.
Professor Experimental Engineering, Purdue University.
Experimental Engineering in Steam and Gas.
Mahin, Edward G., 27 Russell St., West Lafayette.
Associate Professor of Chemistry, Purdue University.
Mains, E. B., 212 S. Grant St., West Lafayette.
U. S. Agricultural Experiment Station.
Plant Pathology and Mycology.
Malott, Burton J., 2206 Calhoun St., Fort Wayne.
Teacher in High School.
Physical Geography and Geology.
Malott, Clyde A., 316 East 2nd St., Bloomington.
Geology.
Markle, M. S., Richmond.
Professor of Botany, Earlham College.
Martin, Dr. H. H., LaPorte, Ind.
Surgery and Urology.
Mason, Preston Walter, 128 Andrew Place, West Lafayette.
Entomology, Purdue University and Experiment Station.
Mason, T. E., 130 Andrew Place, West Lafayette.
Instructor Mathematics, Purdue University.
Mathematics.
McCarthy, Morris E., 224 Fowler Ave., West Lafayette.
Student in Zoology, Purdue University.
Mclndoo, N. E., 7225 Blair Road, Takoma Park, Washington, D. C.
U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Entomology.
Insect Physiology.
McKinley, Lester, Bloomington.
Graduate Student in Botany, Indiana University.
Miller, Fred A., Greenfield.
Botanist for Eli Lilly Co.
Botany, Plant Breeding.
Digiti
zed by Google
33
Molby, Fred A., 525 S. Park Ave., Bloomington.
Physics.
Montgromery, Charles E., 360 Augusta Avenue, DeKalb, 111.
Assistant Professor of Biology, Normal School.
Montgomery, Ethel, South Bend.
Physics.
Montgomery, Dr. H. T., 244 Jefferson Bldg., South Bend.
Geology.
Moore, Bruce V., 710 S. Fess Ave., Bloomington.
Graduate Student and Assistant in Psychology.
Morrison, Harold, Federal Horticultural Board, Washington, D. C.
Entomology.
Morrison, Louis, 80 S. West St., Richmond (France).
Munro, G. W., 202 Waldron St., West Lafayette.
Mechanical Engineering.
Murray, Thos. J., Blacksbury, Va.
Bacteriology, Virginia Polytechnic Institute.
Myers, B. D., 321 N. Washington St., Bloomington.
Professor of Anatomy, Indiana University.
Nelson, Ralph Emory, 125 Russell St., West Lafayette.
Chemistry, Purdue University.
Nothnagel, Mildred, Gainesville, Fla.
Assistant Plant Physiology, Experiment Station, Univ. of Fla.
Noyes, Harry A., 705 Russell St., West Lafayette.
Chemistry and Bacteriology, Agricultural Experiment Station.
Oberholzer, H. C, National Museum, Washington, D. C.
Biology.
O'Neal, Claude E., Delaware, Ohio.
Associate Professor of Botany, Wesleyan University.
Botany.
Orahood, Harold, Kingman.
Geology.
Osner, G. A., 216 Russell St., West Lafayette.
Assistant Botanist Agricultural Experiment Station.
Plant Pathology.
3—11994
Digiti
zed by Google
34
Owen, D. A., 200 South State St., Franklin.
Professor of Biology. (Retired.)
Biology.
Papish, Jacob, 737 Atwater St., Bloomington.
Instructor in Chemistry, Indiana University.
Peifer, Harvey Creighton, 115 Lutz Ave., West Lafayette.
Head of Chemical Engineering, Purdue University.
Petry, Edward Jacob, 115 University Street, West Lafayette.
Assistant Professor of Agricultural Botany, Purdue University.
Botany, Plant Breeding, Plant Pathology, Bio-Chemistry.
Pickett, Fermen L., Pullman College Station, Washington.
Botany.
Pinkerton, Earl, Orleans, Ind.
Zoology.
Pipal, F. J., 114 S. Salisbury St., West Lafayette.
Botany> Agricultural Experiment Station.
Powell, Horace, Hazleton.
Zoology.
Prentice, Burr N., 400 Russell St., West Lafayette.
Assistant Professor of Forestry, Purdue.
Price, Earl, Valparaiso.
County Agent, Harrisburg, 111.
Ramsey, Earl E., Bloomington.
Principal High School.
Ramsey, Glenn Blaine, Orono, Me.
Botany.
Rice, Thurman Brooks, Winona Lake.
Botany.
Richards, Aute, 409 S. Water Street, Crawfordsville.
Professor of Zoology, Wabash College.
Rifenburg, S. A., Cutler.
Instructor in Biologry, Valparaiso University.
Botany.
Riley, Katherine, 56 Whittier Place, Indianapolis.
Student in Zoology.
Roark, Louis, 221 E. 3rd St., Bloomington.
Assistant Professor of Geology, Indiana University.
Digiti
zed by Google
35
Robbins, Fred E., 423 Russell St,, West Lafayette.
Agriculture, Purdue University.
Schaeifer, Robert G., Montpelier.
Principal High School.
Science.
Scott, W. R. M., West Lafayette.
Agricultural Botany, Purdue University.
Sheak, William H., 2008 Parrish Street, Philadelphia, Pa.
Mammalogy.
Shiner, Dr. Will, Indianapolis.
Director, State Laboratory of Hygiene.
Showalter, Ralph W., Indianapolis.
With Eli Lilly & Co.
Biology.
Silvey, Oscar W., College Station, Texas.
Physics, University of Texas.
Smith, Chas. Piper, College Park, Md.
Associate Professor, Botany, Maryland Agricultural College.
Botany.
Smith, William W., 401 Russell Street, West Lafayette.
Biology, Genetics, Purdue University.
Snodgrass, R. E., 2063 Park Road, Washington, D. C.
U. S. Bureau of Entomology, Extension Division.
Entomology.
Southgate, Helen A., 218 West 6th St., Michigan City.
Physiography and Botany.
Spitzer, George, 1000 7th Street, West Lafayette.
Dairy Chemist, Purdue University.
Chemistry.
Spong, P., 3873 East Washington St., Indianapolis.
Biology.
Stoltz, Charles, 530 N. Lafayette St., South Bend.
Physician.
Stone, Ralph Bushnell, 307 Russell Street, West Lafayette.
Mathematics, Purdue University.
Stork, Harvey Elmer, Huntingburg.
Botany.
Digiti
zed by Google
36
Taylor, Joseph C, 117 9th St., Logansport.
Student in University of Wisconsin.
Terry, Oliver P., State St., West Lafayette.
Professor of Physiolog:y, Purdue University.
Tetrault, Philip Armand, West Lafayette.
Assistant Professor of Biology, Purdue University.
Tevis, Emma Louise, 122 West 18th Sf., Indianapolis.
Student in Zoology.
Thompson, Albert W., Owensville.
Merchant.
Geology.
Thompson, Clem O., 105 N. High St., Salem.
Principal High SchooL
Thombum, A. D., Indianapolis, care Pitman-Moore Co.
Chemistry.
Timmons, George D., Valparaiso.
Dean of School of Pharmacy, Valparaiso University.
Chemistry.
Toole, E. H., 719 N. Main St., West Lafayette.
Assistant Professor of Botany, Purdue University.
Troop, James, West Lafayette.
Professor of Ent<Hnology, Purdue University.
Tucker, William Motier, Apartment 33, Alhambra Court, Columbus, O.
Ohio State University, Department of Geology.
Tucker, Forest Glen, Columbus, Ohio.
Geology Department, University of Ohio.
Geology.
Turner, B. B., Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis.
Associate Professor of Pharmacology.
Turner, William P., 222 Lutz Avenue, Lafayette.
Professor of Practical Mathematics, Purdue University.
Vallance, Chas. A., R. R. J. No. 1, Box 132, Indianapolis.
Instructor Emmerich Manual Training School.
Chemistry.
Van Doren, Dr. Lloyd, Earlham College, Richmond.
Chemistry.
Digiti
zed by Google
37
Van Nuys, W. C, Box No. 34, Newcastle.
Superintendent, Indiana Epileptic Village, Fort Wayne.
Voorhees, Herbert S., 804 Wildwood Ave., Fort Wayne.
Instructor in Chemistry and Botany, Fort Wayne High School.
Chemistry, Botany.
Walters, Arthur L., Indianapolis, care Eli Lilly Col
Warren, Don Cameron, Bloomington.
Graduate Studept, Zoology, Indiana University.
Watson, Carl G., 120 Thornell St., West Lafayette.
Instructor in Physics, Purdue University.
Weatherwax, Paul, Bloomington.
Botany.
Webster, L. B., Terre Haute.
Weems, M. L., 102 Garfield Ave., Valparaiso.
Professor of Botany.
Botany and Human Physiology.
Weyant, James E., 336 Audubon Road, Indianapolis.
Teacher of Physics, Shortridge High School.
Physics.
Whiting, Rex Anthony, 118 Marstellar St., West Lafayette.
Veterinary Department, Purdue University.
Wiancko, Alfred T., 230 S. 9th St., Lafayette.
Chief in Soils and Crops, Purdue University.
Agronomy.
Wiley, Ralph Benjamin, 770 Russell St., West Lafayette.
Hydraulic Engineering, Purdue University.
Williams, A. A., Valparaiso.
Mathematics, Valparaiso University.
Mathematics, Astronomy.
Williams, Kenneth P., Bloomington.
Instructor Mathematics, Indiana University.
Wilson, Charles E., 211 Dunn St., Bloomington.
Graduate Student, Zoology and Economic Entor.iology, Indiana
University.
Wilson, Mrs. Etta L., 2 Clarendon Avenue, Detroit, Mich.
Botany and Zoology.
Digiti
zed by Google
38
Wilson, Guy West, Carmel.
Mycology and Plant Pathology.
Wisner, Eber Hugh, Valparaiso.
Pharmacy, Valparaiso University.
Wood, Harry W., 1538 Rosemont Avenue, Chicago, 111.
Woodbury, C. G., 615 University St., West Lafayette.
Director of Experiment Station.
Wynn, Frank B., Indianapolis.
Professor of Pathology, Indiana University School of Medicine.
Yoeman, R. C, West Lafayette.
Highway Engineering, Purdue University.
Young, Gilbert A., 739 Owen St., Lafayette.
Head of Department of Mechanical Engineering, Purdue Uni-
versity.
Young, Simon J., Valparaiso.
Physician, Lt. Col., M. C, N. A.
Zehring, William Arthur, 303 Russell St., West Lafayette.
Assistant Professor of Mathematics, Purdue University.
Mathematics.
Fellows '. . . . 65
Members, Active 231
Members and Fellows, Non-resident 38
Total 334
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Minutes op the Spring Meeting,
INDIANA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE,
May 17 and 18, 1917.
The spring meeting of the Indiana Academy of Science was held
Thursday and Friday, May 17 and 18, 1917, at Purdue University, in
connection with the dedication of the new biology building, Stanley
Coulter Hall of Biology.
Thursday Afternoon — 2:00 o'clock, May 17th.
Reception of the building for the University and address by President
W. E. Stone.
Brief Addresses by —
President W. J. Moenkhaus, representing the Indiana Academy of
Science;
John S. Wright, Esq., representing the Alumni;
Dr. H. C. Cowles, Chicago University, on Botany;
Dr. C. H. Eigenmann, Indiana University, on Zoology.
A complimentary supper was served to members of the Academy
and invited guests, at 6:00 o'clock, in Stanley Coulter Hall of Biology.
Thursday Evening — 8:00 o'clock.
Address —
"The Modem Biological Laboratory and Public Health," Professor
W. T. Sedgwick, Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
Friday, May 18th, Field Trip.
The members of the Academy and guests assembled at Stanley
Coulter Hall of Biology at 8:00 o'clock a. m. The loaded automobiles
started out at half-minute intervals for the trip. It was planned espe-
cially to view Pine Creek valley and vicinity. The automobiles proceeded
along the lowland of the Wabash River to Granville Bridge, thence to
Greenhill and across the upland to Rainsville, thence along Pine Creek
to the "Narrows" of Mud Creek, one of its tributaries, where luncheon
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was served. From the "Narrows" the party proceeded to Mudlavia,
thence to Attica, and then to Lafayette, following the Wabash River.
The trip afforded an opportunity to visit the Native White Pine
regions of northwestern Indiana. At the high bridge east of the Warren
County Farm detached rocks and high cliffs were of extreme interest to
geologists and students of physiography. This is the northern extensioii
of the geologic features which occur at Turkey Run.
Many of the party walked from the Warren County Farm to the
"Narrows."
Business Session.
The meeting was called to order, after luncheon, on a hill-side near
Mud Creek west of Attica, by President W. J. Moenkhaus. Sixty mem-
bers attended the meeting, and about thirty additional persons partici-
pated in the field trip and luncheon, as guests of the Academy.
In the absence of members of the Membership Committee the Sec-
retary submitted the names of persons proposed for membership. On
motion, duly passed, they were elected to membership in the Academy.
The new members are :
Michael James Blew, 215 Indiana AvenUe, Bloomington.
Hobart Cromwell, Terre Haute.
Richard G. Dukes, West 7th Street, West Lafayette.
Loyal W. Fisher, 16 Salisbury Street, West Lafayette.
Armenis F. Knotts, 800 Jackson Street, Gary.
Edwin J. Kohl, 105 Fowler Avenue, West Lafayette.
H. H. Martin, M. D., Laporte.
CO. Lee, Russell Street, West Lafayette.
Morris E. McCarty, 224 Fowler Avenue, West Lafayette.
Louis A. Morrison, 80 S. West 7th Street, West Lafayette.
George W. Munro, 202 Waldron Street, West Lafayette.
Robert E. Snodgrass, 1819 N. New Jersey Street, Indianapolis.
Carl G. Watson, 120 Thomell Street, West Lafayette.
Charles G. Woodbury, 615 University Street, West Lafayette.
Amos W. Butler reported the continuance of the annual appropria-
tion of $1,200 by the State Legislature for the purpose of printing the
Proceedings.
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R. W. McBride discussed the matter of urging the Printing Board
to speed up its work on the 1916 Proceedings.
On motion, duly passed, a committee consisting of the President,
Secretary, and Judge McBride, is authorized to visit the Governor in
an effort to hasten the work of publication of the Proceedings.
On motion, Editor Lee F. Bennett is empowered to use his discre-
tion in making up the 1916 Proceedings, by elimination of some of the
papers, or to reduce their length if they would otherwise add too much
to the size and cost of the volume.
It is further urged that an effort be made to embody in the 1916
Proceedings a paper by Professor Hadley of Monrovia, on "David Worth
Dennis — ^An Appreciation."
On motion, the Committee on Distribution of Proceedings is to fix
prices at which back numbers of the publication may be procured, and
to report at the Fall Meeting.
The following resolutions by Frank B. Wynn, on the State Parks,
and by Amos W. Butler, on Appreciations, were received, and passed by
the Academy:
Resolved, That the Indiana Academy of Science most heartily ap-
proves the attitude of the Governor of the State in promoting the move-
ments for State Parks; first, because it will insure the preservation of
native forests, and beautiful natural places which are now rapidly being
destroyed and can not be replaced.
Secondly, We urge their preservation as health and recreation pre-
serves for all the people for all time to come.
In the midst of this, the largest Spring Meeting of the Indiana
Academy of Science, we express our appreciation of the fine hospitality
of Purdue University, which has made this occasion a remarkably suc-
cessful one. To President Stone, Dean Coulter and all of his associates,
to the ladies for the welcome luncheon, and to the ladies of the House-
hold Economics Department, for the splendid supper, our grateful
acknowledgments are made, and to all who have contributed to this
meeting our sincere thanks are given.
We also wish to make formal recognition of the notable advance
made by Purdue University in the erection of the new biology building,
so well planned for its purpose and so well built, to express our appre-
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elation of the wisdom shown in naming it for the Head of the Depart-
ment of Biology, Dr. Stanley Coulter, a distinguished and beloved mem-
ber of this body.
Professor McBeth of the State Normal School, was then called upon
to speak briefly of the geological formation of the region covered in the
field trip, after which the meeting adjourned.
W. J. MOENKHAUS, President.
Howard E. Enders, Secretary.
Evening — Friday, May 18th.
Reception to members of the Academy in Stanley Coulter Hall of
Biology, by the University Club.
Saturday — May 19, 1917.
A number of the members of the Academy joined in a visit to the
Tippecanoe Battlefield and the State Soldiers' Home.
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Minutes of the Fall Meeting,
INDIANA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE,
INDIANA UNIVERSITY, BLOOMINGTON, INDIANA,
December 6, 1917.
The Executive Committee of the Indiana Academy of Science met in
the Faculty Room of Maxwell Hall, and was called to order by the
President, W. J. Moenkhaus, of Bloomington. The following members
were present: F. M. Andrews, Lee F. Bennett, Wm. M. Blanchard, H.
L. Bruner, W. A. Cogshall, C. C. Deam, Howard E. Enders, Edwin
Morrison, D. M. Mottier, Will Scott, Charles Stoltz, and John S. Wright.
The minutes of the Executive Committee of 1916 were read and
approved.
The reports of the standing committees were then taken up.
Program Committee — F. M. Andrews, Chairman, reported the work
completed as indicated by the printed program of fifty-one titles. On
motion, the following title, which arrived too late for entry, was added to
the program: "Disposition and Intelligence of the Chimpanzee", by W.
Henry Sheak, of Philadelphia, Pa.
Committee on Distribution of Proceedings — Howard E. Enders,
chairman, reported that the 1915 Proceedings had been sent out since the
last meeting, through the co-operation of the State Librarian, and that
the 1916 issue, now in page-proof, will be mailed as early as possible.
CoTnmittee on Restriction of Weeds and Diseases — D. M. Mottier,
member, reported informally upon the possible value of the work of such
committee, but that in view of the fact that the State Board of Health
and other agencies in the State are engaged in such work, it would seem
to be unnecessary to continue this committee.
On motion, duly passed, the committee is discharged, and this com-
mittee hereafter is to be discontinued.
Committee on Relations of the Academy to the State — John S.
Wright reported for the committee that the customary twelve hundred
($1,200) dollar appropriation has been made available for the printing
of the Proceedings.
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Committee on Publication of Proceedings — Lee F. Bennett, chairman
and Editor, reported on the incidents in delay of Proceedings. Half of
the page-proofs are now in hand, and others will be received soon.
On motion, the Editor of Proceedings is to be allowed the sum of
fifty ($50) dollars for expense of clerical hire for the 1916 issue. It is
the sense of the Executive Committee that this sum be continued from
year to year.
Advisory Council — John S. Wright and W. A. Cogshall reported for
the committee that they had conferred with the Governor of the State
relative to the matter of placing properly qualified men in the scientific
offices of the State, and that he had given assurance of such co-operation.
Committee on Academy Foundation — The report of this special com-
mittee, appointed a year ago, was read by the chairman, H. L. Bruner.
On motion, the report is hereby received and is to be submitted to
the members of the Academy for consideration at the business session to-
morrow.
Wm. M. Blanchard, Treasurer, reported as follows:
Balance in Treasury December 2, 1916 $378 49
Dues collected during the year 344 00
Total $722 49
Expenditures 197 91
Balance in treasury, December 1, 1917 $524 58
The report was received and, in the absence of P. N. Evans, was
referred to W. A. Cogshall for audit.
There were no reports from the committees on State Library and
Biological Survey.
H. E, Enders reported relative to the matter of setting a price for
back nimibers of the Proceedings, as directed at the Lafayette Spring
Meeting. The committee advises that, inasmuch as the State pays for
the publication of the Proceedings, we have no authority to offer for
sale or receive money for copies of the Proceedings. It is advised that
the practice be followed of sending copies to interested workers upon
application, and prepayment of the carriage charges.
On motion, a committee of three was appointed to prepare amend-
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ments to the Constitution and By-Laws to define the duties of Editor of
Proceedings, and to recognize the position as an officer of the Executive
Committee.
John S. Wright, Lee F. Bennett and W. A. Cogshall were appointed
to serve as members of this committee.
On motion it is recommended that the 1918 Program Committee de-
termine the feasibility of inviting the members of the Illinois Academy
of Science to hold their Spring Meeting as a joint meeting with the
Indiana Academy of Science, at some time and place to be determined by
the committees of these Academies.
Adjourned.
W. J. MoENKHAUS, President.
Howard E. Enders, Secretary.
GENERAL SESSION.
Science Hall, 10:15 a. m., Dec- 7, 1917.
The meeting called to order by President W. J. Moenkhaus.
In accordance with the arrangements of the Progrram Committee the
Academy proceeded at once with the reading of the general papers num-
bered 1 to 5, after which the body went into bnsinss session.
Business:
The minutes of the Executive Committee were read and approved.
The report of the committee appointed to investigate the advisability
of establishing a research endowment fund to be known as the Academy
Foundation, was received and was considered at some length, after which
the following resolution was passed : •
Resolved, That the Academy expresses sympathy in the movement
and refers the matter back to the Committee on Academy Foundation
for further amplification, and for private publication and circulation
among members of the Academy during the ensuing year, with a view
to its consideration in 1918.
Auditor W. A. Cogshall reported upon the correctness of the report
of the Treasurer.
Report of progress in the Biological Survey was made by chairman,
C. C. Deam.
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The following named persons were proposed for membership, and
were elected :
Harold R. Brown, Earlham College, Richmond, Indiana.
Anna Mary Collins, Irvington, Indianapolis, Indiana.
Martha L. Denny, Bloomington.
Charles S. Driver, Bloomington.
Walter N. Hess, Greencastle.
Richard M. Holman, Crawfordsville.
Moses A. Jacobson, West Lafayette.
Jacob Papish, Bloomington.
Louis Roark, Bloomington.
Lewis A. Taylor, Earlham College, Richmond.
Eben Henry Toole, West Lafayette.
The following named members were elected Fellows:
J. A. Badertscher. Professor of Anatomy, Indiana University.
Charles A. Behrens, Professor of Bacteriology, Purdue University.
Edward W. Koch, Department of Research, Eli Lilly Co., Indian-
apolis.
William M. Logan, Associate Professor of Geology, Indiana Uni-
versity.
Barnard Schockel, Professor of Geography, State Normal School.
The report of the Nominating Committee was as follows:
President — E. B. Williamson, Bluffton.
Vice-President — Dr. Charles Stoltz, South Bend.
Secretary — Howard E. Enders, West Lafayette.
Assistant Secretary — P. A. Tetrault, West Lafayette.
Treasurer — Wm. M. Blanchard, Greencastle.
Editor — Lee F. Bennett, Valparaiso.
Press Secretary — Frank B. Wade, Indianapolis,
The Committee on Amendments moved the following amendments
to the Constitution and By-Laws, for final action to-morrow:
Amendment to Constitution, Article III, Section 1, second sentence, by
insertion of the word "Editor" after the words "Press Secretary."
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The article and section so amended will read:
"Section 1. The officers of this Academy shall be chosen by ballot,
at the annual meeting, and shall hold office one year. They shall con-
sist of a President, Vice-President, Secretary, Assistant Secretary, Press
Secretary, Editor, and Treasurer, who shall perform the duties usually
pertaining to their respective offices and in addition, with ex-presidents
of the Academy, shall constitute an Executive Committee. The Presi-
dent shall, at each annual meeting, appoint two members to be a com-
mittee, which shall prepare the programs and have charge of the ar-
rangements for all meetings for one year."
Amendment to the By-Laws:
"By-Law 8. An Editor shall be elected from year to year. His
duties shall be to edit the annual Proceedings. No allowance shall be
made to the Editor for clerical assistance on account of any one edition
of the Proceedings in excess of fifty ($50) dollars except by special
action of the Executive Committee."
Afternoon Session — 1:30 p. m.
Papers numbered 6, 7, and 8 were read in general session after
which the Academy adjourned to sectional meetings. President Moenk-
haus served as chairman of the section on Bacteriology, Botany and
Zoology; and Edwin Morrison presided over the section on Astronomy,
Chemistry, Geology and Physics.
Evening Sessions.
The address of the retiring President, Professor W. J. Moenkhaus,
was delivered at the informal dinner, at the Cafeteria, at 7:00 p. m.
At 8:30 Professor Charles T. Knipp, of the University of Illinois,
addressed the members of the Academy and guests on the subject : "Elec-
tric Discharge in Vacuum Tubes — The Electron." The extensive equip-
ment and the facilities of the Department of Physics made it possible to
illustrate the whole of the lecture in a striking manner.
A smoker and informal entertainment was given by the Sigma Xi
Scientific Fraternity at the Faculty Club rooms immediately after Pro-
fessor Knipp's address.
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Saturday, December 8, 1917.
BtLsiness :
The meeting was called to order at 8:45 by President Moenkhaus.
The amendments to the Constitution and By-Laws were called for
second reading, and were passed on motion.
The following named Fellows were elected Non-Resident Fellows:
Charles Zeleny, Professor of Experimental Zoology, University of
Illinois, Urbana, Illinois.
Severance Burrage, Resident of Massachusetts, now with a medical
commission in Serbia.
The matter of the Spring Meeting was discussed. In view of the
fact that members of the Illinois Academy of Science have suggested
that a joint meeting be held with their Academy it is advised that the
1918 Program Committee take up the matter and determine whether
this is feasible; if so to complete the plans, otherwise to determine a
place and time for an independent meeting.
The Academy adopted the following resolution presented by Wm. M.
Blanchard :
Resolved: That we extend to Indiana University, and particularly
to the members of the Academy who are connected with the University,
as well as to our special visitor. Professor Charles T. Knipp, a vote of
thanks for the entertainment and courtesy manifested at this December
meeting of the Academy.
The Academy then went into general session for the reading such
papers as remain from the several sections.
Adjourned.
W. J. Moenkhaus, President.
Howard E. Enders, Secretary.
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Program op the Thirty-third Annual Meeting,
OP THB
INDIANA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE,
RBLD AT
Indiana University, Bloomington, Ind.,
Friday and Saturday, December 7 and 8, 1917.
OFFICERS.
W. J. MOENKHAUS, President
Edwin Morrison, Vice-President
Howard E. Enders, Secretary
William M. Blanchard, Treasurer
P. A. Tetrault, Assistant Secretary
Frank B. Wade, Press Secretary
Lee F. Bennett, Editor
PROGRAM COMMITTEE.
F. M. Andrews H. L. Bruner
Stanley Coulter
GENERAL PROGRAM
Thursday.
Meeting of the Executive Committee in the Faculty Club
Rooms 8 :00 p.m.
Friday.
Business Session 11 :30 a.m.
General Session 10 :00 a.m.
Sectional Meetings 1 :30 p.m.
Informal Dinner at the Cafeteria 7 :00 p.m.
The address of the retiring President, Professor William J. Moenkhaus,
of Indiana University, will be delivered at this time.
Address by Professor Charles T. Knipp 8:30 p.m.
4—11994
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Subject: Electric Discharge in Vacuum Tubes — ^"The Electron," Science
Hall, Room 38.
A smoker will be given by the Sigma Xi Scientific Fraternity at the
Faculty Club Rooms immediately after Professor Knipp's address.
Saturday.
Business Session 8 :00 ajn.
GENERAL SESSION.
Friday, 10:00 a.m.
1. Transplantation of Testes into Ovariectomized Female Guinea
Pigs, 5 min By Mathew Winters
Presented by Dr. B. D. Myers, Indiana University.
2. The Physiography of Indianapolis, 15 min. (by title) .Chas. R. Dryer
3. The Pygidiidae, 30 min C. H. Eigenmann, Indiana University
4. Some criteria of Skeletal Homologies, 15 min
J. S. Kingsley, University of Illinois
5. A Fish Epidemic in Huffman's Lake, 10 min
Will Scott, Indiana University
6. Germinal Changes Affecting Facet Number in the Bar-eyed
Race of Drosophila, 10 min
Charles Zeleny, University of Illinois
7. The Dwarfing Effect of Attacks of Mites of the Genus Eriophy-
dae upon Norway Maples, 10 min
."Howard E. Enders, Purdue University
8. Where the Feeble-minded are Self-supporting, 12 min
Hazel I. Hansford, Indiana University
SECTIONAL MEETINGS.
Friday 1:30 p.m. and Saturday 8:30 a.m.
Astronomy,
1. A New Form of Telescope Mounting, 10 min
W. A. Cogshall, Indiana University
Bacteriology,
2. Bacterial Action on Proteins in presence of Carbohydrates, 10
min . H. M. Weeter, Purdue Univ. ; George Spitzer, Purdue Univ.
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3. Hydrolysis of Proteins and Methods of Separating the Cleavage
Products, 10 min Geo. Spitzer, Purdue University
Botany,
4. Plastids, 10 min. (by title) D. M. Mottier, Indiana University
5. Species of Martyniaceae, 5 min.. Flora Anderson, Indiana University
6. Variation and Varieties of Zea Mays, 10 min
Paul Weatherwax, Indiana University
7. Improved Technique for the Control of Pollination in Com, 10
min Paul Weatherwax, Indiana University
8. Dormant Period of Timothy Seed after Harvesting, 10 min
M. L. Fisher, Purdue University
9. The Plant Succession on Niagrara and Hudson River Limestone,
near Richmond, Ind., 5 min. (by title)
M. S. Markle, Earlham College
10. Notes on Microscopic Technique, 5 min. (by title)
M.S. Markle, Earlham College
11. The Ustilaginales of Indiana, 10 min
H. S. Jackson, Purdue University
12. The Uredinales of Indiana, 10 min H. S. Jackson
13. A Suspected Case of Live-Stock Poisoning by Wild Onion (Al-
lium Canadense) , 10 min. (by title)
F. J. Pipal, Purdue University
14. Additions to the list of Plant Diseases of Economic Importance
in Indiana, 10 min. (by title)
Geo. A. Osner, Purdue University
15. Reaction of Culture Media, 10 min. (by title)
H. A. Noyes, Purdue University
16. Studies on Pollen, 5 min F. M. Andrews, Indiana University
17. Stoppage of a Sewer Pipe by Roots of Acer Saccharum, 5 min.. .
F. M. Andrews, Indiana University
18. Anthocyanin of Beta Vulgaris, 5 min
F. M. Andrews, Indiana University
19. Improved Forms of Maximow's Automatic Pipette, 5 min
F. M. Andrews, Indiana University
20. The Effect of Centrifugal Force on Plants, 5 min •
F. M, Andrews, Indiana University
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21. The Effect of Aeration on the Roots of Zea Mays, 5 min
Colonzo C. Beals, Indiana University
22. Resistance of Mucor Zygotes, 20 min
Mildred Nothnagel, Indiana Univerrity
Chemistry.
23. The Absorption of Iron by Platinum Crucibles in Clay Fusions,
5 min W. M. Blanchard,
DePauw University; Roscoe Theibert, DePauw University
24. The Injurious Effect of Borax in Corn Fertilizers, 10 min. (by
title) S. D. Conner, Purdue University
25. Chemical Estimations of Fertility in Fulton County (Ind.) Soils,
15 min R. H. Carr and G. A. Cast, Purdue University
26. By-products of the Preparation of Ether, 10 min. (by title) . . .
P. N. Evans and G. K. Foresman, Purdue University
27. Quantitative Precipitation of Manganese as the Sulphide, 15
min James Brown, Butler College
28. The Influence of Methyl Iodide Vapor and Tobacco Smoke on the
Growth of Certain Bacteria and Fungi (by title) . . C. A. Ludwig
Geology,
29. Brief Notes on the New Castle Tornado, 10 min
Colonzo C. Beals, Indiana University
30. "The Mt. Carmel Fault," 5 min W. N. Logan, Indiana University
31. "Some Criteria of Dip," 5 min W. N. Logan, Indiana University
32. "Possible Utilization of Indiana Kaolin," 5 min
W. N. Logan, Indiana University
33. "The Physiographic Divisions of the United States as made by
the Fenneman Committee," 5 min
F. J. Breeze, Indiana University
34. "Glacial Boulders in Brown and Monroe Counties, South of
the Limit of Glaciation, 15 min
F. J. Breeze, Indiana University
35. "Field Methods in the Mid-Continental Oil Field," 15 min
. . . ; Louis Roark, Indiana University
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Physics.
36. Energy Loss in Commercial Hammers, 15 min
Edwin Morrison and Robert L. Pelry, Earlham College
37. Some Experiments on Resonance of Tubes and Horns, 5 min. . .
Arthur L. Foley, Indiana University
38. Two New Photographic Methods of Measuring the Speed of
Sound Waves, 10 min Arthur L. Foley, Indiana University
39. Conditions Affecting the Speed of Sound Waves, 10 min
Arthur L. Foley, Indiana University
40. The Conduction of Heat and Electricity Thru Selenium, 10 min.
Arthur L. Foley, Indiana University
41. Some Observations on Fluorescence, 5 min
Arthur L. Foley, Indiana University
42. Further Notes on the Identity of X-Rays and Light, 10 min.. . .
Mason E. Hufford, Indiana University
43. An improved Form of High Vacuum High Speed Mercury Vapor
Air Pump, 10 min Charles T. Knipp, University of Illinois
43a. A Possible Standard of Sound . Chas. T. Knipp, University of Illinois
44. Visible Color Effects in a Positive Ray Tube Containing Helium,
10 min Chas. T. Knipp, University of Illinois
Zoology.
45. The Effect of Artificial Selection upon Bristle Number in the
Fruit Fly and the Interpretation of the Results, 15 min. . .
F. Payne, Indiana University
46. The Unionidas of Lake Maxinkuckee, 20 min. (by title)
.... Barton Warren Evermann, California Academy of Science ;
Howard Walton Clark, U. S. Biological Station, Fairport, Iowa
47. A Day with the Birds of a Hoosier Swamp, 10 min. (by title) . . .
Barton Warren Evermann, California Academy of Science
48. Further Experiments with the New Mutant, Scarlet in the Dro-
sophila Repleta, 10 min . . ,^ H. W. Cromwell
49. A Seasonal Study of the Stickleback Kidney, Cayuga Jordan, 15
min Walter N. Hess, DePauw University
50. On the Locus of the Gene for the Mutant, Curved (by title) . .
Roscoe R. Hyde, Indiana State Normal
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51. The Erdmann New Culture Medium for Protozoa, 20 min
By C. A. Beh-
rens, Purdue University; H. C. Travelbee, Purdue University
52. Disposition and Intelligence of the Chimpanzee
W. Henry Sheak, Philadelphia, Pa.
53. The Uredinales of Delaware H. S. Jackson, Purdue University
54. The Trees of White County, Indiana
Louis L. Heimlich, Purdue University
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The Physiography of Indianapolis.
Charles R. Dryer, Indiana State Normal School.
In 1820, the Indiana Commissioners fixed upon a point in the unin-
habited wilderness, "on White river at the head of navigation" and
within ten miles of the geographical center of the State for the location
of the future capital. Congress had granted to the State four square
miles for use as a seat of government, and in 1821 a plat of one square
mile was surveyed which now comprises the official and commercial
center of the city. The area was situated near the eastern border of the
flood plain of White River and a few feet above it, but was traversed by
Pogues Run, a small tributary. Fall Creek, a much larger stream,
entered the river from the northeast just above the city and Pleasant
Run a short distance below. On the opposite side of the river. Eagle
Creek came in from the west.
The present metropolitan district would be enclosed by a parallelo-
gram 8 by 10 miles, of which about 35 square miles are built up. The
underlying bed rocks are Devonian limestones and shales too deeply
buried beneath glacial material to influence topography. The Illinoian
drift sheet of compact blue clay, varies from 20 to 80 feet in thickness.
A few feet of sand and gravel separate it from the usual bouldery till of
Wisconsin age, the whole forming a mantle 70 to 170 feet thick. This
glacial subtratum has been eroded and replaced by gravel to an extent
presently to be described.
In the absence of a topographic map relief can be described only
in approximate terms. Central Marion County is crossed from north-
west to southeast by a belt of undulating drift in part morainic about
ten miles wide, its surface lying about 800 feet A. T. It is bordered on
the south by massive gravel ridges and other morainic features.*
Through this belt nearly at right angles. White River and Fall Creek cut
a trench about 200 feet deep, having its bottom on or near bed rock.
During the period of glacial retreat this trench was filled half full of
gravelly outwash. A readvance of the ice margin, accompanied by the
• Levorett, Frank. U.S. Gcol. Surv. Monograph LIII, p. 96.
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PHVSlC^t MAP
iNDiANAPOLlS
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escape of subglacial streams, deposited near the western border of the
outwash plain a belt of sand and gravel hills three miles long and rising
in the sharp knob of Crown Hill 90 feet above the plain and 150 feet
above the river. White River passes through this kame-moraine in a
gorge three miles long and half a mile wide, bordered by steep bluffs
40 to 80 feet high. The gravel plain about three miles wide is bounded
on the east by a gentle rise or bluff 15 to 30 feet high, which parallels
Fall Creek and touches the river at the mouth of Pleasant Run, below
which the plain lies on the west side of the river. Its surface slopes from
about 740 feet A. T. in the north to 680 feet in the south, or about six
feet to the mile and is cut by the high water channels of the river. Fall
Creek and Eagle Creek, into a series of low but well defined terraces. The
city occupies the gravel plain, the kame-moraine and the gorge, bluffs and
flood plain of White River, and extends on the east and south several
miles beyond the bluff over the more elevated undulating drift.
The physical features have influenced the development of the city,
favorably and unfavorably, in various ways. White River is a commercial
obstruction, too small for navigation, inadequate for sewerage and en-
tailing large expense for bridges and levees. It pays some compensation
in water supply and picturesque sites for parks and residences. The
gravel plain makes grading and excavation inexpensive and surface
drainage rapid; but this credit account is balanced by a debit of 25,000
wells subject to serious contamination. Pogues Run has cost untold sums
in damage to health and property by floods and the expense of conversion
into a covered sewer, but furnishes a route by which several railroad
lines enter the city. The low bluffs and terraces of Fall Creek and
Pleasant Run are utilized for boulevards and parkways. The Crown
Hill kame-moraine, the most striking and attractive natural feature
of the area, is admirably suited for the abode of the living or the dead
and forms the beautiful site of Crown Hill Cemetery. The smooth sur-
face of the surrounding drift plain is a prime factor in the accessibility
which makes Indianapolis the largest center of exclusively land trans-
portation in the United States.
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The Pygidiidae.
Carl H. Eigenmann, Indiana University.
There is a widespread belief in parts of South America that a fibh
called Candiru has the vicious habit of entering the urethra of bathers.
Its opercle and interopercle bear retrorse spines that are erectile. The
fishy therefore, cannot be withdrawn. An operation, if not amputation. Is
necessary to get rid of the pest, and if it has penetrated to the bladder it
causes death. This story has been told many different travelers. Some
have rejected it as beyond belief, others have added to the marveloi^s,
while still others have tried to identify the fish. The result of the latter
attempt has been ludicrous at times, inasmuch as the identification would
require the reverse of the well recognized principle of logic that the
greater cannot enter the lesser. Some of the Candirus reach a consid-
erable size, a length of at least a foot and a thickness of at least two
inches. We will return to the Candirds.
I have finished a monograph of the family of fishes, the Pygidiidae,
of which the smaller Candirtis are members, and I want to give a brief
account of the different types of fishes that are included in this family.
Other species of the family have well authenticated habits as remarkable
as those of the Candiru, and I am figuring all the species I can get.
I find that there are nearly a hundred well defined species of the
Pygidiidae. Many of these are very rare. Forty-four are known from
the types only, several have been recorded from but two localities. The
types are widely scattered in the museums of North America, South
America, and Europe. At one time or another I have examined prac-
tically all of the specimens in American museums, and have myself dis-
covered nine of the nineteen genera, and forty-three of the ninety-seven
species. Eight or ten of the types are in Vienna, two are in Berlin,
twelve in Paris, eleven in London, one in Torino, two probably in Mu-
nich, one in Leipzig, two in Copenhagen, one in Berne, three presumably
in Santiago, Chile, three in Buenos Aires, three in Rio de Janeiro, two in
Cordoba, Argentine, one in the Field Museum, two in the Philadelphia
* €k>ntribution from the Zodlogical Laboratory of Indiana University, No. 168.
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Academy of Sciences, eight in the Museum of Comparative Zoology, five
in Indiana University, one in Princeton University, twenty-four in the
Carnegie Museum. The type of one species, the only known specimen
of the species, has been lost.
-V '^JJ^T.-^
Si^^^^ij^^^
■■■'.
..E
^
A Pygidiuii}.
~^^~
The particular type of catfish underlying all of the Pygidiidae is
that of a short eel with a little barbel on the anterior nostril, twin bar-
bels at the angle of the mouth, small teeth in bands in the jaws, bunches
of spines on the margin of the preopercle and on the opercle, the first
dorsal and pectoral rays not spinous, the dorsal placed behind the middle
of the body and not followed by an adipose fin. The principal peculi-
arities are the twin barbels at the angle of the mouth, the absence of an
adipose fin and the development of opercular and interopercular spines —
never mind the internal economy. Nobody knows, at least I don't, why
there are ttvin barbels at the angle of the mouth, or why there is no
adipose fin. It is easy to see that the spines on interopercle and opercle
are important. They are an adaptation to the insinuating habit and pre-
vent an exsinuation if the fish objects to coming out.
From this basal idea of the Pygidiidae have been developed by addi-
tion, subtraction and modification several distinct subfamilies, each with
subsidiary basal ideas and a larger or smaller number of radiations.
There are the Nematogenyinse with barbels on the chin, remnants really
of the more ancient, less specialized cat-fishdom, the Pygidiidae which
are the least specialized of the Pygidiidae, and meander over all the
mountains of South America, both east and west. The most that can be
said of them is that there are a lot of them and that when big enough
they are good to eat. Then there are the Stegophilinae with a broad,
inferior mouth with innumerable fine teeth in many rows on lips and
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jaws, and some, at least, which have exaggerated the insinuating habit
to the extent of becoming parasites in the gills of other fishes. Also
there are the Vandelliinie, in which the lower jaws are weak, the rami
no longer meeting in the middle, the teeth largely reduced to a few
pointed ones in the middle of the upper jaw, with which they make
abrasions in the skins of other fishes and of an occasional bather, to
drink his blood. To this crowd of disreputables belong the aforemen-
tioned Candiru. Finally there are little odds and ends tied into the
Tridentinae, minute creatures, the smallest of which is but 17 mm. long,
and the largest but 27 mm. The most that we can say of them is
to express the wonder that any of them were caught at all.
The Nematogenyinae have either lost or never got opercular spines.
Nematogenys is large enough to be noticed. It has received the common
name "Bagre", and reaches a length of over ten inches at least.
The Pygidiinae flourish in the mountains from southern Panama to
southern Patagonia, and in southeastern Brazil, also in the cataracts of
Guiana. A few of them are found in the lowland, but their optimum is
only reached in high altitudes, and with Astroblepus, a representative of
another catfish type, they reach the highest altitudes attained by fishes
in South America.
One of them, Eremophilus mutisii, is exceedingly abundant on the
Plains of Bogota, where its name, "El Capitan", expresses the estimation
in which this Pygidiid is held. It has the habit of worming its way
into the mud and into the banks of streams and lakes. "El Capitan" is
speckled like a lake trout, and it is all but confined to the elevated basin
in which Bogota is situated. In the mountain brooks of Colombia many
species of the genus Pygidium are found in abundance. I recall one
sultry day sitting in a cool, clear, shallow brook near Honda, Colombia,
leisurely raking my fingers through the sand and pebbles on the bottom.
Minute fishes darted out of the sand and into it and under small rocks.
I lined a dipnet with cheese-cloth and wfent for them, dipping up sand,
gravel and all. I soon had a good number, eighty-nine to be exact, of a
new species of the genus Pygidium. Mr. E. B. Williamson caught a
specimen of another species, which was making its way up the vertical
wall of a waterfall. The sixty- three members of the genus Pygidium
range from southern Panama to Chile, Guiana and Rio Grande do Sul.
Very few species are known from the lowlands, but every mountain
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brook has one or more species, never many, and none of them have a
wide distribution. They are abundant in Lake Titicaca, and in south-
em Chile are replaced by the related genus Hatcheria.
A halfway station between the Pygidiin® with nasal barbel, free
gill-membranes and ordinary fish mouth and the small commensals, par-
asites and disreputables without nasal barbels, with narrow gill-openins:s
and inferior mouth, is found in Pareiodon. In shape and size Pareiodon
resembles the Havanas sold to tourists in Habana for a dollar, each one
put up in an individual bottle, a corkscrew furnished gratis with each
cigar.
Some, at least, of the Stegophilini live in the gill-openings of other
fishes. The head in the species of this group is flat below, the mouth a
transverse slit, the teeth are minute and numerous, there is no nasal bar-
bel, the gill-opening is greatly restricted, the membrane being united
with the broad, flat isthmus. Some of them roam the billows free as
cats, others are known to live, occasionally at least, as commensals or
parasites in the gill-cavities of other fishes. Reinhardt, a Danish natur-
alist living for the time at Lagoa Santa, on the Rio das Velhas, a trib-
utary of the San Francisco, was the first one to note this fact and to
secure specimens. Reinhardt being told that one of the giant catfishes,
Pseudoplaty stoma eoruscans, carried its young in its gills, offered a re-
Stegophiluit insidionufi Hcinhnrt.
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ward for one with young. Two Platystomas were brought with young,
but instead of being the young of the giant catfish, he found that the
small fishes were the types of a distinct parasitic or commensal fish,
which he called "Stegophilus insidiosus."
It is certain that some members of the Stegophilini live in the open,
very probably on sandy beaches; in fact, while but one species is known
to live part of its time, at least, in the gills of other fishes there are a
number of species that have only been caught in the open. Several years
ago Prof. J. D. Anisits, then living in Asuncion, Paraguay, sent me one
of these little creatures, which he had caught in a brook near Sapucay.
He tried to get others but sorrowfully reported that the locality was
gone, the arroyo was dry. While the original member of the Stego-
philini came from a medium altitude, the members of the subfamily live
largely in the lower levels of the Amazon and La Plata. As it is more
probable that specimens living in the open will get into the ichthyologists'
bottles than those living in the gill-cavities of larger fishes, it must be
left an open question whether the species living in gill-cavities are more
numerous than those living in the open, and whether the same species
live in the open and in gill-cavities indiscriminately, or whether they
only occasionally get into gill-cavities as the result of their inborn, in-
sinuating habit coupled with the blood-sucking specialization.
The three known species of the Tridentin®, all collected during the
Thayer Expedition, in the Amazon Basin near the boundary between
Brazil and Peru, were described by my wife and myself in 1898. One of
them, Miuroglanis platycephalusj captured in 1866 by the combined
efforts of James, Thayer and Talisman, in the Jutahy, is or was only
seventeen millimeters long. A recent effort to locate the specimen has
failed. The same fate seems to have befallen the specimen of Tridens
brevis. It was but twenty-one millimeters long, and caught in 1866 by
Bourget at Tabatinga. The third and last of this group is Tridens
melanops. In 1866 the future philosopher, William James, caught twen-
ty-seven of them at Iga, the largest only twenty-seven millimeters long.
In 1891 the Museum of Comparative Zoology sent me one of these, which
has just been figured for my monograph. The Tridentinse are fishes
with a greatly depressed head and a large eye placed on the edge of the
head; in one, at least, they look down rather than up.
One of the Vandelliini, Branchioica bertcni, lives in the gill-cavities
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of a large Characin. Several years ago Mr. Bertoni sent me one of these,
and it seems that I at once described it with much gusto. Later Mr.
Bertoni sent me another lot of minute fishes, and this summer I discov-
ered that two of these were taken from the gills of a Characin. I ag^ain
described them, of course, as a new genus and species. Still later I
found the totally forgotten original specimen and description carefully
laid away.
Ribeiro, of the National Museum of Rio de Janeiro, caught another
very similar member of a related genus, Paravandellia, among the weeds
of the stream near San Louis de Caceres in the upper Paraguay Basin.
With fishes as rare as these and as small as these, the question some-
times arises whether the differences are due to the fact that one worker
uses a hand lens and the other a binocular dissecting microscope with
an arc spotlight. The results of the two instruments are comparable
to the effects produced by an old-fashioned cannon and a modern forty-
two-centimeter howitzer.
Two species I have just described with the three previously known,
brings the number of Vandellias up to five — maybe. I used a howitzer,
and my distinguished predecessors, Pellegrin, Castelnau, Valenciennes
and Cuvier used hand lenses. The Vandellias are long, slender, eel-like
in shape. There are really two genera in the genus Vandellia, but I
don't yet know which one of these Valenciennes had when he named
the genus. The other is, for the present, without a legitimate name.
When we know which one can legitimately lay claim to the name Van-
dellia the other one can be baptized as Urinophilus. One of these, pos-
sibly two of them if they are different, Vandellia ka^emani and Vandellia
tvieneri, is or are too large to enter the urethra of man when it is or they
are fully grown. On the other hand, Vandellia cii^hosa, sanguinea, and
plazai could, as far as their size is concerned, enter the urethra. Do
they?
Pellegrin, who has written on this subject, quotes Dr. Jobert who
collected fishes in Brazil for the Jardin des Plantes. Jobert tells that
a highly reputable physician of Belem, Para, Dr. Castro, told him he had
taken a Candiru from the urethra of a negress.
Boulenger (Proc. Zool. Soc. London, 1897, p. 901) says of Van-
dellia cirrhosa:
"The 'Candiru*, as the fish is called, is much dreaded by the natives
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of the Jurua district, who, in order to protect themselves, rarely enter
the river without covering the genitalia by means of a sheath formed of
a cocoanut-shell, with a minute perforation to let out urine, maintained
in a sort of bag of palm-fibers suspended from a belt of the same mate-
rial. The fish is attracted by the urine, and when once it has made its
way into the urethra, cannot be pulled out again owing to the spines
which arm its opercles. The only means of preventing it from reach-
ing the bladder, where it causes inflammation and ultimately death, is to
instantly amputate the penis; and at Tres Unidos, Dr. Bach had actually
examined a man and three boys with amputated penis as a result of this
dreadful accident. Dr. Bach was therefore satisfied that the account
given of this extraordinary habit of the 'Candiru' is perfectly trust-
worthy. Mr. Boulenger further showed a photograph, taken by Dr. Bach,
•f two nude Indians wearing the protective purse."
It is to be noted here that, while this evidence is quite circumstantial,
it is only circumstantial. Dr. Bach did not himself operate or help to
operate or remove the Candiru, and a much simpler operation than
amputation would have been suflicient to remove it.
Pellegrin (Bull. Soc. Philom. de Paris, (11), I, 1909, pp. 5-8) further
quoting Jobert's account, says that at Para there are two species of
Candirtis, only one of which penetrates the urethra, the other, the horse
Candiru, attaches itself to any part of the body and also attacks horses.
Dr. Jobert himself, who went in bathing near Para, was attacked within
less than five minutes and found scratches in a group five to six inches
long and a centimeter or more wide. He did not secure the creature
which attacked him.
In "Die Natur", XIX, p. 180, Muller, in reporting on the travels of
Gustav Wallis, says that Wallis noted a fish in the Huallaga called the
Candiru, which is as much feared in the water as mosquitoes and ants on
land. This Candiru attaches to any portion of the body like a leech and
spreads retrorse hooks in the wound so that it is only with considerable
pain that it can be removed. It prefers the most secret parts of the
body and it was reported to him that the consequent operation some-
times causes death. One specimen of this Candiru was given to Leukart
and by him to Liitken, who described it as Acanthopoma annectens. It
probably belongs to the Stegophilini.
That a fish, or several species of fishes, found in the Amazon Valley
ft— 11994
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and called Candiru is or are a nuisance is certain. Whether the widely
distributed belief that the Candirus are tropic to urine and consequently
have a tendency to enter the urethra, or whether the candiru's tendency
to burrow leads them accidentally to enter the urethra are all matters
that must, for the present, remain in debate. A very interesting sub-
sidiary question is whether, if Candirus are tropic to urine, they do not
also enter the urethra of aquatic mammals and large fishes. Further
study may demonstrate that some species of Candirus have become para-
sitic in the bladder of large fishes and aquatic mammals. These are all
questions that may legitimately be taken up by the expeditions that wiU,
I hope, result from this article.
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An Epidemic Among the Fishes of Huffman's Lake.
Will Scott, Indiana University.
This paper describes an epidemic among the fishes in Huffman's
lake during October and Norember, 1917. The data indicate that these
fish died from poison which was derived from a blue-green algae, either
by its metabolism or decay.
Huffman's lake is located in Kosciusko County, Indiana, (Tp. 33 N.,
R. 5 E.) about one mile northwest of Atwood. It is just west of thfe
Erie-Saginaw interlobate moraine and lies in a slight depression of the
ground moraine. It is roughly oval in outline. Its greatest length is
about one mile and its greatest width is about one-half mile. Its longi-
tudinal axis extends north and south. Near the middle of the lake there
are three small islets situated along the major axis of the lake. • Its
maximum depth is 9.8 meters.
The land surrounding the lake is low. Much of it near the shore is
marshy. To the east, a short distance, the rougher topography of the
interlobate moraine begins. The lake is therefore quite exposed to the
action of the wind especially to the south, west, and north.
Dead and dying fish were first noted in large numbers after a storm
that occurred on October 29th. This storm left a distinct wave deposit,
some distance above the normal lake level. On November 16 the fish
were counted in several sections of this deposit. The average was about
one fish per lineal foot of deposit. Six species were collected and iden-
tified, bluegill, (Lepomis pallidis Mitchill) ; large mouthed black bass
(Micropterus salmoides Lac^p^de) ; calico bass (Pomoxis sparoides Ra-
finesque) ; sucker (Catostomus commersonii Lac^pede) ; hickory shad
(Dorosoma cepedianum Le Sueur), and yellow perch (Perca flavescens
MitchiU).
One hickory shad was identified struggling on its side near the
center of the lake. It was able to avoid a dipnet and escape. Near the
shore, two rock bass and five bluegills were taken swimming slowly on
* I am under oblii;ration to Mr. Chauncy Juday for identifyinjc the alfira, to Mr. J. H.
Arminffton for the Winona Lake temperatures, and to Mr. S. L. Blue who made
the field work possible.
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their sides. Several small bluegills, that were still alive, were picked up
stranded at the edge of the water.
Nothing is known of the summer conditions of this lake. The
autumnal overturn in Eagle Lake (Winona) takes place the latter part
of November. It seemed possible that there might be a deficiency in
oxygen in the lower levels of the lake that was killing the fish as their
actions simulated those of fish suffering from dyspnea.
An examination of the water for dissolved gases and carbonates
demonstrated that the lake is a hard water lake and that there was an
abundance of oxygen. (See table. 4cc. O. per liter. Temperature 6°C.)
The fall overturn had taken place but the water was only about half sat-
urated. It is barely possible that the first fish to die may have died
from dyspnea, although this is not likely on account of the shallowness
of the lake, the contour of its bottom, and its exposure to the wind. It is
certain that the fish that were dying in November were not suffering
from the lack of oxygen.
•
TABLE OF TEMPERATURES AND DISSOLVED GASES.
T.
O.
7v Sat.
CO,
Cb.
Surface
2M
Bottom
6.9
6 9
6.9
4.09
4.06
49%
1.51
1 26
42.72
42.72
Air temperature 10°C.
Secchi'g disc reading .9 M.
Gases expressed in cc. per liter. Cb. is COi, as carbonate.
The fish were examined very carefully for infections, sporozoan and
bacterial, but the tissues showed no lesions or postules. The anus, nares,
mouth, and gills were examined with especial care. There was no indica-
tion of gas disease.
It has been suggested that the lake might have been dynamited.
There were no ruptured blood-vessels to indicate that the fish had suffered
from concussion. Moreover, the fish were dying during a period of more
than six weeks, a fact that would preclude their having been killed by a
single charge of explosive.
The only prenomenon that could be associated with the death of the
fishes as a causal factor was a tremendous growth of blue green alga
Oscillatoria prolifica (Grenville) Dumont. This alga occurred near
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the surface of the lake in enormous quantities. It was difficult to make
a quantitative estimate of it by the ordinary limnological methods on ac-
count of the wind drifting it. Some notion of its abundance may be
gained from the following observations:
At 10:00 a.m. there was still a very heavy fog on the lake. When
rowing to the center of the lake the water appeared pink when disturbed
by the oars, and in the wake of the boat. By 3:00 p.m. a slight breeze
had drifted the algae in a solid scum along the east side of the lake.
In the bays this scum reached a thickness of 4-6 mm. The alga when
concentrated in this scum had a rather dark brick-red appearance.
That the alga caused the destruction of the fish is probable on ac-
count of two facts. First, it is the only associated extraordinary phe-
nomenon. This is of course only presumptive. Second, certain blue-
green algae (cyanophycae) seem to produce substances, either by their
metabolism or decay, which when concentrated are toxic to vertebrates,
and may even cause death.
Arthur ('83) reports two instances in which cattle were poisoned by
drinking water that was covered with a thick scum of blue-green alga
(Rivularia fluitans Cohn).
Nelson (*03) after discussing the cyanophycae that cause "water
bloom" closes with these words : "In several instances it has been almost
conclusively proved that the presence of one or more of these species in
drinking water used by stock has caused fatal results."
Cause of the Excessive Growth of Augje.
This lake has been under the observation of Mr. Maurice Miller for
thirty-two years. He reports that this autumn (1917) is the first time
that a red scum has appeared.
Olive ('05) identified this algae from the ice in Pine Lake (Wiscon-
sin), where there evidently had been a considerable growth just before
the lake froze.
Red pigment is very characteristic of the plankton of arctic and
alpine regions (Steuer 1910, pp. 277-8). The red coloration of lakes and
ponds in the Swiss Alps seems to be a rather common phenomenon.
Brunn ('80) reports the ice on Lake Neuchatel being colored red
with a growth of Pleurococcus palustris Kiintzig. He also refers to the
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freezing of Lake Moral in 1825 in which the ice was colored by Oscilla-
toria rufescens.
Klausener ('08) made a study of the so-called "Blutseen" of the
High Alps. Most of these were colored by Euglena sanguinea Ehr.
TABLE SHOWING THE MEAN TEMPERATURES FOR OCTOBER AND NOVEMBER.
DURING THE DECENNIUM 1908-1917.
Station: Winona Lake, ten milea from Huffman's Lake.
Year.
October.
November.
1908
54.6
42.1
1909
49.6
48.4
1910
57.2
35.8
1911
53.0
36.2
1912
54.8
41 4
1913
53.4
45 7
1914
56.7
41.9
1915
54.0
42.8
1916
53 0
41.4
1917
44 0
39.0
Mean
53.0
41.5
The appended table of temperatures* indicates that the mean for
October, 1917, was 5.6 degrees F. lower than for any other October in
the ten years preceding, and 9 degrees F. colder than the mean for this
decennium. This means that the lake was cooled early in the autumn
and remained at a rather low temperature for six to eight weeks instead
of the normal, much shorter, period. That is, arctic conditions main-
tained in this lake for nearly two months. This is, I think, one of the
factors that caused this alga to develop so luxuriantly.
Against this view, are the observations of Hyams and Richards ('01,
'02, '04), and others on O. prolifica in Jamaica Pond. Here the max-
ima occurred in the warmer months, although a dense growth often de-
veloped just before the ice formed.
In the present state of our knowledge it is impossible to harmonize
these observations with those on the so-called "blood lakes" of the Alps,
those of Olive (loc. cit.) and the ones here presentd on Huffman's lake.
Brunn ('80) suggests the presence of iron compounds as one of the
conditions for the development of red pigment in the blue-green algae.
This condition is satisfied by the large amounts of iron oxide in the afflu-
ent springs at its margin.
•These tempernturcs are for the Winona Lake Station, which is about 10 miles east of Huff
man's Lake.
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Remaining Problems.
It remains to be determined experimentally whether or not this alga
produces a toxin, the nature of the toxin, the action of the toxin on
fishes, etc.
A much more difficult problem is to determine the exact condition
under which this alga will develop. If this alga reappears this problem
will be attacked.
Literature Cited.
Arthur, J. C, '83. Some algae of Minnesota supposed to be poisonous.
Bull Minn. Acad. Nat. Sci., Vol. 2, pp. 1-12.
Brun, M. J., '80, L'eau rouge du lac de Neuchatel. Archiv. d. Sci. phys.
et nat., T. 3, p. 337.
Hyams, Isabel F. and Richards, Ellen H., '01. Notes on Oscillatoria
prolifica (Grenville). I. Life History. Tech. Quart., Vol. 14. No.
4, pp. 302-310.
'02, II. Chemical composition. Ibid, Vol. 15, pp. 308-315.
'04, III. Coloring matter. Ibid, Vol. 17, pp. 270-276.
Klausener, Carl, '08. Die Blutseen d. Hochalpen. Int. Rev. d. Hydrog. u.
Hydrob. B.I, ss. 359-424.
Nelson, N. P. B., '03. Observations on some algae that cause "water
bloom." Minn. Bot. Stud, 3rd. Ser., Pt. 1, pp. 51-56.
Olive, E. W., *05. Notes on the occurrence of Oscillatoria prolifica
(Grenville) Gomont in the ice of Pine Lake, Waukesha County,
Wisconsin. Wis. Acad. Sci., Art. and Letters, Vol. XV, pp. 124-134.
Steuer, A., '10. Planktonkunde s. 277-8. Leipzig.
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Germinal Changes in the Bar-Eyed Race of Drosophila
During the Course op Selection por Facet Number.*
Charles Zeleny, University of Illinois.
In recent discussions two explanations of the effect of selection have
been offered. According to the first of these the results obtained are due
merely to a sorting out of differences existing in the stock at the begin-
ning of selection. According to the second, new germinal differences
arise during the course of selection.
Among those who admit the continued production of new germinal
differences there is a disagreement as to the manner in which the ger-
minal changes occur. Some hold the view that the changes consist wholly
of the production of new unit factors or genes. Others on the contrary
believe that gradual change in the original genes is the principal mode
of action and even that selection itself is an efficient determiner of the
direction of such variation.
It is my intention to mention briefly some of the results bearing on
this problem which have been obtained in the course of selection for
facet number in the bar-eyed race of Drosophila ampelophila.
Bar-eye appeared in 1913 as a single mutant male in a full-eyed
stock. This male gave rise to the bar-eyed stock in which the faceted
region of the eye is bar shaped and the facet number is reduced from
one thousand or more to about one hundred. An analysis of the hered-
itary behavior of bar-eye shows that it differs from full-eye in a single
sex-linked genetic factor which acts as an incomplete dominant, the het-
erozygous condition being intermediate between bar and full-eye. My
stock was obtained from Professor T. H. Morgan in January, 1914, and
since that time experiments on selection for high-facet and for low-facet
number have been in progress, but not in a continuous series because of
loss of the lines on several occasions. In these experiments it has been
shown that selection for low-facet and for high- facet number is effective,
and low-bar, high-bar, emarginate eye and full eye have been produced
♦Contributions from the Zoological Laboratory of the University of Illinois. No. 110.
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from bar-eye. The analysis of the factors involved has yielded the fol-
lowing results:
1. Grerminal diversity was present in the stock at the beginning of
selection.
2. This germinal diversity was due to accessory unit factors or
genes and not to differences in the bar-gene.
3. New accessory genes producing somatic differences of small de-
gree have appeared during the course of selection. Some of these are
located in the autosomes.
4. New accessory genes producing somatic differences of marked
degree have also appeared during the course of selection. These also are
autosomal.
5. Reverse mutation in the bar gene causing a return to the original
full-eye both somatically and genetically was observed several times.
Original Germinal Diversity.
That germinal diversity was present at the beginning of the experi-
ments is indicated by the pronounced effect of the early selections.
Crosses between the high selected lines and the low selected lines show
that the factors causing the difference are not sex-linked as is the main
bar factor. This absence of sex-linkage shows that the difference be-
tween high and low lines can not be due to original diversity in the bar
gene nor to accessory factors originally present in the sex chromosomes.
The factors involved must be in the autosomes. Such differences in auto-
somal factors might have been present in the parental full-eyed stock
from which the bar was derived. They would then have been trans-
ferred to the bar-eyed stock at the time of its formation, which involved
not only change in the bar gene in a single male but also the crossing
back with a full-eyed female to produce the bar-eyed stock.
Germinal Changes of Small Degree.
That the original diversity is not a sufficient explanation of the
effectiveness of selection and that germinal changes continued to occur
during the progress of selection in some of the lines is indicated by the
continued effect of selection in these lines for many generations. It is
highly improbable that a sustained effectiveness of this kind could have
lasted for twelve generations, as in line V, merely as a result of the con-
tinued sorting out of an original diversity without additions to the diver-
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sity due to the formation of new genes or change in old ones. After
such long continued and still effective selection reciprocal crosses between
high and low lines still give no indication of sex-linkage. The germinal
changes of small degree which must be assumed to explain such a long
continued effect of selection therefore are not changes in the bar gene
nor are they due to new accessory genes occurring in the sex chromosome.
New genes must have arisen in the autosomes. Experiments are under
way to determine their chromosomal loci more definitely.
Germinal Changes of Marked Degree.
In the high facet selection line marked mutations have occurred
which have yielded full-eyed individuals indistinguishable from the wild
ones which originally mutated to form the bar stock. These new full-
eyed flies are genetically of two distinct types. One type is the result
of a reverse mutation involving the return of the bar gene to the orig-
inal full-eye-producing condition. Its hereditary behavior is similar to
that of the wild Drosophila in all the tests that have been made.
The other type retains the bar gene unchanged, the somatic appear-
ance of full eye being due to the formation of a modifying gene outside
of the sex chromosome. This new gene is effective in producing full eye
when present in double dose in females heterozygous for the bar gene.
Such full-eyed females when crossed with wild full-eyed males produce
males half of whom are bar and females half of whom are heterozygous
bar.
In males with the bar gene and in females homozygous for bar the
double dose of the new gene produces an eye which is nearly full but
which differs from full in the presence of a defect at the anterior margin.
Such an eye may be designated by the term "emarginate." Emarginate
females when crossed with full wild males give males all of whom are
bar and females all of whom are heterozygous bar. The reciprocal cross
gives males all of whom are full and females all of whom are heter-
ozygous bar. Numerous tests bear out in detail the hypothesis as stated
above indicating that the chromosomal formula for this type of female
with a full eye is — ^-^ -^-^-^ for the emarginate-eyed female =^_ —
m B
~ , and for the emarginate-eyed male — -— — -. Experiments
m m
are under way to determine the exact locus of the new gene.
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Conclusions.
The data obtained are of interest in a number of ways:
1. Bar-eye may return to the full-eyed somatic condition by two dis-
tinct routes, (a) Reverse mutation in the bar gene may bring the in-
dividual back to the condition of the full-eyed stock not only in somatic
appearance but also in genetic behavior, (b) A similar somatic ap-
pearance of full-eye maV be produced by a mutation in one of the auto-
somes which leaves the original bar gene unchanged, as proven by the
fact that the crosses between new full-eyed females and full-eyed wild
males yield low bar individuals. Change in a gene and production of
new genes without change in the principal gene may produce the same
result somatically. Breeding tests alone can show the difference. The
change in the principal gene brings the individual truly to its original
condition.
2. Both of these mutations occurring as they did in the course of
upward selection furnished material of immediate value in aiding the
prog^ress of upward selection so that it is proper to say that with the
aid of mutations occurring during the course of the experiment the bar-
eyed mutant was returned to its original full condition. It is not in-
tended, however, to emphasize the fact that these mutations have so far
appeared only in the high line and not in the low line. Whether this is
merely a matter of chance or has a* fundamental significance can be de-
termined only by further observation.
3. The genetic behavior of the type of full eye due to the addition
of an accessory factor is similar to that of the individuals of the high
selected line before the appearance of the mutants of large degree. The
difference between high bar and low bar is due to accessory factors in
the same way. In other words the accessory factors with pronounced
somatic effect are different in no respect but degree from the the acces-
sory factors with small effect which form the ordinary materials for the
action of selection.
4. It is evident that with respect to this one character, facet num-
ber, three separate conditions contributed to the effectiveness of selec-
tion; first, the differences in accessory autosomal genes present at the
beginning of selection; second, the new autosomal genes arising during
the course of selection, and. third the mutations in the bar gene. The
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original differences are comparatively of low degree, and the new auto-
somal genes represent in some cases small differences in somatic appear-
ance and in one case a large difference. The mutations in the bar gene
so far have been of large degree in all cases, bringing the bar stock back
to its original condition.
5. The demonstration of all three of these modes of producing an
effective selection in the case of a single character indicates clearly that
the selection problem and with it the problem of stability of the unit
factor or gene is not capable of solution by any single formula.
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Dwarfing Effect of Attacks of Mites of the Genus
Eriophyes Upon Norway Maples.
Howard E. Enders, Purdue University.
The peculiar dwarfed and somewhat blighted condition of a portion
of the branches of Norway maple trees in and about the town of Her-
shey, Pennsylvania, attracted my attention during August of 1917, and
an effort was made to determine the cause of this condition. The gen-
Fig. 1. Norway maple infested with mites (Eriophyes) for a period of at least
three years. Its stunted growth is suffsestive of excessive trimming.
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eral appearance (Figure 1) of the trees seemed to indicate that they had
been heavily pruned one or more seasons ago. They were greatly
branched in a manner suggestive of the excessive branching often seen
in the "witches' brooms" on the hackberry.
Fig. 2. Short branches of infested Norway maple, partially defoliated to
show the dwarfed condition of foliage and stems.
At the time of observation a portion of the terminal branches bore
some foliage that was green but many of the leaves were small and
brown-edged, while others had become wholly brown in the affected
regions. A weak post-season growth of an inch or thereabout had
occurred in which the young tender foliage was expanding in an appar-
ently normal manner. This type of post-season growth was quite sim«
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ilar to that reported by Miss A. M. Taylor in 1914 (Journal of Agricul-
tural Science, Vol. 6), as characteristic of gooseberry — Ribes grossularia
— in England, infested with Eriophyes ribis (Nalepa). In the plants
which she studied she found that after the first effects of the attack by
Fig. 3. Short branches of infcated Norway maple, partially defoliated to
show the dwarfed condition of foliage and stems. «
Eriophyes were overcome the later growth of foliage and wood was ap-
parently normal, though many of the early leaves bore "blisters" that
ranged from single to more or less confluent masses.
The maples, however, seemed not to recover until too late in the
season to make a marked growth. The foliage bore no malformations,
blisters, typical erineums, or galls that would indicate the cause of in-
6—11994
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jury. It was observed that many of the leaves bore numerous trichomes
on the under surface at the proximal portion of the laminse where the
veins converge toward the petiole.
Large numbers of mites, identified as Eriophyes sp(?),* "wrere
seen to crawl from beneath and among the trichomes when the point of
a teasing needle was drawn through these regions. When the mites are
thus disturbed they crawl rapidly over the under surface of the leaf, or
Fiflr. 4. Eriophyes vitis from Banks, in "The Acarina or Mites." It is here repro-
duced to indicate the generic character of the maple mites rather than the specific
characters.
stand on end and, attached by the caudal adhesive disk, sway the anterior
end of the body in a circle; others seem to make a leap, and disappear
from sight. No effort was made to determine the relative number on
each infested leaf, but it was estimated to be a hundred or more for
the many leaves that were examined.
During the cooler hours of the morning the mites were to be found
♦ The author has not found it possible to procure satisfactory material for drawings,
since his interruption in the observations, therefore, a drawing of Eriophyes vitis by
Banks (in Report No. 108. Contributions from the Bureau of Entomology, U. S. Dept.
Afirr., Washinprton, D. C, 1915. on "The Acarina or Mites"), is introduced to indicate
the character of the mites, rather than the species, which infest the Norway maple.
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among the trichomes of the leaves, but during the warmer periods of the
day a few were found usually crawling about the under surface of the
leaves, chiefly close to the main veins.
Foliage was examined after a light frost late in August, and again
after a killing frost early in September. In the first instance relatively
few mites remained among the trichomes, and after the killing frost
none were found on the leaves, but a much smaller nimiber — ^ten to twen-
ty— ^was found in the axils of the leaves, and around the young buds
where they seem to have taken shelter. Three instances were observed
in which a single mite, and another in which two, had pressed into the
young buds, just beneath the outer scale-leaves.
An unexpected interruption in the observations made it impossible
to trace the effect of cold upon the mites, and to study their method of
passing the winter, if it actually occurs. Twigs collected through the
kindness of Mr. Charles Gemmill, student in Lebanon Valley College,
Annville, Pennsylvania, were sent me early in October, but I was unable
to locate the mites in any of the buds, or in the axils of such leaves as
remained attached to the twigs. None of the buds showed any swelling
or enlargement that could suggest the "big bud" similar to that observed
in the black-currant infested with Eriophyes ribis (Nalepa). Miss Tay-
lor (Jour. Agri. Sci., Vol. 6) in 1914 described the enlargement of buds
on black-currant in England, when so infected. In that instance the
mites penetrate the buds, causing them to swell, and if badly infested, to
die without opening. She found the mites to breed throughout much of
the year, and to migrate in the spring when the buds are opening. This
may be suggestive of the possible mode of hibernation of Eriophyes
(species undetermined) in the maple, but without producing hypertrophy
of the buds.
Similar stunted growth of Norway maples was observed in other
towns, and occasionally along the highways of Lebanon and Dauphin
counties in Pennsylvania, in sufficient numbers to suggest a wide dis-
persal of these mites through the agency of birds or insects rather than
by the wind. English sparrows crowded into the trees in large numbers
in Hershey, and it is quite possible that they may carry many of these
small mites on their legs and body, from tree to tree, and even from vil-
lage to village in their migrations.
Though the trees showed no very serious ill effects from the attack
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of 1917, it was apparent that growth had been retarded and that sub-
sequent attacks would mar their beauty permanently. An extrwne case
of injury by mites is clearly indicated in the accompanying photographs
(Figures 1, 2, and 3), of a tree and branches which have been infested
for a period of at least three years.
The remedies which Professor Slingerland found effective for mites
that attack other plants may prove effective on the maple. He has
found that they can be exterminated by spraying trees iu winter with
kerosene emulsion diluted with five to seven parts of water. This will
penetrate buds and kill the mites which hibernate there.
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Where the Feeble-Minded Are Self-Supporting.
Hazel Hansford, Indiana University.
It has long been recognized that many of the feeble-minded can be
made self-supporting in a relatively simple environment if properly
trained for the things which they can best do. This is being done for a
small number of these unfortunates in some of our institutions. The
boys are being taught wood work, farming under supervision, while the
girls learn to cook, sweep, and to do many other simple household tasks.
In this way they earn their keep, whereas if turned loose in the world,
most likely they would become dependents.
Very little is being done in the way of educating our mental defec-
tive to earn his own living. Our state law compels him to attend the
public schools until he is sixteen, where he studies the same things as
the normal children. He remains in each grade for two or three semes-
ters, or until the teacher is tired and is ready to push him onto the next
instructor. As a result he ends up in the fourth or fifth grade with
nothing in his head to show for his long years of wasted time, the
wasted time of the teacher, and the other pupils. He knows no arith-
metic, grammar, or history. All has gone into one ear and out of the
other. He is turned loose with no training. He and his brothers and
sisters go into unskilled labor, maybe. Sometimes their life-long profes-
sion of idleness begins immediately. If they are lucky enough to reside
some distance from town, they will probably get by as farm tenants — the
kind that moves to a new place every year.
For some time the writer has been making a study of a family of
mental defectives and it has been interesting to note the kind of occupa-
tions common to the different g^roups within the larger group. To give
some idea of two of these groups and their characteristic employments,
some facts concerning the family will be given very briefly.
About 1798 there came from Virginia to Kentucky a man whom we
will call John Jones. We know little about him except that he hunted
most of the time. His family raised com, part of which was made into
commeal, and part into that beverage for which the Kentucky mountains
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are famous. He had eight children all of whom lived and died in or
near the old homestead, except two, who came to the southern part of the
State of Indiana. About all the descendants of children numbers 2, 4,
and 7 are still living in the Kentucky mountains from twenty to fifty
miles from a railroad. The descendants of child number 5 settled in
Orange County of this State. The descendants of child number 1 are in
two groups, the legitimate and the illegitimate. The former are also in
the mountains while the descendants of the illegitimate are in Indiana.
In 1856 the illegitimate son of number 1 came here to live. He and his
family left their home because they could no longer make a living there.
For two years the crops had failed to grow and no com had been raised
to make their bread and mush. Other people have said that it failed to
grow because the family was too shiftless to tend it. The man and the
three older children walked, while the wife and the two younger ones
rode on an old broken down mule. He carried an iron skillet in his
hand and when night came, he would cook what he could find or beg.
Haystacks, bams, and sympathetic country folks furnished lodging. In
this manner they finally reached the south-central part of Indiana.
There they made their home, and from that time until this they
have rapidly multiplied and degenerated until their name is a synonym
for shiftlessness. Eight more children were born in rapid succession,
the last six of whom the mother never saw because of blindness. The
descendants of these thirteen children form the first group, of whose
occupations I wish to speak. ^
They live in or near a town of about 12,000 in the south-central part
of Indiana. There is plenty of work in this town for unskilled laborers
in the factories, stone quarries, and on the streets. But in spite of the
fact that there is plenty of work, the majority of the Joneses are unem-
ployed most of the time.
Those above the age of fifteen years have been uued for the follow-
ing figures: Out of fifty-seven men and women, fifty-four are feeble-
minded. They have been found to be so in one of the three following
ways: (1) by a formal examination in the laboratory; (2) by a judg-
ment of the field worker where the condition was so apparent that no
examination was necessary, and (3) where the person has been judged
feeble-minded by his reaction to society. The normal individuals <rf
Jones blood are the result of marriages into fairly good families, and
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each of these have normal consorts. They are self-supporting and do
much to keep some of the relatives from becoming entirely dependent
on the community.
Of those fifty-four feeble-minded men and women, thirty-four have
received poor relief for the greater part of their lives; in poor relief I
include also the poor asylum cases; ten have served sentences, and one
has spent most of his life in an insane asylum. Four of the fifty-four
have worked regularly, the other fifty only when the spirit moved them.
Fifteen have no occupation at all.
Seven do odd jobs.
Six are fairly good housekeepers.
Four are farm tenants.
Three work in factories as unskilled laborers.
Three are housemaids.
Three are prostitutes.
Two are washerwomen.
Two are stone quarry laborers.
One was a brakeman.
One is a wood cutter.
One is a barber.
One is in a slaughterhouse.
One is a well cleaner.
One is a street cleaner.
One is a hod carrier. •
Seven per cent, of these are entirely self-supporting.
Twenty-nine per cent, are non self-supporting.
Sixty-three per cent, are partly self-supporting.
The simplest environment in which we find the Joneses living is down
in the Kentucky mountains where living conditions are of the most prim-
itive to be found. The district is so far from a railroad and the roads so
nearly impassable that they have never been far from their homes. They
raise all they eat and eat all they raise, or let it waste, because there is
no market. So there is no incentive for folk to be ambitious, but to
work just enough to feed and clothe themselves. On the other hand, it is
necessary that they do have the needful things of life, for there is no
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kindly poor relief law to care for them, and oftentimes they are living so
far from neighbors that they could starve before help would arrive.
Eighty-one adults who are, or should be, earning their living rep-
resent this group. Of this number fifty are feeble-minded and thirty-one
are normal. The normal cases will be eliminated as they were in the
Indiana group. Of the fifty feeble-minded people:
Sixteen have no occupation.
Fifteen are farm tenants.
Eight help at home.
Five are farmers.
Two hunt gingseng.
Two are bootleggers.
One is a prostitute.
One does odd jobs.
Total, 60.
Six of those listed as having no occupation are not dependents in the
real sense of the word. They manage to live without work, but also
without begging. They gamble, steal, and hunt. One entire family lives
mostly on the squirrels the men are able to kill. Oftentimes their aim is
so poor that they miss the squirrels and kill sheep. The remaining ten
who are non-self-supporting, are idiots and imbeciles, who could not care
for themselves in any environment, so this 20 per cent, is not really com-
parable to the 29 per cent of non-supporting individuals in the Indiana
group. .The people whose mentality was of the same level as the Indiana
paupers, were all self-supporting in the simpler environment. And if
we exclude those idiots and low grade imbeciles, we have no non-self-
supporting mental defectives to compare with those of Indiana.
It may be that the simple environment is not responsible for these
figures, but there are other instances where the feeble-minded are self-
supporting in a relatively simple environment. In some of the European
countries where the work history of a man is pretty well determined
when he is bom, and where he is bound by certain industrial conditions
which we do not have here, there is less unemployment, tramps are few-
er, and there is very much less unrest and changing about than among
our subnormal laborers. In the institutions which are run on the colony
plan, the inmates are taught to do certain things well, and are kept at
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those particular tasks by the men in charge. It is now the dream of
some of the men interested in the problem of the care of mental defec-
tives, that in the near future we can have large farms or colonies where
these people can be kept at work, protected from the complex conditions
of the outside world which they are unable to meet. And this will make
it possible for them not only to take care of themselves, but to relieve
society of the burden placed upon it by the crimes and other social evils
to which this class is naturally addicted.
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A Study of the Action of Bacteria on Milk Proteins.*
George Spitzer and H. M. Weeter, Purdue University.
It is generally recogrnized that most bacteria have an action on or-
ganic food material which is characteristic for different species and is in-
fluenced by their previous environment and the kind and relative propor-
tion of the different foods in the media. As the food and water require-
ments of higher plant and animal life and of bacteria are similarly re-
lated, bacterial metabolism involves the change which the food materials
undergo by virtue of bacterial action and is determined by the properties
and composition of the end products. With the present chemical methods
of analysis it is possible to determine with considerable degree of ac-
curacy the initial composition of the bacterial foods, also the end prod-
ucts. Of what takes place within the organisms little is known. Infer-
ences can only be drawn from the changes in the medium and the nature
of the enzymes secreted by the bacteria. When bacteria are grown in a
medium containing both proteins and carbohydrates it has been found
that the cleavage products are modified, depending upon the source and
chemical complexity of the protein and carbohydrates.
B. Coli, when grown in a nitrogenous medium in presence of easily
fermentable carbohydrates, fails to produce indol or the production of
indol is extremely rare, but when B. Coli is g^rown in a medium contain-
ing the same nitrogenous foods in presence of carbohydrates which do
not ferment readily indol is produced. The character of the proteins
likewise influences the growth and metabolism of bacteria and the cleav-
age products are not of the same kind and character. The proteins are
hydrolized by bficterial enzymes into simpler complexes, such as pro-
teoses, peptones, and possibly peptids and amino acids.
There is a marked difference depending on the source of nitrogen,
and a still greater difference depending on the species of bacteria, in the
production of cleavage products. According to Taylor (Ztschr. f.
Physiol. Chem., Vol. 36), B. Coli digests casein mainly into proteoses and
peptones with ihe formation of only a small per cent, of amino acids,
• "Contribution from Purdue University Agricultural Experiment Station. Depart-
ment of Dairy Husbandry."
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while when grown in egg meat mixture according to Rettger (Journal
Bio. Chem., Vol., 13), this same bacterium produces profound changes,
giving indol, skatol, and amino acids.
Also, the utilization of any of these simpler nitrogenous products
of hydrolysis depends upon the life history and the species of the bacteria
and of food material other than the nitrogen compounds; that is, carbo-
hydrates, salts, etc. Concerning the utilization of the amino acids, under
certain conditions the basic amino acids or diamino acids are used to a
greater extent as a source of nitrogen instead of the monoamine adds,
and the reverse may happen ; the monoamine acids are used more readily
and fail to appear in the final products.
From our own work during the past year on bacterial metabolism,
unpublished data are at hand showing the utilization of the amino acids.
Lots of 500 c. c. of sterile milk were inoculated with pure cultures of B.
proteus, B. liquifaciens, B. subtilis, and B. megatherium. These lots of
inoculated milk were stored at room temperature for six months. The
nitrogen distribution was then determined, ammonia, melanin, amino
acids, etc.
The following table shows the per cent, of monoamine and diamino
acids obtained upon hydrolyzing the milk before inoculation, also the per
cent, of the same amino acids after inoculation for six months.
TABLE I.
Sterile Milk.
At End of Six Months* Incubatioii.
Monoamino
Acid N.
%
Diamino
Acid N.
%
Monoamino
Acid N.
%
Diamino
Acid N.
%
B. proteus
B. liquifaciens
B. subtilis
B. megatherium
56. 50*
56.50
56.50
56.50
23.66
23.66
23.66
23.66
42.14
45.02
54.14
40.00
5.61
5.82
7.61
7.24
*Per cent, of total nitrogen.
In Table I the relative proportion of the utilization of the two groups
of amino acids is shown for the four different bacteria. It will be noted
that the diamino acids are used in greater amounts than the monoamino
acids.
Table II shows the per cent, of the total monoamino and diamine
acid nitrogen utilized by the four bacteria calculated from Table I.
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TABLE II.
Monoaiuino
Acid N.
%
Diamino
Acid N.
Vo
B. proteu8._
25.42
20.32
4.17
29.15
76.29
75.40
B. subtilis
B. megatherium
67.83
69.40
In general, this is in agreement with the work of Robinson and Tar-
tar (Journal Bio. Chem., Vol. XXX, page 135). However, this compar-
ison can only be roughly made since their medium consisted of an aqueous
soil extract plus a nitrogenous food material; i. e., fibrin, pep ton, egg
albumen, gliadin, and casein, with a small amount of carbohydrate in
the form of mannite and synthetic solution of salts in addition to the
salts extracted from the soil.
The pure cultures used by Robinson and Tartar were B. mycoides,
B. subtilis, and B. vulgaris. The above facts concerning the utilization
of the amino acids by bacteria are in harmony with the work of most
investigators on bacterial metabolism. No doubt the utilization of the
amino acids is influenced by the character and quantity of proteins and
carbohydrates present in the media. We know, if carbohydrates are
absent or hydrolyzed into compounds which do not yield the desired food
material — namely, the carbon — as readily as the original carbohydrates,
bacteria must necessarily derive their carbon supply from the protein
or amino acids. There is no quantitative relation connecting the in-
crease of acidity with the loss of carbohydrates by bacterial action on
the respective carbohydrates. So some of the carbohydrates must be
used in supplying energy to the organisms.
About six years ago, while the senior author was conducting an
extensive investigation concerning the keeping qualities of butter when
placed in cold storage, the results of the investigation suggested to him
the advisability of taking up a systematic study of pure cultures of
known bacteria in a medium composed of milk proteins in presence of
carbon compounds such as lactose and lactic acid, etc.
By pursuing this method of investigation it will be possible to arrive
at more definite information regarding the bacterial action on milk pro-
teins and the character and quantity of the final cleavage products. The
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selection of the respective bacteria are those frequently found in milk,
cream, and butter. By the selection of these bacteria and using a medium
which is naturally present in milk products, we are able, in a great
measure, to avoid introducing disturbing factors on the end products,
also factors foreign to our previous work concerning the changes pro-
duced in stored butter.
Our preliminary study included the following bacteria: B. proteus
vulgaris, B. viscosus, B. butyricus, B. mycoides, B. lactis acidi, B. mesen-
tericus, B. liquifaciens, B. fluorescens putidus, B. subtilis, B. megather-
ium, and B. coli. The medium was sterilized milk to which the pure
cultures were added and kept at room temperature. The pure cultures
were previously grown in the same media and transfers were made
three times before being used for experiment. At intervals of three
days an analysis of the inoculated milk was made. The following prod-
ucts were determined each time the analysis was made: acidity, alde-
hyde number*, lactore (polariscope) , ammonia (Folin's method), and
nitrogen compounds not precipitated by phospho tungstic acid. This was
continued for five periods or during a period of sixteen days. (First
period four days.)
The following table shows the changes in the nitrogenous constitu-
ents of the milk and the change in lactose by the different bacteria at
the end of the sixteenth day.
TABLE III.
Showing the per cent, of gain of ammonia (NHi) and amid nitroKen baaed on total nitrogen
and the loss of lactose baaed on the total lactose.
Ammonia (NHi),
Amid.
Lactnse.
N. 'ri Gain.
N. ^c Gain.
%Lo«i.
B. proteua
5 42
1 63 '
27.65
B. >iscosu8
11.01
22.13
50 30
B. butyricus
4.49
6 59 I
23.04
B. mycoides
10 28
8.38 1
14 84
B. Inctb acidi
2 04
1.88
34.87
B. mesentericus
10 28
12 38
62.92
B. liquifaciens .
20 20
25 63
60.00
B. fluorescens putidus
1 46
2 13
17 83
B. subtilis
12 10
22.84
47.10
B. megatherium
7 34
24 64
54.11
B.coli
3.66
3 63
17.63
* The aldehyde number sravc no more information conceminsr protein hydrolysis
than did phospho-tunsstic acid.
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Ammonia, amid nitrogen, lactose, and acidity were estimated in the
sterile milk before inoculation for the purpose of comparison. This
grave for lactose 4.99 per cent., total nitrogen .56 per cent., and acidity
.17 per cent, as lactic acid. Ammonia .89 per cent, and for amid nitrogen
2.87 per cent, based on total nitrogen present in the sterile milk.
The changes in acidity for the different bacteria are shown in Table
IV.
TABLE IV.
Showing changes in acidity, expressed in per c«it. of lactic acid, during the period of sixteen days.
Per Cent. Lactic Acid.
B. proteus
B. visooeus
B. butyricus
B. myooides
B. lactis acidi
B. meeeotericuB
B. liquifaciens
B. fluoreacens putidus. .
B. subtilis
B. megatherium
B. coli
.027
.324
.180
.261
1.161
.459
.909
.045
.468
.360
.135
Comparing Tables III and IV, it is shown that the acidity of the
milk medium is not in proportion to the loss of lactose, nor gain in
ammonia. Therefore neither the production of ammonia nor the acidity
is an exclusive measure of the activity of the organisms. It has been
stated that the production of ammonia is an index of the metabolic activ-
ity of the organisms. This must be taken with some qualification inas-
much as proteolysis does not take place by leaps; that is, that the differ-
ent cleavage products are produced in regular order, as proteoses, pep-
tids, amino acids, etc., but it is more natural and in harmony with en-
zymic action on proteins and carbohydrates, that as soon as proteolysis
begins, a series of simpler compounds are formed and all the cleavage
products appear, the proportion depending upon the medium, kind of or-
ganisms, and enzymes produced by each specific bacterium. Since it is
possible to measure the production amino acids and ammonia at short
intervals with a good degree of accuracy, it has given additional evidence
to show the mode and rate of the activity of bacterial metabolism and
their proteolytic power.
Of the eleven bacteria studied there was a continual change in acid-
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ity from the first period until the last, except the lactic acid bacillus
which produced its maximum acidity within the first period (four days)
which was 1.61 per cent, as lactic acid. No change in acidity occurred
after this period, nor was there any increase in ammonia. The amid
nitrogen increased slightly at the expiration of four days and there was
a agin of amid nitrogen of .0077 per cent, and at the expiration of the
sixteenth day there was a gain of .0105 of amid nitrogen, a gain of .5
per cent, on total nitrogen, showing a continual proteolytic action due
either to enzymes or auto-proteolytic digestion.
It may be noted that some bacteria utilizing the larger amount of
lactose were also quite active in the production of ammonia and amino
acids. On the other hand, in Table III the fermentation of lactose was
proportionately greater than the production of ammonia and amino acids
by B. proteus, B. butyricus, B. mesentericus, B. fluorescens put., and B.
Coli.
We hope to study further the action of these organisms in pure cul-
ture on nitrogen from different sources, the effect of carbohydrates and
also the associative action of these cultures on milk proteins.
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Plastids.
D. M. MOTTIER, Indiana University.
(Abstract)
The major part of the results of an extended study on plastids and
similar bodies in cells of various plants, of which the following is an
abstract, has been published in the Annals of Botany, Vol. 32, pp. 91-114,
1918.
The investigation was concerned chiefly with the origin of leuco-
plasts and chloroplasts from their primordia, as found in meristematic
cells. The primordia of leucoplasts and chloroplasts appear as very
minute, granular or rod-shaped bodies, which multiply by direct division.
From such primordia, leucoplasts develop as rounded or pear-shaped
bodies with the starch inclusion accumulating within. In case the pri-
mordium is rod-shaped, the leucoplasts, in such tissues as the root tip of
Pisum, take on the foi-m of a hand mirror with the inclusion in the larger
end.
In certain typical cases the primordium of the chloroplast may first
become lenticular with a pale center and a densely-staining periphery.
With further growth they finally assume the form present in the adult
plant organ.
Morphologically the primordia of leucoplasts and chloroplasts are
precisely alike. It may be of interest to note that the morphological iden-
tity of leucoplasts and chloroplasts was pointed out by A. F. W. Schimper
about thirty-eight years ago. The following is a translation of his sum-
mary (Bot. Zeit., p. 899, 1880) : "The results of this brief study show
that the deep chasm hitherto supposed to exist between the starch form-
ers in assimilating and in non-assimilating cells does not, in fact, exist.
In cells free from chlorophyll there are definite organs which generate
starch, and these organs are none other than undeveloped chloroplasts
(Chlorophyllkomer), which under the influence of light are able to de-
velop into the latter. On the other hand, chlorophyll grains are not
always organs of assimilation merely, but they may, in the conducting
tissues and in cells which contain reserve material, function as starcn
7—11994
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formers in the non-assimilating cells; they produce starch from assimi-
lated materials supplied by other parts of the plant."
It may be stated also that the origin and formation of starch grains
as described by this brilliant Alsatian was essentially correct, as later
studies of others have shown. At that date the technique which now so
clearly brings out the primordia of plastids was unknown.
In the aleurone layer of the endosperm of Zea Mays, the primordia
of the aleurone grains are first recognized as very minute, rounded gran-
ules which may stain densely and uniformly. As they increase in size,
they become globular with a smooth and sharply-defined contour and re-
veal a pale or colorless center. They may be represented by making a
minute circle with a pencil. As they become older, they increase in size
and usually take on a pale yellowish or orange color with the stains used.
It may be remarked also that the starch grains in the endosperm of
Zea originate in a similar manner and from primordia that are indis-
tinguishable morphologically from those of the aleurone granules, with
the difference that in the case of the leucoplasts the starch inclusion
stains blue with gentian violet.
In addition to the primordia of the plastids mentioned, other sim-
ilar though smaller bodies are present — frequently in very large num-
bers in the cells — ^which do not become either leucoplasts or chloroplasts.
To these I have confined the term chondriosome. Such chondriosomes are
especially well demonstrated in cells of the liverworts, Antkoceros and
Marchantia.
The conclusion reached is that the primordia of leucoplasts and
chloroplasts and the bodies here designated as chondriosomes are per-
manent organs of the cell, having the same morphological rank as the
nucleus.
The function of chondriosomes is not known. It is generally con-
ceded that they are concerned in certain metabolic activities of the cell.
Being definite organs of the cell, they may be regarded also as playing
some part in the role of heredity.
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Variation and Varieties of Zea Mays.
Paul Weatherwax, Indiana University.
Indian com is commonly known to be a very variable plant, and any
farmer can name ofF-hand from a dozen to fifty more or less definite
varieties. Many attempts have been made to dispose of the plant in a
technical way by naming, describing, and classifying these varieties, but
the layman, and even the botanist who has not made a special study of
the subject, is much in the dark as to what nomenclature is advisable
in speaking scientifically of com. To point out briefly the range of vari-
ability of the plant and to discuss critically some of the technical names
that have been applied to the varieties of corn is the object of this paper.
In all parts of the maize plant there is a striking variability of
size. I have grown healthy plants in a normal environment which were
eighteen inches tall at maturity; and plants twenty- four feet tall have
been reported. Some plants have stems no larger than a lead pencil, and
the stems of others measure six inches in circimiference. The leaves and
other vegetative parts vary proportionately.
Stalks of most varieties bear only one or two ears, but as many as
ten well-developed ears have been seen on a single stalk. An ear may
have from four to thirty rows of grains, and there is as great a variation
in the number of grains in a row.
The fruit of the plant, being the economic part and the part best
known, has been made the basis of most classifications. The pericarp
varies from white through shades of pink, red, and yellow to a dark
brown, and definite color patterns in the form of stripes are common.
The endosperm is usually characterized by the development of a large
amount of starch, but in sweet com the starch is partly replaced by an-
other carbohydrate. In physical character the endosperm is partly soft
and partly corneous, and these parts have a more or less definite ratio
and arrangement in each variety. The soft portion is always white; the
corneous part may be white or yellow. The aleurone is white, red, or
blue to black, and mixtures of either of these colors with white occur in
definite patterns in some varieties. The largest grain I have ever seen
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weighed fifty-six times as much as the smallest. The fruits of most
varieties are naked, except for the well-known covering of husks, but
there is a variation from this in the podded types, each grain of which
has a separate covering composed of the enlarged glimies and palets.
Still further illustrations of ordinary variability might be mentioned,
but these will suffice. Besides these, there are some less conmion varia-
tions— sometimes termed mutations and sometimes reversions — ^which add
interest to our investigations but complicate our classifications. A few
examples may serve as illustrations. The production of male elements in
female inflorescences or female elements in male inflorescences is of com-
mon occurrence, and varieties breeding true to these characteristics have,
in some instances, been isolated. Emerson has a variety whose leaves
have no ligules, and another — a dwarf variety — whose ears bear her-
maphrodite flowers. Gemert has isolated a constant strain whose ear is
a loose panicle.
The difficulty at the bottom of any attempt to classify the varieties
of maize is in the perplexing lack of correlation between these variant
characteristics. Some authorities maintain that definite correlations do
exist, and others are as confident that they are almost if not quite inde-
pendent of one another. The merits of either argument is irrelevant to
our present consideration. That certain physical correlations do exist
is accepted without arg^ument, but all the genetic correlations that have
ever been discovered are of little avail in classification. If the various
characters had a tendency to remain in groups affording rigid types, a
basis for classification would be provided; but, in a practical way, it
seems possible to combine in a single plant or to separate at will any
two characteristics which are not connected in any physical way, allelo-
morphs of course being excepted.
Pure botanists, as well as those prompted chiefly by a utilitarian
motive, have taken their turn at the problem, and many articles have
been published by experiment stations and other institutions. Without
going into details, we might analyze the principles employed and see
what progress has been made.
I have made no attempt at a thorough investigation of the tribula-
tions through which the maize plant originally passed in getting itselT
named. Suffice it to say that all that we usually call maize or Indian
com passes technically under the name Zea Mays L., the generic root
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being the Greek name of some cereal, and the specific a corruption of an
Indian name for the plant.
When a distinct variation from the described limits of a species is
found, it is customary to make of it a new species or to include it as a
variety of the parent species. Both systems have been applied to maize.
*Sturtevant adopted the plan of a trinominal nomenclature to distinguish
seven varieties, as follows: Zea Mays tunicata, pod com; Zea Mays
scLCcharata, sweet com ; Zea Mays indentataf dent corn ; Zea Mays indur-
ata, flint com; Zea Mays evertay pop com; Zea Mays amylea, soft com;
and Zea Mays amylea-saccharata, a poorly-defined type, part soft and
part sweet. Some later authorities have dropped the word Mays from
these names, giving the types specific iiank.
The inadequacy of either system is obvious on close examination.
It is based upon a single set of characteristics, and in other respects
each variety or species is subject to the full range of variation. In fact
even these seven varieties are not distinct with regard to the set of
charactristics which forms the basis of division ; pod com necessarily ex-
ists in one of the other six forms or in a mixture of them. The name of
a species should stand for a description; its value is lessened as excep-
tions to this description are found, and utterly destroyed as soon as it
overlaps other species so far as to render them indisting^uishable. If
the names stand for nothing but individual characters, then, it would be
better to mention the character than the variety possessing it. There is
also another disadvantage to the system; it establishes a bad precedent,
which, with a little encouragement, would soon lead to a condition bor-
dering on absurdity; in fact, I am not sure that it has not already
reached that point. Upon this basis a number of new variety names
have already sprung into existence, and more are due to arrive at any
time. Blaringhem mutilates a com plant and gets, or thinks he gets, as
a result, a number of new varieties which breed true. To these he gives
such names as Zea Mays praecox, a very precocious form indeed if we
accept his interpretations, and Zea Mays pseudo-androgyna, pseudo be-
cause a Zea Mays androgyna already existed. Although his methods and
conclusions are a trifle shady, his naming of the new forms illustrates
the point in question. Seed companies advertise Zea gracillima, Zea
Mays gigantea qtuidricolor, Zea japonica, and Zea Curagua; and the
Department of Agriculture is now offering for distribution through the
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Office of Seed and Plant Introduction a new discovery, Zea guatemal-
ensis, which seems to be ordinary com from Guatemala. Besides these
we have a Zea Mays chinensia and a Zea Mays pensylvanica, and in this
way we might continue ui;itil we run out of habitats and combinations of
characteristics. Gemert's Branch Com was hailed as a new seventh
species, Zea ramosa, Emerson might have named his liguleless variety
Zea Mays aligulata and his dwarf variety Zea Mays pygrnea-androgyna,
and Stewart or the writer might, on discovering the two- flowered condi-
tion of the female spikelets of Country Gentleman sweet com, have rev-
eled in the invention of some such name as Zea Mays saccharata gem-
inata — ^but none of us did. The difficulty is not in finding new varieties
or in naming those found, but in, avoiding being led to more ridiculous
eitds — in stopping the naming process soon enough to permit a name to
mean anything; for when anyone has made a complete list of all the vari-
eties that he knows, someone else can always add a few more that he
knows, or, if need be, make a few to order by judicious hybridization.
The cause of this confusion is easier to find than is its remedy. It
lies in our limited knowledge of the evolutionary history of the plant.
No wild form of com has ever been seen by civilized man. When Amer-
ica was discovered, the plant cultivated by the Indians was almost as
complex as it is today. We can, however, imagine the evolutionary
process reaching a place where its product was a plant of more or less
uniform character, agreeing with the generic description of Zea. Further
evolution, aided by reversion, then proceeded to produce in isolated envir-
onments a number of varieties possessing in definite combinations the
various characteristics already mentioned. If we knew what these com-
binations were, we should have a basis for naming varieties. But the
plant readily hybridizes with other varieties of its kind, and these differ-
ent original types, brought together and mixed by the savage or semi-
civilized agriculturist, gave us the heterogenous combination that we
know com to be. It is probably safe to say that there exists nowhere
in the world today a primary variety of com that has not been com-
plicated by hybridization with some other variety. Hybridization with
teosinte, one of the nearest relatives of maize, has added further difficul-
ties in the tropics, and it is probably due to the limited habitat of teosinte
as compared with that of maize, that the dividing line between the two
genera has not long ago been obliterated. Few other plants, wild or cul •
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tivated, present these difficulties, because few others combine such a
rang^e of variability with such ease of hybridization.
I am fully aware that some of these latter remarks are not in accord
with the commonly accepted theory of the hybrid origin of maize, but I
do not believe that theory to be the correct explanation of the origin of
the plant. My full discussion of that point will be presented elsewhere.
A specific name is to be understood as only an abbreviated descrip-
tion, and the only thing about maize that is constant enough to have a
fixed description is the whole genus. It is true that in some variations it
borders closely upon some other genera and even encroaches upon the
territory allotted to another tribe of grasses, but its limits are sufficiently
definite to obviate any doubt as to whether or not a plant under observa-
tion is corn.
The best taxonomic treatment, then, seems to be to consider Zea a
monotypic genus and discard all other names than Zec^ Maya L. Refer-
ence to the nimierous variations can be made to the characteristic di-
rectly and not to any arbitrary variety possessing that characteristic
in varying combination with other properties.
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Improved Technique for Corn Pollination.
Paul Weatherwax, Indiana University.
Many devices have been described for the control of pollination in
various plants, and a number of these have been found especially ser-
viceable in the extensive work that has been done in com breeding. The
best points of two or three of these methods have been combined and
used successfully during the past year.
The protection of the female inflorescence is made of an 8x12 sheet
of typewriter paper. Its construction can best be explained by reference
to the accompanying diagram. (Fig. 1.) Half an inch along one end
of the sheet is folded over and pressed down along AA; one side is sim-
ilarly folded along BB, and the other along CC. One of these latter folds
is glued down to the other, and the result is a long, flat envelope, open
at both ends and reinforced at one end by the half -inch fold.
The glue employed may be any of the common brands that are pur-
chased ready for use; this can be rendered almost insoluble by the addi-
tion of a small quantity of any readily soluble chromate and drying the
pasted article in sunlight. To make the envelope waterproof, a solution
of hard parafRn in benzole is applied with a tuft of cotton. The evapor-
ation of the benzole leaves the paper dry and smooth but impregnated
with paraffin.
The manipulation of the device is simple. It is usually best to re-
move the lamina of the leaf in whose axil the ear is borne and to slit
its sheath down the sides. The reinforced end of the envelope is then
slipped over the ear and made tight by means of a tuft of cotton stuffed
in from below. The top of the envelope is folded over and fastened with
a paper clip, which is tied loosely to the stem of the plant. (See Fig. 2.)
When the silks have appeared, the clip is removed without untying from
the stalk, the pollen poured in, and the clip replaced.
As the ear continues to grow, the string by which the clip is tied
slips upward on the stalk, and little further attention is required. The
tuft of cotton is compressed to make room for the increasing thickness
of the ear, until the latter is large enough to burst the envelope witht)ut
injury to itself. By this time the silks are usually no longer receptive.
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i """";
Technique for corn pollination.
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The best method yet found for collecting the pollen is by means of
ordinary paper bags, the size depending upon the size of the com tassM.
Early in the morning the bag is put over the tassel and tied or pinned
around the stalk below. The anthers open soon after the sun begins to
shine on the plants, and from 10:00 o'clock until noon is a good time to
do the pollenizing. Pollen is shed most freely on warm, clear days.
The method here described has a number of distinct advantages
when used with com. The envelopes are easily made; after a little
practice one person can make 25 or 30 in an hour. The worker is inde-
pendent of the whim of any manufacturer, paper, twine, and paper clips
being the only manufactured things that are necessary. The device is
easily applied and easily manipulated; while the bag of pollen is held
with one hand, the clip can be removed and the envelope opened with the
other. The chance for contamination by stray pollen grains is minimized,
for the envelope is never removed. after being put in place, the silks are
never touched by the hands, and the opening of the envelope exposes only
a small surface for a short time. No umbrella or other protecting de-
vice is needed. The cover is well ventilated through the cotton, and the
silks are protected from extremes of temperature, desiccation, or humid-
ity. Well-filled ears have often resulted from a single pollination, and
no failures have occurred which could be attributed to the lack of effi-
ciency of the device.
While this method has been used chiefly with com, it is capable of
adaptation to other plants. The envelopes may be made in any size.
When used over bisexual inflorescences to insure self-pollination, the
envelope can be permanently closed at the top. A support can be pro-
vided when the plant is too small to hold the weight of an envelope large
enough to cover its inflorescence.
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A Comparison op the Plant Succession on Hudson River
Limestone with that on Niagara Limestone,
Near Richmond, Indiana.
M. S. Markle, Earlham College.
The outcrops of bed-rock in the vicinity of Richmond, Ind., consist
of two kinds of rock, namely, Niagara limestone and Hudson River lime-
stone. The marked differences between these two kinds of rock make
a study of the plant succession on the outcrops very interesting.
The principal outcrop of the Hudson River limestone is in the gorge
of the Whitewater River, where it passes through the city of Richmond.
This gorge is about three miles long, 200-300 feet wide and up to 100 feet
or more in depth. This gorge is supposed to have been formed immedi
ately after the ice age.
Outcrops of Niagara limestone occur only south of the city, the
principal ones being in the gorges below the falls at Elliott's Mills and
at Elkhorn Mills, two and three miles southeast of Richmond, respec-
tively. The present report is the result of a study of the outcrops in
the Whitewater gorge and the gorge at Elkhorn Mills.
The principal differences between the two kinds of rocks is in their
physical character. The Hudson River limestone is composed of alter-
nate layers of calcareous shale and rather soft limestone. These con-
stituents vary greatly in amount, the rock consisting in some places al-
most entirely of shale and in others almost entirely of limestone. Gen-
erally, however, they are about equal in amount. The Niagara limestone
is not accompanied by shale, but consists entirely of hard thick-bedded
limestone.
On account of the physical character of the Hudson River limestone,
the plant succession in the Whitewater Gorge is very rapid for a rock
clifF. The stage of the succession of any part of the cliff is due to the
length of time that has elapsed since the cessation of active undercut-
ting by the river. All stages of succession from the plantless rock to
the climax mesophytic forest are to be found. The earliest stage in the
succession occurs where the cliff is being actively eroded by the river.
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The walls are almost vertical. No plants exist, except those hanging
from the top of the cliff. In most successions on bare rock, lichens are
the pioneer plants, being found in the most xerophytic situations. No
lichens are found anywhere on the Hudson River limestone, on account,
no doubt, of the unstable nature of the substratum. This plantless stage
persists until after active undercutting by the stream has ceased.
Then the cliff becomes less steep. The talus accumulates undisturbed
by the stream, and bears a considerable vegetation. In this stage occur
the pioneer cliff plants, occupying the shelves formed by projecting lay-
ers of limestone. The most of the plants are annuals and many of them
are plants that have slipped down from the top of the cliff. The follow-
ing plants are common in this pioneer association: Ambrosia arte-
misiaefolia, Poa compressa, Lactuca scariola, Nepeta cataria, Melilotus
alba, Dipsacus sylvestris. Aster spp.
The shale layers of the clifF change readily to soil, which is washed
down by rains. Layers of limestone thus left projecting break off of
their own weight and fall. With the consequent reduction in slope, an
increasingly larger number of plants gain a foothold. In addition to
some of the pioneer plants mentioned above occur the following: Equi-
setum arvense. Aster nova-angliae, Daucus carota, Heracleum lanatum,
Melilotus officinalis, Verbascum thapsus, Elymus canadensis, Comus
paniculata.
Up to this point, the succession has been controlled almost entirely
by physiogenic factors. The stage in succession depends upon the slope
of the cliff. When, however, the slope has become sufficiently gentle to
permit the accumulation of a layer of soil, biogenic factors, those due to
other organisms, come in. The plants, particularly the grasses, hold the
soil and retard the further degradation of the cliff. The slope of a por-
tion of the cliff occupied by a mesophytic forest is about the same as that
of a portion occupied by the bush stage. Each plant association prepares
the way for the succeeding one by holding the soil, accumulating humus
and providing shade.
The herbs are soon partially displaced by a bush association. The
most common species is Rhus aromatica, which often forms large col-
onies. Comus paniculata, Salix longifolia, Rhus toxicodendron, Vitus
vulpina, Crataegus, Psedera, Ptelea trifoliata Rubus, Ribes and others
are accompanying species.
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The shrub stage is succeeded by a xerophytic tree stage, correspona-
lug probably to the usual oak-hickory stage. Ulmus americana is the
pioneer tree. With it occur Celtis occidentalis, Crataegrus, Robinia
pseudo-acacia, Cercis canadenses, Prunus americana, Gleditschia tria-
canthos, Juglans nigra and Sambucus canadensis.
The pioneer tree association gradually merges into the ultimate
stage of the region, the mesophytic forest. Mesophytism is^ indicated by
the following species: Fagrus grandifolia, Acer saccharum.Cgoprinu^ car-
oliniana, Ostrya virginica, Asimina triloba, Impatiens pallida, I. biflora,
Viola cucullata, Galium spp.
For a more complete account of the succession in the Whitewater
Gorge, see a paper by the writer in the proceedings of the Indiana Acad-
my of Science for 1910.
The rock exposed in the gorge at Elkhom Falls is Niagara limestone.
The falls are occasioned by the presence underneath the hard Niagara
limestone of a softer layer, which is probably Hudson River limestone.
Below the falls is a gorge about one-half mile in length and 150 to 350
feet in width. On the walls of this gorge, various stages in plant succes-
sion may be observed.
In general, the earliest stages in the succession are to be found
nearest the falls, though they may be found wherever a rejuvenescence
of the succession has occurred. The pioneer association consists almost
entirely of lichens, a large, grray, leathery species of Umbillicaria being
the most prominent. This lichen covers the rock in all exposed situa-
tions, sometimes growing to a diameter of three inches.
The lichen association is followed by another, made up of a small
black moss, probably a species of Grimmia, and such seed plants as Poa
compressa, Nepeta cataria, Verbascum thapsus. Aster and Solidago.
These are succeeded, after further weathering of the rock and the
accumulation of humus in the widening cracks, by an association dom-
inated by Hydrangea arborescens and Aquilegia canadensis. These may
be accompanied by Psedera quinquefolia.
The falls overhang a distance of 10 to 20 feet, on account of the
weathering away of the softer lower stratum. For the same reason,
the cliff soon becomes overhanging. This condition is more marked where
stream action is prominent. Under these overhanging cliffs a very mes-
ophytic association develops. Here occur Conocephalus, Cystopteris bul-
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bifera, Camptosorus rhizophyllus, Pilea pumila, Aquilegia canadensis
and Hydrangea arborescens. Psedera quinquefolia hangs in long stream-
ers from the top of the clifF. On the edge of the cliff or on the talus be-
neath, where stream action is absent, occur Ulmus americana, Ostrya
virginica, Prunus serotina, Celastrus scandens and Vitis. Under the
cliff flourish such herbaceous plants as Sedum ternatum, Pilea pumila,
Impatiens, Equisetum arvense, Eupatorium perfoliatum, Ambrosia tri-
fida, Stellaria media, Galium, Carex and various mesophytic mosses. The
mesophytic condition is due largely to the constant shade.
The vegetation becomes more and more mesophytic as the cliff be-
comes more overhanging. On account of the stability of the limestone,
this may continue until the cliff overhangs to a surprising extent, but
eventually overhanging portions of the cliff fall in large masses. This
process is aided by the presence of prominent cleavage planes in two
series at right angles to one another, but neither parallel to the edge of
the cliff. The breaking off of the large masses gives the cliff a jagged
appearance. The immediate result of the breaking off of a portion of
the cliff is a rejuvenation of the succession. The mesophytic vegetation
beneath the overhanging cliff is destroyed, both by being covered by the
fallen fragments and by exposure. Stream action on the base of the cliff
is hindered or rendered impossible by the covering of the soft underlying
stratum. The stream is too weak to remove or wear away the fallen
fragments. The fallen portions of the cliff eventually become covered
with vegetation. The new, vertical faces of the cliff after a longer period
are clothed with plants. Soil and humus accumulate more readily than
before the interstices of the fragments, giving better conditions for
the growth of trees. With the increase of shade, more mesophytic condi-
tions prevail.
Slowly the edge of the cliff and the fallen masses of rock are crum-
bled by action of the weather. The result is finally a gentle slope with
occasional remnants of the cliff projecting through the soil. The climax
mesophytic forest does not occur here, though conditions approaching it
are found at the lower end of the gorge. Tilia americana, Robinia
pseudo-acacia, Morius rubra and Fraxinus americana are the principal
trees, with an undergrowth of Sambucus canadensis and such herbs as
Galium, Poa pratense, and Sedum ternatum.
On the whole, it would be difficult to find two rock-cliff successions
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more different than the two just described. The differences become more
striking when it is considered that the two successions are both on lime-
stone, in the same region and on cliffs extending in the same general
direction. The principal differences are as follows: (1) The succession
on Hudson River limestone is more rapid than that on Niagara lime-
stone. (2) There is a striking contrast in the pioneer stages. The
pioneer association on Hudson River limestone is characterized by the
complete absence of lichens, liverworts, xerophytic mosses and ferns, all
of which are prominent on Niagara limestone. (3) In the Whitewater
Gorge, the degradation of the cliffs of Hudson River limestone is accom-
plished by the crumbling of the rock into small fragments, while at Elk-
horn Falls the fragments of Niagara limestone are of many tons' weight.
(4) On account of the overhanging character of the cliff at Elkhorn
Falls, an intermediate mesophytic stage is introduced into the succession.
8—11994
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Notes on Microscopic Technique.
M. S. Markle, Earlham College.
During the past few years I have been using very successfully a
method of staining a number of slides at one time, a description of whicn
may be of interest to others who have occasion to prepare large nxmibers
of slides for class use or for research. The principal features of the
method were suggested to me by Miss Louise Sawyer of the Department
of Biology of Beloit College.
As shown in the illustration, the slides are held between the soils of
a brass spring about an inch in diameter, made of No. 13 wire and wound
with the coils in contact. By holding the spring in the left hand and
forcing the first two coils apart with the thumb nail, the first slide may
be inserted. After this, pressure applied by the thxmib upon the slide
just inserted separated the coils for the reception of the next slide.
As staining jars, I am now using Bausch and Lomb preservation
jars No. 15166 holding 600 c.c, but Stender dishes about 100 mm. deep
might prove to be more satisfactory. Vessels to contain stains in which
the slides rest for a time (such as safrannin) are more economical of
stain if larger.
A coil long enough to hold 12 to 15 slides has been found to be
most satisfactory. The spring is kept uppermost until the final xylol is
reached, when the spring is reversed, allowing the slides to be pulled out
one at a time for mounting. It is easy to hold the rest of the slides with
one hand while removing a slide with the other.
The spring I am using was made by Orr and Lockitt, Chicago; a
spring about 18 inches long cost 65 cents at that time. Any hardware
dealer ought to be able to obtain such a spring.
I have found it desirable to use 3 jars of 95 per cent, alcohol as well
as 3 jars of xylol in the series of reagents through which the slides are
run. As the alcohol becomes loaded with stain or water, the lowest
grade is discarded, each of the others is reduced one grade and the
third jar refilled with pure alcohol. The same scheme is used for xylol.
By this means, one always has one vessel of pure reagent. Economy of
reagents and efficiency of work are facilitated.
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Balsam may be kept from spreading beyond the cover-glass and leav-
ing a halo on the finished slide by wiping off the slide with an absorbent
cloth close to the sections before putting on the cover-glass. The balsam
will then spread to the edge of the cover-glass and stop.
A small amount of valuable material may be made to serve for a
larger number of slides, smaller covers may be used, sections may be
Better oriented and worthless sections discarded if sections are examined
just after the paraffin ribbons are stretched. Desirable sections may be
cut out by rocking a round-edged scalpel. By laying a new slide smeared
with fixative on the table in close contact with the original slide, the sec-
tions may be transferred to the new slide with the point of a scalpel,
after adding a few drops of water to facilitate the moving of the sections.
The sections may be more easily examined while in the paraffin if a little
Magdala red is added to one of the higher alcohols in which the material
is dehydrated .previous to imbedding. The small amount of stain ab-
sorbed will not affect future staining operations.
Female gametophytes in pine ovules usually shrink greatly when
fixed and imbedded. This may be almost entirely obviated by cutting
a slab off each side of the ovule before it is fixed. A Gillette razor
blade is very satisfactory, since on account of its thinness it does not
crush the material.
Seeds of the pinyon pine (Pinus edulis) are very satisfactory to
illustrate the grross anatomy of the gymnosperm seed, since they are
very large and easily dissected. The gametophjrte and contained embryos
or the embryos alone may be dissected out, soaked in water a short time,
fixed and imbedded. They cut very easily.
A modification of Land's Fixative (See Botanical Gazette, Vol. LIX,
page 397), has been used very successfully for refractory sections that
will not adhere readily with egg albumen. Land's fixative dries very
quickly, causing the liquid added to float the sections to spread with
difficulty. By using the following formula, the liquid spreads as easily
as with egg albumen:
2% gum arabic in water 50 c. c
Glycerin 50 c. c.
Sodiimi salicylate 1 gram.
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Use as egg albumen. Float sections on water slightly yellow with
potassium dichromate. Stretch over warm plate. Melting the paraffin
does not impair the efficiency of the fixative. When aqueous stains are
used, no previous treatment is necessary; but when alcoholic stains only
are to be used, it is best to set the slides for a short time in water to
dissolve the excess of fixative adhering to the slide. Otherwise this
precipitate will take the stain and spoil the appearance of the slide.
Method of holding microscopic slides in brass springs for staining.
This is best done before the paraffin is removed from the slides. The
slides should be re-dried.
A hot-plate for stretching paraffin ribbons that is a great improve-
ment over the old copper plate and gas fiame may be made by putting
an incandescent lamp in a box and making a glass lid. The heat is
uniform. The glass plate gives better contact, though it is better to fill
the space between the slide and the glass lid by putting a drop of water
on the lid before placing the slide on it. A small box may be made of
an ordinary chalk box, the sliding lid of which is replaced by a dis-
carded photographic plate or other piece of glass. It is easier to remove
the slides, however, if the lid is flush with the sides of the box.
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The Ustilaginales op Indiana.
H. S. Jackson — Purdue University.
The following list of the Ustilaginales or "smuts" of Indiana is
based primarily on the material in the writer's herbarium and in that
of the Purdue University Agricultural Experiment Station. All of the
Indiana material in the herbarium of the New York Botanical Garden
has also been included, most of the specimens deposited there being col-
lections made in Indiana by Dr. L. M. Underwood during the period
when he was connected with DePauw University. The only previous
lists of the smuts of Indiana were included in the List of Cryptogams
prepared by Dr. Underwood, which appeared in the Proceedings of the
Indiana Academy for 1893, and in the Supplementary list of 1894. A
total of sixteen species were recorded. A few other scattered records
appear in the literature, several having been made in the various lists
of the Fungi of Indiana, by Prof. J. M. VanHook, which have been
published in the Proceedings at various times. No attempt has been
made to include all the localities recorded for the more common species.
In general only those specimens are listed which the writer has had an
opportunity to examine. Several species are included, however, which
are based on the distribution records in the monograph of the Ustilag-
inales by Dr. G. P. Clinton, published in the North American Flora
Vol. 7, pt. 1, 1906.
The present list includes a total of forty-seven species on as many
hosts. A large number of other species undoubtedly occur in our range.
The writer would greatly appreciate it if collectors would furnish dupli-
cates of specimens not recorded here, or which they may collect in the
future, for use in preparing a supplementary list.
Acknowledgment is gratefully made to all those who have fur-
nished specimens for study or who have assisted in any way in the
preparation of the list.
* Contribution from the Botanical Department of the Purdue University Aflrricultura]
Experiment Station.
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USTILAGINACEAE.
1. Cintractia Caricis (Pers.) Magn. Abh. Bot. Ver. Prov. Brand. 37:79.
1896.
Uredo Caricis Pers. Syn. Fung. 225. 1801.
On Cyperaceae:
Carex umbellata Schk., beech woods, *^ mile S. W. Chestnut Ridge,
May 11, 1913, C. C. Deam 127116.
This species has a wide distribution in America as well as in other
parts of the world where Carex species are native. It should be found
on other host species in Indiana. The sori occur in the ovaries and
when mature are rather conspicuous subspherical bodies 3-4 mm. in
diameter.
2. Cintractia Junci (Schw.) Trel. Bull. Torrey Club 12:70. 1885.
Caeoma Junci Schw. Trans. Am. Phil. Soc. II. 4:290. 1832.
On Juncaceae:
JunciLs diffusissimus Buckley, Versailles, Ripley County, June 18,
1915, C. C. Deam 16087.
Juncus tenuis Willd., Reynolds, White County, Aug^ust 2, 1916, G. A.
Osner.
3. Cintractia Luzulae (Sacc.) Clinton, Jour. Myc. 8:143. 1902.
Ustilago Luzulae Sacc. Myc. Ven. Spec. 73. 1873.
On Juncaceae:
Juncoides campestre (L.) Kuntze, Greensburg, Decatur County,
May 10, 1889, J. C. Arthur; Terre Haute, Vigo County, May 12, 1917,
C. C. Deam 22959; Kramer, Warren County, May 18, 1917, C. C. Deam
23104; Salem, Washington County, C. C. Deam 23194.
Previously known from North America only from the one collection
made in 1889 by Dr. Arthur at Greensburg, Ind. The sori are in the
ovaries but are inconspicuous and hence easily overlooked. The species
is doubtless of much wider distribution in this State than the above
collections would indicate.
4. Cintractia Montagnei (Tul.) Magn. Abh. Bot. Ver. Prov. Brand.
37:79. 1896.
Ustilago Montagnei Tul. Ann. Sci. Nat. III. 7:88. 1847.
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On Cyperaceae:
Rynchospora glomerata (L.) VahL, Michigan City, Laporte County,
September 13, 1916, H. S. Jackson and E. B. Mains.
5. Melanopsichium austro-americanum (Speg.) G. Beck, Ann. Nat.
Hofmus. Wien 9:122. 1894.
Ustilago austro-americana Speg. Anal. Soc. Ci. Argent. 12:63.
1881.
On Polygonaceae:
Persicaria pennsylvanica (L.) Small, Plymouth, Marshall County,
September 5, 1916, H. S. Jackson.
A species causing conspicuous hard black sori in the infloresence.
6. Schizonella melanogramma (DC.) Schrot. Beitr. Biol. Pfl. 2:352
1877.
Uredo melanogramma DC. Fl. Fr. 6:75. 1815.
On Cyperaceae:
Carex pennsylvanica Lam., Shades, Montgomery County, May 16,
1913, F. D. Kern; Happy Hollow, Lafayette, Tippecanoe County, May 3,
1906, G. W. Wilson 5485; Battle Ground, Tippecanoe County, June 18,
1916, Evelyn Allison; Rochester, Fulton County, May, 1894, L. M. Un-
derwood, Ind. Biol. Sur. 10, May 17, 1894, J. C. Arthur; Pine Creek,
Warren County, May 5, 1917, G. N. Hoffer.
Carex picta Steud., Bloomington, Monroe County, May 25, 1917, J.
M. VanHook 3746, June 9, 1917, C. C. Deam 23569; Brown County,
June 16, 1912, C. C. Deam.
A very conmion species, occurring on the leaves, forming epiphyllous
linear black sori, which superficially resemble those of a rust.
7. Sorosporium confusum Jackson Bull. Torrey Club 35:148. 1908.
On Poaceae:
Aristida sp., Elberfeld, Warrick County, October 4, 1916, H. S.
Jackson.
An inconspicuous species the sori of which occur in the ovaries,
which remain enclosed in the glumes. This species was formerly con-
fused with S. Ellisii, which is now interpreted as occurring only on
Andropogon.
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8. SoROSPORiUM Syntherismae (Peck) Farl.; Farl. & Seynu Host Index
N. Am. Fungi 152. 1891.
Ustilago Syntherismae Peck, Ann. Rep. N. Y. State Mus. 27:103.
1875.
On Poaceae:
Cenchrus carolinianus Walt., Michigan City, Laporte County, Sep-
tember 13, 1916, H. S. Jackson and E. B. Mains, Greencastle, Putnam
County, October, 1892, L. M. Underwood, Ind. Biol. Sur. 6; Dayton,
Tippecanoe County, November, 1917, H. S. Jackson.
Panicum dichotomiflorum Michx., Muncie, Delaware County, Sep-
tember 29, 1915, H. S. Jackson; Hammond, Lake County, October 14,
1914, F. J. Pipal.
The sori of this species as a rule cause the abortion of the entire
infioresence.
9. Sphacelotheca Sorghi (Link) Clinton, Jour. Myc. 8:140. 1902.
Sporisorium Sorghi Link, in Willd. Sp. PL 6':86. 1825.
On Poaceae:
Sorghum vulgare Pers. Muncie, Delaware County, September 29,
1915, H. S. Jackson; West Lafayette, Tippecanoe County, September
18, 1912, E. J. Petry, September 20, 1917, G. A. Osner, September, 1915,
H. S. Jackson.
This, the kernel smut of sorghum, is evidently quite common. The
head smut *S. Reilana, which generally involves the whole inflorescence,
has not yet been collected in Indiana.
10. Ustilago anomala J. Kunze, Wint. in Rab. Krypt. Fl. IMOO. 1881.
On Polygonaceae:
Tiniaria acandens (L.) Small, Fern, Putnam County, September,
1893, L. M. Underwood, Ind. Biol. Sur. 1; Crawfordsville, Montgomery
County, September 20, 1908, V. B. Stewart 8.
11. Ustilago Avenae (Pers.) Jens. Charb. C^r^ales 4:1889.
Uredo segetum Avenae Pers. Tent. Disp. Fung. 57. 1897.
On Poaceae:
Avena sativa L., Greencastle, Putnam County, June 1893, L. M.
Underwood; Lafayette, Tippecanoe County, 1893; J. C. Arthur (Und.
Ind. Biol. Surv. 2) ; West Lafayette, Tippecanoe County, June 10, 1M8,
F. D. Kern, June 25, 1916, J. C. Summers; Holman, Dearborn County,
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1889 (?), H. L. Bolley; Crawfordsville, Montgromery County, June 1892,
E. W. Olive; Plymouth, Marshall County, June 29, 1916, G. A. Osner;
Surrey, Jasper County, July 10, 1917, Chas. Chupp; South Bend, St.
Joseph County, October 28, 1916, M. C. Gillis; Oaktown, Sullivan County,
June 25, 1916, J. C. Summers; Lebanon, Boone County, July 17, 1916,
P. S. Lowe; Griffiths, Lake County, July 27, 1916, G. A. Osner.
12. USTILAGO Calamagrostidis (Fuckel) Clinton, Jour. Myc. 8:138.
1902.
Tilletia Calamagrostis Fuckel, Symb. Myc. 40. 1869.
On Poaceae:
Calamagrostis canadensis (Michx.) Beauv., Plymouth, Marshall
County, June 21, 1916, G. A. Osner.
Evidently a rather rare species, but having a wide distribution.
The sori occur on the leaves and sheaths and in general features the
species resembles U, Striae formis.
13. USTILAGO Crameri Kom. ; Fuckel, Jahr. Nass..Ver. Nat. 27-28:11.
1873.
On Poaceae:
Chaetocfdoa italica (L.) Scribn., West Lafayette, Tippecanoe
County, September 14, 1915, H. S. Jackson.
14. USTILAGO HORDEI (Pers.) Kellerm. & Swingle, Ann. Rep. Kans. Agr.
Exp. Sta. 2:268. 1890.
Uredo segetum Hordei Pers. Tent. Disp. Fung. 57. 1797.
On Poaceae:
Hordeum vulgare L., Lafayette, Tippecanoe County, July 2, 1891,
J. C. Arthur; Auburn, Dekalb County, July 19, 1917, F. J. Pipal.
This is the so-called covered smut of barley. It is undoubtedly
much more common than the above listed collections would indicate.
15. USTILAGO LEVIS (Kell. & Sw.) Magn. Abh. Bot. Ver. Prov. Brand.
37:69. 1896.
Ustilago Avenae levis Kell. & Sw. Ann. Rep. Kans. Agr. Exp.
Sta. 2:259. 1890.
On Poaceae:
Avena sativa L., Lafayette, Tippecanoe County, June 1890, J. C.
Arthur, June 26, 1915, C. A. Ludwig (Barth. Fungi Columb. 4795) ;
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Griffiths, Lake County, July 27, 1916, G. A. Osner; Greencastle, Putnam
County, June 1893, L. M. Underwood; Lebanon, Boone County, July 25,
1916, P. S. Lowe; North Liberty, St. Joseph County, August 9, 1916,
G. A. Osner.
16. USTILAGO NEGLECTA Niessl, Rab. Fungi Eur. 1200. 1868.
Erysibe Panicorum Panici-glauci Wallr. Fl. Crypt. Germ. 2:216.
1833.
Ustilago Panici-glauci Wint.; Rab. Krypt. Fl. r:97. 1881.
On Poaceae:
Chaetochloa glauca (L.) Scribn., Lafayette, Tippecanoe County,
1893, J. C. Arthur (Und. Ind. Biol. Surv. 3) ; West Lafayette, Tippe-
canoe County, September 24, 1915, H. S. Jackson; Middletown, Henry
County, September 30, 1915, H. S. Jackson; Argos, Marshall County,
September 26, 1916, G. A. Osner.
17. Ustilago nuda (Jens.) Kell. & Sw. Ann. Rep. Kans. Agr. Exp. Sta.
2:277. 1890.
Ustilago HoYdei nuda Jens. Charb. C^r^ales 4. 1889.
On Poaceae:
Hordeum vulgarc L., Manchester, Dearborn County, June 20, 1889,
H. L. Bolley; Griffith, Lake County, July 27, 1916, G. A. Osner; Lafay-
ette, Tippecanoe County, July 2, 1891, J. C. Arthur, June 22, 1917, H. S.
Jackson; Fremont, Steuben County, June 27, 1910, 0. S. Roberts; Au-
burn, Dekalb County, July 19, 1917, F. J. Pipal.
This, the loose smut of barley, is everywhere common and causes con-
siderable loss each year. A collection made in the greenhouse showed
infection on the sheaths and leaves as well as the infloresence.
1§. Ustilago perennans Rostr. Overs. K. Danske Vid. Selsk. Forh.
1890:15. Mr. 1890.
Cintractia Avenae Ellis & Tracy, Jour. Myc. 6:77. S. 1890.
On Poaceae:
ArrhenatheruTti elatius (L.) Beauv., Lafayette, Tippecanoe County,
June 10, 1897, Wm. Stuart.
19. Ustilago pustulata Tracy & Earle, Bull. Torrey Club 22:175. 1895.
On Poaceae:
Panicufn dichotomiflorum Michx., Evansville, Vanderburgh County,
October 4, 1916, H. S. Jackson.
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20. USTILAGO Rabenhorstiana Kuhn. Hedwigia 15:4. 1876.
On Poaceae:
Syntherisma sanguinale (L.) Dulac, Greencastle, Putnam County,
October 1892, L. M. Underwood, Ind. Biol. Surv. 5; Oakland City, Gib-
son County, October 5, 1916, H. S. Jackson; Michigan City, Laporte
County, September 13, 1916, H. S. Jackson and E. B. Mains; Lafayette,
Tippecanoe County, September 11, 1891, J. C. Arthur; West Lafayette,
Tippecanoe County, September 3, 19, 1915, H. S. Jackson; Paoli, Orange
County, September 27, 1915, H. S. Jackson; Marion, Grant County,
October 11, 1915, F. J. Pipal; Plymouth, Marshall County, September
12, 27, 1916, G. A. Osner; Goshen, Elkhart Co., October 10, 1916, G. A.
Osner; Evansville, Vanderburgh County, October 4, 1916, H. S. Jackson.
Perhaps the most common, at least the most frequently collected
smut occurring on a native grass in our region. The entire infloresence
IS usually affected.
21. USTILAGO SPERMOPHORA B. & C. Sacc. Syll. Fung. 7':466. 1888.
On Poaceae:
Eragrostis major Host., Middletown, Henry County, September 30,
1915, H. S. Jackson.
An inconspicuous but probably not uncommon species.
22. USTILAGO sphaerogena BurriU, Sacc. Syll. Fung. 7':468. 1888.
On Poaceae:
Echinochloa Crus-galli (L.) Beauv., Blooming Grove, Franklin
County, September 7, 1913, C. A. Ludwig; Lafayette, Tippecanoe County,
October 5, 1909, A. G. Johnson, October 1, 1916, H. S. Jackson.
23. USTILAGO Tritici (Pers.) Rostr. Overs. K. Danske Vid. Selsk. Forh.
1890:15. Mr. 1890.
Uredo segetum Tritici Pers. Tent. Disp. Fung. 57. 1797.
On Poaceae:
Triticum vulgar e (collective), Lafayette, Tippecanoe County, 1893,
J. C. Arthur (Und. Ind. Biol. Surv. 4), June 20, 1916, H. S. Jackson;
Greencastle, Putnam County, June 1893, L. M. Underwood; Brown
County, May 1893, L. M. Underwood; Crawfordsville, Montgomery
County, June 1892, M. B. Thomas; Wabash County, June 20, 1888, A.
Miller 18; Plymouth, Marshall County, June 29, 1916, G. A. Osner;
Petersburg, Pike Co., October 18, 1910, Blake A. Lamb; Mt. Vernon,
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Posey County, May 14, 1910, A. G. Johnson; Franklin County, July 1,
1912, C. A. Ludwig; Claypool, Kosciusko County, June 11, 1916, R. C.
Hathaway.
The loose smut of wheat is undoubtedly present in all counties of
the State and is estimated to cause a reduction in yield of 3-4 per cent
for the State. This means that from one to one and one-quarter million
bushels are lost annually from this disease.
24. USTILAGO STRlAEFORMis (Westend.) Niessl, Hedwigia 15:1. 1876.
Uredo striae formis Westend. Bull. Acad. Roy. Belg. 18'; 406.
1851.
On ^oaceae:
Agrostis alba vulgaris (With.) Thurb., Plymouth, Marshall County,
June 22, 1916, G. A. Osner; Brazil, Clay County, June 22, 1917, G. A.
Osner.
Phleum pratense L., Greencastle, Putnam County, May 1893, L. M.
Underwood, Ind. Biol. Surv. 9; Plymouth, Marshall County, June 22,
1916, G. A. Osner; Lafayette, Tippecanoe County, June 24, 1898, Wm.
Stuart; Monroeville, Morgan County, July 28, 1917, G. A. Osner.
Poa pratensis L., Plymouth, Marshall County, June 21, 29, 1916,
G. A. Osner.
25. USTILAGO UTRICULOSA (Nees) Tul. Ann. Sci. Nat. III. 7:102. 1847.
Caeoma utriculosa Nees, Syst. Pilze 1:14. 1817.
On Polygonaceae:
Persicaria amphibii (L.) S. F. Gray, Wabash County, October 16,
1890, A. Miller 10.
Persicaria pennsylvanica (L.) Small, Michigan City, Laporte
County, September 13, 1916, H. S. Jackson and E. B. Mains; Lafayette,
Tippecanoe County, October 3, 1915, H. S. Jackson; Munde, Delaware
County, September 29, 1915, H. S. Jackson; Plymouth, Marshall County,
September 5, 1916, G. A. Osner, September 5, 1916, H. S. Jackson; Oak-
land City, Gibson County, October 5, 1916, H. S. Jackson.
26. USTILAGO ViLFAE Wint. Bull. Torrey Club 10:7. 1883.
On Poaceae:
SporoboltLs neglectus Nash, West Lafayette, Tippecanoe County,
October 23, 1912, E. J. Petry.
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27. USTILAGO Zeae (Beckm.) Unger, Einfl. Bodens 211. 1836.
Lycoperdon Zeae Beckm. Haimov. Mag. 6:1330. 1768.
Uredo Zeae Schw. Schr. Nat. Ges. Leipzig 1:71. 1822.
On Poaceae:
Eucklaena mexicana Schrad., Bloomington, Monroe County, Sum-
mer 1917, P. Weatherwax.
Zea Mays L., Greencastle, Putnam County, October 1893, L. M. Un-
derwood, Ind. Biol. Surv. 7; Plymouth, Marshall County, September 5,
1916, H. S. Jackson; Lebanon, Boone County, August 1, 1916, P. S.
Lowe; Grovertown, Starke County, August 22, 1917, C. R. Hoflfer; La-
fayette, Tippecanoe County, September 1, 1917, G. A. Osner.
The common com smut is known in every county of the State. Only
a few localities are listed, which include those from which specimens
are preserved.
28. USTILAGO sp.
On Poaceae:
Secale cereale L,, Bainbridge, Putnam County, June 1917, G. A.
Osner; Lafayette, Tippecanoe County, June 5, 1917, G. A. Osner; Sur-
rey, Jasper County, July 10, 1917, Chas. Chupp.
A loose smut of rye, indistinguishable in its morphological charac-
ters from the loose smut of wheat, U. Tritici, has been found in three
fields in Indiana. Usually only a portion of the florets are infected.
The exact status of this smut must remain in doubt till infection work
has been conducted.
TILLETIACEAE.
29. DOASSANSIA DEFORMANS Setch. Proc. Am. Acad. 26:17. 1891.
On Alismaceae:
Sagittwria latifolia Willd., Michigan City, Laporte County, Septem-
ber 13, 1916, H. S. Jackson and E. B. Mains.
This species causes considerable distortion of the affected parts.
The collection recorded above consisted in the main of a distorted flower
stalk.
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30. DOASSANSIA OPACA Setch. Proc. Am. Acad. 26:15. 1891.
On Alismaceae:
Sagittaria latifolia Willd., Winona Lake, Kosciusko County, Augrust
31, 1916, H. S. Jackson and G. N. Hoffer.
This species forms opaque spore balls in the mesophyll of the leaf
causing considerable thickening.
31. Entyloma australe Speg. Anal. Soc. Ci. Argent. 10:5. 1880.
On Solanacbae:
Phy salts pubescens L., Greencastle, Putnam County, October 1893,
L. M. Underwood, Ind. Biol. Surv. 8.
Physalis subglabrata Mackensie and Bush, Urmeyville, Johnson
County, November 1890, E. M. Fisher 816.
32. Entyloma crastophilum S^acc. Michelia 1:540. 1879.
On Poaceae:
Muhlenbergia mexicana (L.) Trin., Lafayette, Tippecanoe County,
November 11, 1916, E. B. Mains.
This collection is referred to this species somewhat doubtfully. We
have seen no other record of a species of Entyloma on this host species.
33. Entyloma compositarum Farl. Bot. Gaz. 8:275. 1883.
On Ambrosiaceae:
Ambrosia elatior L. (A. art emisiae folia L.), Lafayette, Tippecanoe
County, July 2, 1889, J. C. Arthur.
On Carduaceae:
Senecio aureus L., Lafayette, Tippecanoe County, May 22, 1916, H.
S. Jackson.
34. Entyloma Floerkeae Holway; Davis, Trans. Wise Acad. 11:170.
1897.
On Limnanthaceae:
Floerkea proserpinacoides Willd., Lafayette, Tippecanoe County,
May 8, 1898, J. C. Arthur.
A rather rare species reported otherwise only from Illinois, Ohio
and Wisconsin. The writer has also collected it in Delaware.
35. Entyloma Lobeliae Farl. Bot. Gaz. 8:275. 1883.
On Lobellvceae:
Lobelia inflata L., Blooming^ton, Monroe County, Campus Indiana
Univ., October 26, 1915, J. M. VanHook 3664.
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36. Entyloma microsporum (Ung.) Schrot.; Rab. Fungi Eur. 1872.
1874.
Protomyces microsporus Ung., Exanth. Pfl. 343. 1833.
On Ranunculaceae:
Ranunculus septentrionalis Poir, Lafayette, Tippecanoe County, May
17, 1883, J. C. Arthur, May 29, 1894, K. E. Golden, May 1, 1906, G. W.
Wilson 5473, October 29, 1916, H. S. Jackson.
37. Entyloma polysporum (Peck) Farl. Bot. Gaz. 8:275. 1883.
Protomyces polysporus Peck; Thiim. Myc. Univ. 1813. 1881.
On Ambrosiaceae:
Ambrosia elatior L. (A. art emisae folia L.).
Reported on the above host from Indiana by Clinton (N. A. Flora
7:62. 1906). We have not seen specimens.
38. Entyloma Saniculae Peck, Ann. Rep. N. Y. State Mus. 38:100.
1885.
On Ammiaceae:
Sanicula sp., Greencastle, Putnam County, May 1893, L. M. Under-
wood.
39. Entyloma speciosum Schrot. & P. Henn. Hedwigia 35:220. 1896.
On Poaceae:
Panicum dichtomiflonim Michx., Evansville, Vanderburgh County,
October 4, 1916, H. S. Jackson.
Otherwise reported on this host (as P. proliferum) from North
America only from Illinois. The specimen recorded above was obtained
from the same plants on which Ustilago pustulata was collected.
40. Entyloma Veronicas (Wint.) Lagerh., Pat. & Lagerh. Bull. Soc.
Myc. Fr. 7:170. 1891.
Entyloma Linariae Veronicae Wint; Rab.-Wint. Fungi Eur.
3001. 1884.
On Scropularlaceae:
Veronica perigrina L., Lafayette, Tippecanoe County, April 18, 1916,
May 6, 19, 1916, H. S. Jackson; Mt. Vernon, Posey County, May 11,
1916, H. S. Jackson.
A very common species in the vicinity of Lafayette, causing yellow-
ish or whitish well defined spots on the leaves.
9—11994 ♦
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41. TiLLETiA LAEVis Kuhii; Rab. Fungi Eur. 1697. 1873.
Ustilago foetens B. & C. Grevillea, 3:59. 1874.
On Poaceae:
Triticum vulgare (collective), Haw Patch, July 17, 1889; Jonesboro,
Grant County, July 30, 1910, Neill and VanHook; Fort Wayne, Allen
County, July 21, 1910, O. S. Roberts; Franklin, Johnson County, July
5, 1909, Comm. E. A. Feight; New Carlisle, St. Joseph County, July 10,
1917, G. A. Osner.
This, the "stinking smut" or "bunt" of wheat, is much more wide-
spread in the State than the above distribution would indicate.
42. TiLLETiA Tritici (Bjerk.) Wint. Rab. Krypt. Fl. 1»:110. 1881.
Lycoperdon Tritici Bjerk. K. Sv. Vet-Acad. Handl. 36:326.
1775.
On Poaceae:
Triticum vulgare L., New Carlisle, St. Joseph County, July 10, 1917,
G. A. Osner.
This specimen consists of a single head found mixed with the pre-
ceding species. This species undoubtedly occurs not infrequently in the
northern part of the State. It is not to be expected that it is as common
as T, laevis however.
The report of the occurrence in Indiana of T. Tritici made in the
Proceeding's for 1915 (p. 396) has been found to have been based on an
error in determination.
43. Urocystis Agropyri (Preuss) Schrot. Abh. Schles. Ges. Abth. Nat.
Med. 1869-72:7. 1870.
Uredo Agropyri Preuss, in Sturm, Deutsh. Fl. III. 25:1. 1848.
On Poaceae:
Agropyron repens (L.) Beau v.. West Lafayette, Tippecanoe County,
May 30, 1915, C. R. Orton and F. D. Fromme.
Elynvus virginicua L., Lafayette, Tippecanoe County, July 22, 1917,
E. B. Mains.
44. Urocystis Anemones (Pers.) Wint.; Rab. Kiypt. Fl. 1*:123. 1881.
Uredo Anemones Pers. Tent. Disp. Fung. 56. 1797.
On Ranunculaceae:
Anemone virginiana L., Lafayette, Tippecanoe County, April 24,
1906, G. W. Wilson.
t
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Hepatica a4mtiloba DC, Lafayette, Tippecanoe County, May 29,
1893, J. C. Arthur, June 29, 1916, G. N. Hoffer.
45. Urocystis cepulae Frost. Farl. Ann. Rep. Sec. Mass. Board Ajjrr.
24. 175. 1877.
On Alliaceae:
Allium cepa L.
Reported by Underwood (Proc. Ind. Acad. Sci. 1894:151. 1895), as
occurring on onions in market, Putnam County, December 1893. Clin-
ton (N. Am. Flora 7:57. 1906), also reports this from Indiana. A speci-
men in the N. Y. Botanical Garden, collected by Underwood in Indiana,
is sterile. The species undoubtedly occurs in northern Indiana.
46. Urocystis Colchici (Schlecht.) Rab. Fungi Eur. 396. 1861.
Caeoma Colchici Schlecht. Linnaea 1:241. 1826.
On Liliaceae:
Quamasia hyacinthina (Raf.) Britton, Lafayette, Tippecanoe
County, May 30, 1907, F. Vasku, May 22, 1916, H. S. Jackson, May 1917,
G. N. Hoffer.
These collections are referred here somewhat doubtfully. The
writer is unaware of any record of the occurrence of Urocystis on this
host genus though he has made similar collections in Oregon on a western
member of the genus.
47. Urocystis occulta (Wallr.) Rab.; Klotzsch. Herb. Viv. Myc. II.
393. 1856.
Erysibe occulta Wallr. Fl. Crypt. Germ. 2:212. 1833.
On Poaceae:
Secale cereale L., Plymouth, Marshall County, June 20, 1916, G. A.
Osner; Avilla, Noble County, June 23, 1908, H. H. Whetzel; Lafayette,
Tippecanoe County, June 1917, H. S. Jackson; Brainbridge, Putnam
County, June 27, 1917, G. A. Osner.
The flag smut of rye is evidently not uncommon, but usually causes
little damage.
host index.
Agropyron repens 43. Allium cepa 44.
Agrostis alba vulgaris 24. Ambrosia artemisiaefolia 33, 37.
Alismaceae 29, 30. elatior 33, 37.
Alliaceae 45. Ambrosiaceae 33, 37.
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Ammiaceae 38.
Anemone virginiana 43.
Aristida sp. 7.
Arrhenatherum elatius 18.
Avena sativa 11, 15.
Calamagrostis canadensis 12.
Carduaceae 33.
Carex pennsylvanica 6.
picta 6.
umbellata 1.
Cenchrus carolinianus 8.
Chaetochloa glauca 16.
italica 13.
Cyperaceae 1, 4, 6.
Elymus virginicus 42.
Eragrostis major 21.
Euchlaena mexicana 27.
Floerkea prosperpinacoides 34.
Hepatica acutiloba 44.
Hordeum vulgare 14, 17.
Juncaceae 2, 3.
J unco ides campestre 3.
Juncus dilfusissimus 2.
tenuis 2.
Liliaceae 45.
Limnanthaceae 34.
Lobelia inflata 35.
Lobeliaceae 35.
Muhlenbergia mexicana 32.
Panicum dichotomiflorum 8, 19, 39.
proliferum 39.
Persicaria amphibii 25.
pennsylvanica 5, 25.
Phleum pratense 24.
Physalis pubescens 31.
subglabrata 31.
Poa pratensis 24.
Poaceae 7, 8, 9, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15,
16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24,
26, 27, 28, 32, 39, 41, 42, 43, 47.
Polygonaceae 5, 10, 25.
Quamasia hyacinthina 4C.
Ranunculaceae 36, 43.
Ranunculus septentrionalis 36.
Rynchospora glomerata 4.
Sagittaria latifolia 29, 30.
Sanicula sp. 38.
Scrophulariaceae 40.
Sccale cereale 28, 47.
Senecio aureus 33.
Solanaceae 31.
Sorghum vulgare 9.
Sporobolus neglectus 26.
Syntherisma sanguinale 20.
Tiniaria scandens 10.
Triticum vulgare 23, 41, 42.
Veronica perigrina 40.
Zea Mays 27.
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The Uredinales op Induna II.'
H. S. Jackson, Purdue University.
The following records of Indiana rusts are presented at this time
as the first supplement to the article by the writer on "The Uredinales
of Indiana/' which was published in the Proceedings of the Academy
for 1915. All the unrecorded species which have come to hand since
the publication of that list are included, together with a few forms
which for one reason or another were omitted at that time.
A large number of collections have been examined which add many
new localities and a number of new hosts for previously recorded
species. These are not included in the present list but will be recorded
at another time. The previous list contained records of 141 species
exclusive of unconnected species of Aecidium. The latter are included
in the present list and taken together with other accessions brings the
number of species known from the State to a total of 155.
In order to avoid making new combinations the older and more fa-
miliar nomenclature is used.
The writer is under great obligation to all those who have been
kind enough to furnish specimens for study, especially to Dr. J. C.
Arthur, Prof. G. N. Hoffer, Mr. C. C. Deam and Mr. J. B. Demaree,
who have placed their collections at his disposal.
UREDINACEAE.
142. Melampsora Euphorbiae-Gerardiana W. Miiller, Centr. Bakt.
17*:210. 1906.
On Euphorbiaceae:
Tithymalua commutatns (Engelm.) K. and Garcke, West of High
Lake, Noble County, June 11, 1916, C. C. Deam 20083A; Wea Creek,
S. W. Lafayette, Tippecanoe County, April 22, 1917, E. J. Petry.
The above are the only collections of this species from North
America (Mains, Phytopath. 7:102. 1917).
* Contribation from the Botanical Department of the Purdue University Agricul-
tural Experiment Station.
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The second collection also bore some Aecidium TithymalL Both
species develop the sori on a diffused mycelium.
143. Uredinopsis Atkinsonii Magn. Hedwigia 43:123. 1904.
On Polypodiaceae:
Dryopteris thelypetris (L.) A. Gray, Winona Lake, Kosciusko Coun-
ty, August 31, 1916, H. S. Jackson and G. N. Hoffer.
144. Uredinopsis mirabilis (Pk.) Magn. Hedwigia 43:121. 1904.
Septoria mirabilis Pk. Ann. Rep. N. Y. State Mus. 25:87. 1873.
On Polypodiaceae:
Onoclea sensibilis L., Winona Lake, Kosciusko County, August 31,
1916, H. S. Jackson and G. N. Hoffer.
PUCCINIACEAE.
145. PucciNiA Acetosae (Schum.) Kom. Hedwigia 15:184. 1876.
Uredo Acetosae Schum. Enum. PL Saell. 2:231. 1803.
On Polygon aceae:
Rumex a^^etosella L., North Madison, Jefferson County, May 14,
1916, J. B. Demaree.
This is the first collection which we have seen of this species from
any inland state. It is known otherwise only from Atlantic coast states
and from near the Pacific coast in Oregon.
146. PucciNiA LYSIMACHIATA (Lk.) Kem, Mycologia 9:215. 1917.
Aecidium Lysimuchiae Schw. Schrift. Nat. Ges. Leipzig 1:67.
1822.
Puccinia Limosae Magn. Amtl. 'Ber. Vers. Deutsch. Naturf. u.
Aerzte 1877:200. 1877.
On Primulaceae:
Naumbergia thyrsi flora (L.) Duby, Ligonier, Noble County, June
18, 1917, C. C. Beam 23665.
Aecia only have been collected in Indiana. Uredinia and telia are
recorded from the eastern and middle western States on various species
of Carex. No successful culture work has been conducted in America,
the connection having been established by European authors.
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147. Uromycbs HOUSTONIATUS (Schw.) Sheldon, Torreya 9:55. 1909.
Caeoma (Aeeidium) houstoniatum Schw. Trans. Am. Phil. Soc.
II. 4:293. 1832.
On Rubiaceae:
Houstonia eaerulea L., Bennettsville, Clarke County, May 30, 1917,
C. C. Deam 23260.
This species has uredinia and telia on Sisyrinchium sp., culture work
having been conducted first by Sheldon (1. c.) and later confirmed by
Arthur (Mycol. 1:237. 1909). The telia have not yet been collected in
Indiana.
148. Uromyces magnatus Arth. Mycologia 9:311. 1917.
Aecidium magnatum Arth. Bull. Torrey Club 28:664. 1901.
On C0NVALI4ARIACEAE:
Polygonatum biflorum (Walt.) Ell., Ontario, Lagrange County,
June 17, 1917, C. C. Deam 23642.
This aecidium has not before been reported from Indiana. It has
recently been shown by Arthur (1. c.) to be connected with uredinia
and telia on Spartina formerly included with Uromyces acuminatus
Arth. (Nigredo Polemanii (Pk.) Arth.). The telia are indistingruishable
from the collective species which has aecia also on various members of
the Caryophyllaceae, Primulaceae and Polemoniaceae. This form is
here listed under the distinctive name as the aeciospores are considerably
larger than the forms on other aecial hosts belonging to the families
mentioned above.
Telia have been collected in Indiana on Spartina Michauxiana and
reported in previous lists under the collective name. Aecia are also
known on Polemonium rep tans,
149. Uromyces seditiosus Kern, Torreya 11:212. 1911.
On Poacbae:
Aristida ramosissima Engelm., Washington, Daviess Co., Septeipber
29, 1910, C. C. Deam 7618; Elberfeld, Warrick County, October 4, 1916,
H. S. Jackson.
Aecia occur on various species of Plantago but have not yet been
collected in Indiana.
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UNCONNECTED FORMS.
150. Aecidium Boehmeriae Arth. Bull. Torrey Club 34:590. 1907.
On Urticaceae:
Boehmeria cylindrica (L.) Willd., Shades, Montgomery County, May
26, 1899, J. C. Arthur.
An unconnected Aecidium the relationship of which is uncertain.
It has been collected otherwise only in Tacoma Park, District of Co-
lumbia.
151. Aecidium Dicentrae Trel. Trans. Wis. Acad. Sci. 6:136. Nov.
1884.
On Fumariaceae:
Bicuculla Cucullaria (L.) Millsp., Crawfordsville, Montgomei-y
County, June 1893, E. W. Olive.
No clue to the relationship of this interesting aecidium is available.
152. Aecidium Tithymali Arth. Bull. Torrey Club 45:151. 1918.
On Euphorbiaceae:
Tithymalus commutatus (Engelm.) Kl. & Garcke, Lafayette, Tippe-
canoe County, June 7, 1901, H. B. Domer, 1905, G. W. Wilson, May 13,
1910, F. D. Kern and T. Billings, April 27, 1917, E. J. Petry; Craw-
fordsville, Montgomery County, May 17, 1913, F. D. Kern.
While many attempts have been made to culture this presumably
heteroecious form, no success has been met with and its relationship
is still in doubt. It has formerly been commonly reported as A, Euphor-
biae Pers., now interpreted as a European species not occurring in
America.
153. Aecidium Hydnoideum B. & C. Grevillea 3:61. 1874.
On Thymeliaceae:
Dirca palustris L., Crawfordsville, Montgomery County, 1893, E. W.
Olive; Everton, Fayette County, June 24, 1913, May 14, 1915, C. A.
Ludwig (Barth. N. A. Ured. 901; Fungi Columb. 4501) ; West Lafayette,
Tippecanoe County, June 5, 1911, G. N. Hoffer; Urmeyville, Johnson
County, 1890, E. M. Fisher 929.
A very distinct and quite common heteroecious form which has not
been successfully connected, though many attempts at culture have
been made.
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154. Aecidium Physalidis Burrill, Bot. Gaz. 9:190. 1884.
On Solanaceae:
Physalis heteropkylla Nees, Wea Creek, below Elston, Tippecanoe
County, June 27, 1900, Wm. Stuart.
A distinct form developing from a diffused mycelium. Only pycnia
are present in the specimen listed above though the species has f r<equently
been observed in this locality. Another collection is reported by Under-
wood.
155. Aecidium Trillii Burrill, Bot. Gaz. 9:190. 1884.
On Trilliaceae:
Trillium sp., Lafayette, Tippecanoe County, June 1894, K. Golden.
Reported by Miss Lillian Snyder in the Proceedings for 1896, p.
218. No specimens have been seen, A rather rare species whose rela-
tionship is unknown.
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A Suspected Case op Stock Poisoning by Wild Onion
(Allium Canadense.)^
F. J. PiPAL, Purdue University.
On June 28, 1917, a case of live-stock poisoning had been reported
by Mr. William Feldt, living about five and one-half miles southeast
of Lafayette. Dr. G. M. Funkhouser, of Lafayette, who investigated
the case, reported, in substance, the following facts:
Five cows and one heifer were taken from a timothy pasture, which
was rather dry and short at that time, and turned into a woods pasture
on Sunday morning. In the evening of the same day, only four cows
and the heifer returned from the pasture to the farm barnyard. The
fifth cow was found in the pasture lying down and unable to get up.
When the cows were milked it was noticed, with one exception, that the
milk emitted a very strong and offensive odor and had considerably
decreased in quantity. The breath of the cows was also strongly
tainted with this odor and, in fact, it seemed that their whole bodies
exhaled it.
On the following morning the doctor found the cow left in the
pasture in a complete paralytic condition, her temperature, however,
being quite normal; she died two days later. One of the cows in the
barnyard was, by this time, in a similar condition and died the same
day. One of the remaining three cows stood with hen head erect, the
hair bristling, and refused to move. Another had a tendency to draw
her head to one side and when compelled to move went around in a
circle and fell down. The third had a staring attitude and also a
tendency to move in a circle. The temperature of all three animals was
normaL All died on the following day. The heifer also had a staring
attitude and in addition showed signs of cerebral disturbance, acting
rather wildly.
The post-mortem examination showed that the inside membrane of
the paunch was strongly affected, appearing as though scalded and
* Contribution from the Department of Botany of the Purdue University Aerricultural
Experiment Station.
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sloughing off very readily. The feces of the affected animals were com-
paratively thin and very dark. The intestinal tract was inflamed and
Wild Onion (Allium canadcnse).
showed effects similar to those produced by gastro-enteritis. The con-
tents of the paunch also emitted a very strong odor identical with that
noted in the milk.
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In treating the animals cathartics and stimulants were administered,
but, as already stated, all cows died and only the heifer survived after
a long struggle. It may be of interest to note that this heifer refused
feed for several days after becoming poisoned; however, when a bunch
of wild onions was offered to her, she displayed a greedy appetite for
it and would have devoured it had she been permitted to do so.
The strong odor detected in the milk, breath and the paunch of the
poisoned animals closely resembled that of wild onion and provided a
clue for the probable cause of poisoning. In making a close search of
the pasture in question a good-sized patch of wild onion (Allium cana-
dense) was foimd. No other poisonous plants were noticed. The onion
patch showed much evidence of recent grazing and it appeared quite
certain that the cows had partaken of the onions. The plants in ques-
tion were nearly mature, each having a cluster of a dozen or more
aerial bulblets. The leaves were nearly all dried and the stems were
rather tough. It was quite apparent, therefore, that the aerial bulblets
formed the main portion of the cows' feast.
All evidence seemed to point to the onions as the cause of the poi-
soning. This particular species and its close relative, wild garlic (Al-
lium vineale), are well known to taint dairy products and the flesh of
animals feeding on them in the pastures of southern Indiana. In addi-
tion to the tainting effect, they may also produce colic and diarrhoea,
especially in horses. No effects of more serious consequence, however,
were ever recorded. All kinds of live-stock are fond of wild onions and
garlic and will usually take them in preference to any forage plants.
However, the plants are generally eaten, whenever found in the pas-
tures, in their tender leaf stage early in the spring. The young plants
are very mild in flavor as compared with the mature plants, especially
the aerial bulblets. The oil which gives the plants their characteristic
odor and which may seriously affect the grazing animals, is, undoubtedly,
developed in greater proportion in the bulblets than in the foliage of the
young plants. This may account for the fact that young plants cause
no serious poisoning while plants with fully developed aerial bulblets
are liable to prove of serious consequence when eaten in excessive quan-
tities, especially if the stock is not accustomed to them. Two other
heads of stock had been in the pasture in question throughout the
spring months and no doubt pastured on the onions. Owing to the
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reasons stated above, however, they did not seem to be troubled in any
way. The poisoned animals were turned in from a pasture in which
good feed was very scant and coming upon the onion patch, they un-
doubtedly gorged themselves with the succulent onion bulblets.
Literature on poisonous plants records no case of live-stock poison-
ing due to wild onion. The Lily family, to which wild onion belongs,
contains several poisonous plants, the most dangerous of which are,
perhaps. Death Camas and Colchicum, the latter species containing an
alkaloid known as colchicin (CMHaaNO«). It is said' that "the animals
which eat the plant (Colchicum) suffer with acute gastro-enteritis, coma,
staggering, weak pulse and increased urination." Inasmuch as the
cows in question showed some of these symptoms, particularly the first
three, it appears probable that the onion bulblets contained some poi-
sonous principles similar to those of Colchicum. Allium unifolium,' a
close relative of Allium canadense, is said to be poisonous in California.
Pammel* mentions a report published by Dr. W. W. Goldsmith in
the Journal of Comparative Pathology and Therapeutics, and later
abstracted in the American Veterinary Review (36:63), by Prof. A.
Liautard, upon cattle poisoning, caused by the garden onion. The fol-
lowing facts are submitted:
"Loads of onions partly started to shoot and partly decayed, were
unloaded in a meadow where nine head of cattle were grazing. After
a week the cattle seemed sick and one died, displaying the following
symptoms: Intense onion odor; tucking up of flanks; constipation in
some; purging freely in others; one vomited abundantly; another very
ill, grunted, was much constipated, staggered in walking, was very
tender in loins, temperature 103°, urine dark and smelling of onions.
Treatment: Feeding with soft food and hay. Large doses of linseed
oil. One animal that was very ill got also extract of belladonna and
carbonate of soda. All but one of the animals recovered. At the au-
topsy of the dead one, the rumen was found inflated and also the bowels.
Liver enlarged and of light color. Kidneys dark green and with offensive
odor. Rumen contained large quantity of onions and grass. The whole
carcass and organs smell of onions."
' Pammel : Manual of Poisonous Plants, Part II, Page 375.
' Pammel : Manual of Poisonous Plants, Part I, Page 104.
* Pammel : Manual of Poisonous Plants. Part II. Pages 383-884.
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The oil which gives all species of the onion, family their charac-
teristic odor, consists of oxide and sulfides of allyl. According to the
National Dispensatory, rectified oil contains mainly a sulfide compound
(C}H3)2S. This compound is said to possess a stimulating effect upon
the organs of the digestive system. If taken in excessive quantities it
produces nausea, vomiting, colic and diarrhoea. When in contact with
the skin it reddens it and may even vesicate it. In mucous membranes
this effect would no doubt be even more pronounced.
In summarizing the evidence pointing to wild onion as the probable
cause of poisoning the cows in question, the following facts stand out
prominently :
1. Apparently healthy cows were taken from a pasture where feed
was scant and turned into a woods pasture where they found and grazed
heavily on a patch of succulent wild onions.
2. Symptoms of poisoning appeared within twelve hours after pas-
ture was changed.
3. The attending veterinary found no other cause, aside from
forage poisoning, which might have been responsible for the condition
of the affected cows.
4. The characteristic odor of wild onion was strongly pronounced
in the milk and the whole system of the poisoned animals.
5. No other plant was found in the pasture, aside from wild onion,
to which the poisoning could be attributed.
6. The poisoned cows refused to eat any ordinary feed, but when
one of them was offered a bunch of wild onions she manifested a greedy
appetite for them.
7. The oil which gives the species of Allium their characteristic
odor is known to have an irritating effect on skin and membraneous
tissues, and causes digestive disturbances if taken in excess. The bulblets
of wild onion undoubtedly contain this oil in comparatively large quan-
tities.
8. A number of plants closely allied to wild onion are definitely
known to be poisonous, and some of the symptoms of poisoning pro-
duced by them, such as gastro-enteritis, coma, and paralysis, are quite
similar to those shown by the cows in question.
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II. Additions to the List of Plant Diseases of Economic
Importance in Indiana.^
George A. Osner, Purdue University.
The following list of plant diseases represents collections and ob-
servations made by the writer and other members of the staff of the
Botanical Department of the Agricultural Experiment Station, mainly
during the past season. Specimens of the diseases listed have been de-
posited in the herbarium of the Department of Botany, Purdue Univer-
sity Agricultural Experiment Station. Unless otherwise stated the
collections were made by the writer.
Barley, (Hordeum sp.).
Leaf Spot. Helminthosporiuvi sativum P. K. B. Tippecanoe, June,
1917 (H. S. Jackson). Helminthosporium teres Sacc. Tippe-
canoe, June, 1917.
Bean* (Phaseohis vulgaris L.)
Leaf Spot Phyllosticta phaseolina Sacc. Wells, Augrust, 1917 (H.
V. Knight). This disease has been reported previously on cow-
peas.'
Mosaic. Cause not known, Allen, July, 1917; Tippecanoe, August,
1917. This disease was very common during the past season.
Bean, Lima (Phaseolus lunatus var. macrocarpus Benth.).
Mosaic. Cause not known. Marshall, August, 1916; Tippecanoe,
July, 1917.
Blue Grass (Poa pratensis L.).
Ergot, Claviceps microcephala (Wal.) Tul. Tippecanoe, July, 1917.
This disease has been reported previously on orchard grass and
timothy.*
"This list is supplementary to **A List of Plant Diseases of Economic Importance in
Indiana/' by F. J. Pipal, Ind. Acad. Sci. Proc. 1915: 379-413, and to "Additions to the
List of Plant Diseases of Economic Importance in Indiana." by Geo. A. Osner, Ind. Acad.
Sci. Proc. 1916: 827-332.
Contribution from the Department of Botany, Purdue University Af?ricultural Sta-
tion. Lafayette. Indiana.
'Osner. Geo. A. Ind. Acad. Sci. Proc. 1916: 328.
* Osner. Geo. A. Ind. Acad. Sci. Proc. 1916.
10—11994
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Leaf Smut. Ustilago striae formis (West.) Niessl. Marshall, June,
1916; Tippecanoe, July, 1917. (See also under red top.) This
disease has been reported previously on timothy.*
Calendula {Calendula officinalis L.).
Root Rot. Cortidum vagum B. & C. Tippecanoe, July, 1917 (C. C.
Rees). This disease has been reported previously on carnation,
celery, potato and bean."
Clover, Red (Trifolium pratense L.).
Leaf Spot. Cercospora zebrina Pass. Tippecanoe, July, 1917.
Cucumber (Cucumis sativus L.).
Leaf Spot. Stemphylium Cucurbitacearum Osner. Marshall, Sep-
tember, 1915; St. Joseph, September, 1915 (W. W. Gilbert);
Marshall, St. Joseph, Starke, September, 1916.
June Berry (Amelanchier Botryapium D. C).
Leaf Spot. Fabrea macxdata (Lev.) Atk. Jasper, July, 1917 (Chas.
Chupp). This disease has been reported previously on quince
and pear.*
Mignonette (Reseda sp.).
Leaf Spot. Cercospora Resedae Fckl. Tippecanoe, August, 1907
(H. B. Domer).
Pansy (Viola tricolor L.). *
Leaf Spot. Ascochyta Violae Sacc. Tippecanoe, July, 1917 (F. J.
Pipal).
Potato (Solanum tuberosum L.).
Leaf Roll. Cause not known. Laporte, Tippecanoe, July, 1917.
Mosaic. Cause not known. Tippecanoe, September, 1917.
Silver Scurf. Spondylocladium atrovirens Harz. Tippecanoe, Au-
gust, 1917; Laporte, Floyd, December, 1917.
Wilt. Fu^arium oxijsporum Schl. Tippecanoe, Lake, Augrust, 1917.
Raspberry (Rubus sp.).
Yellows. Cause not known. Laporte, August, 1917.
Red Top (Agrostis alba var. vulgaris (With.) Thurb.).
Leaf Smut. Ustilugo striaeformis (West.) Niessl. Marshall, June,
1916; Clay, June, 1917. (See also under blue grass.)
< Underwood, L. M. Ind. Acad. Sci. Proc. 1893: 48. Pipal. F. J. Ibid. 1915: 394.
' Osner. Geo. A. Ind. Acad. Sci. Proc. 1916: 328. 331. Pipal. F. J. Ibid. 1915: 388.
« Pipal, F. J. Ind. Acad. Sci. Proc. 1915: 391, 392.
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Rye (Secale cereale L.).
Anthracnose. Colletotrichum cereale Manns. Tippecanoe, June,
1917; Monroe, Allen, July, 1917 (F. J. Pipal). Severe losses
were caused by this disease in several fields during the past
season. This disease has been reported previously on blue gT&ss,
timothy and wheat.'
Stem Smut Urocystis occulta (Wal.) Rab. Marshall, June, 1916;
Tippecanoe, Putnam, June, 1917.
Loose Smut. Ustilago sp. Tippecanoe, Putnam, June, 1917; Jasper,
July, 1917 (Chas. Chupp). This disease was rather rare in
the three fields in which it was discovered. The fungous shows
close resemblance to Ustilago Tritici (Pers.) Jens., but in the
absence of cross inoculations it is retained as Ustilago sp.
Sunflower (Helianthtis sp.).
Leaf Spot. Cercospora Helianthi E. & E. Tippecanoe, July, 1907.
Turnip (Brassica Rapa L.).
Albugo Candida (Pers.) Houss. Tippecanoe, October, 1915 (G. N.
Hoffer). This disease has been reported previously on a num-
ber of other hosts.*
Wheat (Triticum vulgare L.).
Ergot, Claviceps purpurea (Fr.) Tul. Tippecanoe, Elkhart, July,
1917; Jasper, July, 1917 (Chas. Chupp). This disease has been
reported previously on rye.*
Stinking Smut, Tilletia Tritici (Bjerk.) Wint. This species was re-
ported by Pipal in 1915.*" Further examination shows that, the
specimen on which the report was based was mislabeled, the
species really being Ustilago Tritici (Pers.) Jens.
'Pipal, F. J. Ind. Acad. Sci. Proc. 1915: 384, 394. 395.
« Underwood. L. M. Ind. Acad. Sci. Proc. 1893: 31; 1894: 153.
Wilson, G. W. Ibid. 1907: 81.
Van Hook, J. M. Ibid. 1910: 206.
Pipal. F. J. Ibid. 1915: 392.
•Underwood. L. M. Ind, Acad. Sci. Proc. 1893: 41.
Wilson. G. W. Ibid. 1894: 157.
Pipal. F. J. Ibid. 1915: 393.
"Pipal, F. J. Ind. Acad. Sci. Proc. 1915: 396.
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Reaction of Culture Media.
H. A. NoYES, Purdue University.
The reaction of culture media has worried every bacteriologist at
some time in his career. During the past two years there have ap-
I>eared several papers, in American publications, dealing with the reac-
tion of bacteriologic culture media. Among these may be mentioned
those by Clark (1), (2), (3), (4); Itano (5); Anthony and Ekroth
(6). Clark and Lubs have presented papers (3) and published a series
of articles entitled, "Colorimetric Determination of Hydrogen Ion Con-
centration and Its Applications in Bacteriolog^y" (4). This work, as
well as all papers published to date, including those presented at the
1916 meeting of the American Society of Bacteriologists shows that
bacterial activities in general are greatest when the culture medium is
neutral or approximately so. A simple, practically neutral medium is
most desirable for general use. Anything which tends to produce or
make it necessary to adjust acidity should be avoided if possible.
Evidence points to physical and chemical laws applying to culture
media just as well as they do to water solutions of pure salts, the only
difference being, media are more complicated and not as fully under-
stood. Bacteriological media are of two kinds, liquid and solid. This
paper is almost entirely confined to solid media. The bases of solid
media are usually agar agar, gelatin or silicate jelly. Chemicals are
added to these bases to furnish food for bacterial life and to make the
reaction of the media such, that bacteria may thrive. More attention
has been paid to the adding of chemicals for supposed food values than
to the ascertaining of the reactions that take place between the chemi-
cals themselves and the basis of the media.
Acidity or alkalinity of culture media are due to the nature of the
basic substance used in making the media, and to the nature of the
chemicals added to this base. The resultant equilibrium, produced by
physio-chemical phenomena, notably ionization and hydrolysis, as in-
fluenced by mass action, temperature and pressure determines the reac-
tion of the culture media.
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The two principal methods now employed to determine the reaction
of media are the determination of the hydrogen ion concentration by
means of the hydrogen electrode, and the total titratable acid present
as determined by titration. The hydrogen electrode was applied to bio-
chemistry by Sorensen (7). Since 1912 several investigators have used
the hydrogen electrode in the study of bacterial activities. Among these
are Michaelis and Marcola (8) ; Brunn (9) ; Clark (1) ; Itano (5) ; and
Clark and Lubs (10).
The advantages of the hydrogen electrode in bacteriologrical work
are claimed to be that it gives the hydrogen ion concentration the bac-
teria are in contact with and that it can be used advantageously in col-
ored solutions. Its disadvantages are that it can not be used in solid
media and that for every grouping of chemicals there is a new electro
chemical problem. Different investigators working with the hydrogen
electrode, from a purely scientific point of view, have not agreed on the
contact potential between 0.1 N, HCL— 0.1 N. KCl. (11).
This paper is written not to find fault with the hydrogen electrode
in its applications to bacteriology but to point out some factors in the
making of culture media and in the controlling of its reaction that are
as important as the method by which the reaction is determined. It is
(so-called) acidity due to the crude methods of making media that is
discussed in the following paragraphs.
Hot Solutions.
The usual procedure followed in titrating culture media is crude.
Titrations are conducted in hot solutions (12). Hydrolysis increases
with temperature and titrations of culture media containing meat,
peptone, gelatine, agar agar or plant extracts when made at high tem-
peratures are much greater than they would be at lower temperatures.
The difference between hot and cold titrations is often more than the
titration of the media at room temperature. Clark (1) mentions a 10
per cent gelatine, 1 per cent peptone, and 5 per cent meat media titrat-
ing plus 1.0 per cent acid when hot and plus 0.5 per cent acid at room
temperature.
Small Aliquots.
Too small aliquots of media are generally used. Aliquots are pi-
petted or poured out from graduated cylinders. These methods of taking
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aliqnots allow errors as great as 10 per cent of the 5 cc. aliquot taken.
An error of .5 cc, which is easily made with a graduate, means an
error of 10 cc. per 100 cc. of media. Again an error of .05 cc. (one drop)
of N/10 alkali in titrating means an error of plus or minus 0.1 per
cent in the calculated acidity.
Indicator.
Large amounts of indicator are used. In the literature and in the
standard methods (12) 1 cc. of a % per cent solution of phenolphthalein
is specified. In accurate chemical work the amount the mass of indi-
cator affects the accuracy of the determination is taken into considera-
tion. One or two drops of indicator have proven sufficient. Anthony
and Ekroth (6) give a list of shades of color called suitable or correct
end-points with phenolphthalein. The colors listed vary from "first trace
of pink" to "brilliant red," Clark (1) presents a table showing that
the variations in acidity of a 1 and a 5 per cent peptone media when
these media were titrated by four chemists and four bacteriologrists.
The acidities calculated from the titrations of the different workers
varied from 0.58 cc. to 1.40 cc. N/40 alkali for the 1 per cent and from
2.68 cc. to 7.40 cc. N/40 alkali for the 5 per cent media.
Clark and Lubs (4) describe indicators which undergo rapid color
changes at certain definite hydrogen ion concentrations. They give
Brom thymol blue as undergoing color changes between Ph 6.0 and Ph 7.6.
These indicators are new and have been manufactured (and there,
almost under protest) by only one chemical supply house. Their sta-
bility and the exactness with which they can be used under the crude
conditions phenolphthalein has been used are unknown. At the present
time it is fair to assume that these new indicators will come into gen-
eral use, but as long as different investigators do not agree on a definite
value for the contact potential between 0.1 N. HCl. and 0.1 N. KCl.
phenolphthalein is not to be discarded for use under exactly defined and
proper conditions.
A further evidence that phenolphthalein (properly used) is satisfac-
tory for determining neutrality of media is found in Itano's work on
the proteolysis brought about by certain bacteria when put under known
initial hydrogen ion concentration. The reaction of all the media (19)
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changes to very close to the hydrogen ion concentration at which phe-
nolphthalein changes from colorless to pink.
The last report (13) of the conunittee on standard methods for bac-
teriological analysis of milk makes no reconmiendation as to the adjust-
ing of the reaction of the media. This is taken as an indication of a
growing realization by this committee that proper selection of materials
in making media gives a media near to neutral in reaction. Other evi-
dence that most bacteria will thrive when media are somewhere near
neutral is brought out in the fact that most ensymes function when
kept close to neutral.
Carbon Dioxide.
Usually some carbon dioxide is present m the alkali used, and many
bacteriologists consider freshly distilled water carbon dioxide free. Car-
bon dioxide has affected the accuracy of some titrations, for we have
reference to where investigators advise against titrating the media to
a low per cent of aciditiy for fear of volatilizing ammonia from the
ammonium salt used in making the media, (14). Ammonia is not easily
volatilized from acid solutions but is slowly evolved by alkaline solu-
tions even at low temperatures (40°C.), therefore these investigators ^re
making their media nearer neutral than they think. Slightly alkaline
media saturated with carbon dioxide is acid to phenolphthalein.
Apparatus supply houses are advertising water stills which, ac-
cording to the advertisements, give pure distilled water. Quoting from
the advertisement of one of the leading firms, we have "water of the
highest purity — free from anmionia and all gaseous and organic im-
purities." These stills, as shown by the titrations given in the following
table do not give carbon dioxide free water where the water used in
them is hard. Freshly distilled water made from the same local hard
water supply with different stills gave the following titrations with N/10
carbonate free alkali and phenolphthalein.*
* The water from which distilled water is prepared in many localities is as hard
or harder than that in this locality.
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TABLE I.
Cabbon Dioxiob in Fushly DurnixKD Watbr.
Titrated at room temperature 22 "C.
Make or Still.
cc. N/IO Alkali per 100 cc. Hi().
Water from i Water Direct
Collecting Vessels. from Still Outlet.
Stokes sUUa—
No. 1
No.2
Larxe local plant
0.40 .45
0.05 .50
0.08 .35
065 2.10
All yield water containing carbon dioxide and the amount of carbon
dioxide varied with the same make as well as different makes of stills.
Test of Effect of Carbon Dioxide on Media Titrations.
The results reported in Table II were an attempt to find out how
much the titration of media would be affected by the carbon dioxide
present in distilled water from one of the above stills. The point under
investigation being to determine the effect of carbon dioxide, the water
was prepared and titrations were made at about 70 °C. so that it would be
evident that the results were not due to carbon dioxide being absorbed
by the media or water from the air of the room while cooling to room
temperature. Two two-liter flasks which had previously been proven
to be made of non-soluble glass were filled with distilled water. The
water in one flask was boiled for about five minutes to remove the car-
bon dioxide present while that in the other flask was heated to 75 °C.
Duplicate twenty-five cc. aliquots of each media were weighed into
clean, carbon dioxide free, erlenmeyer flasks; 100 cc. of the hot carbon
dioxide free water was added to one of each of the duplicate aliquots
of media and 100 cc. of the hot yet unboiled water added to the other
flask of each set of duplicates. Two drops of phenolphthalein were added
to each flask after they had been shaken until the contents appeared
homogenous. Titrations were made with carbonate free N/10 sodium
hydroxide* and the faintest discernible, yet permanent pink coloration
* Make a solution of the alkali (sodium) so stronK that the carbonate contained will
be precipitated. Add the clear supernatant liquid which is carbonate free to carbon
dioxide free water and standardize.
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was taken as the end point. The results of these tests with 23 lots of
media are shown in Table II and Graph I.
TABLE II.
Acidity of Media (*Calculated in Pkr Cbnt.) as Aftkcted by Carbon Dioxide in Distilled Water.
(1) CO,
Present
in
Dilution
Water.
(2) CO,
Free
Dilution
Water.
(3)
(4) Actual
Acidity
Acidity if
Due
Corrected
to CO, in
to .80 by
(1).
(1).
.61 (c)
.19
.61
19
.66
.14
.39-f
— 41
.18
.62
.60
.2')
.64
.16
.92
— .12
.93
— .13
.76
.04
.74
.06
55
.25
.91
— .14
1.48
-.68
1 07
—.27
.12
.68
.56
.24
1.03
—.23
1.12
-.32
1.16
-.36
1.51
— .69
.86
-.06
1.06
—.26
(5) Actual
Acidity if
Corrected
to .50 by
(1).
Agarf (alone)
Agar and 1 gm. starch
Agar and 2 gm. starch
Agar and 10 gm. soil
Agar and ammonium nitrate
Agar and 7.5 gms. gelatine \
Agar and .05 gms. peptone
Agar and 1.0 gms. sodium asparaginate
Agar. 1 gm. starch and 10 gms. soil
Agar, 1 gm. starch and 1 gm. (ammon. nitrate
(b))
Agar, 1 gm. starch and 7.5 gelatine •?
Agar, 2 gm. starch and 7.5 gelatine
Agar, 2 gm. starch and .05 gm. peptone
Agar, 10 gms. soil and 1 gm. (ammon. nitrate)..
Agar, 10 gms. soil, 2 gms. starch and 7.5
gelatine
Lq>man and Brown's "sjmthetic agar". . .
II. J. Conn's (sodium asparaginate agar)
.07%
.08
.06
.00—
.58
.12
.16
.08
.10
.04
.44
.11
.16
.10
.08
.72
.08
22
.28
.32
.36
1.38
1.40
alk
alk
alk.
alk
acid.
nlk.
alk
alk
alk
alk.
alk.
alk.
alk
alk.
alk.
acid.
alk.
alk.
alk.
alk.
alk.
alk.
alk.
*1.00% would mean the requirement of 1 cc. normal alkali for neutralisation of 100 cc. of media.
fFlfteen grams of air dry agar basis of all media.
(a) Each figure given represents one lot of media. No two lots of same media were made on same
date.
(b) Phenolphthalein is not the most desirable indicator to use when ammonium salts are present.
(c) Distilled water prepared from soft water is often practically free from carbon dioxide.
The table shows —
(1) That the carbon dioxide normally present in distilled wate*
prepared from hard water by a modem still affects the titration of media.
(2) That the titration, due to carbon dioxide present in diluting
water may be much greater than the total titration of the acidity of
the media itself.
(3) That the carbon dioxide does not aifect the acidity of all media
in the same proportion.
(4) Media adjusted by results of titrations made of aliquots diluted
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with water containing carbon dioxide are always less acid than desired,
in fact some media are alkaline, note columns headed (4) and (5).
Distilled water is believed by so many to be carbon dioxide free, no
matter whether the water from which it is made is hard or soft, that,
as a rule bacteriologic culture media has been adjusted to a less degree
of acidity than planned for. Litmus is not sensitive to carbonic acid,
thus it seems fair to assume that acidities of culture media, observed
with phenolphthalein, but which do not prove out with litmus may be
partly due to the carbon dioxide present in the dilution water added to
the aliquot titrated. Anthony and Ekroth (6) make statements con<
ceming the work of MacNeal, Muir and Ritchie, Stilt, and others con-
cerning comparisons between litmus and phenolphthalein titrations. Ti-
trations with phenolphthalein carried out near the boiling point of the
media are unreliable, due to the increased hydrolysis of the media and
to the fact that phenolphthalein is more sensitive in cold solutions (15).
Hot and Cool Titrations With Especially Prepared Media.
An experiment was conducted to find out the effect of temperature
on acidity titrations when agar agar plus gelatin were present with
salts that undergo changes in hydrolysis with increasing temperature.
The agar agar and gelatin used were selected because of their small
changes in acidity when autoclaved or heated. They were selected by a
procedure described by the author {V6) in another article. Unfiltered
water solutions of the agar and gelatin used were free from pre-
cipitates and thus by themselves did not even need filtering.
Two basic media were made up according to the following procedure:
Agar agar Media, — Thirty grams of agar agar were dissolved in
the inner part of a double boiler in 2,000 cc. of carbon dioxide free dis-
tilled water. When solution was complete distilled water (carbon diox-
ide free) was added to make the weight of agar and water up to 2,000
gms.
Agar plus Gelatin Media, — This was made up exactly as the agar
media except that 7.5 grams of gelatin were added per 1,000 grams of
media.
Fifty gram aliquots of each media were weighed out into clean
250 cc. erlenmeyer flasks. Thirty-four aliquots of each media were
taken. The chemicals were previously prepared by making water solu-
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tions of them of such concentration that they contained .05 grams of
salt per cc. of solution. One cc. aliquots of the proper solutions were
added to aliquots of the media using a 1 cc. pipette graduated to .01 cc.
This was to give a concentration of the salt of 1.0 gram per liter of
media.
The flasks were tightly plugged with cotton and autoclaved for
different lengths of time under 17 pounds pressure of live steam. It
was assumed from previous tests that the one cc. of water added with
the salt would be lost in the autoclaving. As soon as autoclaved ap-
proximately 100 cc. of boiling carbon dioxide free distilled water was
added to each flask. Titrations were made at the temperatures specified
using 2 drops of 0.5 per cent solution of phenolphthalein as indicator
and N/10 carbonate free sodium hydroxide. The results are given in
Table III.
TABLE III.
ArTDITY OF AOAB AOAB AND AOAR PlUS GeLATIXE MbDIA AS AfFBCTED BY SaLTS AND LeNOTH OF TIME
OP Sterilization.
(Figures express cc. normal alkali needed to neutralize 100 cc.)
Hot 90*.
40-
to
45».
Increase
90* Over
40^
Increase
Due to
Salts.
90** 40".
Increase
Due to
Gelatin.
90" 40".
Potassium nitrate (3)
.03
.30
.84
.03
.04
.04
.03
.03
.01
.30
.80
.01
.03
.03
.03
03
.02
.50
.04
Ammonium nitrate (3)
Aluminum nitrate (3)
Agar —
Autoclaved 0.0 hours
.02
.01
.01
.00
.00
Autoclaved 1 . 0 hours
Autoclaved 2.0 hours
Autoclaved 4.0 hours
.01 .00
.01 .00
.02 .01
.00 .00
Average , .
.008
.02
.02
.01
.00
Agar and KNOr-
Autoclaved 0 , 5 hours
.05
.05
.05
.03
.03
.03
.04
.03
Autoclaved 1 . 0 hours ....
Autoclaved 2.0 hours
Autoclaved 4 . 0 hours . .
Averages
.013
.15
.18
.15
.22
.01 .003
.32 .18
.34 .17
.32 .17
.37 .15
Agar and NH«NO,-
Autoclaved 0.6 hours
Autoclaved 1.0 hours
Autoclaved 2 . 0 hours
.36
.38
.35
.40
.21
.20
.20
.18
Autoclaved 4.0 hojrs
Avi»ragcs
.176
.338 .168
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TABLE m-Continued.
AKara^AKNOOr-
AutoiNved 0.6 hours
AutoclavM 1 0 hours
AutocIavc(i2 OAjours
A6toclaved4.0 1ur
Ajcar plus Gelatin —
Autoclaved 0.0 hours
Autoclaved 0.5 hoars
Autoolaved 1.0 hours
Autoclaved 2 . 0 hours
Autoclaved 4 . 0 hours
Agar plus Golatino and KNOj—
Autoclaved 0.5 hours
Autoclaved 1 .0 hours
Autoclaved 2.0 hours.
Autocliived 4 . 0 hours .
AKar plus Gelatin and NH, NOi*
Autoclaved 0.5 hours
Autoclaved 1 . 0 hours
Autoclaved 2 . 0 hours
Autochived 4 . 0 hours
f
Af(ar plus Gelatin and A I (NO«)a'
Autoclaved 0.5 hours
Autoclaved 1.0 hours
Autoclaved 2 . 0 hours
Autoclaved 4.0 hours
Averages
* Precipitation occjrrc.l in all aliquots of this scries.
(1) Figures in this column are difference between the media without and with added }
(2) Figures in this column are difference between corresponding media containing no i
(3) Thtisc salts were used because they are typical of classes of salts that vary in hydrtf
Table III brings out the following:
(1) The temperature of the media affects the titration.
(2) The effect of temperature on titration varies with the
the media and the chemicals used in making the media.
(3) Increasing length of time of autoclaving does not appre<f
change the acidity of the media.
(4) Potassium nitrate did not appreciably change the acidity o]
agar or the agar plus gelatin media.
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159
(5) The effect of the nitrates used seemed to be due more to the
hydrolysis of the nitrates themselves rather than to reactions taking
place between them and the agar and gelatin.
(6) Reaction of media should be adjusted by titrations made at the
temperature at which they are to be used.
The results of this test lead one to presume that if proper care was
used in selecting the chemicals to be used in culture media, the acidity
of bacteriologric culture media would rarely have to be neutralized.
Evidence Drawn From Literature in Support of Contention That
Hydrolyzable Substances Should Be Avoided.
Anthony and Ekroth (6) give a table which shows the reaction of
different peptones when titrated at room and boiling temperatures with
phenolphthalein as indicator. The results show that the variations in
acidity of the different peptones are large but that the peptone having
the lowest acidity at room temperature also has the lowest at boiling
temperature. Witte's peptone has been almost universally agreed upon
as the best and is it not fair to suppose that this is due to its freedom
from hydrolyzable material?
The same authors found that "Leibig's Extract of Beef" does not
undergo the hydrolysis that homemade extracts do. They say, "This
stability is due probably to very prolonged heating in the preparation
of the beef extract itself." In other words the more stable the extract
the more reason for its use.
Itano (5) working with the hydrogen electrode finally, after experi-
mentation, decided on a medium containing both "Leibig's extract" and
Witte's peptone. He found that if these constituents were sterilized
before mixing, i. e., if they were stabilized, "the medium prepared from
them maintained the figured Ph fairly constantly."
Fellers (17) finds that soil bacteria prefer a very slightly acid, a
neutral or just alkaline media.
Summarizing the results obtained • by these recent workers and
realizing that the standard method of titrating media (12) gives too
high titrations and thereby low acidity of adjusted media, it seems
probable that bacteriologic media in most cases should be very slightly
acid or neutral in reaction.
The following procedure which is based on results reported in Tables
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I, II and III, has proven satisfactory for the titration of media: Twenty-
five gram aliquots of the hot media are weighed out into 350 cc. erlen-
meyer flasks (Jena, pryex or non-sol), which have just been rinsed with
carbon dioxide free water. Approximately 250 cc. of hot, carbon dioxide
free distilled water is added to each flask and the flasks are shaken
until after the mixture of water and media appear homogeneous. They
are then loosely stoppered and set to one side until they attain room
temperature. Titrations are then made with N/10 carbonate free alkali
and two drops of a ^ per cent solution of phenolphthalein. The end
point is reached on the appearance of the faintest, yet permanent pink
color. The fainter the color one is able to titrate to, the more accurate
the titration.
Summary.
(A) Ideal media for routine bacteriological work, if rightly pre-
pared from selected agar agar from stabilized peptone, from stabilized
meat extracts and from chemicals which hydrolize but little, does not
need to be adjusted in reaction unless the chemicals inter-react (which
should lead to a choice of other chemicals).
(B) It is fairly well established that most bacteria will thrive in
a neutral medium. The standard methods (12) have allowed media to
be adjusted to nearer neutral than the figures would indicate.
(1) Titrations have been carried out in hot solutions where hy-
drolysis is great and media corrected to certain standards by these ti-
trations is always nearer neutral when at blood heat or a lower tem-
perature.
(2) Many have used alkali and water containing carbon dioxide
and the errors resulting have caused media to be adjusted to lower
acidity than desired.
(C) Hydrolyzable chemicals have been used and their use has made
results uncertain.
(D) Meat infusions, peptones, and other extracts have been found
to vary greatly in reaction. Those extracts and peptones griving best
results happen to be those that are most stabilized.
(E) Some organizims tolerate more acidity than others (3) and
the hydrogen ion concentration must be determined if classifications are
to be made on the basis of tolerance to H and OH ion concentrations.
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(F) Workers in physical chemistry have determined that for each
acid there is a dilution beyond which the per cent ionized remains con-
stant. When 25 cc. of media that is, at most, only slightly acid is further
diluted with carbon dioxide free water (as must be done to titrate at
room temperature) the per cent acid ionized has reached its limit. The
difference between the value obtained with the hydrogen electrode and
that obtained by titration under proper conditions is thus small or
negligible.
(G) Itano (5) (X9) has found that proteolysis is optimum when
the hydrogen ion concentration of media is in or at the range where
phenolphthalein titrations properly carried out would indicate neutrality.
Diiferent investigators have suggested brom thymol blue and phenol
red for phenolphthalein. This has not been done because the paper is
intended to bring out errors in making media which must be corrected
if any indicator is used. The values used at present for the contact
potential prevent one from adopting any shade of any indicator as ab-
solute neutrality.
The author wishes to make acknowledgment to Dr. Redfield of the
Bureau of Chemistry for criticisms and suggestions. Acknowledgments
are also due to Director C. G. Woodbury, for it is only with his consent
that the writer can devote any time to consideration of this subject.
Bibliography.
(1) Clark, Wm. Mansfield:
1915 Journal of Infectious Diseases, Vol. 17, page 109.
(2) Clark, Wm. Mansfield:
1915 Journal of Infectious Diseases, Vol. 17, page 131.
(3) Clark, Wm. Mansfield, and same author with H. A. Lubs.
1916 Papers presented at Meeting of American Society of Bac-
teriologists, December, 1916, abstracted in Bacteriological Ab-
stracts, Vol. 1, No. 1.
(4) Clark, Wm. Mansfield, and Lubs, H. A.
1917 Journal of Bacteriology, Vol. 2, Nos. 1 and 2.
(5) Itano, Arao:
1916 Massachusetts Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin
No. 167.
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(6) Anthony, Bertha Van H., and Ekroth, C. V.:
1916 Journal of Bacteriology, Vol. 1, No. 2.
(7) Sorensen, S. P. L.:
Ergebnisse D. Physiologie, Vol. 12, page 416.
(8) Michaelis and Marcova:
1912 Zeitschr. f. Immunitatsforschung, Vol. 14.
(9) Brunn:
1913 Ueber das Desinfectionsvermogen der Sauren Diss. Berlin.
(10) Clark, Wm. Mansfield, and Lubs, H. A.:
1915 Journal of Infectious Diseases, Vol. 17, No. 1.
(11) Loomis, N. E., and Meacham, M. R.:
Note at end of article in 1916 Journal of American Chemical
Society, Vol. 38, No. 11.
(12) Committee on Standard Methods A. Pub. Health:
(1905-1913) also, Standard Methods examination of Water and
Sewage, 1912.
(13) Report of Committee on Standard Methods of Milk Analysis
(Bacteriological) .
1916 American Journal of Public Health, Vol. 6, No. 12.
(14) Conn, H. Joel:
1915 New York Agricultural Experiment Station Technical
Bulletin No. 38, page 17.*
(15)
1894 The Analyst, page 256.
(16) Noyes, H. A.:
1916 Science New Series, Vol. 44, No. 1144.
(17) Fellers, C. R.:
1916 Soil Science, Vol. 2, No. 3, September.
(18) Stieglitz, Acree, Jones. Noyes, A. A., etc.:
Articles in Journal of American Chemical Society and their
books dealing with theory of indicators.
(19) Itano, Arao:
1916 Massachusetts Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin
167, pages 173 and 184.
(20) Landolt and Berstein:
Tables on ionization constants for acids and bases.
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Studies on Pollen.
F. M. Andrews — Indiana University.
Since the time of Amici it has been known that pollen grains ger-
minate and send out one or two tubes. Amici carried on his studies
on this point on the plant Portulaca oleracea. Ever since the work of
Amici various investigations have been made on the germination of
pollen and especially concerning the different conditions that would
promote its growth. Even yet, many points remain obscure and much
investigation will be necessary before these are solved. As the chemical
nature of the stigmatic fluid is complicated and varies greatly in differ-
ent plants, it renders the culture medium used to induce growth a mat-
ter of one experiment after another with different media in order to
ascertain which will induce growth or is best adapted to the various
cases. Of course it is known that in a good many cases a sugar solu-
tion will cause growth, but this is by no means the case with the pollen
of all plants, so that other means frequently have to be tried. Moreover
the physical character of the culture medium is a factor that has been
very generally overlooked.
In the experiments here mentioned I have investigated to date the
behavior of the pollen of 435 plants with respect to a culture medium of
cane sugar. Of these, 110 showed no response whatsoever as no growth
occurred. The remainder showed a more or less pronounced growth.
A wide range in the percentage of the cane sugar solutions was used
so that ample opportunity for growth was afforded by this medium if
such a medium would produce it. Plants from many different families
as well as from the same family were tried so as to see in how far
differences in germination under such conditions would occur.
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Stoppage of a Sewer Line by Roots uf Acer Saccharum.
F. M. Andrews — Indiana University.
The many well-known examples of stoppage of sewer and pipe lines
is probably exceeded from the standpoint of time, at least, by the fol-
lowing example:
A six-inch sewer pipe line was laid five feet deep between two
trees of Acer saccharum. For two years the line remained perfectly
clear of all obstruction and no difficutly was experienced. Late in the
summer of the third year a stoppage of this line suddenly occurred.
The trees above referred to are 21 years old, about 6 inches in diameter
and about 50 feet high and are vigorous specimens. They stand on a
west exposure and on a bank in the open where they are subjected to
the direct rays of the sun. The bank was a narrow one, so that the
ground was quickly dried out and the most actively growing part was
excessively dry. This caused the roots to grow down very quickly in
search of water and to escape the upper and lateral very dry layers of
the soil. On nearing the pipes there was also a chemotactic attraction
exerted. The roots finding a small opening grew in quickly, effecting a
complete closure of the tile line for a distance of fifteen feet. By their
further quick growth, especially after entrance, the heavy cement joints
were completely ruptured. The sewer line was replaced in the region
affected by heavy double-hub cast-iron pipe whose joints were sealed
with lead. Within the space of a few months, therefore, the roots of
these trees had completely blocked the pipes. The universally known
tendency of Populus deltoides as well as the roots of other trees and
plants to grov/ into sewer and water pipes is common knowledge. The
location of the stoppage in a sewer line may be ascertained with com-
parative accuracy. This can be easily done, since one can ascertain the
volume of a given section of the pipe and the metered volume of water
required to fill the pipe from stoppage to the water supply, due con-
sideration of course to be paid to those cases in which the stoppage may
not be complete and where some water may pass through.
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Anthocyanin of Beta Vulgaris.
F. M. Andrews — Indiana University.
If a freshly made solution of chlorophyll is placed in a transparent
vessel in the direct sunlight it is well known that in a few hours the
chlorophyll will be broken down and will become more or less brown in
color. If, however, part of the freshly made solution of chlorophyll is
placed in the dark it will remain apparently unchanged in color even
after twenty-four hours or longer. The above mentioned behavior of
chlorophyll acts quite differently from the anthocyanin of Beta vulgaris.
The anthocyanin of this plant forms one of those examples where the
pigment forms in the subterranean parts. The behavior of this pigment
with reference to the light is quite different as regards preservation in
the light. If a strong solution of the anthocyanin of Beta vulgaris is
placed in a test-tube in darkness it will continue to preserve its normal
color for more than a week. Quite different from chlorophyll if a strong
solution of this anthocyanin is exposed in a test-tube in direct sunlight
it will retain its normal bright color for a week, or sometimes more,
or until broken down and disorganized by bacterial action. This latter
effect finally happens to the solution of anthocyanin of Beta vulgaris
in the dark. So that whether in the light or dark the color remains
almost the same length of time. While it is clear that the presence of
anthocyanin in various plants is not important like chlorophyll, still a
comparative, exhaustive study of the two pigments under different
physiological conditions is much to be desired and would make a valu-
able contribution.
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Improved Forms of Maximows' Automatic Pipette.
F. M. Andrews — Indiana University.
Grafe* figures and describes the automatic pipette of Maximows
(Fig. 1). The pipette as given by Maximows is very practical but is
in part difficult of manipulation and needs some improvements, which
I have supplied. In the first place a Woulfe bottle with three openings
at the top is not necessary nor is a bottle with a tubulure at the base
absolutely essential, although it is convenient. Any bottle having an
opening at the top and provided with a stopper having four holes is
sufficient. The funnel shown in Maximows' drawing is also unnecessary.
If, as Grafe describes, one closes A and B (Fig. 1), and opens C the
NaOH in D flows out, creating a partial vacuum in D and causing the
desired solution, in this case baryta water, to rise in the pipette E if
the pinch cock F is open. If now one opens B air will enter D, allowing
the solution in E to sink and thus measure the quantity of fluid. In
this last operation is the chief difficulty, for when B is closed after
opening the solution in E will generally not cease to sink at once owing
to the reduced pressure in D produced by the column of solution in E.
Since accuracy is the prime consideration here a slight error is fatal for
correct results. Furthermore the glass tube B should extend below
the surface of the NaOH or KOH solution to insure the removal of all
CO2 and the outside air not be allowed to enter too rapidly. Aiso it
will be seen according to Fig. 1 that the NaOH or KOH solution would
be wasted in the Maximows apparatus. The control of the outflow of
the solution in E should be for the sake of accuracy and convenience
not at B but at the lower end of the pipette E. Maximows used the
funnel A for refilling, which is unnecessary.
The above difficulties I have removed by a modification of Maximows'
apparatus as shown in Figs. 2, 3, and 4, which I will now briefly de-
scribe. In both Figs. 2 and 3, which are photographs, bottles with
one opening at the top could be used instead of the Woulfe bottles.
* Grafe. Dr. Viktor — EmahrunKsphysioloyrisches Praktikum der hoherer Pflanzen,
p. 360.
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Fig. 2 shows the apparatus in a position on the ring stana A loi
filling the pipette E. If one opens C the NaOH solution in D will run
into G which, when I is open, will cause the baryta solution to rise in
f o-O
F^.r
E to the desired height. If now C and I are closed and B opened it
will allow the air to enter D when J is opened and the solution allowed
to run out. The NaOH or KOH solution in D will arrest any CO2 pres-
ent so that the baryta solution will remain clear. The baryta solution
in L remains clear since the calcium chloride tube K, which contains
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soda lime, extracts the COa of the air as it enters L when any of the
solution is drawn, into the pipette E. The solution of NaOH or KOH in
D in Fig. 1 is not used further after escaping according to Grafe's
figfure. In Fig. 2 I show that it is collected in another bottle H, which
is similar in size and construction to D. By elevating the bottle G to a
position M on the ring stand A above D and opening J, as shown by
Fig 3, the same solution of NaOH or KOH runs back into D and can
be used again. By this apparatus a large number of measurements
may be quickly and very accurately made. The tube F with soda lime
is not necessary in Figs. 3 and 4 since the KOH removes the COa.
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Figure 4 is a photograph of the apparatus used by Detmer' for
estimating the amount of COa produced by plants, and including also
the titrating apparatus for measuring used by him. The apparatus as
shown in Fig. 4 is given only to demonstrate an improved form of
Maximows* automatic pipette, which may advantageously be used in
connection with the Detmer apparatus.'
If one opens the pinch cock A (Fig. 4), the baryta water in B,
freed from the CO2 by the soda lime in C, flows into the burette D as
shown by Detmer and the air in D escaping through E. If now one
» Detmer, W.— Practical Plant Physiology. Translation by S. A. Moor, pp. 264
and 267.
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closes A and E and opens F the measured baryta water in D will flow
into the Pettenkofer tube G. This outflow from D will cause the baryta
water in the Erlenmeyer flask M to rise in the pipette I. It goes without
saying that for convenience the capacity of D and I should be equal.
Next close F and H and open E and J. The air will then enter E when
the COa will be removed by the soda lime in O before entering I through
K. This will allow the measured baryta water in I to flow out of J
into a suitable vessel for titration. In this way the baryta water meas-
ured into G, through which CO2 is to be passed, furnishes the power in
a convenient way for fllling and accurately measuring an equal amount
in I, through which the CO2 of respiring plants is passed for comparison.
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The Effect of Centrifugal Force on Plants.
F. M. Andrews — Indiana University.
The effect of the successive displacement of contents in plant cells
has never been carried out to the full extent. This would be an inter-
esting piece of research in as much as it would show not only the
capacity of plant cells to resist possible injury by repeated displace-
ment of the contents over long periods, but also that it would demon-
strate the recuperative power of such cells. Especially if this latter
began to diminsh it would be important to know when and how rapidly
the protoplasm reacted in this respect. I have already performed a few
experiments of this kind where, however, the contents of Closterium
moniliferum was displaced only a few times successively.' Approxi-
mately no difference was noticed in this plant when centrifuged suc-
cessively a few times and the specimens kept in the dark.
I have more recently tried the same experiments on Oedogonium
ciliatum with similar results. The following four experiments will show
the response of the plant when centrifuged 15 minutes at 26° C. I cen-
trifuged Oedogonium ciliatum, using 1,500 gravities. All the contents
were displaced which returned in the light in 7 days. After the second
centrifuging the contents returned in 6% days. After the third centri-
fuging in 6 days and after the fourth centrifuging in 6V^ days. Clearly,
from these few experiments, the protoplasm is apparently not detri-
mentally affected and shows that a large number of such experiments
would be necessary to determine this point. There are interesting ques-
tions to be ascertained in such experiments, among them being that of
the response of the protoplasm to certain stimuli when the contents are
displaced.
>Jarb<icher fGr wissenschaftlichen Botanik. 1915, Vol. 56, pp. 229-233.
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The Effect of Aeration on the Roots of Zea Mays. — I.
COLONZO C. Beals — Indiana University.
This experiment was conducted for the purpose of learning the
effect of aeration on the roots of Zea Mays. In water cultures as com-
monly conducted, the only aeration that the growing plants receive comes
from the surface of the water.
Effect ofXaeration^on^rootfl of iSea Mays.
The plants were grown as water cultures in normal solutions minus
the sodium chloride. The cylinders used had a capacity of one and
one-half liters and the solution was changed at frequent intervals. One
cylinder was aerated by means of letting a stream of water flow through
a glass tube (a) from a hydrant. The tube protruded slightly through
a rubber cork fitting tightly in the larger end of condensing tube that
was cut in two pieces. The cork should have an opening for a tube to
admit air. The lower end of the tube was connected to a second one (b)
leading to a cylinder (d) filled with water resting in a drain pan. The
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larger end of a cutoff condensing tube (c) was suspended over the open
end of the small bent tube. The upper end was connected to the cylinder
of solution by a glass tube (e) which extended almost to the bottom of
f. All connections between the glass tubes were made by tight-fitting
rubber tubing. The flow of air was regulated by varying the amount
of water that passed through the hydrant. A drain tube carried away
the excess of water from the pan. The apparatus stood about four feet
high and was held in an upright position by a ring-stand.
F^-ar.Z
Effect of aeration on roots of Zea Mays
This apparatus was after W. Ostwald as given in his Chemico-physi-
cal Measurements, Aeration of plants is mentioned, however, by Julius
Sachs in his Vorlesunger iiher Pflanzen-physiologiey 1887, pages 268-269.
The glass tube fed a constant supply of air into the cylinder of
normal solution. The two plants were started at the same time and
received like treatment except the aeration of the solution.
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The following table gives the height of the plants at different
stages of growth:
Aerated. Nonaerated.
2 days 2.8 cm. 1.9 cm.
3 days 5.9 cm. 4.7 cm.
6 days 14.50 cm. 12.00 cm.
8 days 25.00 cm. 23.00 cm.
11 days 28.00 cm. 24.00 cm.
15 days 37.00 cm. 33.00 cm.
20 days 47.00 cm. 37.00 cm.
26 days 65.00 cm. 46.00 cm.
Effect of nonaeration on roots of Zea Mayts.
After three months' growth in the greenhouse under as nearly
normal growing conditions as possible, the plants were removed and
burned. The ash of the aerated plant including the roots weighed 2.182
grams, while the ash of the nonaerated amounted to 1.303 grams.
A cross-section of a root when magnified showed that the cortex
cells of the aerated plant (Fig. 2) were uniform in size with no con-
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spicuous air cavities, while the cortex of the nonaerated root (Fig. 3)
contained large air cavities separated by narrow strands of tissue.
This experiment shows the great importance of the presence of air
not only for the normal growth of plant tissue but also the obtaining
of the maximum plant growth.
The work of which this study is the result was taken up at the
suggestion of Prof. Andrews of the Department of Plant Physiology
of Indiana University, and his constant interest and help have con-
tributed to its completion.
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Resistance of Mucor Zygotes.
Mildred Nothnagel — Florida Experiment Station.
In the fall of 1916, while attending Indiana University, various
experiments were begun to test out the resistance of Mucor zygotes
and spores to desiccation, to heat, and to different chemicals.
Fortunately the writer had a good culture of zygote material from
which fresh zygotes could always be raised. Since the zygotes are sup-
posed to be more resistant than the asexual spores, the experiments were
made with the former in order to make them more conclusive.
After sterilizing the bread, inoculating it with zygotes, placing
in a dark place, room temperatures, zygotes in unlimited number would
be found in 5 to 7 days.
The work was carried out along several lines, and in all cases, un-
less otherwise stated, zygotes that had been just freshly matured, and
those a year old, were used in order to make comparison.
Outline of Work.
1. Resistance of zygotes to desiccation.
2. Resistance to heat of zygotes in the desiccator.
3. Resistance to heat of zygotes upon oven-dried bread.
4. Resistance to heat of zygotes placed upon bread with its normal
amount of moisture present.
5. Resistance to heat of zygotes in presence of large amount of
moisture.
6. Resistance of zygotes to various chemicals.
In all the experiments the utmost care was used to have everything
sterile and, in case water or nutrient material had to be added, every
precaution was taken so that spores from the outside would not be
introduced. Control experiments were run for the purpose of checking.
1. Resistance of Zygotes to Desiccation. — Into sulphuric acid desic-
cators were placed numerous cultures of the one-year zygotes as well as
the freshly matured zygotes with no nutrient material. These cultures
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were left in this environment for various lengfths of time ranging from
one week to one year. At the end of these respective periods the small
dish with the mucTor "within it was removed, and with the utmost care
a piece of moist, sterilized bread was introduced, after which it was
set aside in a warm, dark place.
In all cases but the last one a vigorous growth was made within
seventy-two (72) hours and in many cases zygotes were found within
a week. .««^
The results of the cultures remaining in the desiccator for one
year were not very conclusive, due to a slight accident. The culture
of the zygotes, that was freshly matured when it was placed in the
desiccator, produced growth within twenty-four (24) hours, and sporan-
gia '^thin forty-eight (48) hours, but the culture with the older zygotes
in it failed to grow within two (2) weeks after being removed from
the desiccator and moistened, though upon further moistening a vigorous
growth was produced. Unfortunately, though, when the culture was
being moistened the second time the lid slid oflF for an instant and there
is a slight possibility of spores from the outside gaining entrance.
In one of the first experiments performed, growth failed to take
place until further moistening, and it is the belief of the author that
such was the case in this last experiment.
2. Resistance to Heat of Zygotes in Desiccator, — Zygotes were
placed upon oven-dried bread, put in a sulphuric acid desiccator, and
then placed in an oven at 60 degrees centrigrade for various lengths of
time, ranging from seventy-two (72) hours to five (5) weeks. At the
end of these periods a culture would be removed and the bread moistened
with sterile water. In all the cultures the zygotes survived the heat,
and within forty-eight (48) hours after being removed there was a
vigorous growth, in many cases zygotes being formed within a week.
Another set of experiments was run along similar lines, through
in this case the temperature was raised to seventy (70) degrees centi-
grade, the time ranging from one week to one month. In the case of
the freshly matured zygotes, or as will hereafter be termed New Zygotes,
a culture was able to survive two (2) weeks of heat and desiccation,
though at the end of three (3) weeks, no growth took place when
placed in favorable environment. The one year old zygotes were not
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able to withstand the heat and desiccation for.JaKo (2) weeks, though
the culture that had been in the heat for one week germinated readily.
3. Resistance to Heat of Zygotes Upon Oven-dried Bread. — The
bread was first dried in an oven, the temperature of which was kept* at
110-120 degrees centigrade for several hours. In each test tube was
placed a small cube of this bread, which had been inoculated with
zygotes; the test tubes were plugged with cotton, and then placed in
the oven at 100 degrrees centigrade for different lengths of time^angfing
in close series from 1 min. to 25 min. After the cultures were removed
and allowed to cool the bread was moistened with sterile water. In
every instance, up to and including those remaining in the heat for
17% minutes, zygotes were produced within a week; but in those cul-
tures remaining in the heat 20, 22%, and 25 minutes, no zygotes were
formed, though there was a vigorous growth.
Other cultures were placed in the oven at a temperature of 60
degrees centigrade. This experiment is scarcely complete, since the
various lengths of time were not close enough together to warrant any
conclusions. Cultures remaining in this heat for one week grew vigor-
ously after being removed to suitable environment; but those remaining
in the heat for five weeks failed to germinate after being removed to
room temperature and moistened.
The third set of experiments under this heading was placed in an
oven at seventy (70) degrees centigrade, the duration being from four
(4) days to three (3) weeks. New zygotes produced growth after they
had remained at seventy (70) degrees centigrade for two (2) weeks,
though at the end of three (3) weeks there was no sign of germina-
tion. Old zygotes did not resist the heat as long, the longest duration
being one week.
4. Resistance to Heat of Zygotes in Presence of Small Amount of
Moisture. — In these cultures the amount of moisture was that which is
ordinarily found in fresh bread. Experiments placed in the oven at
sixty (60) degrrees centigrade for one week showed no growth after
being removed to favorable environment and neither did cultures after
being in the oven for only forty-eight (48) hours at this temperature.
5. Resistance to Heat of Zygotes in Presence of Large Amount of
Moisture. — These experiments were performed, first, by thoroughly soak-
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ing small cubes of bread, placing one in each test tube, sterilizing them,
and then inoculating the bread; after which the test tubes were tightly
plugged and placed in warm water the temperature of which ranged
from forty-five (45) to seventy (70) degrees centigrade.
The following table will give the temperature and the longest time
for each of these temperatures that the zygotes were able to remain
in it, and still retain the power of germination.
TABLE I.
70'C.
WC.
eo'C.
55-C.
50«C.
45*0.
40*C.
1 yr.. Zygotes
New Zygotes
0 min.
Omin.
I min.
3 min.
2 min.
5 min.
4 min.
10 min.
10 min.
15 min.
30* min.
30»min.
45* min.
45* min.
*Exporimenta of longer duration were not made for this temperature.
6. Resistance of Zygotes to Various Chemicals. — The resistance
of the zygote and the growing mycelium toward a few chemicals was
tested out. Molecular solutions of NaCl (common salt), FciClo 12H30,
CuSOi, and CiHdOH (ethyl alcohol) were the solutions used and were
the only moisture that the germinating zygotes and growing mycelia
received. Oven-dried bread was moistened with the chemical and then
inoculated with zygotes after which the cultures were set aside in a
warm, dark place to germinate. The first column of Table II indi-
cates the highest molecular solution, or fraction of molecular solution,
in which the zygotes and the mycelia would grow; while the second
column shows the same in terms of per cent of the chemical in solution.
Column three gives the highest molecular solution in which a vigorous
growth took place, the last column indicating the same thing in per
cent of the chemical in solution.
TABLE IL
Highest Concentration in
which Growth Occurred.
Highest Concentration in which
a Vigorous Growth Occurred.
I Mol. Sol.
% Sol.
Mol. Sol.
%Sol.
NftCl
FciCl. 12H/)
CuS()4
C.HiOH
1
I Mol.
.. . . 1 M/11
M/70
3M-f
5.48%
1.2^
.213'7
13.S%-f
M/10
1 M/15
M/150
1 2M
.548%
.808';;
.0994%
9.2%
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Discussion.
It has been generally thought that zygote material of Mucor would
not retain the power of germination for more than one year, but the
first experiment demonstrated that they retained this power for at
least two years, one year of which they were entirely without moisture.
Since this is the case one might expect to find the zygotes in the air for
a longer period than that.
When heat was added as a factor, a remarkable power of resistance
was still shown. How long the zygotes would be able to resist the
sixty (60) degrees centigrade in a desiccator remains to be seen, as
five (5) weeks was the longest period tried. When the temperature
was raised to seventy (70) degrees centigrade the old zygotes showed
the lesser resistance, not being able to withstand the heat for as long a
period as the newly matured ones.
When the temperature was seventy (70) degrees centigrade the
inoculated oven-dried bread resisted to the same extent as those in
the desiccator, though when the temperature was sixty (60) degrees
centigrade the inoculated oven-dried bread was not able to stand the
heat as long as the zygotes in the desiccator. How near it would come
to it was not ascertained. The only explanation that the author can
give is that the amount of moisture that would be present at sixty (60)
degrees centigrade in the oven would be sufficient to be detrimental to
the zygotes.
Those experiments in which the zygotes were placed upon oven-
dried bread in an oven at one hundred (100) degrees centigrade would
have practically the same degree of desiccation as the three experiments
that were placed in the desiccators. In this experiment there is shown
the most remarkable case of resistance, twenty-five (25) minutes in
this heat not being sufilcient to kill the zygotes; but another interesting
fact is brought out, that being, that the ability of the mucor to produce
zygotes is gone from those cultures remaining in the heat over 17%
minutes.
According to the present understanding of the formation of zygotes,
there must be what is termed "two strains." By the term "strain" the
author means not different varieties, but what in higher plants would
probably be called male and female plants. In other words, there is
a differentiation of mycelial threads, the union of the two (2) being
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necessary for the formation of the zygote. If this is the case, then
one of the "strains" must be weaker than the other and killed out by
the unfavorable conditions, since zygotes were not formed in those
cultures that had remained in the one hundred (100) centigrade heat
for more than 17% minutes.
The difference in the resistance between the old and the new zygote
material in this set of experiments was not ascertained, as only the new
was used.
When moisture was added as a factor, even when the amount was
small, the resistance of the zygotes to the heat declined rapidly. With
the amount of moisture ordinarily found in bread it was found to be
sufficient to kill the zygotes in less than forty-eight (48) hours, when
the temperature was raised to seventy (70) degrees centigrade, the time
probably being only a matter of minutes as can be seen from comparing
the results of the different experiments as shown in Table III.
In case there was a large amount of moisture there was a very
great dropping off of the power of resistance and also a marked differ-
ence in the resistant power of the old and the newly matured zygotes.
The rapid decline is when the temperature reaches fifty (50) degrees
centigrade. How long the zygotes would resist the temperature of
forty-five (45) and forty (40) degrees centigrade was not ascertained.
From a general survey of all the experiments (See Table III) it
will be seen that the zygotes are able to withstand a large amount of
heat as long as no moisture is present; but the addition of only a slight
amount causes the resistant power to fall off very rapidly. Also the
factor of dessication is a very small factor, if any, in the lowering of
the vitality of the zygote. On the other hand it is a decided factor in
increasing the power of resistance to heat.
If, then, one wishes to kill mucor, the surest way to do so is to use
heat and moisture, not much heat being necessary in this case; while if
moisture is not present a high temperature and a long application will
be required.
To Dr. F. M. Andrews of Indiana University, I wish to express my
appreciation for the encouragement and assistance given during the
progress of the work. The author also wishes to express her apprecia-
tion for the help that Miss Flpra Anderson rendered in completing some
of the experiments.
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The Absorption of Iron by Platinum Crucibles in Clay
Fusions.
W. M. Blanchard and Roscoe Theibert — DePauw University.
A short time ago on making a number of clay analyses, we were
surprised at the persistent gain in weight of our platinum crucibles and
the repeated appearance of ferric oxide after reheating a crucible that
had been used in making a fusion. No note of such phenomena could
be found in the standard treatises on analytical chemistry at hand, no
mention of the absorption of iron by platinum being mentioned by
Fresenius, Treadwell and Hall, Olsen, Morse, or Scott. The only men-
tion of such action to be found in the literature available was in a paper
by Sosman and Hostetter, Jour. Washington Academy, 5, 293-303, and
only a synopsis as given in Chem. Abstracts, 9, 1580, was at hand. In
this paper account is given of experiments made on the heating of
hematite and magnetite in platinum crucibles at high temperatures,
resulting in the absorption of iron and the loss of oxygen. The state-
ment is made that it is a generally known fact that platinum crucibles
will absorb small quantities of iron when heated to high temperatures
with ferric oxide. In this synopsis in Chemical Abstracts no reference
is made to any published data.
If a sample of ordinary clay is mixed with the usual amount of
sodium carbonate and the mixture fused in the usual manner, the cru-
cible will present the appearance of perfectly clean platinum when the
product, on cooling, is removed by the treatment with hydrochloric
acid. If this crucible is now heated for several minutes over the blast
lamp or No. 3 Meeker burner, the lower third of the inside of the cru-
cible will have an appearance varying from that of ordinary ferric
oxide to that of certain bronzes. If strong hydrochloric acid is now
added and the crucible heated gently, what appears to be a rather
strong solution of ferric chloride is obtained. If this is removed, the
crucible will have again the appearance of clean platinum, but, in many
cases, when heated a second time, more iron will be driven to the sur-
face and converted into ferric oxide. In some cases it has been found
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necessary to subject the crucible to several successive heatings and
treatment with strong hydrochloric acid in order to remove all of the
iron absobed in a single fusion.
In order to determine whether this amount of iron is what might
be considered merely a "trace'' or whether it is sufficient to make an
appreciable difference in the results of a quantitative analysis, several
determinations were made. A platinum crucible was heated to constant
weight after it had been subjected a number of times to the treatment
just mentioned. A clay fusion was then made and the product removed
by the aid of 20 per cent hydrochloric acid. The heating and treat-
ment with the acid was then repeated until no further change was
observed. The combined solutions of ferric chloride was reduced with
stannous chloride, excess of mercuric chloride added, and the amount
of iron determined by means of a standard solution of potassium
dichromate. Some of the results obtained are as follows:
Weight of platinum crucible (from previous fusion) after successive
heatings over an ordinary burner:
25.0089 25.0089 25.0090 25.0089
Same crucible after successive heatings of fifteen minutes each
over a Meeker burner:
25.0097 25.0097 25.0095 25.0097
After treatment with the acid and complete removal of the iron:
25.0089 25.0090 25.0090 25.0089 25.0089
A fusion of a mixture of 0.5 gram of clay and 2.5 grams of sodium
carbonate was then made and the product removed by the aid of the
acid. Successive heatings over the Meeker burner, each followed by re-
moval of the iron present, left the crucible weighing as follows:
25.0099 25.0097 25.0099 25.0103
After removal of the iron successive heatings gave
25.0089 25.0084 25.0088
After further treatment with the acid and successive heatings, the
weights ran as follows:
25.0084 25.0083 25.0084 25.0081 25.0081 25.0082
The total amount of iron oxide found by titration with the potassium
dichromate was 0.00459 gram.
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After a third fusion, removal of the product, and heating over the
Meeker burner the crucible weighed
25.0097 25.0098
After removal of the ferric oxide and reheating,
25.0080 25.0080 25.0080 25.0080
Amount of ferric oxide by titration, 0.0068 gram.
After a fourth fusion, removal of fusion product, successive heat-
ings gave
25.0103 25.0100 25.0100
After removal of the iron oxide,
25.0085 25.0085
Total amount of ferric oxide by titration, 0.0051.
It seems that in fusing the clay and sodium carbonate mixture a
very small amount the ferric oxide formed, or the ferrous oxide present
is reduced, the iron dissolving in the platinum. When the crucible is
afterwards heated to a high temperature, the iron is driven to the sur-
face and reoxidized, thereby becoming soluble in the acid.
It was thought that this might be prevented by adding a small
amount of potassium nitrate to the fusion mixture before making the
fusion. A few experiments were made to test this hypothesis.
Weight of the crucible before fusion, 25.0079.
1*0 the mixture of 0.5 gram clay and 2.5 grams sodium carbonate
was added 0.3 gram pure potassium nitrate, the fusion made and the
product removed in the usual way. The crucible was then heated eight
times, fifteen minutes each, and weighed after each heating, the ferric
oxide being removed before the succeeding heating. The weights were
as follows:
25.0104 25.0103 25.0103 25.0103 25.0091 25.0087 25.0079 25.0079
The total amount of ferric oxide obtained by titration, 0.0021 gn^am.
A second fusion with the addition of 0.5 gram of potassium nitrate
brought the weights of the crucible to the following:
25.0125 25.0122 25.0121 25.0120 25.0120 25.0120
The total amount of ferric oxide by titration, 0.0015 gn^am.
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A third fusion, using again 0.5 grsim of potassium nitrate resulted
in the following weights:
25.0154 25.0152 25.0149 25.0149 25.0149 25.0149
No ferric oxide was detected by titration although a trace of ferric
oxide was observed in the crucible.
A fourth trial with 0.5 gram of the nitrate resulted as follows:
25.0182 25.0181 25.0181 25.0178 25.0170 25.0165 25.0165
Total amount of ferric oxide by titration, 0.0025 gram.
It will be seen that the amount of iron absorbed by the crucible
is sufficient to be taken into account in making an accurate analysis.
In other words, after making a clay fusion, the crucible should be
heated to a high temperature and the ferric oxide formed dissolved
out and added to the vessel containing the main fusion product. Fur-
thermore, it is seen that treatment with potassium nitrate is not a
satisfactory way of avoiding the trouble, for while it does prevent the
absorption of the iron to a large degree, it is the means of introducing
other foreign substances into the crucible which may prove undesirable.
That this absorption of iron is not a peculiarity of this particular
crucible, due to the presence of some other metal alloyed with the
platinum, would seem to be indicated by the fact that the same phe-
nomenon was observed in connection with two other crucibles purchased
at different times and from different dealers; that it was not due to
some unusual property of this particular clay is evidenced by the fact
that the same thing occurred with clays obtained from widely different
sections of the State.
A further study of this behavior is in progress.
Since the above paper was submitted for publication, the chief cause
of the phenomena described has been discovered. The crucibles in which
the fusions were made were heated over Meeker burners. In order that
they might be heated to the highest temperature obtainable from these
burners the crucibles were supported just above the top of the burners.
As a result they were more or less enveloped in an atmosphere of re-
ducing gases and it was due to these gases rather than to the organic
matter in the clay that the iron was brought to a condition to be ab-
sorbed by the platinum. When these fusions are made with a good blast
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lamp directed upon the crucible at a considerable angle, practically no
iron is afterwards found in the platinum. It is probably because these
burners have not generally been used for this purpose that this phe-
nomenon has not been observed by others. It is clear that the Meeker
burner is not a satisfactory substitute for the blast l^mp in making
fusions of clays or silicates that contain appreciable amounts of iron.
13—11994
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The Injurious Effect of Borax in Fertilizers on Corn.
S. D. CoNNERr— Purdue University.
About June 1, 1917, the Experiment Station was notified that in a
large number of fields near Francesville the young growing com had
lost its green color and had turned white or had entirely wilted down.
Together with Mr. O. S. Roberts of the State Chemist's Department, I
visited the cornfields on June 5th. We found a number of fields
where the corn was entirely white. The damage was all on land
where fertilizer was used, and by far the greatest damage was caused
where fertilizer containing 5 per cent of potash and 5 per cent of
available phosphoric acid had been used. There appeared to be no
question about the fertilizer having caused the damage as in a number
of fields one or more rows of unfertilized corn remained good alongside
of badly damaged fertilized com. In some fields several amounts of
fertilizer had been used and the damage was greatest where the largest
amounts of fertilizer were used. The fertilizer injured the com by re-
tarding germination, also by turning the com white and holding it
back so that insect damage was greater where the com was fertilized,
and in some cases the corn had even been killed. Some of the com
which was not damaged very badly was said by the farmers to be look-
ing better than it had a few days before. . Later reports indicate that
some of the white com recovered almost entirely while other fields had
to be replanted, while still other fields remained more or less dam-
aged even to time of harvest.
On September 24th another visit was made to the damaged fields.
Some of the com had been i>ermanently damaged probably seventy
per cent., other fields much less and in some cases there was no ap-
parent damage. The damage seemed to vary on different types of soil,
some of the worst was on light sandy and some on peaty soils. As a
rule there was not so much damage on heavier soils. Corn fertilizer
in Indiana is generally drilled along the row where the com is checked
or drilled. Fifty pounds of the 5-5 fertilizer per acre seldom caused
much damage, while 200 pounds to the acre nearly always caused great
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damage. Some farmers seemed to think that a fertilizer attachment
with a spreader was better than an attachment that placed the fertilizer
directly on the seed. Differences in amount of injury were undoubtedly
caused by the different weather conditions, such as rain either just
before or after planting.
All farmers who had used fertilizer which caused damage to the
corn and who made complaint have been compensated by the fertilizer
company selling the goods. The amount of damage was mutually
agreed upon by the farmer and a representative of the fertilizer com-
pany with O. S. Roberts, Chief Inspector of the State Chemist's De-
partment of the Experiment Station, acting as a disinterested referee.
Experimental Work.
To find the cause of the damage, the writer secured a sample of
the 5-5 fertilizer which produced damage in one of the fields. Upon
analysis this sample was found to contain 2.35 per cent boric acid
(HsBOa) equivalent to 1.92 per cent borax (Na2B407) soluble in water.
Borax is an ingredient not usually found in fertilizer. It has been
found by other investigators to be harmful when used in very large
amounts.*
With the assumption that borax might be the harmful ingredient,
quantities of soil were obtained from the field near Francesville dam-
aged by the particular sample of 5-5 fertilizer analyzed; also soil from
the Experiment Station farm. The Francesville soil is a black sandy
loam neutral in reaction. The Purdue soil is brown silt loam, acid in
reaction. Ten earthenware pots were filled with each type of <=oil and
fertilizer applied as follows:
Pot. No.
1. No treatment.
2. 50 lbs. per acre in row of 5-5 fertilizer sold.
3. 100 lbs. per acre in row of 5-5 fertilizer sold.
4. 200 lbs. per acre in row of 5-5 fertilizer sold.
5. 200 lbs per acre broadcast of 5-5 fertilizer sold.
6. 100 lbs. per acre in row 5-5 fertilizer made in laboratory. No
borax.
1 Cook. T. C. and Wilson. J. B. in Jour. Asr. Res.. Vol. X. No. 12, 1917 : also Naka-
mura In Bui. Col. Akt., Tokyo, 1903 ; also Voclcker in Jour. Roy. A«:r. Soc.. Vol. 76, 1915.
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7. 200 lbs. Same as No. 6.
8. 100 lbs. per acre in row of 5-5 fert. made in laboratory with
2 per cent borax.
9. 200 lbs. Same as No. 8.
10. 200 lbs. per acre broadcast 5-5 fert. made in laboratory with
2 per cent borax.
Where the fertilizer was applied in the row, the soil was furrowed
out and the fertilizer applied, then the corn dropped in the same furrow
and covered. The broadcast application was worked in the entire sur-
face of the pot two inches deep. Corn was planted October 8, 1917,
and the pots were kept uniformly watered in a greenhouse.
The notes in Table I indicate the results on the test up to January
1, 1918. Figures 1 and 2 show the appearance of the corn November
26th.
The results obtained in this pot test show that without doubt the
commercial 5-5 fertilizer containing 1.92 per cent borax will injure
com if applied in the row 100 lbs. or more to the acre. Fifty pounds
to the acre caused no damage.
The damage is caused by preventing germination, by bleaching the
leaves of the young com and by stunting or killing the young plant.
This injury is identical to that which was noted in the field.
A 5-5 fertilizer made from kainit and acid phosphate did not bleach
leaves or kill the plants when used 100 or 200 pounds in the row. In
the 200 lb. application, this fertilizer caused some temporary stunting
which later disappeared.
An artificial 5-5 fertilizer with 2 per cent borax added caused bleach-
ing and even worse damage than the commercial sample did.
When the fertilizer was applied 200 lbs. to the acre broadcast that
containing borax caused a slight bleaching but no permanent injury.
There seems absolutely no question but that 2 per cent borax in a
fertilizer when used 100 pounds to the acre in the row will bleach the
leaves of the corn plant and cause more or less permanent injury.
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201
Chemical Estimation of the Fertility of Soils in Fulton
County, Indiana.
R. H. Carr and W. K. Gast— Purdue University.
During recent years there has been an effort on the part of many
States to invoice their soils as to plant food content in addition to mak-
ing the usual survey in order to classify them into types and series.
This invoice is useful first to the farmer in pointing out any deficiencies
or excesses in the soil's food supply, and second to the State in estimat-
ing the wealth, since this usually resides in the fertility of the soils.
Usually only the plant food elements are determined which seem to be
the most important or have the greatest influence in modifying crop
yield. They are the following: total organic carbon, total nitrogen,
total phosphorus, total potassium, total calcium, total inorganic carbon.
The test for the last is made for the presence of limestone, the absence
of which often indicates soil acidity. There are many factors other
than plant food concerned in producing a crop on any piece of land,
as rainfall, tillage, drainage, etc., but deficiencies in these can be de-
termined often by observation. But a deficiency in the main chemical
elements is not so easily estimated and is a matter of life or death to the
plant.
Availability of Plant Food.
Much discussion has arisen over the availability of these plant foods
even when analysis has shown plenty to be present. It is conceded,
however, that it is possible to make two per cent of total nitrogen, one
per cent of phosphorus and one-fourth of one per cent of potassium
available in one year by approved agriculture methods. If this were
true, or somewhere near true, it would make a big difference in the
crop yield to be expected whether there were 500 or 5,000 lbs. of phos-
phorus or nitrogen, etc., present per acre to a depth of six and two-
thirds inches.
Plant Foods Present in a Good Soil.
It is difficult to set a definite standard of plant food content, but if
we choose samples of our productive loam soils frequently producing
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75 bushels of com per acre, we find a plant food content about as
follows :
Pounds of Plant Food Per 2,000,000 Pounds of Surface Soil.
Nitrogen 4,500 lbs., 2 per cent possible available in 1 year 90 lbs.
Phosphorus 1,500 lbs. (too low) , 1 per cent 15 lbs.
Potassium 32,000 lbs., one-fourth of one per cent 80 lbs.
Organic matter, 160,500 lbs.
Limestone present, 350 lbs.
A 50-bushel corn crop would need about 74 lbs. of nitrogen, 11.5
lbs. of phosphorus and 35.5 lbs. of potassium in addition to the other
essential elements usually present, and this amount of plant food could
more than be supplied in a soil like the above.
Plan of Invoicing Fulton County Soils.
The soil samples chosen numbered 128 and they were collected from
the eight townships. Most of the soil samples were taken from
surface soil (7 ins. deep), but 38 were from subsoils (6 to 20 ins.).
Twenty of the samples were from virgin soil and represent more or
less the original fertility of the soil unchanged by cropping. Many
items were noted while the samples were being collected (August, 1916)
or information was secured from the people living on the farms as to
the prevalent weeds, stand of clover, kinds of timber, grain yield per
acre, use of fertilizers and manures, etc. The following determinations
were made on the soil samples: first, total organic matter; second, total
nitrogen; third, total phosphorus; fourth, presence of carbonates and
acidity to litmus. An attempt was made to correlate this data with
the yield of com per acre. It was thought this could be done best by
means of graphs. Since the presence or absence of organic matter is
so vitally related to crop yield, the soils were grouped into eight series
depending on the amount of organic matter present in the soil. The
samples are numbered as follows:
Richland Twp., 1-10 and 108-111, inclusive.
Aubbeenaubbee, 11-19 and 106-107.
Henry, 20-24 and 124-128.
Newcastle, 25-27 and 112-123.
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Rochester, 28-31 and 45-60 also 66.
Liberty, 61-65 and 67-75.
Wayne, 76-87 and 91-93.
Union, 80-90 and 94-105.
The tables and graphs which follow will give a partial composition
of the soil in per cents and pounds per acre and express this in termu
of bushels of corn i)er yield.
TABLE I.
The N. P. and Orgainic Matter, from 0.5 to 1^; Orfcanic Matter.
Sample
% (). M.
Pounds per
No.
Acre.
I
9 Subsoil
.5143
10,286
2
116 Subsoil
.6664
13.328
3
87 SubBOJl
.6789
13.578
4
103 Subsoil
.7945
15.89U
5
16 Subaoil
.8014
16,028
6
•68 Subeoil
.8046
16.092
7
2 Subsoil
.8614
17.228
*
79 Subsoil
.9824
19.648
%N.
Pounds per
% P.
Pounds per
Acre
.Acre.
.014
280
.0243
486
.017
340
.(H62
924
015
300
0725
1.450
.0042
84
0576
1.152
014
280
.0674
1.348
.027
540
.0364
728
00H4
168
.0553
1,106
.021
420
0580
1.160
•Acid.
r^^SB^Ti ^
Ski. L^?^'%^Hr"""^^^^
1 L.-«^L^H|i^^|f^?yy^***"' .>«#.J-J — ^....^^^H^^B
wS£k^ ^'^^^^
iZ3,tl-^5rJ3 1.
E^ ::^':^,ca ' "^ * " ^
cr:— — — ^
v. J ^•-*«' -^
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204
TABLE II.
The N. P. and Organic Matter, from I to 2% Organic Matter.
Sample
%0. M.
Pounds per
TcN.
Pounds per
%P.
Pounds per
No.
Acre.
Acre.
Acre.
1
12 Subsoil
1 141
22,820
.025
500
0320
640
2
98 Subsoil
1.158
23.160
.015
300
0539
1,078
3
5 Subsoil
1 171
23.420
OIK
360
03S1
762
4
•33 Subsoil
1 233
24.460
.011
220
.0«4
648
5
•96 Subsoil
I 318
26.360
.043
860
.0677
1.354
6
•55 Subsoil
1 376
27,520
.046
920
.1072
2,144
7
70 Subsoil
1 389
27.780
.017
340
.0755
1.510
8
89 Surface
1 396
27,920
.018
360
.0239
478
9
•110 Surface
1 397
27,940
.029
580
.0694
1.388
10
77 Subsoil
1 404
28.080
.027
540
.0674
1.318
11
•104 Virgin
•61 Surface
1 472
29.440
.034
680
.0485
970
12
1 576
31.520
.029
580
.0398
796
13
57 Subsoil
1 646
32.920
.014
280
.0516
1.032
14
•11 Surface
1 711
34.330
.059
1.180
.0526
1.052
15
67 Surface
1 744
34,880
.041
820
.0644
1.288
16
48 Surface
1.814
36.280
.066
1,320
.0768
1.536
17
•47 Surface
1 844
36.880
.063
1,260
.0256
512
18
•50 Virgin
1 902
38,040
.053
1.060
.0310
620
19
•102 Surface
1 992
39.840
.050
1.000
.0465
930
20
•86 Surface
1.997
39.940
.050
1.000
.0613
1,226
•Acid.
12.2% of Surface Soils in thb* organic group.
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TABLE III.
The N. P. and Organic Matter, from 2 to 3% Orgamc Matter.
Sample
No.
%0. M.
Pounds per
Acre.
%N.
Pounds per
Acre.
%P.
Pounds per
Acre.
1
•60 Subsoil
2 023
40.460
.018
960
.0745
1,490
2
•97 Surface
2 063
41,260
.069
1,380
.0559
1.118
3
•64 Subsoil
2 065
42.300
.021
420
.1543
3,086
4
•76 Surface
2.073
41,460
.a56
1.120
.1180
2.360
5
•1 Surface
2 114
42,280
.063
1,260
.0273
546
6
•115 Surface
2.197
43.940
.083
1.660
.0182
364
7
•63 Surface
2 198
43.960
.053
1,060
.0411
822
8
•107 Surface
2 245
44.900
.067
1,340
.0816
1,632
9
tl3 Virgin
2 307
46.140
.063
1,260
0654
1.308
10
•21 Subaoil
2 394
47,880
.032
640
.0762
1,524
11
t29 Subeoil
2 403
8,060
.022
440
.0162
324
12
•56 Surface
2.422
48,440
.077
1,540
.0634
1.268
13
•31 Surfaoe
2 442
48.840
.032
1.240
.0580
1,160
14
•75 Surface
2 475
49.500
.038
760
.1031
2.062
15
•99 Virgin
2 526
.50,520
.070
1,400
.ia3i
2.062
16
•90 Subsoil
2 564
51.280
.055
1,100
.0738
1,476
17
• Surface
2 567
51.340
.070
1,400
.0849
1,698
18
•32 Surface
2.579
51,580
.0ft4
1,280
.0479
958
19
51 Surface
2 585
51.700
.076
1.520
.0499
998
20
•4 Surface
2 620
52,400
.081
1,620
.0580
1,160
21
19 Subsoil
2 679
63,580
.036
720
.0394
788
22
65 Virgin
2 722
54.440
.059
1,180
.0600
1,200
23
t58 Virgin
•105 Surface
2 798
55,960
.039
780
.0620
1,240
24
2 841
56.820
.011
220
.0229
458
25
•111 Virgin
95 Surface
2886
57.720
.076
1.520
.1092
2.184
26
2.935
58,700
.125
2.500
.0644
1,288
27
•6 Virgin
2 994
59,880
.076
1,520
.0519
1.038
•Acid. tVery acid.
23.3% of Surface Soils in this organic group.
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TABLE IV.
The N. P. and Organic Matter, from 3 to 4% Organic Matter.
Sample
No.
%0.M.
Pounds j>er
Acre.
%N.
Pounds per
Acre.
%P.
Pounds per
Acre.
1
*09SuHaGe
3.000
60,000
.085
1,700
.W)76
1.152
2
34 Virgin
3.006
60,120
.085
1.700
.0843
1.686
3
118 Subsoil
3.101
62.020
080
1.600
.0708
1,416
4
•43 Surface
3.131
62.620
.083
1.660
0718
1.436
5
0 Subeoil
3.164
62.280
.032
640
.0414
828
6
•28 Surface
3.170
63,400
.070
1,400
.0634
1.268
7
52 SubaoU
3.176
63.520
.028
560
.0209
418
8
37 Surface
3.202
64,040
.090
1,800
.0516
1.032
9
122 Surface
3.228
65,160
.118
2,360
.0738
1.476
10
•62 Surface
3 258
65.360
.102
2.040
.0839
1,678
11
•10 Virgin
3 291
65.820
.074
1.480
.0401
802
12
02 Subeoil
3.338
66,760
.062
1.240
.0445
890
13
•42 Surface
3 405
68,100
.111
2.220
.0704
1.408
11
123 SubsoU
3.433
68,660
.078
1,560
1,246
15
74 Surface
3.489
69.780
.105
2.100
.0462
924
16
•8 Surface
3 589
71,790
.101
2.020
.0516
1,032
17
•14 SuHacc
3.837
76,740
.111
2,220
.0630
1,260
18
•7Suriace
3.861
77,220
.106
2.120
.0741
1.482
10
•38 Surface
3.905
78,100
.104
2,080
.0775
1.550
20
46 Subsoil
3.912
78.240
.062
1.240
.1132
2.264
21
•15 Suriace
3 913
78,260
.143
2.860
0593
1,186
•Acid.
16.6% of Surface Soils in this organic group.
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TABLE V.
The N. P. and Oncanic Matter, from 4 to 6% Organic Matter.
Sample
No.
%O.M
Pounds per
Acre.
%N.
Pounds per
Acre.
%P.
Pounds per
Acre.
,
80 Virxin
4.010
80,200
.109
2,180
.0812
1,624
2
t20 Surface
4.057
81,140
.113
2,260
.0593
1,186
3
•17 Vinrin
4 119
82.380
.118
2.360
.0937
1,874
4
128 Virfin
*«6 Surface
4233
84,660
.099
1.980
.1014
2.028
5
4.299
85.980
.146
2.920
.1078
2.156
6
109 Surface
4473
89.460
.133
2.660
.0317
634
7
•83 Surface
4.547
90,940
.120
2.400
.0600
1.200
8
91 Surface
4833
96.660
.140
2.800
0846
1.693
9
126 Surface
4.892
97,840
.112
2.240
.1001
2.002
10
•85 Surface
4.901
98,020
.164
3,280
.1099
2.198
11
100 Surface
5.110
102.600
.157
3.140
0620
1.240
12
27SubeoU
5.334
106.680
.0084
168
.0101
202
13
•69 Surface
5 335
106.700
.176
3.520
.0752
1.504
14
•93 Virgin
6 451
100,020
.175
3,500
.0866
1,732
15
127 Subeoil
5 504
110.080
.077
1,540
2123
4.246
16
78 Surface
5 579
111,580
.090
1,800
.0647
1.294
17
119 Virgin
5 703
114.060
.220
4,400
.1479
2,968
18
125 Subsoil
5 833
116.660
.108
2.160
.0696
1.392
19
•30 Virgin
5.996
119.920
.169
3.380
.0910
1,820
•Acid, fVery acid.
17.7% of Surface Soils in this orc^anic group.
»\ATL V
;■• :.
V
•
"■yW \
1 * " ' '
*^^ • . «
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TABLE \a.
The N. P. and Organic Matter, from 6 to 10% Oreanic Matter.
Sample
No
%O.M
Pounds per
Acre.
%N.
Pounds per
Acre.
%P.
Pounds per
Acre
1
117 Surface
6.278
125.560
.195
3,900
.0667
1.334
2
113 Subsoil
6.462
129,240
.192
3.840
.0654
1.308
3
73 Virgin
6 737
134,740
.190
3.800
.1382
2.764
4
72 Subeoil
7 215
144,300
.167
3.340
.0317
634
5
114 Virgin
108 Surface
7.437
148.740
.258
5,160
.1533
3.066
6
7 603
152,060
.020
400
.1412
2,824
7
112 Surface
8 645
172,900
.307
6.140
. 1587
3.174
8
18 Surface
8 695
173,900
.245
4,900
0108
216
9
94 Surface
9 312
186.240
.076
1.520
0559
1.118
10
23 Subsoil
9 377
187.540
.227
4,540
.1031
2,062
11
26 Surfane
9 634
192.680
.274
5.480
.1122
2,244
12
45 Surface
9.836
196,720
.295
5.900
.1692
3.3S4
10% of Surface Soils in this organic group.
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TABLE VIT.
Tho N. P. and Organic Matter, from 10 to 40% Organic Matter.
Sample
%O.M.
Pounds per
%N.
Pounds per
%P.
Pounds per
No.
Acre.
Acre.
Acre.
1
25 Surface
11.205
224,100
.409
8,180
1361
2,722
2
24 Virgin
121 SurTace
11.891
237.820
.403
8.060
.1227
2.454
3
12.009
240.190
.399
7,980
.0344
688
4
82 Surface
12.025
240.500
.000
0,000
.1301
3,602
5
•71 Surface
13.146
262,920
.391
7.820
.0839
1.678
6
22 Surface
13 228
264.560
.428
8.560
.0816
1.632
<
84 Surface
16.318
326,360
.610
12.200
.1752
3.504
8
81 Surface
20.026
400.520
.626
12,520
.2763
5,526
9
39 Surface
28.239
564,780
.994
19,880
.1995
3,990
10
101 Surface
33 230
664,600
1.205
24.100
.3936
7,872
•Acid.
11. 1% of Surface Soils in thin organic group.
4 ;^^
i-
. 1.
: i
pLATt a
1
jft.
• --r---^^^^^"-
14—11994
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TABLE VIII.
The N. P. and Organic Matter, from 40 to 85% Organic Matt«r.
Sample
%0. M.
PoundBper
%N.
Pounds per
%P
Pounds per
No.
Acre.
Acre.
Acre.
I
*120 Surface
41.666
416,660
1 491
14.910
.0903
903
2
41 Vincin
51.778
617.780
1.529
15.290
.2258
2,258
3
•36 Subsoil
56.469
564,690
1.876
18.760
.2642
2,642
4
t44 Surface
64.652
646.520
2.138
21,380
.2116
2.116
5
124 Surface
66.196
661.960
2.124
21.240
.2035
2.035
6
t35 Surface
68.514
685,140
2.254
22.540
.3060
3.060
7
106 Surface
72.343
723,430
2.656
26.560
.3923
3.923
8
53 Surface
76.913
769.130
3.27o
32.760
.3572
3.572
9
54 Subsoil
80.661
806.610
3.157
31.570
.3478
3.478
10
40 Subsoil
81.260
812.600
1.928
19.280
.3977
3.977
U
88 Surface
84.698
846.980
2.496
24,960
.2912
2.912
•Acid. tVery acid. *1, 000, 000 pounds per acre 6 2-3 in. = weight of muck sail.
8.8% of the Surface Soils in this organic ^oup.
Summary.
Analysis shows that a large per cent of the soils of Fulton County
are deficient in organic matter. About half of them are below 4 per
cent.
The soils are not very acid to litmus. Only six samples were found
to be unusually acid while fifty-two others were slightly acid to the
same indicator. Most of the acid samples were among the soils con-
taining a low amount of organic matter.
A considerable number of the soils contained less than 1,500 pounds
of phosphorus and nitrogen per acre (6 2/3 in.). These amounts are
deficient and such soils would undoubtedly respond profitably if fer-
tilized with these elements.
The tables show a considerable decrease in content of plant food in
cultivated soil compared with corresponding virgin soils.
The accompanying graphs indicate that there is a close relation-
ship between the yield of corn and the nitrogen and phosphorus content
of the soil. As the nitrogen and phosphorus content increases, the
yield increases.
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Sulphur By-Products of the Preparation op Ether.
p. N. Evans and G. K. Foresman — Purdue University.
The formation of ethyl ether from alcohol and sulphuric acid was
first explained by Williamson in 1852. According to his theory the
first reaction is the formation of ethyl sulphuric acid and water, accord-
ing to the equation,
CjH.OH + H^Oi = C3H6HSO4 -h H,0.
The ethyl sulphuric acid then reacts with more alcohol to form
ether and sulphuric acid,
CjHsHSO, -1^ CaH.OH = C.H50C,H5 + H^SO*.
If these changes were the only ones taking place a limited quantity
of sulphuric acid might convert an unlimited quantity of alcohol into
ether and water.
Experience has shown, however, that there is a limit to the quantity
of alcohol that can be converted into ether by a given weight of sul-
phuric acid, and two explanations have been offered for the limitation.
Many writers accept the theory that the water produced in the first
reaction so dilutes the sulphuric acid that the change can not continue.
It has been shown, however, by Evans and Sutton, that the water does
not accumulate enough to prevent the reaction but distills over with
the ether, normal results having been obtained when starting with very
dilute sulphuric acid, the acid becoming concentrated enough for its
normal effect by the time the proper temperature (140°) is reached.
Others, including the present writers, accept the explanation that
the sulphuric acid employed is gradually converted into other sulphur
compounds, either carried out of the generator with the ether and
water, or, if remaining, incapable of inducing the formation of ether.
The purpose of the work here reported was to determine the quantities
of these sulphur by-products formed during the heating.
Numerous by-products have been reported by previous workers,
including the following: Sulphur dioxide, sulphurous acid, ethyl sul-
phurous acid; sulphuric anhydride, ethyl sulphuric acid, ethyl sulphate;
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ethyl sulphonic acid, isethionic acid, ethionic acid, butyl sulphonic acid
and the ethyl esters of these acids.
Experimental.
Outline.
The experimental work consisted of the preparation of ether in
the usual way from ordinary alcohol and strong sulphuric acid, main-
taining as nearly as practicable a constant temperature of 140°, as
long as ether resulted from introducing fresh alcohol. The distillate
and residue were then examined quantitatively for by-products con-
taining sulphur, which were determined as of three classes: sulphurous
acid and sulphites, sulphuric acid and sulphates, and sulphonic acids
and sulphonates; no distinction was made between the different pos-
sible substances within any class, as between the acid and its esters,
except in the case of sulphuric acid and its esters.
Sulphuric Acid Used.
Twenty-five cubic centimeters of commercial concentrated acid were
used, so-called 66° Baume or 1.84 sp. gravity. Unfortunately an ac-
curate determination of its concentration was not made, but assuming
that the material used was in accordance with its specification it con-
tained about 95 per cent HaSO*, and the weight of pure acid used was
43.7 grams. This figure agrees fairly well with the total sulphur found
in the products, which was equivalent to 45.25 grams of sulphuric acid.
The work is being repeated with accurate observations.
In the percentages g:iven below reference is made to the total sul-
phur found by direct analysis of the products, and not this 43.7 grams
of sulphuric acid.
Ether Preparation.
The apparatus included a 250 cc. distilling flask provided with a
thermometer dipping into the liquid, and a dropping funnel delivering
alcohol just above the surface and bent away from the thermometer;
the flask was attached to a condenser, connected with a 2\^ liter receiv-
ing bottle, followed by two wash-bottles containing bromine water, the
entrance tube of each reaching to the bottom, to catch any possible
sulphur dioxide escaping from the receiving bottle. Each bottle was
provided with a safety tube reaching nearly to the bottom, which in
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the case of the wash-bottles served also for the introduction of bromine
as needed.
In the flask were placed 25 cc. concentrated sulphuric acid and
25 cc. ordinary strong alcohol, so-called 95 per cent; the mixture was
heated to 140° and the temperature maintained as nearly constant as
possible, alcohol being run in continuously from the funnel. The dis-
tillation lasted a total of 33^ hours exclusive of interruptions. Air
was then aspirated through the whole apparatus to sweep out remaining
vapors; a small quantity of black residue was left in the flask.
Examination of the Distillate.
The distillate measured 4,100 cc. from 4,700 cc. of alcohol used;
it was acid to litmus and its gravity was 0.880 at 18°.
The apparent loss is due largely to the formation of ethylene, evi-
dence of which was shown by a layer of ethylene bromide in the wash
bottles.
One liter of the distillate was saponified with an excess of sodium
hydroxide, to convert all esters into the corresponding sodium salts,
and distilled down to 50 cc, the distillate being again distilled down to
about 5 cc. and the residues were mixed. It was alkaline.
Sulphur as Sulphur Dioxide and Sulphites.
The alkaline residue was diluted and an aliquot part was acidified
with hydrochloric acid and distilled into bromine water to convert the
sulphur dioxide evolved into sulphuric acid, which was determined as
barium sulphate; the sulphur found amounted to 1.03 per cent of that
employed as sulphuric acid. The contents of the two wash-bottles con-
taining bromine water were freed from bromine and precipitated with
barium chloride and 0.96 per cent of the original sulphur found. Dur-
ing the preparation of ether, therefore, 1.99 per cent, of the sulphur
of the acid used was lost from the generating flask in the form of sul-
phur dioxide and sulphites.
Sulphur as Sulphuric Acid and Sulphates.
An aliquot part of the alkaline residue from the saponification was
analyzed for sulphates by precipitation as barium sulphate. The sul-
phur found amounted to 89.42 per cent of the total found.
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In order to distinguish between sulphuric acid, ethyl sulphuric acid
and ethyl sulphate in the ether distillate, the residue on evaporation
of an aliquot part was dissolved in water and precipitated with barium
chloride; the barium sulphate corresponded to 46.54 per cent of the
total sulphur as sulphuric acid. The total acidity of another aliquot
part of the residue of the ether distillate was determined by titration
with standard alkali; the free sulphuric acid already found as described
was subtracted, and the remaining acidity considered as due to ethyl sul-
phuric acid, the sulphur in this form amounting to 8.49 per cent of
the total sulphur. The total sulphur in the ether distillate (89.42) less
the sulphur as sulphuric acid (46.54) and that as ethyl sulphuric acid
(8.49) would represent the sulphur as ethyl sulphate, namely, 34.39
per cent of the total sulphur.
As several months elapsed between the preparation of the ether
and this examination of the product it is probable that there had been
considerable change from ethyl sulphate into ethyl sulphuric acid and
sulphuric acid, on account of the hydrolytic action of the water present.
At the temperature of 140°, however, sulphuric acid (boiling point of
the dihydrate is given as 170-199°) might distill as readily as ethyl
sulphate (boiling point 208°); nothing seems to be known as to the
possibility of ethyl sulphuric acid distilling as such.
Sulphur as Sulphonic Acids and Sulpkonates.
The filtrate from the barium sulphate precipitate obtained in the
determination of sulphur as sulphuric acid and sulphates was evap-
orated to dryness and the residue subjected to a Carius determination
for sulphur; 4.62 per cent of the total sulphur was found.
Examination op the Residue.
Suljihur as Sulphur Dioxide,
The residue, weighing 3 grams, stood several months in the closed
distilling flask. Air was aspirated through the flask and then through
bromine water, and 0.15 per cent of the total sulphur was found in the
bromine water.
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Sulphur as Sulphuric Acid.
The residue was extracted with water and an aliquot part of the
filtrate was treated with barium chloride; 1.69 per cent of the total sul-
phur was found.
Sulphur as Sulphates,
An aliquot part of the filtrate from the black residue was saponi-
fied with sodium hydroxide and total sulphuric acid determined as
barium sulphate. Deducting the sulphuric acid found without saponifi-
cation treatment, 0.99 per cent of the original sulphur was found as
sulphates, presumably ethyl sulphuric acid and ethyl sulphate.
Sulphur as Sulphonic Adds and Sulphonates.
The filtrate from the barium sulphate obtained in the determina-
tion of sulphur as sulphates was evaporated to dryness with potassium
nitrate and barium hydroxide, and the residue after ignition, was
treated with dilute nitric acid, filtered and weighed as barium sulphate,
showing 1.02 per cent of the original sulphur.
Sulphur in the Insoluble Carbonaceous Residue.
The extracted black residue was fused with potassium nitrate and
barium hydroxide and the resulting barium sulphate was weighed. It
corresponded to 0.12 per cent of the original sulphur.
Conclusions.
From the following results it appears that the formation of ether
ceases because of the disappearance of the sulphuric acid from the
generating flask.
Sulphur was found in the following forms and proportions, referred
to their total as 100 per cent.
Sulphur dioxide escaping from the receiver during dis-
tillation 0.96 per cent.
Sulphur dioxide and sulphites in ether distillate 1.03
Sulphuric acid and sulphates in ether distillate 89.42
Sulphuric acid in ether distillate 46.54
Ethyl sulphuric acid in distillate 8.49
Ethyl sulphate in ether distillate 34.39
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Sulphonic acids and sulphonates in distillate 4.62 '
Sulphur dioxide in residue 0. 15 '
Sulphuric acid in residue 1 . 69 I
Ethyl sulphuric acid and ethyl sulphate in residue 0.99 i
Sulphonic acids and sulphonates in residue 1 . 02
Sulphur in insoluble carbonaceous residue 0.12
Total 100.00
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The Effect of Tobacco Smoke and of Methyl Iodide Vapor
ON THE Growth of Certain Micro-Organisms.
(Abstract. Published in full in Am. Jour. Bot. 5: 1918.)
C. A. LuDWiG — Lawrence University, Appleton, Wis.
The work here abstracted was carried out under the direction of
Prof. F. C. Newcombe at the University of Michigan and was supple-
mentary to a similar investigation in which illuminating* gas and its
constituents were employed.
The organisms used in the case of tobacco smoke included 14 species
of bacteria and 2 of fungi, and in that of methyl iodide vapor 13 species
of bacteria and 2 of fungi. The cultures were on glucose nutrient agar
slants. The culture chambers were tubulated glass bell jars set in
crystallizing dishes and sealed with paraffin.
The methyl iodide was introduced into the chamber on a pledget of
cotton attached to the end of a glass rod fastened in a stopper. The
stopper, in turn, was used to close the tubulature in the bell jar.
When smoke was used it was introduced by means of a tube through
a two-hole stopper in the tubulature. The suction was provided by an
aspirator connected with the interior of the bell jar by a tube through
the second hole in the stopper. The tobacco was burned in a cob pipe.
In some tests the smoke was used without being treated in any way;
in others it was passed through one or two wash bottles of water.
The results indicated that tobacco smoke is toxic to the organisms
tested but not so extremely toxic as to some phanerogams. In view
of the large number of compounds in smoke it is hardly worth while to
venture an opinion as to what substances caused the results observed.
The wash smoke, however, showed less toxicity than the unwashed
smoke. This would suggest that something capable either of being
condensed or of being dissolved in water has some part in causing the
results.
The effect of methyl iodide vapor was to kill the cultures where
the concentration was great enough. Where the concentration was
less it resulted in an initial great retardation in the development of the
streaks followed later by a very vigorous growth.
^The influence of illuminatinfir gas and its constituents on certain bacteria and
fungi. Am. Jour. Bot. 5: 1918.
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Brief Notes on the New Castle Tornado.
C. C. Beals — Indiana University.
A number of destructive tornadoes occurred in Indiana during
1917. The first one of these passed over a part of New Castle. Mr.
Melvin Kelleher and the writer mapped the tract of the storm under
the direction of the Geology Department of Indiana University.
The New Castle tornado formed about 3:00 o'clock in the afternoon
on March 11, 1917. At the point of origin objects were displaced by
two currents of air. One from the southwest and the other from the
northwest, meeting in Sec. 11, Tp. 17 N, R. 9 E. The wind from the
southwest seemed to be a straight wind but the one from the north-
west evidently had a spiral motion, judging from the direction the
fences, trees and other objects fell. The first evidences of wind dis-
turbance occurred about one mile southwest of Cadiz. The storm
traveled almost due east exijept for a few short curves. It struck New
Castle about the center on the west side, after crossing a broad glacial
valley, and emerged near the southeast comer of the town. The tor-
nado continued in a general eastward direction, going south of Hagers-
town, and ceased inflicting damage about four miles southeast of that
place.
The storm evidently continued eastward high in the air, going about
eight miles north of Richmond into Ohio. Fragments of articles were
found in Ohio.
One interesting feature noted was in a large wood about sixty rods
from north to south which lay in the path of the wind where the storm
first formed. Trees were uprooted and broken off, all falling toward
the general direction of the wind except two trees at either end, which
were crossed. The main destruction was caused by the portion of the
storm south of the storm center and the crossing was produced by the
opposite current in the whirl.
The track of 4he storm could be easily traced except at two points,
where there was no disturbance for over one-half mile in each case.
The storm first appeared like a huge mass of black coal smoke
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rolling, tumbling forward, which later formed a black cloud with a
funnel-shaped tail. The noise made by it was described as being like a
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OUNT Carmel Fault.
icted
:t of
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is a
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rigin
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The most palpable objection to this view is the fact that no noncon-
formity exists between the Knobstone and the Harrodsburg limestone
at their contact a few miles west of the strip. Another objection is
that the bottom of the channel, at present at least, is not all of uniform
elevation throughout its length. The principal objections to the view
of a double fault are two — at no point was a direct vertical contact
of Knobstone and limestone visible, nor was there to be seen any of
the tilting, crushing and shattering which usually accompanies faulting.
On the other hand, as the vicinity of the contact line is approached
the shaly layers of the limestone become more and more argillaceous
and apparently pass over into the Knobstone. To determine the exact
conditions under which the limestone strip was laid down would re-
quire more extended study than is consistent with the scope of this
report. What has been done was to trace upon the accompanying maps
the outcrop of the Bedford oolitic and to examine the bed more care-
fully at places where it is now being quarried, namely at Heltonville
and Fort Ritner."
In the proceedings of the Academy of Science of Indiana for 1897,
page 262, J. A. Price discusses the boundary of the limestone strip and
says in conclusion: ''It is not possible, from data in hand, to say
surely whether this strip of limestone owes its existence to an uncon-
formity or a fault."
In 1903 J. F. Newsom published a description of a "Geologic Section
Across Southern Indiana" as a part of the 26th Annual Report of the
State Geologist. On pages 274 and 275 Newsom refers to the structure
as a fault in the Knobstone area. He gives its extent as being from
near Unionville in Monroe County to a point in .the northern part of
Washing:ton County.
In referring to the discussions of Siebenthal and Price in the
27th Annual Report of the State Geologist, 1903, on page 90, Ashley
says: "It is evident that if the limestone strip north of White River
is due to a fault its effects should continue to the south rather than
turn and follow the outcrop. A glance at the map in the region north
of Campbellsburg is alone sufficient proof of the fault character of the
disturbance."
In studying this structure in detail the writer has found that it is
much more extensive than Newsom stated; that there is a second fault;
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that other disturbances were connected with it and that the actual
contact which he has found presents some interesting features.
Extent of the Fault. — While I have not yet been able to trace the
fault to the borders of the State at either of its extremities I have been
able to trace it far beyond its mentioned boundaries and feel confident
that the particular disturbance under discussion extended from the
Ohio to the Wabash along the western border of the Knobstone outcrop
and perhaps beyond. Tracing the fault south of Campbellsburg in
Washington County is difficult because the area on each side of the
rift is occupied by limestone.
Along the northern end of the displacement glacial deposits conceal
the bedrock to such an extent as to render observation difficult. Undei
these circumstances the best that can be done is to trace the disturbance
by the reversal of dip of the limestones, as the finding of the rift will
be extremely difficult. By such observations as it was possible to make
I have traced the disturbance from a point southeast of Campbellsburg
in Washington County to a point northwest of Waveland in Montgomery
County.
Rift. — The actual contact of the rocks along the fault plane is
revealed in only a few places. There are numerous places where the
harder, more resistant stratum of limestone stands forth like a wall on
one side of the rift, but the opposite side is occupied by mantle rock
which was derived by the weathering of the Knobstone and which con-
ceals the actual rift. Excavations made at such places would doubtless
reveal the actual contact of the limestone and the Knobstone.
In a few localities the rift is exposed and the plane of the fault
is bordered on the one side with limestone and on the other by shale.
One outcrop of the rift zone was found in the bed of the north fork of
Leatherwood Creek near Heltonville. At this point the Knobstone
occurs on one side of the fault plane and the Harrodsburg limestone on
the other. The line of rift is distinct, being marked by a thin bed of
breccia. The brecciated zone is composed mainly of fragments of lime-
. stone in which small fragments of shale are intermingled. These frag-
ments have been cemented together with calcite and the whole zone more
or less marbleized. In a cross-section of the brecciated rock the veins
of calcite stand out clearly, as they are whiter than the fragments of
limestone and shale which they bind together. Small quantities of
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other minerals are present in some parts of the brecciated zone, but
there is an absence of the more insoluble minerals, such as silica or the
silicates. This fact leads to the conclusion that meteoric rather than
thermal waters have played the leading role in the concentration of
these minerals.
Periods of Movement, — The question of whether the displacement
took place all at one time or was intermittent is an interesting one. All
of my attempts to find an evidence of intermittent movement by an ex-
amination of surface features have been unsuccessful. If there were
intermittent movements of any considerable extent we would probably
find them revealed in hanging valleys on the upthrow side and the rapid
broadening of valleys on the downthrow side of the fault. In case there
were two stages of movement, and the movement in the last stage an
exceedingly slow one, the vertical cutting of the main stream might
be as rapid as the uplift, but still the rejuvenation of the tributaries
should result in a narrowing of the valleys. In the rift zone there is
evidence of two stages of movement though the amount of displacement
in the second stage is slight. The time interval between the two move-
ments was of considerable leng:th, since the fragments of the brecciated
zone were firmly cemented before the second movement took place.
Fragments of shale which were included in the limestone fragments
during the first movement were faulted by the second movement. These
shale inclusions would not have undergone faulting had they not been
held rigidly in place by the cementing material.
Amount of Throw. — The amount of throw of the fault varies prob-
ably from 200 to 300 feet. Opportunities for measuring the amount of
throw are not numerous. It can best be computed by estimating the
total amount of eastward dip of the formations along the line of con-
tact between the Harrodsburg and the Knobstone. At a point south
of Mt. Carmel the difference in elevation of the contact above sea level
is 50 feet in a distance of one-fourth mile. Since the width of the
down-thrown block is at least one mile and a half in this locality the
throw of the fault is at least 300 feet. The aniount of dip of the down-*
thrown beds in other localities is less than at this point, so much less
that the indicated throw is not more than 200 feet.
Age of the Fault, — The time at which the dislocation occurred can
not be fixed definitely. It is probable that it occurred at the close of the
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Paleozoic Era when the Appalachian revolution which resulted in the
elevation of the eastern part of North America took place. Contem-
poraneous with or subsequent to that great epeirogenic movement, fault-
ing and minor folding took place in Indiana, Illinois and Iowa, and
other States lying as far west as these from the region of maximum
disturbance. These faults like the one under discussion have a north-
west trend.
The Heltonville Fault. — About one mile west of the Mt. Carmel fault
there is a second fault. This I have named the Heltonville fault be-
cause the rift is exposed a short distance east of Heltonville in the bed
of the north fork of Leatherwood Creek, at a point just east of the
wagon crossing under the Southern Indiana railroad. This fault lies ap-
proximately parallel with the Mt. Carmel fault. The limestone has been
faulted down against the Knobstone. Slickenslides have been produced in
the limestone and it has been much fractured. In places the limestone
has been thrust backward and fragments of the Knobstone shales have
been thrust into the limestone. In places these formations are dove-
tailed, fingers of limestone projecting into the Knobstone and vice versa
as first one and then the other yielded to the pressure. The fragments
of limestone containing inclusions of shale have been united by calcite
veins.
Though the fault character of the disturbance at this point is in-
contestable it is not equally clear at other points. The disturbance ex-
tends both north and south of this point, but it probably passes into a
fold in both directions. In Monroe County near Unionville there is an
anticline whiqh occupies about the same position in relation to the Mt.
Carmel fault as the Heltonville fault does. Similar folds have been
noted at intervening points and also to the south of Heltonville.
Effect Upon Topography, — The general effect upon topogrraphic
conditions within the area of disturbance has been to produce a nar-
row limestone belt extending parallel with the main Knobstone outcrop
and bordered on each side by outcrops of Knobstone. In the southern
portion of the faulted area the western belt of Knobstone is absent, but
its nearness to the surface along the line of the eastward reversal of
dip is revealed in the channels of many streams which have carved
their valleys at right angles to the line of reversal. Probably the most
marked effect is on the drainage. Both surface and underground
15—11994
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drainage lines are affected. In the faulted area the ground waters
which have found their way through the limestone have a tendency to
follow the eastward sloping surface of the Knobstone to the rift, and
near this point often come to the surface in a stream valley which lies
near the rift and generally parallel with it. This tendency of the
underground streams is modified by local dips of the strata north or
south.
The surface streams, especially those along the line of the fault
plane, have been influenced by the displacement. They have worked off
the harder limestones on to the Knobstone in many places. These fol-
low the line of rift until a local north or south dip has caused them to
change the direction of their course. Small tributaries of the larger
cross-cutting streams have developed, as has been noted again and
again, along the line of rift.
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Utilization of Indiana Kaolin.
WiLUAM N. Logan — Indiana University.
Extensive beds of kaolin exist in Lawrence and Martin counties in
the horizon of the Huron formation. The kaolin has been mined and
utilized to a limited extent only. Its abundance and quality justifies a
more extended use. Attempts have been made to use it as a substitute
for southern kaolin used in Indiana in the manufacture of encaustic
tile. The lack of bonding power is evident from the cracks and crazes
which occur in the burned ware. The writer undertook to find a clay
which might be mixed with the kaolin for the purpose of supplying
bonding power and tensile strength. Mixtures of pottery clays and
Indiana fire clays were made and the objects burned. It was found
that tile could be manufactured successfully out of the kaolin when
from 25 to 40 per cent of fire clay was added.
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Certain Indicia of Dip in Rocks.
William N. Logan — Indiana University.
The object of this paper is to bring together certain indications of
dip and the direction of dip in rocks which the writer has observed in
his field work. Ali of these indicia have been noted doubtless by other
observers of geological conditions. However, they are brought to-
gether here in the hope that the collection may be of assistance to
students of structural problems in geology.
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Fi?. 1. Cross-section of strata, showing dipping beds with a grulch approximately
at right angles to the dip. Right surface of rocks in gulch damp, left surface, dry.
Wet or Damp Surfaces, — In the case of an outcrop extending ap-
proximately at right angles to the dip of the beds the exposed surface
of the rocks on the lower side of the dipping beds may be bathed in
moisture. The presence of the moisture is due to the seepage of water
from the porous layers in the rocks. Such seepage can take place only
under certain conditions of humidity and would not be noticeable in an
arid region. If the outcrop is in a railroad cut or in a stream with
precipitous banks the outcrop on the opposite side from the clamp sur-
face will be dry because the water is conducted away from its surface,
instead of toward it. The conditions are illustrated in the following
diagram in which the shaded side of the cut on the down-dip side is
kept moist by water flowing along the bedding planes and through
porous layers, while the surface of the rocks on the opposite side of the
cut is dry because the water is conducted away from the exposure. If
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the dip were, say, a southwest dip, then the south warG direction of the
dip would be revealed by wet surfaces on the north side of outcrops,
while the westward dip would be revealed by moisture on the east side
of exposures.
Springs. — Such conditions as have been outlined above often result
in the formation of springes. Sometimes a chain of springs is formed
Fif?. 2. The case of a stream cutting ihroueh strata approxunately at risrht angrles
to the dippiner beds. Springs will be formed at the contact of porous and impervious
layers on the left bank of the stream.
Fig. 3. Showing cross-section of a partly disectcd anticline. Sprinfts may be formed
in the valleys on each side of the axis at the points of contact of pervious and imper-
vious layers.
along an exposure on its down-dip side. The essential conditions for a
spring, such as a porous layer overlying an impervious one, must be
present. Springs are of especial value as indicia in cases of concealed
outcrop. Even if the bed-rock be concealed by mantle rock, springs often
break forth at the point of contact of the pervious and impervious beds
and by observing the position of these along the valley walls of cross-
cutting streams,, as in the case of wet surfaces, the direction of dip
may be determined.
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Springs are also good indicia of reversal of dip. Take for example
the occurrence of a porous bed overlying an impervious bed in an anti-
cline. Springs will be formed one each side of the anticline at the
point of contact of the porous bed with the impervious one. If the
anticline is a symmetrical one a chain of springs may occur at about
the same elevation on each side of the fold. If the anticline is unsym-
metrical the springs may occur at a higher elevation on one side than on
the other.
Springs may also indicate the reversal of dip produced by the down-
throw of a block along a normal fault. The springs will occur on the
banks of depressions following the general direction of the strike and
on the down-dip side of the outcrop.
Fig. 4. Shows i)ool of water formed on surface of dippinK bed. Note position of
water level with reference to position of bedding planes on each side of pool.
Surface of Pools. — The surface of pools of water in inclined strata
furnishes a horizontal plane by means of which even slight degrees of
dip may be recognized. The conditions most favorable to such observa-
tions are the presence of inclined beds of hard rock or alternate layers
of hard and soft rock which have been crossed by a stream in the bed
of which pools have been formed. Using the surface of the water in
the pool as a level, even slight dips may be detected by the difference
in the elevation of the surface of the water upon layers on opposite sides
of the pool. If the water stands on the uneroded surface of a hard
layer it will have greater depth on the down-dip side of the pool.
Stream Channels, — The channels of dry streams are useful in de-
termining the direction of dip. In the case of a stream trending in a
line which is, in general, parallel with the strike and cutting across
hard layers or beds composed of alternate hard and soft layers the
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stream will be thrown toward the down-dip side. The channel of the
stream will have a more gentle slope on the up-dip side and a more abrupt
slope toward the down-dip side. The stream, tending to follow the sur-
face of the hard layer in the bottom of the channel, cuts against the
bank on the lower side of the inclined bed making that bank more
abrupt by under cutting. At the same time the more shallow deposi-
tional area of the stream is on the opposite side and its slope is ren-
dered more gentle.
Overhanging Ledges, — Outcrops of rock in inclined strata which
contain layers of sufficient induration to project unsupported form on
the upper side of the inclined beds overhanging ledges. These ledges
occur in layers of hard rock but are more pronounced in outcrops con-
taining alternate layers of hard and soft rock. Slight degrees of dip
Fif?. 5. Notch cut by stream in dippins: strata. Note erentle slope on left and abrupt
slope on rigrht.
may be noted by observing the plane of shadows under these overhang-
ing rocks. Frequently the direction of dip may be determined by the
movement of water on the underside of these ledges.
Caves, — In limestone regions the position of caves serves as an
indication of the direction of dip. Wherever a stream cuts through a
thick bed of inclined limestone the valley wall opposite the down-dip
side of the stream will have a series of caves which mark the positions
of tributaries or of former tributaries of the stream. The opposite side
of the valley will contain no caves in its wall. If these caves occur on
the west side of a valley trending north and south the direction of the
dip of the beds is eastward.
In the case of a stream heading in an inclined bed of limestone it
frequently happens that more than one cave is formed. Frequently
one at each terminal of the small tributaries. If these tributaries be
close together and approximately parallel one will necessarily be farther
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down on the inclined slope of the beds than the other. Now since these
tributaries are supplied with water draining down the surface of the
impervious layer beneath the limestone the tributary farthest down
on the slope will receive the greater amount of water. Thus it often
happens that there is a lower cave from which a stream of water is
issuing and an upper cave that contains little or no running water.
In regions of such occurrences the cave on the lower part of the slope
is referred to as the "wet cave" and the upper one as the "dry cave."
The direction of dip is readily determined by the relative positions of
these caves.
FiiT. 6. Shows valley trending at ritirht angles to the dip of inclined strata.
and overhansdng: ledges on left.
Cave
Sink Holes, — On moderately to steeply inclined limestone surfaces
the shape of the sink holes may be an indication of the direction of dip.
As a rule the longer axis of the sink hole will lie parallel to the direc-
tion of dip. Erosion produced by water flowing into the sink will be
greater on the side opposite the direction of dip. The slope on this side
of the sink becomes longer and more gentle. Very frequently there
will be one or more short surface streams entering the sink from the
side of this gentler slope.
Length of Tributaries, — In the case of a stream cutting in a direc-
tion approximately at right angles to the direction of dip the tribu-
taries which follow down the dip will be longer than those which flow
up the dip. This would not be true in a rock of uniform hardness
devoid of stratification. Such indications are more noticeable in beds
containing hard and soft layers of rock.
Indurated Surfaces, — The surfaces of some porous beds of rock
which are exposed on the sides of cuts opposite the direction of dip
become indurated by the more or less constant evaporation of water
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containing minerals in solution. These minerals left behind fill the
pores of the rock and unite the individual grains of the rock, thus hard-
ening the surface. The rocks on the opposite side of the cut may lack
this degree of induration because, since the dip is away from the out-
crop, the greater part of the water is drained away from the surface
and the amount evaporated at this point is small.
Fig. 7. Croes-section and horizontal section of strata containinR sink holes. Note
lonffer axis of holes parallel to the direction of dip.
•
Deposition of SedimenL — On the surfaces of layers of hard rock
which are inclined either in quarries or stream beds the deposition of
sediment may indicate the direction of dip. The thicker accumulation
of sediment will occur in the direction of the dip. In the case of quarry
floors which are formed on the stratification planes the distribution of
rock dust and other forms of debris by running water will reveal the
direction of the dip.
Distribution of Vegetation. — In inclined beds which outcrop, vegeta-
tion is sometimes more abundant on the side of the outcrop opposite
the direction of dip. This greater abundance when it does occur is due
to the increased amount of moisture and its almost constant supply to
the surface of the outcrop through the porous layers whi(:h are draining
down the dip.
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Brief Notes on Field Methods Used in Geological Work
OF Mid-Continent Oil Fields.
Louis Roark — Indiana University.
In writing this article the writer is not attempting to make an
elaborate discussion of the various methods nor is he attempting to
suggest new methods of doing field work, but instead is endeavoring to
bring together in a compact form, various methods commonly used, for
the benefit of the young geologist who has not had an opportunity to
learn them by actual experience.
No doubt many will take issue with me in regard to the value of
some of these methods. However the writer has found them quite satis-
factory under certain conditions and within certain limitations.
The geological work as conducted by the different oil companies
of the mid-continent field is based upon one fundamental principle,
namely, the location of structure favorable to the production of oil.
The favorable structure as all know is the anticline. Therefore the
geologist is continually searching for the anticline.
The geologist meets with many and varied difficulties in this work.
He must follow the outcrops of the various rock strata and obtain eleva-
tions at intervals of at least one quarter mile and oftener if necessary.
He must also measure the vertical interval between the different strata
whenever the two horizons outcrop close together, thus presenting an
opportunity to make such measurement. This vertical interval should
be measured frequently in order to catch any variation in the interval.
These elevations and intervals are used as a basis for drawing the
structural contours, thus enabling the geologist to select the most fa-
vorable locations for drilling.
The following methods are used to obtain the elevation of outcrops.
1. Plane Table and Stadia Traverse, Using Telescopic Alidade.
2. Setting Bench Marks with Plane Table and Stadia. Geologist
Using Aneroid Barometer.
3. Using Aneroid Barometer with Stationary Barograph.
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4. Setting Bench Marks with Aneroid Barometer.
5. Reconnaissance (Scouting) Using Aneroid Barometer and Hand
Level.
Method No 1.
For close detail work the plane table and stadia traverse is by far
the most accurate method and no doubt favored by all geologists.
With this method the party consists of a geologist in charge and
an instrument man. The geologist carries the stadia and follows the
outcrop, giving stadia readings for location and elevation as fre-
quently as he deems necessary. Between stations the instrument man
sketches the drainage, roads and any and other features necessary to
make a complete geological map.
At intervals of an hour or an hour and a half the geologist should
return to the plane table and sketch the various outcrops on the map
and record the vertical interval between the different strata he has
mapped.
At night the day's work is inked in and that portion of the map
is complete with exception of the structural contours.
This method is favored for open country and areas free from tim-
ber growth, and is fairly rapid.
The small telescopic alidade used by the United States Geological
Survey is commonly used. The size of plane table depends upon hori-
zontal scale used, varying from 15 inches to 24 inches square.
Method No. 2.
The second method used is not as accurate as first but is much
more rapid for use in timber-covered areas.
With this method an instrument man with plane table, stadia and
a rodman are sent into the particular area to be mapped. They run
a stadia traverse along the roads, establishing bench marks at the
corners and other conspicuous places, at least every one-half mile. It
the roads are few the bench marks should be established at the end of
spurs that extend toward the main stream between tributary valleys. A
key system being used to mark the bench marks, the rodman paints
the bench marks according to the key used. The elevation and number
or key is recorded on the map for use of the geologist.
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The geologist now takes the level sheet from the instrument man
and by use of the aneroid barometer carries the elevation along the
outcrop of rock strata. For the results obtained with the barometer
to be of any value care should be taken that the barometer is checked
frequently.
The method ordinarily used is to set the aneroid barometer at same
elevation as bench mark from which start is made also noting time
barometer was set, which is essential. Whenever an elevation reading
is made on the outcrop the time of reading should be noted. The
barometer must be checked at a known elevation every forty or forty-
five minutes and should not be more than an hour between checks for
accurate results. The barometer must not be changed after being set
at first station in the morning.
At night, plot a curve showing amount of variation of barometer
from normal during day. By means of the curve correct all readings
for elevations made during the day by adding or subtracting the differ-
ence from normal, to the reading to be corrected.
Example: Suppose correction curve shows aneroid barometer was
reading 22 feet high at 10:15 and elevation reading on outcrop was
953 feet at same time. To get correct elevation of that point subtract
22 feet from 953 feet which gives 931 feet, the correct elevation. If
aneroid barometer was reading low at 10:15 the 22 feet should be added
to give correct elevation which would be 975 feet, etc.
While geologist is walking the outcrop, he should sketch the drain-
age, roads, trend of outcrop of rock strata and other features necessary
to make a complete geological map.
After making correction of barometer readings the day's work
should be inked as finished, so that the work will not be lost by erasure
during work the next day. The inking should be up to date at all
times.
The aneroid barometer most commonly used is 2% inches in diam-
eter graduated to record elevation of 3,000 feet with 10 feet divisions.
Frequently larger instruments are used, some as much as 6 inches in
diameter. The larger aneroids are the more accurate.
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Method No. 3.
The third method is not as accurate as either of the first two, but
much more rapid, and can be carried on with less expense, as the plane
table and operator are eliminated. With care accurate results can be
accomplished with this method.
If a geologist is sent into a field to do a rapid piece of work and
time available for doing the work or character of the work would not
pay to employ the use of plane table and stadia this method is the
most satisfactory one to use. The reader must keep in mind that the
element of time is important to the oil geologist. He must finish his
work and get report to the chief geologist to pass upon, before another
company has an opportunity to obtain lease on valuable acreage that
he is likely to report favorable.
In this method a barograph can be used to an advantage in con-
nection with the ordinary aneroid barometer. Set the barograph at
some place near center of area to be worked and proceed with aneroid
barometer as in Method No. 2, noting time all reading^s are made. At
night, instead of plotting curve as before, use curve of barograph and
proceed in same way to make correction for elevations.
If a barograph is not available use two aneroid barometers, one
to be stationary and the other carried by geologist. In case two aneroids
are used the one stationary should be read every 15 or 20 minutes
throughout the day and a curve plotted from these readings. Proceed
as before in making corrections for elevations.
Method No. 4.
The fourth method can be used in case it is desirable to detail a
small area and neither a plane table, barograph or extra aneroid
barometer is available and time is short for completing the work.
The geologist uses his aneroid to establish his own bench marks.
An elevation at a certain point may be assumed. Set aneroid at this
assumed elevation, noting the time. Drive in a circle making readings
at points where bench marks are desired, noting time of readings. Re-
turn to starting point within 45 minutes or an hour from time of start
Repeat circuit, checking previous readings. Now these points can be
used as bench marks, making circuits from these points establishing
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bench marks farther out, checking and rechecking the points to be used
as bench marks. Continue this until bench marks have been established
over area to be detailed. Plot curve and make corrections for eleva-
tions of points to be used for bench marks. After the bench marks
have been established the method of procedure is same as in Method No.
2 in all respects.
This method is very good and quite accurate for obtaining quick
results.
Method No. 5.
The fifth method is simply reconnaissance work, or scouting, as
it is frequently called.
With this method the geologist drives over the country observing
the dip of the rock strata by use of the hand level, aneroid barometer
or eye.
Wherever an exposure of rock is observed the hand level is used to
determine the approximate amount of dip in any distance. The direc-
tion of dip may be obtained by use of the compass. The geologist must
always know the height of his eye from the ground.
Example: Suppose strata is dipping west and in a distance of
one-quarter mile the geologist finds the dip to be five times the height
of his eye which is 5 feet 6 inches, therefore the rock would be dipping
27 feet 6 inches in one quarter mile, etc.
The aneroid barometer may be used in scouting to determine ap-
proximate amount of dip for short distances. Read elevation of outcrop,
then follow strata for distance exposed, with occasional readings, noting
amount of variation from first reading. This gives the amount of dip.
Example: If aneroid reads 700 feet at a given point and outcrop
is followed east one-quarter mile and then reads 670 feet, showing
strata dips east 30 feet in one quarter mile. Supposing second reading
was 732 feet then strata dips west 32 feet in one quarter mile, etc.
An experienced geologist should be assigned to scouting work. The
greatest value of this method is that it permits a large territory to be
covered rapidly and a g^reat part eliminated. An experienced man will
be able to find most of the structure. Later, if deemed advisable, the
various structures reported by the scout can be worked in detail by
either of the first two methods.
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An Improved Form of Mercury Vapor Air Pump.
Chas. T. KNIPP—University of Illinois.
(Abstract.)
The mercury vapor pump described in this paper retains the same
simple valve arrangement described recently by the writer,* but on the
other hand replaces the umbrella that deflected the mercury vapor
downward through an annular throat by the commonly used aspirator
nozzle through which the vapor issues vertically upwards. This neces-
sitates an interchange of connections leading to the supporting pump
and the vessel to be exhausted.
This pump, single stage, will operate on any oil supporting pump
of the grade of the Nelson pump. In addition to its speed, its simplicity
of design and ease of construction are important points, and when con-
structed of pyrex glass is durable.
The paper also gives the data obtained when several of these pumps
are placed in tandem. Again, a three-stage pump retaining the same
general principle is described, designed to operate on a poorly working
water aspirator as a supporting pump. The mercury vapor for each
stage is supplied from the same boiler, yet at different pressures, tlie
highest pressure to the first stage exhausting into the aspirator. Sam-
ple pumps and sketches were exhibited.
* Phys. Rev.. N. S. IX, No. 3. March, 1917.
le— 11994
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A Possible Standard of Sound.
Chas. T. Knipp — University of Illinois.
(Abstract.)
The paper as presented described a source of sound recently brought
to the writer's attention, while blowing a mercury vapor trap of pyrex
glass, that bids fair to furnish a standard of sound of any desired pitch
with no other apparatus than the trap and a bunsen burner. In its sim-
plest form the apparatus is an ordinary trap as shown in Fig. 1, having
the usual ring seal at M.
To operate, close A with a sliding piston of cork, let C remain open,
and apply a bunsen burner (adjusted to give a fairly hot flame) at B.
The tube AB should be held in the flame at an angle so that the central
portion M is not unduly heated. When B begins to glow, a pure tone
that is readily audible over a large room is emitted at C. The pitch of
the sound is dependent upon the length of the vibrating column AB and
also upon the length of the side tube MC. Attaching a horn at C
intensifies the sound many fold. The only opening is at C, yet a candle
placed at this point is instantly blown out. On closer examination it
was noticed that a current of air enters the tube C around its edge,
and another at the same time escapes from it along its axis.
There are other conditions that affect the pitch. Those noted thus
far are: That heating the region about M destroys the sound; but on
the other hand if the flame is removed from B, then C stopped and A
opened, the tube will again operate on heating M to redness; that the
pitch is raised by the addition of extra side tubes fused to the vibrating
column at M, and is instantly lowered when these extra branches are
in turn stopped.
Tubes having different dimensions were constructed. These can
be adjusted over wide ranges — each an octave or more — and all give,
apparently, clear tones particularly free from overtones. By supplying
heat to the end B at a constant rate (as by an electric furnace) the
pitch may be kept constant for an indefinite length of time. The ap-
paratus should therefore furnish a standard source of sound.
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2U
E
u
O
u
B
♦ 8 mm
I4mm
M
E
E
0>
V ?*."K». ." V >''113''.A-*
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Energy Losses in Commercial Hammers.
Edwin Morrison and Robert L. Petry — Earlham College.
It is a well-known principle of mechanics that, in case a moving
object impinges against another object, that the total momentum before
impact is equal to the total momentum after impact. In other words,
"That momentum is conserved in all impacts, be it between elastic or
inelastic objects." This law does not permit us to infer, however, that
there are no energy losses in impacts. In fact the kinetic energy is
always less after impacts than before impacts of two impinging objects.
By testing this out by ordinary laboratory methods we find these energy
losses to vary from as high as eighty per cent in case of inelastic impacts
to as low as two per cent in elastic impacts.
In teaching this subject I have for a number of years attempted
to illustrate and fasten these principles in the mind of the student by
such questions as the following: Suppose a carpenter is employing a
number of men in a mechanical process, such as the driving of nails
with a hammer, would it be of importance for him to look into the
grade of hammers used? Or again: Suppose a railroad company is
retracking its line and it is necessary to drive thousands of spikes, does
it matter whether the sledge hammers used are made of cast iron or a
high grade of steel?
It so happened that my present class inquired as to whether it
would be possible to try these conditions out in an experimental way.
After a moment's reflection I informed them that it would be a very
simple matter to make tests by substituting a hammer for one of the
steel spheres in our impact machine. This has been done in the case
of four hammers with considerable care.
The apparatus used was similar to that employed in Experiment 6,
page 62, in Millikan's Mechanics, Molecular Physics, and Heat. One of
the steel spheres was removed and the hammer to be tested was sub-
stituted in its place as shown in Fig. 1. In order to support the dif-
ferent hammers as nearly as possible under the same conditions, a frame
was suspended by four adjustable cords, to which the hammers could be
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246
rigidly bolted. The experiment consists in displacing the hammer to a
certain angular position to one side the normal position and allowing it
to drop and impinge upon the steel sphere, noting the maximum angular
displacement of both the steel sphere mi and the hammer after impact
The following equations are applicable
The Coefficient of Restitution = ^ =
The percentage loss of K.E. = 1 = (1 - $»)
m
mi - ni2
and w are measured directly upon the graduated scale ggi.
^(l — cos w) — J (v.os a — cos p)
4 (cos a — cos ff)
' (2) The values of a, p, «,
TABLE I.
•si
15
1
1
i
a
1
a
1
a
d
i
e
§1
1
1
:?.
^
s?
H
H
^
u
JJU»
<
No. 1
2329
6590
123 3
782.3
297
608
10 0
14.4
.9539
2.063
No. 1
232.9
659 0
123.3
782.3
2.97
6.63
11.0
15.9
.9405
2.645
2.354
No. 2
232 9
518 8
123.3
634 1
3.27
5.82
10 5
13.8
.8981
5.193
No. 2
232.9
518.8
123 3
634.1
3.27
6 29
11 5
15.2
.8945
5 364
5.297
No. 3
232 9
332 6
1233
455 9
3.00
4.70
99
11 8
.8618
8 693
No. 3
232 9
332.6
123.3
455 9
3 00
5.71
13.0
15.5
.8406
9 921
9.307
No. 4
232 9
245 6
123.3
368.9
3.02
5.95
15.0
15.2
.6829
20.65
No. 4
232.9
245.6
123 3
368.9
3.02
4.91
12.0
15.3
.7265
18 27
19.46
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247
Hammer No. 1 was a high-grade machinist hammer.
Hammer No. 2 was a claw hammer purchased as a high-grade tool.
Hammer No. 3 was a lower-grade machinist hammer.
Hammer No. 4 was a cast-iron hammer purchased at a five and ten
cent store.
The steel sphere used in the above experiment, when tested with a
similar sphere, gave an average of approximately two per cent energy
loss.
Conclusion: The experiment justifies the conclusion that high-g^rade
steel hammers conserve to a much larger degree the kinetic energy of
a blow than low-grade cast-iron hammers.
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The Effect of Artificul Selection on Bristle Number
IN Drosophila ampelophila.
Fernandus Payne — Indiana University.
The following brief abstract gives a summary of the results ob-
tained in an experiment designed to test the eifect of artificial selection
on bristle number in Drosophila ampelophila, and to find out in what
way selection is active.
The normal number of bristles on the scutellum is four. In a mass
culture which had been bred in the laboratory about three months, a
female was found with one extra bristle, or five in all. This female
was mated to a male from the same mass culture. Of the F offspring,
two females had five bristles. These two females were mated to their
normal brothers, and gave in F% 935 normal flies, thirty-nine with
five bristles, and four with six bristles. The flies with extra bristles
were again mated and this method of selecting the high-grade par-
ent has been continued throughout the experiment. The per cent of
extra bristled flies and the mean bristle number have been gradually
increased until in the last generations of selection no normal flies were
found and the mean reached 9.089 in the twenty-eighth generation.
From the twenty-eighth to the thirty-eighth generations, the mean re-
mained practically the same. A back selection line started from the
eleventh generation was without effect.
Selection then has produced decided results. The larger question
is, how have the results been produced? Have they been produced by
selecting somatic variations, by selecting the variations of the gene
which stands for bristle number, or have they been produced by piling
up or getting rid of modifying factors? The first possibility can be
dismissed without much consideration, as any character which is in-
herited must be germinal. Of the other two possibilities, my evidence
is in favor of the latter. It shows quite conclusively, I think, that
there is a factor in the X-chromosome and also one in the third chromo-
some which modifies bristle number. There may be more than two
such factors. One was no doubt present at the beginning of the experi-
ment. The others probably occurred as mutations during the course
of selection.
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The UNiONiDiE of Lake Maxinkuckee.
By Barton Warren Evermann,
California Academy of Sciences, San Francisco,
and
Howard Walton Clark,
U. S. Biological Station, Fairport, Iowa.
During the physical and biological survey of Lake Maxinkuckee
carried on by the writers at intervals front 1899 to 1913, under the
auspices of the United States Bureau of Fisheries, considerable atten-
tion was devoted to the freshwater mussels or clams (Unionidae) in-
habiting that lake. This was justified by the rapid and astonishing
development of the pearl button industry in America, which is dependent
upon the shells of the mussels for its raw material. The recent develop-
ment of methods whereby several species of Unionidae are now success-
fully propagated artificially adds special interest to the study of these
mollusks.
Lakes and Ponds as the Home of Mussels.
Grenerally speaking, lakes and ponds are not so well suited to the
gn'owth and development of mussels as rivers are ; the species of lake- or
pond-mussels are comparatively few, and the individuals usually some-
what dwarfed. Of about 84 species of mussels reported for the State
of Indiana, only about 24 are found in lakes, and not all of these in
any one lake, several of them but rarely in any. Of the 24 species
occasionally found in Indiana lakes, but 5 are reported only in lakes,
and only 3 or 4 of the species common to both lakes and rivers seem to
prefer lakes.
In rivers, the essential feature favorable to the development of mus-
sels is the current; and in rivers the mussel beds reach their best devel-
opment on riffles, where the current is strongest. The importance of the
current to the well-being of the mussels is indicated by the position these
mollusks naturally assume in the beds, the inhalent and exhalent aper-
tures of the creatures being upstream against the current. The im-
portance of the current is not merely as a bringer of food; examina-
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tions show that the mussels of the plankton-rich lakes and ponds
usually contain more food material than those of the rivers. The cur-
rent gives the river-mussels the advantage of a constant change of
water, which means a more , abundant supply of oxygen, and doubtless
a more varied supply of mineral matter, from the various sorts of
soil through which the river flows. The current is also probably of con-
siderable importance in assisting in the fertilization of mussels, one of
its results being the conveyance of sperm from mussels in upper portions
of the bed to other mussels below. In places where there is no current,
fertilization must be more largely a matter of chance.
Although the majority of species of mussels prefer a river where
there is a good current, some are more fitted to the quieter parts of
streams, or to ponds. These are chiefly thin-shelled species with weakly
developed or undeveloped hinge-teeth, best represented by the genus
Anodonta, In some places Anodontas are known as pond-mussels, to
distinguish them from the heavier sorts, or river-mussels.
The distinction between lakes and rivers is not constant in degree;
we have all sorts of gradations from the extreme form of lakes —
isolated bodies without outlet — through lakes with relatively large, im-
portant outlets, to such lakes as are simply expansions of a river-bed,
examples of the latter type being Lake Pepin, Minn., of the upper Mis-
sissippi, and the former English Lake in Indiana, an expansion of the
Kankakee. As a usual thing, the more fluvatile a lake is, or the larger
and more river-like its outlet, the more river-like will be its mussel
fauna, both in abundance and species. In such lakes the mussels retain
a vital continuity with the mussel beds of the river. In the less
fluvatile lakes the mussels are more isolated, and there is more in-
breeding. The large number (24) of lake-dwelling species recorded
for Indiana is due to the fact that some of the lakes of Indiana are
more or less fluvatile, and contain several species of river shells.
Origin and Character of the Maxinkuckee Mussels.
Lake Maxinkuckee, having a long, narrow, and relatively unim-
portant outlet, is a representative of one of the less fluvatile types of
lakes, forming a pretty well marked contrast to the various lakes cited
above, and bearing a pretty close resemblance to the neighboring lakes,
such as Twin Lakes, Pretty Lake, Bass Lake, etc.
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The Maxinkuckee mussels are doubtless derived from ancestors
brought up the Outlet from the Tippecanoe River by ascending fishes.
• It is doubtful whether any have been introduced by the numerous plants
of fish in the lake, though such a thing is possible. During various
times the lake was visited, a few Tippecanoe River mussels were
planted in the thoroughfare between the lakes, and a few Yellow River
and Kankakee mussels were planted in the main lake.
The Outlet of Lake Maxinkuckee is now a narrow, shallow, winding
stream, straightened in places by ditching, and bordered on each side
by a flat sedgy plain which indicates the former breadth and importance
of the stream. The colonization of the lake with mussels was probably
effected chiefly during the period when the Outlet was a broad and
relatively important stream. The situation has been carefully consid-
ered and seems to show that the mussels of the river and lake are
isolated from each other and that there is no longer any vital connec-
tion between them. The strongest indication of the independence of the
lake and river mussel faunas is the appearance of the Maxinkuckee
mussels themselves; these are lake-mussels, easily distinguished for
the most part from the river-mussels of the same species, and many
of them are distinguishable also from the mussels of the neighboring
lakes.
The Tippecanoe River is fairly well supplied with mussels. Al-
though the number of species is considerably fewer, and the size of the
individuals is generally smaller than those of the Wabash into which
it flows, it compares very favorably with rivers of its size. At Belong,
Ind., a short distance above the mouth of the Outlet of Lake Maxin-
kuckee, specimens were obtained in one bed representing twenty-four
species of mussels, or about twice the number of kinds found in Lake
Maxinkuckee.
Our knowledge of the extent and importance of migrations of fishes
from the Tippecanoe River up to the lake and from the lake down to the
river — a question which has a marked bearing upon the relationship
of the mussel faunas — is not as complete as it should be, but indications
are that they are not important or extensive. Inasmuch as the geo-
graphic distribution of a given species of mussel is coextensive with
that of the species of fish which serves as its host, this question is
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worthy of careful consideration. There are several species of fishes of
the Tippecanoe River (Etheostoma camurum, Hadropterus evides, Hy-
bopsis amblaps, etc), which were not found either in the Outlet or in
the lakes, and other species (Hadroptertis aspro, Ericymba bticcatcLf
Diplesion blennoides) which have pushed half way up the Outlet, but
were found no further up.
In this connection, the mussel fauna of the Outlet is worthy of con-
sideration, and on various occasions, but especially on a trip down the
Outlet September 30, 1907, particular attention was paid to this feature.
The Outlet is not particularly well suited to the growth and life of
mussels. The bottom is either a firm peaty soil or fine shifting sand;
moreover, the course has been artificially changed in some places and
the stream has naturally shortened its length in others by making
cutoffs. In addition to this the mussel fauna of such a narrow shallow
stream would be the prey of muskrats, minks, etc., the entire length
and width of the beds.
On the trip mentioned above, about a mile below Lost Lake a fine
example of Lampsilis iris was found. This is the farthest up stream
any species of mussel was obtained, and as this species is fairly common
in both lakes and abundant in the Tippecanoe River, we have here the
nearest approach to a continuous fauna. Some dead shells but no living
examples of Quadrula undulata were found a little farther down.
Farther down stream from a quarter to half a mile, a short distance
above the second cross-road south of the lake, was found a small mussel-
bed of about forty or fifty mussels, the great majority of which were
Quadrula undulata, A few living Lamrnlis iris, two dead Symphynota
compressa, one living Symphynota costata (gravid) and a few dead
shells of Quadrula coccmea, complete the list. Below this point no mus-
sels were found until near where the Outlet joins the Tippecanoe. Here,
a few rods up the Outlet, a fair bed of Quadrula cocdnea was found.
Of the five species of mussels found in the Outlet, only two, L. iris and
Q. cocdnea, are found in the lake, the latter but rarely. The form and
general appearance of the Q. undulata of the Outlet is quite peculiar
and they can be picked out at once from collections from the various
rivers of the country. They are unusually elongate, in this respect
resembling some of the Tippecanoe mussels but differing from them in
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being thinner, and in having the furrows between the plic« unusually
deep and sharp. The costse on the posterodorsal slope are very marked,
and the epidermis is jet black. The umbones are considerably eroded.
Distribution of Mussels in the Lake.
In rivers, where there is a great variety of conditions, such as dif-
ferences of current, bottom, etc., one finds the different species of mus-
sels inhabiting different localities and different situations. In the lakes,
where we have comparatively few species of mussels and not such im-
portant differences of environment, the distribution of the various
species is much the same. The same conditions, such as rather shallow
water and moderately firm bottom, are equally suitable for all. A few
important exceptions may be noted, as for example, the less common
species of the lakes are often more or less local in distribution. The
only well-marked bed of Quadrula rubiginosa in the lakes is in the Lost
Lake mussel-bed below the Bardsley cottage, and this is the only place
where LampsUis subrostrata can be collected in any considerable num-
bers. Lampsilis glans has a marked preference for the shallow water
at the edge of the thoroughfare between the lakes; occasional examples
can, however, be picked up almost anywhere along the shore, and it
appears to be increasing considerably along shore at Long Point. Ano-
danta grandis footiana, which can live in softer bottom than the other
mussels, has a considerably wider distribution, and was dredged in
deeper water than any of the other mussels.
The mussels are to be found almost anywhere in water from 2 to 5
or 6 feet deep where the bottom is more or less sandy or marly. The
beds are composed chiefly of the three principal species of the lake,
Lampsilis luteola, Unio gibbosus and Anodanta grandis footiana, with
the less common species sparsely interspersed. Especially good mussel
beds occur at Long Point, along shore by Farrar's and McDonald's,
along the depot grounds in Aubbenaubee Bay out from the Military
Academy, and in the shallow water just beyond the mouth of Norris
Inlet. Mussels are fairly well scattered from Long Point more or less
continuously all the way southward to beyond Overmyer's hill, and from
a little north of the ice-houses all the way around to the Military
Academy. They are quite abundant in the neighborhood of Winfield's
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in shallow water, and occur scattered along the east side of the lake
a little way out from the shore. A good mussel bed is found in Lost
Lake along the east shore, extending from a little south of the Bardsley
cottage to where the bullrushes and water lilies grow thickly in the
soft black muck near the shore.
Movements. — Closely connected with the question of distribution is
that of movement. The greater number of mussels of the lake, espe-
cially in the deeper water, spend their lives in a state of quiescence.
Young mussels appear to be more active than older ones. The mussels
retain the power c* locomotion during all their lives, but after they
have got well settled down, they only occasionally use this power. The
mussels in shallow water near the shore move into greater depths at
the approach of cold weather in late autumn or early winter and bury
themselves more deeply in the sand. This movement is rather irregular
and was not observed every year. It was strikingly manifest in the
late autumn of 1913, when at one of the piers off Long Point a large
number of furrows was observed heading straight into deep water,
with a mussel at the outer end of each. The return of the mussels to
shore during the spring and summer was not observed. Many of them
are probably washed shoreward by the strong waves of the spring and
summer storms, and some are carried shoreward by muskrats and
dropped there. Occasional mussels were observed moving about in
midwinter, even in rather deep water. During the winter of 1900-1901,
an example of Lampsilis luteolaf in rather deep water in the vicinity of
Winfield's, was observed to have moved about 18 inches in a few days.
Its track could distinctly be seen through the clear ice.
As a result of the quiescence of the lake mussels, the posterior half
or third of the shells, which projects up from the lake bottom, is usually
covered by a thick marly concretion which appears to be a mixture of
minute algse and lime. This marly concretion grows concentrically,
forming rounded nodules, its development increasing with the age and
size of the shell. This concretion, though most abundant on shells, is
not confined entirely to them, but grows also on rocks that have lain
undisturbed cm the bottom. When growing on shells, it adheres to them
very closely; ^md upon being pried loose sometimes separates from them
.KiTith as the matrix separates from a fossil, and leaves the epi-
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257
dermis of the mussel clean. In other cases it adheres more closely and
is difficult to scrape off clean. On this marly growth, colonies of
Ophrydiunif much the size, color, and general appearance of grapes
with the skin removed, are often found growing, and in the cavities and
interstices of the marl, a handsome little water-beetle, Stenelmis sulcatus
Blatchley, and its peculiar elongate black larvs, lives in considerable
numbers but apparently has nothing to do with the mussels. Various
species of hydrachnids, one of them strikingly handsome with its green
body sprinkled with bright red dots, also live in the cavity of the marl,
and offer some suggestion as to how the parasitic mite Atax went a
step farther and took up its habitation within the mussel itself.
Food and Feeding, — An examination of the stomach and intestinal
contents of the various species of mussels of the lake showed no notice-
able difference between the food of the different species. Enough of
the bottom mud is generally present to give the food mass the color of
the bottom on which the mussels are found. Thus the stomach-contents
of the mussels found in the black bottom of Lost Lake were usually
blackish, while that of those found in the lighter bottom at Long Point
were grayish. Intermixed, however, with the whole mass was always
enough algae to give it a somewhat greenish tinge, this grreen being
usually intermixed more or less in the form of flakes. A striking con-
trast between the stomach contents of mussels inhabiting lakes and
those found in rivers is the much greater preponderance of organic
matter in the food of the lake mussels. The stomach contents of river-
mussels is generally chiefly mud, with a few diatoms, desmids. See-
nedsmus and Pediastrum intermixed, as said above. Those of the lake
mussels are almost always full enough of algae to be more or less flecked
with grreen and sometimes the whole mass is decidedly gn*eenish. On
being placed in a vial of preserving fluid (3 per cent formalin was gen-
erally used) and shaken, the material from the river mussels always
retains the uniform appearance of mud; that from the lake mussels
separates, the mud settling to the bottom and the organic material
settling as a light flocculent mass above the more solid portion. This
top layer is composed of the various plankton elements of the lake, and
was found to vary considerably in different lakes. In the Lake Maxin-
kuckee mussels it was found to consist chiefly of such species as Mt-
17—11994
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crocystih. xruginosa, Botryoccus braunii^ CcBlosphssnum kuetzingior-
num, various diatoms, such as species of Navicula, Rhoicosphenia, Gom-
phenema, Cyclotella, and Cocconema, various forms of desmids, espe-
cially Cosmarium .and Staurastrum, various forms of Scenedesmus,
considerable Peridinium tabulatum, and short filaments of Lyngbya,
Pediastrum, both boryanum and duplex, are here, as almost everywhere,
rather common objects encountered in the intestines of mussels. Casts
of the rotifer Ajiurxa cochlearis, and one of the small entomostracan,
Chydorus, were occasionally encountered. In one of the Lost Lake mus-
sels, Dinobryon, an exceedingly frequent element of the mussel-food in
Lake Amelia, Minn., but rare here, was found.
No opportunities were had to study the stomach contents during
the winter, the mussel work having not been taken up to any extent
during the earlier part of the survey. Mussels obtained quite late in
autumn contained much the same material as in summer. The open
and apparently active inhalent and exhalent apertures noted through-
out the winter in some individuals would indicate that the mussels — at
least some of them — do not hibernate, but carry on life processes more
or less actively the year round. The presence of pretty well-marked
growth rings would indicate, however, annual rest periods. As diatoms
appear to be much more abundant in the water during the winter, it is
probable that they enter more plentifully into the mussel's bill-of-fare
during the late autumn, winter, and early spring, than during the sum-
mer. In considering the mussels as feeders on plankton elements, it is
worth while to investigate whether these are not of benefit to the lake
as reducers of the excessive amounts of such undesirable elements as
Lyngbya, Anabxna and Microcystis, and whether a considerable in-
crease in the mussel population by means of artificial propagation would
not clear up the lake to a considerable extent.
The following studies of stomach contents and table of mussel food
are by no means exhaustive, but represent hurried examinations and a
record of the more easily recognized forms out of a mass of doubtful
material. They are intended to be simply suggestive.
Closely connected with the question of food and nutrition is that of
the size of the mussels. A marked feature of the mussels of Lake
Maxinkuckee, as well as of the neighboring lakes, is the dwarfing of
many of the species, and this is rather difficult to explain when one
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considers the large amount of organic material they ingest. The mus-
sels of a few northern lakes examined were thick-shelled and large.
So this dwarfing may not be necessarily associated with lake conditions,
that is, absence of current. A possible explanation is that of close in-
breeding, there being no admixture of new blood with other distant
colonies, such as is possible where the lake Is in close connection with
a large river and its mussel beds.
Breeding Habits, Reproduction, etc, — The reference to inbreeding
above leads to a consideration of breeding and breeding habits. At first
glance it would appear that lakes, having no, or only feeble, currents,
would make fertilization of the ova of the female mussels largely a
question of chance. It is not possible, with the data at hand, to make
precise comparisons between number of gravid females of the mussels
of lakes and rivers during the proper seasons, but the general impression
gained from having examined the various mussels of numerous lakes and
rivers through the different seasons is that there are fewer of the
mussels of the lake that succeed in having their ova fertilized. Gravid
mussels are indeed not rare in the lake at proper seasons, but they
seem to be much fewer than one might expect. On October 17, 1907,
for example, of 252 Lampsilis luteola examined, 41 were of the charac-
teristic female form but only 25 were gravid. Likewise, of 18 Ano-
dontas examined on the same date, only 2 were g^ravid. This is a con-
siderably lower percentage than one would expect in rivers at this date.
There are other indications that the functions of reproduction are much
less prominent in the lake than in rivers. In the height of the spawn-
ing season certain species of mussels, especially Lampsilis ventricosa
and L, multiradiata, exhibit, in the neighboring rivers, a very striking
appearance, due to the excessive development and high coloration of
portions of the mantle near the inhalent aperture. Though both these
species are found in the lake, none was observed in this condition. In
some rivers in densely crowding beds, moreover, one frequently en-
counters precocious individuals; small shells, usually apparently only
2 or 3 years old but gravid with the characteristic female contour mark-
edly developed. This is possibly related to opportunities of fertiliza-
tion of ova, and is most frequently observed in L. ventricosa and L.
luteola. No such precociously developed mussels were found in the lakes.
A large and well developed female Lampsilis ventricosa was trans-
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planted from Yellow River into Lake Maxinkuckee. On being examined
two years later in the autumn, when this species is usually gravid, it
was found to be sterile.
The natural infection of fishes of the lake with the glochidia of
the mussels does not appear to be common. The grills of an immense
number of fishes were examined for parasites, but no glochidia were
noted. Some young bluegills and redeyes, exposed to the glochidia of
L. luteola in the autumn of 1912, took very readily.
The young mussels were either few, or very difficult to find. Dili-
gent search was made for them, especially in the sandy bottom near
Long Point, the sand being scooped up and seived through fine-meshed
selves. Numerous and varied forms of life were thus obtained, such
as Sphxrium, Pisidium, caddis cases, etc., and rather small but by no
means minute examples of L. luteola found. These young shells were
remarkably brightly rayed. Half-grown Q. rubiginosa were fairly com-
mon in the beds of Lost Lake.
Proportion of Various Species in the Lake, — Of a collection of 340
living mussels collected October 17, 1907, at Long Point, 252 were
Lampsilis luteola, 41 L. ventricosa, 21 Unio gibbosus, 18 Anodonta
grandis footiana, 6 Strophitus edentulus, and 3 Lampsilis subrostrata.
In deep water U. gibbosus and Anodonta would have g^ven a higher per-
centage, and in the Lost Lake beds Quadrula rubiginosa would be present
in considerable relative abundance.
Parasites, Enemies^ and Diseases. — As a general rule the mussels
of lakes, ponds and bayous are more heavily infested with parasites
than those of the swiftly flowing rivers, the probable reason being that
in still waters the parasites can migrate more easily from one mussel
to another than where there is a swift current. The mussels of the
lake are not nearly so badly parasitized as those of the sloughs of the
Mississippi, the dead waters in the Maumee above the dams, or those
of the Twin Lakes a few miles to the north. The parasites will be
taken up more fully in consideration of the various species of mussels.
Several species of Atax, and Cotylaspis insignis are the most common
pdrasites. Unlike the mussels of most of our rivers, the mussels of the
lakes are comparatively exempt from destruction by man. A few are
killed and used for bait, and now and then a mild case of pearl fever
appears at the lake, but it is soon cured by the examination of a bushel
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or two of mussels. On September 22, 1907, a man was seen at the
south end of the lake with about a peck of shells which he had opened
in a vain search for pearls; on October 8 of the same year, a pile of
about a half bushel of shells, which had evidently been opened by
pearlers, was found in Overmyer's woods. Another pearler was seen
in 1907 who had collected a few slugs of almost no value. One of the
citizens of Culver, in 1906, submitted a small vial of lake baroques for
valuation, but they had no worth whatever. The greatest enemy of the
lake mussels is the muskrat, and its depredations are for the most part
confined to the mussels near shore. The muskrat does not usually
begin its mussel diet until rather late in autumn, when much of the
succulent vegetation upon which it feeds has been cut down by the
frost. Some autumns, however, they begin much earlier than others;
a scarcity of vegetation or an abimdance of old muskrats may have
much to do with this. The rodent usually chooses for its feeding
grounds some object projecting out above the water, such as a pier or
the top of a fallen tree. Near or under such objects one occasionally
finds large piles of shells. The muskrat apparently has no especial
preference for one species of mussel above another, but naturally sub-
sists most freely on the most abundant species. These shell piles are
excellent places to search for the rarer shells of the lake.
On September 24, 1907, about a bushel of shells, recently cleaned
out by muskrats, was found at Long Point where a pier had been
removed not long before. The shells were all of rather small size and
were in about 18 inches of water. About half were taken and examined.
Of these shells, 358 were Lampsilis luteola, 167 Unio gibbosus, 6 Lamp-
sUis iris and 1 Lampsilis multiradiata. In the autumn of 1913 freshly
oi>ened shells of Lampsilis glans were common along shore at Long
Point. The first shells killed are rather small and are probably killed
by young muskrats.
In the winter after the lake is frozen, great cracks in the ice ex-
tend out from shore in various directions, and this enables the muskrat
to extend his depredations some distance from shore in definite limited
directions. During the winter of 1904 a muskrat was observed feeding
on mussels along the broad ice-crack that extended from the end of
Long Point northeastward across the lake. The ^nuskrat was about
fifty feet from the shore. It repeatedly dived from the edge of the ice-
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crack, and reappeared with a mussel in its mouth. Upon reaching the
surface with its catch, it sat down on its haunches on the edge of the
crack, and, holding the mussel in its front feet, pried the valves apart
with its teeth and scooped or licked out the contents of the shell. Some
of the larger mussels were too strong for it to open, and a part of these
were left lying on the ice. The bottom of the lake near Long Point,
and also over by Norris's, is well paved by shells that have been killed
by muskrats. Muskrats do not seem to relish the gills of gravid mus-
sels; these parts are occasionally found untouched where the animal
had been feeding.
Species of Mussels Occurring in Lake Maxinkuckee.
1. Quadrula coccinea (Conrad).
Rare at the lake; this is a river rather than a lake shell and would
be expected in abundance only in fluviatile lakes, or lakes with broad short
outlets and vital connection with river faunas. The few living mussels
of this species found in the lake would probably represent a vanishing
remnant of a fauna introduced when the lake had a broader outlet than
at present and communication with the river below more active. A few
dead shells were found along the north shore at various times. On
October 25, 1907, a shell 1.75 inch long was found near the railroad
bridge at Culver, and in 1909 another small shell was found along
shore at Aubeenaubee Bay. Some fine large examples, brought up from
the Tippecanoe were planted in the thoroughfare below the railroad
bridge, but they have probably been covered and suffocated by sand.
2. Quadrula rubiginosa (Lea).
More common in Lake Maxinkuckee than Q, coccinea^ but neverthe-
less rather rare, only a few dwarfed shells having been found. In Lost
Lake below the Bardsley cottage it was a fairly common species. None
of the shells found was of large size, but all were well-formed and hand-
some. The older shells are almost jet black and peculiarly elongate,
with the umbones markedly anterior in position. They look considerably
unlike those of either the Tippecanoe or Yellow River, but a form much
like the Lost Lake shells was found in the lower course of the Kankakee.
No gravid examples were found in the lake. Half grown examples are
rather common in Lost Lake, but as they are usually buried consider-
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ably deeper in the sand than the older shells, they are harder to find.
These half-grown shells are of a peculiarly beautiful golden yellow
color with a satiny epidermis, and are of the same shape as those found
in the neighboring rivers, that is, the normal or usual shape of the
species. The peculiar elongate form of the adult is therefore evidently
the product of local influences. The young shells are very iridescent
and translucent, much more so than those found in rivers.
Q. ruhiginosa is at its best a very fair button shell, but the lake
shells are too small to work up well. This species appears to be rather
rare in lakes. The only lake examples of this species with which the
Lost Lake shells were compared were some obtained in Lake Erie. The
Lake Erie shells are much more dwarfed, but very solid.
Food.
The following is the result of an examination of the material found
in the intestines of Q. ruhiginosa from Lost Lake.
Sample 1. August 2, 1908. Mass fine flocculent rather brownish
green material, cohering somewhat in cylinders; looks as if chiefly
organic; not gritty to touch. Organisms present: Scenedesmus, Fra-
gilaria, Tetraedron, Navicula, Peridinium tabulatiimf Anurxa, and Bo-
tryococcus braunii.
Sample 2. August 20, 1908. A large amount of material. Appear-
ance in vial: bottom black, top a fine flocculent sediment. In the top
material are Tetraedrorif Scenedesmus^ Microcystis seriginosa and many
disassociated minute cells. Black bottom composed of Anurxa, Lyngbya
xstuarii, a long filament; Scenedesmus, many Peridinium tabulatum,
Tetraedron, Epithemia Uirgida, Merismopcsdia, cast of Cyclops, Melo-
sira crenulata, Glasocapsa, Staurastrum, PedioLstrum boryanum, Gom-
phonema, Cksetophora, Cos7narium, sponge spicule, Gomphosphseria
aponina, and Botryococcus braunii.
Sample 3. August 20, 1908. A small amount of flocculent brownish
material. Microcystis xruginosa, Peridinium tabulatum many, and a
good many empty cuirasses, Chydorus, Eudorina, a few; Scenedesmus,
common; Diatoms, Pediastnim duplex.
Sample 4. August 20, 1908. Fine blue-green flocculent material.
Lyngbya xstuarii, several filaments; Microcystis xniginosa, common;
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Ccelosphxrium kuetzingianum, Peridinium tabulaturn, very abundant;
Chydorus, Anurxa, Botryococcus braunii, Coslastrum, Staurastrum 1,
small. Naviculas, several.
Sample 5. August 20, 1908. Fine bluish-green material. Peri-
dinium tabulatum, abundant; Cocconema cymbiformef Navicula, a few;
Anurxa cochlearisy Microcystis xruginosa, Chydorus , 1 entire, and other
fragments; Pediastrum duplex, Ccslosphierium kuetzingianum; Cos-
marium, Coscinodiscus, Scenedesmus, very common; Merismopcedia
glauca.
Sample 6. August 20, 1908. A small amount of flocculent grayish
material. Peridinium tabulatum, abundant, agglutinated in masses;
Microcystis mruginosa, very common; Navicula, Staurastrum, Cos-
marium, several; Chydorus, fragment; Scenedesmus, small forms, com-
mon; Pediastrum boryanum, Cocconema cymbiforme, Tetraedron, com-
mon; various diatoms; Rotifer, an elongate species; Merismopc^ia
glauca; Ccelastrum, Desmids.
Sample 7. August 21, 1908. A small amount of rather coherent
fine flocculent greenish material. Peridinium tabulatum, very common;
Anuraea cochlearis, a few; Microcystis aeruginosa, frequent; Lyngbya
xstuaria, short filament; Pediastrum boryanum, Cocconema cymbiforme,
Cymatopleura, Epithemia argus, Gom,phonema, Synedra, Tetraedron,
Scenedesmus, occasional; Dinobryon, Staurastrum, rather slender form.
Sample 8. August 20, 1908. A small amount of flocculent bluish
material. Peridinium tabulatum, most abundant; Co^losphxrium kuet-
zingianum; Pediastrufn duplex. Microcystis aeruginosa, Anurxa coch-
learis. Sponge spicule. Diatoms (Navicula, Cocconema, etc.), Scenedes-
mus.
Sample 9. August 20, 1908; a fair amount of flocculent grayish
brown material with a greenish cast. Peridinium tabulatum, most
abundant; Microcystis mruginosa, Anursea cochlearis, Staurastrum,
Pediastrum duplex, Botryococcus braunii; Tetraedron minimum, Caelos-
phssrium kuetzingianum; Pediastrum boryanum, Chydorus, Lynbya
mstuarii, Gloeocupsa, Diatoms — Cocconema cymbiforme, Navicula.
3. Unio gibbosus Barnes.
This mussel, known among clammers as the "spike" or "lady-
finger" is, next to Lampsilis luteola, the most abundant shell in the lake.
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It is found wherever the other mussels are; that is, in sandy or some-
what marly bottom in rather shallow water most of the way around
the lake, and in the shell-bed in Lost Lake below Bardsley's. In Lake
Maxinkuckee one of the best beds is at Long Point. It is abundant also
at Norris Inlet, and by McDonald's and Farrar's.
No very young of this species were found in the lake; they are,
however, hard to find in numbers anywhere, even in rivers where the
species is abundant — except in cases where portions of the river go
almost dry, and this of course never happens to the beds in the lake.
The half-grown examples are solid, rather cylindrical shells, the same
neat form that is known as the "spike" among the clammers. The
old shells develop into a peculiar form, being flattened, arcuate along
the ventral border and very thin posteriorly, so that they usually crack
badly in drying; they represent the form described by Simpson as vai.
delicata. In general outline they remind one somewhat of Margaritnna
monodonta. This form is not strictly confined to the lake; some similar
shells were collected in the Wabash near Terre Haute.
As found in the lake. Unto gibbosus is very constant in its charac-
ters, the only noteworthy difference between individuals being the change
in shape already referred to as being due to age. In rivers this shell
exhibits considerable variation in shape, size, color of nacre, etc., but the
shells of the lake are quite constant in almost every respect. The nacre
is a deep purple, never varying to pink or white as it frequently does in
rivers.
Like Lampsilis luteola this species is frequently preyed upon by
muskrats and the cleaned out shells are common where these rodents
have had their feasts.
Although U, gibbosus of the Tippecanoe River near the mouth of the
Outlet are very commonly infested with a distomid parasite along thp
hinge-line which brings about the formation of irregular baroques, this
parasite does not occur in the lake so far as known. Small species of
Atiix are common parasites of this species in the lake, and in 1909 one
was found affected by the large Atax ingens.
Even the large strong river shells of Unio gibbosus have as yet
no value in the manufacture of buttons because of their purple color,
and lack of luster. (The white-nacred shells are sometimes used.)
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The only other lake examples with which the Lake Maxinkuckee
specimens of this species have been compared, are some collected in
Lake Erie at Put-in-Bay. The Lake Erie shells are much unlike the
Maxinkuckee specimens, being short, humped and remarkably solid and
heavy. Similar shells to those of Lake Erie are found in some of the
small southern rivers.
We have no notes referring to gravid examples in the lake. This
was probably because the most active work in collecting and examining
mussels was carried on in the autumn, and the breeding period of this
species is in early summer.
4. Alasmidonta calceola (Lea).
Judging from the dead shells found scattered along shore, this is
not a particularly rare species in the lake. The shells were found most
abundantly along the north shore of the lake, although they were also
found along the east and southeast portion and were not infrequent
between Arling^n and Long Point. No living examples were found.
On account of its small size and its habits, this is a rather difficult species
to And, even where common, except under favorable conditions such as
exceptionally low water, when the mussels move about more or less.
Nothing was therefore learned of its habits in the lake. In the Tippe-
canoe River near Delong, Ind., this species was rather common in stiff
blue clay near shore, and it is fairly abundant in Yellow River at Ply-
mouth. Here, although the dead shells were common, the living examples
were difficult to find until, during a period of very low water, they
began actively moving about and could be tracked down. The species,
which reaches an unusually large size in Yellow River, was there found
gravid in autumn (September and October). The glochidia are of the
Anodonta type, chestnut-shaped or rounded-triangular in outline, with
large hooks at the ventral tips of the valves.
5. Anodonta grandis footiana (Lea). ,
Although the genus Anodonta is generally regarded as the "Pond-
mussel" par excellence, the species of which might naturally be expected
to be at home in lakes and ponds and thrive in such places even better
than in rivers, the Anodantas of Lake Maxinkuckee show, along with the
river species proper, the dwarfing influence of the lake. Moreover, Ano-
donta is not as one might naturally expect, the most abundant mussel in
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the lake, but is outnumbered, in some beds at least, by both Lampsilis
luteola and Unio gibbosus. Its relative scarcity in some of the shore beds
is in part made up by its wider distribution in the deeper waters of the
lake than the others reach, and on its presence on the isolated bars,
where it was occasionally taken up by the dredge.
On account of the great variability of Anodonta grandis and the
difficulty in distinguishing the various forms, particular attention was
paid to this species as found in the lake, and the lake specimens were com-
pared with numerous examples from the neighboring lakes and river.
No Anodontas were found in the Tippecanoe River near Lake Maxin-
kuckee Outlet, and we were therefore unable to compare our lake speci-
mens with the form that would be most interesting in this connection.
The mussels of Tippecanoe Lake at the head of Tippecanoe River
were examined in this connection. Blatchley (Indiana Geological Report
for 1900, p. 190) has reported Anodonta grandis as common, and the
subspecies footiana as frequent in Tippecanoe Lake. The Anodontas
of that lake differ markedly both in the size and shape of the individuals
from those of Lake Maxinkuckee. The difference in size can be easily
explained by the more favorable conditions in Tippecanoe Lake. This
body of water is more fluviatile than Lake Maxinkuckee, being directly
connected with the Tippecanoe River, which is already a fairly large
stream when it leaves the lake, and the mussel beds of the lake and river
are continuous. The upper part of Tippecanoe Lake is exceptionally
favorable for Anodontas; the living mussels are large and abundant,
and the dead shells almost pave the bottom near shore, several dead
shells often being telescoped within each other. Some of the shells
reached a size not often surpassed in the neighboring rivers; one example
measuring 172.5 mm. long, 95 mm. high and 65 mm. in diameter. A
few were thickened with a tendency to form half pearls, or "blisters",
but most were thin. A number of the shells approached Anodonta cor-
pulenta in general form, and one flattened, rounded shell resembled A.
subarbiculata. The Anodontas from other lakes of the Tippecanoe River
system, such as Center Lake and Eagle Lake near Warsaw, resemble
those of Lake Maxinkuckee, but are generally smaller and shorter.
The Anodontas of Lake Maxinkuckee were also compared with those
of Yellow River a few miles to the north, and with the various lakes
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of the Kankakee system, including Upper Fish Lake, Lake of the Woods
(Marshall Co.) Pretty Lake, Twin Lakes, Bass Lake and Cedar Lake.
Some of the Yellow River Anodontas were normal, oval shells such as
are common in the rivers of Northern Indiana; a few were exceptionally
thin and exceedingly inflated, resembling A, corpulenta. Those of
Upper Fish Lake — originally a fluviatile lake containing other fluviatile
shells such as Q, undulata — were large shells like those of Tippecanoe
Lake. The Anodontas of each of the other lakes differed more or less
from those of the others, though all probably had a common origin. The
only lake of this group the Anodontas of which closely resembled those
of Lake Maxinkuckee is Bass Lake, and even there the shells were some-
what different, being smaller and with the epidermis more deeply stained.
Even the Anodontas of Lost Lake differ slightly from those of Lake
Maxinkuckee, being somewhat more inflated and with the epidermis
green rather than brown, and in having the shell usually somewhat
thinner. Some of the shells near the outlet of Lost Lake are exceed-
ingly thin, some of them so much so that ordinary print can easily be
read through them; they are so fragile that it is almost impossible to
keep them.
Of the collection from Lake Maxinkuckee, mostly from Long Point,
26 examples were carefully compared. The smallest measured 68 nmi.
long, 38 mm. high and 24.6 mm. in diameter, and the largest 93.5 mm.
long, 50 mm. high and 37 mm. in diameter. Among variant forms was
one female, gravid when collected, which was unusually elongate, its
measurements being 86 mm. long, 43.5 mm. high and 32.5 mm. in
diameter. In outline this shell closely resembled Anodontoides feiiis-
sadanus subcylindraceus.
Some of the larger specimens are rather humped and arcuate, the
ventral margin of one being somewhat concave. This is a variation
which is quite likely to occur in old shells of any species.
Although gravid Anodontas were found rather frequently durinjr
the late autumn, no infected fishes were seen, and no young were found.
The Anodontas of the lake are fairly free from parasites, a few
A tax and Cotylaspis and occasionally a few distomids on the mantle
next to the umbonal cavity being the only ones present in any numbers.
In some of the other lakes the Anodontas were very badly infested; a
colony found in one of the Twin Lakes being infested to a remarkable
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degree by a distomid which formed cysts in the margin of the mantle.
Food and Parasites of Various Examples. — The following is the
result of the examination of various examples of Anodontas: Sample
No. 10. Vial containing intestinal contents of Anodonta grandis foot-
iana, Lost Lake, September 7, 1908. The vial contains a considerable
amount of material (in formalin) which was separated into black fine
mud below and fine flocculent light green above. Upper portion—
Microcystis xruginosa, most common; Peridinium tabulatunif some;
Pediastrum horyanum; Melosira crenulata, a few filaments; Ccelastrum
microporum, Botryococcus brcLUnii and Scenedesmus. Bottom layer —
Lyngbya xstuarii, Microsystis xruginosa, very common; Peridinium
tabulatum, Anurxa cochlearis, Cocconema cymhiforme and Navicula.
Sample No. 11. Food of Anodonta grandis footianaj Lake Maxin-
kuckee, near Norris Inlet, August 20, 1908. A good mass of flocculent
fine green material; no mud.
Microcystis xruginosa, most common, Melosira, filament, OscillatoriGf
short filament; Anuraea cochlearis, several; Cocconema cymbi forme;
Gomphosphxria aponina; Peridinium tabulatum; Cmlosphxrium keut-
zingianum, Lyngbya xstuarii, Epithemia argus, Chydorus, and what
appears to be fragments of Ceratium hirundinella.
Sample No. 12. Anodonta grandis footiana, near Norris Inlet, Lake
Maxinkuckee, August 20, 1908; a small mass of flocculent blue matenal.
Microcystis aeruginosa most abundant; Lyngbya xstuarii, Melosira,
Epithemia, Anurxa cochlearis, Pediastrum boryanum, Cosmarium inter-
medium and a few others, Staurastrum sp?, Spirulina and Pediastrum
duplex.
Sample No. 13. Anodonta grandis footiana, 97 mm. long. Edge
of Lake Maxinkuckee east of Norris Inlet, August 29, 1908.
Parasites; ,9 Atax, free among gills. Mussel gravid, with anterior
end of shell indented and with some brown spots on the nacre. Food
mass fine golden brown, abundant in quantity, containing Anurxa
cochlearis, many; Microcystis xruginosa, most abundant element; Ling^
by a xstuarii, frequent; Scenedesmus, a few; Botryococcus braunii, fre-
quent; Cocconema cymbiforme; Staurastrum, Navicula; Fragilaria;
Chydorus, a few; Ccelosphwrium kuetzingianum; the diatoms are not
abundant.
Sample No. 14. Anodonta grandis footiana apparently old, 90 mm.
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long, near Norris Inlet, Lake Maxinkuckee, Ind., August 29, 1908, the
shell stained somewhat brown inside, with one steel-blue stain on the
right valve anteriorly.
Parasites; Atax 7, large, full of eggs, one small, one very small,
these all free among the gills; Cotylaspis insignis 1, in axil of gill.
Food abundant; Microcystis aeruginosa, abundant; Lyngbya sestu-
arii, common; Pediastrum duplex, Botryococcus braunii, a few; Cos-
marium; Anurxa cochlearis, several; Scenedesmus ; Ankistrodesmus, and
many diatoms, among which are Cocconeis pediculus, Melosira, Gompho-
nema, Navicula, Epithemia turgida, etc.
Sample No. 15. Anodonta grandis footiana, 101 mm. long, Lake
Maxinkuckee, near shore, by Norris Inlet. August 29, 1908.
Parasities; 5 Atax, free in gills, some full of eggs, 2 smaller in size,
larval Atax (black) scattered in gills. Cotylaspis- insignis, 2, axil of
inner gill.
A large amount of food material in intestines, very fine, of a
yellowish brown color.
Microsystis ssruginosa, Anurssa cochlearis, Lyngbya xstuarii,
Botryococcus braunii CoRlosphxrium keutzingianum, Cosmarium, Navi-
cula, an elongate form, Cocconema cymbiforme, Pediastrum duplex, P.
boryanum; red cysts apparently of Peridinium.
Sample No. 16. Anodonta grandis footiana, 90 mm. long, sandy
bottom of Lake Maxinkuckee near Norris Inlet. August 29, 1908.
Mussel gravid. Parasites: Atex, 3, free among gills, Atex embryos
scattered through gills.
Food material scarce, fine golden brown in mass, consisting of
Microcystis aeruginosa, abundant; CoBlospJiasrium keutzingianum, abun-
dant; Lyngbya sestuarii, a few filaments; Anursea cochlearis and
another rotifer; Botryococcus braunii; Sorastrum, Ccelastrum, Scenedes-
mus, Pediastrum duplex, Navicula, several; Melosira tabulata, Synedra,
Epithemia turgida, Cocconema cymbiforme; and other small diatoms
rather numerous. Cosmarium, a few.
Sample No. 17. Anodonta grandis footiana, 93 mm. long, sandy
bottom of Lake Maxinkuckee near Norris Inlet, Augrust 28, 1908. Mus-
sel gravid. Parasites: 1 Atax, free among gills. Intestines almost
empty. Microcystis seruginosa, one of most abundant elements; Lyng-
bya xstuarii, Cwlosphxrium kuetzingianum, Botryococcus braunii;
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Cosmarium, Pediastnim, Cocconeis pediculus, Epithemia turgida; Nazn-
cula (1 actively moving), Gomphonema, Melosira tabulata, Anurxa
cochlearis, Chydorus,
Sample No. 18. Anodonta grandis footiana, 95 mm. long. Lake
Maxinkuckee near Norris Inlet, August 29, 1908. Mussel gravid. Para-
sites: 6 Atax free among gills, one a minute red species. Many young
Atax embryos in inner side of mantle, not in gills.
Food material golden brown, with some green intermixed, very fine.
Microcystis xruginosa, common; Lyngbya xstuarii, a few filaments;
Coelosphxrium keutzingianum; Botryococcus braunii; Pediastrum du-
plex; Anurxa cochlearis a few; Epithemia turgida; Navicula, common;
Cocconema cymbiforme; Cocconeis pediculus, several; Cosmarium; Chy-
dorus,
Sample No. 19. Anodonta grandis footiana, Lake Maxinkuckee,
near Winfield's. Mussel gravid. Parasites: Young Atax in gills; Dis-
tomids on mantle (a slug pearl near hinge.)
Food: Botryococcus braunii; Microcystis aeruginosa; Lyngbya ses-
tu^rii, Coelosphxrium kuetzingianum, Pediastrum duplex, Navicula,
Cocconema cymbiforme.
Sample No. 20. Anodonta grandis footiana. Lost Lake. Young
transparent shell, gravid, length 77 mm., height 41 mm., diameter 30 mm.,
live weight 1 oz., shell 1-4 oz. Parasites, several Cotylaspis insignis in
axil of gills, food chiefly Microcystis aeruginosa; considerable Botryococ-
cus braunii.
Sample No. 21. Anodonta grandis footiana, Lost Lake. Parasites:
1 young Ata^ in gill; Cotylaspis insignis in axil of gill. Food chiefly
Microcystis xruginosa, a little Botryococcus braunii, Lyngbya sestu-
arii and Pediastrum boryanum,
6. Strophitus edentulus (Say). Squawfoot.
Not very common in the lake. Occasional shells can be picked up
along shore, especially between Long Point and Arlington, and along
the north shore. Living examples were also taken in small numbers from
the mussel bed at the mouth of Norris Inlet, and at Long Point. In a
collection of about 300 living mussels collected at the latter place in the
autumn of 1907, only three were of this species.
As found in the various rivers of the country, this is one of the
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most variable of shells, and the exact limits of the species and its
various forms are not yet well worked out. The lake examples, though
differing considerably from those of the neighboring rivers and from
river shells in general, do not exhibit a very large range of variation.
They are all markedly dwarfed, the average length being about 2 1-2
inches or 63.5 mm. All have a well-developed rounded posterior ridge.
The epidermis is deeply stained, that of the exposed portion of the
shell being a rich yellowish brown, while the anterior portion, in the
living shell buried in the soil of the bottom, is a deep shining brown
black. The anterior margin is not nearly so heavy and produced as one
frequently finds it in river examples. The beaks of the lake shells are
not so angular as they usually are in river shells, and the high wavy
ridges are more numerous and pronounced. In the Maxinkuckee shells,
also, a number of fine hair-like lines or ridges, much like growth lines,
extend along the posterior border of the umbone, parallel with the
posterior ridge of the earlier stages of the shell.
The nacre of the lake shells is a rich rosy salmon. Unlike the salmon
color of "Anodonta sahnonea", this is a natural color, not due to diseased
conditions; the nacre surface is very smooth and the color extends deeply
into the shell. In some cases the inner nacreous surface appears to be a
secondary thickening of the shell, laid on the older portions like an
enamel. Below this extra nacreous deposit the growth lines are very
distinct on the inner surface of the shell. The rest periods are distinct
black lines, often plainly visible through the translucent shell when
held up to the light. Rays are always invisible by reflected light in
the lake shells, but in some examples they were visible by transmitted
light. The animal has orange-colored flesh. The few living examples
examined indicate that parasites are common; one contained three old
Atax ypsilophorus, and several young.
One gravid example was found, October 17, 1907. The youngest
example found was 42 mm. long and exhibited four rest periods.
7. Lampsilis glans (Lea).
Fairly common in the main lake; dead shells are often found along
shore, and occasionally the living mussels are to be seen in shallow water
at the various mussel beds at the lake. It is quite abundant along the
edges of the thoroughfare joining the lakes, and is common in Lost Lake.
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The examples found in the thoroughfare and Lost Lake were of unusu-
ally large size; this is one of the few species of mussels which are
as large or larger in the lake than in the neighboring rivers. L. glavs
appears to prefer shallow water along shore. A good number of shells
recently cleaned out by muskrats was found near the water's edge at
Long Point in the late autumn of 1913.
In the Tippecanoe River at Delong this was a very abundant species
in the greasy whitish blue clay along shore, and was here one of the
favorite morsels of the muskrat. With the exception of Micromya
fabalis this is the smallest species of mussel found in the lake. It can
be easily recognized by its black epidermis, small size and purple nacre.
8. Lampsilis iris (Lea).
Rather common in the lake in shallow water near shore, found
scattered among the other species in the various shell-beds. There is a
good colony in the Lost Lake bed, and it is fairly abundant off the
Depot grounds, by Kruetzberger's pier, at Long Point, and at the bed
near the mouth of Norris Inlet.
The lake shells differ markedly from those of the neighboring rivers
so much that it is easy to separate the lake and river shells at a glance.
The lake shells are considerably more elongate, and the epidermis 's
stained a deep brown, mostly concealing the rays; when these are visible
they are brownish rather than green, and the umbones are rather eroded.
The shells, indeed, resemble somewhat the males of L. subrostrata, with
which they are associated. The lake shells exhibit a tendency to have
their posterior margin somewhat broader than the river shells, and the
shells are flatter at the posterior tip, becoming somewhat produced.
The river shells are more solid and heavy.
Lampsilis iris is one of the few species of mussels which does not
show a marked decrease of size in the lake; indeed, some of the larger
lake examples run actually larger than those from the neighboring
rivers. Some of the largest lake shells examined have the following
dimensions :
No. Length mm. Alt. mm. Diam. mm.
1 69.6 37.3 21.0
2 65.9 34.9 21.0
3 68.0 34.6 22.0
18—11994
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Alt. mm.
Diam. mm
35.8
22.7
36.8
20.9
33.8
21.5
274
No. Length mm.
4 64.9
5 67.0
6 67.7
No young shells were found, even the smallest appear rather old.
The smallest three measure:
Length mm. Alt. mm. Diam. mm.
41.4 21.2 12.5
38.9 21.5 12.5
37.0 20.0 12.3
For comparison with the lake shells, the dimensions are given of the
largest two shells found in Yellow River:
No. Length mm. Alt. mm. Diam. mm.
1 67.0 34.5 22.9
2 64.0 33.5 21.0
Only one gravid example was found; this was obtained at Lost Lake
bed September 7, 1908.
Of all the species of mussels in the lake, L, iris has the best con-
nection, through scattered individuals along the Outlet, with the shells
of the Tippecanoe River, a few shells having been found almost through
the whole length of the Outlet. The Outlet shells, like those of the
rivers, are brightly rayed. The species is abundant in the Tippecanoe
River at Delong. A number of examples were noted in spawning condi-
tion there in late August and early September in 1908. Observations
in the Maumee River indicate that this species, L. parva and L. multi-
radiata, do not have exactly the same breeding season as many other
species of Lampsilis (luteola, recta, ligameniina, etc.), but are some-
times fertilized in July, spawning in August and September. Being
small and an early developing species, it is probable that they have
somewhat different habits; indeed, it is possible that they have more
breeding seasons per year than the other species.
The Tippecanoe mussels of this species were a favorite food of the
muskrat, and were killed in great numbers every autumn, the dead
shells being thickly strewn along the bank, or piled in heaps at the
bases of rocks which the rodent used as a feeding place.
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Lampsilis iris has a well marked tendency in the lakes and Outlet
to produce pearls and baroques; but these are too small to be of any
value.
9. Lampsilis subro strata (Say).
Lampsilis suhrostrata reaches its best development along the muddy
shores of lagoons, not being perfectly at home either in swiftly flowing
streams or in perfectly quiet lakes, although occasional examples may be
found in either. It is considerably more abundant in Lake Tippecanoe
and Upper Fish Lake than in any other Indiana lakes examined. Along
the edges of the Mississippi sloughs it is fairly common and reaches a
large size, often distinguished with difficulty from Lampsilis fallaciosa
except for the thinness of the shell and the black epidermis. It is rare
in Lake Maxinkuckee, only a few examples having been obtained from
the mussel bed near Norris Inlet. It is much more common in Lost Lake
in the large bed along shore south of the Bardsley cottage. Mr. Blatchley,
in a short report on the mollusks of the lake (25th annual report.
Department of Geology and Natural Resources of Indiana, 1900, p. 250),
says of this species : "Not common in the main lake ; more so in the muck
and mud along the margins of Lost Lake, where a well-marked variety,
with a larger and broader beak, was taken. A specimen of this was
sent, among others, to Mr. Chas. T. Simpson, of the Smithsonian Insti-
tution, for verification. In his reply he says: *The variety of subro-
strattLs which you send is, so far as I know, confined to northern Indiana.
It is quite remarkable, and would seem to be almost a distinct species.
I have seen quite a number of specimens of it, and at first thought it
a variety of U, nasutus, but there seem to be intermediate forms con-
necting it with U, subrostratus.' "
With the exception of the differences due to sex, all the Maxin-
kuckee and Lost Lake shells are very uniform in appearance, much more
so than L. Ititeola, and are hardly distinguishable from examples from
Lake Tippecanoe, Upper Fish Lake, or a specimen collected in the Wa-
bash River at Terre Haute by Dr. J. T. Scovell. They are dark brown
in color with very faint rays. The species appears to be rare in the
Tippecanoe River at Delong. One example wa§ obtained there, which
is somewhat shorter and stouter than those of the lake, and not so badly
stained; it shows faint rays posteriorly. The Lost Lake shells are some-
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what larger than those found at the other lakes. No young were found,
the smallest shell obtained being a half-grown example. One gravid
specimen was found at Lost Lake September 7, 1908. The marsupium
closely resembles that of L. iris, being a kidney shaped mass filling the
hinder portion of the outer gill, this mass marked into segments by
rather deep radiating furrows. The very edge of the marsupium is
white, beyond the dusky submarginal area, the white making a chain-
like area at the edge of the gill. Like L. iris, this species has a tendency
to form pearls, but they are too small to be of any value.
Food of individuals: The following is the result of the examina-
tion of the contents of the intestines of L. subrostrata from Lost Lake
at various dates.
Sample 22. August 20, 1908. A small amount of flocculent bluish-
gray material. Peridvnium tahulatum, abundant; Microcystis serugi-
nosa, abundant; Anurxa cochlearis; Pediastrum boryanum; Diatoms —
Synedra; Cocconema cymbiforme.
Sample 23. August 20, 1908. A very small amount of flocculent
grayish material. Peridinium tabulatum, a few; Microcystis xniginosa,
a little; Pediastrum boryanum; Cosmarium; Tetraedron minimum;
Scenedesmus; Euglyphia alveolata; Peridinium, a smaU, sharp-spined
form. Diatoms make up the grreater part, including Cocconema cymbi-
forme; Naincula; Fragilaria; Coscinodiscu^ ; and Epithemia.
Sample 24. September 7. A large amount of material, black mud
below, greenish flocculent material above. The upper portion contains
chiefly Botryococcus braunii and Microcystis aeruginosa. Bottom por-
tion— Microcystis seruginosa, common; Botryococcus braunii; Peridinium
tabulatum; Peridinium, a small-spined species; Scenedesmus, frequent;
Statirastrum; Pediastrum duplex; Coelastrum, a few; Anursea coch-
learis; Tetraedron; Docidium; Cfxlosphserium kuetzingianum; Sponge
spicule; Lyngbya xstuarii; Diatoms, Synedra; Xavictila; Gomphonema;
etc.
10. Lampsilis luteola (Lamarck). Fat Mucket.
Lampsilis luteola is the most widely distributed of the American
Vnionidse, its range extending over nearly all of North America east
of the Rocky Mountains. It lives and thrives under a great variety of
conditions, being frequent in both lakes and rivers.
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In Lake Maxinkuckee this is the most common mussel, being found
almost everywhere in water from 2 to 5 or 6 feet deep where the bot-
tom is suitable. It prefers a rather solid bottom with some admix-
ture of sand or gravel, but occurs also even where the bottom is of
a rather firm peaty nature as in some places in Outlet Bay. It is,
however, rather scarce and widely scattered in such localities. The best
beds are found at Long Point, at Farrar's, in front of McDonald's, by
the old Kruetzberger pier, and in Aubeenaubee Bay off from the
Military Academy. In Lost Lake it was abundant in the large mussel
bed below the Bardsley cottage, and a few shells were found in the
north end of the lake.
The Lake Maxinkuckee shells are smaller and thinner than those
of the rivers; they closely resemble those of most of the neighboring
lakes with which they were compared, such as Twin Lakes, Pretty Lake,
Bass Lake, etc. The L. luteola of Upper Fish Lake are much larger
and more like river shells. Compared with specimens of more remote
lakes, those of Lake Erie are much smaller, more solid and not stained,
the rays being quite distinct. The L. luteola of Lake Pokegama, Minn,
are unlike any of those above cited, being large, thick and heavy, fur-
nishing excellent button material.
Lampsilis luteola is represented in Lake Maxinkuckee and Lost Lake
by two forms; although these forms are well connected by intergrades
the extremes are pretty markedly distinct.
The colony in Lost Lake is composed of compressed, elongate shells,
almost as large as those found in rivers, but considerably thinner. It is
in the females of this group, and only in part of them, that the greatest
variation occurs. The males are not much unlike the ordinary well-
known form of the neighboring rivers. The most strongly aberrant
females are markedly compressed, and flare out broadly in the post-
basal region. The umbones are far forward and they remind one some-
what in contour of the marine species, Modiola plicatula. Some of them
closely resemble Lampsilis radiata of the Atlantic drainage. The Lost
Lake mussels of this species are stained a peculiar attractive ash-gray
which does not greatly obscure the rays. They are not so heavily en-
crusted with marl as are those in the Lake Maxinkuckee beds. Typical
Lake Maxinkuckee specimens are dwarfed and stained a deep brown,
which obscures the rays. Most of them are thickly-coated posteriorly
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with incrustations of marl. It is principally this species which has asso-
ciated with it the little water-beetle, Stenelmis sulcatus Blatchley. At
Long Point, where L. luteola is the most common mussel, examples of the
peculiar Lost Lake form are rather frequent. In comparing sets of
shells from the various mussel beds of the lake, Long Point, Farrar's
and the Norris Inlet beds, it was noted that the mussels of each bed,
as one approached the upper portions of the lake, averaged somewhat
smaller.
As regards food, movements, reproduction, etc., L. luteola does not
differ greatly from the other mussels of the lake with the exception that
it appears to be considerably the most active species in the lake. A
few more were observed moving about during the winter of 1900-1901.
The deep water individuals rarely move about at all. In the autumn of
1913 the migration of those near shore into deep water was strikingly
shown in a series of numerous furrows, with a mussel at the deep
water end and extending from shore outward near Long Point.
As with the other mussels of the Lake, reproduction is a rather
inconspicuous phenomenon, not attended with the marked display com-
mon in the larger river examples. Of 252 examples collected at Long
Point, October 17, 1907, 25 contained glochidia in the gills, some being
very full and much distended. One was found gravid May 24, 1901,
and on August 22, 1906, some in Lost Lake appeared to be about ready
to spawn.
The young of this species were found rather frequently in the lake,
much more frequently, indeed, than any other kind. The smallest ex-
amples were obtained while seiving sand for Sphieriums at Long Point
These young mussels live buried in the fine sand near shore. Specimens
up to about a half-inch long are very crinkly, being covered with narrow
elevated parallel ridges, generally five in number, each consisting of two
open loops placed end to end, the sides of the loops being rou^rhly
parallel with the ventral margin of the shell; the ends where they join
form a sharp curve upward toward the umbone. These double loops are
followed by a number of broken irregular ridges. The markings just
described persist on the umbones of the older shells until eroded away.
The half grown shells are beautifully rayed with green on a whitish
background. As the shells grow older they become gradually stained
a deep uniform brown, obscuring the rays.
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Most of the mussels of the lake are slightly parasitized, none abun-
dantly; they contain a few examples of a small reddish Atax, and a few
Cotylaspis insignis, A small round worm, somewhat like a vinegar
eel, was found very active in the intestine of one specimen; it was
probably parasitic.
Small irregular pearls or slugs are produced but they are of no
value. In some rivers this species produces an abundance of small
round pearls. Some of the pearl-bearing river specimens were planted
in the lake in 1912 to see if they would infect the lake shells.
The Lampsilis hUeola of the rivers is a fair button shell, but the
Lake Maxinkuckee shells are too small and thin to have much value.
It is a remarkable fact that in Lake Pokegama, Minn., L. luteola grows
abundantly in shallow bottom among the weeds, and there produces a
handsome thick heavy shell, one, indeed, concerning which the pearl
button manufacturers are very enthusiastic, so much so that the shells
at that distant point from the market brought $22.00 per ton; in the
summer of 1912, two carloads of these shells were shipped to Europe.
Just why the Lake Maxinkuckee shells are not like the excellent ones
of Lake Pokegama remains as yet unanswered, but seems to be largely
a question of breed. It would certainly be worth while to introduce the
Lake Pokeg^ama breed into Lake Maxinkuckee.
Following is the results of the examination of various individuals
of the Maxinkuckee and Lost Lake shells:
Sample 25. L. luteola. Lost Lake, September 7, 1908. Mussel
gravid. Leng^th 100 nrni., altitude 62 mm.; diameter 33 mm. Live
weight 2^ oz.; shell 1% oz. Parasites: 7 free Atax among gills, young
Atax in gills and numerous Atax eggs on interior surface of mantle.
Food chiefly Microcystis xruginosa; Botryococcus braunii, Lyngbya
sesturaii; Melosira; Navicula.
Sample 26. L. luteola. Lost Lake, September 7, 1908: Mussel
gravid: Length 95 mm., alt. 60 mm., diam. 38 mm. Live weight 3%
oz.; shell 1% oz. Parasites: .7 free Atax in .gills, and Atax eggs in
the mantle. Food, chiefly Microcystis asruginosa; also Botryococcus
braunii; Navicula; Lyngbya sestuarii; and Anursea cochlearis.
Sample 27. L. luteola. Lost Lake by Bardsley's September 7, 1908.
Live weight 3U oz.; shell 1^^ oz., length 97 mm., alt. 54 mm., diam. 33
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mm. Parasites: 7 free Atax among gills. Many small red eggs of
Atax on inner surface of mantle. Food chiefly Microcystis xruginosa;
Botryococcus braunii; and Navicula,
Sample 28. Lampsilis luteola. Lost Lake, September 7, 1908. Live
weight 3% oz.; length 104 mm., alt. 54 mm., diameter 33 mm. Para-
sites: Atax 6, free among gills, eggs of Atax on inner side of mantle,
young in pits on side of foot. Food, Microcystis ssruginosa, most com-
mon; Lyngbya xstuarii; Navicula; Melosira; Anurxa; and Cocconenuju
Intestinal contents of two examples of L. luteola obtained in Lake
Maxinkuckee August 27, 1908, near the shore just north of the ice
office gave the following results:
Sample 29. Microcystis oeruginosa, main mass; Anurxa cochlearis,
a few; Botryococcus brauniif rather common; Cocconema cymbiforme^
one; Lyngbya xstuariif 1 filament; Navicula, 2 examples; Synedra, a
few.
Sample 30. Microcystis xruginosa, main mass; Botryococcus
braunii, very common; Lyngbya sestuarii, several filaments; Anurxa
cochlearis, a few; Synedra, some; Navicula, one example very lively;
Cosmarium, one; Round worm like vinegar eel, very lively.
Sample 31. Lost Lake, 1908. A good mass of material, blackish
below, flocculent greenish above. Lyngbya aestuarii, a few filaments,
Microcystis xruginosa, quite abundant; Anurxa cochlearis; sponge
spicule; Pediastrum duplex; Staurastrum; Botryococcus braunii; Peri-
dinium tabulatum, a few; Peridinium, a small spiny species 1; Pedias-
trum boryanum; several diatoms — Navicula; Coscinodiscus ; Melosira;
Cocconema cymbiforme ; Microcystis, is the most abundant element; Peri-
dinium is rather scarce.
Sample 32. Lake Maxinkuckee, August 27, 1908: A small amount
of brownish green flocculent material. Anurxa cochlearis, quite fre-
quent; Lyngbya xstuarii, short filament; Peridinium tabulatum, a few;
Coelastrum microponim; Ccelosphxrium kuetzingianum; Pediastrum
boryanum; Scenedesmus, very few; Chydorus, fragment. Diatoms, Epi-
themia turgida; Navicula; Cocconema cymbiforme; Gomphonema; Cos-
cinodiscus,
Sample 33. Lake Maxinkuckee, August 27, 1908 : A fair amount of
brownish green material, muddy below, flocculent green above. The
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grreen top material consisting chiefly of Microcystis xruginosa; with
some Anurxa cochlearis; Lyngbya sestuariiy Microsystis xruginosa;
Bulbochaste, bristle; Ccelastrum microporum; Merismopoedia glauca;
Pediastrum boryanum; Diatoms — Navicula, Coscinodiscus; etc.
Measurements : —
The following is a series of measurements of Lost Lake examples :
Measurements in mm.
Remarks.
Fanshaped female.
Fanshaped female gravid.
Fanshaped female.
Fanshaped female.
Fanshaped female.
Male.
Male.
Male.
Male.
Male.
Most of these shells,
blistered posteriorly.
The males are fairly like those of river examples; the females arc
more fan-shaped. Weight of the 10 shells, 15 oz.; only a few are rayeJ
11. Lampsilis ventricosa (Barnes). Pocket-book.
Rather common at the Long Point mussel bed; a few found in the
bed by Farrar's and a few in Lost Lake. The species as found in the
lake is markedly dwarfed and quite different in appearance from the
usual river form. There are two types in the Long Point bed, one con-
sisting of females and having the post-basal inflation of the shell char-
acteristic of that sex, not exactly as in the river form, however, but
somewhat more restricted; this feature, along with a peculiar stain ct
the epidermis which conceals the normal coloring of the shell, causes
them to resemble very closely a short female L. luteola. The other type,
an oval shell without the post-basal inflation, was at first taken to
represent the males, but some of them were found to contain glochidia.
These, too, bear a marked resemblance to L. luteola, and the only way
No.
Date,
1908.
Length.
Alt.
Diam.
1189
Aug.
20.
85.
54.
32.
1260
Sept.
7.
97.4
55.
31.
1215
Aug.
20.
87.
46.
35.6
1224
Aug.
20.
98.
56.
26.
1245
Aug.
20.
90.
51.
32.8
1235
Aug.
20.
98.
48.9
36.3
1188
Aug.
20.
102.
53.
36.
1221
Aug.
20.
100.
51.
37.
1223
Aug.
20.
96.
51.4
34.8
1228
Aug.
20.
102.3
53.7
33.
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to distinguish the two species, as they occur in the lake, was by an
examination of the umbonal sculpture. This in ventricosa consists of a
a few coarse parallel ridges; in luteola the sculpture is of numerous fine
wavy lines.
The lake L. ventricosa was so markedly different from the species
as usually known that it was compared with a large series of both lake
and river forms. Of river shells only a few from the central part of
the Maumee, where for some reason the shells are markedly dwarfed,
bore any close resemblance to it. None was found in any of the neigh-
boring lakes with which to compare them. In some of the small lakes
of Michigan where Dr. Robert E. Coker had collected he had experienced
a similar difficulty in distingfuishing between L. ventricosa and L. luteola
and had sent sets of critical specimens to Mr. Bryant Walker of Detroit,
Mich., who identified the shells with a few coarse straight undulations
on the beaks as Lampsilis ventricosa canadensis and the others as L.
luteola.
The Maxinkuckee specimens were also compared with L. ventricosa
from Lake Champlain, and were found to be much like them. The
Champlain examples which were free from staining of the epidermis
more closely resembled in color the ventricosa of the rivers.
The specimens of L. ventricosa differed considerably in the different
beds. Lost Lake examples are usually rather small, and are stained a
peculiar ashy-gray. Those from the beds near Farrar's are mostly
small and apparently young and are rather well rayed; they resemble
river forms more closely than any others in the lake.
The large oval L. ventricosa of Long Point are the heaviest shells
of the lake. A peculiarity of several of these shells is a conspicuous
rib-like thickening on the inside, extending from near the umbonal cavity
postero-ventrally. The nacre is soft satiny in luster, and not very
iridescent. This oval form of ventricosa found at Long Point furnishes
the only shell in the lake that could be used to any advantage in the
manufacture of buttons, and even it produces rather inferior material.
Some of these shells were sent away to a button factory at Davenport
and buttons were made of them. The following is a set of measuremer.ts
of these large shells:
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283
No.
Date, 1907.
Lgth. mm.
Alt. mm.
Dia. mm.
Remarks.
1
Sept.
.24.
114.
74.8
53.
Female gravid.
2
Oct.
30.
107.6
65.5
54.8
3
Oct.
2.
105.2
63.7
52.5
4
Oct.
30.
92.5
60.4
53.7
Female gravid.
5
Oct
30.
103.7
67.3
49.3
Dorsal baroques.
6
Oct.
17.
98.6
60.2
55.5
Arcuate, baroque found.
7
Oct.
20.
101.7
63.6
52.2
8
Oct.
30.
94.6
58.4
53.2
Nacre diseased and
blistered.
9
Oct.
17.
95.6
55.7
49.
10
Oct.
17.
91.5
60.4
49.5
Although the reproductive phase of L. ventricosa of the Lake is
much less conspicuous than in the river mussels, most of them appar-
ently succeed in reproducing themselves. Most of the females found
later in autumn have more or less numerous glochidia in the gills. No
infected fishes or very young mussels of this species were seen.
The most common parasite is Atax, and it is not particularly
abundant. Of 6 examples collected near Farrar's July 24, 1909, the first
contained 9 of the mites, the second 4, the third 15, with Atax eggs in
mantle and body, the fourth 12 Atax and numerous eggs of the mite on
the inner surface of the mantle, the fifth 3 Atax with eggs, and the
sixth 7 Atax with eggs and egg scars. No other parasites were noted.
No pearls were found, only a few irregular slugs.
In 1906 some of the immense L. ventricosa of Yellow River were
planted in the lake near shore not far from the old ice office. A few
died shortly after planting but near the same place two years later
some of the mussels were found alive and apparently thriving. Two of
the large females were killed and examined. Although this was at a
time when this species is usually gravid, one of these individuals was
sterile, apparently having failed to become impregnated. The influence
of its residence in the lake was marked by a dark stain which covered
the exposed portion of the shell. The other had a few eggs in the gills,
and numerous marginal cysts in the mantle. About 10 Atax among the
gills, and numerous distomids on the outside surface of the mantlo in
iht* umbonal cavity.
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12. Lampsilis multiradiata (Lea).
Not abundant in the lake; occasional shells are found along .•shoi-ei
and now and then they are encountered in the piles of shells where
muskrats have been feeding. A few living examples were found in the
mussel bed near the mouth of Norris Inlet and a few at Long Point bed.
In all hardly a dozen living examples were secured; of 563 shells taken
from a pile left by a muskrat at Long Point in 1907, only one was of
this species. This mussel, as it occurs in the lake, is not nearly so
attractive as river specimens, being dwarfed, and so deeply stained that
the rays are inconspicuous, being usually black or dull brown instead
of green.
This species was found in unusual abundance in the Tippecanoe
River at Belong, and a considerable number was observed spawning dur-
ing the autumn of 1908. While spawning, this mussel is very conspic-
uous in its habits. It lies either on its back, or more usually with
the posterior end directly upward, and the showy edges of the mantle,
which are of a yellowish brown color, and cross-barred with narrow
lines which are continuous with the fine rays of the epidermis, look a
good deal like a small darter lying on the bottom. Long waving pennant-
like flaps, with showy black spots at the base of each are developed,
and this portion of the mussel is made still more conspicuous by reason
of periodic violent spasmodic contractions.
In the Tippecanoe River near Belong this is one of the favorite
foods of the muskrat, and it must be difficult for them to hold their
own against that rodent.
1 3 . Micromya fabalia ( Lea ) .
Rare; previous to 1913 only one shell had been found; this was
picked up on the north shore of the lake in 1907. In 1913 several
shells, recently cleaned out by some animal, probably a muskrat, wei*e
found at the wagon bridge. This species is fairly common in Tippecanoe
Lake and still more so in the Tippecanoe River at Belong, where it was
collected in shallow water near shore in rather stiff blue clay. It is
the smallest of our Unionidse. The white or bluish white nacre has
an exceedingly brilliant luster.
Several other species of mussels have been recorded for the lake,
among them Quadrula lachrymosa (Lea), Margaritana marginata Say,
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Unto pressus Lea, Anodonta aubcylindracea Lea, Anodonta imbecillis
Say, Unio phaseolus Hildreth, Unto circulus Lea, Unio parvus Barnes,
and Lampsilis grdcilis (Barnes). We have seen representatives of none
of these species from the lake, and while some, such as Anodonta im-
becillis* and A, subcylindra^ea are very probably present, the presence of
the others is very improbable.
• Since the above was written a singrle specimen of Anodonta imbecillis, from Lost
Lake, has been seen.
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Further Experiments with the Mutant, Scarlet, from
Drosophila Repleta.
HoBART Cromwell.
The mutant, scarlet, from Drosophila repleta, was first described
by Hyde in the American Naturalist, 1914, Vol. 49, p. 183. This new
eye-color was found to be a recessive Mendelian unit, giving a ratio of 3
to 1 in the Fi generation. In order to familiarize myself with Mendel-
ism, I undertook to determine whether or not the black-eyed flies of the
Fj generation were in the ratio of one homozygous to two heterozygous
as the Mendelian formula demands.
The following tables give the results of the crosses between scarlet
and the wild stock. All the F, flies had black eyes like those of the
original wild parents. These were then inbred in mass culture, as Is
shown in Tables I. and II.
TABLE I.
F, Flies of the Croes, Scarlet Female by Wild Male.
CiTLTCTRK Number.
Wild Type,
Femafoe.
Wild T>T)e,
Males.
Scarlet,
Females.
Scarlet,
Males.
187
425
410
211
123
190
200
115
■ ■ ' ■
202
418
410
200
152
175
210
115
64
123
124
67
52
64
61
43
59
128
^■' '.'.'.'.'.'. '.'.'..'.'.'.'. ■.'.'..'.'.'.'.'. '.'.'.'.'.'.'. '.
90
70
38
40
58
31
Total
1,861
1,982
598
534
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TABLE II.
Ft Flics of the Cross, Scarlet Male by Wild Female.
CuLTURB Number.
Wild Type,
Females.
Wild Type.
Males.
Scarlet,
Females.
Scarlet.
Males.
I
r:::::::::;;:::::::::::.:::;:::::;:::::
4..
447
714
284
445
193
215
122
562
326
228
195
149
341
456
692
292
415
171
220
110
462
304
262
178
157
302
120
186
68
108
64
75
32
155
108
105
66
51
87
146
203
92
123
5
65
6
77
7
38
8 .
142
,?::••::
112
69
11
12 ..
63
53
13
116
Total
4,221
4.021
1,225
1,299
In the Fi generation from the scarlet female (Table I), there was
a total of 3,843 wild type flies and 1,132 scarlet, which is approximately
a ratio of 3 wild type to 1 scarlet. In the F2 generation from the scarlet
male (Table II), there were 8,242 of the wild type and 2,524 of the
scarlet, which makes a ratio of 3.22 wild type to 1 scarlet. The extracted
scarlets have since bred true.
Crosses were made to scarlet with the Fa wild type flies from both
the original cross and its reciprocal. To insure virgin flies the sexes
were separated every twelve hours. These back-crosses were made in
pairs to determine how many of the flies of this generation were homo-
zygous and how many were heterozygous. If the scarlet eye-color is a
simple recessive unit, all the homozygous blacks mated to scarlet should
give only wild type offspring, while the heterozygous blacks mated to
scarlet should give equal numbers of blacks and scarlets. The results
of these crosses are shown in Tables III to VI.
Table III gives the results of back-crossing to scarlet the F2 female
wild type flies from the original parents, scarlet female by wild male.
This table shows that 82 such matings were made. Of these 82 females,
27 proved to be homozygous and 55 heterozygous, a ratio of two to one.
Table IV, showing the reciprocal cross of Table III, gives 18 homozygous
and 59 heterozygous. Table V gives the results obtained by back-cross-
ing to scarlet the F2 wild type female from the original parent cross
scarlet male by wild female. Of these females, 25 proved to be homo-
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zygous and 39 heterozygous. Table VI, the reciprocal cross of Table V,
shows a result of 14 homozygous and 16 heterozygous males.
A sum total of all the results of Tables 1 1 1- VI gives 84 homozygous
Fa flies and 169 heterozygous, making a ratio of one to two, which agrees
with the calculated ratio.
I am indebted to Dr. R. R. Hyde for material and helpful suggestions.
TABLE III.
Pi. Scarlet Female by Wild Male. Reaults of Crossing Wild Type Fi Female Flies to Scarlet Malc«.
Culture Number.
Wild Type.
Females.
Wild Type.
Mal«.
Scarlet.
Females.
Scarlet,
Males.
1
2
8
17
17
24
21
17
31
31
43
" -83
102
10
28
27
52
19
48
23
78
18
14
15
37+
25
62
37
46
61
7
30
44
24
40
38
78
30
.58
34
26
39
78-f
20
44+
23+
23+
38+
24 +
75+
19
10+
9
8
15
31
17
8
22
22
19
82
04
6
14
36
38
9
33
21
76
15
16
17
37+
22
63
30
48
69
15
35
40
16
49
38
79
22
35
32
31
33
78 +
18
44 +
23+
23+
38+
24+
75+
19
10+
6
9
3
13
19
fc25
1 15
16
17
4
5
6 .
13
28
22
30
8
9
lot
14
41'
11
12
13
14
15
16 . .
12
35
37
15
30
19
20
40
30
17
18
19
20
8
35
26
21
22
23
24
25
26
13
16
8
28+
16
18
11
15
28+
11
27
2S
29
.30
31
32
33
34
35
36
18
14
32
43
27
22
38
31
37
38
39
40 •. .
41
42
20
30
39
24
23
29
29
39
34
27
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
16
40+
11 +
25+
35+
21+
10
40+
11 +
25+
35+
21 +
50
51
19—11994
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TABLE III— Continued.
Culture Number.
Wild Type.
Females.
Wild Type.
Males.
Scarlet.
Females.
Scarlet.
Males.
52
464-
46+
53
37+
37+
27+
27+
54
12
10
8
7
55
25
19
27
15
56
6
5
3
8
57
16
13
13
16
68
67
55
59
17
17
17
22
60
18
20
25
21
61
23
18
16
18
62
8
4
3
8
63
33
33
64
12
13
66
5
2
2
66
4
3
2
3
67
7
5
8
5
68
19
13
60
89
90
7n . . .
56
73
56
65
71
72
18+
26+
18+
28+
73
42
28
28
15
74
23
31
19
21
75....*
24
22
17
26
76 ..
63
27
63
33
77
40
25
78
29
25
27
15
79
49
57
80
29
34
23
35
81
43
39
44
35
82
20
23
24
15
Total: 27 homozygous and 55 heterozygous,
t Heterozygous.
TABLE IV.
Pi Scarlet Females by Wild Males. Kosults of Crossing Wild Type Ft Males to Scarlet Females.
Culture Number.
Wild Type,
Females.
'''iU^'
Scarlet,
Females.
Scarlet.
Males.
1
2
4
2
4
2
13
4
9
4
3
17
3
12
3
4
24
25
10
6
5
14
23
17
14
6 •
52
41
30
50
64
64
S .'.
52
40
18
16
9
31
36
34
29
10
47
34
39
55
11
20
27
25
20
12
56
40
53
60
13
28
34
27
26
14
22
28
18
11
15
39
58
61
51
16
63
39
100
63
17
30
25
33
34
18
40
53
19
21
19
28
30
28
22
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291
TABLE IV— Continued.
CuLTURB Number.
Wild Type.
Females.
Wild Type.
Males.
Scarlet.
Females.
Scarlet,
Males.
20
86
136
24
92
149
42
21 ...
22
31
22
23
94
24
20
ia5
37
19
24 . . .
26
20
21
26
23
31
19
24
27
24
29
32
40
2S
36
31
40
43
29
85
123
43
46
30
46
34
41
45
31
43
38
33
34
32
54
55
40
71
39
28
55
33
39
34 . . .
77+
77+
35
20
15
16
21
36
45
45
41
47
37
63
23
23
26
38
55
14
20
24
39
47
57
59
37
40
131
107
41
27
32
21
26
42
52+
52+
. 55
47
43
102
95
44
20
22
35
26
45
120
91
46
22
19
21
22
47
120+
26
120+
48
22
19
24
49
93
96
50
43
37
32
32
51
62
52
52t
53
83
71
54
53
36
55
55
55
41
43
56
24
29
22
21
57
52+
52+
35+
35+
58
46+
46+
50+
50+
5Q
42
43
25
22
60
41
44
30
51
61
38+
38+
26+
26+
62
6
7
63
15
9
7
64
7
19
2
14
65
9
8
8
13
66
29
30
13
14
67
21
24
23
11
68
23
12
10
5
69
39
70t
71
26
25
20
9
72
27
29
16
14
73
40
23
74
20
15
13
10
75
9
6
5
5
76
5
18
7
23
8
14
77
Total: 18 proved homozygous and 59 heterozygous.
tNoted as heterozygous, but no count made.
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Pi Scarlet Male by Wild Female.
TABLE V.
Result of Crossing Wild Type Fj Male to Scarlet Female.
Total: 25 homozygous and 39 heterozygous.
t Noted as heterozygous, but no accurate count made.
Culture Number.
Wild Type,
Females.
Wild Type,
Males.
Scarlet.
Females.
Scarlet.
Males.
1
50
61
52
49
2
44
49
3
74
5
63
10
4
6
5
5
27
10
20
12
6
26
86
93
21
34
28
65
83
15
30
7.
8
9
10
40
43
11 -
19
14
16
15
12
11
10
13
12
13
45
53
33
40
14
42
48
54
54
15
46
49
37
41
16
29
21
17
14
15
18
28+
28+
19
51
36
34
32
20
61
47
21
2
9
12
11
22
17
19
23
17
11 >
24
87
88
. ...
25
22
28
20
25
26
16
10
10
11
27
37
27
31
28
28
45
36
29
31
38
3i
27
30
38
26
26
31
31
20
16
19
21
32
78
70
33
42
51
34
34
46
39
38
35
84
72
36t
37
20
23
13
22
38
7
8
65+
65+
39
46
68
38
30
40
70
74
41
31
35
32
41
42
38
23
21
12
43
10
6
5
5
44
32
41
17
28
45
3
4
6
4
46
10
12
18
6
47
30
7
19
10
48
23
20
22
18
49
7
3
6
3
50
3
2
8
4
51
. 60
66
52
84+
84+
53
24
21
54
27
25
28
20
5,")
21
20
21
19
56
11
12
57
14
11
10
9
58
5
1
2
5
59
14
5
6
4
60
61
25
34
15+
15+
16+
16+
62
63
64
10
8
15
13
5
2
2
3
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TABLE VI.
Pi Scarlet Male by Wild Female. Reeults of CrosBing Wild Type Ff Female to Scarlet Male.
CuLTURK Number.
'^jlilir-
Wild Type.
Males.
Scarlet.
Females.
Scarlet,
Males.
^
89
49
51
111+
25
45
88
10
31
71
49
54
19
71
12
50
17
53
28
50
7
19
13
29
35
56
68
89
48
50
lll-f
20
40
75
17
31
79
46
56
29
75
14
41
22
50
34
39
13
19
23
30
36
52
40
2
23
36
3
4
5
15
62
14
«
7
50
8
9
17
26
10
11
12
13
21
25
24
14
15
17
16 .
17
18
27
19
19
20
21
37
46
4
14
29
41
6
22..
21
23
24
25
23
18
26. .
20
31
27
28t
29
30
30
26
31
24
21
21
26
23
Total: 14 homoiygous and 16 heterozygous.
fNoted as heteroiygoja, but no accurate count made.
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295
A Seasonal Study of the Kidney of the Five-Sfined
Stickleback, Encalia Inconstans Cayuga Jordan.
Walter N. Hess — DePauw University.
During the greater part of the year the male kidney is an excretory
organ. At the breeding season, however, the kidney tubules, for about
one-third of their extent, as well as the urinary ducts, the bladder and
the common urinai-y duct become modified for the purpose of producing
slime. This secretion, which is used by the fish in constructing its nest,
is produced entirely by the male kidneys and only at the breeding season.
In the process of slime secretion, the behavior of the nuclei is such
that they evidently pour into the cell bodies certain products, in the
form of secretion granules, which function in breaking down the gran-
ular cytoplasm of the cells, and thus form the secretion. These secre-
tion granules appear to be produced from certain products of the kary-
oplasm, as this substance gradually diminishes in amount during this
process. Since the nuclei become irregular and flattened, it is possible,
but not probable, that the nucleolus functions in this process.
Only one kind of secretion is produced for constructing the nest.
This material is not silk, nor is it composed of fine fibrils, but appears
as a fine granular slime-like substance. It is sometimes exuded in
ribbon-like masses, but it probably functions more as an adhesive sub-
stance, than as a string, in binding the materials of the nest together.
At the end of the breeding season the cytoplasmic granules arc
regenerated. They begin to appear on all sides of the nucleus at the
time that the nucleus begins to enlarge and become spherical. Since they
form about the nucleus and wander into the other parts of the cell it
would seem that the nucleus must be the active agent in their formation.
During the resting or winter stage the cells which form the slime
during the spring appear much like the cells near the glomeruli which
secrete urine, except that their nuclei are much smaller and they contain
only one nucleolus. At this season the nuclei of the urinary secreting
cells are very large, often occupying at least half of the cell contents.
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This investigation justifies the conclusion that the whole kidney is
not transformed periodically into a silk or slime producing gland, as is
maintained by certain authors, but that the process of slime secretion
is due to the activity of the epithelial cells of various ducts and tubes of
the system not engaged in the excretory function. It is comparable to
the secretion of slime by the genital ducts of Amphibia during the
breeding season.
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The Erdmann New Culture Medium for Protozoa.
C. A. Behrens and H. C. Travelbee>— Purdue University.
It is a well-known fact that the first culture in vitro of a pathogenic
trypanosome (Tryponosoma Brucei) was obtained by Novy and Mac-
Neal^ in 1903. The medium used was a meat extract agar plus two
parts of defibrinated rabbit's blood. Of fifty animals tested only 4, or
8% i)ositive cultures resulted. In 1905 Smedley*, using a similar medium,
foimd that three out of ten attempts, or 30%, were successful.
Because of the inconsistent results we deemed it advisable to at-
tempt an improvement of the medium. The first attempts along these
lines were in 1909*. The media with their per cent, of positive growths
are as follows:
1 Novy MacNeal blood agar 25%
1 A Novy MacNeal blood 0%
2 Bean and pea extract blood agar 53%
2A Bean and pea extract blood 0%
3 Nicolle blood agar 48%
3A Nicolle blood 0%
4 Dialyzed meat extract blood agar 80%
4A Dialyzed meat extract blood 0%
5 Dialyzed meat extract dilute serum agar 100%
5A Dialyzed meat extract dilute serum 0%
6 Dialyzed meat extract inactivated serum agar 100%
6A Dialyzed meat extract inactivated serum 0%
7 Dialyzed meat extract dilute red blood cells agar 38%
7 A Dialyzed meat extract dilute red blood cells 0%
8 Dialyzed meat extract Ascitic fluid agar 0%
8A Dialyzed meat extract Ascitic fluid 0%
9 Veal extract blood minus white blood cells agar 100%
9A Veal extract blood minus white blood cells 0%
*Joar. Amer. Med. Assn.. 1903. 41. p. 1266; Jour. Infect. Dis.. 1904. 1. p. 1.
»Jour. Hyfir.. 1905. 5, p. 38.
'Joar. Infec. Dis.. 1914. 15. 1. p. 4.
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The above table indicates that successful cultures ranging from
25 to 100 per cent, are obtained when the solid type of medium is em-
ployed and that in every case where the liquid medium is used negative
results occurred. In the successful cultures growth always resulted in
the water of condensation after a period of incubation from one to four
weeks at a temperature ranging from 25° to 28° C.
We therefore naturally were very much interested when in 1914
Rh. Erdmann* announced a new liquid culture medium for Trypanosoma
Brucei. Erdmann states that by using the plasma of the host as the
medium she grew Trypanosoma Brucei in hanging-drop cultures and
kept them in normal condition for an indefinite period. The technique
employed in brief was as follows: The plasma was obtained by the
method of Harrison", Burrows*, and Walton*. **The blood from the in-
fected rat was taken and put into a small drop of plasma on a cover-
glass and then this was further diluted with plasma in order to reduce
the number of blood corpuscles in the hanging-drop which was taken
from this." The cover glass with hanging-drop was either placed on a
depression or regular slide and sealed. Precautions to secure aseptic
conditions were taken.
We attempted to follow the technique thus outlined as nearly as
possible. These cultures showed no signs of bacterial contamination at
the end of forty-five days. In only a few instances were actively motile
survivals in evidence for more than five days when kept at ICC. In
preparations incubated at 20'*C, or above no survivals were observed
after forty-eight hours.
In the course of an extensive series of attempts using heterologous
and homologous sera under various conditions we found it impossible at
any time to obtain a second generation by the Erdmann method. The
homologous sera used were rat and guinea pig. The heterologous sera
were human, horse, beef, sheep, pig, rabbit and chicken. These sera
were used in a dilute one to one, inactivated, and normal form and the
preparations were incubated at temperatures of 10, 15, 20, 25, 28, 30,
35, 37^/^, and 40 ''C. Ascitic fluid was also used without success.
It is true that trypanosomes will multiply and remain actively
* Soc. Exp. Biol, and Med., 1914. XII. p. 57.
» Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol, and Med., 1907, IV, p. 40 : Jour. Exp. Zool.. 1910, IX, p. 787.
"Jour. Amer. Med. Assn., 1910, LV ; Jour. Exp. Zool., 1911, X, p. 63.
' Proc. R. S. L.. Ser. B., 87, p. 452.
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motile when first placed in a medium such as described by Erdmann.
We have especially noticed this in connection with our work with solid
media. Good survival forms of other pathogenic trypanosomes as those
causing human sleeping sickness, dourine, and mal de caderas were
observed as late as the twenty-eighth day, but in no case did these
forms result in positive growth or second generation when transplanted
to similar medium under similar conditions.
In summing up our work we can positively say that at no time,
under no conditions were we able to obtain a positive culture using the
Erdmann cultural medium. As a matter of fact the easily cultivated
trypanosome of Lewis would not develop successfully on this medium.
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Disposition and Intelligence of the Chimpanzee.
W. Henry Sheak — Philadelphia, Pa.
I shall not, in this brief paper, attempt to prove aught of the dis-
position and intelligence of Anthropopithecus troglodytes by force of
argument. I shall merely set forth a few of my own personal observa-
tions. You may draw your own conclusions.
The chimpanzee is a native of tropical Africa, ranging from about
twelve degrees north of the equator to ten degrees south of this line, and
from the Atlantic Ocean on the west, to the Blue Nile on the east. But
these interesting animals seem to be much more abundant in the western
part of their range than in the eastern; at least, most of the specimens
we get in captivity come from near the Atlantic. The chimpanzee is
not nearly so large as the gorilla, and possibly not quite so large as
the orang-utan, but there is not much difference in size between the
chimpanzee and the orang. The adult males reach a height of about
four feet five inches and a weight of from one hundred and forty to
one hundred and sixty pounds. The females are not quite so large. The
color is black, both the hair and skin being black. In some specimens,
however, the face is quite light in color, and in others there may be
found considerable ashy-gray hair among the black.
The chimpanzee is the most friendly and docile of the great apes,
differing in this way from his near relative, the gorilla, which is savage
and morose, refusing to make friends with man. I have seen a young
chimpanzee fresh from the jungles, on being taken from the shipping
box in which he came to America, throw his arms about a man's neck
he had never seen ten minutes before, and hug him affectionately. To
me, one of the most interesting things about these great apes is that
they know how to express affection and gratitude by hugging and kissing
without being taught. A few years ago I had a big chimpanzee called
Mike, who insisted on kissing me, and kissing me on the lips, when-
ever I came near him. This was not the most delightful of experiences,
because Mike's lips were not always clean. Joe, a smaller specimen.
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Sko\'too .>f .t i'hi'utxintoo. showinc cl >«* rv:*«'rahlan<v in structure to nian.
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very intelligent and affectioiiate, and my special pet, would often cuddle
up close to me, and if I did not voluntarily put my arm about him, he
would take hold of my arm and fold it about his shoulders or waist.
When Joe was only a baby, he fell into the habit of pulling my hand
to his mouth and biting my fingers, while I was talking to the people
about him. He was only playing and did not intend to hurt me; but
often, in his efforts to get my hand to his face and in snapping at my
fingers, he would bite harder than he intended. Then, too, it was tire-
some to have him pulling on me when I was trying to talk. One morn-
ing I got tired of his pulling and biting. I was carrying a small stick
and gave him a light tap on the bare arm. He stopped instantly, lifted
his pretty brown eyes to mine with an expression of pained surprise and
incredulity upon his face, as if he could not believe I would hit him
After looking at me thus intently for fully half a minute, he put up hi.^
hands, folded his little black arms about my neck, and hugged me, three
times, before he would let me go. This display of wounded feeling and
tender affection almost brought tears to my eyes.
The chimpanzee is also affectionate towards members of his ov;n
species and towards other animals, especially his nearest relatives, the
simians. Recently we had three chimpanzees in our collection, Mike and
Joe, already mentioned, and Jerry, a baby about thirteen months old.
Joe and Mike were both devoted to the baby and were always readj' to
fight for him. Mike usually mothered the little fellow, keeping him
under his especial care, and was jealous of Joe. One morning Joe ap-
propriated the baby and sat on the floor holding him on his lap, much
the same way that a very small boy holds his very big baby brother.
Mike wanted the baby and insisted upon having him. The two almost
came to blows (or bites) over the youngster. Mike was itching for a
fight but knew that sure and condign punishment awaited him if ho
hurt his smaller companion. First, he took a handkerchief and tried to
strike Joe with it, much in the spirit of the young man who wanted
to fight, but was afraid, and exclaimed, "Fm so mad at you I could
chew paper." Then he doubled up his fist and commenced a fusillade
of very light taps, delivered in very rapid succession about the neck
and shoulders of his rival, just to show him what he would like to do,
if he dared.
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Fresh from the Old Sod— A big Chimpanzee.
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One day baby Jerry was on top of a cage, when he caught hold of a
large wooden ring suspended from a rope, and swung off. He was now
quite a distance from the floor, and was afraid to drop. He could not
swing back to the cage. Mike saw his dilemma, got on top of the cage,
reached out, caught the baby, folded him in his arms, and carried him
in safety to the floor. The keepers had always to be on their guard
when handling Jerry, for fear Mike would mistake their intentions and
attack. One evening, in Rochester, N. Y., a little girl came behind the
guardrail, attracted by the cunning antics of the baby, when Mike hit
her a blow in the face that brought the blood.
When Jerry died, Mike, who had been sleeping with him, went into
the box and felt all over the body. When the body was taken in to the
basement, Mike insisted on following, and had to be driven back with a
shovel. He went to bed, but when he found out Jerry was not there,
he got up and came out again. He then sat about for an hour or more,
grieving and crying in the strangely human-like voice of his species.
For several days he was listless and spiritless.
After years of experience in studying these animals and living with
them, I have come to the careful and deliberate conclusion that, up to
about four years of age, the chimpanzee babe is not only more precocious,
but more intelligent than a human child of the same age. But after
about four years the chimpanzee babe begins to fall behind and the
human child to go ahead.
Joe learned to brush his hair with a hairbrush, to dust his clothes
with a whiskbroom, to wipe his nose with a handkerchief, to eat out of
a cup with a spoon as well as any human child, to bore holes with a brace
and bit, to use a handsaw quite dexterously, to take screws out of the
guardrail with a screwdriver, to drive nails with the hammer and pull
them out again with the claw of the hammer, to play on a toy piano,
and to play on a mouthharp. This last is a very diflicult trick to teach
an animal. You can not tell him to expel the air from his lungs and
you can not show him how to do it. He must pick it up himself. I
have known two or three elephants to learn this trick, but, aside from
these, Joe was the only other I ever knew to accomplish the feat. All
these tricks he learned with little or no teaching. He was a very close
20—11994
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observer, and whatever he saw his human friends do, he would try him-
self, until he had acquired a long string of accomplishments.
In Chicago an employe of the menagerie brought from a Chinese
restaurant a menu card printed in red ink. Joe seemed much interested
in this and carefully kept it for a week or ten days. With considerable
deliberation he would spread it out on the floor, then follow the lines
slowly with his finger, as if reading. I have observed that most chim-
panzees are right-handed, but Joe was left-handed. He always used a
hammer or saw in his left hand, and in studying this menu card he
would follow the lines with the index finger of his left hand.
Like human children, chimpanzees are fond of candy. But sweets
are forbidden the menageries, owing to the fact that the chimpanzee
stomach will bear but little sugar. In spite of the printed placards,
however, well-meaning but unwise visitors would often throw them
candy. One afternoon Joe was enjoying to the full a morsel of the pro-
scribed dainty, when he saw his master approaching. He cunningly
ducked his head under a blanket so the cruel tyrant, as he doubtless
considered his humanu persecutor, could not see what he was eating.
His cleverness was awarded by telling him to eat the candy. Joe dearly
loved to tease a small Mexican hairless dog, called Harry, which usually
slept on the stage near the chimpanzee cage. He would reach through
the bars, give the dog a punch, pinch him, or pull his tail, then jerk
his hand before Harry could nip him. In this way he kept the dog irri-
tated much of the time, and he was always ready to bite him. One
morning the manager came in with some oranges, a fruit of which the
chimpanzee is very fond. To see how Joe would solve the problem, he
placed one of the oranges directly under the dog*s nose.
Joe was puzzled at first, but he soon had an idea. He brought the
hammer from the other end of the cage, and with this in his right hand
began punching at Harry. The dog was ready for a fight, as usual, and
began biting at the hammer handle. In this way he gradually enticed
him away from the orange, then he reached out with his left hand and
took the fruit.
While exhibiting our animals in Kansas City, we kept the chim-
panzees in a big cage, almost as large as an ordinary bedroom. To the
top of the cage we had several ropes attached by means of bolts, with a
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ring for a head. The chimpanzees would swing on these ropes, chasing
each other from end to end of the cage. We found that the more exer-
cise they took, the longer they would live in captivity. One day one of
the bolts came loose and fell to the floor. The manager got into the
cage, picked up the bolt and handing it to Joe, told him to put it up there
in place, pointing to the hole, and hold it until he could make it fast.
Joe took the bolt, climbed to the top of the cage, put it into its proper
hole and held it there until the manager got on top and fastened it. The
head keeper was standing near, and exclaimed, "By George, that's going
some." His words expressed the thought of all us. It was the strongest
manifestation of intelligence I had ever seen from an animal.
One Christmas morning a gentleman with a Great Dane came into
the room. Mike and Joe were much excited and not a little afraid of
the dog. Joe climbed over the senior partner's back. Mike got a piece
of board into which Joe had been driving nails, and made desperate at-
tempts to throw it. He would swing his arm back and forth, but did
not seem to understand just when to let go, and the board was just as
likely to go back over his shoulder as toward the dog. But now and
then he came very near the dog and hit him a telling blow. Mike kept
practicing at throwing till he became expert. He got into the infamous
habit of throwing the hammer out among the people in front of the stage,
and we had to keep it out of his reach. The wife of the manager came
out of the kitchen with a half head of cabbage and cast it over the bars
onto the stage, there being no top on to the chimpanzee cage at that
time. Mike picked up the cabbage and tossed it back to her with just
as much dexterity and precision as she had used.
We once had a very intelligent chimpanzee called Sallie. A negro
connected with the menagerie had a needle and thread with which he
mended his clothes. Sallie watched the operation very intently. A little
later she was noticed with a string trying to find an eye in a nail. She
was given a small darning needle, and a heavy cotton thread, and at once
threaded the needle, just as she had seen the negro do. After that she
could not be deceived. When given a nail or piece of wire, she would
look for an eye and, if there was none, she would throw away the coun-
terfeit. She would begin by wetting the end of the thread in her mouth,
would place the eye of her needle in line with her eye, insert the thread
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from behind forward, then pull the thread the remainder of the way with
her lips. She often tried to tie a knot, too; but in this she was never suc-
cessful. She always tried to make the knot in the thread up next to the
needle. After a nimiber of successful attempts at this, she would go to
work on her dress, and sew, and sew, and sew, pulling the thread clear
at every stitch. Sometimes she would amuse herself in this way for half
an hour.
I often wondered if these very intelligent animals really understood
the meaning of words, or whether they only comprehended a sentence or
phrase as a whole or got the idea from my gestures or the order of the
performance. One morning I saw an opportunity to test the matter. We
had a little hat which I would hand to Sallie and tell her put on her
"five dollar" hat. This she would generally do very neatly and skillfully,
but sometimes in the morning, when she had just gotten out of bed, or
at night, when she was tired and sleepy, she would respond very indiffer-
ently, either getting the hat on one side or missing her head altogether.
I always had her put on her hat immediately after shaking hands at the
beginning of the lecture. On the morning in question, the hat had fallen
to the stage floor near her feet. Shortly after the lecture commenced, as
I was finishing the talk, I said to her without changing my tone or
looking toward the hat, "Sallie put on your five dollar hat." Without the
slightest hesitation, she reached down, picked up the hat, and put it on
her head.
Joe learned the order of the performance, and when I got through
describing his hand to the audience, he would proffer his foot. He
seemed, too, to understand the meaning of "posterior limb," for, although
I might change the order of the lecture, the instant I sad "posterior
limb," he would put up his foot.
One afternoon, in Detroit, some one had given Mike something to
eat in a common earthenware bowl. When I came up, he had almost emp-
tied the vessel. I knew he would throw it to the floor and break it, so
I stepped behind the guardrail and said, "Mike, hand me that bowl."
Immediately he set down the bowl and put out his hand. I saw at once
that I, not he, had blundered. The word "bowl" was new to him, he had
never heard it before; but as I had told him to hand me the bowl, he set
down the vessel and offered me his hand. So I changed the form of the
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command, "Give me that cup." He was perfectly familiar with the
word "cup", as he kept one on the platform and, when he was thirsty,
gave it to the keeper to fetch him a drink of water. Without hesitation
he picked up the bowl and gave it to me, doubtless considering it merely
a cup of larger size.
One day, when our Joe was a little fellow, he and one of the keepers
got into an argument. The keeper wanted Joe to sit on his chair, but he
refused to do so. Bad temper and angry passions were prevailing on
both sides. The keeper had a whip and was threatening to strike. Joe
was showing his teeth and threatening to bite. I stepped behind the
guardrail and sent the keeper on an errand out of the room. I spoke a
few soothing words to Joe. He stopped screaming and got up on his
chair. In a moment he had forgotten his trouble. A bystander wanted to
know the secret of my influence over the animal. It was kindness and
love.
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The Uredinales op Delaware.^
H. S. Jackson — Purdue University.
The following account of the Uredinales of Delaware is the result
of a study of the rust flora of that State begun in 1906, during the time
when the writer was connected with the Delaware College and Experi-
ment Station. A preliminary manuscript was prepared at that time and
has since been revised and amplified at various times and finally rewrit-
ten in the present form in the winter of 1916-1917. A few changes and
additions have since been made to bring the notes up to date.
The records include all the material in the Herbarium of the Dela-
ware College Agricultural Experiment Station, together with the collec-
tions made by the writer during a period of three years, and most of the
collections made by the late Mr. A. Commons of Wilmington, Delaware.
Mr. Commons made a very extensive collection of the Phanerogams
and Fungi of the State, largely during the period from 1885 to 1895.
Most of the fungi were determined by Mr. J. B. Ellis and duplicates of
the specimens are now in the herbarium of the New York Botanical
Garden. A manuscript list of the fungi was prepared by Mr. Commons,
but never published.
The writer enjoyed the privilege of a conference with Mr. Comi.:ons
in 1907 and was permitted to make a record of the rusts from his manu-
script list. His collection was not available for consultation at the time,
having been stored in boxes in a garret in Wilmington. Duplicates of
most of the specimens, however, have been found and examined in the
Ellis herbarium at the New York Botanical Garden. Only those speci-
mens which the writer has seen are included in the present account.
A total of 129 species are recorded from the State, including the
unconnected species of Aecidium and one uncertain Uredo. These are
recorded on 232 different hosts. A total of about 450 collections are
included, the greater number of which were made by the writer.
In recording the collections, the nearest poLtoffice is given, together
* G)ntribution from the Botanical Dcpartmenl of the Purdue University Agricul-
tural Experiment Station.
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with the date and name of the collector if made by another person than
the writer. The numbers in parentheses following the date are the
writer's accession numbers. Collections made at Seaford, July 9, 1907,
at Clayton, July 24, 1907, and at Lewes, August 14, 1907, were made in
company with Dr. M. T. Cook. In the case of collections made by Mr.
Commons the numbers given are those of his manuscript list.
An attempt has been made to include in the notes a review of all
the American culture work, together with some reference to similar work
conducted by European workers.
A number of field observations which were made at the time of
collecting the specimens have since been used by Dr. J. C. Arthur as
the basis for successful culture work and have been recorded elsewhere.
A considerable number of collections of material for culture work were
supplied him, a number of special trips having been made primarily for
this purpose, the expenses for which he provided from the funds of the
Purdue University Agricultural Experiment Station. Many of the speci-
mens collected, especially those on grasses and sedges, were identified by
Dr. Arthur or his associates in rust work. Many others, originally de-
termined by the writer, were sent him from Delaware for confirmation.
Throughout the period of time when the collections were being made, a
continuous correspondence was carried on with Dr. Arthur which proved
very stimulating and the writer is under special obligations to him for
this assistance. Acknowledgment is also gratefully made to any others
who have in any way aided in the work.
COLEOSPORIACEAE
1. COLEOSPORIUM CARNEUM (Bosc.) comb. nov.
Tubercularia camea Bosc. Ges. Nat. Freunde Berlin Mag. 5:88. 1811.
Coleosporium Vernoniae B. & C. Grevillea 3:57. 1874.
Peridermium carneum Seymour & Earle, Econ. Fungi 550. 1899.
On Carduaceae: II, III.
Vernonia novehoracensis (L.) Willd., Lewes, Aug. 14, 1907,
(1680) ; Collins Beach, Oct. 1, 1907, (1912) ; Newark, Oct. 25,
1907 (1978.)
Arthur (Mycol. 4:29. 1912), in 1910 proved that Peridermium
cai^eum is genetically connected with Coleosporium Vernoniae. Success-
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ful infection, resulting in the formation of uredinia and telia was ob-
tained by sowing aeciospores from Pinus taeda on Vemonia crinita, from
Florida. These results were confirmed in 1911 by the same author
(Mycol. 4:57. 1912), who obtained successful infection on V, gigantea,
using aecial material from Mississippi; and again in 1913 and 1914
(Mycol. 7:80, 84. 1915), when infection of V, fasciculata was obtained
from aecial material on P. taeda and P. palustris collected in Florida.
The type of Tubercularia camea has not been seen, and presumably
is not in existence. It seems desirable, if this name is to be retained at
all, to restrict its use to the Vemonia combination or, in case it should
later be found desirable to unite this species with C, Elepkantopodis, for
the combined species. Hedgcock & Long (Phytopath. 7:66-67. 1917)
record culture work indicating that the two species may be identical.
See also Phytopathology 8:321, 325. 1918.
2. C0LEX)SP0RiUM DELiCATULUM (Arth. & Kem) Hedgcock & Long, Phyto-
path. 3:250. 1913.
Peridermium delicatulum Arth. & Kem, Bull. Torrey Club 33:412.
1906.
On Carduaceae: 11, III.
Euthamia graminifolia (L.) Nutt., Newark, September 1888,
F. D. Chester; Clayton, July 24, 1907, (1706); Felton, Sept.
5, 1907, (1746); Selbyville, Oct. 4, 1907, (1990).
This species until recently has been included with C. Solidaginis,
The first suggestion leading to a true understanding of its relationship
was made by Clinton in 1912 (Conn. Agr. Exp. Station Report 1912:352.,
1913) who observed P. delicatulum on Pinv^ rigida in Conilecticut associ-
ated in the field with Coleosporium on Solidago graminifolia. He pointed
out a morphological correlation between the spore wall markings of the
aeciospores and the urediniospores of the two forms but no cultures were
attempted.
Hedgcock and Long in 1913 (1. c.) showed by infection experiments
that this form is distinct and is connected genetically with Peridermium
delicatulum. Uredinia developed on Euthamia when inoculated with
aeciospores of P. delicatulum on Pinuji rigida.
For a record of additional culture work see Phytopathology 8:321.
1918.
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3. COLEOSPORiUM Elephantopodis (Schw.) Thiim. Myc. Univ. 953. 1878.
Uredo Elephantopodis Schw. Schr. Nat. Ges. Leipzig 1:70. 1822.
On Carduaceae: II, III.
Elephant opus caroUniana Willd., Greenbank, Aug. 24, 1886,
A. Commons (318) ; Selbyville, Oct. 4, 1907, (1753).
Hedgcock & Long (Phytopath. 7:66-67. 1917) record culture work
which indicates that this species is identical with C. Vemoniae, Further
information regarding this situation is to be found in Phytopathology
8:321, 325. 1918.
4. COLEOSPORIUM IPOMOEAE (Schw.) Burr. Bull. 111. Lab. Nat. Hist.
2:217. 1885.
Uredo Ipomoeae Schw. Schr. Nat. Ges. Leipzig 1:70. 1822. Pen-
dermium Ipomoeae Hedge. & Hunt, Mycologia 9:239. 1917.
On Convolvulaceae: II, III.
Ipcmoea hederacea (L.) Jacq., Lewes, Aug. 14, 1907, (1683);
Selbyville, Oct. 4, 1907, (1982).
Ipomoea pandurata (L.) Meyer, — Faulkland, Sept. 18, 1885, A.
Commons (219).
Ipomoea purpurea (L.) Roth. — Lewes, Aug. 14, 1907 (1694).
Newark, Sept. 15, 1905 (1539).
Hedgcock & Hunt (Phytopath. 7:67. 1917) have shown that a pre-
viously undescribed foliicolous species of Peridermium, to which they
give the name P. Ipomoea e, is the aecial stage of this species.
5. COLEOSPORIUM PiNi Gall. Jour. Myc. 7:44. 1891.
Gallowayd Pint Arth. Result. Sci. Congr. Bot. Vienne 336. 1906.
On Pinaceae: III.
PinuH virginiana Mill. — Seaford, June 4, 1908, (2095).
This species represents the type of the genus Gallowaya Arth. which
up to the present time remains monotypic. It is in its life history a
short cycle Coleosporium bearing the same relation to that genus that
Necium Arth. does to Melampsora Cast, and Chrysomyxa Ung. to Me-
lampsoropsis (Schrot.) Arth., etc., as proposed in the revised classifica-
tion of Arthur (1. c).
Galloway (Bot. Gaz. 22:433-452. 1896) has made a very thorough
investigation of the life history, pathological histology and the effect of
this fungus on this host. A large series of inoculations were carried out
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proving conclusively that the fungus is autoecious and that telia only are
included in the life cycle.
6. COLEOSPORIUM SoLiDAGiNis (Schw.) ThUm. Bull. Torrey Club 6:216.
1878.
Uredo Solidaginis Schw. Schr. Nat. Ges. Leipzig 1:70. 1822.
Periderminum acicolum Und. & Earle, Bull. Torrey Club 23:400.
1896.
Peridermium montanum Arthur & Kern, Bull. Torrey Club 33:413.
1906.
On PiNACEAE: I.
Pinus rigida Mill.— Seaford, June 5, 1908, (2066, 2094) ; Har-
rington, June 5, 1908 (2257).
On Carduaceae: II, III.
Solidago canadensis L. — Newark, September, 1888, F. D.
Chester; Seaford, July 9, 1907, (1644) ; Clayton, July 24, 1907,
(1704) ; Lewes, Aug. 14, 1907, (1697, 1701).
Solidago rugosa Mill., Lewes, Aug. 14, 1907, (1698).
Aster paniculatus Lam. Newark, October, 1907, (2265, 2248).
The life history of this species was first worked out by Clinton
(Science N. S. 25:289. 1907. Ann. Rep. Conn. Exp. Sta. 1906:320. 1907;
1907:375. 1908). He successfully infected Solidago rugosa with aecio-
spores of Peridermium acicolum on Piinis rigida. The aecial material
used was collected in three localities in Connecticut and three trials were
made, all of which resulted in the development of uredinia. Telia fol-
lowed in two cases.
More recently Hedgcock (Phytopath. 6:65. 1916) and Wier and
Hubert (Phytopath. 6:68. 1916) working independently, have shown that,
in Montana, the species under discussion has for its aecial stage a
Peridermium common in the west on the needles of various pines, known
as P. montanum Arth. & Kern. Hedgcock sowed aeciospores collected on
Pinus contorta in Montana on various hosts and obtained the development
of aecia and telia on Aster conspicuous, Wier & Hubert also sowed
aeciospores from the same host and State on a number of local hosts for
Coleosporium and obtained infection resulting in aecia on Solidago cana-
densis, S. missouriensis and Aster laevis geyeri,
A review of the present knowledge with reference to this species can
be found in Phytopathology 8:324. 1918.
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UREDINACEAE.
7. Cronartium cerebrum (Peck) Hedgcock & Long, Jour. Agr. Res.
2:247. 1914.
Peridermium cerebrum Pk. Bull. Buff. Soc. Nat. Sci. 1:68. 1873.
Aeeidium giganteum Mahr. Wald. Nordam. 120. 1890.
Cronartium Quercuum Miyabe; Shirai, Bot. Mag. Tokyo 13:74. 1899.
Peridermium fusiforme Arth & Kern, Bull. Torrey Club 33:421. 1906.
On Pinaceae: I.
Ptnu5 virginiana Mills., Seaford, April 1908, (2250).
On Fagaceae: II, III.
Quercus coccinea Wang., Seaford, July 9, 1907, (1645).
Quercus digitata (Marsh.) Sudw., Seaford, July 9, 1907, (1641,
1642) (Barth. Fungi Columb. 2720) ; Lewes, Aug. 14, 1907,
(2249).
Quercus marylandica Moench., Seaford, July 9, 1907, (1646,
1647, 1652), (Barth. Fungi Columb. 2719); Lewes, Aug. 14,
1907.
Quercus nigra L., Seaford, July 9, 1907, (1643).
The first record of culture work with this species was made by
Shirai (Bot. Mag. 13:74. 1899). He successfully inoculated Quercus
serrata, Q. variabilis and Q. glandulosa in Japan, with aeciospores of
Peridermium giganteum (Mahr.) Tubeuf from native Pinus sp.
Shear (Jour. Myc. 12:89. 1906) was the first in America to report
successful inoculation indicating the connection of Peridermium cerebrum
with the American Cronartium on Quercus sp. He conducted out-of-
door inoculation experiments in the vicinity of Washington, D. C, using
aeciospores of Peridermium cerebrum on Pinus virginiana to infect Q.
coccinea. The experiments resulted in the formation of uredinia followed
by telia. He also records convincing field observations confirming the
above mentioned culture work.
Arthur in the same year (Jour. Myc. 13:194. 1907) confirmed Shear's
results under greenhouse control by obtaining successful infection on Q.
rehdina which resulted in the formation of uredinia and telia following
Aowings with aeeial material furnished by Dr. Shear, on Pinus tnrginiana.
These result? were confirmed by the same author in 1910 (Mycol. 4:26.
1£I12) when iofection was obtained on Q. rubra using aecia on P. tnr-
^tftlcma from the same locality.
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Hedgcock in 1908 (Phytopath, 1:131. 1911) infected Q. lobata, Q.
rubra and Q. densifolia echinoides by sowing with aeciospores from
Pirvus virginiana and P. echinataf resulting in the formation of uredinia
and telia on all hosts. He also records further inoculation experiments
in 1909 and 1910 in which 14 additional species of Quercus were success-
fully infected as was also Castanopsis chrysophylla. Typical galls were
produced on five species of pines by introducing teliospores from the oak
into wounds on the limbs. Many cross inoculations are recorded between
species of Quercus in which uredospores were used.
Later Hedgcock & Long (Jour. Agr. Res. 2:247. 1914) record
further inoculation work extending as well as confirming the above re-
sults and also show by carefully conducted inoculation experiments that
Peridermium fuaiforme is a synonym of the species under discussion.
Arthur in 1913 (Mycologia 7:79. 1915) confirms Hedgcock and
Long's findings with reference to Peridermium fusiforme, obtaining suc-
cessful infection of Q. rubra and Q. Phellos, following sowings with
aeciospores from typical galls of this species on Pinus taeda from Ala-
bama.
A more recent view with reference to the relation of Peridermium
cerebrum and P. fusiforme to the Cronartium on oaks will be found in
Phytopathology 8:315-316. 1918..
8. Cronartium pyriporme (Peck) Hedgcock & Long, Alt. Stage Perider-
mium pyriforme 3, 1914.
Cronartium Comundrae Peck, Bot. Gaz. 4:128. 1879.
Peridermium pyriforme Peck, Bull. Torrey Club 6:13. 1875.
On Santalaceae: II, III.
Comandra umbellata (L.) Nutt., Harrington, June 6, 1908,
(2070).
Orton & Adams (Phytopath. 4:25. 1914) record convincing field ob-
servations made in Pennsylvania which led to the conclusion that the
aecial stage of this species was the much confused Peridermium pyri-
forme Pk. No cultures were attempted.
Hedgcock and Long (1. c.) were the first to conduct cultures. They
succeeded in infecting Comandra umbellata by sowings with aeciospores
from Pinu^ ponderosa, resulting in typical uredinia.
In a later publication (Bull. U. S. Dept. Agr. 247:5. 1915) the same
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authors discuss this fungus at considerable length and record in detail
the results of infection experiments.
Kirkwood (Phytopath. 5:223-224. 1915) records field infection ex-
periments conducted in 1912 in which Comandra pallida was infected by
aeciospores from Pinus ponder osa. The results were inconclusive. In
1914 teliospores were inserted in incisions in the bark of young pine
trees resulting in a development of mycelium in the tissues, which on
histological examination resembled the condition found in trees known
to be natually infected. Further field infections similar to those con-
ducted in 1912 were carried out in 1914.
9. Hyalopsora Polypodii (DC.) Magn. Ber. Deuts. Bot. Ges. 19:582.
1901.
Uredo Polypodii DC. Fl. Fr. 6:81. 1815..
On Polypodiaceae :
Felix fragilis (L.) Und., Stanton, July 4, 1894, A. Commons
(2466) ; Mt. Cuba, July 1894, A. Commons (Distributed in
Ellis & Ev. Fungi Columb. 765).
The evidence at hand at the present time leads to the conclusion
that this species and other members of the genus Hyalopsora are heteroe-
cious. Bartholomew (Bull. Torrey Club 43:195. 1916) shows that the
mycelium of this species is binucleate in all its forms on the above host.
No clues to the alternate host have been suggested.
10. KUEHNEOLA Uredinis (Lk.) Arth. Result. Sci. Congr. Bot. Vienne
342. 1906.
Oidium Uredinis Lk. in Willd. Sp. PI. 6':123. 1824.
Clirysomyxa albida Kiihn, Bot. Centr. 16:154. 1883.
Uredo Muelleri Schrot. Krypt. Fl. Schles. 3*:375. 1887.
Coleosporium Ruhi Ellis & Holw. Sacc. Syll. Fung. 7:759. 1888.
On Rosaceae:
Rubufs nigrobacciis Bailey, Faulkland, Sept. 15, 1885, A. Com-
mons (175), Oct. 1, 1886, A. Commons (175a) (type of
Coleosporium Rubi Ell. & Holw. issued in Ellis & Ev. N. Am.
Fungi 1878); Newark, Sept. 5, 1905 (1629).
Rnbus frondosus Biyel. Newark, Sept. 1907 (2012).
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11. Melampsora Bigelowii Thiim. Mitth. Forstl. Vers. 2:37. 1879.
Uredo Bigeloivii Arth. Result. Sci. Congr. Bot. Vienne 338. 1906.
On Salicaceae: II, III.
Salix nigra Marsh., Wilmington, Oct. 4, 1889, A. Commons
(1022); Newark, Oct. 6, 1905 (1634), Sept. 10, 1907 (1729).
Arthur in 1903 (Jour. Myc. 11:60. 1905) was the first to show that
this American species, like certain European forms on Salix, develops
its aecial stage on Larix. He obtained the development of aecia on
Larix decidua by using for infection, telial material on Salix amygda-
loides, from Wisconsin. These results were confirmed in 1906 (Jour.
Myc. 13:194. 1907) when similar successful infection was obtained on L.
decidvxL following exposure to germinating telia on Salix sp. from In-
diana. Wier and Hubert (Phytopath. 6:372. 1916) used telia on Salix
Bebbiana from Montana to successfully infect L. occidentalism and on
S. cordata ma^kenzieana from Idaho to infect L. Europea, Pycnia and
aecia developed in abundance from both infections. (See also Phyto-
path 7:109. 1917; 8:826. 1918.)
12. PucciNiASTRUM Agrimoniae (Schw.) Tranz. Script. Bot. Hort. Univ.
Petrop. 4:301. 1895.
Caeoma Agrimoniae Schw. Trans. Am. Phil. Soc. II, 4:291. 1832.
On Rosaceae: II, III.
Agrimonia hirsuta (MUhl.) Bicknell, Newark, Sept. 19, 1905,
(1547); Oct. 1907 (2235).
No culture work leading to the detection of the alternate form of the
species has been conducted. The aecia, in common with other North
American species of Pucciniastrum, doubtless occur on the leaves of
Abies or Tsuga.
13. Pucciniastrum minimum (Schw.) Arth. Result. Sci. Congr. Bot.
Vienne 337. 1906.
Uredo minima Schw. Schr. Nat. Ges. Leipzig 1:70. 1822.
Peridermium Peckii Thum. Mitth. Forstl. Vers. Oest. 2:320 (24).
1880.
On Ericaceae: II.
Azalea viscosa L., Collins Beach, Oct. 1, 1907 (1910).
Eraser in 1910 (Mycol. 4:184. 1912) was the first to show that
the alternate host for this species is Tsuga canadensis. He obtained suc-
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cessful infection, resulting in pycnia and aecia on leaves and cones of
Tsuga canadensis (referred to Peridermium Peckii) by sowings with
telial material from Rhodora canadensis,
A comparison of the morphology of all the spore stages of this
species with the following, taken together with the close relationship of
the hosts involved, strongly suggests that they should be united under
one name.
See also Phytopathology 8:329-330. 1918.
14. PucciNiASTRUM Myrtilli (Schum.) Arth. Result Sci. Congr. Bot.
Vienne 337. 1906.
Aecidium Myrtilli Schum. Enum. PL Saell. 2:227. 1803.
On Vacciniaceae: II.
Vacdnium vacillans, Kalm., Newark, Sept. 17, 1907 (2008) ;
Selbyville, Oct. 4, 1907 (1989).
Clinton (Rep. Conn. Agr. Exp. Sta. 1909-1910:719. 1911) was the
first to show that the aecial stage of this species occurred on Tsuga
canadensis. He successfully infected GayliLssacia ba^cata by sowing
with aeciospores from Tsuga, resulting in the development of the tjrpical
uredinia of this species.
Eraser in 1912 (Mycol. 5:237. 1913) confirms Clinton's work by
obtaining the development of aecia on the leaves of Tsuga canadensis
following sowings from teliosporic material on Vacdnium canadense.
The same author in 1913 (Mycol. 6:27. 1914) obtained aecia on Tsuga
canadensis following sowing of teliosporic material from Galussacia re-
sinosa. The aecia developed in these experiments are similar to those
of Peridermium Peckii Thiim. but may represent an undescribed form.
15. PUCCINIASTRUM Pyrolae (Pers.) Dietel, in Engler & Prantl Nat. Pfl.
1,1** :47. 1897.
Aecidium Pyrolae Pers. Gmel. Syst. Nat. 2:1473. 1791.
On Pyrolaceae:
Chimaphila maculata (L.) Parsh., Seaford, June 5, 1908. (2075).
16. PUCCINIASTRUM PUSTULARUM (Pers.) Dietel, in E. & P. Nat. Pfl.
1,1** :47. 1897.
Uredo pustulata Pers. Syn. Fung. 219. 1801.
Pucciniastrum Epilobii Otth. Mitth. Nat. Ges. Bern 1861:72. 1861.
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Pucciniastrum Abieti-Cfiamaenerii Kleb. Jahrb. Wiss. Bot. 34:387.
1900.
On Onagraceae: II.
Epilobium coloratum Muhl., Mt. Cuba, Sept. 20, 1893, A. Com-
mons (2262).
Klebahn (Zeits. Pflanzenkr. 9:22-26. 1899) and other European in-
vestigators have shown that the aecial stage of the rust on species of
Epilobium belonging to the section Chamaenerion occurs in Europe on
Abies pectinata.
Eraser in 1910 (Mycol. 4:176. 1912) was the first in America to
record successful cultural experiments with this species. He showed
that the aecia were found on Abies balsamea using for infection telia
from Epilobium angustifolium collected in Nova Scotia. The aeciospores
thus produced were used to infect Epilobium angustifolium, and the
typical uredinia of this species resulted. Weir and Hubert (Phytopath.
6:373. 1916) using telial material from the same host collected in Idaho
obtained development of pycnia on Abies lasiocarpa.
It will be noted that all the cultural work has been conducted
with but one American species of Epilobium which belongs in the same
group as those successfully cultured in Europe. It is probable that
there are at least two distinct biological races involved. Sydow (Monog.
Ured. 3:442-444. 1915) recognizes two species.
See also Phytopathology 8:328-329. 1918 for a review of more
recent work.
17. Uredinopsis Atkinsonii Magn. Hedwigia 43:123. 1904.
On Polypodiaceae:
Dryopteris Thelypteris (L.) A. Gray, Stanton, July 13, 1894,
A. Commons (2471).
Eraser in 1912 (Mycol. 5:236. 1913) proved that this species has its
aecial stage on Abies balsamea (Peridermium balsameum Pk. p. p.) by
successfully infecting Dryopteris Thelypteris with aeciospores from
Abies balsamea with production of uredinia.
18. Uredinopsis mirabilis (Pk.) Magn. Hedwigia 43:121. 1904.
Septoria mirabilis Pk. Ann. Rep. N. Y. Mus. 25:87. 1873.
On Polypodiaceae:
Lorinseria areolata (L.) Presl., Selbyville, Oct. 4, 1907, (1755).
Onoclea sensibilis L., Newark, Oct. 1907, (2259).
21—11994
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Fraser in 1910 (Mycol. 4:189. 1912) conducted inconclusive culture
experiments indicating that this species on Onoclea sensibilis had for its
aecial stage a Peridermium on Abies balsaniea. In 1912 (Mycol. 5:236.
1913), however, the same author demonstrated conclusively that such was
the case. Teliosporic material on Onoclea sensibilis L. was used to suc-
cessfully infect the leaves of Abies balsamea resulting in pycnia and
aecia of Peridermium balsameum. In three trials using aeciospores
from Abies balsamea, uredinia developed on Onoclea. In 1913 (Mycol.
6:25. 1914) the results of 1912 were repeatedly confirmed. The species
of the genus Uredinopsis are separated on rather slight morphological
characters. Fraser reports the results of experiments, however, that
indicate that this species is at least biologically distinct.
PUCCINIACEAE.
19. Gymnoconia interstitialis (Schlecht.) Lag. Tromso Mus. Aarsh.
16:140. 1894.
Caeoma interstitiale Schlecht. Horae Phys. Berol. 96. 1820.
Aecidium nitens Schw. Schr. Nat. Ges. Leipzig 1:69. 1822.
Puccinia Peckiana Howe; Peck, Ann. Rep. N. Y. State Mus. 23:57.
1872.
Puccinia tripustulata Peck, Ann. Rep. N. Y. State Mus. 24:91. 1872.
Gymnoconia Peckiana Trotter, Fl. Ital. Crypt. 1":338. 1910.
Kunkelia nitens Arth. Bot. Gaz. 58:504. 1917.
On Rosaceae: I.
Rubtis allegheniensis Porter, Newark, May 1889, F. D. Chester.
Rubus villosus Ait., Newark, May 15, 1907, (1620), June 16,
1907, M. T. Cook, (1661).
Tranzschel (Hedwigia 32:257. 1893) was the first to report success
in culturing this species. He succeeded in obtaining the development of
Puccinia Peckiana Howe on Rubus saxatilis by sowing spores of Caeoma
nitens Bur rill.
In America Clinton (Bot. Gaz. 19:116. 1895) confirmed Tranzschel's
work by successfully infecting Rubus villosus with production of telia.
He used aecial material from the same host.
Kunkel (Bull. Torrey Club 40:361-366. 1913; Am. Jour. Bot. 1:37-
47. 1914) has shown that Caeoma nitens on Rubus frondosus behaves
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like a short cycle telial form comparable to Endophyllum, since the so-
called aeciospores germinate like teliospores. In a later study (Bull.
Torrey Club 43:559-569. 1916) Kunkel concludes that there are two
forms of orange rust of Kubus in North America. He found that in
certain collections the spores germinate as aeciospores with germ tube,
while in others they germinate as teliospores. Arthur (1. c.) concurs
in this view and establishes the genus Kunkelia for the short cycled
form. Atkinson (Am. Jour. Bot. 5:79-83. 1918) presents evidence in sup-
port of the contention that only one species should be recognized and
that it represents a form whose life history is unstable and that the
spores may germinate either as aeciospores which on infection develop
teliosi>ores of Puccinia Peckianay or as teliospores which, following in-
fection, result in a repetition of the caeomoid aecial form. He considers
that the behavior of the spores is dependent on certain conditions, the
most important of which is temperature. Until more evidence is avail-
able it seems best to continue to list this species under the old name.
20. Gymnosporangium Botryapites (Schw.) Kern, Bull. Torrey Club
35:506. 1908.
Caeoma Botryapites Schw. Trans. Am. Phil. Soc. II. 4:294. 1832.
Gymnosporangium biseptatum Ellis, Bull. Torrey Club 5:46. 1874.
On Juniperaceae: III.
Chamaecyparis thyoides (L.) B.S.P., Seaford, April 14, 1908.
Dr. W. G. Farlow (Anniv. Mem. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist. 35:1880) was
the first to attempt infection experiments with this species. He reports
success in obtaining pycnia on Crataegus tomentosa. It is noteworthy
that later studies have not confirmed the occurrence of the species on
Crataegus. Later (Proc. Am. Acad. Nat. Sci. 12:313. 1885) spermo-
gonia were obtained on leaves and stems of Amelanchier canadensis.
Dr. R. Thaxter (Proc. Am. Acad. Nat. Sci. 14:263. 1887) obtained the
development of aecia on Amelanchier canadensis which were recognized
to be Roestelia Botryapites (Schw.) C. & E. These results were later
repeatedly confirmed (Conn. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 107:4. 1891).
Dr. J. C. Arthur (Mycol. 1:240. 1909) records successful infection
of Amelanchier intermedia from telial material collected by the writer
at Newfield, N. J., pycnia only resulting.
Dodge (Torreya 15:133-134. 1915; Bull. Torrey Club 42:519-542.
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1915) conducted an extensive investigation of this species in comparison
with G. transformans. In connection with this work he repeatedly
obtained infection by using telia from galls on Chamaecyparis thyaides,
on A. canadensis. A, intermedia and A, Amelanchier which resulted in
the development of Roestelia Botryapites, (c. f. 27). He failed to obtain
any infection on Aronia.
21. Gymnosporangium clavariaeforme (Jacq.) DC. Fl. Fr. 2:217.
1895.
Tremella clavariaeformis Jacq. Coll. 2:174. 1788.
On Malaceae: I.
Amelanchier canadensis (L.) Medic, Felton, June 8, 1893, F. D.
Chester.
The alternate host for this species occurs on Juniperus communis
L. and J. sibirica Burgsd.
Oersted (Overs. Vid. Selsk. Forh. 210, 1867; Bot. Zeit. 222, 1867)
was the first to carry out infection experiments with this species. He
successfully infected Crataegtis oxycantha following sowings with telial
material. This species has since been frequently cultured by European
investigators and the results have been fully summarized by Klebahn
(Die Wirtswechselden Rostpilze 339-345. 1904).
In America, Thaxter (Proc. Am. Acad. Sci. 22:262. 1887; Bot. Gaz.
14:166. 1889) was the first to conduct definite cultures. He succeeded
in obtaining the development of an abundance of pycnia and aecia on
Crataegus tomentosa and Amelanchier canadensis.
Dr. J. C. Arthur (Jour. Myc, 14:19. 1908) in 1907 succeeded in
obtaining infection of Amelanchier intermedia following sowings of
sporidia from Juniperus sibirica with development of pycnia only. In
1908 (Mycol. 1:239. 1909) aecia were obtained on Amelanchier erecta
following sowings of sporidia from J, sibirica from Colorado. In 1910,
(Mycol. 4:24. 1912) using similar infection material, the same author
succeeded in obtaining pycnia and aecia on Amelanchier erecta and
pycnia on Crataegus punctata. In 1911 (Mycol. 4:56. 1912) the same
results on Amelanchier erecta were obtained as in 1910, using telial
material from the same locality. In 1913 (Mycol. 7:79. 1915) pycnia
were obtained on Crataegus cerronus, following inoculation with telia
from Colorado on Juniperus sibirica.
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22. Gymnosporangium germinale (Schw.) Kern, Bull. Torrey Club
35:506. 1908.
Caeoma germinale Schw. Trans. Am. Phil. Soc. II. 4:294. 1832.
Gymnosporangium clavipes Cooke & Peck; Cooke, Jour. Quek. Club
2:267. 1871.
Roestelia aurantica Pk. Bull. Buffalo Soc. Nat. Sci. 1:68. 1873.
On Malaceae: I.
Cydonia vulgaris (L.) Pers., Smyrna, July 15, 1895, comm.
J. C. Stockley; Felton, Aug. 1897, F. D. Chester.
On Juniperaceae: III.
Juniperus virginiana L., Iron Hill, May 1897, F. D. Chester;
Seaford, April 14, 1908, (2252).
Dr. W. G. Farlow was the first to conduct culture experiments with
this species. In 1883 (Proc. Am. Acad. Sci. 2b:313. 1885) using telia
from Juniperus virginiana he succeeded in obtaining the development of
pycnia on leaves of Malus Mahis, Aronia arbuti folia and Amelanchier
canadensis, but aecia did not develop.
Dr. R. Thaxter (Bot. Gaz. 11:236. 1886; Proc. Am. Acad. Sci.
22:264. 1887) conducted similar cultural work obtaining well developed
aecia on Amelanchier canadensis and pycnia on Malus Malus.
Dr. J. C. Arthur in 1907 (Jour. Myc. 14:18. 1908) using material
on Juniperus sibirica from Illinois secured infection on leaves of Amelan-
chier intermedia and on fruit of A. erecta with development of pycnia
only. In 1908 the same author (Mycol. 1:239. 1909) using telial ma-
terial from J. virginiana from Kentucky succeeded in developing pycnia
and aecia on Crataegus sp. In 1909 (Mycol. 2:229. 1910) successful
infection of Amelanchier erecta with development of aecia in abundance
and of Crataegus punctata with development of pycnia only was ob-
tained. Telial material from J. sibirica from Michigan was used in
these experiments. In 1910, (Mycol. 4:24. 1912) using telial material
from Wisconsin on J. sibirica, successful infection of Amelanchier erecta
and Crataegus tomentosa was obtained resulting in abundant aecia in
both cases. Aeciospores from the Amelanchier were used in June 1910
to inoculate J. sibirica resulting in the development of telia the follow-
ing spring.
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23. Gymnosporangium globosum Farl Anniv. Mem. Boston Soc. Nat,
Hist. 18. 1880.
On Malaceae: I.
Crataegus phaenopyrum (L. f.) Medic, Newark, Oct. 1888,
F. D. Chester.
Dr. W. G. Farlow (Anniv. Mem. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist. 34:1880
and Proc. Am. Acad. N. S. 12:312. 1885) was the first to conduct
infection experiments with this species. He succeeded in obtaining
pycnia only on Crataegus tomentosa, C. Douglasii, C. oxya^anthu, fol-
lowing sowings with telial material from J, virginiana. Dr. R. Thaxter
(Proc. Am. Acad. Sci. 22:263. 1887; Bot. Gaz. 14:167. 1889) succeeded
in obtaining infection resulting in aecia on Crataegus coecinea and
Malus Malus and spermogonia on Sorbus americana and Cydonia vul-
garis.
In a later report (Conn. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 107:4. 1891) addi-
tional work is recorded confirming the previous results on Malus Malus
and recording successful infection of Sorbus amei^ana resulting' in the
development of aecia.
Dr. J. C. Arthur in 1906 (Jour. Myc. 13:200. 1907) using a telial
material from Juniperus virginiana from Indiana obtained aecia on
Crataegus Pringlei. Similar material from West Virginia gave aecia
on Sorfetts americana and pycnia on Crataegus Pringlei and Malus coro-
naria. In 1907, (Jour. Myc. 14:18. 1908) infection from telial material
from Indiana resulting in aecia, was secured on Malus Malus. In 1908
(Mycol. 1:239. 1909) infection resulting in aecia was obtained on Cra-
taegus Pringlei, using telial material from Massachusetts. Pycnia were
also obtained on Crataegus sp. using telial material from Kentucky. In
1909 (Mycol. 2:229. 1910) successful infection resulting in aecia was
obtained on Crataegus coecinea using infecting material from North
Carolina.
24. Gymnosporangium Juniperi-virginianae Schw. Schr. Nat. Ges.
Leipzig 1:74. 1822.
Gymnosporangium macropus Lk. in Willd. Sp. PI. 6^:128. 1826.
Aecidium pyratum Schw. Trans. Am. Phil. Soc. II. 4:309. 1832.
Roestelia jryrata Thax. Proc. Am. Acad. 22:269. 1887.
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On Malaceae: I.
Pyrus coronaria L., Wilmington, Aug. 26, 1886, A. Commons.
Pyrm malus L., Felton, Sept. 5, 1907 (1737).
On Juniperaceae: III.
Juniperus virginiana L., Georgetown, May 18, 1892, F. D.
Chester; Lincoln City, May 1906, H. S. Jackson.
The species recorded above is the common cedar-apple rust known
throughout the eastern United States and is one of the serious apple
diseases often, in epidemic years, causing enormous losses. An account
of this disease in Delaware with a list of susceptible and immune varie-
ties has been prepared by Chester (Del. Exp. Sta. Rep. 8:63-69. 1896).
Farlow in 1877 and 1883 (Aniv. Mem. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist.
35:1880; Proc, Am. Acad. 20:313, 314. 1885) was the first to attempt
culture work with this species. He obtained incomplete proof of the
life history. In 1886 Thaxter (Proc. Am. Acad. 22:257. 1887) first
conducted cultures establishing the genetic relation of the common apple
rust (Roestelia pyrata) and G. macroptis. He succeeded in obtaining
aecia on Pyrus mains following sowing of teliospores from J, virginiana.
The results were repeated and confirmed in 1887 (Bot. Gaz. 14:166.
1889). Halsted in 1886 (Bot. Gaz. 11:190. 1886; Bull. Iowa Agr. Coll.
Dept. Bot. 69. 1886) obtained infection on Pyrus lowensis resulting in
aecia.
Stewart and Carver in 1896 (Rep. N. Y. (Geneva) Exp. Sta. 14:535.
1896) conducted culture experiments in New York and Iowa and obtained
infection of apples in New York using telia collected in Iowa as well as
locally, with successful development of aecia on some varieties. In Iowa
infection could only be obtained on wild crab when either New York or
Iowa telia were used. The results are recorded in considerable detail
and are exceedingly interesting and difficult of explanation.
In 1901 Panmiel (Bull. Iowa Exp. Sta. 84:24. 1906) conducted
cultural experiments and reports infection of Pyrus lowensis and Cra-
taegtis mollis and C. pinnatifida with development of aecia using telial
material from both New York and Missouri.
Arthur in 1905 (Jour. Myc. 12:13. 1906) using telial material from
Iowa and North Carolina obtained infection resulting in abundant pycnia
on the apple from both sources. In 1906 and 1907 and 1910 (Jour. Myc.
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13:200. 1907; 14:17. 1908; Mycol. 4:24. 1912) pycnia were again
obtained on apple following sowings from telial material from Indiana.
In 1916 Reed and Crabill (Tech. Bull. Va. Exp. Sta. 9:43-45. 1915)
report the results of numerous infection experiments- on different varie-
ties of cultivated apples. Their experiments bring out strongly the
well established fact that some varieties are susceptible and other rela-
tively or totally immune. They also show that only young leaves are
susceptible.
25. Gymnosporangium Myricatum (Schw.) Fromme, Mycol. 6:229.
1914.
Caeoma (Aecidium) Myricatum Schw. Trans. Am. Phil. Soc. II.
4:294. 1832.
Podisoma Ellisii Berk. Grevillea 3:56. 1844.
Gymnosporangium Ellisii Farl., Ellis N. A. Fungi 271. 1879.
On Myricaceae: I.
Myrica cerifera L., Seaford, July 9, 1907 (1648).
On Juniperaceae: III.
Chamaecyparis thy aides (L.) B. S. P., Seaford, April 14, 1908
(2251).
Fromme (1. c.) has shown by infection experiments and field obser-
vations that the well known Gymnosporangium Ellisii has for its aecial
stage Aecidium Myricatum, This is especially remarkable since only
one other Gymnosporangium (G, Blasdaleanum) has been definitely
shown by infection experiments to have aecia of the cupulate type, and
since no other species of Gymnosporangium is known to have an aecial
host in other than the Rosales.
26. Gymnosporangium nidus-avis Thaxter, Bull. Conn. Exp. Sta. 107:6.
1891.
On Juniperaceae: III.
Juniperus virginiana L., Lewes, April 16, 1908 (2243).
This species produces largely "witches' brooms" on the red cedar.
Thaxter conducted culture experiments in 1886 and in 1887 (Proc.
Amer. Acad. 22:264. 1887; Bot. Gaz. 14:167. 1889) in which he infected
Amelanchier canadensis with production of pycnia and aecia in abun-
dance using sporidia of the above species, at that time undescribed, but
referred to G. conicum. In 1891 Thaxter (1. c.) stated "infections with
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this species have been conducted every year since the spring of 1886
. . . and the results in all the cultures were identical."
Arthur in 1907 (Jour. Myc. 14:19. 1908), using sporidia from
•/. virginiana collected in Illinois, obtained successful infection of Mains
Maltis with production of pycnia followed by aecia, but failed to obtain
infection of Amelanchier intermedia. In 1909 (Mycol. 2:230. 1910)
successful infection of Crataegus PHnglei with production of pycnia
only, and of Malus lowensis with development of aecia was obtained, but
without infection on Amelanchier canadensis. In 1910 (Mycol. 4:25.
1912) infection of Cydonia vulgaris and Amelanchier vulgaris with pro-
duction of pycnia only is recorded. In 1911 (Mycol. 4:56. 1912) using
sporidia from New Jersey successful infection of Amelanchier erecta
resulted in the production of aecia on fruits; using sporidia from Ne-
braska successful infection of Malus coronaria with production of pycnia
only is recorded. In 1914 (Mycol. 7:83. 1915) Amelanchier vulgaris
was inoculated with telial material from Massachusetts and abundant
production of pycnia and aecia resulted.
27. Gymnosporangium transformans (Ellis) Kern, Bull. N. Y. Bot.
Gard. 7:463. 1911.
Roestelia transformans Ellis; Peck, Bull. Torrey Club 5:3. 1874.
Gymnosporangium fratemum Kern, Bull. N. Y. Bot. Gard. 7:439.
1911.
On Malaceae: I.
Aronia arbutifolia (L. f.) Ell., Seaford, June 1908 (2262).
The above collection is of pycnia only.
Dodge (Torreya 15:133-134. 1915; Bull. Torrey Club 42:519-542.
1915) has studied the foliicolous form occurring on Chamaecyparis
thyoides which until Kern's monographic study (1. c.) had been con-
sidered a form of G. biseptatum. His work clearly shows that this leaf
form has for its aecia Roestelia transformans on Aronia having repeat-
edly obtained infection followed by development of aecia on A. arbuti-
folia and A. nigra. He also claims to have obtained infection with the
leaf form on Amelanchier intermedia, A. canadensis and A. Amelanchier,
resulting in the development of aecia having the morphology of R. Bot-
ryapites which has been repeatedly shown to go to the branch form
known commonly as G. biseptatum. The young infections of G. bisep-
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tatum which occur on the young twigs may easily be confused with the
leaf form unless microscopically examined, and might have been mixed
with the material of G. fratemum used in the infection experiments.
28. Phragmidium americanum Diet. Hedwigia 44:124. 1905.
On Rosaceae:
Rosa Carolina L. Collins Beach, Oct. 1, 1907.
Rosa humilis Marsh., Seaford, June 4, 1908 (2050) ; Lewes,
Aug. 14, 1907 (1685).
29. Phragmidium disciflorum (Tode) J. F. James, Cont. U. S. Nat
Herb. 3:276. 1895.
Ascophora disciflora Tode, Fungi Meckl. 1:16. 1790.
On Rosaceae:
Rosa sp. (cultivated), Newark, September 1888, F. D. Chester.
30. Phragmidium Duchesneae (Arth.) Sydow, Monog. Ured. 3:93.
1912.
Kuehneola Duchesneae Arthur, N. A. Flora 7:185. 1912.
Frommea Duchesneae Arthur, Bull. Torrey Club 44:504. 1917.
On Rosaceae:
Duchesnea Indica (Ards.) Focke, II, Newark, May 1908, H. S.
Jackson; III, Wilmington, Nov. 1, 1890, A. Commons (1686).
This species and the following possess only uredinia (primary and
secondary) and telia in their life cycle differing from the commoner
species occurring on Rubus and Rosa in the absence of any Caeoma
stage. As suggested by Arthur (Phytopath. 6:100. 1916; Bull. Torrey
Club 44:501-511. 1917) their affinities are with Phragmidium rather
than with Kuehneola which doubtless belongs in the Uredinaceae. In
the classification of the Uredinales based on the length of life cycle,
proposed by Arthur (Result. Sci. Congr. Bot. Vienna in 1906) these
species would represent a genus in the Phragfmidiatae bearing the same
relation to Phragmidium and Earlea that Bullaria does to Dicaeoma
and Dasyspora in the Dicaeomatae. Frommea Arthur (1. c.) has been
proposed as the name of this genus.
31. Phragmidium triarticulatum (B. & C.) Farl., Bull. Bussey Inst
1:433. 1876.
Aregma triarticulatum Berk. & Curtis; Berk. Grevillea 3:51. 1874.
Kuehneola obtiLsa Arthur N. A. Flora 7': 185. 1912. p. p.
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Phragmidium Potentillae-canadensis Diet. Hedw. Beibl. 42;] 79. 1903.
Frommea obtnsa Arth. Bull. Torrey Club 44:503. 1917.
On Rosaceae:
Potentilla canadensis L., Newark, September 1907 (2004).
32. PiLEOLARiA ToxicoDENDRi (Berk. & Rav.) Arth. N. A. Flora 7=:147.
1907.
Uromyces Toxicodendri Berk & Rav. Grevillea 3:56. 1874.
On Sapindaceae:
Rhus radicans L., Stanton, Sept. 10, 1885, A. Commons (184).
33. POLYTHELis FUSCA (Pers) Arth. Result Sci. Congr. Bot. Vienne 341.
1906.
Aecidium fuscum Pers. Linn. Syst. Nat. 2=": 1873. 1791.
Puccinia fusca Wint. Rabh. Krypt. Fl. 1:199. 1884.
On Ranunculaceae:
Anemone quinquefolia L., Newark, April 13, 1908, (2255).
The mycelium of this species is perennial as first shown by DeBary
(Monatsber. K. Akad. d. Wiss. Berlin 1865). Plants affected by this
rust are deformed, slightly dwarfed and seldom if ever flower. The
leaves are paler and narrower than normal and are considerably
thickened.
34. Puccinia Agropyri E. & E. Jour. Myc. 7:131. 1892.
On Poaceae:
Agropyron repens L., Newark, August 23, 1907 (1716).
No successful culture work has been conducted with this sub-epider-
mal leaf rust on this host. It is indisting^uishable from the normal form
of P. tomipara Trel. on Bromus sp. and with other similar forms on
various grasses described under a variety of names including P. oblit-
erata Arth. on Agropyron sp., P, alternans Arth. on Bromus sp. and
P. cinerea Arth. on Poa sp. Considerable culture work has been done
by Arthur showing that these forms have aecia on Ranunculaceae and
are probably identical. It is to be expected that aecia for leaf rust on
Agropyron repens will also be found to be on Ranunculaceae. The most
probable connection is with Clematis.
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35. PucciNiA Aletridis B. & C. Grevillea 3:52. 1874.
On Liliaceae:
Aletris farinosa L., Newark, April 7, 1892, A. Commons (1924) ;
Townsend, Oct. 9, 1896, A. Commons (2785) ; Selbyville, Oct.
3, 1907 (1756).
The specimen from Newark collected by Commons which is in the
Ellis collection at the New York Botanical Garden is labeled as occuring
on Chamalerion. The host is clearly Aletris.
No aecia are known for this rather rare species and its life history
is in doubt. Only three other collections have been seen by the writer
from Massachusetts, Florida and Mississippi.
36. PucciNiA Anemones- Virgin IAN AE Schw. Schrift. Nat. Ges. Leipzig
1:72. 1822.
On Ranunculaceae:
Anemone virginiana L., Faulkland, Aug. 13, 1886, A. Commons
(293).
The above collection was also issued in Ellis & Ev. N. A. Fungi 1847.
37. PUCCINIA Andropogonis Schw. Trans. Am. Phil. Soc. II, 4:295. 1834.
Aecidium Pentastemonis Schw. Schr. Nat. Ges. Leipzig 1:68. 1822.
On Scrophulariaceae: I.
Melampyrum linear e Lam. (M. americanum Michx.), Seaford,
June 4, 1908 (2051).
On Poaceae: II, III.
Schizachyrium scoparium (Michx.) Nash (Andropogon scopa^
rius Michx.), Lewes, Nov. 16, 1907.
This species on Andropogon was first cultured by Arthur in 1899
(Bot. Gaz. 29:27. 1900) who succeeded in obtaining infection resulting
in aecia on Pentstemon pubescens using telia from A. scoparius from
Indiana. In 1904 and 1906 the same author (Jour. Myc. 10:11. 1904;
13:197. 1907) using telia of A. scoparius collected in Nebraska, obtained
infection resulting in aecia on P. hirsntus. In 1910 (Mycol. 4:17. 1912)
telia from A. virginicus from W. Virginia were successfully cultured on
P, hirsutus and from A. scoparius from Colorado on P. alpinus. In 1903
Kellerman (Jour. Myc. 9:10. 1903) verified the results of Arthur by
obtaining successful infection on P. hirsutus resulting in pycnia follow-
ing sowing of telia from A. scoparius collected in Indiana.
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This aecidium on Melampynim included here is known on this host
otherwise only from Connecticut and Massachusetts. It somewhat re-
sembles A. Melampyri Kuntze & Schum., which has been shown by Juel
(Obv. K. Vet. Akad. Foch 1894. 503) and Klebahn (Kulturv. VIII 402)
to go to Puccinia nemoralis Juel on Molina caerulea. The American
aecia differs however from the European in the larger thick walled
aeciospores and in the character of the peridial cells and since no telial
form referrable to the European species has yet been found in America
it is probable that the Aecidium under discussion goes to some American
grass or sedge rust. It is scarcely distinguishable from the aecia of
P. Andropogonis Schw. which occur on other Scrophulariaceae in the
same range and is tentatively referred here till positive cultures are
conducted.
38. Puccinia angustata Pk. Bull. Buff. Soc. Nat. Hist. 1:67. 1873.
Aecidium lycapi Ger.; in Peck Bull. Buff. Soc. Nat. Hist. 1:68. 1873.
On Boraginaceae: I.
Lycopus virginicus L., Newark, May 25, 1908, (2236), Seaford,
June 4, 1908, (2068).
On Cyperaceae: II, III.
Sdrpiis atrovirens Muhl. Newark, Oct. 4, 1905, (1635).
Scirpus cyperinus (L.) Kunth., Selbyville, October 4, 1907,
(1812).
Scirpus georgianus Harper, Newark, September 1907, (1818,
1820).
This species has for its aecial stage Aecidium lycopi Ger. on Lycopus
sp. as first shown by Arthur in 1899 (Bot. Gaz. 29:273. 1900), who
succeeded in infecting Scirpus atrovirens with aeciospores from Lycopus
americanus. These results were confirmed in 1901, 1903, 1904, 1906 and
1907 (Jour. Myc. 8:53. 1902; 11:58. 1905; 13:196. 1907; 14:14. 1908)
by sowing teliospores from Scirpus atrovirens on leaves of Lycopus
americanu^ resulting in each case in the development of aecia. Keller-
man in 1903 (Jour. Myc. 9:226. 1903) confirms Arthur's results using
the same hosts, collecting his telial material in Ohio. In 1908 (Mycol.
1:234. 1909) Arthur infected Lycopus communis and L. americanus by
sowing with teliospores from Scirpus cyperinus. In 1910 (Mycol. 4:17.
1912) the results of 1901-1907 were confirmed and in 1911 (Mycol. 4:54.
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1912) the results of 1908 were confirmed in part. In 1912 (Mycol 7:70.
1915) infection resulting in the. development of aecia was again obtained
on L. americanus using telial material on 5. atrovirens from Indiana and
Ontario.
39. PucciNiA Anthoxanthi Fckl. Symb. Myc. Nachtr. 2:15. 1873.
On Poaceae:
Anthoxanthum odoratum L., Newark, June 1908, (2244).
40. PucciNiA ASPARAGI DC. Flora Fr. 2:595. 1805.
On Con vallariaceae :
Asparagus officinalis L., Hare's Comers, October 1896, F. D.
Chester; Smyrna, October 1904, C. 0. Smith; Lewes, Aug. 14,
1907, (1681).
A discussion of the economic importance of this rust in Delaware
will be found in Delaware Experiment Station bulletins 57 and 63.
Sheldon (Science N. S. 16:235. 1902) shows that this species is
autoecious and that the urediniospores may carry the fungus over the
winter. He also claims to have successfully infected Allium cepa, all
three stages having been produced on that host.
41. PUCCINIA ASPERiFOLii (Pers.) Wettst. Verb. Zool.-Bot. Ges. Wein.
35:541. 1885.
Pucdnia dispersa Erikss. Zeitsch. f. Pflanzkr. 4:257. 1894.
Aecidium asperifolii Pers. Obs. Myc. 1:97. 1896.
On Poaceae:
Secale cereale L., Newark, May 25, 1908, (2263).
DeBary (Monatsber. K. Akad. d. Wiss. Berlin 211. 1866) was the
first to show the connection between the leaf rust of rye and Aecidium
asperifolii Pers. by sowing sporidia on Anchusa officinalis L. and on
Lycopsis arvensis, pycnia and aecia resulting. Uredinia and telia were
obtained on rye following sowing of aeciospores from the above men-
tioned aecial hosts.
In America, Arthur (Mycol. 1:236. 1909) records successful infec-
tion experiments resulting in the production of pycnia on Lycopsis ar-
vensis L. following sowings of sporidia from Secale cereale L. The Ly-
copsis plants were grown from seed secured in Europe. These cultures
prove that the leaf rust of lye in Europe and America is identical.
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42. PucciNiA AsTERis Duby, Bot. Gall. 2:888. 1830.
On Carduaceae:
Aster paniculatus Lam., Newark, September 1905, (1636) ; Sep-
tember 10, 1907, (1728).
Aster salicifolius Lam., Newark, September 10, 1907, (1728).
43. PUCCINIA ASTERUM (Schw.) Kern, Mycol. 9:224. 1917.
Aecidium asterum Schw. Schr. Nat. Ges. Leipzig 1:67. 1822.
Puccinia extensicola Plowr. British Ured. & "Ust. 181. 1889.
Puccinia vulpinoidis Diet. & Holw.; Dietel, Bot. Gaz. 19:304. 1894.
Puccinia Caricis-Erigerontis Arth. Jour. Myc. 8:53. 1902.
Pticcinia Caricis-Asteris Arth. Jour. Myc. 8:64. 1902.
Puccinia Caricis-Solidaginis Arth. Bot. Gaz. 35:21. 1903.
Puccinia Dulichii Syd. Monog. Ured. 1:684. 1903.
On Carduaceae: I.
Erigeron annuus (L.) Pers., Newark, June 1907, (1669).
Euthamia graminifolia (L.) Nutt., Seaford, June 4, 1908, (2043,
2065).
Solidago altissima L., June 5, 1908, (2076).
Solidago rugosa Mill., Seaford, June 9, 1907, (2013, 2014).
Solidago sempervirens L., Seaford, June 4, 1908, (2086).
On Cyperaceae: II, III.
Carex albolutescens Schw., Selbyville, Oct. 4, 1907, (1808, 1809).
Carex festucacea Willd., Seaford, Nov. 15, 1907, (1759).
Carex Leersii Willd., Seaford, June 4, 1908, (2057a, 2061b).
Carex Muhlenhergii Schk., Lewes, Aug. 14, 1907, (1699).
Carex radiata (Wahl) Small, Newark, Sept. 1907, (1826).
Carex rosea Schk., Seaford, June 4, 1908, (2062a).
Carex stipata Muhl., Newark, Sept. 1907, (1821, 1827).
Carex straminea Willd., Seaford, Nov. 14, 1907, (1770), Nov. 15,
1907, (1859).
Carex vulpinoidea Michx., Lewes, Aug. 16, 1907, (1678) ; June 7,
' 1908, (2087) ; Collins Beach, Oct. 1, 1907, (1783) ; Newark,
Aug. 23, 1907, (1717, 1725), Sept. 1907, (1733), April 5, 1908,
AprU 11, 1908, Felton, Sept. 5, 1907, (1740, 1741); Seaford,
April 23, 1908, (2032), June 4, 1908, (2077, 2080, 2081).
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Dulichium arundinaceum (L.) Britt., Selbyville, Oct. 4, 1907,
(1803, Barth. Fungi Columb. 2662) ; Seaford, Nov. 14, 1907,
(1761).
In 1901 Arthur (Jour. Myc. 8:54. 1902) first began culture work
showing that aecia which occur commonly on Aster, Solidago and related
hosts are genetically connected with uredinia and telia on various species
of Carex. The culture work conducted by Arthur is extensive and
extends over a period of years from 1901-1914. In this series of culture
work aecia have been 'produced on various species of Aster, Solidago,
Erigeron, Leptilon and Euthamia, using telia from many species of
Carex from various parts of North America and from Dulichium. (Jour.
Myc. 8:54. 1902; 11:58. 1905; 12:15; 1906; 14:13. 1908; Bot. Gaz.
35:15, 21. 1903; Mycol. 1:233. 1909; 2:224. 1910; 4:15, 16. 1912;
7:70,81. 1915). Eraser in 1911 (Mycol 4:181. 1912) confirms Arthur's
results in part by successfully infecting Aster acuminatus using telial
material from Carex trisperma.
This study has also shown that the species as here considered is a
composite form made up of several distinct physiological races.
The species is separable from all other American species of Puccinia
on Carex by the presence of two pores in the upper part of the rather
small (12-19 by 16-23ii) uredospores, and the medium sized (12-20 by
35-50ii) teliospores.
44. Puccinia Batesiana Arth. Bull. Torrey Club 28:661. 1901.
On Carduaceae:
Heliopsis helianthoides (L.) B. S. P., Newark, Oct. 4, 1905,
(1510).
This species has not been recorded otherwise on this host but has
been collected in Iowa, Minnesota and Nebraska on Heliopsis scabra
Dunal.
45. Puccinia Vernoniae Schw. Proc. Am. Phil. Soc. II. 4:296. 1832.
Puccinia bullata Schw. Schrift. Nat. Ges. Leipzig 1:74. 1822.
On Carduaceae:
Vemonia noveboracensis (L.) Willd., Clayton, July 24, 1907,
(1707).
This very common species is apparently confined to the United
States and is the only one so far recorded north of Mexico. The name
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first proposed by Schweinitz was based on collections made at Salem,
North Carolina, occurring "erumpent from the dried stems of various
plants, e. g. Ambrosia, Chenopodium." In his later publication he cites
it as occurring in Pennsylvania on V. noveboracensis. An examination
of the material in the Schweinitz collection at the Philadelphia Academy
of Science, made by Dr. J. C. Arthur, shows that there are three packets,
containing in the aggregate 9 pieces, of similar stems bearing large sori
up to 3 cm, long. The original packet reads "P bullata LvS. Salem &
Beth, in caulibus varies.'' The stems all appear to be of Vernonia and
the rust whep examined microscopically does not differ from similar
material on Vernonia stems (now interpreted as V. altisshna) collected
by L. M. Underwood at Fern, Putnam Co., Indiana, and distributed in
Ellis & Ev. N. A. Fungi 2988 and other exsiccati under the name P,
Vemoniae Schw. No other rust with which this could possibly be con-
fused is known to occur on the stems of Ambrosia or Chenopodium, or
on any other host within the range of this species.
That the rust on the stems is the same as the more common, or at
least more frequently collected, form on the leaves has been shown by
Dr. Arthur who, in 1916, using telial material from the stems of Ver-
nonia sp. collected by C. H. Crabill at CliflFview, Va., and communicated
by Dr. F. D. Fromme, succeeded in obtaining the development of pycnia
and uredinia on the leaves of Vernonia sp. This culture also demon-
strates that this rust, whose life history has long been in doubt, is a
brachy-form referrable to the genus Bullaria. Pycnia have not been
observed in any field collections thus far studied.
46. Puccini A canaliculata (Schw.) Lagerh. Tromso Mus. Aarsh.
17:51. 1894.
Sphaeria canaliailata Schw. Trans. Am. Phil. Soc. 11, 4:209. 1832.
Aecidium compositarum Xanthii Burr.; DeToni in Sacc. Syll. Fung.
7:799. 1888.
On Carduaceae: I.
Xanthhim echinatum Murr., Seaford, June 4, 1908, (2049).
On Cyperaceae: II, III.
Cyperus esailentus L., Selbyville, Oct. 4, 1907, (1794).
Cyperus filiculmis Vahl., Felton, Sept. 5, 1907, (1742).
Cyperiis lancastnensvi Porter, Selbyville, Oct. 4, 1907, (1813).
22—11994
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Cyperus ovularis (Michx.) Torr., Felton, Sept. 5, 1907, (1744);
Newark, Oct. 20, 1907, (2258).
Cyperus refractus Engelm., Newark, Aug. 23, 1907, (1718).
Cyperus strigosus L., Felton, July 30, 1906, (1618); Lewes,
Aug. 14, 1907, (1693).
Cyperus Torreyi Britton (C cylindricus (Ell.) Britton), Selby-
ville, Oct. 4, 1^07, (1810).
Arthur (Jour. Myc. 12:23. 1906) conducted culture experiments in
1905 which showed that an aecidium on Xanthium canadense is con-
nected with this species on various species of Cyperus. Following sow-
ings of aeciospores from X. canadense, collected in Indiana, uredinio-
spores developed on C esculentus.
47. PucciNiA Caricis-strictae Dietel, Hedw. 28:23. 1889.
Uromyces Caricis Pk. Ann. Rep. N. Y. State Mus. 24:90. 1872.
On Cyperaceae: II, III.
Carex stricta Lam., Seaford, Nov. 14, 1907, (1757, 1762, 1763,
1764, 1765, 1766).
48. PucciNiA Chrysanthemi Roze, Bull. Soc. Myc. Fr. 17:92. 1900.
On Carduaceae:
Chrysanthemum sinense Sabine, Camden, September 1905,
(1536) ; Wyoming, November 1907.
This rust causes considerable damage to cultivated chrysanthemums.
The life history is somewhat in doubt. In America the rust exists only
in the uredinial stage.
49. PUCCINIA CiRSii Lasch. in Rab. Fungi Eur. 89. 1859.
On Carduaceae:
Carduu^ altissimus L., Faulkland, Oct. 20, 1886, A. Commons,
459; August 1887, A. Commons, 137.
The latter specimen was issued in E. & E. N. A. Fungi 2253 as
P. compositarum Schlecht, f. Cnid altissimL This is a brachy-Puccinia
developing pycnia with the uredinia and occurs most commonly on the
under surface of the leaves. It occurs throughout the United States on
species of Carduus other than C. lanceolatus.
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50. PucciNiA CLAYTONIATA (Schw.) Peck, Bull. N. Y. state Miis. 6:226.
1899.
Caeoma (Aecidium) claytoniatum Schw. Tran. Am. Phil. Soc. II.
4:294. 1832.
Puccinia MaHae-Wilsoni G. W. Clinton, Bull. Buff. Soq. Nat. Sci.
1:166. 1873.
Allodus claytoniata Arth. Result. Sci. Congr. Bot. Vienna 345. 1906.
On Portulacaceae:
Claytonia virginica L., Newark, May 2, 1907, I, (1578) ; May 29,
1907, III, (1658); April 19, 1908, I, (2241);
Orton (Mem. N. Y. Bot. Gard. 6:177. 1916) is the authority for
the statement that this species has been cultured by Fromme. He sowed
aeciospores from primary aecia on the same host and obtained the
development of telia of the scattered type indicating that repeating
aecia do not occur in this species. An examination of specimens in the
Arthur herbarium has failed to reveal any collection of aecia not accom-
panied by pycnia.
51. Puccinia Cnici Mart. Fl. Mosq. 226. 1817.
Puccinia Cirsii-lanceolati Schroet. Pilze Schles. 1:317. 1887.
On Carduaceae:
Carduus lanceolatus L., Newark, October 1907, (2009).
This species produces aecia of a peculiar character having a rudi-
mentary aecidium. All stages occur most abundantly on the upper sur-
faces of the leaves.
Kellerman (Jour. Myc. 9:229. 1903) has shown through carefully
conducted culture experiments that this species is an eu-Puccinia and
autoecious. In America it is known only on the above host.
52. Puccinia Convolvulvi (Pers.) Cast. Obs. Myc. 1:16. 1842.
Uredo Betae Convolvidi Pers. Syn. Fung. 221. 1801.
On Convolvulaceae :
Convolvulus sepium L., Wilmington, Aug. 17, 1886, III, A. Com-
mons (302); Lewes, April 1908, I, (2260).
The collection by Commons was issued in E. & E. N. Am. Fungi
1857 as on Ipomoea pandurata (L.) Meyer. The host is certainly Con-
volvulus. Arthur (Bot. Gaz. 29:270. 1900) has shown that this species
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is autoecious. Teliospores from C, sejnuvi were sown in the greenhouse
on the same host with subsequent abundant development of pycnia and
aecia.
53. PucciNiA Cryptotaeniae Pk. Rep. N. Y. State Mus. 25:114. 1873.
On Ammiaceae:
Deringia canadensis (L.) Kuntze, Wilmington, Nov. 14, 1888,
A. Commons (909); Newark, May 1907, (1667).
This is a micro-Puccinia correlated with Puccinia microica Ellis
which is an opsis form. The latter was originally reported as occurring
on Sanicula sp., which was an error for Deringia canadensis,
54. Puccinia Cyani (Schleich.) Pass. Rabh. Fungi Eur. 1767. 1874.
Uredo Cyani Schleich. PI. Helv. 95.
On Carduaceae:
Centaurea cyanus L., Newark, May 20, 1913, C. O. Houghton.
55. Puccinia Eatoniae Arth. Jour. Myc. 10:18. 1904.
Aecidium Ranunculi Schw. Schr. Nat. Ges. Leipzig 1:67. 1822.
(Not A. Ranunculi Schum. 1803.)
On Ranunculaceae: I.
Ranunculus abortivus L., Newark, May 1, 1905, C. O. Smith.
Issued as A. Ranunculi Schw. in E. & E. Fungi Columb.
2107. Newark, May 1, 1908, (2238).
On Poaceae: II, III.
Sphenopholis pallen^ (Spreng.) Schrib., Newark, May 1, 1908,
II, (2237), June 1, 1908, III (2234, 2239).
Sphenopholis nitida (Spreng.) Schrib., Newark, June 1908,
(2269).
Arthur in Jour. Myc. 10:18. 1904, shows by culture that Aecidium
Ranunculi Schw. has its telial stage on Sphenopholis pallens (Eatonia
pennsylvanica (DC.) A. Gray), having obtained infection on E. penn-
sylvanica resulting in uredinia by inoculation with aeciospores from
Ranunculus abortitnis. Field observations made by the writer in con-
nection with the collections listed above lend confirming evidence to the
cultural results by Dr. Arthur. On May 1 the writer collected Aecidium
Ranunculi Schw. (2238). Almost in contact were found the leaves of
grass at that time not yet fruiting, bearing fresh uredinia (2237). The
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over-wintering leaves of this grsiss were found to bear telia. On June 1
at the same place this grass was found in fruiting condition bearing
fresh telia (2239). The grass proved to be Eatonia pallens. Examina-
tion showed the rust to be that described by Arthur on P, Eatoniae,
56. PucciNiA Eleocharidis Arth. Bull. Iowa Agr. College Nov. 156.
1884.
Aecidium compositarum Eupatorii DeToni in Sacc. Syll. Fung.
7:798. 1888.
On Carduaceae: I.
Eupatorium perfoliatum L., Seaford, June 4, 1908, (2054, 2061a,
2074, 2079).
Eupatorium purpureum L., Seaford, June 4, 1908, '(2058b, 2060,
2062b, 2067, 2072).
Eupatorium rotundi folium L., Seaford, June 4, 1908, (2055,
2069).
Arthur conducted culture experiments in 1905 (Jour. Myc. 12:23.
1906) showing that an aecidium resembling in eveiy way the common
one on Eupatorium species could be induced by sowings with teliospores
from Eleocharis. He used teliospores on Eleocharis palustris from Wis-
consin to successfully infect Eupatorium perfoliatum, with subsequent
development of aecia — two trials. These results were confirmed in 1906
and 1908 by the same author (Jour. Myc. 13:197. 1907; Mycol. 1:233.
1909) when typical aecia were produced on Eupatorium perfoliatum
following infection by teliospores from E, palustris collected in Kansas
and Indiana.
57. PUCCINIA Ellisiana Thiim. Bull. Torrey Club 6:215. 1878.
Pucdnia aTtiericana Lagerh. Tromso Mus. Aarsh. 17:45. 1895.
On Poaceae: II, III.
Andropogon scoparius Mchx., Newark, Oct. 1907 (1830) ; March
30, 1908, (2246).
This species has been separated from P. Andropogonis by the pos-
session of thick walled verrucose uredospores.
Long (Phjrtopath. 2:164. 1912) carried on successful experiments
with this species in 1910, 1911, and 1912 reporting successful infection
of Viola fimbriatula, V. hirsutula, V. sagittata, V, papilionacea, with
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development of aecia following sowings of teliospores from A. virginicus,
Uredinia were produced on Andropogon when aecia were used for in-
fection.
Arthur in 1912 (Mycol. 7:71. 1915) using telia from Andropogon
sp. from North Dakota obtained the development of aecia on V. cucullata
and V, Nut t aim.
In a later paper Long (Jour. Agr. Res. 2:303-319. 1914) presents
the results of an extensive research dealing with this species and P.
Andropogonis Schw. in which he claims to prove "that the ordinary
Pentstemon rust P. Andropogonis, can be produced from the Viola rust
P. Ellisiana, by simply passing the Viola rust through Pentstemon as
an aecial host." Numerous culture experiments were conducted in sup-
port of the above conclusion.
58. PucciNiA EMACULATA Schw. Trans. Am. Phil. Soc. II, 4:295. 1834.
On Poaceae:
Panicum capillare L., Newark, Sept. 15, 1905, (1615) ; Felton,
Sept. 5, 1907, (1750).
Successful cultures have never been conducted with this common
rust though many attempts have been made. Morphologically it is very
like P. Pammelii (Trel.) Arth. (P. Panici Diet.) and perhaps should be
united with it. On account of the resemblance to that species the aecia
should be looked for on Euphorbiaceous hosts. It is convenient, however,
to retain it as a separate form till cultures establishing its relationship
have been successfully carried out.
59. PucciNiA EPIPHYLLA (L.) Wettst. in Verb. Zool.-Bot. Ges. Wien
35:541. 1886.
Lycoperdon ejnphylliim L. Sp. PI. 1653. 1753.
Aecidium Tussilaginis Pers. in Gmel. Syst. Nat. 2:1473. 1791.
Pucdnia poarum Nielsen Bot. Tidsskr. Ill, 2:34. 1877.
On Poaceae: II.
Poa annua L., Newark, June 1908, (2245).
Poa pratensis L., Seaford, June 4, 1908, (2053a, 2042) ; Newark,
June 1908, (2268).
Nielsen was the first to show the relation betweeij this rust and
Aecidium Tussilaginis. He succeeded in infecting P. annua, P. trivialis,
P. nemoralis, P. fertilis and P. pratensis by sowing aeciospores from
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Tussilago farfara. He infected the fecial host by sowing with telio-
spores from P. annua.
Additional observations and culture work have been recorded by
various European authors, which has been summarized by Klebahn (Die
Wirtw. Rostpilze 290. 1904).
60. PucciNiA Fraxinata (Lk.) Arth. Bot. Gaz. 34:6. 1902.
Aecidium Fraxini Schw. Schr. Nat. Ges. Leipzig 1:66. 1822. (Not
A. Fraxini Kom.)
Caeoma Fraxinatum Lk. in Willd. Sp. PI. 6':62. 1825.
Puccinia Sparganioides Ellis & Barth. Erythea 4:2. 1896.
On Oleaceae: L
Fraxinus lanceolata Borck., Newark, 1897, F. D. Chester, June
17, 1907, (1663); May 1908: (2240).
On Poaceae: IIL
Spartina cynosuroides (L.) Roth (S. polystachya Ell.), Collins
Beach, Oct. 1, 1907, (1784).
Spartina stricta (Ait.) Roth (S. glabra Muhl.), Lewes, Nov. 16,
1907, (1772, 1773, 1849, 1850a, 1851); Collins Beach, Oct. 1,
1907, (1785, 1786).
The Aecidium on Fraxinus known as A. Fraxini Schw. was first
shown by Arthur (Bot. Gaz. 29:275. 1900) to have telia on Spartina
cynosuroides. He obtained the development of aecia on F. viridis fol-
lowing sowings of telial material from Iowa and Nebraska. In 1904,
1905, 1907 and 1909 (Jour. Myc. 11:57. 1905; 12:16. 1906; 14:14. 1908;
Mycol. 2:225. 1910) similar results were obtained on F. lanceolata using
telia from Iowa, Kansas, Nebraska and North Dakota.
In 1908 the writer sent telial material collected at Lewes on S. cyn-
osuroides and S, stricta to Dr. Arthur for culture work. Successful
infection of F. lanceolata with development of aecia was obtained from
cultures with telia from both hosts.
61. Puccinia Heuanthi-mollis (Schw.) Jackson, Brooklyn Bot. Gard.
Mem. 1:250. 1918.
Aecidium Helianthi-nwllis Schw. Schr. Nat. Ges. Leipzig 1 :68. 1822.
Puccinia Helianthi Schw. Schr. Nat. Ges. Leipzig 1:73. 1822.
On Carduaceae:
Helianthus annuus L., Newark, Sept. 1907, (2006).
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Heliantkus angustifolius L., Selbyville, Oct. 4, 1907, (1993).
Helianthus decapetalus L., Newark, Sept. 7, 1905, (1553, 1624),
Aug. 23, 1907, (1724).
Carleton (Science 13:250. 1901) was the first in America to record
culture experiments shov^ing that the species is autoecious. These results
were confirmed by Arthur (Bot. Gaz. 35:17. 1903) whose work indi-
cates, however, that there may be biological races. Further evidence of
this was obtained in 1903 (Jour. Myc. 10:12. 1904) and in 1904 (Jour.
Myc. 11:53. 1905), on further evidence, the conclusion is made that
"P. Helianthi Schw. is a single species having many races, for which
H, annnus acts as a bridging host." Further cultural results were re-
corded in Jour. Myc. 12:18. 1906.
62. PucciNiA HiBiSCiATUM (Schw.) Kellerm. Jour. Myc. 9:110. 1903.
Caeoma Hibisciatum Schw. Trans. Am. Phil Soc. 11, 4:293. 1834.
Aecidhim Napaeae Arth. & Holw.; Arthur in Bull. Iowa Agr. Coll.
1884:166. 1885.
Aecidium Callirrhoes Ell. & Kellerm. Jour. Myc. 2:4. 1886.
Puccinia Muhlenbergiae Arth. & Holw. Bull. Lab. Nat. Hist. Univ.
Iowa 5:317. 1902.
Puccinia tosta Arth. Bull. Torrey Club 29:228. 1902.
On Poaceae: H, III.
Muhlenbergia sobalifera (Muhl.) Trin., — Wilmington, Oct. 26,
1891, A. Commons (1867).
Muhlenbergia Schreberi Gmel. (M. diffusa Willd.), — Newark,
Sept. 1907, (1817, 1828).
Kellerman (Jour. Myc. 9:110, 232. 1903) was the first to conduct
successful culture experiments leading to an understanding of the life
history of this species. An extensive series of inoculations with telial
material on Muhlenbergia mexicana from Ohio, in which many Malva-
ceous hosts were used, resulted in obtaining successful infection of Hi-
biscus mocheutos and H. militaris with production of typical aecia of
A. Hibisciatum Schw.
Arthur in 1908 (Mycol. 1:251. 1909) first showed that this species
also has for its aecial stage. A, Napaeae A. & H. Infection of Callirrhoe
invohicrata, resulting in aecia, was obtained following sowings of telio-
spores from M, mexicana from Kansas. These results were confirmed
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in 1909 (Mycol. 2:226. 1910) using telial material on M, glomerata
from Kansas and in 1910 (MycoL 4:18. 1912) successful infection fol-
lowed sowings with teliospores from M. racemosa collected in North
Dakota.
In 1914 (Mycol. 7:80. 1915) Arthur also showed that Puccinia tosta
on SporoboltLs asperifolius has for its aecial stage, Aecidium Sphaeral-
ceae. Successful infection of Sphaeralcea incana was obtained following
sowings of telial material from New Mexico. Infection of S. lobata was
also obtained when telial material from Texas was used. A comparison
of the aecia and of the telia showed P. tosta to be inseparable from the
form of Muhlenbergia.
63. Puccinia Hieracii (Schum.) Mart. Flora Mosq. 226. 1817.
Uredo Hieracii Schum. Enum. Plant. Saell. 2:232. 1803.
On Cichoriaceae:
Hiera^num scahrum Michx., Newark, Sept. 5, 1905, (1623) ;
Lewes, April 25, 1908, (2035).
64. Puccinia Impatientis (Schw.) Arth. Bot. Gaz. 35:19. 1903.
Aecidium Impatientis Schw. Schr. Nat. Ges. Leipzig 1:67. 1822.
Puccinia perminuta Arth. Bull. Torrey Club 34:584. 1907.
On Balsaminaceae: I.
Impatiens aurea Muhl., Newark, June 17, 1907, (1664).
On Poaceae: II, III.
Agrostis hyemalis (Walt.) B. S. P., Seaford, June 4, 1908,
(2045).
Agrostis perrenans (Walt.) Tuckerm. Woodland Beach, Aug.
1890, J. H. Holmes (Phan. spec. 312).
Elymus canadensis L., Newark, Aug. 23, 1907, II, (1722).
Arthur has shown that Aecidium Impatientis Schw. is connected
with a telial form on Elymus virginicas L. which previously had been
called P. rubigo-vera (Bot. Gaz. 35:18. 1903). He obtained the develop-
ment of aecia on Impatiens aurea following inoculation with germinat-
ing teliospores on Elymus virginicus from Indiana. Further cultures
made in 1903 and 1904 (Jour. Myc. 10:11. 1904; 11:57. 1905) gave
identical results when telial material from Indiana and Wisconsin were
used for inoculation. In 1909 (Mycol. 2:226. 1910) teliospores from
Elymus striatum were used by Arthur to successfully inoculate Impatiens
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aurea, Uredinia were also obtained on E, virginicuSf E, canadensis,
and E. striatus following infection with aeciospores from Impatiens
aurea.
65. PUCCINIA IRIDIS (DC.) Wallr. Rabh. Krypt. Fl. Ed. 1, 1:23. 1844.
Uredo Iridis DC. Encycl. 8:224. 1808.
On Iridaceae:
Iris versicolor L., Newark, July 24, 1906, (1565).
The life history of this common rust is still in doubt, only uredinia
and telia are known.
66. PUCCINIA LOBELIAE Ger. Bull. Buffalo Soc. Nat. Sci. 1:68. 1873.
On Campanulaceae:
Lobelia puberula Michx., Wilmington, Sept. 1893, A. Conmions,
(issued also in E. & E. Fungi Columb. 261) ; Newark, Sept.
8, 1893, A. Commons, (2213).
Lobelia syphilitica L., Lewes, Aug. 14, 1907, (1696), August,
1907, (2242).
67. PUCCINIA LYSIMACHIATA (Link) Kern, Mycol. 9:215. 1917.
Aecidium Lysimachiae Schw. Schr. Nat. Ges. Leipzig 1:67. 1822.
Caeoma lysimachiatum Link, in Willd. Sp. PI. 6': 45. 1825.
Puccinia Limosae Magn. Amtl. Ber. Vers. Deutsch. Naturf. u. Aerzte
1877:200. 1877.
On Primulaceae: L
Lysimachia terrestris (L.) B. S. P., Seaford, June 5, 1908,
(2084).
Klebahn (Jahr. Wiss. Bot. 34:396. 1910) has shown that the Euro-
pean A. Lysimachiae Schlecht. is genetically connected with P. Limosae
Magn. He succeeded in obtaining infection resulting in the development
of urediniospores on Carex limosa following sowings with aeciospores
from Lysimachia thyrsi flora and L. xmlgaris. No cultures have been
conducted in America, but since no essential morphological difference
can be detected in the aecia and several collections on Carex have been
recognized by Arthur which agree with European material referred to
P. LimosaCf there seems to be no good reason for considering the Amer-
ican form distinct from the European.
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68. PucciNiA MACROSPORA (Pkl) Arth. Mycol. 1:244. 1909.
Aecidium macrosporum Pk. Ann. Rep. N. Y. State Mus. 23:61. 1873.
On Smilaceae: I.
Smilax rotundifolia Seaford, July 9, 1907, (1651); Lewes, Aug.
14, 1907; June 6, 1908, (2089); Townsend, June 11, 1890; A.
Commons (1437) ; Newark, July 1891, A. Commons (Distrib-
uted in E. & E. N. A. Fungi 2708).
On Cyperaceae: II, III.
Carex comosa Boott, Lewes, Aug. 14, 1907, II, (1686), Nov. 16,
1907, III, (18B3).
As noted above, on Aug. 14, 1907, the writer collected the uredo
stage of a rust on Carex comosa at Lewes. Nearby was a vine of Smilax
rotundifolia bearing aecia of Aecidium macrosjwrum Pk. Aecidium
Nesaeae Ger. on Decodon verticillata was also collected at Lewes in the
immediate vicinity of the rust on Carex comosa.
The material collected was sent to Dr. Arthur, who stated that the
form on Carex com/)8a probably represented an undescribed species. A
trip to the same vicinity was made at Dr. Arthur's request in November
1907 for the purpose of collecting this and other forms for culture work.
Telia were collected on Carex comosa at that time, showing the form to
be a Puccinia. The following spring Dr. Arthur (Mycol. 1:243. 1909)
sowed this on various hosts, including Smilax hispida and the typical
aecia of Aecidium macrosporum Pk. were produced.
69. Puccinia malvacearum Bert. Gay's Hist, de Chile 8:43. 1852.
On Malvaceae:
Althaea rosea Cav., Newark, Oct. 16, 1909, J. Taubenhaus.
Malva rotundifolia L., Newark, May 24, 1913, Julia Clark, May
25, 1916, C. 0. Houghton.
70. Puccinia marylandica Lindr. Medd. f. Stockh. Hogsk. Bot. Inst.
4: (2). 190L
On Ammiaceae:
Sanicula canadensis L., Collins Beach, Oct. 1, 1907, (1815).
71. Puccinia Menthae Pers. Syn. Fung. 227. 1801.
On Labiatae:
Koellia muiica (Michx.) Britt., Clayton, July 24, 1907, (1709).
Monarda punctata L., Seaford, July 9, 1907.
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72. PucciNiA MiNUTissiMA Arth. Bull. Torrey Club 34:587. 1907.
Aecidium Nesaeae Ger. Bull. Torrey Club 4:47. 1873. (Not P.
Nesaeae E. & E. 1895.)
On Lythraceae: I.
Decodon verticillata (L.) Ellis, Seaford, July 9, 1907, (2256);
Lewes, Aug. 14, 1907, (1690).
The Aecidium on Decodon was shown by Arthur in 1914 (Mycol.
7:86. 1915) to be the aecial stage of -P. minutissima. Typical aecia
were developed on Decodon, following inoculation with telial material
on Carex filifomiis from Ontario. The telial stage has not been found
in Delaware and has apparently been collected but rarely. Species
referred here in the Arthur herbarium occur on C, teretiuscula, C. fili-
formis and C. aquatilis,
73. PUCCINIA Nesaeae Ell. & Ev. Bull. Torrey Club 22:363. 1895.
(Not Aecidium Nesaeae Grer. 1873.)
Aecidium Ludwigiae E. & E. Proc. Phil. Acad. 1893:155. 1893.
Puccinia Ludwigiae Holw. N. A. Ured. l':72. 1907. (Not P. Lud-
wigiae Tepper 1890.)
Allodus Ludwigiae Orton, Mem. N. Y. Bot. Card. 6:189. 1916.
On Onagraceae: I.
Ludungia sphaerocarpa Ell., Ellendale, Sept. 1, 1892, A. Com-
mons, (1983).
This collection is the type of Aecidium Ludwigiae E. & E. The
name here used for this species was applied by Ellis and Everhart to a
rust thought to be on Necium (Decodon). The host has been shown by
Holway (1. c.) to be Ludungia polycarpa. The name has frequently
been misapplied to Aecidium Nesaeae Ger. on Necium which has been
shown by Arthur (Mycol. 7:86. 1915) to be the aecial stage of P.
minutissimu (c. f. 67).
The rust is evidently an opsis form. Telia have been rarely collected,
occurring in the Arthur herbarium only on L. polycarpa from Iowa and
on L. virgata from Florida.
74. Puccinia nolitangeris Corda, Icones 4:16. 1840.
Puccinia argentata Wint. Rabh. Krypt. Fl. l':194. 1881.
On Balsaminaceae: III.
Impatiens biflora Wald., Newark, Sept. 7, 1905; Sept. 15, 1906;
Sept. 1907; (1552, 1535, 2005).
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Bubak (Cent. Bakt. 10=: 574. 1903) has show© by cultures that the
European P, argentata has its aecial stage on Adoxa moschatellina,
Arthur in 1910 (Mycol. 4:20. 1912) successfully infected Impatiens
aurea by sowing with aeciospores from Adoxa moschatellina collected
in Iowa, thus proving the American and European rusts are the same.
75. PucciNiA OBTECTA Pk. Bull. Buffalo Soc. Nat. Hist. 1:66. 1873.
Aecidium compositarum Bideniis Burrill; DeToni, in Sacc. Syll.
Fung. 7:799. 1888.
On Cyperaceae:
Scirpus ftuviatilis (Torr.) A. Gray? Wilmington, Nov. 5, 1886,
A. Commons (1076).
Scirpus americamis Pers., Wilmington, Oct. 11, 1889, A. Com-
mons (1026).
Arthur in 1907 (Jour. Myc. 14:20. 1908) has shown that P, obtecta
Pk. has its aecial stage on Bidens. Successful sowings of teliospores
from A. americanus collected in Indiana were made on B. frondosa and
B. comata.
76. PUCCINIA ORBICULA Pk. & Curt. Ann. Rep. N. Y. State Mus. 30:53.
1879.
On Cichoriaceae:
Nabalus sp., Newark, 1907, M. T. Cook.
77. Puccinia Pammelii (Trel.) Arth. Jour. Myc. 11:56. 1905.
Puccinia Panici Diet. Erythea 3:80. 1895.
Aecidiiim Pammelii Trel. Trans. Wis. Acad. Sci. 6:136. 1885.
On Poaceae:
Panicum virgatum L., Selbyville, Oct. 4, 1907, (1789).
Stuart (Proc. Ind. Acad. Sci. 1901:284. 1902) shows by cultures
that Aecidium Pammelii on Euphorbia corollata is the aecial stage of
P. panici. These results were confirmed by Arthur in 1904 and 1905
(Jour. Myc. 11:56. 1905; 12:16. 1906) by sowing telial material on
P. virgatum. from Indiana, on E, corollata with resulting infection and
development of aecia. In 1907 (Jour. Myc. 14:16. 1908) successful
infection on E. ma^ulata was obtained following sowings of teliospores
from the same host collected in Nebraska. At the same time negative
results were obtained on E. corollata. These results indicate the presence
of physiological races in this species.
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78. PucciNiA PiMPBNELLAE (Strauss) Mart. Fl. Mosq. Ed. 11:226.
1817.
Uredo Pimpinellae Strauss, Wettst. Ann. 2:102. 1810.
Aecidium Osmorrhizae Pk. Ann. Rep. N. Y. State Mus. 24:92. 1872.
Puccinia Osmorrhizae C. & P. ; Peck in Ann. Rep. N. Y. State Mus.
29:73. 1878.
On Ammiaceae:
Washingtonia: brevistylis DC, Newark, May 2, 1907, I (1575),
May 29, 1907, III, (1659).
79. Puccinia poculiformis (Jacq.) Wettst. Verhl. Zool.-Bot. Ges. Wien
35:544. 1885.
Lycoperdon poculiforme Jacq. Coll. Austr. 1:122. 1786.
Aecidium Berberidis Pers. in J. F. Gmel Syst. Nat. 2:1473. 1791.
Puccinia graminis Pers. Neues Mag. Bot. 1:119. 1794.
Puccinia Phlei-pratensis Erikss, & Henn. Zeit. f. Pflanzenkr. 4:140.
1894.
On Poaceae:
Agrostis alba L., Newark, Aug. 23, 1907, (1715, 1713).
Phleum pratense L., Newark, Aug. 23, 1907, (1720).
Triticum vulgar e L., Newark, Aug. 23, 1907, (1721).
DeBary (Monatsber. K. Akad. d. Wiss. Berlin 25. 1865) was the
first to show that the well known Puccinia graminis developed its aecial
form on Berberis. In 1864 he first sowed telia from Agropyron repens
and Poa pratensis on leaves of Berberis resulting in the development of
pycnia and aecia. He later (1865) infected Secale cereale by sowing
aeciospores from Berberis. This is the first record of the connection
of two stages of an heteroecious rust by inoculation. Since DeBary's
first publication of the life history of this species a large number of
mycologists in all parts of the world have conducted culture work con-
firming DeBary's results and adding to our knowledge of the species.
For a review of this work see Klebahn (Die Wirtswechs Rostpilze Berlin
205-235. 1904).
In America the most important work has been conducted by Carle-
ton (Div. Veg. Phys. & Path. U. S. D. A. Bull. 16. 1899; Bur. PI. Ind.
U. S. D. A. Bull. 63. 1904); Arthur (Jour. Myc. 8:53. 1902; 11:57.
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1905; 12:17. 1906; 13:198. 1907; 14:16. 1908; Mycol. 2:227. 1910;
4:18. 1912); Freeman & Johnson (Bur. PI. Ind. U. S. D. A. Bull. 216.
1911); Stakman (Minn. Exp. Sta. Bull. 138. 1914; Jour. Agr. Research
4:193-199. 1915) ; Stakman and Piemeisel (Jour. Agr. Research 6:813-
816. 1916; 10:429-495. 1917).
80. PucciNiA PODOPHYLLI Schw. Schrift. Nat. Ges. Leipzig 1:72. 1822.
On Berberidaceae :
Podophyllum peltatum L., Newark, May 1890, F. D. Chester,
May 15, 1906, I, (1621), June 19, 1907, III, (1660) ; Hockessin,
May 5, 1913; CO. Houghton.
81. PucciNiA POLYGONI-AMPHIBII Pers. Syn. Meth. Fungi 227. 1801.
Aecidium Geranii-maculati Schw. Schr. Nat. Ges. Leipzig 1:67.
1822.
Aecidium Sanguinolentum Lindr. Eot. Nat. 1900:241. 1900.
On Geraniaceae: L
Geranium maculatum L., Wilmington, June 29, 1893, A. Com-
mojis (2099).
On Polygon aceae : II, III.
Persicaria muhlenhergii (S. Wats.) Small (Polygonum ernersum
(Michx.) Britton), Wilmington, Aug. 17, 1886, A. Commons
(297).
Persicaria pennsylvanicum (L.) Small (Polygonum pennsyl-
vanicum L.), Newark, Sept. 17, 1890, F. D. Chester.
Dr. Tranzschel first showed (Centr. f. Bakt. 11=^:106. 1903) that
this species on Polygonum was connected with Aecidium Sanguinolentum
on Geranium sp. These results were confirmed in America by Arthur
(Jour. Myc. 11:59. 1905) who used aeciospores from Geranium macu-
latum to inoculate Polygonum ernersum, Uredinia and telia developed
from this culture. In 1905 (Jour. Myc. 12:18. 1906) these results were
confirmed by successfully sowing teliospores from Polygonum ernersum
on Geranium maculatu^n resulting in the typical aecia of A. Sanguino-
lentum. These results prove that the European and American rusts
referred to this species are identical.
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82. PucciNiA PoLYGONi-CoNVOLVULi Hedw. f., Poiret. Encycl. Meth. Bot.
8:251. 1808.
Puccinia Polygoni A. & S. Consp. Fung. 132. 1805. (Not P. Poly-
goni Pers. 1794.)
On Polygon aceae:
Polygonum Convolvulus L., Lewes, Aug. 14, 1907, II, (1692).
83. Puccinia pustulatum (Curtis) Arth. Jour. Myc. 10:18. 1904.
Aecidium pustulatum Curtis; Peck, Ann. Rep. N. Y. State Mus.
23:60. 1873.
On Poaceae:
Schizachyrium scoparium (Michx.) Nash (Andropogon scopa-
rius Michx.), Seaford, Nov. 15, 1907, (1760).
This species of Andropogon rust is difficult to separate from P.
Andropogonis Schw. In the latter, however, the uredospore markings
are finely verrucose-echinulate with the pores 3-4 scattered (rarely
appearing equatorial) while in the form here considered the uredospore
markings are of the echinulate type and the pores 4-6 scattered.
The life history of this heteroecious rust was first determined by
Arthur in 1903 (Jour. Myc. 10:17. 1904). He sowed germinating telio-
spores from Andropogon furcatu^ and A. scoparium collected in Indiana
on Comandra utnhellata and obtained the development of pycnia and
aecia of Aecidium pustulatum. These experiments were successfully
verified in 1905 and 1910 (Jour. Myc. 12:16. 1906; Mycol. 4:17. 1912)
using telial material on A. furcatus from Indiana and Colorado.
84. Puccinia recedens Syd. Monog. Ured. 1:146. 1902.
On Cardu aceae:
Senecio aureus L., Naaman's Creek, July 28, 1893, A. Commons
(2129).
This species has previously been confused with P, Asteris Duby.
It is a micro-Puccinia common on Sinecio aureus in the northeastern
United States. It is known on other hosts from the Atlantic to the
Pacific in the more northern states.
85. Puccinia Rhamni (Pers.) Wettst. Verhl. Zool-Bot. Ges. Wein.
35:545. 1885.
Aecidium Rhamni Pers. in Gmel. Syst. Nat. 2:1472. 1791.
Puccinia coronata Corda, Icones 1:6. 1837.
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On Poaceae:
Avena saliva L., Newark, July 17, 1903, C. O. Smith; Clayton,
July 24, 1907, (1708).
This species is the common coronate spored rust and occurs through-
out the United States on cultivated oats and on a great variety of native
grasses. DeBary '(Monat. Akad. Wiss. 211. 1866.) was the first to
conduct culture experiments indicating the genetic connection with aecia
on Frangula and Rhamnus in Europe. Since that time many European
authors have conducted culture experiments, a summary of which has
been made by Klebahn (Wirtw. Rostp. 254-262. 1904).
In America this species has been studied by Carleton (Div. Veg.
Phys. & Path. 16:48. 1899), who obtained uredinia on cultivated oats,
Arrhenatherum elatius and Phalaris caroliniana by sowing aeciospores
from Rhamnus lanceolata. Carleton also carried out extensive cross
inoculations between oats and many native grasses. (See also Bur. PI.
Ind. Bull. 63:15. 1904.)
At about the same time Arthur (Bull. Lab. Nat. Hist. State Univ.
Iowa 4:398. 1898) obtained infection on oats with aeciospores from
R. lanceolata. In 1904 the same author (Jour. Myc. 11:58. .1905) suc-
cessfully confirmed the results of European and other investigators by
sowing aeciospores from Rhamnus cathariica^ R, caroliniana, R. lanceo-
lata on Avena saliva resulting in the production of urediniospores in all
cases. In 1910 the same author (Mycol. 4:18. 1912) successfully in-
fected Rhamnus calhartica by sowing teliospores from Calamagroslis
canadensis from Nova Scotia.
86. PucciNiA RUBELLA (Pers.) Arth. Bot. Gaz. 34:15. 1902.
Aecidium rubellum Pers. in Gmel. Syst. Nat. 2:1473. 1791.
Uredo Phragmiles Schum. Enum. PI. Saell. 2:231. 1803.
Puccinia Phragmiles Koem. Hedwigia 15:179. 1876.
On Poaceae:
Phragmiles Phragmiles (L.) Karst., Wilmington, Nov. 1, 1893,
A. Commons (2364).
Winter (Hedwigia 14:115. 1875) was the first to show the relation
between Puccinia Phragmiles and Aecidium rubellum. He successfully
infected Rumex hydrolapathum with sporidia from Phragmites. He also
infected the latter host, using aeciospores. These results have been
23—11994
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confirmed by several European investigators. The summary of their
results will be found in Klebahn (Die Wirtsw. Rostp. 283. 1904).
Arthur in 1899 (Bot. Gaz. 29:269. 1900) produced aecia on Rumex
crispus and R, obtusifoliiis with sowings of teliospores from P. Phrag-
mites. These results have been repeatedly confirmed by the same author
and reported in Jour. Myc. 9:220. 1903; 14:15. 1908; and Mycol. 2:225.
1910; 4:54. 1912.
Bates (Jour. Myc. 9:219. 1903) made some interesting field cul-
tures and observations on the natural occurrence of the aecial stage on
Rheum and Rumex (3 species) lending confirmatory evidence to the
results of previous investigators.
87. PUCCINIA Sambuci (Schw.) Arth. Bot. Gaz. 35:15. 1903.
Aecidium Sambuci Schw. Schr. Nat. Ges. Leipzig 1:67. 1822.
Puccinia Bolleyana Sacc. Am. Microsc. Jour. 169. 1889.
Puccinia Atkinsoniana Diet, in Atk. Bull. Cornell Univ. 3:19. 1897.
Puccinia Thompsonii Hume, Bot. Gaz. 29:353. 1900.
On Caprifoliaceae: I.
Sambucus canadensis L., Seaford, July 9, 1907, (1650), April
23, 1908, (2022).
Sambucus pubens Michx., Newark, June 9, 1907, (1665).
On Cyperaceae: II, III.
Carex bullata Schk., Seaford, June 4, 1908, (2083).
Carex lurida Wahl., Newark, Aug. and Sept., 1907, (171if,
1819); Felton, Sept. 5, 1907, (1738); Collins Beach, Oct. 1,
1907, (1788) ; Seaford, Nov. 14, 1907, (1767, 1858) ; June 5,
1908, (2082).
Arthur in 1901 conducted culture experiments (Jour. Myc. 8:55.
1902) proving that Aecidium Sambuci on Sambucus canadensis was spe-
cifically connected with Puccinia Bolleyana on Carex trichocarpa. In
1902 further experiments were conducted (Bot. Gaz. 35:14. 1903) con-
firming the above results and showing that Puccinia Atkinsoniana on
Carex lurida is also a synonym and has its aecial stage on Sambucus.
See also the results of culture work in 1904 (Jour. Myc. 11:58. 1905)
and 1905 (Jour. Myc. 12:14. 1906) and 1906 (Jour. Myc. 13:195. 1907)
in which Carex lupulina and C Frankii are definitely proven to bear telia
of P. Sambuci. The results of 1902 were confirmed in 1908 (Mycol. 1:233.
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1909). Kellerman (Jour. Myc. 9:7. 1903) confirmed Arthur's results
as to the connection of Aecidium Sambuci with P. Atkinsoniana on Car ex
lurida and with P. Bolleyana on C. trichocarpa.
88. PucciNiA Smilacis Schw. Schr. Nat. Ges. Leipzig 1:72. 1822.
Aecidium Smilacis Schw. Schr. Nat. Ges. Leipzig 1:69. 1822.
On Smilaceae:
Smilax glauca Walt., Selbyville, Oct. 4, 1907, (1752).
Smilax rotundifolia L., Newark, October 1907, (2007) ; Collins
Beach, Oct. 1, 1907, (1816); Selbyville, Oct. 4, 1907, (1754).
This is an autoecious long cycle rust common throughout the eastern
United States. No aecial collections have been made in Delaware. The
aecia may be distinguished from the aecia of Puccinia m^a^rospora (Pk.)
Arth., which occur on Smilax in the same range, by the size of the
aeciospores. In P. Smilacis the aecioopores are 17-22x20-30ijl with the wallj
1-1. 5ii while the aecispores of P. macrospora measure 32-42x37-51ii. with thick
walls 1.5-2.5^1, thickened above to 5-10ijl.
89. Puccinia Sorghi Schw. Trans. Am. Phil. Soc. II. 4:295. 1832.
Puccinia Maydis Bereng. Atti Sci. Hal. 6:475. 1844.
Aecidium Oxalidis Thiim. Flora 59:425. 1876.
On Poaceae:
Zea Mays L., Faulkland, Sept. 8, 1885, A. Commons (210);
Newark, Sept. 17, 1890, F. D. Chester; Sept. 1907; Felton,
Sept. 5, 1907, (1735).
The com rust is very common in Delaware and has been repeatedly
observed but apparently does little damage.
Arthur in 1904 (Bot. Gaz. 38:64. 1904; Jour. Myc. 11:65. 1905)
shows that the com rust has its aecial stage on Oxalis. These results
were confirmed in 1905 by the same author (Jour. Myc. 12:17. 1906)
who successfully infected corn with aeciospores from Oxalis cymosa,
90. Puccinia subnitens Diet. Erythea 3:81. 1895.
On Chenopodiaceae : I.
Atriplex hastata L., Lewes, April 1908, (2041), June 6, 1908,
(2038).
On Cruciferous seedling: I.
Lewes, April 23, 1908, (2025).
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On Polygon aceae: I.
Polygonum aviculare L., Lewes, April 25, 1908, (2020).
. On Poaceae: II, III.
Distichlis spicata (L.) Greene, Lewes, Aug. 14, 1907, (1677),
Nov. 16, 1907, (1854, 1855), April 25, 1908, (2021), June 6.
1908, (2039).
Arthur (Bot. Ga^. 35:19. 1903 first showed that the above species
has its aecial form on Chenopodiaceae having produced aecia on Cheno-
podium album by sowings of teliospores from Distichlis spicata. In 1904
(Jour. Myc. 11:54. 1905) he records successful infection results on
Chenopodium album, Cleome spinoia, Lepidium, apetalum., L, virginicum,
Sophia incisa, Erysimum a^perumy from sowings of teliospores from
Distichlis spicata. This is remarkable since the above hosts represent
three distinct families of flowering plants.
In 1905 (Jour. Myc. 12:16. 1906) Bursa Bursa pastoris is added
to the above list, since aecia were produced following sowings of telio-
spores from Distichlis spicata. Further results are recorded by the
same author in 1906 (Jour. Myc. 13:197. 1907) and in 1907 (Jour. Myc.
14:15. 1908).
In 1908 Arthur records successful infection on Chenopodium album
resulting from sowings of teliospores from Distichlis spicata collected
at Lewes, Del., and sent to Dr. Arthur by the writer (Mycol. 1:234.
1909). Cultures from Nebraska made in the same year were successful
on C. album. Material from Nevada successfully infected C album,
Atriplex hastata, and Sarcobatu^ vermiculatus.
Further culture work with this species is recorded by Arthur in
Mycol. 2:225. 1910; 4:18. 1912. (See also Bethel, Phytopath. 7:92-94.
1917.)
91. PucciNiA Taraxaci (Rebent.) Plowr. Brit. Ured. and Ust. 186.
1889.
Puccinia Phaseoli var. Taraxaci Rebent. Fl. Neomarch 256. 1804.
On Cichoriaceae :
Taraxacum Taraxaciim (L.) Karst., — Newark, July 1907,
(1671).
This is doubtless a brachy-form though no pycnia have yet been
demonstrated to accompany the primary uredinia. Cultures will be
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necessary to determine its life history with certainty. It seems prob-
able that the uredinia are able to carry the fungus over the winter.
92. PucciNiA TRiTiciNA Erikss. Ann. Sci. Nat. VIII, 9:270. 1899.
On Poaceae:
Tritictiin vulgare L., Newark, July 2, 1907, (1882), June 21,
1907, (1662).
This is the common leaf rust of wheat found in all parts of the
United States as well as in most sections of the world where wheat is
cultivated. The life history is unknown. It is a sub-epidermal form and
is morphologrically very similar to leaf rusts on wild grasses commonly
referred to P. tomipara and P. Agropyri (P. clematidis (DC.) Lagerh.),
having aecia on Thalictrum, Clematis and other Ranunculaceous hosts.
93. PucciNiA URTICATA (Lk.) Kem, Mycologia 9:214. 1917.
Aecidium Urticae Schum. Enum. PI. Saell. 2:222. 1803.
Caeoma urticatum Link, in Willd. Sp. PI. 6':62. 1825.
Puccinia Urticae Lagerh. Mitt. Bad. Ver. 2:72. 1889. (Not P.
Urticae Barcl. 1887.)
On Cyperaceae: II, III.
Carex stricta Lam., Seaford, April 23, 1908, (2029).
Magnus in 1872 (Vehr. Hot. Ver. Prov. Brandbg. 14:1872.) first
showed that Aecidium Urticae on Urtica dioica was the aecial stage of
P. Caricis (Schum.) Rebent. on Carex hirta. Many other European
investigators have repeated this work with additional hosts, including
Schroeter, Comu, Plowright, Ed. Fischer and Klebahn. A general review
is given by Klebahn (Wirtsw. Rostp. 293. 1904).
In America Arthur (Bot. Gaz. 29:270. 1900) was the first to con-
duct successful cultures. He obtained the development of uredinia on
Carex stricta by inoculating with spores of Aecidium Urticae,
Later cultures (Jour. Myc. 8:52. 1902; Bot. Gaz. 35:16. 1903)
showed that aeciospores developed on Urtica gracilis following sowings
of teliospores from Carex stricta collected in Nebraska and C. riparia
from Iowa. In 1905 (Jour. Myc. 12:15. 1906) teliospores on C. stipata
from Indiana and from C aquatilis collected in Colorado, were used in
successful cultures on U, gracilis. In 1907 (Jour. Myc. 14:14. 1908)
Arthur again conducted successful sowings of teliospores from Indiana
material on C stipata and from Nebraska material on C. riparia. In
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1909 the same author (Mycol. 2:223. 1910) used teliospores from C.
aristata from North Dakota to successfully infect U. gracilis with pro-
duction of aecia. In 1910 (Mycol. 4:17. 1912) the results of 1909 were
repeated and successful sowings on U, gracilis were again made by using
Indiana material to infect U, gracilis.
Kelierman In 1902 (Jour. Myc. 9:9. 1903) was also successful in
obtaining infection on U. gracilis by using telial material on C. riparia
and C. stricta from Ohio.
94. PucciNiA ViOLAE (Schum.) DC. Fl. Fr. 6:62. 1815.
Aeddium Violae Schum. Enum. PI. Saell. 2:224, 1803.
On Violaceae:
Viola afflnis LeConte, Newark, May 15, 1906, I, (1622).
Viola Labradorica Schw. (?), Faulkland, Aug. 1, 1884, II, III,
A. Commons, (193).
Viola lanceolata L., Selbyville, Oct. 4, 1907. (1938).
95. PUCCINIA WiNDSORiAE Schw. Trans. Am. Phil. Soc. II 4:295. 1832.
Aeddium Pteleae Berk. & Curtis; Berkeley, Grevillea 3:60. 1874.
On Poaceae: II, III.
Tricuspis seslerioides (Michx.) Torr., Lewes, Nov. 16, 1907,
(1852); Newark, Oct. 16, 1907, (1834).
This species has been shown to be connected with Aeddium Pteleae
on Ptelea trifoliata by Arthur in 1899 (Bot. Gaz. 29:273. 1900). He
succeeded in obtaining the development of typical uredinia of this spe-
cies on Tricu^pis seslerioides by inoculating with aeciospores of Aecidium
Pteleae from Indiana. These results were confirmed in 1902 (Bot. Gaz.
35:16. 1903) and again in 1904 (Jour. Myc. 11:56. 1905).
96. Puccini A Xanthii Schw. Schr. Nat. Ges. Leipzig 1:73. 1822.
On Ambrosiaceae:
Ambrosia trifida Mill., Newark, Sept. 15, 1905, (1556) ; July 26,
1906, (1616); Aug. 23, 1907, (1723).
Xanthium sp., Newark, Sept. 15, 1905, (1540) ; Lewes, Aug. 14,
1907, (1691).
This common species is a lepto-form possessing telia only in the
life history.
Carleton (Bur. PI. Ind. U. S. D. A. Bull. 63:26. 1904) in 1897 and
1898 conducted culture experiments showing that this species is auto-
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ecious. He repeatedly infected Xanthirm seedlings by inoculating with
teliospores from same host but was unable to infect Ambrosia trifida.
He believes this species to be distinct from the form on Ambrosia trifida.
In 1905 and 1906 Arthur (Jour. Myc. 12:20. 1906; 13:198. 1907)
confirmed Carleton's work. He also failed to infect Ambrosia trifida
with spores from Xanthium. No pycnia have been found in herbarium
specimens nor did they develop in the cultures recorded above.
It is evident from these culture experiment? that we have here a
rust, while morphologically indistinguishable on the two host genera,
yet exists in two independent races.
97. Ravenelia epiphylla (Schw.) Dietel, Hedwigia 33:27. 1894.
Sphaeria epiphylla Schw. Schr. Nat. Ges. Leipzig 1:40. 1822.
On Fabaceae:
Cracca virginiana L., Townsend, June 11, 1890, A. Conmfions
(1438).
98. Tranzschelia punctata (Pers.) Arth. Result Sci. Congr. Bot.
Vienna 340. 1906.
Aecidium punctatum Pers. Ann. Bot. Usteri 20:135. 1796.
Puccinia Pruni-spinosae Pers. Syn. Fung. 226. 1801.
On Ranunculaceae: I.
Anemone quinquefolia L., Newark, May 8, 1897, F. D. Chester,
May 10, 1907, (1656).
Hepatica Hepatica (L.) Karst, Faulkland, May 3, 1884, A.
Commons, Newark, May 22, 1907, (1566), May 1908, (2254).
On Amygdalaceae: II, III.
PrumLs serotina Ehrh., Greenbank, Aug. 24, 1886, A. Commons
(26).
Dr. Tranzschel in 1904 (Trans. Mus. Bot. Acad. St. Petersb. 11 :67-
69. 1905) first showed that Aecidium punctatum on Anemone was the
aecial stage of P. Pruni-spinosae. He succeeded in obtaining the char-
acteristic uredinia of this species on Amygdalus communis , Prunus
spinosa and P. divaricata following sowings with aeciospores from Ane-
mone coronaria, Aecia on Anemone ranunculoides were also used to
infect Prunus spinosa with similar results.
In America Arthur in 1905 (Jour. Myc. 12:19. 1906) showed that
this species has its aecia on Hepatica acutiloba (Aecidium Hepaticum
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Schw.) having successfully infected Prunvis serotina with aeciospores
from that host. These results were confirmed in 1906 (Jour. Myc.
13:199. 1907); a successful infection resulting in uredinia having been
obtained on P. serotina and P. pumila following inoculation with aecia
on Hepatica. Failure to obtain infection on P. americana, P, cerasus
and Amygdalus Persica, however, indicates that in America at least
there are distinct races.
It is probable that the uredinial spores are able to carry this species
over the winter in some localities.
The aecial stage is perennial and the affected leaves are character-
istically modified. On Hepatica the leaves stand upright and are much
reduced in size and g^reatly thickened.
99. Uromyces appendiculatus (Pers.) Fries, Summa Veg. Scand. 514.
1849.
Uredo appendiculata Pers. Ann. Bot. Usteri 15:16. 1795.
Uromyces Phaseoli Wint. in Rab. Krypt. Fl. r:157. 1881.
Nigredo appendiculata Arth. Result. Sci. Congr. Bot, Vienna 343.
1906.
On Fabaceae:
Phaseolus vulgaris L., Lewes, Aug. 14, 1907, (1684) ; Newark,
September 1905, (1632); Selbyville, Oct. 4, 1907, (1981).
Strophostyles helvola (L.) Britt., Lewes, Aug. 14, 1907, (1682);
Felton, Sept. 5, 1907, (1736).
Strophostyles umbellata (Muhl.) Britt., Selbyville, October 4,
1907, (1987); Wilmington, Oct. 11, 1907, (1932).
That the above is an autoecious form was shown by Arthur in 190n
(Jour. Myc. 10:14. 1904). He cultured the form on Strophostyles hel-
vola. Pycnia and aecia followed inoculation with over-wintered telio-
spores on the same host.
100. Uromyces Caladii (Schw.) Farl. Ellis, N. A. Fungi 232. 1879.
Aecidium Caladii Schw. Schr. Nat. Ges. Leipzig 1:69. 1822.
Vromyces Peltandrae Howe, Bull. Torrey Club 5:3. 1874.
Nigredo Caladii Arth. Result. Sci. Congr. Bot. Vienna 343. 1906.
On Araceae:
Ay-isaema dracontium Schott, Faulkland, June 4, 1885, A. Com-
mons.
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Arisaema tnphyllum (L.) Schott,, Newark, May 1892, I, F. D.
Chester, May 15, 1906, (1619) ; Faulkland, July 18, 1885, III,
A. Commons.
Peltandra virginica (L.) Kunth, Symma, June 9, 1894, A. Com-
mons; Seaford, July 9, 1907, (1672, 1864); Lewes, Aug. 14,
1907, (2261); Wilmington, Oct. 11, 1907, (1931).
101. Uromyces caryophyllinus (Schrank.) Wint. in Rab. Krypt. Fl.
r:149. 1881.
Lyeoperdon caryophyllinum Schrank. Baier. Fl. 2:668. 1789.
On Cabyophyllaceae:
Dianihus caryophyllus L., Wilmington, Jan. 1909, C. 0. Hough-
ton.
102. Uromyces Eragrostidis Tracy, Jour. Myc. 7:281. 1893.
Nigredo Eragrostidis Arth. Result. Sci. Congr. Bot. Vienna 343.
1906.
On Poaceae:
Eragrostis pectinacea (Michx.) Steud., Selbyville, Oct. 4, 1907,
(1792).
103. Uromyces fallens (Des.) Kern, Phytopathology 1:6. 1911.
Uredo fallens Desmaz. PI. Crypt. 1325. 1843.
Nigredo fallens Arth. N. Am. Flora 7':254. 1912.
On Fabaceae:
Trifolium incamatum L., Newark, spring 1905, C. 0. Smith.
Trifolium pratense L., Newark, October 1888, F. D. Chester;
Nov. 10, 1910, C. O. Houghton; Seaford, July 9, 1907, (1654) ;
Clayton, July 24, 1907, (1710) ; Selbyville, Oct. 4, 1907 (1992).
The rust on red clover is widely distributed in the state and prob-
ably occurs wherever this host is cultivated. It is, however, rare on the
crimson clover; only one other collection in America is known to the
writer, and that was collected in South Dakota. This species is readily
separated from the only other long cycled Uromyces on Trifolium oc-
curring in North America by the uredinial pore characters. In the
species under discussion the pores are 4-6, scattered, while in V. Trifolii
the pores are 3-4 in an equatorial zone.
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104. Uromyces graminicola Burrill, Bot. Gaz. 9:188. 1884.
Uromyces Panici Tracy, Jour. Myc. 7:281. 1893.
Nigredo graminicola Arth. Result Sci. Congr. Bot. Vienna 343. 1906.
On Poaceae:
Panicum virgatum L., Collins Beach, Oct. 1, 1907, (1779) ;
Selbyville, Oct. 4, 1907, (1790).
This species is inseparable morphologrically from Puccinia Panici
Diet, except in the number of cells in the teliospore. The Puccinia has
been studied culturally by Stuart (Proc. Ind. Acad. Sci. 1901:284. 1902)
and Arthur (Jour. Myc. 11:56. 1905; 12:16. 1906; 14:16. 1908) and
shown to be connected genetically with Aecidium Pammelii Trel. on
Euphorbia corollata in Indiana and E, marginata in Nebraska. Aecia
on various Euphorbiaceous hosts have also been referred to that species
on morphological grounds.
While no cultures of the Uromyces have been successfully carried
out, it is probable that the aecial stage will be found on some member
of the Euphorbiaceae. The field evidence at present available suggests
that A. Stellingiae Tracy & Earle, which occurs on various species of
Stellingia and Sebastina in the south and southwest is a very probable
aecial connection. This aecidium is morphologically indistinguishable
from A. Pammelii and it is possible that some of the forms now referred
to that species will be found to belong here.
105. Uromyces Halstedii DeToni in Sacc. Syll. Fung. 7:557. 1888.
Uromyces digitatus Halsted, Jour. Myc. 3:138. 1887. (Not U. digi-
talus Wint. 1886.)
Nigredo Halstedii Arth. N. Am. Flora 7':226. 1912.
On Poaceae:
Homalocenchrus oryzoides (L.) Poll. (Leersia oryzoides (L.)
Sw.), Seaford, April 23, 1908, (2034).
The aecial stage of this rather rare grass rust is at present un-
known. The telial stage is known to the writer on the above host other-
wise only from Wisconsin and South Dakota.
106. Uromyces Hedysari-paniculati (Schw.) Farl. Ell. N. A. Fungi
246. 1879.
Puccinia Hedysari-paniculati Schw. Schr. Nat. Ges. Leipzig 1:74.
1822.
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Nigredo Hedysari-paniculati Arth. Result Sci. Congr. Bot. Vienna
343. 1906.
On Fabaceae:
Meibomia Dillenii (Darl.) Kuntze, Faulkland, Aug. 24, 1886,
A. Commons (319); Newark, Sept. 10, 1905, (1626); Aug.
23, 1907, (1726).
Meibomia laevigata (Nutt.) Kuntze, Selbyville, July 18, 1895,
A. Commons (946).
Meibomia Marylandica (L.) Kuntze, Felton, Sept. 5, 1907,
(1748); Selbyville, Oct. 4, 1907, (1986).
Meibomia obtusa (Muhl.) Vail, Felton, Sept. 5, 1907, (1747).
Meibomia paniculata (L.) Kuntze, Felton, Sept. 5, 1907, (1745) ;
Selbyville, Oct. 4, 1907, (1985) ; Lewes, Aug.. 14, 1907, (1200) ;
Newark, Aug. 23, 1907, (1714).
Meibomia stricta (Pursh) Kuntze, Selbyville, Oct. 4, 1907,
(1984).
107. Uromyces houstoniatus (Schw.) J. Sheldon, Torreya 9:55. 1909.
Aecidium hoiistoniatum Schw. Tran. Am. Phil. Soc. II. 4:309. 1832.
Nigredo hoiLstoniata Sheldon, Torreya 9:55. 1909.
On Rubiaceae:
Houstonia coerulea L., Newark, May 1908, I, (2267) ; Wilming-
ton, May 31, 1914, C. 0. Houghton.
Sheldon (1. c.) was the first to prove by culture experiments that
Aecidium houstoniatum Schw. on Houstonia coerulea was genetically
connected with a telial form occurring on Sisyrinchium gramineum.
Arthur (Mycologia 1:237. 1908) confirms Sheldon's work using living
plants of Hov^tcnia coerulea bearing aecia collected by the writer at
the above noted locality near Newark, and sent to Dr. Arthur at his
request for that purpose. A search was made for the telial stage in
the field but without success. The telia have been' collected only in
Maine and West Virginia.
108. Uromyces Howei Pk. Ann. Rep. N. Y. State Mus. 30:75. 1879.
On Asclepiadaceae:
Asclepias pulchra Shrk., Newark, Sept. 14, 1905, (1631).
Asclepias Syriaca L., Wilmington, August 1894, A. Commons
(issued as E. & E. Fungi Columb. 648) ; Newark, Sept. 7,
1905, (1551); Wilmington, Oct. 11, 1907, (1930).
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The life history of this common species is in doubt. It seems
probable that it is autoecious though no aecia have ever been collected.
Attempts to culture this species have been unsuccessful owing to a
failure of the teliospores to germinate. In future study of this species
it should be borne in mind that the species may be heteroecious or a
brachy-form.
109. Uromyces Hyperici-frondosi (Schw.) Arth. Bull. Minn. Acad.
Nat. Sci. 2*: 15. 1883.
Aecidium Hyperici-frondosi Schw. Schr. Nat. Ges. Leipzig 1:68.
1822.
Nigredo Hyperici-frondosi Arth. Result Sci. Congr. Bot. Vienna
344. 1906.
On Hypericaceae:
Hypericum mutilum L., Felton, Sept. 5, 1907, (1751) ; Selby-
ville, Oct. 4, 1907, (1991).
Triandeum virginicum (L.) Raf., Selbyville, Oct. 4, 1907,
(2247).
110. Uromyces Junci-effusi Sydow, Monog. Ured. 2:290. 1910.
Nigredo Junci-effusi Arth. N. Am. Flora 7':239, 1912.
On Juncaceae:
Juncus effusus L., Newark, Oct. 14, 1905, (1537) ; Clayton, July
24, 1907, (1703); Collins Beach, Oct. 1, 1907, (1779).
This species is common throughout the eastern United States on
this host and is separated from U, Silphii on Juncus by the presence
of 3-4 equatorial germ pores in the uredospores. In the latter there
are but 2 pores arranged slightly above the middle.
111. Uromyces Lespedezae-procumbentis (Schw.) Curt. Cat. PI. N.
Car. 123. 1867.
Puccinia Lespedezae-procumbentis Schw. Schr. Nat. Ges. Leipzig
1:73. 1822.
Nigredo Lespedezae-procumbentis Arth. N. Am. Flora 7:247. 1912.
On Fabaceae:
Lespedeza frutescens (L.) Britton, Felton, Sept. 5, 1907, III,
(1749) ; Selbyville, Oct. 4, 1907, III, (1983) ; Newark, Sept.
11, 1905, III, (1625).
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Lespedeza hirta (L.) Hornem., Clayton, July 24, 1907, 1, (1705).
Lespedeza virginica (L.) Britt., Newark, Sept. 10, 1907, III,
(1730); Selbyville, Oct. 4, 1907, (1988).
This species is very common and widely distributed east of the
Rocky mountains on various species of Lespedeza and has been shown
to be autoecious by Arthur (Jour. Myc. 10:14. 1904). The aecial form
known as A. leucostictum having been produced by infecting Lespedeza
eapitata with teliospores from the same host.
112. Ubomyces Medicaginis Pass. Thiim. Herb. Myc. Oecon. 156. 1874.
Nigredo Medicaginis Arth. N. Am. Flora 7:256. 1912.
On Fabaceae:
Medicago lupulina L., Wilmington, June 22, 1889, A. Commons
(920).
The aecia of this species in Europe have been shown by Schroeter
(Krypt. Fl. Schl. 3':306. 1887) and by Trebaux (Ann. Myc. 10:74.
1912) to occur on various species of t^uphorbia.
No aecia in America have been found which can be referred to this
species. There is, however, no evidence at present available for believ-
ing the American species different from the European.
113. Uromyces pedatatus (Schw.) Sheldon, Torreya 10:90. 1910.
Caeoma pedatatum Schw. Trans. Am. Phil. Soc. II. 4:293. 1832.
Uromyces Andropogonis Tracy, Jour. Myc. 7:281. 1893.
On Violaceae: I.
Viola lanceolata L., Lewes, April 25, 1908, (2036).
Viola sagittata L., Newark, June 12, 1897, F. D. Chester;
Porters, June 1908; Lewes, April 14, 1908.
On Poaceae: II, III.
Andropogon glomeratiis (Walt.) B. S. P., Selbyville, Oct. 4,
1907, (1795, 1805, 1796, 1797), (Barth. Fungi Columb. 3088);
Lewes, Nov. 16, 1907, (1857).
Andropogon virginicus L., Newark, Sept. 10, 1907, III, (1732) ;
Lewes, April 23, 1908, II, (2037), June 7, 1908, III, (2088).
Dr. J. L. Sheldon (Torreya 9:55. 1909) was the first to show that
in West Virginia the aecial stage of this species on Andropogon occurred
en Viola, having obtained successful infection resulting in aecia by using
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teliospores from Andropogon virginicus L. Arthur in 1909 (Mycol.
2:229. 1910) confirmed the results of Sheldon by obtaining infection
resulting in abundant pycnia on Viola cucullata following sowings of
teliospores from Andropogon virginicus sent by Sheldon from West
Virginia.
Long (Phytopath. 2:165. 1912) reports successful infection of
Viola primulifolia and V. cucullata by inoculation with teliosporic ma-
terial from the same telial host used by Sheldon and Arthur. Aecio-
spores from V. primulifolia were used to inoculate the telial host result-
ing in typical uredinia of U, pedatatUrS.
114. Uromyces perigynius Halsted, Jour, Myc. 5:11. 1889.
Uromyces caricina E. & E. Bull. Torrey Club 22:58. 1895.
Uromyces Solidagini-Caricis Arth. Jour. Myc. 10:16. 1904.
Nigredo perigynia Arth. Result Sci. Congr. Bot. Vienna 334. 1906.
On Cyperaceae:
Carex scoparia Schk., Newark, Sept. 10, 1907, (1731, 1734),
April 5, 1908; Felton, Sept. 5, 1907, (1743); Collins Beach,
Oct. 1, 1907, (1775).
Carex tribuloides Wahl., Collins Beach, Oct. 1, 1907, (1782);
Felton, Sept. 5, 1907, (1739).
This species is correlated with a Puccinia occurring on Carex and
Dulichium which has been referred to under various specific names.
(See P. asteratum,) The species are morphologically indistinguishable
except in the number of cells in the teliospore.
The Uromyces has been studied in culture by Arthur and Eraser.
The first study leading to an understanding of the species was made
by Arthur (Jour. Myc. 10:16. 1904) who used telial material on Carex
varia from Indiana and obtained infection resulting in aecia on Solidago
canadensis, S, serotina, S, flexicaulis and iS. caesia. The results were
confirmed in 1910 by the same author (Mycol. 4:21. 1912) when infec-
tion resulting in aecia was obtained on S. rugosa using telial material
on C deflexa collected in Nova Scotia and Maine. This species was, at
this time, also shown to have aecia on Aster by successful sowings of
teliospores from Carex intumescens collected in Nova Scotia on A. pani-
culatus and from C. deflexa from Maine on A. ericoides.
Eraser in 1911 (Mycol. 4:181. 1912) successfully infected S.
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rugosa (?) and 5. bicolor by sowing teliospores from Car ex deflexa from
Nova Scotia. Similar results were obtained on Euthamia graminifolia
when infected with teliospores from C, scoparia and on Solidago sp.
from C intumescens.
Arthur in 1912 (Mycol. 7:75. 1915) reports infection of Aster
paniculatus and 5. canadensis following sowings of teliospores from
C. intumescens collected in New York and in 1914 (Mycol. 7:83. 1915)
on A. Tweedyi from C. tribuloides collected in Indiana.
The aecia obtained in these cultures are indistingfuishable from the
aecia resulting from sowings of the correlated Puccinia. Field collec-
tions of aecia on Aster, Solidago, etc., can be properly referred only
when close observations of the source of infection are made.
115. Uromyces PLUMBARitJS Peck, Bot. Gaz. 4:127. 1879.
Uromyces Oenotherae Burrill, Bot. Gaz. 9:187. 1884.
Nigredo plumbaria Arth. N. Am. Flora 7:262. 1912.
On Onagraceae: I.
Oenothera biennis L., Newark, May 1908, I (2266).
Oenothera laciniata Hill, Seaford, June 4, 1908, I (2044).
116. Uromyces Polemonii (Peck) Barth. N. Am. Ured. 597. 1913.
Aecidium Polemonii Peck, Bot. Gaz. 4:230. 1878.
Uromyces acuminatiis Arth. Bull. Minn. Acad. Sci. p. 35. 1883.
Nigredo Polemonii Arih, N. Am. Flora 7':231. 1912.
On Poaceae: II, III.
Spartina glabra altemifolia (Loisel) Merr., Lewes, Oct. 16,
1907, (1774, 1850).
When teliosporic material from 5. cynosuroides collected in Ne-
braska was used by Arthur to inoculate Steironema ciliata (Jour. Myc.
12:25. 1906; 14:17. 3908) aecia developed. In 1909 Arthur (Mycol.
2:229. 1910) confirmed the results with 5. ciliata and also records
successful infection of 5. lanceolata. In 1910 (Mycol. 4:29. 1912) the
development of aecia was obtained on Polemonium rep tans following
sowings of teliospores from 5. cynosuroides collected in North Dakota
and Colorado.
Fraser in 1911 (Mycol. 4:186. 1912) obtained infection resulting
in aecia on Arenaria lateriflora following sowings with teliosporic ma-
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terial from Spartina Michauxiana and on Spergula canadensis from
Spartina glabra var. altemifolia and on Spergula canadensis from
Spartina patens.
In 1912 Arthur again conducted cultures (Mycol. 7:77. 1915) and
obtained infection and development of aecia on Collomia linearis when
telial material from Colorado was used.
From these successful results, taken together with the negative
resultis recorded by the investigators mentioned, it would £vppear that
well marked biological races of this species exist or that distinct species
are here included.
Orton (Mycol. 4:202. 1912) pointed out that it is not possible to
distinguish this species from Puccinia Distichlidis E. & E., the telial
stage of which occurs on Spartina sp., except in the possession of one-
celled teliospores. Arthur in 1915 (Mycol. 8:136. 1916) has shown
that the aecial stage of the Puccinia develops on Steironema and is
morphologically identical with Aecidium Polemonii, thus strengthening
the morphological evidence of the relationship between the two forms.
117. Uromyces Polygoni (Pers.) Fuckl. Symb. Myc. 64, 1869.
Puccinia Polygoni Pers. Neues Mag. Bot. 1:119. 1794.
Nigredo Polygoni Arth. Result Sci. Congr. Bot. Vienna 344. 1906.
On Polygonaceae :
Polygonum atnculare L., Newark, Aug. 17, 1907, III, (1712).
Polygonum erectum L., Newark, September 1888, F. D. Chester,
June 21, 1907, II, (1668).
118. Uromyces Pontederiae W. Gerard, Bull. Torrey Club 6:31. 1875.
Nigredo Pontederiae Arth. N. Am. Flora 7':238. 1912.
On Pontederiaceae :
Pontederia cordata L., Milford, Sept. 1, 1892, A. Commons
(1986).
This species is evidently rather rare, having been recorded in North
America by Arthur (1. c.) in but four states on the Atlantic coast from
New York to Florida and in Missouri. Only four other collections are
known to the writer. It also occurs in South America. This species is
assumed to be autoecious though no aecia have been found.
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Hi). Uromyces proeminens (DC.) Pass. ivab. Fungi Eur. 1795. 1873.
Vredo proeminens DC, Fl. Fr. 2:236. 1805,
Uromyces Euphorbiae C. & P.; Peck, Ann. Rep. N. Y. State Mus.
25:90. 1873,
Nigredo proeminens Arth. N. Am. Flora 7^:259. 1912.
On EUPHORBIACEAE:
Euphorbia maculata L., Newark, September 1905, (1633),
Lewes, Aug. 14, 1907, (1695), Selbyville, Oct. 4, 1907, (1980).
Euphorbia Preslii Guss., Newark, Sept. 14, 1907, III, (1630),
Seaford, July 9, 1907, I, (1666) ; July 9, 1907, II, III, (1655),
Selbyville, Oct. 4, 1907, (1994).
That this species is autoecious was first demonstrated by Arthur in
1899 (Bot. Gaz. 29:270. 1900) and later confirmed by the same author
(Jour. Myc. 8:51. 1902; Bot. Gaz. 35:12. 1903). The results, how-
ever, indicate that well marked biological forms are present.
120. Uromyces Rhyncosporae Ellis, Jour. Myc. 7:274. 1893.
Nigredo Rhyncosporae Arth. Result Sci. Congr. Bot. Vienna 344.
1906.
On CYPERACfiAE: 11, III.
Rynchospora axillai^ (Lam.) Britton, Lewes, Aug. 14, 1907,
(1687).
Rynchospora glomerata (L.) Vahl., Selbyville, Oct. 4, 1907,
(1801, 1811); Seaford, Nov. 15, 1907, (1768, 1769), April 23,
1908, (2031); Lewes, Nov. 16, 1907, (1856).
All cultures so far attempted with this species have yielded negative
results. It is very close morphologically to Uromyces perigynius which
has been shown to have aecia on Aster and Solidago. In spite of the
fact that attempts to infect these genera by Arthur (Mycol. 7:65. 1915)
were unsuccessful, the writer is inclined to the view that it will ulti-
mately be shown that this species has its aecia on Aster and Solidago.
121. Uromyces Scirpi (Cast.) Bur rill. Par. Fungi 111. 168. 1885.
Uredo Scirpi Cast. Cat. PI. Mars. 214. 1845.
On Ammiaceae: I.
Hydrocotyle Canbeyi C. & R., Lewes, Aug. 14, 1907, I, (1688),
June 6, 1908, (2090).
24—11994
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Stum cicutaefolium GmeL, Wilmington, July 11, 1890, 1, A.
Commons (1488).
On Cyperaceae: II, III.
Scirpus americanus Pers., Lewes, Aug. 14, 1907, II, (1679,
1689), June 6, 1908, (2091); Selbyville, Oct. 4, 1907, (1806).
Scirpus fiuviatilis (Torr.) A. Gray, Collins Beach, Oct. 1, 1907,
III, (1787).
In Europe P. Dietel (Hedwigia 29:149. 1890) was the first to
successfully connect this species with its aecial form. He showed by
cultures that aecia are produced on Sium latifolium and Hippurus vul-
garis. Plowright (Card. Chron. III. 7:682. 1890) added Glau^ mari-
lima as an aecial host of this species. Bubak in Bohemia (Cent. Bakt.
9': 926. 1902) discovered a form which only infected Berula angusiifolia.
Further cultures carried out by Klebahn (Jahr. Hamb. Wiss. Anst.
20:33. 1903) brought out new hosts and interesting biological relations.
In America Arthur in 1906, 1907 and 1908 (Jour. Myc. 13:199.
1907; 14:17. 1908; Mycol. 1:237. 1909) showed that in America Cicuta
maculata was an aecial host. Fraser (Mycol. 4:178. 1912) confirmed
Arthur's work using telia on Scirpus campestris paludosus.
The aecidium on Hydrocotyle Canbeyi is included here partly on
morphological grounds and partly on field observations. As noted above
the writer collected at Lewes, on Aug. 14, 1907, the aecidium on Hydro-
cotyle. The aecia were old and there was no evidence of uredinia or
telia of P. Hydrocotyles (with which form the aecidium has previously
been combined) on any of the affected leaves or on other plants in the
vicinity. Surrounding the plants, however, were plants of Scirpus
americanus abundantly affected with the uredinia of U, Sdrpi, Obser-
vations and collections were again made in the same spot on June 6,
1908, when aecia were again found in abundance showing evidence of
having been mature for about two weeks. A few culms of Scirpus were
growing in such a position that the tips were hanging immediately
above the Hydrocotyle plants bearing the aecia. On these tips fresh
uredinial sori of U. Scirpi were present. No infection on Scirpus was
found elsewhere at that date though the plants were very abundant
over a wide area.
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122. Uromyces seditiosus Kern, Torreya 11:212. 1911.
Aecidium Plantaginia Burrill, Bull. 111. Lab. Nat. Hist. 2:232. 1885.
Nigredo seditiosa Arth. N. Am. Flora 7:225. 1912.
On Poaceae:
Aristida sp., Lewes, 1908.
Culture experiments reported by Arthur (Bot. Gaz. 35:17. 1903)
prove the aecidial stage of Uromyces Aristidae to be Aecidium Planta-
ginis. He used telial material on A. oligantha Michx. from Texas and
successful infection of Plantago Rugelii was obtained followed by pycnia
and aecia.
Field observations made by Arthur and Fromme indicate also that
Aecidium Oldenlandianum Ellis & Tracy, which occurs on various spe-
cies of Houstonia in the southern states, also belongs here though con-
firming cultures have not yet been made.
123. Uromyces Silphii (Burrill) Arth. Jour. Myc. 13:202. 1907.
Aecidium Silphii Sydow, Ured. 1546. 1901.
Nigredo Silphii Arth. N. Am. Flora 7:239. 1912.
On Juncaceae:
J uncus dichotomus Ell., Sussex Co., June 18, 1875, A. Commons.
Juncus tenuis Willd., Lewes, Aug. 14, 1907, (1700) ; Newark,
Aug. 23, 1907, (1714) ; Sept. 1907, (1823, 1824) ; Selbyville,
Oct. 4, 1907, (1793, 1800).
Arthur (Jour. Myc. 13:202. 1907; 14:17. 1908) has shown that
this conunon species has its aecia on Silphium. Using telial material on
J. tenuis from Indiana, West Virginia and Nebraska, five successful
infections of Silphium perfoliatum were obtained, all of which resulted
in the development of pycnia and aecia. The aecia on Silphium have
been collected, so far as known to the writer, only in the Mississippi
Valley from Ohio to Wisconsin, Kansas and Missouri, on three species
of Silphium. The range of the telial collections referred here, however,
is much greater including nearly the entire United States and Canada
except the south Pacific slope. It seems probable that some plants other
than Silphium, at present unrecognized, also serve as aecial hosts for
this species. From field observations it seems probable that certain
species of Aster serve as hosts for the aecia of this species in some
localities.
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This species is distinguished from the only other Uromyces on
Juncus occurring in the eastern United States (U. Junci-ejfusi Syd.)
which occurs commonly on J, effusus, by the number and position of the
pores in uredospores. In U, Silphii there are two superequatorial pores;
while in U. Junci-effiisi the pores are 3-4 and equatorial.
124. Uromyces Spermacoces (Schw.) Curt. Cat. PL N. Car. 123. 1867.
Puccinia Spermacoces Schw. Schr. Nat. Ges. Leipzig 1:74. 1822.
Nigredo Spermacoces Arth. N. Am. Flora 7:266. 1912.
On Rubiaceae:
Diodia teres Walt., Newark, Sept. 18, 1905, (1627) ; Selbyville,
Oct. 4, 1907, (1934) ; Cooch's Bridge, Sept. 18, 1915, C. 0.
Houghton.
This is doubtless an autoecious form though no cultures have been
conducted. It is a very common species in the south and south central
States. The above collections are near the northeastern limits of its
range.
Unconnected Forms.
125. Aecidium Apocyni Schw. Schr. Nat. Ges. Leipzig 1:68. 1822.
On Apocynaceae:
Apocynum pubescens L., Seaford, July 9, 1907, (1649, 1653),
June 4, 1907, (2053); Clayton, July 24, 1907, (2253).
This Aecidium is known otherwise only from North Carolina and
New Jersey on the above host and on A. cannabinum L. only from the
District of Columbia and North Carolina (according to Schweinitz).
It is easily separated from Aecidium obesum Arth., which occurs on
A, Sibiricum, by the possession of a firm peridium and much smaller
aeciospores with thin walls. The latter agrees with A. Cephalanthi
Seym, which has been shown by Arthur (Jour. Myc. 12:24. 1906; Mycol.
1:236. 1909; 4:19. 1912) to be the aecial form of Puccinia Seymouri-
ana Arth. with uredinia and telia on Spartina.
126. Aecidium Compositarum Authors.
On Carduaceae:
Rudbeckia triloba L., Naamans Creek, April 27, 1894, A. Com-
mons.
This Aecidium like many others on Compositae is doubtless heter-
oecious and may belong with telia on some Cyperaceous or Juncaceous
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host. Since its exact affinities are at present unknown it is best for
the present referred to as above.^
127. Aecidium Ivae sp. nov.
0. Pycnia amphigenous, crowded in yellowish spots, 3-15 mm. in
diameter, noticeable, subepidermal, light yellow to light chestnut-brown,
punctiform, 80-160 by 95-160^, ostiolar filaments up to SO^i, long.
1. Aecia usually hypophyllous, sometimes amphigenous, crowded on
spots with the pycnia, cupulate, 0.2-0.4 mm. in diameter; peridium
brownish yellow, recurved, erose; peridial cells rhomboidal in longitudial
section, 19-27 by 35-51jx, overlapping, wall 5-7^ thick, outer wall smooth,
transversely striate, inner wall closely and coarsely verrucose; aecio-
spores globoid or ellipsoid 21-29 by 26-23{i; wall colorless or pale yellow,
2-3\i thick, finely and closely verrucose.
On Ambrosiaceae:
Iva ovaria Bartlett (7. frutescens A. Gray not L.), Lewes,
Aug. 14, 1907, (1676).
This species is evidently a heteroecious form and occurs otherwise,
so far as is known, in salt marshes along the Atlantic coast and Gulf
of Mexico in Virginia, Florida and Louisiana. It differs from Aecidium
intermixtum Pk. (Puccinia intermixta Pk.) in the larger aeciospores
and in the fact that the aecia develop from a limited mycelium.
128. Aecidium Uvulariae Schw. Nat. Ges. Leipzig 1:69. 1822.
On Convallariaceae:
Uvularia sessifolia L., Seaford, June 4, 1908, (2059) ; Cooch's
Bridge, May 25, 1915, C. O. Houghton.
The above Aecidium is scarcely distinguishable from Aecidium
Majanthae Schum. which has been shown by European investigators
to be connected with uredinia and telia on Phalaris. In America aecidia
occurring on Salamonia, Unifolium and Vagnera have been similarly
referred to P, Majanthae (Schw.) Arth. (P. sessilis Schw.) though no
successful cultures have been made. Since slight morphological differ-
* Since the above was written cultures conducted in this laboratory and reported by
Arthur (Mycol. 9:307. 1917) show that aecia on Rudbcckia laciniata are genetically con-
nected with uredinia and telia on Carex referred to Uromyeca pcrigyniua (cf. 114). He
obtained successful infection resulting in aecia on R. laciniata following exposure to
germinating? telia on Carcx sparganioidea. It iu therefore probable that the collection
listed here from Delaware on R. triloba should be similarly referred.
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ences exist between the form on Uvularia and those mentioned above
it seems desirable to retain it as a separate species for the present.
129. Uredo Andromedae Cooke, DeToni in Sacc. Syll. Fung. 7:853.
1888.
On Ericaceae:
Pieris mariana (L.) Benth. & Hook., Wilmington, Oct. 1891,
A. Commons (in E. & E. N. Am. Fungi 2717).
Xolisma ligustrina (L.) Britt., Selbyville, Oct 4, 1907, (1941).
This species, included by Arthur in Melampsoropsis Cassandrae
(P. & C.) Arth. (N. Am. Flora 7:119. 1907) is clearly not that species,
as the urediniospores are echinulate. Its affinities are probably with
Pucciniastrum. The ostiolar cells of the peridium however are not well
developed and it seems best to retain it under the above name for the
present.
Index to Species.
Aecidium Apocyni 125.
asperifolii 41.
asterum 43.
Berberidis 79.
Caladii 100.
Callirrhoes 62.
Cephalanthi 125.
Compositarum 126.
compositarum Bidentis 75,
compositarum Eupatorii 56.
compositarum Xanthii 46.
Fraxini 60.
fuscum 33.
Geranii-maculati 81.
giganteum 7.
Helianthi-mollis 61.
Hepaticum 98.
Hibisciatum 62.
houstoniatum 107.
Hyperici-frondosi 109.
Impatientis 64.
intermixtum 127.
Ivae 127.
leucostictum 111.
Ludwigiae 73.
Lycopi 38
Lysimachiae 67.
macrosporum 68.
Majanthae 128.
Melampyri 37.
Myrtilli 14.
Napaeae 62.
Nesaeae 68, 72.
nitens 19.
obesum 125.
Oldenlandianum 122.
Osmorrhizae 78.
Oxalidis 89.
Pammelii 77, 104.
Pentastemonis 37.
Digiti
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375
Plantaginis 122.
Polemonii 116.
Pteleae 95.
punctatum 98.
pustulatum 83.
pyratum 24.
Pyrolae 15.
Ranunculi 55.
Khamni 85.
rubellum 86.
Sambuci 87.
Sanguinolentum 81.
Silphii 123.
Smilacis 88.
Sphaeralceae 62.
Stellingiae 104.
Tussilaginis 59.
Urticae 93.
Uvulariae 128.
Violae 94.
AUodus claytoniata 50.
Ludwigiae 73.
Aregma triarticulatum 31.
Ascophora disciflora 29.
Caeoma Agrimoniae 12.
Botryapites 20.
(Aecidium) claytoniatum 50.
Fraxinatum 60.
germinale 22.
Hibisciatum 62.
interstitiale 19.
lysimachiatum 67.
(Aecidium) Myricatum 25.
nitens 19.
pedatatum 113.
urticatum 93.
Chrysomyxa albida 10.
Coleosporium cameum 1.
delicatulum 2.
Elephantopodis 3.
Ipomoeae 4.
Pini 5.
Rubi 10.
Solidaginis 2, 6.
Vemoniae 1.
Cronartium cerebrum 7,
Comandrae 8.
pyriforme 8.
Quercuum 7.
Frommea Duchesneae 30.
obtusa 31.
Gallowaya Pini 5.
Gymnoconia interstitialis 19.
Peckiana 19.
Gymnosporangium biseptatum 20,
27.
Blasdaleanum 25.
Botryapites 20.
clavariaeforme 21.
clavipes 22.
conicum 26.
EUisii 25.
fraternum 27.
germinale 22.
globosum 23.
Juniperi-virginianae 24.
macropus 24.
Myricatum 25.
nidus-avis 26.
transformans 20, 27.
Hyalopsora Polypodii 9.
Kuehneola Duchesneae 30.
obtusa 31.
Uredinis 10.
Digiti
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376
Kunkelia nitens 19.
Lycoperdoa caryophyllinum 101.
epiphyllum 59.
poculiforme 79.
Melampsora Bigelowii 11.
Melampsoropsis Cassandrae 129.
Nigredo appendiculata 99.
Caladii 100.
Eragrostidis 102.
fallens 103.
graminicola 104.
Halstedii 105.
Hedysari-paniculati 106.
houstoniata 107.
Hyperici-frondosi 109.
Junci-effusi 110.
Lespedezae-procumbentis 111.
Medicaginis 112.
perigynia 114.
plumbaria 115.
Polemonii 116.
Polygon! 117.
Pontederiae 118.
proeminens 119.
Rhyncosporae 120.
seditiosa 122.
Silphii 123.
Spermacoces 124.
Oidium Uredinis 10.
Peridermium acicolum 6.
balsameum 17, 18.
carneum 1.
cerebrum 7.
delicatulum 2.
fusiforme 7.
intermedium 3.
Ipomoeae 4.
montanum 6.
Peckii 13, 14.
pyriforme 8.
Phragmidium americanum 28.
disciflorum 29.
Duchesneae 30.
Potentillae-canadensis 31.
triarticulatum 31.
Pileolaria Toxicodendri 32.
Podisoma Ellisii 25.
Polythelis fusca 33.
Puccinia Agropyri 34, 92.
Aletridis 35.
alternans 34.
americana 57.
Andropogi 37.
Andropogonis 37, 57, 83.
Anemones- Virginianae 36.
angustata 38.
Anthoxanthi 39.
argentata 74.
Asparagi 40.
asperifolii 41.
asteratum 114.
Asteris 42, 84.
asterum 43.
Atkinsoniana 87.
Batesiana 44.
Bolleyana 87.
bullata 45.
canaliculata 46.
Caricis 93.
Caricis-Asteris 43.
Caricis-Erigerontis 43.
Caricis-Solidaginis 43.
Caricis-strictae 47.
Chrysanthemi 48.
Digiti
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377
cinerea 34.
Cirsii 49.
Cirsii-lanceolati 51.
claytoniata 50.
Clematidis 92.
Cnici 51.
compositarum f. Cnici altissimi
49.
convolvuli 52.
coronata 85.
Cryiwtaeniae 53.
Cyani 54.
dispersa 41.
Distichlidis 116.
Dulichii 43.
Eatoniae 55.
Eleocharidis 56.
EUisiana 57.
emaculata 58.
epiphylla 59.
extensicola 43.
fraxinata GO.
fusca 33.
graminis 79.
Hedysari-paniculati 106.
Helianthi 61.
Helianthi-mollis 61.
Hibisciatum 62.
Hieracii 63.
Hydrocotyles 121.
Impatientis 64.
intermixta 127.
Iridis 65.
Lespedezae-procumbentis 111.
Limosae 67.
Lobeliae CG.
Ludwigiae 7C.
lysimachiata 67.
macrospora 68, 88.
Majanthae 128.
malvacearum 69.
Mariae-Wilsoni 50.
marylandica 70.
Maydis 89.
Menthae 71.
microica 53.
minutissima 72.
Muhlenbergiae 62.
nemoralis 37.
Nesaeae 73.
nolitangeris 74.
obliterata 34.
obtecta 75.
orbicula 76.
Osmorrhizae 78.
Pammelii 58, 77.
Panici 58, 77, 104.
Peckiana 19.
perminuta 64.
Phaseoli var. Taraxaci 91.
Phlei-pratensis 79.
Phragmites 86.
Pimpinellae 78.
poarum 59.
poculiformis 79.
Podophylli 80.
Polygoni 82, 117.
Polygoni-amphibii 81.
Polygoni-Convolvuli 82.
Pruni-spinosae 98.
pustulatum 83.
recedens 84.
Rhamni 85.
rubella 86.
Digiti
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378
rubigo-vera 64.
Sambuci 87.
sessilis 128.
Seymouriana 125.
Smilacis 88.
Sorghi 89.
Sparganioides 60.
Spermacoces 124.
subnitens 90.
Taraxaci 91.
Thompsonii 87.
tomipara 34, 92.
tosta 62.
tripustulata 19.
triticina 92.
Urticae 93.
urticata 93.
Vemoniae 45.
Violae 94.
vulpinoidis 43.
Windsoriae 95.
Xanthii 96.
Pucciniastrum Abieti-chumaencrii
16.
Agrimoniae 12.
Epilobii ih,
minimum 13.
Myrtilli 14.
pustulatum 16.
Pyrolae 15.
Pvavenelia epiphylla 97.
Koestelia aurantiaca 22.
Botryapites 20, 27.
pyrata 24.
transformans 27.
Septoria mirabilis 18.
Sphaeria canaliculata 46.
epiphylla 97.
Tranzschelia punctata 98.
Tremella clavariaeformis 21.
Tubercularia camea 1.
Uredinopsis Atkinsonii 17.
mirabilis 18.
Uredo Andromedae 129.
appendiculata 99.
Betae Convolvuli 52.
Bigelowii 11.
Cyani 54.
Elephantopodis 3.
fallens 103.
Hieracii 63.
Ipomoeae 4.
Iridis 65.
minima 13.
Muelleri 10.
Phragmites 86.
Pimpinellae 78.
Polypodii 9.
proeminens 119.
pustulata 16.
Scirpi 121.
Solidaginis 6.
Uromyces acuminatus 116.
Andropogonis 113.
appendiculatus 99.
Aristidae 122.
Caladii 100.
caricina 114.
Caricis 47.
caryophyllinus 101.
digitatus 105.
Eragrostidis 102.
Digiti
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379
Euphorbiae 119.
fallens 103.
grraminicola 104.
Uromyces Halstedii 105.
Hedysari-paniculati 106.
houstoniatus 107.
Howei 108.
Hyperici-frondosi 109.
Junci-effusi 110, 123.
Lespedezae-procumbentiF 111.
Medicaginis 112.
Oenotherae 115.
Panici 104.
pedatatus 113.
Peltandrae 100.
Host
Abies balsamea 16, 17, 18.
lasiocarpa 16.
pectinata 16.
Adoxa moschatellina 74.
Agrimonia hirsuta 12.
Agropyron repens 34, 79.
Agrostis alba 79.
hyemalis 64.
perrenans 64.
Aletris farinosa 35.
Althaea rosea 69.
Allium cepa 40.
Ambrosia trifida 96.
Ambrosiaccae 96, 127.
Amelanchier Amelanchier 20, 27.
canadensis 20, 21, 22, 26, 27.
erecta 21, 22, 26.
intermedia 20, 21, 22, 26, 27.
vulgaris 26.
Ammiaceae 53, 70, 78, 121.
perigynius 114, 120, 126.
Phaseoli 99.
Uromyces plumbarius 115.
Polemonii 116.
Polygoni 117.
Pontederiae 118.
proeminens 119.
Rhyncosporae 120.
Scirpi 121.
seditiosus 122.
Silphii 110, 123.
Solidagini-Caricis 114.
Spermacoces 124.
Toxicodendri 32.
Trifolii 103.
Index.
Amygdalaceae 98.
Amygdalus communis 98.
Persica 98.
Anchusa officinalis 41.
Andropogon furcatus 83.
glomeratus 113.
scoparius 37, 57, 83.
virginicus 37, 57, 113.
Anemone coronaria 98.
quinquefolia 33, 98.
ranunculoides 98.
virginiana 36.
Anthoxanthum odoratum 39.
Apocynaceae 125.
Apocynum cannabinum 125.
pubescens 125.
Sibiricum 125.
Araceae 100.
Arenaria lateriflora 116.
Arisaema dracontium 100.
Digiti
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380
triphyllum 100.
Aristida oligantha 122.
Aronia arbutifolia 22, 27.
nigra 27.
Arrhenatherum eiatius 85.
Afclepiadaceae 108.
Asclepias pulchra 108.
Syriaca 108.
Asparagus ofTicinalis 40.
Aster acuminatus 43.
conspicuous 6.
ericoides 114.
laevis geyeri 6.
paniculatus 6, 42, 114.
salicifolius 42.
Tweedyi 114.
Atriplex hastata 90.
Avena sativa 85.
Azalea viscosa 13.
Balsaminaceae 64, 74.
Berberidaceae 80.
Berula an gusti folia 121.
Bidens comata 75.
frondosa 75.
Boraginaceae 38.
Bursa Bursa pastoris 90.
Calamagrostis canadensis 85.
Callirrhoe involucrata 62.
Campanulaceae 66.
Caprifoliaceae 87.
Carduaceae 1, 2, 3, 6, 42, 43, 44, 45,
46, 48, 49, 51, 54, 56, 61, 84,
126.
Carduus altissima 49.
lanceolatus 49, 51.
Carex albolutescens 43.
aquatilis 72, 93.
aristata 93.
bullata 87.
comosa 68.
deflexa 114.
festucacea 43.
filiformis 72.
Frankii 87.
hirta 93.
intumescens 114.
Leersii 43.
limosa 67.
lupulina 87.
lurida 87.
Muhlenbergii 43.
radiata 43.
riparia 93.
rosea 43.
scoparia 114.
stipata 43, 93.
straminca 43.
stricta 47, 93.
teretiuscula 72.
tribuloides 114.
trichocarpa 87.
trisperma 43.
varia 114.
vulpinoidea 43.
Caryophyllaceae 101.
Castanopsis chrysophylla 7.
Centaurea cyanus 54.
Chamaecyparis thyoides 20, 25, 27.
Chenopodiaceae 90.
Chenopodium album 90.
Chimaphila maculata 15.
Chrysanthemum sinense 48.
Cichoriaceae 63, 76, 91.
Cicuta maculata 121.
Digiti
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381
Claytonia virginica 50.
Cleome spinosa 90.
Collomia linearis 116.
Comandra pallida 8.
Umbellata 8, 83.
Convallariaceae 40, 128.
ConVolvulaceae 4, 52.
Convolvulus sepium 52.
tiracca virginiana 97.
Crataegus cerronus 21.
coccinea 23.
Douglasii 23.
mollis 24.
oxycantha 21, 23.
phaenopyrum 23.
pinnatifida 24.
Pringlei 23, 26.
punctata 21, 22.
tomentosa 20, 21, 23.
Cydonia vulgaris 22, 23, 26.
Cyperaceae 38, 43, 46, 47, 68, 75,
87, 93, 114, 120, 121.
Cyperus cylindricus 46.
esculentus 46.
filiculmis 46.
lancastriensis 46.
ovularis 46.
refractus 46.
strigosus 46.
Torreyi 46.
Decodon verticillata 68, 72.
Deringia canadensis 53.
Dianthus caryophyllus 101.
Diodia teres 124.
Distichlis spicata 90.
Dryopteris Thelypteris 17.
I*uchesnea Indica 30.
Dulichium arundinaceum 43.
Eatonia pallens 55.
pennsylvanica 55.
Eleocharis palustris 56.
Elephantopus carolinianus 3.
Elymus canadensis 64.
striatus 64.
virginicus 64.
Epilobium angustifolium 16.
coloratum 16.
liragrostis pectinacea 102.
Ericaeae 13, 129.
Erigeron annuus 43.
Erysimum asperum 90.
Eupatorium perfoliatum 56.
purpureum 56.
rotundifolium 56.
Euphorbia corollata 77, 104.
maculata 77, 119.
marginata 104.
Preslii 119.
Euphorbiaceae 119.
Euthamia graminifolia 2, 43, 114.
Fabaceae 97, 99, 103, 106, 111, 112.
Pagaceae 7.
Felix fragilis 9.
Fraxinus lanceolatus 60.
viridis 60.
Gaylussacia baccata 14.
resinosa 14.
Geraniaceae 81.
Geranium maculatum 81.
Glaux maritima 121.
Helianthus angustifolius 61.
annuus 61.
decapetalus 61.
Heliopsis helianthoides 44.
Digiti
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382
scabra 44.
Hepatica acutiloba 98.
Hepatica 98.
Hibiscus militaris 62.
mocheutos 62.
Hieracium scabrum 63.
Hippurus vulgaris 121.
Homalocenchrus oryzoides 105.
Houstonia coerulea 107.
Hydrocotyle Canbeyi 121.
Hypericaceae 109.
Hypericum mutilum 109.
Impatiens aurea 64, 74.
biflora 74.
Ipomoea hederacea 4.
pandurata 4, 52.
purpurea 4.
Iridaceae 65.
Iris versicolor 65.
Iva frutescens 127.
ovaria 127.
Juncaceae 110, 123.
J uncus dichotomus 123.
effusus 110, 123.
tenuis 123.
Juniperaceae 20, 22, 24, 25, 26.
Juniperus communis 21.
sibirica 21, 22.
virginiana 22, 23, 24, 26.
Koellia mutica 71.
Labiatae 71.
Larix decidua 11.
Europea 11.
occiden talis 11.
Leersia oryzoides 105.
Lepidium apetalum 90.
virginicum 90.
Lespedeza capitata 111.
frutescens 111.
hirta 111.
virginica 111.
Liliaceae 35.
Lobelia puberula 66.
syphilitica 66.
Lorinseria areolata 18.
Ludwigia polycarpa 73.
sphaerocarpa 73.
virgata 73.
Lycopus americanus 38.
arvensis 41.
communis 38.
virginicus 38.
Lysimachia terrestris 67.
thyrsiflora 67.
vulgaris 67.
Lythraceae 72.
Malaceae 21, 22, 23, 24, 27.
Malus coronaria 23, 26.
lowensis 26.
Malus 22, 23, 26.
Malva rotundifolia 69.
Malvaceae 69.
Medicago lupulina 112.
Meibomia Dillenii 106.
laevigata 106.
Marylandica 106.
obtusa 106.
paniculata 106.
stricta 106.
Melampyrum americanum 37.
lineare 37.
Molina caerulea 37.
Monarda punctata 71.
Muhlenbergia diffusa 62.
Digiti
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383
glomerata 62.
mexicana 62.
racemosa 62.
Schreberi 62.
sobalifera 62.
Myrica cerifera 25.
Myricaceae 25.
Nabalus sp. 76.
Oenothera biennis 115.
laciniata 115.
Oleaceae 60.
Onagraceae 16, 73, 115.
Onoclea sensibilis 18.
Oxalis cymosa 89.
Panicum capillare 58.
virgatum 77, 104.
Peltandra virginica 100.
Pentstemon alpinus 37.
hirsutus 37.
pubescens 37.
Persicaria muhlenbergii 81.
pennsylvanicum 81.
Phalaris caroliniana 85.
Phaseolus vulgaris 99.
Phleum pratense 79.
Phragmites Phragmites 86.
Pieris mariana 129.
Pinaceae 5, 6, 7.
Pinus contorta 6.
echinata 7.
palustris 1.
ponderosa 8.
rigida 2, 6.
taeda 1, 7.
virginiana 5, 7.
Plantago Rugelii 122.
Poa annua 59.
fertilis 59.
nemoralis 59.
pratensis 59, 79.
trivialis 59.
Poaceae 34, 37, 39, 41, 55, 57, 58,
59, 60, 62, 64, 77, 79, 83, 85,
86, 89, 90, 92, 95, 102, 104, 105,
113, 116, 122.
Podophyllum peltatum 80.
Polemonium reptans 116.
Pclygonaceae 81, 82, 90, 117.
Polygonum aviculare 90, 117.
Convolvulus 82.
emersum 81.
erectum 117.
pennsylvanicum 81.
Polypodiaceae 9, 17, 18.
Pontederia cordata 118.
Pontederiaceae 118.
Portulaceae 50.
Potentilla canadensis 31.
Primulaceae 67.
Prunus americana 98.
cerasus 98.
divaricatus 98.
pumila 98.
serotina 98.
spinosa 98.
Ptelea trifoliata 95.
Pyrolaceae 15.
Pyrus coronaria 24.
lowensis 24.
Malus 24.
Quercus coccinea 7.
densifolia echinoides 7.
digitata 7.
Digiti
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384
glandulosa 7.
lobata 7.
marylandica 7.
nigra 7.
Phellos 7
rubra 7.
serrata 7.
variabilis 7.
velutina 7.
Ranunculaceae 33, 36, 55, 98.
Ranunculus abortivus 55.
Rhamnus caroliniana 85.
carthartica 85.
lanceolata 85.
Rhodora canadensis 13.
Rhus radicans 32.
Rosa Carolina 28.
humilis 28.
sp. 29.
Rcsaceae 10, 12, 19, 28, 29, 30, 31.
Rubiaceae 107, 124.
Rubus allegheniensis 19.
frondosus 10, 19.
nigrobaccus 10.
saxatilis 19.
villosus 19.
Rudbeckia triloba 126.
Rumex crispus 86.
hydrolapathum 86.
obtusifolium 86.
Rynchospora axillaris 120.
glomerata 120.
Salicaceae 11.
Salix amygdaloides 11.
Bebbiana 11.
cordata mackenzieana 11.
nigra 11.
Sambucus canadensis 87.
pubens 87.
Sanicula canadensis 70.
Santalaceae 8.
Sapindaceae 32.
Sarcobatus vermiculatus 90.
Schizachyrium scoparium 37, 83.
Scirpus americanus 75, 121.
atrovirens 38.
campestris paludosus 121.
cyperinus 38.
fluviatilis 75, 121.
georgianus 38.
Scrophulariaceae 37.
Secale cereale 41, 79.
Senecio aureus 84.
Silphium perfoliatum 123.
Sisyrinchium gramineum 107.
Sium cicutaefolium 121.
latifolium 121.
Smilaceae 68, 88.
Smilax glauca 88.
hispida 68.
rotundifolia 68, 88.
Solidago altissima 43.
bicolor 114.
caesia 114.
canadensis 6, 114.
flexicaulis 114.
graminifolia 2.
missouriensis 6.
rugosa 6, 43, 114.
sempervirens 43.
serotina 114.
Digiti
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385
Sophia incisa 90.
Sorbus americana 23.
Spartina cynosuroides 60, 116.
glabra 60.
glabra altemifolia 116.
Michauxiana 116.
patens 116.
polystachya 60.
stricta 60.
Spergula canadensis 116.
Sphaeralcea incana 62.
lobata 62.
Sphenopholis nitida 55.
pallens F5.
Sporobolus asperifolius 62.
Steironema ciliata 116.
lanceolata 116.
Strophostyles helvola 99.
umbellata 99.
Taraxacum Taraxacum 91.
Triandeum virginicum 109.
Tricuspis .<;eslerioides 95.
Trifoliura incarnatum 103.
pratense 103.
Triticum vulgare 79, 92.
Tsuga canadensis 13, 14.
Tussilago farfara 59.
Purdue University, Lafayette, Ind.
Urtica dioica 93.
gracilis 93.
Uvularia sessifolia 128.
Vacciniaceae 14.
Vaccinium canadense 14.
vacillans 14.
Vemonia altissima 45.
crinita 1.
fasciculata 1.
gigantea 1.
noveboracensis 1, 45.
Viola affinis 94.
cucuUata 57, 113.
fimbriatula 57.
hirsutula 57.
Labradorica? 94.
lanceolata 94, 113.
Nuttallii 57.
papilionacea 57.
primulifolia 113. *
sagittata 57, 113.
Violaceae 94, 113.
Washingtonia brevistylis 78.
Xanthium canadense 46.
echinatum 46.
sp. 96.
Xolisma ligustrina 129.
Zea Mays 89.
25—11994
Digiti
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Digiti
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THE TREES OF
WHITE COUNTY, INDIANA
WITH SOME REFERENCE TO
THOSE OF THE STATE
A Thesis
Submitted to the Faculty of Purdue University
by
Louis Frederick Heimlich
Candidate for the Degree of Master of Science
June, 1916
is papei wu fabmitted for publication in the 1916 Proceedings, bat the publication was deferred one
ear on account of the many long papers sabmitted n 1916.— Editok
(387)
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CONTENTS.
PAtJFS
I . Introduction 391
II . Geographical and Physical Aspects 392
III. The Native Species of Trees. 395
Authenticity and Acknowledgements 395
List of Native White County Trees 396
Species Likely to be Found Later . . 398
Comparison with Number of State Trees 400
Some Cultivated Trees in the County 401
IV. Distribution 401
General Intimation 401
Some Trees of the Dune Area of Ind 403
The Oaks 405
The White Oaks 407
The Black Oaks 430
The Hickories 433
Revised List for the State 436
Trees Restricted to the Tippecanoe 439
Two New Species? and a New Variety for the State 447
Species Generally Distributed Qver the County 452
V. Economic Uses 462
History of White County Sawmills 463
Data on White County Timber 454
Timber in U. S. How Indiana Ranks 466
VI. Summary 469
VII. Bibliography 469
PLATES.
Plate I. Political Map, White County 393
II. Map, Roads Travelled 402
III. Illustration, White County Acorns 406
Illi. General Distribution of Oaks and Hickories 408
IV-XI. Illustrations, Quercus alba Leaves 410-418
(388)
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389
PAGES
Plate XII-XIII. Illustrations, Q. bicolor Leaves 419-420
XIV, XI Vi, XV. Illustrations, Q. palustris Leaves 421-423
XVI. Range Map, Q. alba 424
XVII. Range Map, Q. macrocarpa ^25
XVIII. Range Map, Q. bicolor 426
XIX. Range Map Q. imbricaria 427
» XX. Range Map, Q. palustris 428
XXI. Range Map, Q. coccinea 429
XXII. Illustration, Q. ? 432
XXIII. Map, Tippecanoe Trees 440
XXIV. Range Map, Betula lutea 444
XXV. Illustration, Crataegus albicans? 446
XXVI. Illustration, Salix missouriensis 448
XXVI 1. Range Map, Salix missouriensis 450
XXVIII. Map, General Distribution 451
XXIX. Range Map, Salix amygdaloides 453
XXX. Range Map, Malus ioensis 456
XXXI. Range Map, Viburnum lentago 460
XXXII. Range Map, V. prunifolium 461
TABLES.
1 . Crops, Fertility, Returns of White County Soils 394
2. Comparison of State and County Species by Number 400
3. White County Lumber 464
4. White County Lumber and Railroad Ties 464
5. White County Lumber 465
6. White County Lumber and Railroad Ties 465
7. White County Lumber and Railroad Ties 465
8. Comparison of Lumber Cut by Species, Softwoods 467
9. Comparison of Lumber Cut by Species, Hardwoods 467
10. Rank of Indiana in Total Lumber Cut 467
11 . Rank of Indiana by Species of Lumber Cut 468
12. Number of Indiana Sawmills Ranked according to Output 468
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LISTS. PAGES
1. Native White County Trees 396
2. Species Likely to be Found in White County 398
3. Partial List of Cultivated Trees 401
4. , Some Trees of the Dune Area of Indiana 403
5. White County Oaks and Hickories Plate Ill-i 408
6. Revised List of Hickories for Indiana 436
7. Trees Restricted to the Tippecanoe River Banks » 440
8. General Distribution of Species over the County 451
I
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The Trees op White County, Induna, with Some
Reference to Those of the State.
For a long time botanists have been busy describing species and
working out their distribution over the surface of the earth. Dendrolo-
gists, more particularly, have been contented with the description and
distribution of trees. From studies and reports made thus far, the
general ranges of trees and most flowering plants are fairly well known.
One might well suspect what plants grow in a certain area, but definite
reports are to be preferred.
Now the significant way to study vegetation is from an ecological
standpoint. Completeness is not attained by noting the species of a
certain group within any political boundary. Armed with the reliable
information of a geologist, the distribution and number of species and
individuals, from unicellular plants in the soil and water to the most
complex flowering types, should be worked out by the taxonomist-ecol-
ogist. This of course would take time, but taking each county, or
stream and then working in the intervening spaces, as a unit for the
working field, the completed report would show a new natural map
with a far greater meaning than isolated and incomplete reports coming
from various sections. This would become very far-reaching, taking
into account plant diseases, and, being but a step to animal parasites
on plants, an account of the complete fauna of the region as well as a
complete flora as hinted at above, would be still more desirable. We
should then have some really effective Life Zones.
A complete flora for the State is the aim of the committee on the
Biological Survey of the Indiana Academy of Science. To my knowledge
there is no similar committee or thought of a complete fauna for the
State.
The Indiana State Board of Forestry is interested in determining
just what species of trees grow in Indiana and just what their ranges
in the State are. In the Eleventh Annual Report of the State Board
of Forestry, 1911, is to be found the most authentic record of Indiana
trees up to the present time. There is no pretense that the report is
complete either for the total number of species in the State, or much
less so for the ranges of those reported. Some counties have been very
thoroughly worked, others only partly, and some not at all — at least
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reports are lacking:. White County happens to fall into this last
category.
Under these circumstances the general aim of this thesis has been
a systematic report on the Native Trees of White County, their species
and relative numbers. Other related features have been included as
the result of a growing interest in the subject. The matter of ecology
was thought of seriously, but due to the lack of time and the as yet
unavailable soil report of the county*, this part has been reduced to a
very brief review of the physical and geographical aspects of the
county, and a consideration of the Tippecanoe River trees, with the
general distribution of trees over the county. As regards the economic
phases of White County trees, some isolated but interesting figures were
obtained. In this connection some historical data attaches another bit
of interest. Comparisons with State and national distribution by the
use of maps, illustrate clearly among other things the need for further
work as well as the correction of past limits or errors. Attention is
also called to a new list of Hickories for the State according to Sar-
gent's latest determinations. Besides other miner features which need
not be mentioned here, I have been fortunate enough to include a new
variety of willow for the State, and possibly a new species of that
same genus.
Geographical and Physical Aspects op White County.
Before proceeding at once to the primary aim of this thesis, the
report of species and relative numbers, I have deemed it desirable to
point out certain other features, giving a general notion of the county,
topography, fertility of soil, drainage, transportation facilities, etc.
White County is located in the northwestern part of Indiana and
possesses some of the best agricultural land in the world. The soil is
especially fertile in the southwestern half of the county, which is prairie
land. Black, rich soil in this area produces monster crops of com and
oats, with nearly all the ground surface taken up in cultivation. Com-
paratively less timber is to be found in this region and very likely the
region has always been the less wooded part of the county — being for-
merly a vast sea. Boulders of the glacial age in many cases have been
removed to the fence rows.
* Soil Survey made by U. S. Bureau of Soils, Summer 1916.
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Plate I.
WHITE COUNTY.
507 Square Miles — 324,480 Acres.
Low sand ridges are especially characteristic of Honey Creek and
Monon townships and also parts of Princeton. This area is very
densely covered with forests of oak (almost exclusively Q. alba, palustris,
velutina, coccinea).
In the environs of the Tippecanoe River and eastward the topog-
raphy is rather more rugged. Very good farm lands are also found in
this area. Formerly almost every foot of this region was heavily
wooded.
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The following statistics, taken from the U. S. 1910 Census, give
some notion of the fertility and returns of White County soils.
(Table 1.)
Total land area in acres 324,480
Acres under cultivation:
Cereals 165,106
Hay 28,550
Potatoes 750
All other crops 893
Small fruits 35— 195,334
Per cent of total land area cultivated 60
Number of farms 2,091
Average number of acres per farm 150.4
Value of all crops (except nuts, etc.) $2,951,637
Expense :
Labor $184,833, or 88%
Fertilizer 23,758, or 12%— 208,591.00
Net crop returns $2,743,146.00
Net returns per acre 14.04
Land value per acre 77.69
Per cent of net per acre to value per acre 18.2
The total population in 1910 (U. S. Census) was 17,602 with only
6,511 as being included in towns.
Nearly all of the 507 square miles in White County are drained
by the Tippecanoe River and its tributaries. The county as a whole is
rather flat and much dredging and tile-ditching has been done in recent
years. Parts of natural streams have been dredged several times and
also extended. Possibly in this case more erosion would be gladly wel-
comed. The Tippecanoe is a geologically young and very beautiful
watercourse, fed by clear lake-water at its head in Noble County and
by numerous springs along its banks.
Since national and local interests are crystallizing more and more
in the direction of natural beauty spots — parks and pleasure resorts —
I suggest that very appealing tracts can be found along the Tippecanoe,
especially north of Monticello, near Norway and up toward Buffalo.
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Transportation facilities in the county are excellent. The Monon
and Pennsylvania Lines cross the county. A system of good roads is
in existence, about 400 miles of which are macadamized or made of
gravel.
Limestone quarries are located at Monon and recently other deposits
have been found several miles southwest of Reynolds. Good clay de-
posits and tile factories at Chalmers, Seafield and Wolcott have been
in operation for a number of years.
A far more accurate and much more detailed statement covering
the part here alluded to will be found in the forthcoming report of the
U. S. Bureau of Soils for White County, which will be ready for dis-
tribution within a few months.
The Native Species of Trees.
Parts of the summer of 1915 and the fall of 1914 were spent in
making collecting trips over various parts of the county. The regular
routine work was done single-handed, and the specimens disposed of and
mounted according to standard methods now form a permanent part of
my private herbarium.
Realizing very thoroughly that the work of determination, espe-
cially in some genera, is not such a self -satisfying matter to any careful
botanist, I endeavored to make my collection as authentic as possible.
Any specimen still remaining in doubt is either entirely omitted or
expressly given as doubtful.
Specimens in the Purdue Herbarium and many specimens of Oaks
and Hickories, collected last summer by Mr. Deam and Prof. Hoffer
and recently determined by Sargent, were available for comparison.
Dr. Sargent has verified or determined all the specimens of Salix, Hico-
ria, Crataegus, Malus, and many Oaks. Mr. F. W. Pennell, Assistant
Curator of the New York Botanical Garden, has determined specimens
of Fraxinus and Comus. Mr. W. W. Eggleston of the Bureau of Plant
Industry was also consulted. I am permitted to add Salix longifolia
variety argophylla (determined by Sargent) to my list, by the courtesy
of Mr. C. C. Deam of Bluffton, Indiana, who was ever ready to help.
Acknowledgments are also due Professor G. N. Hoffer of Purdue, not
least of which are for a kindly interest in the work. Grateful appre-
ciation to Dean Stanley Coulter, under whom this thesis was written,
is here expressed, for help, encouragement and his stamp of approval.
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Thanks are also tendered to Mr. Ed Newton of Monticello, Indiana, for
historical accounts, and to my sister Frieda for data in connection
with Part V.
As designated in the 1911 Report of the State Board of Forestry,
"the number of trees included in this list is wholly arbitrary," so I
have included some species — small trees, or large shrubs, not considered
in that report. Further consideration of each species is deferred to
another part of this paper.
The following is a complete list of all species collected:
(List 1.)
Native White County Trees.
Juniperus virginiana L.
Salix amygdaloides Anders,
interior Rowlee.
humulis Marsh,
discolor Muhl.
nigra Marsh,
missouriensis Bebb.
longifolia var. argophylla Sarg.
Populus alba L.
grandidentata Michx.
heterophylla L.
tremuloides Michx.
deltoides Marsh.
Juglans nigra L.
cinerea L.
Hicoria cordiformis (Wang) Britton.
ovata (Mill) Britton.
laciniosa (Michx) Sarg.
alba (L) Britton.
ovata var. fraxinifolia Sarg.
Corylus americana Walt.
Carpinus caroliniana Walt
Ostrya virginiana (Mill) Willd.
Betula lutea Michx.
Fagus grandifolia Ehrh.
r
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Quercus alba L.
macrocarpa Michx.
bicolor Willd.
Muhlenbergii Englm.
rubra L.
palustris DuRoi.
coccinea Muench.
ellipsoidalis E. J. Hill.
velutina Lam.
imbricaria Michx.
Ulmus americana L.
fulva Michx.
Celtis occidentalis L.
Morus rubra L.
Toxylon pomiferum Raf.
Liriodendron tulipifera L.
Asimina triloba (L) Dunal.
Sassafras variifolium (L) Karst.
Hamamelis virg^iniana L.
Plantanus occidentalis L.
Malus malus (L) Britton.
ioensis (Wood) Britton.
Amelanchier canadensis (L) Med.
Crataegus crus-galli L.
pruinosa (Wendl) Koch,
albicans Ashe. ?
calpedendron (Ehrh) Britton.
Prunus americana Marsh.
serotina Ehrh.
Cercis canadensis L.
Gleditsia triacanthos L.
Gymnocladus dioica (L) Koch.
Robinia Pseudo-acacia L.
Zanthoxylum americanum Mill.
Ptelea trifoliata L.
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Rhus glabra L.
copallina L.
hirta (L) Sudw.
Ilex verticillata (L) A. Gray.
,Staphylea trifolia L.
Acer negundo L.
sacchanim Marsh,
saccharinum L.
nigrum Michx.
Aesculus glabra Willd.
Tilia americana L.
Nyssa sylvatica Marsh.
Comus altemifolia L.
stolonifera Michx.
asperifolia Michx.
femina Mill,
florida L.
Fraxinus americana L.
pennsylvanica Marsh.
Cephalanthus occidentalis L^
Vibumam Lentago L.
pruni folium L.
Sambucus canadensis L.
It may and likely will be necessary to add a few species not included
in the above to make the list complete. Such probable species occurring
in the county are considered in the list dealing with the details of each
species. The following is merely a suspected list of those species.
(List 2.)
Species Likely to Be Found in White County.
Salix alba L.
lucida Muhl.
Hicoria microcarpa (Nutt) Britton.
glabra (Mill) Britton.
Alnus rugosa (DuRoi) Spreng.
Crataegus margarette Ashe,
succulenta Schra.
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Acer rubrum L.
Fraxinus quadrangulata Michx.
nigra Marsh.
Moms alba L.
It is stated in the 1911 Report (p. 87) that "it is believed that
about one-half of our trees are found in nearly every county of the
State." In that report forty-seven genera with 125 species of trees are
considered. The following table compares the number of species for
each genus as given in the report, with the number of the same species
in the same genus for White County. Other species in the same genus
not reported are added in a third column. Varieties and species of still
other genera are included in other columns.
Recalling the statement referred to above, it will be seen that White
County has representatives of over half the genera and about "one-half"
the species, there being 33 out of 47 genera represented, with 62 species.
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TABLE II.
Table Comparing Number of Genera and Number of Their Species Reported for Indiana, with
Number of Same Genera and Same Species for White County.
Gkncb.
Pinus
Larix
Tsuga
Taxodium . . . .
Thuja
JuniperuB
Salix
Populus
Juglans
Hicoria
Carpinus
Ostrya
Betula
Alnufl
FagUB
Castanea
OuercuB
Ulmus
Celtis
Moms
Toxylon
MapoUa
Linodendron .
Asimina
Saasaf ras
Liquidamber
Platanus
Malus
Amelanchier..
Crataegus
Pninus
Ccrcis
Gleditsia
Gyronocladus
Robinia
Ailanthus
Ilex
Acer
AcMnilus
TilU
Nyssa
Comus
Dioepyrufl . . . .
Fraxinus
Forestiera . . .
Catalpa
Vibumam . .
Total
^[>ecie8
for
Indiana.
3
1
1
1
1
1
4
5
2
7
1
1
1
2
1
17
4
3
2
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
18
4
1
2
125
^;)ecie8
for
White Co.
0
0
0
0
0
2
5
2
4
1
1
0
1
0
10
2
1
1
0
1
1
0
1
1
4
2
1
1
1
Other Species
in White
County not
Given in 1911
Report.
4 and 1 variety.
4 and 1 variety.
9 and 2 varietira.
Species
of
Other
General
Included.
Corylus 1
Hamamelis. ... 1
Zanthoxylum..!
Ptelea 1
Rhus 1
Staphyiea 1
Cephalanthos.
SambucuB
Total number of Genera: Indiana, 47; White County, 34.
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Below is appended a partial list of cultivated trees known to exist
in White County.
(List 3.)
Partial List of Cultivated Species of Trees in White County,
Omitting the Usual Orchard Trees.
Gingko biloba Gingrko or Maidenhair Tree.
Thuja occidentalis L Arbor Vitae.
Chamaecyparis obtusa? Cypress.
Picea abies (L) Karst Norway Spruce.
Larix larcina (DuRoi) Koch Larch-Tamarack.
Populus nigra L Black Poplar.
var. italica DuRoi Lombardy Poplar.
Castanea dentata (Marsh) Borkh Chestnut.
Aesculus Hippocastanum L Horse-chestnut.
Ailanthus glandulosa Desf Tree-of-Heaven.
Acer palmatum Japanese Maple.
Acer spicatum Lam Mountain Maple.
Rhus cotinoides Nutt Smoke Tree.
Pyrus americana (Marsh) DC American Mountain Ash.
Vibumam opulus L. var. americanum
(Mill) Ait Cranberry Tree.
Diospyrus virginiana L Persimmon.
Catalpa speciosa Warder Catalpa.
catalpa (L) Karst Catalpa.
Kaempferi Japanese Dwarf Catalpa.
Betula alba L European White Birch.
IV. DISTRIBUTION.
1. General Intimation.
As noted previously, White County embraces 507 square miles or
324,480 acres. I have often been over much of this area and have in
a general way for a long time known most of the trees. In making a
definite report, however, a definite procedure seems to be desirable.
The map on page 402 shows the territory covered during the last
summer. The red lines represent the actual highways travelled, mostly
by bicycle, some by automobile. Many side trips were made on foot.
26—11994
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As I recall it, many days were totally unfit for the collector owing:
to the continuous heavy rains. As a result of this many thickets were
miry or filled with water. As a further consequence, the mosquito hordes
too often interfered with the pleasure of the work if nothing else. Such
experiences, more or less trivial, must be evident to most collectors and
serve only to hint at other difiiculties besides those of determination.
In attempting to say something about the distribution of each spe-
cies in the county, references are made to the general distribution and
Plate II.
WHITE COUNTY.
Red Lines Show Actual Roads Traveled in Collecting Specimens.
i
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the reported distribution in the State. Some maps covering these fea-
tures reveal several matters of interest. First, it becomes evident that
the definition of the general limits of any species is a big task, always
changing, and a graphical representation of a number of species for
Indiana shows quite clearly, among other things, that some counties
have been quite thoroughly worked, whereas others have had little or
no attention at all. Elkhart, Benton, Clinton, Jasper, Newton, Ohio,
Perry, Pike, Pulaski, Rush, Switzerland, Tipton, Vanderburgh, Warrick,
Whitley and White Counties are not mentioned in a single published
report. As the maps show, the counties bordering on the Wabash River
and extending in a continuous line from Posey to Steuben County, have
been the most thoroughly worked, as have Wells County (by Deam),
the group of Delaware, Jay, Randolph and Wayne (by Phinney), Jef-
ferson (by Coulter), Clark (Baird and Taylor), area of New Albany,
Floyd (Clapp), Hamilton (Wilson), and Franklin (Meyncke). (See
Range maps pp. 424-429, 444, 450, 453, 456, 460, 461.)
Nearly two decades ago Dr. Cowles of the University of Chicago
made an ecological study of the shores of Lake Michigan. The results
of his investigations were published in the Botanical Gazette. Though
none of these contain a definite list of plants for the borders of the
Indiana Dune area on Lake Michigan, I have been able to pick out a
number of trees mentioned in the articles as occurring in that area.
And since these references seem to have had no acknowledgments in
later records, I include a list of trees below, taken mostly from the
Botanical Gazette, Vol. 27, No. 4, April, 1899. Most of the species
occur at Dune Park in Porter County.
(List 4.)
Some Trees of the Dune Area of Indiana.
Pinus strobus L.
Banksiana Lamb.
Abies balsamea (L) Mill.
Tsuga canadensis (L) Carr.
Thuja occidentalis L.
Juniperus virginiana L.
communis L.
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Salix glaucophylla Bebb.
adenophylla Am. auth., not Hook.
humilis Marsh.
Populus monilifera Ait. (P. deltoides Marsh).
balsamifera L.
Juglans cinerea L.
Ostrya virginiana (Mill) K. Koch.
Betula payrifera Marsh.
Fagus ferruginea Ait. (F. grandifolia).
Quercus coccinea tinctoria A. DC. (Q. velutina Lam.).
alba L.
Ulmus fulva Michx.
Celtis occidentalis pumila Muhl.
Sassafras officinale Nees and Eberm.
Hamamelis virginiana L.
Amelanchier canadensis (L) Med.
Prunus pumila L.
virginiana L.
Ptelea trifoliata L.
Rhus canadensis Marsh.
copallina L.
Acer saccharinum L.
Tilia americana L.
Comus stolonifera Michx.
fiorida L.
Fraxinus americana L.
Viburnam acerifolium L.
The Range maps included for the distribution of some selected
species indicate the opportunity for someone to make a careful collection,
an accurate determination and a report, covering one or more counties,
either to the State Board of Forestry or the chairman of the Committee
on the Indiana Botanical Survey.
When reports for all counties are complete it will be interesting to
note from just what counties certain species are actually absent and to
seek the reason for this absence in terms of ecology or otherwise.
Besides the matter of distribution in itself, I have endeavored to
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add other details of more or less importance. The following, then, is a
brief consideration of each species collected in White County — first the
Oaks, next the Hickories, a study of the Tippecanoe flora, followed by
the Willows and other species generally distributed over the county.
2. The Oaks.
The Oaks constitute the most important trees in White County in
point of utility and quality as well as in number of species in any one
genus represented, or as regards the number of individuals in the genus.
Seventeen species of oaks have been reported for Indiana. This is
the number contained in both. Coulter's Flora and in Beam's 1911 Re-
port. The former, however, lists Quercus texana Buckley (Texan Red
Oak— Gibson, Posey, Knox— Dr. Schneck?) and Q. Phellos L. (Willow
oak — Gibson, Posey, Knox) — omitting Quercus Schneckii Britton
(Schneck's oak), and Q. ellipsoidalis E. J. Hill (Hill's oak).
Quercus Schneckii Britton is a species yet in doubt (Deam). It
may be referable to Q. texana, but the new flora of Britton and Brown
says it "has been confused with Q. texana." It closely resembles Quercus
rubra L. and may supplant the latter to an unaware extent. Thus far
it has been reported from Bartholomew (Elrod) ; Gibson, Knox, Posey
and Vermillion (Schneck); Knox (Ridgway) ; Posey and Wells (Deam).
"It is believed that it is more or less frequent along the Wabash and its
tributaries," and so may occur in White County along the Tippecanoe
or southeastern part of the county.
Quercus phellos L. references for Indiana have been changed to
Q. imbricaria Michx. (See Deam, 1911 Report, pp. 91-92.)
Quercus ellipsoidalis E. J. Hill was described (E. J. Hill, Bot. Gaz.
27:204, 1899) after Coulter's Catalogue was published.
Other oaks (Q. ilicifolia Wagn. and Q. nigra L.) have been reported
for our area, but for apparently sufficient reason have been referred to
other species, being in most cases variant forms. (1911 Report p. 91.)
Ten out of the seventeen species reported for Indiana were found in
White County. Of the seven remaining species, Q. lyrata Walt., Q.
Michauxii Nutt., Q. falcata Michx., are quite restricted to the extreme
southwestern counties; Q. stellata Wang., Q. Prinus L., and Q. mary-
landica Muench., are southern or local; the distribution of Q. Schneckii
is discussed above.
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Plate III.
TYPICAL ACORNS
Of Oaks Indigenous to White County.
Q.maorooarpa Miohx.
Q.alba L. Q.Muhlenbergii Englm.
Q.
bioolor
Willd.
Q.palU8tri8 Muench.
Q. rubra L.
Q.ooccinett Wang.
Imbrlcarla
Michx.
Q.velutina Lam.
Q.ellipBOldalia
E.J.Rlll.
(See p. 53)
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Just exactly how generally some of the ten species collected are
distributed over the county I am unable to say. This matter will be
discussed with each species separately.
The White Oaks.
Four species of the White Oak group appear in White County.
These in point of number of individuals, rank as follows: (1) Q. alba L.
(2) Q. macrocarpa Michx. (3) Q. bicolor Willd. (4) Q. Muhlenbergii
Engelm.
Quercus alba L. White Oak. (Sp. PL 996-1753.)
The White Oak is one of the most numerous and perhaps the most
valuable tree of the county. The largest of these trees, as well as many
others of less maturity, have long ago disappeared. Some fairly large
trees are, however, still to be found. The species is quite generously
distributed over the entire county.
The White Oak is readily distinguished from other oaks in spite of
the fact that it shows much diversity, in nearly all parts, among indi-
viduals of its own small group or species. The bark character varies
on many trees. On most younger trees and on many older ones it is
comparatively thin and flaky. On not infrequent large trees it is rather
deeply fissured with a thickness approaching three inches or more. The
outer appearance of the bark on these trees is a peculiar gray as a
rule, the inner part being a rich brown.
The leaves vary considerably in size and shape. Specimen No. 289
(p. 410), is the typical form. Nos. 443 and 257, also No. 446, show slight
variation in size and shape. The leaves in No. 283 show a tendency
toward less deep lobing and the one with the lobes more divergent are
still further amplified in No. 467, giving a hint toward the leaf char-
acter of Q. stellata Wang. No. 292 is simply a large shallow lobed
form. The lobes of Nos. 469 (p. 417) and 282 (p. 418) are extremely
shallow and, by an amateur, the latter may be almost mistaken for the
Swamp White Oak (Q. bicolor Willd.).*
A decided difference is also noted in the thickness of twigs and size
of the winter buds in different individuals. In some, Nos. 469 (p. 417)
and 282 (p. 418), the twigs are especially thin with correspondingly
•See Q. bicolor p. 411 for distineruishing leaf characters.
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Plate Illi.
WHITE COUNTY.
General Distribution of the Oaks and Hickories
HICORIA
/ cordlforml8(Wang)Brlt.
^ ovata (Mill) Brit.
3 ovata var.fraxlnifolia Sarg,
4 laclniosa (Michx.f.) Sarg«
5 alba (L) Brit.
4 unidentified.
(Thefle ranges are
incomplete) .
QUERCtJS
' alba L.
imacrooarpa Tilchx.
^bicolor Willd.
)Muhlenbergli Kngelm.
rubra L.
paluetriA Tiuench.
icoccinea Mucnch.
ellip80idali« E.J.Hill,
^velutina Lara.
imbricaria Michx.
r ^ (See p. 52).
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small buds, due perhaps mostly to general shaamg of the trees from
which these specimens were taken. In others, of which No. 446 (p. 414)
is an example, the twigs are particularly heavy and large. This speci-
men also shows a decidedly vigorous type of acorn with a long stalk
and a broad cup.
Some of the differences are so conspicuous and constant for a num-
ber of individuals that there appears to be several races or varieties in
this species.
Scarcely more than a third of the counties (33) have reported this
well-known tree. It would be interesting for others while reporting this
species to note if these racial characteristics, if such, are found.
Quercus macrocarpa Michx, Mossy-cup, Blue or Bur Oak, Mossy-cup
White Oak, Scrub Oak. (Hist Chen. Am. 2 pi. 23, 1801. Q. olivae-
formis Michx. f. 1812.)
The Bur Oak is more widely spread than perhaps any other oak in
the United States. It has been reported from 30 counties in Indiana.
In White County it occurs chiefly along the Tippecanoe and the lower
stretches of the creeks emptying into that river. Not many trees were
noted west of the Monon Railroad. A single tree of fair size, about
three miles directly north of Reynolds, enjoys an isolation by a radius
of several miles. A number of this species are to be found about two
miles south of Reynolds. I very much doubt its occurrence in Princeton
Township and likewise for Westpoint. It does, however, occur west of
these places, for I have seen it in abundance along Carpenter Creek in
Jasper County, near Remington. It is usually found in moist, rich soil,
near or some small distance from streams. Specimens were taken from
trees near the Ward School, three and three-fourths miles southeast of
Reynolds. The Bur Oak leaves an impression of a rather coarse appear-
ing tree throughout, easily distinguished from all other oaks.
Querctis bicolor Willd, Swamp White Oak. (Neue Schrift Geo. Nat.
Fr. Berlin 3:396. 1801), (Quercus Prinus platanoides Lam. 1873.
Q. platanoides Sudw. 1893).
The range of the Swamp White Oak in the United States is much
more restricted than that of the two other white oaks here reported.
In Indiana it is reported from 25 counties (scattering). It is very
much less frequent in White County than other oaks. Several trees of
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Plate IV.
QuerouB alba L.
lTo.289. 8epteBft>er 7.1914.
R«ynoldB, Ind. In Bar-
donner'e woode. Light
sandy eoll.
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small size are to be found in Ward's thicket about one mile south of
Reynolds. Other trees of this species were noted south of the Dyer
school, five and three- fourths miles northeast of Brookston, near the
Carroll County line. It is found exclusively in swampy or low, moist,
rich soil.
The leaves of the Swamp White Oak are broadly obovate or oblong-
ovate, rather coarsely round-toothed or pinnatifid. Unlike the White
Oak the veins nearly always end in a glandular sharp tip. In the case
of the White Oak there is more often a noticeable depression at the vein
ending in the lobe. The bark on the younger branches peels back and
curls over in a stiff and persistent papery layer, exposing the new lighter
brown bark. This is quite characteristic, as is also the long-peduncled
acorns.
Quercns MuhXenhergii Engelm, Chestnut or Yellow* Oak, Chinquapin or
Chinkapin, Oak, Tanbark Oak, etc. (Trans. St. Louis Acad. 3:391.
1887), (Q. Prinus acuminata Michx. 1801. Q. acuminata Sarg.
1895.)
This oak is reported from 35 counties in all parts of the State.
It is sometimes confused with Q. Prinus L., resembling it closely, as
the historical account above indicates. In White County it was noted
only along the Tippecanoe River. The acorns readily distinguish it from
other oaks indigenous to White County.
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Plate V.
Quorcue alba Lt.
Ho«893« SepteabM 7. 1914.
ReynoldB, Ind« In Bar-
donnor*8 woods* Light i
aandy soil.
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Plate VI.
Queroua alba L.
Ho. 443 • Septcober 4. 1915.
AlonR road, on 8pinn farm, limi.
north of B^ynolda. Low, rich
fcround. Trae 40*h.~ 14"d.
lTo.357. Saptanbar 7. 1914.
8oaarc7 farn, 1 mi. north-aaat
of Raynolda* Lowyrich^black aoil.
Traa 40»h.-a2«d,
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414
Plate VII.
QuercuB alba L.
Vo.446. Sept«Bib«r 4.1915.
Korth sldf of road, near
Weetfall farm house, 3 ml.
north of Reynolds. Low
elevation, a rich- sandy
soil.
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415
Plate VIll.
No.283. S«pteBib«r 4.1SI4.
Cn a low eandridRe in Fleh-
•r'8 woods, 1 ir.l. bouth of
Heynolds. Rich leaf mold.
^^
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416
Plate IX.
Quercus. alba L.
No. 467. 8«pt.l8a915.
Specimen ftoai Vothftr*f
"Forty*, 1 mi. north-
east of Reynolds. Lo*i
somewhat sandy soil,
near edse of sloufdi.
Tree 35»h.- 6"d.
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Plate X.
Quarous alba L.
No. 468 • 8«pt«16«191&«
From Moth«r*e "Forty T
1 mi* north-«aet of
Raynolda. Low, eoma-
what eandy eoil, naar
•dga of slough •
Traa 30*h«- 6«d«
27—11994
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418
Plate XI.
QuercuB alba I
No.282. Septenibtr 4.1914.
Rear edse of a low eand-
rldse^ in Fisher *e woods,
1 mi« south of Peynolds.
Tree 40 'h*- 10»d.
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Plate XII.
419
Queroua bicolor Willd.
Ho. 456. Sept. ?• 1915.
Along read, 5(mi. north-
east of Brookston^Ind.
South of Dyer sohool.
Low, rloh,black soil.
Tree 30 'h,- 6»d.
Swaop White Oak.
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420
Plate XIII.
Qu«rcu8 bicolor Willd.
Ho. 448. 8«pt«6.1915.
In Waxd«B thicket, lai.
south of HeynoldSf Ind.
Low, rich soil- ewaapy.
Tree d5*h.- 4«d.
Swamp White Oak.
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421
Plate XIV.
QuercuB
palustrls Ifuenoh.
No. 365. Aug.3.1915f
In Ward^B thic)c6t« 1 mi.
eouth of Reynolds. Low,
molBt, black soil.Svafflpy
Tree 40«h.- 7»d.
Determined by Sargent.
Ho. 473. Sept. 18. 1915.
Bordering north and east
edge of an old elough^low,
rich, blaok eoil. Mother's
Forty, 1 mi.e.of Reynolde.
Tree 40»hr 8"d.
Determined by Sargent.
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422
Plate XlVi.
QuerouB paluetrls
Mudiich*
No. 473. Sept. 18. 1915.
On border of an old
alougji* Low, rlchi
blaok soil. Mother >0
Forty I 1 mi* east of
Reynold 0.
Tree 50«h-.10»d.
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423
Plate XV.
^ Quercus paluetria Muench.
No. 351. Sept. 3. 1915.
Edge of a wooded eandridge,
low, moist, rich, black soil.
Bunnell's, east of Reynolds.
Tree 30«h.-6"d.
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424
Plate XVI.
RANGE OF
Quercus alba L.
IN THE UNITED STATES AND INDIANA.
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425
Plate XVU.
RANGE OF
Quercus macrocarpa Michx.
IN THE UNITED STATES AND INDIANA.
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426
Plate XVIII.
RANGE OF
Quercus bicolor Willd.
IN THE UNITED STATES AND INDIANA.
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427
Plate XIX.
RANGE OF
Quercus imbricaria Michx.
IN THE UNITED STATES AND INDIANA.
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428
Plate XX.
RANGE OF
Quercus palustris Du Roi.
IN THE UNITED STATES AND INDIANA.
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429
Plate XXI.
RANGE OF
Quercus coccinea Muench.
IN THE UNITED STATES AND INDIANA.
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430
The Black Oaks.
The Black Oaks form a difficult group in the identification of spe-
cies. Numerically, the individuals in members of this group are many
and well distributed over White County.
Querctis imbricaria Michx. Shingle Oak, Lea, Jack or Laurel Oak.
(Hist. Chen. Am. 9 pi. 15, 16. 1801.)
This oak has been reported from 25 counties in Indiana and no
doubt occurs in many others. It is the only entire-leaved oak in White
County, and in our area it is a medium-sized tree. Specimens were
found east of Monon, northwest of Reynolds, up in Princeton township,
also southwest and east of Reynolds, at Norway, east of Chalmers near
Big Creek, and east of Brookston. In a small grove just northwest of
Brookston it forms an almost pure stand of fair-sized trees. It occurs
in rich, moist soils or near the edges of low sand ridges.
Quercus palustris Muench, (and DuRoi?) Pin Oak, Swamp Oak, Swamp
Spanish Oak. (Harbk 2:268 pi. 5-14. 1772.)
Q. palustris has been reported from 26 counties. It is said to be
less frequent in the northern tier of counties. In White County it is
frequent in low places, associated with other black oaks, but occupying
the borders of former swamps rather than higher soil of the other
nearby oaks. It is readily distinguished by its small acorns, small, thin,
shallow cups, smoother, bark than other indigenous oaks, wide divergent
leaf lobes, and tardy pruning deflexed dead branches. (See pp. 421-423,
428.)
Quercus eoccinea Wang. Scarlet Oak. (Amer. 44 pi. 4 f. 9. 1787.)
Though common throughout Indiana, the published records of this
oak include but 16 counties. It is more or less common in White County.
The fairly large top-shaped cup (2.5 cm. or more broad), with its glab-
rous, glossy, closely appressed brown scales or bracts about half enclos-
ing the oblong-ovoid nut with its white kernel, makes this species readily
recognizable.
Querais valutina Lam. Black Oak, Quercitron, Yellow-bark Oak. (En-
cycl. 1:721. 1783. Q. tinctoria Bartram. Name only, 1791. Q.
eoccinea var. tinctoria A. Gray, 1867.)
Velutina is a very common species of oak in White County. It is
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431
also rather common in the State, being reported from 25 counties. It is
said to consist of several races, differing in leaf-lobing, amount of
pubescence, and size of acorns. The large, somewhat loose bracts of
the acorns with the upper ones rather squarrose or tips horizontally
wrinkled are characteristic. Leaves which I have taken from sucker
growth measure over a foot in length and over 9 inches in breadth.
They are very variable — some are deeply lobed, others almost entire.
The leaves on vigorous trees are also often comparatively large. The
inner bark is a deep orange. Chewed bits of the twigs are said to give
the saliva a yellowish discoloration in contradistinction to the Red Oak
and the Scarlet Oak, if not as well for other black oaks. (See pp. 406,
408, 429.)
Quercus ellipsoidalis E, J, Hill, Hill's Oak. (Pin Oak, Yellow or Black
Oak. Bot. Gaz. 27:204. 1899.)
There is no certainty how plentiful this oak is in White County.
Sargent has verified a specimen taken about a mile northeast of Rey-
nolds on a low sand ridge. The tree was about 30 feet high and 6 inches
in diameter. "In Indiana it has been reported from Lake County only."
Very likely it will be found to occur at points between White County
and Lake Michigan.
Quercus rubra L. Red Oak. (Sp. pi. 996. 1753.)
This is the "largest and most valuable of the biennial oaks," It is
distributed throughout the State. In White County it is rather restricted
to the Tippecanoe area. The leaves are usually much less deeply lobed
than those of the other black oaks. The acorn when mature is usually
larger than the acorns of any other White County oak, except macro-
carpa. (See p. 406.)
Quercus . . . ?
A rather peculiar specimen of oak was taken about four and one-
fourth miles northeast of Brookston, in an oak forest on low, rich, black
soil. Two such trees were growing just beside each other. The bark
is close, almost black, and shallow fissured. These trees were about 45
feet high and 10 inches in diameter. Leaf specimens with twigs, buds
and acorns were collected on September 7, 1915.
From the specimens and data at hand, at least three authorities
have disagreed as to the status of this oak. All say it is a variable
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Plate XXII.
Quercue
No. 455.
Sept.?. 1915.
r
Near road, in forest en
low, rich, black soil,
4^ ml. N-.E. of Brooks ton «
Trees (2) 45»h.. lO'd.
See discusaicn pp.52
and 53 •
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433
form and admit the difficulty of determination. It has been said to be
a variable form of Q. texana Sarg,, not Buckley ?, possibly synonymous
with Q. Schneckii Brit. Q. borealis Michx., or Q. falcata Michx., or a
hybrid of these two have been mentioned, as has also Q. velutina Lam.
My own idea coincides exactly with none of these. Q. borealis
Michx. does not occur in the State, so far as known. Not a single
reference to it is made in either Coulter's Catalogue or Beam's 1911
Report. Q. falcata Michx. has been reported from but three counties
in the State, viz., Gibson, Posey and Fountain, which last is somewhat
exceptional. Evidently the specimen under consideration is neither of
these or could possibly be a hybrid of them. Since more or less doubt
shrouds the texana-Schneckii determination from more than one stand-
point, and since these are the same or different species according to
different authors, I hesitate in applying either name, whether of the
same or different species.
Q. velutina Lam. does not seem to be very conclusive.
The supposed typical leaves, fruit, etc., used in various keys for
the same species many times, vary considerably. So in this case. The
leaves in this instance compare very favorably with those .shown for
Q. rubra L., in Hough's Handbook of the Trees of the Northern States
and Canada.
I have associated it most closely with Q. rubra L., being a rather
variable form of that species or a hybrid of it with velutina or coccinea.
I add this note from Hough's handbook : "Gray's Oak, Q. borealis Michx.
f., (also Q. ambigua Michx. f.), a large tree, occasionally found from
Ontario to Quebec to the mountains of North Carolina, bearing leaves
like Q. rubra L., and fruit like Q. coccinea. It is considered by some
a distinct species and by others, and probably more correctly, only an
aberrant form of Q. rubra L."
3. The Hickories.
With a Revised List for the State,
The Hickories are very difficult of determination and authors are
by no means agreed. If I may venture upon a suggestion, it seems to
me that a more careful, thorough and extensive study in the field is
2S— 11994
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necessary before the genus can be satisfactorily divided into its species
and varieties.
In the first place, the group has been favored with three genus
names, viz., Juglans (L. 1753.) ; Hicoria (Raf.— 1808.— Scoria Raf. 1808,
Hicorius Raf. 1817, Hicoria Raf. 1836,); and Carya (Nutt. 1818.).
The walnuts and butternuts and our present hickories were all
included under the term Juglans. The group was split up on the
strength of whether the husk was dehiscent or not, and of course the
so-called hickories emerged as a separate genus. Without going further
into the historical side of the matter, both Hicoria and Carya as a
genus name are commonly applied. I favor the term Hicoria, derived
from the aboriginal or American Indian name with its apparent priority
in print. Be this, however, as it may, the names and descriptions given
to species are infinitely more troublesome.
The last 7th Edition, of Gray's Manual, describes eight species with
all of these, possibly excepting Hicoria aquatica, within the borders of
Indiana. Britton and Brown, new (2nd Ed.) Flora, contains 12 species,
including but the same species as given in Gray for Indiana. Doubt
shrouds several of these species as admitted in the texts.
Beam's 1911 Report lists seven species as occurring in Indiana.
Except in name, this checks exactly foi those given in Coulter's Cata-
logue. Very brief notes on the Indiana species are noted below, old
and new records are given in a list following these notes.
1. HicoHa Pecan (Marsh) Brit. Pecan, Illinois Nut, Soft-shell Hickory.
(See p. 436.)
This tree does not occur in White County. Its range as given in
the 1911 Report is the lower Wabash and lower stretches of its tribu-
taries. (See p. — .) Without doubt this species occurs in some as yet
.unreported counties. In a letter from Mr. Deam, Jan. 31, 1916, he
says that H. Pecan extends ip the Ohio Valley at least as far as Clark
County. This species and the next are not difficult of determination.
2. Hicoria cordiformis (Wang) Brit, Bitter-nut, Swamp Hickory, Pig-
nut, etc. (See p. 436.)
This species is said to occur throughout Indiana, being, however,
nowhere abundant (Deam 1911 Report). In White County it is per-
haps the most abundant in the central townships.
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3. Hicoria ovata (Mill) Brit. Shagbark, Shellbark Hickory, etc. (See
p.-.)
Common in all parts of Indiana. Common in White County in rich,
moist soils or the edges of sand ridges. Sargent has split the species
by designating two varieties. (See p. 437.)
(a) Hicoria ovata fraxini folia Sargent,
As noted in the appended list, this variety occurs in three other
counties besides White. Without attempting any description here, I
simply add that Sargent verified a specimen for me, taken one and one-
half miles southwest of Reynolds.
(b) Hicoria ovata var. Nuttallii Sargent.
This variety occurs in Indiana according to two determinations by
Sargent. Specimens were taken in Dekalb County, south of Auburn.
Leaflets 5. (Deam's Nos. 19, 291, 19, 293.)
4. Hicoria laciniosa (Michx. f.) Sarg. Big Shagbark, Kingnut, etc. (See
p. 437.)
This species bears a close resemblance to the preceding species. At
this time I am unable to define its distribution in White County other
than to say that it occurs in Honey Creek Township. Rich soil, edges
of sand ridges.
5. Hicoria microcarpa (Nutt) Brit. Small-fruited Hickory, Little Pig-
nut or Shag-bark.
The habitat and range of this species has not been well studied
(Deam 1911 Report). Sargent now calls the old microcarpa, ovalis —
Carya ovalis Sarg. — or Hicoria ovalis, and has singled out no less than
four varieties under the species. Since hickories are more or less
abundant in White County this species with one or more of its varieties
may be found there. I say this in view of my limited number of speci-
mens and its reported occurrence in Tippecanoe County. (See list p. 437.) '
6. Hicoria alba (L) Brit. White Hickory, Bull-Nut, Mocker Nut, etc.
Said to be rather rare in the northern part of the State. Locally
more or less abundant in Honey Creek Township (White County), which
with its low sand ridges is more suited to its drier situations.
7. Hicoria glabra (Mill) Brit. Black Hickory, Pignut, etc.
Sargent now styles this species porcina. I have taken no specimens
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436
of it in White County, but owing to its wide distribution it seems rea-
sonable to expect it there.
(a) Hicoria glabra var, megacarpa Sargent,
Another of Sargent's new varieties. "Franklin County, on high
ground, west of Metamora. Bark tight, leaflets 5."
Without further comment I am permitted to add the following
revised list for this very puzzling genus Hicoria. The determinations
represent Sargent's latest efforts.
(List 6.)
Revised List of Hickories for Indiana.
The determination of all the new records were made by SargenU
Specimens of these new records were collected by C. C. Deam, Prof.
G. N. Hoffer and by myself, and are deposited in the Deam Herbarium,
Bluff ton, Ind.; Purdue Herbarium, Purdue University; Arnold Arbor-
etum, Harvard University, and in my own herbarium. The chief change
noted in the revised list is Sargent's recognition of seven new varieties.
1. Hicoria Pecan (Marsh) Brit. Pecan, Illinois Nut, Soft-shell
Hickory. Juglans Pecan Marsh. 1785; Carya olivaeformis Nutt, 1818;
Carya illinoiensis (Wang) K. Koch. ?; H. Pecan Brit. 1888.
Old Records: Franklin (Meyncke — from a cultivated tree?) ; Gibson
(Schneck) ; Jefferson (Young); Knox (Thomas); Posey (Schneck),
(Deam) and (Wright); Vigo (Blatchley).
No new records,
2. Hicoria cordiformis (Wang) Brit. Bitter-nut, Swamp Hickory,
etc. J. alba minima Marsh. 1785; J. cordiformis Wang. 1787; C. amara
Nutt. 1818; H. minima Brit. 1888; H. cordiformis Brit. 1908.
Old Records: Carroll (Thompson) ; Delaware, Jay, Randolph and
Wayne (Phinney) ; Fountain (Brown) ; Franklin (Meyncke) ; Gibson
and Posey (Schneck); Hamilton and Marion (Wilson); Knox (Ridg-
way) ; Noble (VanGorder) ; Parke (Hobbs) ; Steuben (Bradner) ; Vigo
and Monroe (Blatchley) ; Wayne (Petry and Markle) ; Montgomery
(Thompson) ; Posey (MacDougal and Wright) ; Putnam (Grimes) ;
Tippecanoe (Coulter) ; Adams, Delaware, Hamilton, Jennings, Knox.
Montgomery, Owen, Vermillion, Warren and Wells (Deam).
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New Records: Allen, Bartholomew, Fountain, Franklin, Johnson,
Knox, Switzerland (Deam and Hoffer) ; White (Heimlich).
3. Hicoria ovata (Mill) Brit. Shag-bark, Shell-bark Hickory, etc.
J. ovata Mill. 1768; C. alba Nutt. 1818, not J. alba L.; H. ovata Brit.
1888.
Old Records: Cass and Tippecanoe (Coulter); Clark (Baird and
Taylor) ; Delaware, Jay, Randolph and Wayne (Phinney) ; Franklin
(Meyncke) ; Gibson (Schneck) ; Hamilton and Marion (Wilson) ; Knox
(Ridg:way) and (Thomas); Kosciusko (Clark) and (Scott); Posey
(Schneck) and (MacDougal and Wright); Vigo (Blatchley) ; Wayne
(Petry and Markle) ; Jefferson (Young) ; Monroe (Blatchley) ; Mont-
gomery (Evans) ; Putnam (Grimes) and (MacDougal) ; Clark, Dela-
ware, Hamilton, Jennings, Owen, Posey, Steuben and Wells (Deam).
New Records: Allen, Clark, Crawford, Franklin, Gibson, Jay, Knox,
Owen, Pike, Steuben and Wells (Deam and Hoffer); White (Heimlich).
3. Hicoria ovata (Mill) Brit.
(a) var. fraxinifolia Sarg. 1916. Ash-leaved Shag-bark or Shell-
bark Hickory.
No old records.
New Records: Daviess, Martin, Wells (Deam and Hoffer); White
(Heimlich).
(b) var. Nuttallii Sarg. 1916.
No old records.
New Records: Dekalb (Deam).
4. Hicoria laciniosa (Michx. f.) Sarg. Big Shag-bark, King Nut,
etc. C. sulcata Nutt. not J. sulcata Willd.; J. laciniosa Michx. f. 1810;
H. sulcata Brit. 1888; H. laciniosa Sarg. 1894.
Old Records: Carroll (Thompson); Clark (Smith); Dearborn (Col-
lins) ; Delaware, Jay, Randolph and Wayne (Phinney) ; Franklin
(Meyncke) ; Gibson and Posey (Schneck) ; Jefferson (Coulter) and
(Young) ; Knox (Ridgway) ; Kosciusko (Clark) ; Miami (Gorby) ; Noble
(VanCrorder) ; Parke (Hobbs) ; Putnam (Grimes) ; Steuben (Bradner) ;
Tippecanoe (Coulter) ; Vigo (Blatchley) ; Harrison, Marion, Posey, Ver-
million and Wells (Deam).
New Records: Allen, Bartholomew, Floyd, Gibson, Jay, Jefferson,
Martin, Washington, Wells (Deam and Hoffer); White (Heimlich).
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5. Hicoria ovalis. (C. ovalis Sarg. 1916.) H. microcarpa (Nutt)
Brit. J. alba odorata Marsh. 1785; C. microcarpa Nutt. 1818; H. micro-
carpa Brit. 1888; H. glabra var. odorata Sarg. 1895. Small-fruited
Hickory, Little Pignut or Shag-bark.
Old Records: Clark (Baird and Taylor); Delaware, Jay, Randolph
and Wayne (Phinney) ; Franklin (Meyncke) ; Gibson (Ridgway) and
(Schneck) ; Hamilton and Marion (Wilson); Jefferson (Coulter) and
(Young); Knox (Ridgway); Kosciusko (Scott); Miami (Grorby) ; Posey
(Schneck) and (MacDougal and Wright); Tippecanoe (Coulter); La-
porte, Vermillion, Warren and Wells (Deam).
New Records: Allen, Bartholomew, Daviess, Floyd, Franklin, Gib-
son, Jay, Lagrange, Lawrence, Steuben, Sullivan, Washingfton, Wells
(Deam and Hoffer).
5. Hicoria ovalis. (Carya ovalis Sarg.)
(a) var. odorata Sarg. 1916.
No old records.
New Records: Allen, Jefferson, Lagrange, Steuben and Wells (Deam
and Hoffer).
(b) var. obovalis Sarg. 1916.
No old records.
New Records: Grant, Jackson, Lagrange, Steuben, Washington and
Wells (Deam and Hoffer).
(c) var. obcordata Sarg. 1916.
No old records.
New Records: Grant, Lagrange, Porter and Wells (Deam and
Hoffer).
H. ovalis. (C. ovalis Sarg.)
(d) var ??
No old records.
New Records: "These specimens seem to be a new variety," Sargent
1916. No name has been given. Specimens are from Knox and Gibson
(Deam and Hoffer).
6. Hicoria alba (L) Brit. White-heart Hickory, Mocker-nut, Bull-
nut, etc. J. alba L. 1753; J. tomentosa Lam. 1797; C. tomentosa Nutt.
1818; H. alba Brit. 1888.
Old Records: Cass (Benedict and Elrod) ; Clark (Baird and Tay-
lor) and (Smith); Dearborn (Collins); Fountain (Meyncke); Gibson
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and Posey (Schneck) and (Deam) ; Hamilton and Marion (Wilson);
Jefferson (Coulter) and (Young) ; Knox (Ridgway) ; Kosciusko (Clark)
and (Scott) ; Miami (Gorby) ; Vigo (Blatchley) ; Wabash (Benedict
and Elrod) ; Tippecanoe (Coulter).
New Records: Daviess, Franklin, Harrison, Jackson, Jay, Jefferson,
Knox, Lawrence, Sullivan, Washington (Deam and Hoffer) ; White
(Heimlich).
7. Hicoria porcina. (C. porcina Sarg. 1916.) Pignut Hickory, Black
Hickory. Hicoria glabra (Mill) Brit. J, glabra Mill. 1768; C. porcina
Nutt. 1818; H. glabra Brit. 1888; H. glabra hirsuta Ashe. 1896.
Old Records: Cass and Wabash (Benedict and Elrod); Carroll
(Thompson) ; Clark (Baird and Taylor) and (Smith) ; Dearborn (Col-
lins) ; Delaware, Jay, Randolph and Wayne (Phinney) ; Franklin (Hay-
mond) and (Meyncke) ; Gibson and Posey (Schneck) ; Hamilton and
Marion (Wilson) ; Jay (McCaslin) ; Jefferson (Coulter) and (Young) ;
Knox (Ridgway) and (Thomas) ; Noble (VanGorder) ; Parke (Hobbs) ;
Putnam (Grimes) and (MacDougal) ; Steuben (Bradner) ; Tippecanoe
(Coulter) ; Vigo (Blatchley) ; Delaware, Owen, Posey and Warren
(Deam).
New Records: Crawford, Floyd, Franklin, Harrison, Lawrence,
Martin, Sullivan (Deam and Hoffer).
7. Hicoria .porcina. (Carya porcina Sarg.)
(a) var. megacarpa Sarg. 1916.
No old records.
New Records: Franklin (Deam).
4. Trees Restricted to the Tippecanoe River Banks.
As indicated by the list and map on page 440, about half (23 out
of 62) the species found in White County are totally or in some cases
nearly exclusively confined to the Tippecanoe River banks. Some few
of these are found at a distance from the river or the lower stretches
of creeks. These include the Bur Oak, the Prickly Ash and others.
Though not restricted to the above area, the Red Cedar, the Black
Walnut, Sassafras, and a few others, receive their best development in
the vicinity of the Tippecanoe. The largest sassafras trees were noted
near Buffalo, east bank of the river; the most abundant and largest
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440
Plate XXIII.
WHITE COUNTY.
.••Tree* Restricted to the TippeCvXnoe River Banks,..
® Querous macroceirpa Michx*
® Ifuhlenbergii EnRelro.
® rubra L.
P PopulUB beteropbylla L»
z Zantboxylum amerioanum Mill.
^ Acer nigrum Uiobx.
J Juglane cinerea L*
f Platanus occidentalie L.
• LirlOvlendron Tulipifera L,
j«: Celtls occidentalie L,
o Ostrya virj^iniana (Mill)Willd
A Cercia canadensie L*
a Tilia americana L.
• Gldditsia triacantbos L.
# Oymnocladua diooia(L)Koch.
/?Robinia Pseudo-acaala L.
a Aesculua glabra Willd,
F Fagua grand if olia Ebrh,
tPtelea trifollata L.
TStapbyllea trifoliata L,
(TCornuB florida L.
e alternifolia L.f.
t Asimina triloba (L)Dunal.
tCarpinua carollniana L,
•HHaraamella virgin iana L.
wBatula lutea Michx.
^Crataegua albicans Aahe t
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Cedars were seen south of Monticello, especially along the lower course
of Big Creek. (See map, p. 451.)
Quercus macrocarpa Michx, See p. 409.
Quercus Muhlenbergii Engelm, See p. 411.
Quercus rubra L. See p. 431.
Populus heterophylla L. Swamp or Downy Poplar, River- or Swamp
Cotton- wood., Balm-of-Gilead. In Indiana this tree is "rare and local,
except in the lower Wabash bottoms." The published records of the
distribution are as follows: Delaware, Jay, Randolph and Wayne (Phin-
ney) ; Franklin (Meyncke) ; Gibson and Posey (Schneck) ; Hamilton
(Doane) ; Jay (McCaslin) ; Knox (Ridgway) ; Miami (Gorby) ; Vigo
(Blatchley) ; Blackford, Laporte, Posey, Wells (Deam).
I found specimens near the Carroll County line, five and three-
fourths miles northeast of Brookston, in low, rich soil; trees 25 or more
feet high and up to 6 inches in diameter. (See p. 454 for other species
of Populus.)
Acer nigrum Michx, Black Sugar Maple, Black or Hard Maple.
I cannot speak with certainty of the exact distribution of maples in the
county. Species of this genus are very frequently used as shade trees
and all have some escapes. Members of this genus were found in
abundance near Buffalo and south along the Tippecanoe. Some trees
are also to be found in oak forests of Honey Creek Township. A. nigrum
was found about three miles south of Monticello. The group consisted
of a number of large trees (70 feet high by 17 inches diameter) on a
sandy, gravelly slope. (See other Maples p. 458.)
Juglans cinerea L. Butternut, White or Lemon Walnut, Oilnut.
Reported from many counties, but said to occur in very sparing numbers
in some. It is rather rare in White County and adheres to the banks
of the Tippecanoe. Specimens were taken from fair-sized trees on high,
rich, gravelly soil, east of Lowe's bridge, about four miles southwest
of Buffalo. (See p. 454 for nigra.)
Platanus Occident alls L. Sycamore, Button-wood, Button -ball. Plane
Tree. This is Indiana's distinctive tree. Found in all parts of the
State, more or less frequent along streams or the borders of lakes. It
has the distinction of being the largest deciduous tree in North America.
(Tree at Worthington, Indiana, over 44 feet in circumference and 150
feet high.)
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I have seen some comparatively large individuals along the Wabash
up to the mouth of the Tippecanoe. It is found along the entire extent
of the latter river through White County. It was also found in Honey
Creek Township (Ward's thicket), near Spring Creek (J. P. Erickson
farm) about three and one-half miles northeast of Brookston, and along
Big Creek, four miles east of Chalmers.
Liriodendron tulipifera L. Tulip-tree, Yellow Poplar, Canoe-wood,
Lime-tree, White-wood. The published lists for Indiana cover 41
counties. Rather rare in some localities. One of Indiana's largest and
most useful trees. Not plentiful, but found along the entire length of
the Tippecanoe through White County. "It is practically free from
insect and fungous diseases" and is an excellent tree for re-enforcing
the woodlot — a good shade tree.
The following trees are more or less common along the Tippecanoe
and usually are not found far from the watercourse. Some of them
have made their way along the creeks for several miles, notably Spring
Creek, east of Brookston, Big Creek, Big Monon, and Pike Creek.
Celtis occidentalis L. Hackberry, etc.
Ostrya virginiana (Mill) Willd. Hop-hornbeam.
Carpinus caroliniana Walt. Am. Hornbeam, etc.
Cercis canadensis L. Red-bud, Judas-tree.
Tilia americana L. Linden, Basswood.
Gymnocladus diocia (L) K. Koch. Coffeenut-tree.
Aesculus glabra Willd. Ohio Buckeye.
Fagus grandifolia Ehrh. Beech.
Comus florida L. Flowering Dogwood.
alternifolia L. f. Green Osier, etc.
Asimina triloba (L) Dunal. Pawpaw.
Ptelea trifoliata L. Hop-tree, Shrubby Trefoil.
Hamamelis virginiana L. Witch-hazel.
Staphylea trifoliata L. American Bladder-nut.
The last three of the above list are not included in Deam's 1911
Report. These are large shrubs or small trees. There are Ptelea at
Norway, 15 feet high and 3 inches in diameter. The foliage when
bruised has an unpleasant odor. The fruit is bitter and has been used
as a substitute for hoi^n. According to Coulter it is found in Jefferson,
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Tippecanoe, Monroe, Vigo, Putnam, Gibson, Posey, Jay, Delaware, Ran-
dolph, Wayne, Clark, Franklin, Hamilton, Cass and Fayette Counties.
The Witch-hazel is interesting because of its flowering so late in
the season (October to December). The bony seeds ripen in early spring
and may be "shot" several yards from their capsules. Some shrubby
specimens near Norway were eight feet or more high. Distribution
given in Coulter's Catalogue: Kosciusko, Laporte, Jefferson, Tippecanoe,
Clark, Noble, Delaware, Jay, Randolph, Wayne, Franklin, Monroe, Vigo,
Cedar Lake, Hamilton, Putnam and Steuben.
The Bladder-nut, which may be a small tree in the south, is more
nearly a large shrub in our area. Specimens seen at Norway were
rather tall (perhaps 15 feet high). Distribution given in Coulter's
Catalogue: Jefferson, Tippecanoe, Monroe, Vigo, Putnam, Gibson, Posey,
Kosciusko, Hendricks, Decatur, Knox, St. Joseph, Hamilton, Marion,
Steuben and Fayette.
Gleditsia triacanthos L. Honey Locust. This is a rather charac-
teristic and imposing tree along the Tippecanoe. It is sometimes found
along the lower portions of creeks.
Robinia pseudo-acasia L. Common Black Locust. This locust was
noted several miles south of Monticello and also near Lowe's bridge.
It is cultivated in all parts of the county and escapes are occasionally
found.
Betula lutea Michx. Yellow Birch. This species has been confused
with Betula lenta, which, according to Deam, does not occur in our
area. In Indiana it is rare and local. It has not been reported south
of Miami County except in Crawford County, associated with the laurel
(Kalmia latifolia), which is the only station of the latter in the State,
except possibly another record for Floyd County.
Specimens were taken from two trees about two miles south of
Buffalo near the water's edge of the river. These were thought to be
different species at first, but they are likely both lutea. It is certain
that one is lutea and the other will likely be found to be so when fresh
material is available. A mere guess at the height of these trees would
place them about 40 feet high. They were associated with maples, ashes,
sycamores and honey-locusts.
Zanthoxylum americanum Mill. Prickly Ash, Toothache Tree, An-
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444
Plate XXIV.
RANGE OF
Betula lutea Michx.
IN THE UNITED STATES AND INDI
^^iSR
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445
gelica Tree, etc. This species is conspicuous along some parts of the
Tippecanoe (Norway and Buffalo). Several trees were found in Ward's
thicket, about a mile south of Reynolds, and also along Big Creek, four
miles east of Chalmers. It is variously called a small tree or a large
shrub and is not included in the 1911 Report. Some of the specimens
found were about 10 feet high and 3 inches in diameter.
In Coulter's Catalogue it is reported from Posey, Vigo, Cass, Kos-
ciusko, Steuben, Jefferson, Randolph, Franklin, Shelby and a dozen other
counties.
The Thcms constitute one of the most puzzling genera in the plant
kingdom. More field work is necessary before statements of ranges and
abundance of each species in White County is possible. It is likely that
more species occur in the county than is given here. (See p. 457.)
Crataegus pruinosa (Wendl) K, Koch, Waxy- fruited Thorn. (C.
populifolia Ell. 1821; not Walt.; Mespilus pruinosa Wendl. 1823; C.
pruinosa K. Koch. 1853; C. Porteri Brit. 1900. Specimens of this thorn
were obtained east of Norway across the river in the vicinity of the
mouth of Pike Creek. A number of thorn trees are present in this
locality, this species being perhaps locally abundant. On gravelly soil,
low river bank. Trees 12 feet high, 4 inches in diameter. Determined
by Sargent.
Deam says this thorn is well distributed in Indiana. Specimens
have been seen from the following counties: Decatur, Delaware, Gibson,
Hamilton, Madison, Steuben, Warren, Wells (Deam) ; Putnam (Grimes).
Crataegtis albicans Ashe? Tatnall's Thorn. C. albicans Ashe 1901;
C. Tatnalliana Sarg. Feb. 1903; C. polita Sarg. Apr. 1903. I quote the
following from a letter from W. W. Eggleston: "Your specimen of
Crataegus sent me .... is received. It belongs in the Coccineae
and seems to be C. albicans Ashe? More complete material showing the
leaves on the vegetative shoots is desirable to be sure of the identifica-
tion, for with this material I could not be quite sure that it is not
C. coccinea L." Britton and Brown, 2nd Ed., makes the following dis-,
tinction between the two species:
Leaves on vegetative shoots cuneate, C. coccinea.
Leaves on vegetative shoots cordate, C. albicans.
It will be noted that C. albicans has not been reported as occurring
in the State. Its general range is given as "Western New England to
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446
Plate XXV.
Crataegus albicans i( she?
No* 434. September 1.1S15.
Along east bank of Tippe-
canoe river ^ mi. south
of Buffalo. High, gravelly
soil. Tree 20'h.-5^d.
retermined by W.W.Eggleston.
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447
southern Michigan, south to Delaware and in the mountains to north-
eastern Tennessee."
C. coccinea has the following record for the State: Floyd (Deam) ;
Noble (VanGorder) ; Steuben (Deam).
The specimen taken was from a lone tree, one-fourth mile south of
Buffalo on a high, gravelly river-bank. Tree 20 feet high, 5 inches in
diameter. No. 343. September 1, 1915. Additional material is not to
be had before the completion of this thesis and so the exact determina-
tion must be deferred till some later date. (See p. 457 for other Haws,
also p. 449.)
Thus the Tippecanoe River has some 28 species clinging closely to
its banks, besides claiming specimens of all other species in White
County, except possibly one or two species of willows, Quercus ellip-
soidalis and Malus ioensis.
5. Report of a New Species and a New Variety for the State.
Salix missouriensis Bebb, Missouri or Diamond Willow, Heart-
leaved Willow. 1895.
S. cordata Muhl. 1803; S. angustata Pursh. 1814; S. cordata angus-
tata (Pursh) Anders. 1867; S. acutidens Rydb. 1901.
The above are the synonyms given in Britton and Brown, 2nd Ed.,
with S. cordata Muhl. preferred.
Sargent, who determined my specimen, called it S. missouriensis.
In Gray's Manual, 7th Ed., cordata and missouriensis are treated
as separate species, the last, however, with this note: "A poorly under-
stood tree, said to flower earlier than S. cordata; perhaps a variety
(var. vestita Anders.) of that species."
In Hough's Handbook of the Trees of the Northern States and
Canada, the Missouri Willow is given as Salix missouriensis MuehL,
with the synonym of S. cordata var. vestita Sarg.
In the face of all the above, hybridization is mentioned by each of
the contending authors. (See ranges given on map, p. 450.)
This willow has hitherto been unreported for the State except that
S. cordata Muhl. and S. cordata angustata (Pursh) Anders, are reported
in Coulter's Catalogue, the former with the record: "In a few counties
in rather sparing numbers, growing in low, moist soils. More abundant
southward. Flowers in April and May. Putnam (MacDougal) ; Vigo
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448
Plate XXVI.
Salix mieeouriensie Eebb.
No. 374. Auguet 4. 1915.
Along road ditchy near
Pennsylvania railroad.
It mi. east of Reynolds.
Lowy wet, rich soil.
Bushes about 10 ft. high.
Determined by Sargent.
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449
(Blatchley); Tippecanoe (Coulter)." The last mentioned has this
record: "In wet soil in the northern part of the State. Flowers from
April to May. Steuben (Bradner)."
I have seen no specimens of the above for comparison. The report
of missouriensis may or may not be new to the State. Owing to the
hybridizing character of the willows and the difficulty of separation,
much additional work is necessary before the status of this genus is
settled satisfactorily.
The specimens I found in White County consisted of a small group
of shrubby growth not more than 10 feet high, one and three-fourths
miles east of Reynolds, near the Pennsylvania Railroad, growing along
a road ditch in low, wet, rich, black soil. Specimens with fruiting parts
were taken on August 4, 1915. Stems with catkins were also collected
on April 16, 1916.
Salix longi folia var. argophylla Sarg. 1916. By the courtesy of
Mr. Deam, I am allowed to report this new variety of willow for the
State. A specimen was taken by Mr. Deam "on the bank of the big
dredge ditch (Little Monon Creek), meeting the railway from the south,
about a mile east of Seafield, White County. Determined by Sargent."
I took s^^pecimens of S. longifolia Muhl., determined by Sargent as
S. fli'viatilis, about three and one-half miles north of the above place,
along the same creek, and also about three miles northeast of this place
on the banks of the Hoagland ditch.
The latest floras do not include the above variety. (See S. interior
Rowlee, p. 452.) (S. sessifolia Nutt, S. argophylla Nutt., S. fluviatilis
argophylla Sarg.)
Crataegus albicans Ashe? Tatnall's Thorn. If the above determi-
nation can be verified, it will increase the already long list of thorns for
the State. As has been indicated on p. 445, Eggleston favors this deter-
mination with the material at hand. If Salix missouriensis does not
prove to be new to the State this species may be. (See p. 446.)
29—11994
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450
Plate XXVII.
RANGE OF
Salix Missouriensis Bebb.
IN THE UNITED STATES AND INDIANA.
HOVCH.
SKITTOH and RHjO\WAi^2r^ tAu
»«*^3aliK cordaia, MuTil.
S. missotcYiensis BeO*
Sa.lix cordditL Muhl.
Digitized by VjOOQ Ic
451
Plate XXVIII.
WHITE COUNTY.
Salix
>:interior Rovlee.
:^nigra Marsh.
Xanygdaloidea Anders,
xdisoolor Uuhl.
^humilis Harsh.
>^longifolia var.
argophylla Sarg.
Toxylon pomiferum Raf .
Gen^iral Dietrltution of Trees over the County —
OEittirg the OAKS ar.d HICKORIES, and also those Specieo
r.ore Typiacally Restricted to the Tiprecance.
ix Amelanehic: canaden8is(L)Med.^CoryIus amerioana Walt.
pPopulua alba L. ®Horus rubra L.
P grandidentata Mlchx. V!/uibu8 americana L.
F tromuloides Michx. ^ fulva Miohx.
^ deltoldes Marsh. Aprunus americana Marsh.
^Sassafras sassafras (L)Kar8t.* serotina Ehrh.
2)Malus malus (L) Brltton. ^Cophalanthus ocoldentalis L.
2 ioenBis(Wood)Britton. CTCcrnus femina Mill.
^ Nyssa sylvatica Marsh. (^ stolonlfsra Miohx.
^ Crataegus Crua-galli L. ^Zanthoxylum amerioanum Marsh.
* Calpodendron(Ehrh)Medlo. ^ Sambuous canadensis L.
•^ Ilex verticillata(L)A.Gray. ^Rhus copallina L.
4Aoer saccharinum L. ^ hirta 8udw.
▲ saccharum Marsh* t glabra L.
A negundo L. •Juniperun virt:iri icirn L.
rfraxinus acericana L. /Viburnan prunifolium L.
T pennsylvanicaMarsh*/ Lentago L.
81
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452
6. Species Generally Distributed Over the County.
Salix interior Rowlee, Sandbar Willow. The willow referred to as
the Sandbar willow of various authors suffers various scientific names
without much apparent agreement. The record in Britton and Brown
is as follows: S. longifolia Muhl. 1803; not Lam. 1778; S. interior Row-
lee 1900; S. linearifolia Rydb. 1901. Has been confused with S. fluvia-
tilis Nutt. (S. Wheeleri (Rowlee) Rydb from N. B. to lU., dif-
fers in having the leaves permanently silky.). Gray's 7th Ed. says that
S. longifolia Muhl. is the Sandbar willow. Synonym, S. interior Rowlee;
S. fluviatilis auth., not Nutt. Hough gives S. fluviatilis Nutt. as the
Sandbar willow with the synonym of S. longifolia Muhl.
Thus the trials and patience of the amateur, and I should also
include the expert, are once more exemplified, if not sorely pressed.
One wonders in so many cases if no agreement ever will result. At any
rate, the species which answers the description of S. interior Rowlee is
abundant along the streams of White County.
This species is not given in the 1911 Report. In Coulter's Catalogrue
the record is as follows: Salix fluviatilis Nutt., Syn. S. longifolia Muhl.
Tippecanoe (Cunningham); Putnam (MacDougal) ; Vigo (Blatchley);
Jefferson (J. M. Coulter); Clark (Baird and Taylor).
Due perhaps chiefly to their tendency to hybridize, the willows are
admittedly difficult of determination. The remaining forms considered
as occurring in White County seem to be less confusing.
Salij- nigra Marsh. Black Willow. This willow is more or less
abundant in White County. Specimens were taken from Honey Creek
Township. Its range is more than the total eastern half of the United
States.
Salix amygdaloides Anders, Peach-leaved Willow. Although hav-
ing a large range in North America, from Quebec through Saskatchewan
to British Columbia, and through northern Kentucky to the Rio Grande
in New Mexico, along the mountains to Oregon and Washington, this
species is not mentioned in Coulter's Catalogue, and in the 1911 Report
the published record is but from one county, Kosciusko (Scott), with
the then new record of a specimen each taken in Lake County by Urn-
bach and Deam. Distribution in White County uncertain, specimen
taken from Honey Creek Township.
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Plate XXIX.
RANGE OF
Salix amygdaloides Anders.
IN THE UNITED STATES AND INDIANA.
453
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454
Salix discolor MuhL Glaucous Willow. This form has been omitted
from the 1911 Report. In Coulter's Catalogue it is reported from Tippe-
canoe (Cunnington) ; Jefferson (Barnes) ; Vigo (Blatchley) ; Kosciusko
(Coulter); Clark (Baird and Taylor); Gibson and Posey (Schneck);
Knox (Spillman) ; Hamilton (Wilson); Steuben (Bradner). It is more
or less abundant in White County. Specimens were taken in Monon
and Honey Creek Townships.
Salix humilis Marsh, Prairie Willow. This willow is not included
in the 1911 Report, nor is it mentioned in Hough's Handbook of the
Trees of the Northern States and Canada. The range for Indiana as
given in Coulter's Catalogue is as follows: Laporte (Barnes); Putnam
(MacDougal) ; Vigo (Blatchley) ; Tippecanoe (Coulter) ; Hamilton (Wil-
son); Steuben (Bradner).
In this, as in many other instances, the attention is drawn to the
number of well-worked counties. It occurs in Honey Creek Township
and is very likely in other townships.
Populus tremuloides Mich^. American Aspen, Quaking Asp or
Aspen, 1803. The Quaking Aspen is a very familiar tree in White
County. Very abundant in low, wet places. Sometimes found growing
with the Cottonwood.
Popuhis deltoides Marsh. Cottonwood, Necklace Poplar. (P. caro-
linensis Moench. 1785; P. monilifera Ait. 1789; P. angulata Ait. 1789.)
This is a much larger tree than the Quaking Aspen. Common through-
out the county. Said to consist of several races.
Populus grandidentata Michx, Large-toothed Aspen. Scattered
throughout the county in low, rich soils, or near the edges of sand ridges.
Populus alba L. White or Silver-leaf Poplar. Introduced from
Europe. Escapes in all parts of the State, although the published rec-
ords are meagre. Escapes in several places in White County. Speci-
mens were taken from trees along Big Creek about four and one-fourth
miles east of Chalmers.
For Populus heterophylla see p. 441. The above species of this genus
are arranged in the order of their frequency in White County.
Juglans nigra L. Black Walnut. Common throughout the State.
Found along the Tippecanoe River and also some distance from its banks
in locally abundant numbers. Cultivated throughout the county. (Sec
p. 464.) (J. cinerea, see p. 441.)
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Corylus a^nericana Walt. Hazelnut, Filbert. The hazel sometimes
becomes a rather large shrub. It is very abundant in White County,
as well as throughout the State.
Ulmus americana L. American or White Elm. Reported from 29
counties in the State. Of general distribution in White County along
^with —
Ulmus fulva Michx. Slippery, Red, or Moose Elm. Said to be in
more sparing numbers in the State than the preceding, but nevertheless
reported from an extra county. Not abundant, merely local in White
County.
Moras rubra L, Red Mulberry. Isolated trees or very small groups
in various parts of the county. Along the lower stretches of Spring
Creek it is associated with elms, hop-hornbeams, etc.
Toxylon pomiferum Raf, Hedge, Osage Orange. The natural range
of this species covers only the adjacent borders of Texas, Oklahoma,
Indian Territory, Arkansas and Louisiana, or from Missouri and Kansas
south to Texas. It has been cultivated over a considerable part of the
country and escapes are more or less frequent. Escapes in Indiana are
given for Decatur (Ballard) ; Franklin (Meyncke) ; Hamilton (Wilson) ;
Jefferson (J. M. Coulter) ; Tippecanoe (Thompson) ; Vigo (Blatchley) ;
Montgomery (Evans) ; Putnam (Grimes) ; Knox (Deam).
In various parts of White County it has a tendency to spread away
from the fence rows. Reports of isolated trees occurring along the
Tippecanoe are likely, but at this time must be given as uncertain.
Sassafras varii folium (L) Karst. Sassafras. Although but one
species of Sassafras is recognized, two forms are known and attention
to the difference is here noted. "One is known as White Sassafras,
which is nearly all sap wood, and the bark of the roots is white. In
contact with the soil the wood soon rots. The other is known as the
Red Sassafras. The bark of the roots and the greater part of the wood
is red, and is durable in contact with the soil."* Both forms are com-
mon in White County. The larger trees are found along the Tippecanoe
near Buffalo.
Malus malus (L) Brit, Apple. The apple tree has escaped in
various parts of White County and large trees are sometimes found.
* Deam 1911 Repoi-t. pagre 238.
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456
Plate XXX.
RANGE OF
Malus ioensis (Wood) Britton.
IN THE UNITED STATES AND INDIANA.
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457
It is not included in the 1911 Report nor in Coulter's Catalogue. Why
should it not receive the same treatment as other escapes? (Toxylon,
Populus alba, Ailanthus, etc.)
Malus ioensis (Wood) Brit, Western Crab Apple. This is a west-
em form, as the range map shows (p. 456). A broad-leaf and a narrow-
leaf form are described in the 1911 Report. Both forms occur in White
County. Specimens were taken from trees on a low sand ridge about
one mile northeast of Reynolds. (See Deam 1911 Report, pp. 248 and
250.)
Ainelanchier canadensis (L) Medic, Service-berry, June-berry, May
or Sand-cherry. The June-berry remains a small tree in White County
and is met with in very sparing numbers in different parts of the
county. The specimens taken were somewhat variable, but it is thought
all belong to the same species.
Crataegus crus-galli L, Cockspur Thorn, Newcastle Thorn. A small
tree, said to be well distributed in Indiana, but with reports only from
the following counties: Decatur (Mrs. C. C. Deam); Knox and Gibson
(Schneck) ; Owen (Grimes) ; Vigo (Blatchley) ; Crawford, Jackson,
Lawrence, Posey and Wells (Deam). More or less abundant along the
Tippecanoe and in sparing numbers over the county.
Crataegus calpodendron (Ehrh) Med, Pear Thorn, Pear or Red
Haw. (C. Crus-galli Mill, not L.; C. tomentosa DuRoi, not L.; C. Chap-
man i Ashe; etc.). Specimens of this thorn were found in Honey Creek,
Monon and Union Townships. It is likely to be found in others. Speci-
mens have been examined from the following counties: Putnam
(Grimes); Marion, Posey and Wells (Deam).
The national as well as the State distribution of the thorns must
be as yet rather uncertain. For notes on other White County thorns
see pp. 445, 446.
Prunus americana Marsh. Wild Red Plum. Found throughout
Indiana and reported from thirty-four counties. Single trees and small
clumps in various parts of White County.
Prunus serotina Ehr, Wild (Black) Cherry. Common in all parts
of the State. Very common in White County. The wood, bark and
fruit are each of some economic importance.
Zanthoxylum americanum Mill, Prickly Ash. Toothache Tree.
According to Coulter's Catalogue, "A small tree, sometimes reduced to
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a shrub, which is generally distributed over the State." In White
County it is most commonly found along the Tippecanoe. It was also
noted in Ward's thicket in Honey Creek Township and along the lower
part of Big Creek.
Rhus hirta (L) Sudw, Staghorn Sumac. (Rhus typhina L.) Said
to be frequent but not especially abundant in any of its stations in
various parts of the State. Rather abundant in some places of White
County. Perhaps the most common sumac in the county.
RhiLs glabra L, Smooth Upland or Scarlet Sumac. This sumac is
similar to the preceding, but is glabrous throughout. Reported as being
more common in the State than the above species. Well distributed but
not so abundant in White County.
RhiLs copallina L, Dwarf Black or Mountain Sumac. Upland Su-
mac. This form becomes a distinct small tree in White County. Noted
mostly in Honey Creek Township.
The above three species are rich in tanin and are extensively used
for tanning. None of them are poisonous, but the last two should be
handled with care by persons with thin, sensitive skins. Another species
of rhus, R, Toxicodendron L. (or R. radicans L.) , the Poison Ivy, which
grows both as a climbing vine or as a low shrub, is very poisonous. The
berries are not poisonous and are largely eaten by birds. The poison
ivy is commonly met with in different parts of the county.
Ilex verticillata (L) A, Gray, Virginia Winter-berry, Black Alder,
Fever-bush. This is a shrub, attaining a height of 6 feet or more.
Abundant in White County as well as in the State.
Acer saccharinum L. Soft, Silver, or White Maple. Reported from
many counties. In White County most abundant near the Tippecanoe.
A few large trees (60 to 70 feet high) are to be found in Fisher's
Woods one mile south of Reynolds. Extensively used as a shade tree.
Acer sacchariim Marsh, Sugar, Rock, or Hard Maple. Reported
as frequent to common in all parts of Indiana. Of uncertain distribu-
tion in White County. Specimen from a small tree about four and one-
fourth miles southeast of Chalmers along a small stream near the banks
of Big Creek.
Acer negundo L. Box Elder, Ash-leaved or Cut-leaved Maple. Rare
east of the Appalachians, rare to infrequent in northern Indiana. Used
to some extent as a shade tree in White County. Rather inferior tree.
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escapes easily. Specimens were found along the Tippecanoe, near Tioga,
and also near Buffalo. Its natural migration into White County seems
doubtful. Escapes were also noted in Honey Creek Township. (For
notes on A. nigrum see p. 441.)
Nyssa sylvatica Marsh. Gum, Black or Sour Gum, Pepperidge.
Well distributed in Indiana. Frequent to common in White County.
A tall tree attaining a greater diameter than most trees in the county.
The leaves are variable and are not to be mistaken for those of N.
aquatica L., which has been off the list of Indiana trees. (See Deam
1911 Report p. 93, also pp. 321-323.)
Comus stolonifera Michx. Red Osier, Kinnikinnik. Absent from
the extreme southern counties, but abundant in the northern counties
(Coulter's Catalogue). Found in all parts of White County. Readily
distinguished by its bright purple twigs at some distance. Sometimes
a rather tall, thick-stemmed shrub.
Comus femina Mill, Panicled Cornel or Dogwood. White-fruited
Dogwood. (C. paniculata L'Her. 1788; C. caudissima Marsh. 1785; not
Mill. 1768.) Reported in Coulter's Catalogue from various parts of the
State. Taller in White County than is noted in the preceding reference
(3 to 6 feet high). Britton and Brown give it a height of 6 to 15 feet.
Many specimens in White County arc between these figures. Often
found in great clumps in low, wet places in woods or in the open. The
fruit is white and usually abundant. (For other Cornels see p. 442.)
Fraximis americana L. White Ash, Gray Ash. This ash is very
common along the Tippecanoe and is distributed over the county gener-
ally. Marked differences in the twigs of older and younger trees and
other minor differences were noted. Frequent t^ common in all parts
of the State.
Fraxinus pennsylvanica Marsh. Curiously enough this ash is vari-
ously known as the White, Gray, Black, Green, Red, Blue, Water,
Swamp, or River Ash. It also bears at least three other scientific names,
(F. pubescens Lam.; F. lanceolata Borck.; F. viridis Michx. f.) Its
leaves, and especially its fruit, are very variable. (See Deam 1911
Report, illustrations p. 334.) More or less frequent in all parts of
Indiana, but reported from only twenty-two counties. Its distribution
for White County is not determined; specimens were taken from Honey
Creek Township, southwest of Reynolds.
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Plate XXXI.
RANGE OF
Vibumam Lentago L.
IN THE UNITED STATES AND INDIANA.
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Plate XXXII.
RANGE OF
Viburnam prunifolium L.
IN THE UNITED STATES AND INDIANA.
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The above two species were the only ones of this genus found in
the county. This was a disappointment, since F. quadrangulata Michx.,
and F. nigra Marsh., are reported from Cass, Tippecanoe and a number
of other counties. Both of these may occur in the county.
Cephalanthus occidentalis L, Button-bush, Honey-balls, Pond-Dog-
wood, etc. An abundant shrub or small tree (20 feet high) in all parts
of the State (Coulter). Found in all parts of White County, though
not so abundant as a medium-sized shrub. Easily recognized by its
flowers.
Vihurnam lentago L. Sheep-berry, Nanny-berry, Black Haw, etc.
Vibumam prunifolium L. Black Haw, Stag-bush, etc. It is some-
what surprising to find that the latter, having a much smaller range in
the United States, should be reported from so many more counties in
Indiana than the former with its very great range. (See range maps
pp. 460 and 461.) In so far as I have been able to discover, the former
is far more plentiful in White County, sometimes forming great patches
on cut-over areas. The fruit of both is sweet and edible.
Sambucus canadensis L, Elder-berry. Abundant throughout the
State in various situations (Coulter). Common in White County. The
flowers and fruit have strong medicinal properties. (Brit. & Br.)
Juniperus virginiana L. Red Cedar, Juniper, etc. This is the only
native evergreen of the county. Reported from various counties with
different degrees of abundance. Well distributed in White County,
reaching its best development along the Tippecanoe. Many trees, some
of fair size, were found about two miles up from the mouth of Big
Creek.
(For other species distributed more or less generally over the county
see The Oaks, pp. 405-433, and the Hickories, pp. 433-436.)
V. ECONOMIC USES.
The original forest of White County must have been extensive and
must have exhibited a high-grade quality of timber quite generally. For
several decades after 1830 there were numerous sawmills operating in
various parts of the county. Some of the pits, wells or other vestiges
of these mills are still to be seen, though perhaps the location of most
of them is a matter of speculation.
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The results of individual inquiry concerning the specific activities
of these early sawmills were very meagre, but through the efforts of
Mr. Ed Newton of Monticello, Ind., I am able to cite a few definite
historical accounts.
Historical Sketch of the Sawmills of White County.
In 1830 Joseph Rothrock built a brush dam across the Tippecanoe
River at Tioga, south of Monticello, and installed a sawmill, which was
probably the first mill built in White County. It never amounted to
much and its location is now only a memory.
A Norwegian, Hans Erasmus Hiorth, bought a thousand-acre tract
of land in 1832 and laid out the town of Norway, north of Monticello.
He built a timber dam across the Tippecanoe, set up two sawmills and
operated them by power obtained from the dam. They were run very
successfully for many years, but have now been dismantled for over a
third of a century.
In 1848 a dam was built across the Tippecanoe at Monticello and
in the following year Zebulin Sheetz built the first sawmill in Monti-
cello, operating it with power obtained from the dam. A second mill
was built later by Hoagland & Conklin. Both of these mills have been
dismantled for some forty years and their very location is forgotten.
In 1882 W. E. Meyers built a steam sawmill at Idaville, capable of
cutting from 6,000 to 8,000 feet of lumber per day. This mill was run
for several years very successfully, but has gone the way of all the
preceding.
Definite history for a mill operated by the Wrights along the Tippe-
canoe between Monticello and Buffalo was not available.
At present there are a number of portable sawmills distributed over
the county. These are operated by thrashing-machine engines and their
owners will locate wherever there is 10,000 feet or more of timber to cut.
The only active stationary mills coming to my knowledge are those
of Pierce & Son at Bumettsville and that of John H. Knickerbocker at
Monticello. The Pierce mill has been running for several years, but
the latter, which uses electric power, was staited only last summer.
But very little of the material cut at either mill is shipped, most of the
lumber being used in the immediate vicinity.
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The lumber concerns of Monticello report no sales of native timber
for a number of years. This is also true for concerns in Idaville and
Brookston. The Colbom-Dye Company of Wolcott, however, in looking
over their files for the past five years, find the following statistics:
Table III.
White County Oak Bought and Sold by the Colbom-Dye Company
of Wolcott,
1911 25,100 feet.
1912 8,878 feet.
1913 7,868 feet.
1914 22,622 feet.
1915 11,813 feet.
Total 76,271 feet.
"We have probably had 3,000 to 4,000 feet from
our local people, which is not included in the above.
The figures given above are all for oak timber shipped
from Burnetts Creek."
Several carloads of walnut were shipped from Monticello in the
spring of 1915.
Messrs. Reed, Spencer & Wright of Wolcott have bought and are
cutting for shipment a quantity of white oak cast of Monticello.
The figures for a mill near Rejmolds, covering four active years,
are as follows. (Thomas Lemon.)
Table IV.
1907. 1908. 1912. 1914. Total.
Feet of lumber 51,704 63,490 76,819 6,345 198,358
Cords of wood 719 1,158 211 2,086
Railroad ties 3,159 4,906 583 8,648
Fence posts 3,501 3,501
A reply from Brookston (M. B. Yount) enumerates various cuts of
lumber aggregating 51,000 feet, as follows:
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Table V.
7,000 feet 1-inch board finishing lumber @ $30-$50 per 100 feet.
15,000 feet 2%-inch bridge plank @ $30 per 100 feet.
7,000 feet 1-inch boards @ $25 per 100 feet.
22,000 feet of 2 x 4 and 2 x 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16 feet long, @ $25.
All oak — some white oak, little black oak, remainder red oak. (1915.)
Table VI.
Jacob Dieter of Reynolds reports:
5,000 railroad cross-ties.
245,000 feet of lumber.
5,000 fence posts.
All black and white oak.
Mr. Wm. F. Prall has done much cutting on the Bunnell estate
near Reynolds and reports the following figures for the period of Sep-
tember, 1915, to March, 1916:
Table VII.
10,000 railroad cross-ties.
25,000 feet of lumber.
In nearly this same time he has cut 200,000 feet of lumber in Car-
roll County just across the White County line.
The reports from the above five sources make a grand total of
574,129 feet of lumber, 43,648 railroad cross-ties, 8,501 fence posts and
2,086 cords of wood. Other mills in the county will show as high and
possibly higher figures. Besides the output of these portable mills using
up native timber there is, speaking comparatively, a considerable amount
of timber cut up as cord wood and fence posts. The supply is becoming
less and less each year, and were the county at once deprived of all
the timber now left, the lack of this valuable resource still remaining,
I am sure, would be keenly felt.
Much timber land has been cleared for agricultural purposes and
this work is still in progress. Very often parties have been so anxious
30—11994
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to clear a section that timber was given away for the work of its
removal. Practices in clearing have often been very wasteful. I men-
tion this with the very contrasting idea in mind of how governments
and foresters are taking every precaution to conserve the rapidly dimin-
ishing forests by preventing and controlling fires, insect and fungous
pests. Man seems to enter as the most destructive agent of all, not
alone by being merely uneconomical but by lacking judgment in making
cause for erosion, or perhaps denuding, a place entirely unfit for any
other purpose. Forest management and care of trees generally is almost
entirely unknown in White County, as it doubtless is in many other
counties of the State. Further than that, any admonition to take care
of the forests would seem absurd to most citizens. And yet some have
seen fit to set out little groves of the much heralded but rather over-
rated catalpa. White County is an integral part of the hardwood area
of the country and as such merits its share of attention.
Below is given a summary covering some interesting features taken
from a report of the Department of Labor and Commerce, Bureau of
Corporations (The Lumber Industry, Part I, Standing Timber, Jan. 20,
1913). Figures for White County in comparison with the following
data are not available. Those acquainted with the area or any other
part of the State may draw their own conclusions. '
The total amount of standing timber in the continental United
States, suitable for the manufacture of lumber under present standards
in the industry, is about 2,800 billion board feet, of which 2,200 billion,
or 787', is privately owned. (Unit is the board foot, which is 1 foot
square and 1 inch thick.)
The present (1913) commercial value of the privately owned stand-
ing timber is about $6,000,000,000, and is becoming more and more val-
uable. The yearly drain on saw timber is about fifty billion board feet.
Only fifty-six years' supply remains.
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TABLE VIII. COMPARISONS OF CUT OF LUMBER BY SPECIES.*
SofTWOODS.
United States.
Indiana.
Illinois.
Ohio.
Michigan.
Active mills reporting
Total lumber cut
Yellow pine
48,112
44,509,761
16,277.185
4.856,378
3.900,034
3.051,399
1,748.547
1,499.485
955.635
521.630
108.702
346,008
204,022
157.192
89.318
1,604
556,418
827
170,181
1.632
542.904
1,323
1.889.724
Douglas fir
203
8.415
78
White pine
Hemlock
Spruce
64
432
153
258,080
614.622
21,797
Western pine...
Cypress
4.186
Redwood
Bal<iam fir
9.645
17.647
■ 44.956 '
Cedar
I^rch
Tamarack
White fir
595
30
152
16
48'
Total softwood
33.896.959
1.216
4.521
10.389
996.747
TABLE IX.
Hardwoods.
United States.
Indiana.
Illinois.
Ohio.
Michigan.
Oak
4,414.457
1.106.604
858.500
706.945
663,891
511,244
452.370
399.151
347,456
265,600
291.209
333,929
96,676
46.108
56.511
24.594
37.557
228.343
43,644
29,174
23.649
2.789
98.729
1.216
13.917
40,364
4.143
23,488
23.513
262
7,669
11,003
1,969
1,330
101,279
7.163
3.628
9,748
259.410
43.852
42,317
2.194
16.424
49.421
856
16,007
33.182
2.944
25,753
21.774
40,023
Maple
Yellow poplar
Red pim
Chestnut
543,214
Beech
Birch
Basewood
Elm
Cottonwood
Ash
Hickory
Tupelo
1.472
475
587
12.102
3.939
2,894
11.095
764
5.051
5.073
163
227
111,340
64,341
69,453
58,321
6,384
24.865
1.850
Walnut
Sycamore
Cherry
All others
8,580
5.243
2.105
2.453
184
749
1.587
666
Total hardwood
10,612.802
555,202
165.660
532,515
922.977
•Table 18, pp. 88, 89, 90, 91, 92. Department of Commerce and Labor, Bureau of Corporations.
The Lumber Industry, Part I, January, 1913.
Table X.
Indiana ranks 26th in total lumber cut in the United States.
Indiana ranks 9th in hardwoods cut.
Indiana is a poor last in softwoods cut. (Illinois next.)
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The greatest softwood States in the Union in order are: Wash-
ington, Louisiana, Mississippi, Texas, Oregon, North Carolina, Alabama,
Minnesota, Virginia, Wisconsin, Arkansas, Georgia, California, etc.
The greatest hard wood States in the Union in order are: Ten-
nessee, Michigan, West Virginia, Kentucky, Arkansas, Pennsylvania,
Virginia, Wisconsin, Indiana, Ohio, Missouri, Mississippi, North Caro-
lina, etc.
Indiana ranks 9
7
7
7
15
2
14
7
3
12
5
5
14
2
1
5
9
Table XL
n Oak.
n Maple,
n Yellow Poplar,
n Red Gum.
n Chestnut.
n Beech. (Mich, first.)
n Birch,
n Basswood.
n Elm. (Wis., Mich.)
n Cottonwood.
n Ash. (Ark., Wis., O., Mich.)
in Hickory. (Tenn., Ark., Ky., Mo.)
n Tupelo. (La., Va.)
n Walnut. (O., Ind., Ky., Tenn. Supply very short)
n Sycamore. (Ind., Mo. close second. Ark. poor third.)
n Cherry. (W. Va., Pa., N. Y., O., Ind.)
n all others. (Ky. big first.)
Table XII.
Number of Indiana Sawmills, Grouped According to Output,
Total sawmills 1,599 1,000- 2,500 M 80
Less than 50 M 195 2,500- 5,000 M 26
50- 500 M 1,121
500-1,000 M 173
5,000-10,000 M 3
10,000-15,000 M 1
The pioneers in White County used much timber for log houses,
fuel, and rail fences. Much is still us3d for house and barn sills, bridge
stringers and planks. Fence posts and corner braces, with wire, have
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long ago taken the place of rail fences, although one can still find some
rail fences in existence. Old settlers tell of much wood being formerly
used as fuel by the railroads at their inception. For domestic use wood
is still the chief fuel in the county. Formerly most fuel wood was cut
in "full cord wood" length, now it is nearly all cut in "block wood"
length. Not much pole wood is sold. So far as I know, very little
White County timber gets to manufacturing establishments.
VI. SUMMARY.
With the completion of this thesis it is not meant that the final
word on Trees of White County has been said. More observation is
necessary to complete ranges within the county, and more material is
necessary to determine some species definitely. Very likely a few species
have escaped observation.
Sixty-two out of 125 trees reported for the State have been found
in White County; 17 small trees or large shrubs are noted, in addition
to two new varieties for the State.
The likelihood of a new willow and a new thorn for the State are
mentioned. A new variety of willow is also reported.
The peculiar oak found northeast of Brookston needs further inves-
tigation, as do all of the above, and other species as well.
Lack of time has precluded further data being included.
Bibliography.
1. American Forestry Magazine, Vol. 21, No. 260. Aug., 1915.
The Tulip-tree or Yellow Poplar.
2. American Forestry Magazine, Vol. 21, No. 263. Nov., 1915.
The Sugar Maple. By S. B. Detwiler.
3. American Forestry Magazine, Vol. 21, No. 264. Dec, 1915.
The White Ash. By S. B. Detwiler.
The Biggest Shade Tree Is Also the Best. (Sycamore at
Worthington.)
4. American Forestry Magazine, Vol. 22, No. 265. Jan., 1915.
The American White Oak. By S. B. Detwiler.
5. Anderson, H. W. Proc. Ind. Acad, of Sci., pp. 197-202. 1913.
The Taxation of Forest Lands in Indiana.
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6. Andrews, F. M. Proc. Ind. Acad, of Sci., pp. 203-212. 1913.
Forests and Floods.
7. Blakeslee, A. F., and Jarvis, C. D. Macmillan Co., N. Y. 1913.
Trees in Winter.
8. Britton, N. L. Henry Holt & Co., N. Y. 1908.
North American Trees.
9. Britton, N. L., and Brown, A. Charles Scribner's Sons, N. Y.
Second Edition.
Illustrated Flora of the Northern States and Canada.
10. Cockerell, T. D. H. Cycl. of Am. Agri., Vol. 1, p. 20.
Life Zones of North America.
11. Coulter, Stanley.
Flora of Indiana.
12. Coulter, Stanley. Ind. State Bd. of Forestry. 1912.
Suggestions for the Improvement of Indiana Woodlots.
13. Coulter, Stanley. Proc. Ind. Acad, of Sci. 1913.
First Steps in Indiana Forestry.
14. Coulter, Stanley. Proc. Ind. Acad, of Sci. 1914.
Notes Upon the Distribution of Forest Trees in Indiana.
15. Cowles, H. D. Bot. Gazette, Vol. 27, No. 2. Feb., 1899.
The Ecological Relations of the Vegetation of the Sand Dunes
of Lake Michigan.
16. Cowles, H. D. Bot. Gazette, Vol. 31, No. 2. Feb., 1901.
The Physiographic Ecology of Chicago and Vicinity.
17. Cowles, H. D. Bot. Gazette, Vol. 31, No. 3. March, 1901.
Continuation of the above.
18. Deam, C. C. Eleventh Annual Report of the Indiana State Board
of Forestry. 1911.
Trees of Indiana.
19. Deam, C. C. Report Indiana State Board of Forestry. 1912.
Shade Trees.
20. Fuller, G. D. Bot. Gazette, Vol. 38, No. 3. Sept., 1914.
Evaporation and Soil Moisture in Relation to the Succession of
Plant Societies.
21. Fuller, G. D. Bot. Gazette, Vol. 52, No. 3. Sept., 1911.
Evaporation and Succession.
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22. Gates, R. R. Bot. Gazette, Vol. 61, No. 3. March, 191G.
On Pairs of Species.
23. Gray's New Manual of Botany, 7th Ed. 1908.
24. Hough, R. B. Handbook of the Trees of the Northern States and
Canada. 1907.
25. Livingston, B. E. Bot. Gazette, Vol. 39, No. 1. Jan., 1905.
The Relation of Soils to Natural Vegetation in Roscommon and
Crawford Counties, Michigan.
26. Moore, Barrington. Bot. Gazette, Vol. 61, No. 1. Jan., 1916.
Notes on the Succession from Pine to Oak.
27. Sargent, C. S. Houghton, Mifflin Co., N. Y. 1905.
Manual of the Trees of North America.
28. Huntington, Annie Oaks. Knight & Millet, Boston. 1905.
Studies of Trees in Winter.
29. Schimper, A. W. F. Authorized English Translation. By Wm. R.
Fisher. Revised by Groom and Balfour, Oxford, Eng.
Clarendon Press. 1903.
Plant Geography Upon a Physiological Basis.
30. U. S. Dept. of Agri. Forest Service.
Statistical Atlas. 1907.
31. U. S. Dept. of Agri. Bulletin No. 316. By Geo. N. Lamb.
Willows: Their Growth, Use and Importance.
32. U. S. Dept. of Commerce and Labor. Bureau of Corporations.
Jan. 20, 1913.
The Lumber Industry. Part I. Standing Timber.
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INDEX
A.
PAGE
Act for Publication of Reports 8
Appropriation for 1917-1918 ' 9
Andrews, F. M. —
Studies on Pollen 163
Stoppage of a Sewer Line by Roots of Acer Saccharum 165
Anthocyanin of Beta Vulgaris 167
Improved Forms of Maximows' Automatic Pipette 169
The Effect of Centrifugal Force on Plants 175
The Absorption of Iron by Platinum Crucible in Clay Fusions, Wm.
M. Blanchard and Roscoe Theibert 189
Artificial Selection on Bristle Number in Drosophila Ampelophila,
The Effect of, Fernandus Payne 249
Anthocyanin of Beta Vulgaris, F. M. Andrews 167
B.
By-laws 7
Beals, C. C—
The Effect of Aeration of the Roots of Zea Mays 177
Brief Notes on the New Castle Tornado 219
Behrens, C. A., The Erdmann New Culture for Protozoa 297
Blanchard, William, The Absorption of Iron by Platinum Crucible
in Clay Fusions 189
C.
Constitution 5
Committees, 1918 12
A Comparison of Plant Succession on Hudson River Limestone with
That on Niagara Limestone, M. S. Markle 109
Chemical Estimation on the Fertility of Soils in Fulton County,
Indiana, R. H. Carr and W. K. Gast 201
Carr, R. H., Chemical Estimation on the Fertility of Soils in Fulton
County, Indiana 201
Clark, Howard Walton, The Unionidae of Lake Maxinkuckee 251
Cromwell, Hobart, Further Experiments with the Mutant, Scarlet,
from Drosophila Repleta 287
Conner, S. D., The Injurious Effect of Borax in Fertilizers on Com 195
Com Pollination, Improved Technique for, Paul Weatherwax 105
(473)
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D.
PAGE
Dryer, Charles R., The Physiography of Indianapolis 55
Dwarfing Effect of Attacks of Mites of the Genus Eriophyes Upon
Norway Maples, Howard E. Enders 79
Disposition and Intelligence of the Chimpanzee, W. Henry Sheak . . 301
E.
Eigenmann, Carl H., The Pygidiidae 59
An Epidemic Among the Fishes of Huffman's Lake, Will Scott 67
Enders, Howard E., Dwarfing Effect of Attacks of Mites of the
Genus Eriophyes Upon Norway Maples 79
The Effect of Centrifugal Force on Plants, F. M. Andrews 175
The Effect of Aeration of the Roots of Zea Mays, C. C. Reals 177
The Injurious Effect of Borax in Fertilizers on Com, S. D. Conner. . 195
Evans, P. N., Sulphur By-products of the Preparation of Ether 211
The Effect of Tobacco Smoke and of Methyl Iodide Vapor on the
Growth of Certain Micro-organisms, C. A. Ludwig 217
Energy Losses in Commercial Hammers, Edwin Morrison and Robert
Retry 245
Further Experiments with the Mutant, Scarlet, from Drosophila
Repleta, Hobart Cromwell 287
The Erdmann New Culture Medium for Protozoa, C. A. Behrens
and H. C. Travelbee 297
Evermann, Barton Warren, The Unionidae of Lake Maxinkuckee. . 251
F.
Fall Meeting, Minutes of 43
Foresman, G. K., Sulphur By-products of the Preparation of Ether 211
Where Feeble-minded Are Self-supporting, Hazel Hansford 85
G.
Germinal Changes in the Bar-eyed Race of Drosophila, Chas. Zeleny 73
Gast, W. K., Chemical Estimation of the Fertility of Soils in Fulton
County, Indiana 201
H.
Hunting Wild Birds— Penalty 10
Hansford, Hazel, Where the Feeble-minded are Self-supporting. ... 85
Hess, Walter N., A Seasonal Study of the Kidney of the Five-spined
Stickleback 295
Heimlich, Louis F., The Trees of White County, Indiana 387
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475
I.
PAGE
Certain Indicia of Dip in Rocks, William N. Logan 229
J.
Jackson, H. S. —
The Ustilaginales of Indiana 119
The Uredinales of Indiana, II 133
The Uredinales of Delaware 311
K.
Knipp, Charles T. —
An Improved Form of Mercury Vapor Air Pump 241
A Possible Standard of Sound 243
L.
Logan, William N. —
The Mount Carmel Fault 221
Utilization of Indiana Kaolin 227
Certain Indicia of Dip in Rocks 229
Ludwig, C. A. —
The Effect of Tobacco Smoke and Methyl Iodide Vapor on the
Growth of Certain Micro-organisms 217
M.
Members —
Active 24
Fellows 15
Non-resident Members and Fellows 20
Mottier, D. M., Plastids 97
Markle, M. S.—
A Comparison of Plant Succession on the Hudson River Lime-
stone with That on Niagara Limestone 109
Notes on Microscopic Technique 115
Microscopic Technique Notes on Maximows' Automatic Pipette, Im-
proved Forms of, F. M. Andrews 169
The Mount Carmel Fault, William N. Logan 221
Mercury Vapor Air Pump, An Improved Form of, Charles Knipp. . 241
Morrison, Edwin, Energy Losses in Commercial Hammers 245
N.
Noyes, H. A., Reaction of Culture Media 149
Nothnagel, Mildred, Resistance of Mucor Zygotes 181
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476
PAGE
Brief Notes on Field Methods Used in Geological Work of Mid-con-
tinental Oil Fields, Louis Roark 235
New Castle Tornado, Brief Notes on, C. C. Beals 219
O.
Officers of 1918 11
Officers of Former Years 13
Osner, George A., Additions to the List of Plant Diseases of Eco-
nomic Importance in Indiana 145
P.
Petry, Robert L., Energy Losses in Commercial Hammers 245
Payne, Fernandus, Artificial Selection in Bristle Number in Droso-
phila Ampelophila 249
Progi-am of Thirty-third Annual Meeting 49
The Physiography of Indianapolis, Charles R. Dryer 55
The Pygidiidae, Carl H. Eigenmann 59
Plastids, D. M. Mottier 97
Pipal, F. J., A Suspected Case of Stock Poisoning by Wild Onions. . 139
Plant Diseases of Economic Importance in Indiana, Addition to the
List of, George A. Osner 145
Pollen, Studies on, F. M. Andrews 163
R.
Reaction of Culture Media, H, A. Noyes 149
Resistance of Mucor Zygotes, Mildred Nothnagel 181
Roark, Louis, Brief Notes on Field Methods Used in Geological Work
of Mid-continental Oil Fields 235
S.
Spring Meeting, Minutes of 39
Scott, Will, An Epidemic Among the Fishes of Huffman's Lake 67
A Study of the Action of Bacteria on Milk Proteins, George Spitzer
and H. M. Weeter 91
Spitzer, George, A Study of the Action of Bacteria on Milk Proteins 91
Stock Poisoning by Wild Onion, Allium Canadense, A Suspected Case
of, F. J. Pipal 139
Stoppage of a Sewer Line by Roots of Acer Saccharum, F. M. An-
drews 165
Sulphur By-products in the Preparation of Ether, P. N. Evans and
G. K. Foresman 211
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47
PAGE
Standard of Sound, A Possible, Charles T. Knipp 243
A Sectional Study of the Kidney of the Five-spined Stickleback,
Walter N. Hess 295
Sheak, W. Henry, Disposition and Intelligence of the Chimpanzee. . 301
T.
Theibert, Roscoe, The Absorption of Iron by Platinum Crucible in
Clay Fusions 189
Travelbee, H. C, The Erdmann New Culture Medium for Protozoa 297
The Trees of White County, Indiana, Louis F. Heimlich 387
U.
The Ustilaginales of Indiana, H. S. Jackson 119
The Uredinales of Indiana, II, H. S. Jackson 133
Utilization of Indiana Kaolin, William N. Logan 227
The Unionidae of Lake Maxinkuckee, Barton Warren Evermann and
Howard Walton Clark 251
The Uredinales of Delaware, H. S. Jackson 311
V.
Variation and Varieties of Zea Mays, Paul Weatherwax 99
W.
Weatherwax, Paul —
Variation and Varieties of Zea Mays 99
Improved Technique for Com Pollination 105
Weeter, H. M., A Study of the Action of Bacteria on Milk Proteins 91
Z.
Zeleny, Charles, Germinal Changes in the Bar-eyed Race of Droso-
phila 73
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PROCEEDINGS
I ndiana Academy of Science
1918
LEE F. BENNETT, Editor
INDIANAPOLIS :
WM. B. BURPORD, CONTRACTOR FOR STATE PRINTING AND BINDING
1919
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CONTENTS.
H.
f\
PAGF
Constitution 6
By-Laws 7
"^ Public Offenses — Hunting Birds — Penalty 9
Officers, 1918-1919 10
rj Committees, Academy of Science, 1919 11
< Officers of the Academy of Science (A Table of) 12
' Members 14
Fellows 14
Non-Resident Members and Fellows 18
Active Members 21
Minutes of the Spring Meeting 32
Program of the Thirty-fourth Annual Meeting 37
j^ Minutes of the. Thirty-fourth Annual Meeting 42
J Papers — President's Address 45
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CONSTITUTION.
ARTICLE I.
Secttion 1. This association shall be called the Indiana Academy of
Science.
Sec. 2. The objects of this Academy shall be scientific research and
the diffusion of knowledge concerning the various departments of science ;
to promote intercourse between men eng^aged in scientific work, especially
in Indiana; to assist by investigation and discussion in developing and
making known the material, educational and other resources and riches
of the State; to arrange and prepare for publication such reports of
investigation and discussion as may further the aims and objects of the
Academy as set forth in these articles.
Whereas, The State has undertaken the publication of such proceed-
ings, the Academy will, upon request of the Governor, or one of the
several departments of the State, through the Governor, act through its
council as an advisory body in the direction and execution of any inves-
tigation within its province as stated. The necessary expenses incurred
in the prosecution of such investigation are to be borne by the State; no
pecuniary g^ain is to come to the Academy for its advice or direction of
such investigation.
The regular proceedings of the Academy as published by the State
shall become a public document.
ARTICLE II.
Section 1. Members of this Academy shall be honorary fellows,
fellows, non-resident members, and active members.
Sec. 2. Any person engaged in any department of scientific work,
or in any original research in any department of science, shall be eligible
to active membership. Active members may be annual or life members.
Annual members may be elected at any meeting of the Academy; they
shall sign the constitution, pay an admission fee of two dollars and there-
after an annual fee of one dollar. Any person who shall at one time
contribute fifty dollars to the funds of this Academy may be elected a
life member of the Academy, free of assessment. Non-resident members
may be elected from those who have been active members but who have
removed from the State. In any case, a three-fourths vote of the mem-
bers present shall elect to membership. Application for membership in
(5)
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6 Proceedings of Indiana Academy of Science.
any of the foregoing classes shall be referred to a committee on appli-
cation for membership, who shall consider such application and report
to the Academy before the election.
Sec. 3. The members who are actively engaged in scientific work,
who have recognized standing as scientific men, and who have been mem-
bers of the Academy at least one year, may be recommended for nom-
ination for election as fellows by three fellows or members personally
acquainted with their work and character. Of members so nominated a
number not exceeding five in one year may, on recommendation of the
Executive Committee, be elected as fellows. At the meeting at which
this is adopted, the members of the Executive Committee for 1894 and
fifteen others shall be elected fellows, and those now honorary members
shall become honorary fellows. Honorary fellows may be elected on
account of special prominence in science, on the written, recommendation
of two members of the Academy. In any case a three-fourths vote of
the members present shall elect.
• ARTICLE III.
Section 1. The officers of this Academy shall be chosen by ballot at
the annual meeting, and shall hold office one year. They shall consist of
a President, Vice-President, Secretary, Assistant Secretary, Press Secre-
tary, Editor, and Treasurer, who shall perform the duties usually per-
taining to their respective offices and in addition, with the ex-Presidents
of the Academy, shall constitute an Executive Committee. The President
shall, at each annual meeting, appoint two members to be a committee
which shall prepare the jkrograms and have charge of the arrangements
for all meetings for one year.
Sec. 2. The annual meeting of the Academy shall be held in the city
of Indianapolis within the week following Christmas of each year, unless
otherwise ordered by the Executive Committee. There shall also be a
summer meeting at such time and place as may be decided upon by the
Executive Committee. Other meetings may be called at the discretion of
the Executive Committee. The past Presidents, together with the officers
and Executive Committee, shall constitute the council of the Academy,
and represent it in the transaction of any necessary business not espe-
cially provided for in this constitution, in the interim between general
meetings.
Sec. 3. This constitution may be altered or amended at any annual
meeting by a three-fourths majority of the attending members of at least
one year's standing. No question of amendment shall be decided on the
day of its presentation.
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By-Laws.
BY-LAWS.
1. On motion, any special department of science shall be assigpied to
a curator, whose duty it shall be, with the assistance of the other mem-
bers interested in the same department, to endeavor to advance knowl-
edge in that particular department. Each curator shall report at such
time and place as the Academy shall direct. These reports shall include
a brief summary of the progress of the department during the year
preceding the presentation of the report.
2. The President shall deliver a public address on the morning of
one of the days of the meeting at the expiration of his term of office.
3. The Press Secretary shall attend to the securing of proper news-
paper reports of the meetings and assist the Secretary.
4. No special meeting of the Academy shall be held without a notice
of the same having been sent to the address of each member at least
fifteen days before such meeting.
5. No bill against the Academy shall be paid without an order signed
by the President and countersigned by the Secretary.
6. Members who shall allow their dues to remain unpaid for two
years, having been annually notified of their arrearage by the Treasurer,
shall have their names stricken from the roll.
7. Ten members shall constitute a quorum for the transaction of
business.
8. An Editor shall be elected from year to year. His duties shall be
to edit the annual Proceedings. No allowance shall be made to the Editor
for clerical assistance on account of any one edition of the Proceedings
in excess of fifty ($50) dollars, except by special action of the Executive
Conmiittee. (Amendment passed December 8, 1917.)
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8 Proceedings of Indiana Academy of Science.
AN ACT TO PROVIDE FOR THE PUBLICATION OF THE
REPORTS AND PAPERS OF THE INDIANA
ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.
(Approved March 11, 1895.)
Whereas, The Indiana Academy of Science, a chartered scientific
association, has embodied in its constitution a provision that it will,
upon the request of the Governor, or of the several departments of the
State government, through the Governor, and through its council as an
advisory board, assist in the direction and execution of any investigation
within its province* without pecuniary gain to the Academy, provided
only that the necessary expenses of such investigation are borne by the
State; and,
Whereas, The reports of the meetings of said Academy, with the
several papers read before it, have very great educational, industrial
and economic value, and should be preserved in permanent form; and.
Whereas, The Constitution of the State makes it thie duty of the
General Assembly to encourage by all suitable means intellectual, scien-
tific and agricultural improvement; therefore.
Section 1. Be it enacted by the General Assembly of the State of
Indiana, That hereafter the annual reports of the meetings of the
Indiana Academy of Science, beginning with the report for the year
1894, including all papers of scientific or economic value, presented at
such meetings, after they shall have been edited and prepared for pub-
lication as hereinafter provided, shall be published by and under the
direction of the Commissioners of Public Printing and Binding.
Sec. 2. Said reports shall be edited and prepared for publication
without expense to the State, by a corps of editors to be selected and
appointed by the Indiana Academy of Science, who shall not, by reason
of such service, have any claim against the State for compensation. Th«
form, style of binding, paper, typography and manner and extent of
illustration of such reports shall be determined by the editors, subject
to the approval of the Commissioners of Public Printing and Stationery.
Not less than 1,500 nor more than 3,000 copies of each of said reports
shall be published, the size of the edition within said limits to be deter-
mined by the concurrent action of the editors and the Commissioners of
Public Printing and Stationery: Provided, That not to exceed six hun-
dred dollars ($600) shall be expended for such publication in any one
year, and not to extend beyond 1896: Provided, That no sums shall be
deemed to be appropriated for the year 1894.
Sec. 3. All except three hundred copies of each volume of said re-
ports shall be placed in the custody of the State Librarian, who shall
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Public Offenses. 9
furnish one copy thereof to each public library in the State, one copy to
each university, college or normal school in the State, one copy to each
high school in the State having a library, which shall make application
therefor, and one copy to such other institutions, societies or persons as
may be designated by the Academy through its editors or its council.
The remaining three hundred copies shall be turned over to the Academy
to be disposed of as it may determine. In order to provide for the pres-
ervation of the same it shall be the duty of the Custodian of the State
House to provide and place at the disposal of the Academy one of the
unoccupied rooms of the State House, to be designated as the office of
the Academy of Science, wherein said copies of said reports belonging
to the Academy, together with the original manuscripts, drawings, etc.,
thereof can be safely kept, and he shall also equip the same with the
necessary shelving and furniture.
Sec. 4. An emergency is hereby declared to exist for the immediate
taking effect of this act, and it shall therefore take effect and be in force
from and after its passage.
PUBLIC OFFENSES -HUNTING WILD BIRDS— PENALTY.
(Approved March 15, 1913.)
Section 1. Be it enacted 6y the General Assembly of the State of
Indiana, That section six (6) of the above entitled act be amended to
read as follows: Section 6. That section six hundred two (602) of the
above entitled act be amended to read as follows: Section 602. It shall
be unlawful for any person to kill, trap or possess any wild bird, or to
purchase or offer the same for sale, or to destroy the nest or eggs of any
wild bird, except as otherwise provided in this section. But this section
shall not apply to the following named game birds: The Anatidae, com-
monly called swans, geese, brant, river and sea duck; the Rallidae, com-
monly known as rails, coots, mud-hens and gallinules; the Limicolae,
commonly known as shore birds, plovers, surf birds, snipe, woodcock,
sandpipers, tattlers and curlews; the Gallinae, commonly called wild
turkeys, grouse, prairie chickens, quails, and pheasants; nor to English
or European house sparrows, blackbirds, crows, hawks or other birds of
prey. Nor shall this section apply to any person taking birds or their
nests or eggs for scientific purposes under permit as provided in the
next section. Any person violating the provisions of this section shall,
on conviction, be fined not less than ten dollars ($10.00) nor more than
fifty doUars ($50.00).
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10 Proceedings of Indiana Academy of Science.
INDIANA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.
Arthur, J. C,
Bennett, L. F.,
BiGNEY, A. J.,
Blanchard, W. M.,
Blatchley, W. S.,
Branner, J. C,
BuRRAGE, Severance,
Butler, Amos W.,
COGSHALL, W..A.,
Coulter, John M.,
Coulter, Stanley,
CULBERTSON, GLENN,
Officers, 1919.
President,
E. B. Williamson.
Vice-Presiden t,
Charles Stoltz.
Secretary,
Howard E. Enders.
Assistant Secretary,
Philip A. Tetrault.
Press Secretary,
Frank B. Wade.
Treasurer,
William M. Blanchard.
Editor,
Lee F. Bennett.
Executive Committee:
Dryer, Chas. R.,
ElGENMANN, C. H.,
Enders, Howard E.,
Evans, P. N.,
Foley, A. L.,
Hay, O. p.,
Hessler, Robert,
Jordan, D. S.,
McBeth, W. a.,
Mees, Carl L.,
Moenkhaus, W. J.,
MoTTiER, David M.,
Mendenhall, T. C,
Naylor, Joseph P.,
Noyes, W. a.,
Stoltz, Charles,
Tetrault, P. A.,
Wade, F. B.,
Waldo, C. A.,
Wiley, H. W.,
Williamson, E. B.,
Wright, John S.
Curators :
Botany J. C. Arthur.
Entomology W. S. Blatchley.
Herpetology 1
Mammalogy [ A. W. Butler.
Ornithology J
Ichthyology C. H. Eigenmann.
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Committees.
Committees Academy op Science, 1919.
11
Program.
C. C. Beam, Bluffton.
Frank B. Wade, Shortridge High
School, Indianapolis.
John S. Wright, Indianapolis.
Nominations.
Stanley Coulter, Lafayette.
W. J. MoENKHAUS, Bloomington.
J. P. Naylor, Greencastle.
State Library.
W. S. Blatchley, 1558 Park Ave.,
Indianapolis.
A. L. Foley, Bloomington.
Amos W. Butler, State House,
Indianapolis.
Biological Survey.
Herbert S. Jackson, Agricultural
Experiment Station, West La-
fayette.
Richard M. Holman, Crawfords-
ville.
M. S. Markle, Richmond.
Will Scott, Indiana University,
Bloomington.
Distribution of Proceedings.
Howard E. Enders, West Lafay-
ette.
Wm. M. Blanchard, Greencastle.
U. O^ Cox, State Nonnal, Terre
Haute.
George Osner, West Lafayette.
Membership.
F. M. Andrews, Bloomington.
M. L. Fisher, West Lafayette.
Mason L. Weems, Valparaiso.
Auditing.
Glenn Culbertson, Hanover.
ROLLO Ramsey, Bloomington.
Relation of the Academy to the
State.
R. W. McBride, 1239 State Life
Building, Indianapolis.
Glenn Culbertson, Hanover.
H. E. Barnard, State House, Indi-
anapolis.
John S. Wright, 3718 Pennsyl-
vania St., Indianapolis.
W. W. Woollen, 1628 Pennsyl-
vania St., Indianapolis.
Publication of Proceedings.
Lee F. Bennett, Janesville, Wis.
Robert Hessler, Logansport.
George N. Hopper, West Lafayette.
R. R. Hyde, Terre Haute.
James Brown, 5372 E. Washington
St., Indianapolis.
Advisory Council.
John S. Wright.
R. W. McBru)e.
Glenn Culbertson.
Stanley Coulter.
Wilbur Cogshall.
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12
Proceedings of Indiana Academy of Science.
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14 Proceedings of Indiana Academy of Science.
MEMBERS.*
FELLOWS,
Andrews, F. M., 901 E. 10th St., Bloomington fl^ll
Associate Professor of Botany, Indiana University.
Plant Physiology, Botany.
Arthur, Joseph C, 915 Columbia St., Lafayette 1893
Professor Emeritus of Botany, Purdue University.
Botany.
Badertscher, J. A., 312 , S. Fess Ave., Bloomington 1917
Professor of Anatomy, Indiana University.
Anatomy.
Beede, Joshua W., 404 W. 38th St., Austin, Texas. 1906
Bureau of Economic Geology and Technology, University of
Texas.
Geology.
Behrens, Charles A., 217 Lutz Ave., West Lafayette 1917
Professor of Bacteriology, Purdue University.
Bacteriology.
Bennett, Lee F., Janesville, Wis 1916
With The H. W. Gossard Company.
Geology, Zoology
Benton, George W., 100 Washington Square, New York, N. Y 1896
Editor in Chief, American Book Company.
Big^iey* Andrew J., Syracuse, N. Y 1897
Professor of Physiology, Syracuse University.
Blanchard, William M., 1008 S. College Ave., Greencastle, Ind 1914
Professor of Chemistry, DePauw University, Greencastle, Ind.
Organic Chemistry.
Blatchley, W. S., 1558 Park Ave., Indianapolis 1893
Naturalist.
Botany, Entomology, and Geology.
* Every effort has been made to obtain the correct address and occupation of each
member, and to learn in what line of science he is interested. The first line contains
the name and address : the second line the occupation ; the third line the branch of
science in which he is interested. The omission of an address indicates that mail «<^
dressed to the last printed address was returned as uncalled for. Infonnation as to the
present address of members so indicated is requested by the secretary. The cuttrnn of
dividing the list of members has been followed.
t Date of election.
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Fellows. 15
Breeze, Fred J., Muncie 1910
Branch State Normal School.
Geography.
Bruner, Henry Lane, 324 S. Ritter Ave., Indianapolis 1899
Professor of Biologry, Butler College.
Comparative Anatomy, Zoology.
Bryan, William Lowe, Bloomington 1914
President Indiana University.
Psychology.
Butler, Amos W., 52 Downey Ave., Irvington 1893
Secretary, Indiana Board of State Charities.
Vertebrate Zoology, Anthropology, Sociology.
Cogshall, Wilbur A., 423 S. Fess Ave., Bloomington 1906
Associate Professor of Astronomy, Indiana University.
Astronomy.
Coulter, Stanley, 213 S. Ninth St., Lafayette 1893
Dean School of Science, Purdue University.
Botany, Forestry.
Cox, Ulysses O., P. O. Box 81, Terre Haute 1908
Head Department Zoology and Botany, Indiana State Normal.
Botany, Zoology.
Culbertson, Glenn, Hanover 1899
Chair Geologry) Physics and Astronomy, Hanover College.
Geology.
Cumings, Edgar Roscoe, 327 E. Second St., Bloomington 1906
Professor of Geology, Indiana University.
Geology, Paleontology.
Deam, Charles C, Bluffton 1910
Drugg:ist, Botanist, State Forester.
Botany.
Dryer, Charles R., Oak Knoll, Fort Wayne 1897
Geography.
Dutcher, J. B., 1212 Atwater St., Bloomington 1914
Associate Professor of Physics, Indiana University.
Physics.
Eigenmann, Carl H., 630 Atwater St., Bloomington 1893
Professor of Zoology, Dean of Graduate School, Indiana Uni-
versity.
Embryology, Degeneration, Heredity, Evolution and Distribution
of American Fish.
Enders, Howard Edwin, 107 Fowler Ave., Lafayette 1912
Professor of Zoology, Purdue University.
Zoology.
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16 Proceedings of Indiana Academy of Science.
Evans, Percy Norton, 302 Waldron St., West Lafayette 1901
Director of Chemical Laboratory, Purdue University.
Chemistry.
Foley, Arthur L., Blooming^ton 1897
Head of Department of Physics, Indiana University.
Physics.
Hessler, Robert, Logansport 1899
Physician.
Biology.
Hoffer, George N., Littleton St., West Lafayette 1913
Federal Agent, Purdue University Experiment Station.
Hufford, Mason E., Bloomington 1916
Physics.
Hurty, J. N., Indianapolis 1910
Secretary, Indiana State Board of Health.
Hygiene and Chemistry.'
Hyde, Roscoe Raymond, 636 Chestnut St., Terre Haute 1909
Assistant Professor Physiology and Zoology, Indiana State
Normal.
Zoology, Physiology, Bacteriology.
Kenyon, Alfred Monroe, 315 University St., West Lafayette 1914
Professor of Mathematics, Purdue University.
Mathematics.
Kern, Frank D., State College, Pa 1912
Professor of Botany, Pennsylvania State College.
Botany.
Koch, Edward W., Buffalo, N. Y 1917
Care of University of Buffalo Medical School.
Pharmacology.
Logan, Wm. N., 924 Atwater St., Bloomington 1917
Professor of Economic Geology, Indiana University.
State Geologist.
McBride, Robert W., 1239 State Life Building, Indianapolis 1916
Lawyer.
Middleton, A. R., 629 University St., West Lafayette 1908
Professor of Chemistry, Purdue University.
Chemistry.
Morrison, Edwin, 80 S. W. Seventh St., Richmond 1915
Professor of Physics, Earlham College.
Physics and Chemistry.
Mottier, David M., 215 Forest Place, Bloomington 1893
Professor of Botany, Indiana University.
Morphology, Cytology.
Digiti
zed by Google
Fellows. 17
Naylor, J. P., Greencastle 1903
Professor of Physics, DePauw University.
Physics, Mathematics.
Nieuwland, J. A 1914
Notre Dame University.
Botany and Organic Chemistry.
Payne, F., 620 S. Fess Ave., Bloomingrton 1916
Associate Professor of Zoology, Indiana University.
Cytology and Embryology.
Po^lman, Augustus G., 16 Yale Ave., University City, St. Louis, Mo.. 1911
Professor of Anatomy.
Embryology, Comparative Anatomy.
Ramsey, Rolla R., 615 E. Third St., Bloomington 1906
Associate Professor of Physics, Indiana University.
Physics.
Ransom, James H., 2015 West End Ave., Nashville, Tenn 1902
Professor of Chemistry, Vanderbilt University.
General Chemistry, Organic Chemistry.
Rettger, Louis J., 31 Gilbert Ave., Terre Haute 1896
Professor of Physiology, Indiana State Normal.
Animal Physiolo^.
Rothrock, David A., Bloomington 1906
Professor of Mathematics, Indiana University.
Mathematics. .
Schockel, Barnard, Terre Haute 1917
Professor of Physical Geography, State Normal School.
Scott, Will, Bloomington 1911
Assistant Professor of Zoology, Indiana University.
Zoology, Lake Problems.
Shannon, Charles W., 518 Lahoma Ave., Norman, Okla 1912
With Oklahoma State Geological Survey.
Geology.
Smith, Albert, University St., West Lafayette (Army Service) 1908
Professor of Structural Engineering.
Physics, Mechanics.
Smith, Charles Marquis, 152 Sheetz St., West Lafayette 1912
Professor of Physics, Purdue University.
Physics.
Stone, Winthrop E., Lafayette 1893
President of Purdue University.
Chemistry.
2—16668
Digiti
zed by Google
18 Proceedings of Indiana Academy of Science.
Van Hook, James M., 939 N. College Ave., Bloomington 1911
Assistant Professor of Botany, Indiana University.
Botany.
Wade, Frank Bertram, 1039 W. Twenty-seventh St., Indianapolis. . .1914
Head of Chemistry Department, Shortridge High School.
Chemistry, Physics, Geology, and Mineralogy.
Williamson, E. B., Bluffton 1914
President, The Wells County Bank..
Dragonflies.
Woollen, William Watson, Indianapolis 1908
Lawyer.
Birds and Nature Study.
Wright, John S., 3718 N. Pennsylvania St., Indianapolis 1894
Manager of Advertising Department, Eli Lilly Co.
Economic Botany.
NON-RESIDENT MEMBERS AND FELLOWS,
Abbott, G. A., Grand Forks, N. Dak., Fellow 1908
Professor of Chemistry, University of North Dakota.
Chemistry.
Aldrich, John Merton, Washington, D. C 1918
Custodian of Diptera, U. S. National Museum.
Dipterologist.
Aley, Robert J., Orono, Me., Fellow 1908
President of University of Maine.
Mathematics and General Science.
Branner, John Casper, Stanford University, California.
President Emeritus of Stanford University.
Geology.
Brannon, Melvin A., President Beloit College, Beloit, Wis.
Plant Breeding, Botany.
Burrage, Severance, Denver, Colo 1898
United States Public Health Work.
Campbell, D. H., Stanford University, California.
Professor of Botany, Stanford University.
Botany.
Clark, Howard Walton, U. S. Biological Station, Fairport, Iowa.
Scientific Assistant U. S. Bureau of Fisheries.
Botany, Zoology.
Cook, Mel T., New Brunswick, N. J., Fellow 1902
Plant Pathologist, • New Jersey Experiment Station.
Botany, Plant Pathology, Entomology.
Digiti
zed by Google
Non-Resident Members and Fellows. 19
Coulter, John M., University of Chicasfo, Chicasfo, 111., Fellow 1893
Head Department of Botany, Chicagfo University.
Botany.
Davis, B. M., Oxford, Ohio.
Professor of Agricultural Education.
Miami University.
Duff, A. Wilmer, 43 Harvard St., Worcester, Mass.
Professor of Physics, Worcester Polytechnic Institute.
Physics.
Evermann, Barton Warren, Director Museum.
California Academy of Science, Golden Gate Park, San Fran-
cisco, Cal.
Zoology.
Gilbert, Charles H., Stanford University, California.
Professor of Zoology, Stanford University.
Ichthyology.
Goss, William Freeman M., 61 Broadway, New York, Fellow 1893
President The Railway Car Manufacturers Association.
Greene, Charles Wilson, 814 Virginia Ave., Columbia, Mo.
Professor of Physiology and Pharmacology, University of Mis-
souri.
Physiology, Zoology.
Hargitt, Chas. W., 909 Walnut Ave., Syracuse, N. Y.
Professor of Zoology and Director of the Laboratories, Syracuse
University.
Hygiene, Embryology, Eugenics, Animal Behavior.
Hay, Oliver Perry, U. S. National Museum, Washington, D. C.
Research Associate, Carnegie Institute of Washington.
Vertebrate Paleontology, especially that of the Pleistocene Epoch.
Huston, H. A., New York City, Fellow 1893
Secretary, German Kali Works.
Jenkins, Oliver P., Stanford University, California.
Professor of Physiology, Stanford University.
Physiology, Histology.
Jordan, David Starr, Stanford University, California.
Chancellor Emeritus of Stanford University.
Fish, Eugenics, Botany, Evolution.
Kingsley, J. S., University of Illinois, Urbana, 111.
Professor of Zoologry.
Zoology.
KleinSmid von, R. B., President University of Arizona, Tucson, Ariz.
Knipp, Charles T., 915 W. Nevada St., Urbana, 111.
Professor of Experimental Physics, University of Illinois.
Physics, Discharge of Electricity Through Gases.
Digiti
zed by Google
20 Proceedings of Indiana Academy of Science.
Marsters, V. F., Kansas City, Mo., care of C. N. Gould, Fellow 1893
Geologist.
McDougal, Daniel Trembly, Tucson, Ariz.
Director, Department of Botanical Research, Carnegie Institute,
Washington, D. C.
Botany.
McMuUen, Lynn Banks, State Normal School, Valley City, N. D.
Head Science Department and Vice-President State Normal
School.
Physics, Chemistry.
Mendenhall, Thomas Corwin, Ravenna, O.
Retired.
Physics, "Engineering," Mathematics, Astronomy.
Miller, John Anthony, Swarthmore, Pa., Fellow 1904
Professor of Mathematics and Astronomy, Swarthmore College.
Astronomy, Mathematics.
Moore, George T., St. Louis, Mo.
Director Missouri Botanical Garden.
Botany.
Noyes, William Albert, Urbana, 111., Fellow 1893
Director of Chemical Laboratory, University of Illinois.
Chemistry.
Reagan, A. B.
Superintendent Deer Creek Indian School, Ibopah, Utah.
Geology, Paleontology, Ethnology.
Smith, Alexander, care Columbia University, New York, Fellow 1893
Head of Department of Chemistry, Columbia University.
Chemistry.
Springer, Alfred, 312 E. Second St., Cincinnati, O.
Chemist.
Chemistry.
Swain, Joseph, Swarthmore, Pa., Fellow : 1898
President of Swarthmore College.
Science of Administration.
Waldo, Clarence A., 401 W. 18th St., New York City 1893
Mathematics, Mechanics, Geology and Mineralogy.
Wiley, Harvey W., Cosmos Club, Washington, D. C, Fellow 1895
Professor of Agricultural Chemistry, George Washington Uni-
versity.
Biolog:ical and Agricultural Chemistry.
Zeleny, Chas., 1003 W. Illinois St., Urbana, 111.
Professor of Experimental Zoology.
Zoology.
Digiti
zed by Google
Active Members. 21
ACTIVE MEMBERS.
Acre, Harlan Q./ Denison, O.
Botany.
Allen, William Ray, 212 S. Washington St., Bloomingrton.
Zoology, Indiana University.
Allison, Luna E., 435 Wood St., Lafayette.
Care Agricultural Experiment Station.
Botany.
Anderson, Flora Charlotte, Route No. 5, Crawfordsville.
Botany.
Atkinson, F. C, 2534 Broadway, Indianapolis.
Chemistry, American Hominy Company.
Baker, William Franklin, Indianapolis, care St. Vincent's Hospital.
Medicine, Roentgenology, Pathology.
Bamhill, Dr. T. F., Indianapolis.
Professor of Surgery, Indiana University School of Medicine.
Barr, Harry L., Stockland, 111.
Botany and Physics.
Bates, W. H., 403 Russell St., West Lafayette.
Associate Professor of Mathematics, Purdue University.
Mathematics.
Beals, Colonzo C, 103 Russell St., Hammond.
Botany.
Berteling, John B., 228 W. Colfax Ave., South Bend.
Medicine.
Binford, Raymond, Guilford, N. C.
President of Guilford College.
Zoology.
Bishop, Harry Eldridge, 551 E. 40th St., Indianapolis.
Food Chemist, Indiana State Board of Health.
Black, Homer F., 2719-2721 Michigan Ave., Chicago, III.
Professor of Mathematics, Chicago Technical College.
Mathematics.
Bliss, G. S., Fort Wayne.
Medicine, State School for Feeble Minded.
Blose, Joseph, Spiceland.
Physics.
Bond, Charles S., 112 N. Tenth St., Richmond.
Physician.
Biology, Bacteriologry, Physical Diagnosis and Photomicrography.
Bond, Dr. George S., Indianapolis.
Professor of Medicine, Indiana University School of Medicine.
Digiti
zed by Google
22 Proceedings of Indiana Academy of Science.
Bonns, Walter W., Indianapolis, care of Eli Lilly & Co.
Plant Physiology.
Director of Botanical Department.
Bourke, A. Adolphus, 2304 Liberty Ave., Terre Haute.
Instructor, Physics, Zoology, and Geography.
Botany, Physics.
Brossman, Charles, 1503 Merchants Bank Bldg., Indianapolis.
Consulting Engineer.
Water Supply, Sewage Disposal, Sanitary Engineering.
Bruce, Edwin M., 2401 N. Ninth St., Terre Haute.
Professor of Chemistry, Indiana State Normal.
Chemistry.
Bybee, Halbert P., University Station, Austin, Texas.
Adjunct Professor of Geology, University of Texas.
Canis, Edward N., Route A-2, Box 372-A, Indianapolis.
Nature Study.
Caparo, Jose Angel, Notre Dame.
Professor of Physics and Mathematics, Notre Dame University.
Mathematics, Physics and Electrical Engineering.
Carr, Ralph Howard, 27 N. Salisbury St., West Lafayette.
Professor of Agricultural Chemistry, Purdue.
Carter, Edgar B., 2615 Ashland St., Indianapolis.
Director of Scientific Work, Swan-Myers Coiiipany.
Chemistry and Bacteriology.
Chandler, Elias J., Bicknell.
Farmer.
Ornithology and Mammals.
Chapman, Edgar K., 506 S. Grant St., Crawfordsville.
Professor of Physics, Wabash College.
Clark, Jediah H., 126 E. Fourth St., Connersville.
Physician.
Medicine.
Cloud, J. H., 608 E. Main St., Valparaiso, Ind.
Professor of Physics, Valparaiso University.
Physics.
Collins, Anna Mary, 5248 Kensington Ave., St. Louis, Mo.
Zoology.
Collins, Jacob Roland, 711 Vine St., West Lafayette.
Instructor in Physics, Purdue University.
Conner, S. D., 204 S. Ninth St., Lafayette.
Chemistry, Experiment Station.
Coryell, Horace N., New York City.
Columbia University.
Geology.
Digiti
zed by Google
Active Members. 23
Cromwell, Hobart, Salem, Ind.
Zoology.
Cullison, Aline, East Chicago, Ind., Box 404.
Instructor, Botany, in East Chicago High School.
Daniels, Lorenzo E., Rolling Prairie.
Retired Farmer.
Conchology.
Dean, John C, University Club, Indianapolis.
Astronomy.
Denny, Martha L., Manhattan, Kan.
Kansas Agricultural College.
Zoology. «
Deppe, C. A., Franklin.
Franklin College.
Dietz, Harry F., Washington, D. C.
Federal Horticultural Board.
Entomology.
Doan, Martha, Richmond.
Professor of Chemistry, Earlham.
Dolan, Jos. P., Syracuse.
Douglas, Benjamin W., Trevlac.
Fruit Culture.
Downhour, D. Elizabeth, 2307 Talbott Ave., Indianapolis.
Zoology and Botany, Teachers College.
Driver, Chas. C, 808 Atwater Ave., Bloomington.
Graduate Student in Zoology, Indiana University.
DuBois, Henry M., 1408 Washington Ave., LaGrande, Ore.
Paleontology and Ecology.
Dukes, Richard G., Comer Seventh and Russell Sts., West Lafayette,
Purdue University.
Engineering.
Earp, Samuel E., 643 Occidental Bldg., Indianapolis.
Physician.
Medicine.
Edmonson, Clarence E., 822 Atwater St., Bloomington.
Graduate Student, Physiology, Indiana University.
Physiology.
Emerson, Charles P., 602 Huhie-Mansur Bldg., Indianapolis.
Dean Indiana University Medical College.
Medicine.
Epple, Wm. F., 311 Sylvia St., West Lafayette.
Assistant in Dairy Chemistry, Experiment Station, Purdue Uni-
versity.
Digiti
zed by Google
24 Proceedings of Indiana Academy of Science.
Estabrook, Arthur H., 219 E. 17th St., Indianapolis.
Genetics, with State Board of Charities.
Evans, Samuel G., 1452 Upper Second St., Evansville.
Merchant.
Botany, Ornithology.
Felver, William P., 325% Market St., Logansport.
Railroad Clerk.
Geology, Chemistry.
Fisher, Homer Glenn, Johns Hopkins Medical School, Baltimore, Md.
Student in Medicine.
Fisher, L. W., Rossville.
Zoology.
Fisher, Martin L., Lafayette.
Professor of Crop Production, Purdue University.
Agriculture, Soils, Crops, Birds, Botany.
Foresman, George Kedzie, 110 S. Ninth St., Lafayette.
Instructor in Chemistry, Purdue University.
Fuller, Frederic D., 4520 W. 28th St., Bryan, Texas.
Experiment Station.
Chemistry, Nutrition.
Funk, Austin, 519 E. Ninth St, New Albany.
Physician.
Diseases of Eye, Ear, Nose and Throat.
Galloway, Jesse James, Geology Department, Columbia University, New
York City.
Geology, Paleontology.
Gatch, Willis D., Indianapolis, Indiana University Medical School.
Professor of Surgery.
Gates, Florence A., 3435 Detroit Ave., Toledo, O.
Teacher of Botany.
Botany and Zoology.
Gidley, William, 250 Hillside Ave., Jamaica, N. Y.
Pharmacy, with E. R. Squibb & Sons, New York.
Gillum, Robert G., Terre Haute.
State Normal School.
Gingery, Walter G., Shortridge High School, Indianapolis.
Mathematics.
Glenn, Earl R., New York City.
The Lincoln School of Teachers College, Columbia University.
Physics.
Goldsmith, William Morton, Gunnison, Colo.
Colorado State Normal School.
Biology.
Digiti
zed by Google
Active Members. 25
Gj;B,y, Harold, 2813 Ruckle St., Indianapolis.
Research Chemist, Eli X^illy & Co.
Chemistry.
Greene, Frank C, 30 N. Yorktown St., Tulsa, Okla.
Geology.
Hadley, Murray N., 608 Hume-Mansur Bldg., Indianapolis.
Physician.
Surgery.
Hanna, U. S., Bloomington.
Professor of Mathematics.
Hansford, Hazel Irene, 710 S.. Fess Ave., Bloomington.
Graduate Student in Botany, Indiana University.
Happ, William, South Bend.
Botany.
Harding, C. Francis, 503 University St., West Lafayette.
Head of Electrical Engineering, Purdue University.
Harman, Paul M., 314 N. Dunn St., Bloomington.
Physiology.
Heimburger, Harry V., St. Paul, Minn.
Instructor in Biology in Hamline University.
Heimlich, Louis Frederick, 495 Littleton St., West Lafayette.
Instructor in Botany, Purdue University.
Henmier, Edwin John, Somerville.
Botany.
Hendricks, Victor K., 1273 Railway Exchange Bldg., St. Louis, Mo.
Assistant Chief Engineer, St. L. & S. F., Mo., Kan. & Texas; Mo.,
Okla. & Gulf Railroads.
Civil Engineering and Wood Preservation.
Hess, Walter E., Greencastle.
Professor of Biology, DePauw University.
Hetherington, John P., 417 Fourth St., Logansport.
Physician.
Medicine, Surgery, X-Ray, Electro-Therapeutics.
Hinman, Jack J., Jr., State University, Iowa City, Iowa.
Senior Water Bacteriologrist and Chemist, Laboratories for State
Board of Health.
Chemistry and Biology.
Hoffman, George L., care of Western Pennsylvania Hospital, Pitts-
burgh, Pa.
Bacteriology, Serology.
Hole, Allen D., 615 National Road, Richmond.
Professor Earlham College.
Geology.
Digiti
zed by Google
26 Proceedings of Indiana Academy of Science.
Holman, Richard M., Crawfordsville.
Professor of Botany, Wabash College.
Houseman, H. V., 300 S. Bradford St., Platteville, Wis.
Chemistry and Physics.
Huber, Leonard L., Hanover.
Hanover College.
Chemistry and Biology.
Huchinson, Emory, Norman Station, Ind.
Zoology.
Hutton, Joseph Gladden, Brookings, S. Dak.
Associate Professor of Agronomy, State College.
Agronomy and Earth Science.
Hyslop, George, 65 Nagle St., New York City.
Cornell Medical School.
Irving, Thos. P., Notre Dame.
Physics.
Jackson, Herbert Spencer, 940 Seventh St., West Lafayette.
Botany, Agricultural Experiment Station.
Jackson, Thos. F., Carter Oil Co., Tulsa, Okla.
(jreology.
Jacobson, Moses A., West Lafayette, care of Teknion House.
Instructor in Bacteriology, Purdue University.
Jopling, John C, 421 Emerson St., Princeton.
Chemist.
Jordan, Charles Bernard, West Lafayette.
Director School of Pharmacy, Purdue University.
Kaczmarek, Regidius M., Notre Dame.
Professor of Biology and Bacteriology.
Knotts, Armenis F., 800 Jackson St., Gary.
Nature Study.
Kohl, Edwin J., 105 Salisbury St., West Lafayette.
Biology, Purdue University.
Lee, C. 0., Russell St., West Lafayette.
Pharmacy, Purdue University.
Liston, Jesse G., R. F. D. No. 2, Lewis.
High School Teacher.
(jreology.
Ludwig, C. A., R. R. 1, Brookville.
Agriculture, Botany.
Ludy, L. v., 600 Russell St., West Lafayette.
Professor Experimental Engineering, Purdue University.
Experimental Engineering in Steam and Gas.
Digiti
zed by Google
Active Members, 27
Luten, Daniel B., 1056 Lemcke Annex, Indianapolis.
Brids^e Engineer.
Applied Civil Engineering.
Mahin, Edward G., 27 Russell St., West Lafayette.
Associate Professor of Chemistry, Purdue University.
Mains, E. B., 212 S. Grant St., West Lafayette.
U. S. Agricultural Experiment Station.
Plant' Pathology and Mycologry.
Malott, Burton J., 2206 Calhoun St., Fort Wayne.
Teacher in High School.
Physiography and Geology.
Malott, Clyde A., 521 E. Second St., Bloomington.
Geology.
Markle, M. S., Richmond.
Professor of Botany, Earlham College.
Martin, Dr. H. H., Laporte, Ind.
Surgery and Urology.
Mason, T. E., 130 Andrew Place, West Lafayette.
Instructor Mathematics, Purdue University.
Mathematics.
McCarty, Morris E., 224 Fowler Ave., West Lafayette.
Student in Bacteriology.
Mclndoo, N. E., 7225 Blair Road, Takoma Park, Washington, D. C.
U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Entomology.
Insect Physiology.
McKinley, Lester, Bloomington.
Graduate Student in Botany, Indiana University.
Molby, Fred A., 226 Lorraine Ave., Cincinnati, 0.
Physics, University of Cincinnati.
Montgomery, Dr. H. T., 244 Jefferson Bldg., South Bend.
Geology.
Morrison, Harold, Bureau of Entomology, Washington, D. C.
Entomology.
Morrison, Louis, 80 S. West St., Richmond.
Munro, G. W., 202 Waldron St., West Lafayette.
Mechanical Engineering.
Myers, B. D., 321 N. Washington St., Bloomington.
Professor of Anatomy, Indiana University.
Nelson, Ralph Emory, 112 W. Wood St., West Lafayette.
Chemistry, Purdue University.
Nothnagel, Mildred, Gainesville, Fla.
Assistant Plant Physiology, Experiment Station, University of
Florida.
Digiti
zed by Google
28 Proceedings of Indiana Academy of Science.
Noyes, Harry A., Mellon Institute, Pittsburgh, Pa.
Research Chemist and Bacteriologist. '
Oberholzer, H. C, National Museum, Washington, D. C.
Biology.
O'Neal, Claude E., 247 W. Lincoln Ave., Delaware, 0.
Botany and Bacteriology.
Orahood, Harold, West Middleton, Howard County.
Geology.
Osner, G. A., Broadview, Mont.
Plant Pathology.
Owen, D. A., 200 S. State St., Franklin.
Professor of Biology. (Retired.)
Biology.
Papish, Jacob, Ithaca, N. Y.
Department of Chemistry, Cornell University.
Chemistry.
PefFer, Harvey Creighton, 412 N. Salisbury St., West Lafayette.
Head of Chemical Engineering, Purdue University.
Petry, Edward Jacob, 210 Ingalls St., S. Ann Arbor, Mich.
Botany, University of Michigan.
Botany, Plant Breeding, Plant Pathology, Bio-Chemistry.
Pickett, Fermen L., Pullman College Station No. 36, Washington.
Botany.
Pinkerton, Earl, Hutsonville, 111.
Biology and Agriculture.
Pipal, F. J., 114 S. Salisbury St., West Lafayette.
Botany, Agricultural Experiment Station.
Prentice, Burr N., 400 Russell St., West Lafayette.
Assistant Professor of Forestry, Purdue.
Ramsey, Glenn Blaine, Orono, Me.
Botany.
Richards, Aute, 307 E. Jefferson St., Crawfordsville.
Professor of Zoology, Wabash College.
Richards, Mrs. Mildred Hoge, 307 E. Jefferson St., Crawfordsville.
Zoology.
Rifenburgh, S. A., Valparaiso, Ind.
Instructor Botany, Valparaiso University.
Botany.
Riley, Katherine, Robert W. Long Hospital, Indianapolis.
Roark, Louis, Box 1162, Tulsa, Okla.
Roxana Petroleum Company.
Petroleum Geologist.
Scott, W. R. M., West Lafayette.
Agricultural Botany, Purdue University.
Digiti
zed by Google
Active Members. 29
Sheak, William H., 703 N. 19th St., Philadelphia, Pa.
Mammalogy.
Showalter, Ralph W., Indianapolis.
Director Biological Department, Eli Lilly & Co.
Biology.
Silvey, Oscar W., College Station, Texas.
Physics, University of Texas.
Smith, Chas. Piper, Hyattsville, Md.
State Seed Inspection Officer.
Systematic Botany.
Snodgrass, R. E., 2063 Park Road, Washington, D. C.
U. S. Bureau of Entomology, Extension Division.
Entomology.
Spitzer, George, 1000 Seventh St., West Lafayette.
Dairy Chemist, Purdue University.
Chemistry.
Spong, Philip, 3873 E. Washington St., Indianapolis.
Biology.
Stoltz, Charles, 530 N. Lafayette St., South Bend.
Physician.
Stone, Ralph Bushnell, 307 Russell St., West Lafayette.
Mathematics, Purdue University.
Sulzer, Elmer G., Madison.
Geologry.
Taylor, Joseph C, 117 Ninth St, Logansport.
Student in University of Wisconsin.
Terry, Oliver P., State St., West Lafayette.
Professor of Physiology, Purdue University.
Tetrault, Philip Armand, 607 University St., West Lafayette.
Assistant Professor of Biology, Purdue University.
Tevis, Emma Louise, 122 W. isth St., Indianapolis.
Department Experimental Medicine, Eli Lilly & Co.
Thompson, Clem 0., 105 N. High St., Salem.
Superintendent of Schools.
Biology.
Thombum, A. D., Indianapolis, care Pitman-Moore Company.
Chemistry.
Toole, E. H., 719 N. Main St., West Lafayette.
Assistant Professor of Botany, Purdue University.
Botany, Plant Physiology and Pathology.
Troop, James, West Lafayette.
Professor of Entomology, Purdue University.
Tucker, William Motier, Apartment 33, Alhambra Court, Columbus, O.
Ohio State University, Department of Geology.
Digiti
zed by Google
30 Proceedings of Indiana Academy of Science.
\
Turner, B. B., 1017 Park Ave., Indianapolis.
Associate Professor of Pharmacology, Indiana University School »cft
Medicine.
Turner, William P., 222 Lutz Ave., Lafayette.
Professor of Practical Mechanics, Purdue University.
Vallance, Chas. A., R. R. J-1, Box 132, Indianapolis.
Instructor Emmerich Manual Training School.
Chemistry.
Van Doren, Pr. Lloyd, Earlham College, Richmond.
Chemistry.
Van Nuys, W. C, Box No. 34, Newcastle.
Superintendent Indiana Epileptic Village, Fort Wayne.
Voorhees, Herbert S., 804 Wildwood Ave., Fort Wayne.
Instructor in Chemistry and Botany, Fort Wayne High School.
Chemistry.
Wildman, E. A., care of Eli Lilly & Co., Indianapolis.
Director of Chemical Research.
Chemistry.
Watson, Carl G., 120 Thornell St., West Lafayette.
Instructor in Physics, Purdue University.
Weatherwax, Paul, Athens, Ga.
Associate Professor of Botany, University of Georgia.
Botany.
Weems, M. L., 102 Garfield Ave., Valparaiso.
Professor of Botany.
Botany and Human Physiology.
Weyant, James E., 336 Audubon Road, Indianapolis.
Teacher of Physics, Shortridge High School and Indiana Dental
College.
Physics.
Whiting, Rex Anthony, 118 Marstellar St., West Lafayette.
Veterinary Department, Purdue University.
Wiancko, Alfred T., 230 S. Ninth St., Lafayette.
Chief in Soils and Crops, Purdue University.
Agronomy.
Wiley, Ralph Benjamin, 770 Russell St., West Lafayette.
Hydraulic Engineering, Purdue University.
Williams, A. A., Valparaiso.
Mathematics, Valparaiso University.
Mathematics, Astronomy.
Wilson, Charles E., Brazil.
Zoology and Economic Entomology.
Digiti
zed by Google
Active Members. 31
Wilson, Mrs. Etta L., 2 Clarendon Ave., Detroit, Mich.
Botany and Zoology.
Wood, Harry W., 1538 Rosemont Ave., Chicago, 111.
Geography and Geology.
Woodbury, C. G., 615 University St., West Lafayette.
Director of Experiment Station.
Wynn, Frank B., Hume-Mansur Bldg., Indianapolis.
Professor of Pathology, Indiana University School of Medicine.
Young, Gilbert A., 739 Owen St., Lafayette.
Head of Department of Mechanical Engineering, Purdue University.
Zehring, William Arthur, 303 Russell St., West Lafayette,
Assistant Professor of Mathematics, Purdue University.
Mathematics.
Fellows 58
Members, Active 186
Members and Fellows, Non-resident 38
Total 282
Digiti
zed by Google
32 Proceedings of Indiana Academy of Science.
Minutes of the Spring Meeting.
INDIANA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.
May 24 and 25, 1918.
The Illinois Academy of Science joined the Indiana Academy of
Science in its Spring Meeting on Friday and Saturday, May 24 and 25,
1918, in the new State Park, Turkey Run, in Parke County, and at
The Shades, in Montgomery County. Seventy-two members and guests
of the two Academies were in attendance at the meeting.
Touring parties were organized at the park entrance under com-
petent guides as groups of individuals arnved by automobile. They
devoted the forenoon of Friday to exploring the magniiAcent forest, the
rugged trails, picturesque ravines and the watercourses of the park.
A basket-luncheon at noon afforded opportunity to renew old acquaint-
ances and to make new ones among kindred spirits.
After luncheon the groups were reassembled for the trip across the
swaying suspension bridge and a tramp into Rocky Hollow to the rugged,
moss-covered gorges where giant kettle-holes and eroded or broken rocks
indicate, of the past, a rush of water quite out of proportion to the
amount that now trickles over the same ledges on its way into Sugar
Creek. Enthusiastic groups of individuals explored the narrow ravines
and slippery trails to study the geological formations or to try the cool
waters of an isolated kettle-hole.
About four o'clock a long procession of automobiles carried the
Academy party over the intervening fifteen miles of rugged country
covered with magniificent forests and beautiful streams to The Shades,
where dinner was provided in the spacious dining-room of The Shades
Hotel. The freedom of the park was extended through the courtesy of
Mr. Frisz, the proprietor and manager.
A general session of the Academies was held in the grove after
the dinner.
The broad verandas and beautiful grove about the hotel afforded
opportunity for further visiting until long after the more sedate mem-
bers had gone into slumber-land.
Saturday, May 25, 1918.
After breakfast at The Shades Hotel, tramping-parties were quickly
organized to explore the beauties of The Shades Park, the waterfalls
and eroded ravines, the Devil's Punchbowl and other geological for-
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Minutes — Spring Meeting. 33
mations of unusual interest. The fantastic shapes of rocks seem to
have appealed to some imaginative soul who believed they could have
had no use but to the devil, therefore ascribed them to his satanic
majesty as articles of domestic use. The Devil's Backbone then became
the objective point of others who followed the narrow, beaten trail
along Sugar Creek to the interesting high ridge of exposed rocks that
bears this name. The return to the hotel afforded opportunity to see
the points of interest that had been missed on our way. After a hearty
luncheon and a brief exchange of experiences the groups dispersed with
the feeling that the 1918 Spring Meeting had brought a new outlook
and new experiences.
The following members of the Illinois and Indiana Academies and
their guests attended the Spring Meeting:
Flora Anderson, Bloomington.
W. S. Bayley, Urbana, 111.
Mrs. W. S. Bayley, Urbana, 111.
Miss E. E. Bayley, Urbana, 111.
C. A. Behrens, West Lafayette.
Elliot Blackwalder, Urbana, 111.
Mrs. Elliot Blackwalder, Urbana, 111.
W. S. Blatchley, Indianapolis.
F. J. Breeze, Terre Haute.
Edwin M. Bruce, Terre Haute.
Stanley Coulter, Lafayette.
Ulysses O. Cox, Terre Haute.
Mrs. Kate Meehan Cox, Terre Haute.
M. K. Davis, Terre Haute.
Mrs. Davis, Terre Haute.
Chas. C. Deam, Bluffton.
Chas. S. Driver, Bloomington.
Howard E. Enders, West Lafayette.
Arthur L. Foley, Bloomington.
Mrs. Loretta Foley, Bloomington.
L. W. Fisher, West Lafayette.
M. L. Fisher, West Lafayette.
W. G. Gingery, Indianapolis.
W. F. Gidley, West Lafayette.
Richard M. Holman, Crawfordsville.
Geo. N. Hoffer, West Lafayette.
H. S. Jackson, West Lafayette.
L. E. Kennedy, Urbana, 111.
Chas. T, Knipp, Urbana, 111.
Mrs. Knipp, Urbana, 111.
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34 Proceedings of Indiana Academy of Science.
Miss Knipp, Urbana, 111.
P. L. Knipp, Urbana, 111.
Wm. A. McBeth, Terre Haute.
Mrs. Wm. McBeth, Terre Haute.
J. W. McCarty, Lafayette.
Eula D. McEwan, Washington, D. C.
M. S. Markle, Richmond.
A. R. Middleton, West Lafayette.
C. F. Miller, Urbana, 111.
W. J. Moenkhaus, Bloomington.
Edwin Morrison, Richmond.
W. A. Noyes, Urbana, 111.
Mrs. Noyes, Urbana, 111.
F. Payne, Bloomington.
Burr N. Prentice, West Lafayette.
R. R. Ramsey, Blooming^ton.
Mrs. Clara Ramsey, Bloomington.
R. D. Reed, Urbana, 111.
A. Richards, Crawfordsville.
Mildred H. Richards, Crawfordsville.
Katherine Riley, Indianapolis.
R. D. Salisbury, Chicago, 111.
Will Scott, Bloomington.
Mrs. E. L. Stevens, St. Louis, Mo.
Charles Stoltz, South Bend.
W. E. Stone, West Lafayette.
Mrs. Stone, West Lafayette.
Oliver P. Terry, West Lafayette.
Mrs. 0. P. Terry, West Lafayette.
P. A. Tetrault, West Lafayette.
Emma L. Tevis, Indianapolis.
W. Tomlinson, Urbana, 111.
E. H. Toole, West Lafayette.
Frank B. Wade, Indianapolis.
Mrs. F. B. Wade, Indianapolis.
L. D. Waterman, Indianapolis.
John S. Wright, Indianapolis.
Wright, Indianapolis.
Frank B. Wynn, Indianapolis.
Mrs. F. B. Wynn, Indianapolis.
Charles Zeleny, Urbana, 111.
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Minutes — Spring Meeting, 35
Business Meeting and General Session, Friday, May 24, 1918.
A business meeting of the Indiana Academy of Science and a gen-
eral meeting of the Indiana and Illinois Academies of Science was called
to order by the Vice-President, Dr. Charles Stoltz, in the grove near
The Shades Hotel.
The Membership Committee proposed the following names of persons
for membership:
Harlan Q. Acre, Shoals, Botany.
Walter G. Gingery, Indianapolis, Mathematics.
Howard M. Lahr, Markle, Botany and Chemistry.
On motion, duly passed, they were elected to membership in the
Indiana Academy of Science.
On motion the reprints from the Proceedings are to have the imprint
of the volume, date of publication, and paging of the issue from which
they are taken.
The matter is referred to the Publication Committee with power
to act.
On motion the Secretary is ordered to telegraph President E. B.
Williamson an expression of keen regret in his absence from the Spring
Meeting, and to extend greetings and best wishes of the Academy for
his speedy recovery to good health.
Vice-President Stoltz then appointed Stanley Coulter to take charge
of the informal meeting that followed and to call upon various persons
for addresses.
Dr. Coulter gave a brief history of the Indiana Academy of Science
and its relation to the scientific activities of the State. He expressed
our appreciation of the presence of so large a number from the Illinois
Academy, and pointed out that a number of these persons formerly were
members of the Indiana Academy and had an important part in its
early achievements and activities.
A number of persons then were called upon to speak.
Dr. Frank B. Wynn of Indianapolis: "Why I am a pathologist rather
than a naturalist." He pointed out the force of curiosity in the life of
the investigator, and by means of a number of striking examples em-
phasized the fact that curiosity is a driving power in achievement.
Doctor W. A. Noyes of the University of Illinois expressed pleasure
of the opportunity to attend this meeting and to renew acquaintances
in the Indiana Academy of Science, of which he was a charter member.
He spoke of the early years of the Academy and of its influence in
academies and institutions of the country.
John S. Wright of Indianapolis spoke on the needs of an endowment
for the promotion and publication of research in the Academy. A por-
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36 Proceedings of Indiana Academy of Science.
tion of this endowment very properly should come from the State. The
effect of the war upon the matter of giving will mean much for the
financial future of the Academy.
Doctor R. D. Salisbury of the University of Chicago, representing
the Illinois Academy of Science, spoke on: "The effect of the war to
bring about a revaluation of the things which we have regarded as
unimportant." The academies of science, represented by their chemists,
physicists, biologists, and others, are interested in the public health of
the army at home and in the service. Geologists have been used by our
enemies to aid in a determination of the nature and kind of trenching,
the tools required, etc., and the water supply for any given region. Our
government has come to realize the service which its scientists in every
branch may perform, and it is to be hoped that enlarged support of
scientific work by the government will come as a result of such re-
valuation of the services of science.
Professor M. L. Fisher of Purdue University reported for the bird-
study group that fifty-five species of birds had been observed during
the day.
Professor Wm. McBeth of the State Normal School, Terre Haute,
discussed the geological formations in the State Park, at Turkey Run,
and outlined the chief pQints of interest in the geology of The Shades
Park.
Professor S. H. Jackson of the Agricultural Experiment Station,
Purdue University, reported on the species of rusts found, and made a
special appeal for the eradication of the barberry, the intermediate host
of our destructive grain rust. He urged the importance of its eradica-
tion as a war-measure that is being undertaken by every State in the
Union.
Miss Flora Anderson, student in zoology in Indiana University,
reported upon the number of snakes observed or collected during the
day.
A rising vote of thanks was tendered Mr. J. W. Frisz, manager and
proprietor of The Shades Park, for his numerous courtesies and the
freedom of the park.
Adjournment.
Charles Stoltz, Vice-President
Howard E. Enders, Secretary.
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Program of the Thirty-Fourth Annual Meeting*
or
THE INDIANA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE,
HELD AT
The Claypool Hotel, Indianapolis,
Thursday, Friday and Saturday, December 5, 6 and 7.
OFFICERS.
E. B. Williamson, President.
Charles Stoltz, Vice-President.
Howard E. Enders, Secretary.
William M. Blanchard, Treasurer.
P. A. Tetrault, Assistant Secretary.
Frank B. Wade, Press Secretary.
Lee F. Bennett, Editor.
PROGRAM COMMITTEE.
C. C. Deam. John S. Wright.
Frank B. Wade.
GENERAL PROGRAM.
Thursday.
Meeting of the Executive Committee, Claypool Hotel 8:00 p. m.
Friday.
Business Session 9 :30 a. m.
General Session 10 :00 a. m.
Sectional Meetings 2 :00 p. m.
Informal Dinner at the Claypool Hotel 6 :30 p. m.
The address of the retiring President, E. B. Williamson, of Bluffton,
will be delivered at this time. Title, "How Should the Student Body
Be Recruited?"
Principal Business Session 8:00 to 8:30 p. m.
* The fall meeting was cancelled because of the influenza epidemic. The business
was held in the Claypool Hotel. Indianapolis. December 7, 1918.
(37)
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38 Proceedings of Indiana Academy of Science.
FRroAY, 8;30 p.m.
Assembly Room, Claypool Hotel.
Symposium on Important Contributions of Science to Military Efficiency.
Leaders.
For Astronomy Prof. W. A. Cogshall, Indiana University
For Bacteriology Dr. Will Shimer
Director State Laboratory of Hygiene
For Botany Prof. R. M. Holman, Wabash College
For Chemistry F. R. Eldred
Director of Scientific Department, Eli Lilly & Co., Indianapolis
For Geology Prof. L. F. Bennett, Valparaiso University
For Physics Prof. Chas. M. Smith, Purdue University
For Physiography. ..Prof. W. A. McBeth, Indiana State Normal School
For Zoology Prof. H. L. Bruner, Butler College
Saturday.
Business Session 9 a. m.
GENERAL SESSION.
Friday 10:00 a.m.
1. The Proposed Conservation Bill — Governor Goodrich. To be given
on arrival of Governor Goodrich.
2. The Barberry and Its Relation to the Stem Rust of Wheat in In-
diana, 20 minutes — F. J. Pipal, Purdue University.
3. Evolutionary Philosophy and the German War — A. Richards, Wa-
bash College.
4. Geography in Colleges and Universities of the United States, 20
minutes — F. J. Breeze, Indiana State Normal School.
5. The Life of the Late Dr. Luther D. Waterman — A. L. Foley, In-
diana University.
6. In Memoriam, Prof. Geo. I). Timmons — L. F. Bennett, Valparaiso
University.
7. Biography of the Scientific Work of William James Jones, Jr. —
S. D. Conner, Associate Chemist, Agricultural Experiment Sta-
tion, Purdue University.
8. Observations on 1,500 Registrants of the First Conscription, 30
minutes — Dr. Chas. Stoltz, South Bend.
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Program. 39
9. Mental Defectives ; the Problem ; Conditions in Indiana, 20 minutes —
Miss Edna R. Jatho, Psychologist, Philadelphia Public Schools.
10. Textbook Treatments of Diffusion and Osmosis, 15 minutes — Paul
Weatherwax, Indiana University.
CONTINUATION OF GENERAL SESSION, FOLLOWED BY
SECTIONAL MEETINGS.
FRroAY 2:00 P. M and Saturday 9:30 a.m.
Bacteriology,
11. Number of Colonies for a Satisfactory Soil Plate — H. A. Noyes and
G. L. Grounds, Agricultural Experiment Station, Purdue Uni-
versity.
12. The Length of Time to Incubate Petri Plates— H. A. Noyes, J. D.
Luckett and Edwin Voigt, Agricultural Experiment Station,
Purdue University.
13. Bacteria in Frozen Soil — H. A. Noyes, Agricultural Experiment
Station, Purdue University.
Botany,
14. Reproduction in Coleochaete Scutata, 8 minutes (lantern) — M. S.
Markle, Earlham College.
15. Some Abnormalities in Plant Structure, 2 minutes — M. S. Markle,
Earlham College.
16. Plants of Boone County, Kentucky (by title) — James C. Nelson.
17. Plants New or Rare to Indiana, VIII, 10 minutes — Chas. C. Deam,
Acting State Forester.
18. The Morphological Basis of Certain Problems in Inheritance in
Maize, 12 minutes — Paul Weatherwax, Indiana University.
Chemistry.
19. Analysis of 100 Soils in Allen County, Indiana — R. H. Carr and
V. R. Phares, Purdue University.
20. Relation of Nitrogen, Phosphorus and Organic Matter to Com Yield
in Elkhart County, Indiana — R. H. Carr and LeRoy Hoffman,
Purdue University.
21. Flame Reactions of Thallium, 10 minutes — Jacob Papish, Purdue
University.
22. Sulphur Dioxide as a Source of Volcanic Sulphur, 5 minutes — Jacob
Papish, Purdue University.
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40 Proceedings of Indiana Academy of Science.
Geology.
m
23. A Preliminary Report on the Origin of Indianaite in Indiana, 10
minutes — Wm. N. Logan, Indiana University.
24. The Occurrence of Coal in Monroe County, Indiana, 5 minutes —
Wm. N. Logan, Indiana University.
25. The Occurrence of Indianaite in Monroe County, Indiana, 5 min-
utes— Wm. N. Logan, Indiana University.
26. Notes on the Paleontology of Certain Chester Formations in South-
ern Indiana, 10 minutes — Allen D. Hole, Earlham College.
27. Soil Survey of Cass County, 10 minutes — Colonzo C. Beals, Indiana
University.
Physics,
28. A New Method of Measuring the Velocity of Sound, 15 minutes
(lantern) — A. L. Foley, Indiana University.
29. The Instantaneous Velocity of Sound at Points Near the Source,
5 minutes (lantern) — A. L. Foley, Indiana University.
30. An Experimental Determination of the Relation Between Sound
Velocity and Intensity, 5 minutes (lantern) — A. L. Foley, Indiana
University.
31. An Experimental Determination of the Duration and Luminosity
of an Electric Spark, 10 minutes (lantern) — A. L. Foley, Indiana
University.
32. A Simple Method of Determining the Character and Frequency of
the Oscillation of Machine Parts, 5 minutes (lantern) — A. L.
Foley, Indiana University.
33. Energy Losses in Commercial Hammers, 5 minutes — Edwin Mor-
rison, Earlham College.
34. New Surface Tension Apparatus, 5 minutes (lantern) — Edwin Mor-
rison, Earlham College.
35. Effect of Certain Dissolved Salts Upon the Surface Tension of
Water, 10 minutes (lantern) — Edwin Morrison, Earlham Collegre.
Physiography.
36. The Chester Series of Indiana and Their Correlation with Those of
Kentucky, 10 minutes — Clyde A. Malott and James D. Thomp-
son, Jr.
37. A Peculiar and Remarkable Adjustment of Drainage — the Case of
"The American Bottoms" of Greene County, Indiana, 10 minutes —
Clyde A. Malott and Frederick J. Breeze.
38. A Notable Case of Successive Stream Piracy, 10 minutes — Clyde A.
Malott
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Program. 41
39. Monadnocks and Similar Physiographic Features, 10 minutes — Clyde
A. Malott.
40. A New Explanation of the Valley Filling of Southwestern Indiana
and Associated Regions, 10 minutes — Clyde A. Malott.
Zoology,
41. The Crustaceans of Lake Maxinkuckee — Barton W. Evermann,
Director of the Museum of the California Academy of Sciences,
and Howard W. Clark, Scientific Assistant, U. S. Bureau of
Fisheries Biological Station, Fairport, Iowa; 20 minutes.
42. The Insects of the Lake Maxinkuckee Region — Barton W. Ever-
mann, Director of the Museum of the California Academy of
Sciences, and Howard W. Clark, Scientific Assistant, U. S. Bureau
of Fisheries, Biological Station, Fairport, Iowa.
43. Aphids on Fruit Trees, 5 minutes — S. D. Conner, Associate Chemist,
Agricultural Experiment Station, Purdue University.
44. Some Further Experiments for Low and High Bristle Number in a
Mutant Strain of Drosophila Ampelophila, 10 minutes — F. Payne,
Indiana University.
45. A Memorial, Albert Homer Purdue — George H. Ashley, Washing-
ton, D. C.
46. A Memorial, Prof. M. J. Golden — R. B. Trueblood, Purdue Uni-
versity.
47. Some Trees of Indiana — F. M. Andrews, Indiana University.
48. Ascomycetes New to the Flora of Indiana — Bruce Fink and Sylvia
C. Fuson, Miami University.
49. The Dormant Period of Timothy Seed After Harvesting — M. L.
Fisher, Purdue University.
50. The Birds of the Sand Dunes of Northwestern Indiana — C. W. G.
Eifrig, Oak Park, 111.
51. A Synopsis of the Races of the Guina Flycatcher — Harry C. Ober-
holser, the U. S. National Museum.
52. Erosional Freaks of the Saluda Limestone — Elmer G. Sulzer, Mad-
ison.
53. Remnant Monuments Near Madison — Elmer G. Sulzer, Madison.
54. A Kinetic Model of the Electron Atom — R. R. Ramsey, Indiana
University.
55. New Methods of Measuring the Speed of Sound Pulses Near the
Source — Arthur L. Foley, Indiana University.
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42 Proceedings of Indiana Academy of Science.
MiNuras OF THE Fall Meeting,
INDIANA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE,
Claypool Hotel, Indianapous, Ind., December 7, 1918.
The Executive Committee of the Indiana Academy of Science met
at the Claypool Hotel and was called to order by the President, E. B.
Williamson. The following members were present: F. M. Andrews,
L. F. Bennett, Wm. Blanchard, A. W. Butler, W. Cogshall, S. Coulter.
C. C. Deam, R. W. McBride, J. P. Naylor, C. Stoltz, P. A. Tetrault,
F. B. Wade, E. B. Williamson and J. S. Wright.
The reports of the standing committees were first taken up.
Program Committee — Oral reports by C. C. Deam and F. B. Wade.
On account of the influenza epidemic, the printed report was not carried
out, but all papers submitted will be printed in the regular Proceedings,
Committee on Biological Survey — Written report submitted to the
President by the Chairman, H. S. Jackson, was read by the Secretary.
A number of investigations are in progress, and it is hoped that the
work under way will be in shape for publication in the Proceedings of
the Academy at an early date.
Committee on Distribution of Proceedings — Due to the absence of the
Chairman, H. E. Enders, the report was given by Wm. Blanchard. The
delay in the distribution of the Proceedings was explained.
Committee on Amendments — Work being completed, the committee
was discharged.
Committee on Relation of Academy to State — On motion a special
committee of five was appointed by the President, the President acting
as Chairman, to consider the publication of the Evermann Report on
the Biology of Lake Maxinkuckee.
Adjourned at 1:00 p.m. for luncheon.
Meeting reopened at 2:00 p.m.
On motion a committee was appointed to confer with the Senator
and Representative appointed by the Governor to frame the bill for the
naming of a Conservation Commission. The object is to have the fol-
lowing embodied in the bill:
Three men appointed from each of the following institutions: Indiana
Academy of Science, Indiana Horticultural Society, Indiana Sportsmen'?
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Minutes — Fall Meeting. 43
Association, the higher institutions of the State, including universities,
colleges and normal schools, who shall constitute a committee to nom-
inate the director of the commission.
The following committee was appointed by the President; R. W.
McBride, J. S. Wright, F. B. Wynn, W. Cogshall, S. Coulter.
Wm. M. Blanchard, Treasurer, reported as follows:
Balance in treasury December 2, 1917 $524 58
Dues collected during the year 224 00
Total $748 58
Expenditures 286 51
Balance in treasury December 1, 1918 $462 07
The report was received and referred to the Auditing Committee.
The Membership Committee proposed the following names of persons
for membership:
Frank Gf. Bates, 908 E. Atwat^r Ave., Bloomington — Political Science.
Walter W. Bonns, care of Eli Lilly & Co., Indianapolis — Plant
Physiology.
Edgar Brock Carter, 2615 Ashland Ave., Indianapolis — Chemistry
and Bacteriology.
Frank R. Eldred, 3325 Kenwood Ave., Indianapolis — Chemistry.
Harold Gray, 2813 Ruckle St., Indianapolis — Chemistry.
Aubrey Chester Grubb, 427 Russell St., West Lafayette — Chemistry.
Jas. Wm. Jackson, Shortridge High School, Indianapolis — Chemistry.
John C. Jopling, 421 — . Emerson Ave., Indianapolis — Chemistry.
Daniel B. Luten, 1056 Lemcke Annex, Indianapolis — Civil Engi-
neering.
Thomas E. Nicholson, N. Park Ave., Bloomington — Psychology.
Mrs. L. W. Pressey, N. Park Ave., Bloomington — Psychology.
S. L. Pressey, N. Park Ave., Bloomington — Psycholog^y.
Paris Stockdale, 425 S. Grant St., Bloomington — Geologfy.
Elmer G. Sulzer, Madison — Geology.
Myron W. Tatlock, Shortridge High School, Indianapolis — Physics
and Chemistry.
David H. Thompson, Dayton — Biology.
E. A. Wildman, care of Eli Lilly & Co., Indianapolis — Chemistry.
Committee on Academy Foundations — The report was laid on the
table.
Printing Committee — Report was accepted, and on motion the Editor's
bill is to be included in this year's expenses.
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44 Proceedings of Indiana Academy of Science.
Professor J. M. Aldrich was elected a Fellow of the Academy.
On motion Professor J. M. Aldrich's name was transferred to the
non-resident list.
On motion it was decided that only paying Fellows and members,
both resident and non-resident, are to receive the Proceedings.
On motion the Secretary and Treasurer are instructed to nominate
Fellows and members to be placed on the non-resident list, such Fellows
and members to be chosen from those who remain in active scientific
work. These same are to be voted on at the regular meeting of the
Executive Conmiittee, subject to the approval of the Ac&demy.
Nominating Committee — The report of the committee was to the
effect that the present officers should continue in office till the next reg-
ular meeting. The canceling of the annual meeting of the Academy
has brought about conditions which make it impossible to hold an elec-
tion at this time.
Adjourned 3:45 p.m.
E. B. Williamson, President.
P. A. Tetrault, Assistant Secretary.
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President's Address.
E. B. Williamson.
HOW SHOULD THE STUDENT BODY BE RECRUITED?
Some time after the English blockade went into effect, a public official
learned to his surprise that there was some relation between fats and
explosives. The relation was not clear in his mind, but he said he
understood it was a recent discovery. Since then there has been a more
or less insistent demand in England that more science should be included
in the university curricula offered those who were to become the public
men of the British Empire.
Prior to the war these curricula have been much debated in all coun-
tries. During the past twenty-five years high school courses have gone
to the maximum of subjects and the minimum of thoroughness. The
requirements generally in the science course in universities specify that
the student must study French or German, overlooking the obvious fact
that a student who progresses to a point where either foreign language
is essential requires both. To a dispassionate observer, therefore, it
seems that the making over of curricula has resulted in small if any
improvement. Certainly the present curricula are giving us no products
of a more gigantic stature than the Huxleys, Kelvins and Haeckels of
a past generation, themselves often critics of these very curricula.
Is it not possible that some other more important factor is involved
here? May it not be the composition of the student body which is at
fault? Through elective courses and studies students dictate the cur-
ricula to a considerable extent. For on their selection depends largely
the relative strength of the various departments in every university.
It seems, therefore, that the composition of the student body is of more
immediate concern than the subject-matter studied. Professors cannot
select or make students. Students can determine their professors; and
it was an old Scotch professor who said : "The university is a fine place
if it were not for the students."
Universities, their faculties and students are an economic burden to
be borne only as society receives a commensurate return for their activi-
ties. There is every reason to believe that following the war such insti-
tutions will be scrutinized as possibly they have never been in the past.
The composition of the student body will, I believe, largely determine
the verdict under which such institutions must prosper or decline.
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46 Proceedings of Indiana Academy of Science.
How is the composition of the student body determined, or, in other
words, how is the student body recruited?
In the early winter of 1917 a leading weekly naively remarked that
the criticism sometimes made that the sons of the rich and well-to^
were not doing their part in the war was disproved by the decreased
university enrollments. Or, to put it bluntly, the institutions dependent
on taxes or on endowments made valuable through the labors of society
as a whole were attended by the children of only a portion of this soci-
ety, parental wealth being the determining factor. High school teachers
of experience will know exactly what I mean. The matter is as obvious
as it is objectionable. Under unsettled social conditions it is a matter
that might determine the very life of the institutions we all wish to see
prosper, believing as we do that the salvation of the world is in their
hands.
The answer to our problem is so easy and so just that one can only
wonder why so plain a reform has been so long delayed. It is not to
be solved by the wholesale education of all high school graduates of a
certain age as the government has recently undertaken as a war
measure. Rather it is to be solved along the lines of the following
tentative plan:
The faculty of each commissioned and certified high school, the
county superintendent, the superintendent of each school, and the town-
ship trustees or board of education shall at commencement designate
209^ or 259^ of the graduates of each school as beneficiaries under this
plan. The basis of selection of beneficiaries shall be the class record of
graduates during their high school course. Each beneficiary shall be
permitted to select any course of study desired in any school in the State
approved by the State Board of Education, provided that any course so
selected must be in advance of high school work. Each beneficiary shall
be paid for work done in any such school as follows: $325 for the first
year, $350 for the second year, $375 for the third year, and $400 for
the fourth year, provided that during his course he shall carry at least
fifteen hours recitation, or its equivalent, per week. Payment shall be
made to the beneficiary at the end of each month or term in which such
collegiate work is done, subject to passing grades in each course of work
pursued. Failure to make passing grades shall deprive beneficiary of
further privileges under this plan; and in case of dismissal from his
college for any cause all privileges are forfeited, subject to an appeal to
the State Board of Education, which board may grant permission to
enter another school, subject to the approval of such school, in which
the beneficiary shall again be granted the privilege of this plan.
The funds for carrying out this plan shall be raised by a county tax
in those counties in which commissioned and certified high schools are
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How Should the Student Body Be Recruited? 47
located. By taxation a fund shall be created and held by each county
treasurer. Each beneficiary shall be paid by a draft drawn by him
through the bursar of the college where said beneficiary is pursuing his
work, and such draft shall be an order on the treasurer of the county
in which the beneficiary resides to pay the amount of such draft.
The purpose of this plan, as thus tentatively outlined, is to give a
stimulus to better high school work, resulting in a sharper differentia-
tion of those capable of more advanced education from those less capable.
It aims to make capacity and ambition rather than the accident of birth
the criterion for higher education. It is believed that it will result in
a serious and purposeful student body and, in a few years, in a more
enlightened, moral and capable citizenship. To the exceptional few who
are capable of educating themselves under present existing conditions
this plan gives an added stimulus, permitting them to go farther than
would otherwise be possible. Finally, it may be remarked that the
economic burden of the student body on society would be less under this
plan than under conditions now existing. Education of individuals
delected after the usual four-year college course should be provided for
by scholarships, which should be available only for post-graduate work.
This subject of financial aid to students may not appeal to you at
first glance as a matter of fundamental importance. But I wish to
insist that it is. Other things being equal, that family or tribe or
nation which gets for the family, tribe or nation the benefit of what it
breeds will succeed over its neighbors or competitors. Biology has con-
tributed one fundamental idea or concept to human thought — the idea
of evolution. And legislation can be in harmony with or conform to
evolutionary trends. Education of the most fit at public expense is, I
believe, such legislation. Such legislation would tend to give the nation
the benefit of what it breeds, a condition now imperfectly realized be-
cause our college students are largely recruited from a numerically
inferior portion of our population.
"Heredity may confer some advantage; but genius generally mocks
at heredity, and the frequent rise by sheer ability of men from the
ranks of manual workers seems to prove that brain power in the case
of a fairly homogeneous race exists in due proportion in all classes.
The object of national education must be to provide, so far as possible,
equal chances for natural talent wherever it is to be found. Otherwise
there must be loss of national efficiency. At the same time, it must be
remembered that marked intellectual power will always be the posses-
sion of a minority, that real leadership will always be rare, and that
training in all classes may be wasted if carried beyond the inherent
capacity of the individual boy or girl. * * * Of about 600,000 chil-
dren (in England) who now leave the elementary schools annually, only
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48 Proceedings of Indiana Academy of Science.
about 1 per 1,000 reaches a university. This is far too low a propor-
tion, and it indicates the denial of that equality of opportunity which
must be our ideal."*
"We are not limited, however, to a military objective, for when the
war is over the international competitions of peace will be resumed.
No treaties or leag^ies can prevent that, and it is not desirable that they
should, for no nation can afford to be without the stimulus of com-
petition.
"In that race the same power of science which has so amazingly
increased the productive capacity of mankind during the past century
will be applied again, and the prizes of industrial and commercial leader-
ship will fall to the nation which organizes its science forces most
effectively." *
> Lord Sydenham. Science. N. S. Vol. XLVIU. pp. 482 and 483. 1918.
3 Elihu Root. I. c. pp. 583 and 534.
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Contributions of Botany to Military Efficiency.
R. M. HOLMAN, Wabash College.
Certainly no science seems, at first thought, to be more remotely
related to military pursuits than does the science which deals with
plants. In chemistry we recognize at once one of Mars' chief servitors;
for even in the days before men fought with deadly gases, the products
of chemical research, leaders in military affairs were indebted to the
science of chemistry for the development of more and more destructive
explosives and for a great number of other essential though minor war
materials. In physics, too, we recog^nize a science whose contributions
to the business of warfare are scarcely to be enumerated. But so many
and varied are the factors which play their part in the successful
pursuit of modem warfare, and so extensive are the applications of the
sciences today to practical problems, that every science has been called
upon to make its contributions to military efficiency. Thus the science
of botany has come to play a by no means inconsiderable part in the
organization, equipment and operation of an army. In the time allotted
to me it would not be possible to consider all the particulars in which
this science has aided directly or indirectly in the pursuit of war, but
I shall call to your attention two or three phases of botanical work
which have been of rather direct assistance.
The very considerable shortage of cotton which existed during the
greater part of the w^r period, and the great demand for this material
for civilian and military clothing and for the manufacture of explosives,
suggested late in 1914 a search for a suitable substitute for the cotton
so extensively used in surgical dressings. The material which proved
best fitted to this use was sphagnum moss, which grows so abundantly
in peat bogs and by its accumulation has built up very largely the great
deposits of peat which are utilized as sources of fuel in some parts of
the world. This moss, which was in fact employed to a limited extent
for surgical dressings in the Russo-Japanese War, has the two great
virtues of being very abundant and of possessing a remarkable power
of absorbing liquids. In this latter respect it is many times as efficient as
cotton. By no means all species of the genus Sphagnum are suitable
for use in the preparation of surgical dressings. The species which can
be used for this purpose, and which are found in the United States,
are: Sphagnum imhrioatum, S. pcUustre, S, papillosum, and 5. magU-
lanieum. These species are not found in the numerous bogs in the region
4—16668 (49)
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50 Proceedings of Indiana Academy of Science.
of the Great Lakes, but are restricted to the bogs of the North Pacific
and North Atlantic coastal regions. The recognition of the numerous
species of the genus Sphagnum is by no means easy, and on that account
there has fallen to the few botanists of this country who are familiar
with the genus the task of supervising the collection of suitable material
for the use of the Red Cross. The British War Office, the Canadian
Red Cross, and the American Red Cross have used large quantities of
sphagfnum moss for the making of dressings, and so satisfactory has it
proven that it seems likely that, even in times of peace, it will continue
to be extensively used for this purpose.^
In a symposium on War Problems in Botany at the meeting of the
American Association for the Advancement of Science at Pittsburgh in
December, 1917, an appeal was made by Dr. G. R. Lyman, pathologist
in charge of the plant disease survey of the United States Department
of Agriculture, for effective organization of botanists and correlation of
their efforts toward the increase in food production and conservation of
food so essential to the military success of ourselves and our allies. The
principal practical outgrowth of this appeal was the organization at
Pittsburgh of the War Board of American Pathologists by the members
of the American Phytopathological Society there present The War
Board had as its object the increase of the product of land already under
cultivation by means of emergency plant disease research, and by a more
extensive application of the measures known to plant pathologists for
the reduction of crop diseases; and the reduction of the losses by disease
of fruits, vegetables and other plant products in transit or storage.
In the pursuit of these objects a number of measures were carried
out by the War Board. A man-power survey was undertaken to deter-
mine what botanists, not already engaged in plant pathology, were pre-
pared and willing to do emergency work on plant diseases. This survey
was made necessary not only by the extensive program of work planned
by the War Board but also by the large number of trained pathologists
which had been lost for the time being to the science by reason of
enlistment and conscription.
Estimates were prepared, showing more accurately than any previous
estimates had shown, the losses due to diseases of the staple crops in the
year 1917. These figures revealed that, in spite of the absence of any
serious epidemic during that year, the loss in cereals alone, due to plant
diseases largely preventable by already known methods, was over four
hundred million bushels; and that the control of two diseases of wheat —
' For the facta in this paragraph the author is indebted to the article entitled.
"Sphasmum as a Surj^ical DressinK," by J. W. Hotson. Science, N, S. Vol. XLVIT.
No. 1235.
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Contributions of Botany to Military Efficiency. 51
loose smut and bunt— during that year would have resulted in saving
thirty-three million bushels of that grain. This might have been added
to the quantity furnished to our allies in Europe, and might well have
been an important factor in the military situation. It is clear that these
loss estimates were important in the execution of the plans of the War
Board to reduce these losses in the interest of the armies and the civilian
populations of the United States and her allies.
Early in 1918 conferences were held in the six districts into which
the country had been divided for the organization of the emergency
plant disease work. At these conferences the plant pathologists of each
district met together with one or more of the commissioners of the War
Emergency Board to discuss fully and informally the plant disease
problems of the district. Leaders were elected for the work on each
special problem, and co-operation for the earliest possible solution of
such problems was arranged among the workers specially interested.
In addition to the man-power survey, the crop loss estimates and the
emergency research organized at the district conferences, the War
Emergency Board, through one of its commissioners, carried on a pub-
licity campaign through all available channels for the wider dissemi-
nation of information as to the importance and methods of plant disease
control. Provision was also made for the prompt exchange among path-
ologists of emergency information on methods of control. Thus it was
sought, by means of mimeographed sheets mailed frequently to all work-
ers, to make available at the earliest date important new facts which
could be utilized in an intensive campaign against crop diseases. The
delay which would have attended publication through the usual channels
was thus avoided.
Another department of the work was concerned with the gathering
and distribution of information as to supplies and prices of the impor-
tant fungicides and spraying machinery. The production and marketing
of these most important agencies of plant control had been greatly inter-
fered with by war conditions in the industries and in transportation.
The early and unexpected termination of the war prevented the
activities of the War Emergency Board from bearing the fruit in in-
creased food supply for the allied nations which might have been ex-
pected in the second and subsequent years of its existence. Ten months
from the conception of the plan the war was over, and the possibility
of its making further contribution to military efficiency through adding
to the food supply had ceased. This fact, and the impossibility of esti-
mating the results secured after so short a period of operation, should
not prevent us from recognizing the value of this unprecedented move-
ment for co-operation in increasing knowledge in what is probably the
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52 Proceedings of Indiana Academy of Science.
most important field of applied botany, and for the effective application
of this knowledge to the problems of the farmer, the fruit grrower, the
gardener, and the shipper.
Forestry is another branch of applied botany which has contributed
to the successful prosecution of the war. Its contributions have been
more direct in their bearing upon purely military affairs than have
those of plant pathology.
Two regiments of engineers (forest) were organized during the year
following our entry into the war. Trained foresters largely officered the
first of these regiments, and the second drew about 25 per cent of its
officers from the ranks of professional foresters. The companies making
up these regiments were employed in the forests of France in the felling
of trees, in the sawing of timbers and boards for military construction,
in hewing ties for army railroads, and poles and props for use in the
trenches and elsewhere. The forester officers found abundant oppor-
tunity to utilize their experience in supervising this work, for the French
forests have in the past been managed with the highest skill and effi-
ciency. It was necessary that the work of the forest engineer regiments
be carried on with the least possible waste, and with due regard to the
future of the forests worked.
The entry of the United States into the world war and the initiation
of our ambitious aircraft construction program offered a great oppor-
tunity for service to that branch of forestry which is concerned with
the study of forest products. On account of its virtues of lightness,
strength and elasticity, wood is very largely employed in airplane con-
struction. Different parts of the airplane in the construction of which
wood is used call for lightness, strength and elasticity in varying degree.
In the building up of the framework much more consideration may be
given to the matter of lightness than in the case of a part such as the
front of the fuselage, which, by reason of the weight of the motor, os
subject to great shock in landing. Lightness must also be sacrificed to
strength and resilience in choosing suitable wood for the tail skids and
for the landing skids on the lower planes. Special demands are also
made upon the material employed for the engine bed.*
The careful tests upon which was based the choice of the best woods
for the purposes mentioned and for others in connection with airplane
construction were made largely by or under the supervision of foresters
trained in the study of forest products. A large part of this work and
of other work on forest products connected with the airplane program
was carried out at the Forest Products Laboratory, Madison, Wisconsin,
' The facts in this parasrraph and many others used here were secured from an
article entitled, "Our Air Fleet in the Makingr." by Samuel J. Record. Yale Forestry
School News. July 1. 1918.
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Contributions- of Botany to Military Efficiency, 53
which is administered by the Forest Service of the Department of Agri-
culture in co-operation with the University of Wisconsin. How extensive
was this work may be judged by the fact that on September 1, 1918, all
or part of ten buildings were being utilized by the Forest Products
Laboratory and approximately 400 persons were engaged in its work.
At that time 75 per cent of the work of the laboratory was concerned
directly with the airplane problems.'
The great demand for airplane woods rendered it impossible to depend
upon the slow method of air drying and necessitated tests of different
types of kilns, various kilning procedures, their suitability for different
species, and the effect of kilning on strengfth. Satisfactory kiln drying
^ methods were determined, and these were introduced into commercial
kiln drying establishments engaged in the curing of airplane stock.
Research was also undertaken upon the factors which determine the
suitability of certain species for steaming and bending into the various
bent wood parts employed in airplane construction, as well as upon the
best conditions for bending and the effects of bending on the strength
of the wood.
A particularly interesting feature of the work was that relating to
the utilization of thin plywood for fuselage walls, the pontoons of flying
boats, and eventually for the covering of the wings themselves. Since
these were entirely new uses for laminated wood, tests were necessary
for the best species and for the best combinations. It was also necessary
to test the efficiency of various joints and splices, and the effect of vibra-
tion on plywood strength, and to determine the best methods for stamp-
ing and molding the new construction material. By September, 1918,
tests on the strength of plywoods had been carried out with 56 series of
panels, each series consisting of 40 panels and requiring 240 tests.
Twenty-five species of wood were represented in these 56 series. Ply-
wood was also found to be an excellent material for different parts of
the airplane framework. For such uses a core of yellow poplar with
thin layers of birch, mahogany or black walnut was shown to be sat-
isfactory.
Laminated construction is also used in the airplane propeller, al-
though here the laminations are of much greater thickness than in ply-
wood. Six to ten layers of something less than one inch thickness each
are used in building up the propellers. At the Forest Products Labora-
tory extended studies were made to determine what wood species are
most suitable for this very exacting use, what types of construction are
best, and what conditions of manufacture and what finish are most effec-
' For these and other statementH relative lo the aircraft worl< of the Forest Products
Laboratory the writer is indebted to the "Aircraft Research Program" and other reports
of the laboratory furnished throusrh the kindness of the Acting Director.
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54 Proceedings of Indiana Academy of Science.
tive in preventing loss of balance or change of shape under the strains
of service and in varying humidities.
The species which proved to best combine the properties desirable in
a propeller wood — i.e., relative freedom from checking, warping and
splitting; good glueing qualities; moderate hardness; and abUity to be
pierced by a bullet without being split or shattered — are the Central
American and African mahoganies and the black walnut. These arc
used on combat planes, where motors of great power are employed and
the demands upon the propeller are particularly heavy. For training
planes, however, white oak (quartered), cherry, birch, and the various
species known in the trade as Philippine mahogany were found suitable
There fell also to the Forest Products Laboratory the task of train- ,
ing many of the inspectors essential in the carrying out of the airplane
program. It was necessary for these men to inspect material and parts
after various steps in manufacture, such as kilning, glueing and fin-
ishing. Some of them must also identify wood species and discern
defects in the wood, often very difficult to detect, but, if overlooked,
sufficient to cause the destruction of a costly machine or even the loss
of an aviator's life. Decay, knots and brittleness or brashiness are rela-
tively easy to detect; but pitch pockets well below the surface are very
difficult to make out, as are also the so-called heart breaks. The origin
of the latter defect is still somewhat obscure, but it is probably due to
injuries to the tree by high winds while still standing, or to damage
in felling. In planing, the fibers are sometimes broken in such a way
as to closely simulate a heart break, and thus it becomes more diflScult
for the inspector to detect this source of weakness. Diagonal and spiral
grain are important sources of weakness in airplane stock. Spiral grain
is due to a peculiar development of the tree itself, but diagonal grain is
due to mistakes in sawing, a tapering log being cut not parallel to its
outer surface but to the center line. In some woods the direction of the
grain is easily detected, but in others it can be made out only with diffi-
culty. For some purposes wood with a greater divergence than one inch
in thirty must be rejected.
The extensive research carried out by the Forest Products Labora-
tory in connection with the airplane program which has been briefly
summarized above does not constitute the only war work of the labora-
tory. Investigations undertaken in co-operation with the Chemical War-
fare Section of the War Department had important results, the confi-
dential nature of which prevent their publication. Work was also con-
ducted bearing on wooden ship building, gun stock manufacture, and
the construction of artillery wheels and various military vehicles. Thus
the laboratory was called upon to investigate the seasoning of the tree-
nails or wooden spikes employed in large numbers in fastening parts of
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Contributions of Botany to Military Efficiency. 55
wooden ships. For the turning of these treenails black locust is the
preferred material, but the supply of this wood became so limited in
certain districts that it was necessary to substitute live oak for it. The
Emergency Fleet Corporation's specifications called for thoroughly air-
seasoned treenails. Stocks of air-seasoned live oak were soon exhausted,
and in a number of the shipbuilding districts green or incompletely cured
material was used. As a result serious defects in the ships developed
through shrinkage of the treenails and loosening of joints. On that
account the services of the Forest Products Laboratory was sought and
the whole situation was investigated by the experts of the laboratory.
It was decided that the long time necessary for air drying of live oak
made it impracticable to insist upon the Emergency Fleet Corporation's
specifications as to curing of treenail stock. Recommendations were
made for the kiln drying of such stock at central points in each pro-
ducing region and for the best kiln drying procedure.
Difficulties encountered in the bending of heavy oak for the rims of
artillery wheels were made the subject of experiments by the laboratory,
which resulted in the development of satisfactory methods. These were
introduced into the factories engaged in this work. A schedule pre-
pared by the laboratory for the curing of walnut blanks for rifle stocks
came to be widely used by the manufacturers.
The molding of stock for the construction of army vehicles of many
sorts called for investigation of the fungi concerned and of the methods
by which mold development might be prevented. Mold which devel-
oped during the period between the felling and the arrival at the factory
was particularly troublesome in the case of wood for the manufacture
of spokes. As a result of extensive experiments, one series of which
involved the testing of forty-three different antiseptics, means were
found which were largely effective in removing this trouble.
Not all the cases have been here mentioned in which experts in forest
products gave direct aid in the solution of problems arising in the indus-
tries engaged in the production of equipment, munitions and ships.
Other branches of applied botany than those touched upon here might
be cited which have contributed no less truly, although less directly,
perhaps, to that great complex of factors which made for the success of
our army. Sufficient has been said, however, to indicate that a by no
means unimportant place among the sciences in the matter of contri-
butions to military efficiency belongs to the science of botany.
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36 Proceedings of Indiana Academy of Science.
Geology and the War.
L. F. Bennett.
The geology of a country is one of the most important factors which
determine the location of its cities, its various industries, its population
both as to number and occupation, its political aspirations and possibili-
ties, and its relation to the countries bounding it.
It is the geology of a country which determines its natural resources,
and these have had a peculiar bearing upon the recent history of Ger-
many. Very much of Germany's iron and coal and her petroleum and
potash deposits lie close to her frontiers. This has compelled her to
strongly fortify these frontiers, especially next to France, and for this
reason the giving back of Alsace and Lorraine to France will be a great
economic blow to Germany.
In the last analysis it was the geological factors that gave Germany
her great commercial and political importance and which determined
her plan of attack upon France and Russia.
A glance at the geological map of northern France gives the reason
why Germany was compelled to attack France through Belgium if she
expected to reach Paris quickly. The series of escarpments to the east
of Paris were the best of natural fortifications. Th^y were practically
impossible to scale when well protected by Frenchmen and French
cannon. The immortal Verdun, one of the gateways into France, was
made such by the steep slopes on the west and the outlying ridges which
could be easily fortified by the defending army. The rocky barriers of
northeastern France were too much for the wonderful military machine
of Germany. The geological "stars in their courses" were marshaled
against the invading Huns and helped the gallant French. It was the
geology of the region that made Paris so easily protected from the
invading armies from the east. Its geological defenses are among the
wonderful geological features of Europe.
In western Russia the geological features are of glacial origin. There
are numerous lakes, extensive marshes and morainic ridges. The area
is easily defended by an army well supplied with means for defense
"The (Germans could not get past the Russian troops so long as they
formed heroic fighting units instead of radical debating societies."
The retreat of the Russians was masterful. Their various positions
were determined by the rivers, and the lakes and marshes formed other
barriers to their foe.
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Geology and the War. 57
The mountain passes of Galicia were the only practical ways into
and out from the plains of Hungary on the east. The valley of the
Danube was a most effectual barrier for Serbia until she was over-
whelmed by the great armies of the Central Powers. The numerous
mountain passes of the Balkan States, large and small, were alike help-
ful and harmful in offensive and defensive warfare.
The engineering feats of the Italian and Austrian troops as they
fought in the high mountain barriers of their respective countries have
won the admiration of the world. The wonderful bravery of these troops
will ever be matters for historical comment like the defense of the im-
mortal Greeks at the pass of Thermopylae.
How different would the political apd economic history of the whole
of southern Europe have been had the area been a great plain like much
of Russia instead of the series of almost impassable mountain ridges.
It has been, it is now, and probably always will be mainly a geolog-
ical question as to where many of the boundaries between countries will
be located. It was thousands of centuries ago when the political history
of Europe was largely determined. It was
"When you were a tadpole and I was a fish"
that the shores of the Paleozoic seas were very different from the present
shore lines and thick sediments were deposited over the region that is
now southern Europe, and it was much later that these sea beds were
elevated and eroded into the mountains of today.
"The violation of Belgian neutrality was predetermined by events
which took place in western Europe several million years ago. Long
ages before man appeared on the world stage Nature was fashioning
the scenery which was not merely to serve as a setting for the European
drama but was, in fact, to guide the current of play into blackest
tragedy. Had the land of Belgium been raised a few hundred feet
higher above the sea, or had the rock layers of northeastern France not
been given their uniform downward slope toward the west, Germany
would not have been tempted to commit one of the most revolting crimes
of history and Belgium would not have been crucified by her barbarous
enemy." *
But what did the geologists do and what can geologists do in time
of war? It is sure that, should there ever be another great war, the
geologists would be a more important factor than ever before. They
will be among the first of our scientists to be organized into an efficient
working corps.
The following is an abstract of an article from "Economic Geology,"
July, 1918, entitled "The Geologist in War Times; the United States
Geological Survey's War Work," by Philip S. Smith:
^Topography and Stratesry in the War, Dougrlas Wilson Johnson.
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58 Proceedings of Indiana Academy of Science.
"There are two hundred and sixteen members of the Survey in mili-
tary service, one hundred and fifty of whom came from the topograph-
er's branch. One of the Survey geologists in the Engineer Officers'
Reserve Corps fills an important scientific post on General Pershing's
staff that requires a knowledge of geology. One of the Survey topo-
graphic engineers was also assigned to General Pershing's staff, where
he occupies a position that requires special knowledgre of topographic
engineering.
"As soon as war was declared every member of the Survey who
could be spared took up war emergency work. They became members
of various national committees necessary for the successful conduct of
the war. The geologic branch was called upon to supply information
concerning the mineral resources of the United States and of foreign
countries. A systematic search of the United States has been made for
the minerals which we have depended upon foreign countries to supply,
and we cong^ratulate ourselves upon the results of this search. Ores of
manganese, chromium, tungsten, quicksilver and sulphur have been most
sought. The results of the search for potash rewarded the Survey
beyond expectations. There has been an attempt to bring consumers
and producers of supplies closer together.
"Surveys containing topographic, geographic and geologic informa-
tion have been made of the several cantonment districts. Different
kinds of coal have been carefully investigated at the request of the
Secretary of the Navy, and also for the War Minerals Committee. Over
forty skilled topographic engineers have been sent to Europe. Camera
mapping is being carefully studied.
"The water resources of the Survey, in addition to performing its
routine work, has been called on to furnish much special information
that is immediately pertinent to the work of the War and Navy De-
partments. In co-operation with the geologic branch, it furnished data
concerning the camp water supplies of all the border States except
those contiguous to Canada; made tests of the water and estimates of
the quantity available at the sites of war industries plants to be erected
in the eastern part of the country; reported to the Surgeon (Jeneral's
office on the quality of the water at thirty-three cantonments in twenty-
three States; determined the quantity and quality of the ground water
available at seven aviation camps; made a field si-rvey of the water
conditions along the Mexican border west of Nogales, Ariz.; made com-
parison of the quality of the water of European and American springs;
made recommendations to solve the problem of contamination of the
water supplies of the Kansas River by sewage below Camp Funston;
and reported on available waterpower and quality of boiler water at
Yorktown, Va.
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Geology and the War. 59
""The war has emphasized the economic importance of geology in
every branch of its science. It has done its work at home in the ways
mentioned above, and on the battle front the geologist has been most
important in determining the best possible places for camps, hospitals
and the lines of defense/'
May this emphasis not be forgotten. May the United States Govern-
ment be always willing to contribute liberally to the (Geological Survey
for work in all of its departments. May the geologists themselves pursue
all problems with the thought not only of developing their science but
to promote the "general welfare of the people of the United States."
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60 Proceedings of Indiana Academy of Science.
Physiography and War.
Wm. a. McBeth, Terre Haute, Indiana State Normal School.
The relation of physiography and war is clear and pervasive. Most
of the wars of history have had their causes, have run their courses
and have had their results determined under the influence of geograph-
ical environment. Raids were made into fertile territories for plunder
or for permanent possession. Desert and mountainous regions have
sent out their hungry hordes to conquest and pillage. Mountains, rivers
and marshes have furnished favorable lines of defense. Mountain passes,
valley ways and easy river crossings have been sought as points of
attack. Climatically men prefer to march, go into battle, and carry on
other activities of war in good weather. Winter often causes long and
almost complete suspension of hostilities. Heavy rains turn fields and
roads into quagmires, impede movement of troops, block transportation
of munitions and food, and make impossible the handling of heavy
artillery, causing unexpected delay, change of plan, and possibly disaster.
Military and naval strategy take into account, even build on the
groundwork of natural features. An account of the campaigns of any
war of recent times clearly shows this fact. The significance of the
Hudson-Champlain Valley, with its nearly continuous line of water
communication, in the French wars and in the War of the Revolution,
is a striking illustration. The strategy of the Civil War in the United
States centers in the Allegheny Mountain barrier, with the Ohio River
as a secondary line of operations. The Mississippi River, the Chatta-
nooga Gap, the Potomac River as lines of movement by either of the
contending armies are familiar to all students of history. Naval opera-
tions to enforce a blockade were carried on along the Southern coasts
by the Federal forces, while the Confederates sought to break through
and destroy this sentinel cordon.
In the World War the armies of the Central Powers broke into and
across Belgium because the smooth Flanders plain gave easier entrance
into France than the way across the mountainous frontier between
France and Germany farther south, where Verdun withstood shock after
shock unconquered. The Somme, Aisne and Marne are names of rivers
flowing west in France along which the invading armies undertook to
make their way toward the channel ports or Paris, and Amiens, Soissons
and Chateau-Thierry are important points of effective resistance, the
last a crossing of the Marne, where the Huns were finally stopped and
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Physiography and War. 61
faced about to a last retreat and defeat. Numerous examples of the
dependence of strategy on geographical conditions appear in all the other
fields of operation in the war, and volumes on this aspect of the subject
might be written.
The importance of physiographic knowledge and science in war is
suggested by mention of a few of its contributions to war plans and
work. Most countries have war colleges, general staffs, or other organi-
zations for the study of strategical problems and the development and
formulation of plans of attack and defense in war.
In our own country the leading geographers volunteered their serv-
ices and organized in the national capital a Board of Geographical In-
formation that gave valuable aid to the government in the prosecution
of the war.
Accurate maps, indispensable for such study and planning, are pre-
pared with great detail and accuracy in many countries. The Ordnance
Survey, large scale maps of Great Britain and France, are marvels and
models of the map maker's art. The relief of the country, its streams,
lakes, railways, roads, canals, cities, villages and even farmhouses are
accurately indicated. Outline and slope are shown in contours or shad-
ing, height by figures or contour intervals. Shores and off-shore waters
are mapped, and depths, channels, shoals, lights and landings are indi-
cated. Such maps are useful and instructive under peaceful as well as
belligerent conditions, and, strange as it may seem, are easily obtain-
able by schools and the general public in and outside of the countries in
which they are published. That such maps easily get into the hands of
possible present or future enemies admits of no doubt, and those who
want them get them by means of indirection or espionage if not openly.
The United States Geological Survey maps and the maps of the Coast
and Geodetic Survey and of the Mississippi Commission are most excel-
lent in accuracy and execution, and, while not published primarily for
military use, have a high value in that direction.
The army Signal Service calls to its aid the expert meteorologist,
who observes the changes in the air and reports present and probable
future weather conditions for the use of the various branches of the
army. The infantry makes use of such information in timing attacks,
such movements preferably being made in fair weather, unless in case
of intended surprise. The artillery finds great advantage in knowing
the air pressure, the direction and velocity of the wind, and even the
temperature and humidity conditions of the atmosphere in finding ranges
in firing.
Weather observations and predictions are even more important in
the Flying Service. The strength and direction of the wind, the prev-
alence of cloud, or the probability of fog or cloud, are great factors in
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62 Proceedings of Indiana Academy of Science.
successful flight for either observation or combat. London came to
expect an air raid on any still, clear night, and the Germans are re-
ported to have taken care to have their best forecasters select the most
favorable time and conditions for these attacks.
Many engineering problems are primarily geological or geographical
problems, and the education of the civil or military engineer includes a
knowledge of these subjects. The location of camps, with the associated
matters of drainage, of transportation, food supply and equipment,
require geographical knowledge. The location of coast defenses, the
laying out of military roads, canals and lines of defense within a coun-
try, the improvement of waterways, and many other matters, are in
the field of the geographer, and his knowledge and advice are essential
to the engineer, whether in the interests of war or of peace.
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The Barberry and its Relation to the Stem Rust of
Wheat in Indiana.
F. J. PiPAL, Purdue University.
It has now been over 250 years since the European farmers began
to observe that the common barberry bush (Berberis vulgaris) had
harmful effects upon the grain fields, particularly those of wheat,
through severe rusting of the straw, and causing considerable shriveling
of the grain. As early as 1660 a law was passed against it in the
district of Rouen, France.* In later years, as the barberry was intro-
duced into other European countries, frequent complaints were made by
the farmers that the bush was responsible for a great deal of injury to
the grain growing in its vicinity. One writer (Djorup') remarks in
this connection: "Many of the inhabitants reaped only straw, which,
of course, could not be thrashed." In many instances the barberries
were eradicated, either voluntarily or through force of law, or by the
injured farmers themselves. There was no consensus of opinion, how-
ever, as to the guilt or the innocence of the barberry, and, as Lind
relates in his article, a rather dramatic war was waged over the ques-
tion. In 1863 DeBary finally demonstrated, through cross-inoculations,
that one stage (aecial) of the stem rust of wheat (Puccinia graminis)
passed its life on the leaves of the barberries. Even after this dis-
covery, however, it was not agreed that the barberry was in any way
responsible for the rust infection, and not until about thirty years ago
was this fact generally accepted by the botanical profession.
During the seventeenth century the barberry was introduced into
America, where it is now used extensively as an ornamental shrub.
It is of interest to note that a law was passed against it in Connecticut
in 1726, and in Massachusetts in 1755. It is doubtful, however, if the
laws were ever enforced.
Owing to a lack of definite information regarding the extent to which
the common barberry and its purple-leaved variety were responsible for
the stem rust infection in this country, no special effort was made here-
tofore to bring about the eradication of this shrub. The great World
War and the urgent need of food presented an opportunity to bring up
the question of the eradication of the barberry, which, it was believed,
would reduce stem rust infection and save millions of bushels of valu-
' J. Lind, Berberisbusken. or Berberislovcn. Denmark, 1915.
' Quoted in Lind's article. See note >.
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64 Proceedings of Indiana Academy of Science,
able grains. The agitation of this question, enlivened by the fact that
a very severe rust infection in 1916 caused a loss of over 200,000,000
bushels of wheat, resulted in the present barberry eradication campaign,
comprising the upper Mississippi and the Western States, with Montana
as the western and Ohio as the eastern limits. The campaign is con-
ducted by the Office of Cereal Investigations, of the United States De-
partment of Agriculture, in co-operation with the State Agricultural
Colleges.
The barberry has been introduced into Indiana probably during the
second half of the nineteenth century. Bushes have been found in the
State which the owners claim to be over fifty years old. Most of the
plantings, however, are of a more recent origin. The barberry scouts,
who made a careful survey 4ast spring and summer of the cities and
larger towns in the northern thirty-six counties, located approximately
1,500 plantings. It is estimated that there are not less than 3,000 plant-
ings within the State. The barberries are not so numerous in the coun-
ties south of the Indianapolis line, especially in the extreme southern
end of the State, where they are very rare. Some of these plantings
were very extensive, each containing several hundred bushes. Along the
main line of the Pennsylvania Railroad, running from Chicago to
Columbus, Ohio, there was a planting at nearly every station. Some
were hedges several hundred to 1,000 feet long. At Valparaiso, Ander-
son and other cities large lots and even whole city squares were sur-
rounded by barberry hedges. The country districts seem to be com-
paratively free from barberries, so far as can be judged from general
observations. Several communities have been found, however, where
bushes were growing on the farms and playing a very important role,
as will be pointed out later, in starting local rust epidemics.
The earliest recorded mention of wheat rust causing serious injury
in Indiana is found in the annual report of the Indiana State Board of
Agriculture for 1868, pp. 364-365, in which Professor R. S. Brown, in
discussing this disease and its control, makes this statement: "Culti-
vating early varieties of wheat, and immediately cutting, if the rust
strikes the straw, are the only remedies we have to propose for this evil,
which so often blasts, in a night, the brightest prospects of the fanner."
The rust collection of the Department of Botany, Purdue University
Agricultural Experiment Station, contains specimens of wheat stem rust
from nearly every section of the State.
In 1892 Dr. Arthur' reported the following observation: "At one
edge of a field of wheat on the Experiment Station farm at Lafayette,
Indiana, were many large barberry bushes, forming a thicket some
twenty-five by fifty feet. The season was favorable to the production
' Proc. Soc. Prom. Aflrric. Sci. 23d Ann. Rep.
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Barberry and Its Relation to Stem Rust. 65
of rust, and the barberry bushes were all covered with aecidia. By the
first week in July the wheat field was also well rusted. * * *"
The survey made last summer in the northern part of the State and
in a few districts of the southern part showed that prevalence of the
stem rust of wheat followed closely the distribution of the barberries.
In sections having large numbers of barberry buslies there was a com-
paratively heavy rust infection, while in sections where no barberries
were found little or no rust was observed. In every instance where a
severe rust infection was reported and investigated there was no diffi-
culty in locating barberry bushes in the immediate or near vicinity of
the damaged $elds.
The following specific cases, investigated last summer, are presented
to show the guilt of the barberry in spreading the stem rust of wheat
in Indiana:
Case 1. Franklin County. A barberry bush was growing in the
yard of Ed. Heap's farm near Drewersburg. Another bush was growing
in the corner of a field across the road from the house. Mr. Heap's
and two of his neighbors' wheat fields were very heavily rusted. The
grain from these fields was refused by the local dealers as being worth-
less for milling purposes, and the County Agricultural Agent had to
obtain a special permission from the County Food Administrator to
allow the farmers to feed this grain to their stock. It was very notice-
able in this case that practically all infection took place on the wind-
ward side of the barberries.
Case 2. Franklin County. Several barberries were found on the
farm of Bradbury Hudson, several miles from Brookville. Other bushes
are said to be growing in this neighborhood. All wheat in this com-
munity was reported by Mr. Hudson to be badly rusted.
Case 3. St. Joseph County. The following paragraph appears in
the annual report, for 1918, of the Agricultural County Agent, J. S.
Bordner: "In 1915 an urgent request came from Madison Township to
come to the farm of Jonas Loucks, where an entire field of wheat had
been ruined by some disease. Investigation showed the most pronounced
attack of black rust which the writer had ever seen. Additional inves-
tigation showed infection in other fields, but not as pronounced, because
most of the wheat of the neighborhood matured from four to ten days
earlier than this particular field. Damage from red and black rust has
been found each season in this community. This year an organized
effort was made to locate the source of infection. The accompanying
cuts speak for themselves. The barberry was found red-handed. One
barberry hedge several rods in length has been responsible for the pres-
ence of rust in the entire surrounding country, the actual damage
ranging from 2% to 50%, the field adjoining the barberry hedge sus-
5—16568
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68 Proceedings of Indiana Academy of Science,
taining the greatest loss." Infected barberry leaves were found when
the field was inspected.
Case 4. St. Joseph County. Mr. Bordner also reports the following:
''Another striking case of damage was found in the field of Charles
Bunch near Lakeville, and upon thorough investigation we found bar-
berry in the neighbor's back yard some ten rods away."
Case 5. Wayne County. A few miles east of Centerville stands a
country church with a cemetery about eighteen rods from the building.
A barberry hedge is growing on both sides of the walk leading from
the church to the cemetery. Within a radius of about one-half of a
mile from this hedge, especially on the windward side, all wheat fields
were badly rusted. In the nearest field, on the McConaha farm, a
prospective yield of thirty bushels of wheat to the acre was reduced to
less than ten bushels.
Case 6. Wayne County. W. 0. Seoney, Boston Township, suffered
considerable losses from wheat rust for many years. A couple of years
ago the crop was nearly ruined. Mr. Seoney wrote to the Agricultural
Experiment Station and asked for a specialist to examine the crop and
determine, if possible, the cause of the trouble. When the investigator
found that the unusually heavy infection was due to the stem rust he
searched the vicinity for barberry bushes and found a large one twenty
rods from the wheat field. The bush was immediately removed. Last
year Mr. Seoney 's wheat was free from rust for the first time in many
years, although a very heavy infection occurred in another section of
the county not far from his farm.
Case 7. Jasper County. A barberry hedge was found on a farm
two and a half miles north of Rensselaer. A wheat field across the road
was heavily rusted. (Reported by W. E. Leer.)
Case 8. Rush County. The stem rust practically ruined the wheat
crop in Orange Township on the farms of J(»s. Brown, John Douthett,
Chas. Ov/ens and several others belonging to the same threshing ring.
In one case the crop was a complete loss, as the grain did not even have
any value as a stock feed. An investigation of the trouble resulted in
locating an old abandoned nursery on a farm in the center of the affected
community. Many barberry bushes formerly grew on this farm, but
were dug up, as claimed by the owner, a couple of years ago. A further
inquiry, however, disclosed the fact that a number of bushes were grow-
ing along the border of the farm woodlot which were not removed until
last summer, after rust infection had already taken place. It is prob-
able that there are other bushes growing wild in this community which
have come up from seeds scattered by birds.
Case 9. Rush County. Two very severe cases of stem rust infec-
tion were found on the farms of T. A. Coleman and Wm. Garten, situ-
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Barberry and Its Relation to Stem Rust. 6^
ated about two and a half miles northeast of Rushville. A careful
search of the community resulted in locating a twelve-foot hedge of
barberry bushes, most of which were over ten feet high. The infected
fields were about three-quarters of a mile in direct line of the prevailing
wind from the barberries.
Case 10. Jefferson County. A barberry hedge and several group
plantings were found, late in the fall, about one and a half miles north-
east of Madison. When the relation of the barberry to the stem rust
cf wheat was explained to one of the owners she recalled that a severe
rust infection occurred last summer in a wheat field across the road
from the barberries.
Case 11. Wabash County. Six infected barberries were found on
the grounds of the Childien's and Orphans' Home, three miles south of
Wabash. Just across the fence from them was a wheat field in which
the crop was badly rusted. (Reported by W. E. Leer.)
Case 12. An old planting of six large and several small barberry
bushes was found on a farm eight miles southwest of North Manchester.
The older bushes were about fifteen feet high, with stems several inches
in diameter. A considerable rust infection was observed in wheat fields
in this community within a radius of nearly two miles, especially in
the windward direction. A field of oats and another of rye, about a
quarter of a mile from the barberries, were also heavily rusted. (Re-
ported by W. E. Leer.)
Case 13. Wabash County. A severe case of stem rust infection was
reported by Nathan Gilbert on his farm five miles southwest of Wabash.
Upon investigation it was found that numerous barberry bushes covered
a hillside just across the road from the wheat field in question (see
Fig. 2). The bushes showed abundant infection of the aecial stage of
the rust. The entire wheat field was heavily infected, especially within
a distance of about 100 feet of the road, where the grain was black
with rust. Another wheat field situated about three-quarters of a mile
from the barberries also had a considerable infection, but much less
severe than the nearer field. The prospective yield of the first field
was reduced by at least 60 per cent. A number of local farmers held
a meeting at this field to see the havoc wrought by the barberries.
The guilt of the bush was so firmly established in their minds that they
went on record with the following resolution:
We, the undersigned farmers of Wabash County, Indiana, at
a meeting at the farm of Nathan Gilbert in Noble Township on
July 19, 1918, called for the purpose of observing the ravages of
the black stem wheat rust on the seven teen-acre wheat field,
desire to go on record as follows:
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70 Proceedings of Indiana Academy of Science.
1. We are fully convinced, after making these observations,
that there is a connection between the common barberry and the
black stem wheat rust. On the south side of this ruined field is
a large planting of common barbeny bushes, which have been
badly infested by the rust. We have observed that the rust
started on the side of the field next to these bushes and that
now the worst infestation is on the side nearest the barberries.
2. We desire to go on record as favoring any legislation
looking toward the complete eradication of the common barberry
bush, believing it to be of no value, but on the other hand a
serious menace to the wheat-growing industry.
(Signed)
Nathan Gilbert. John Shambaugh.
N. L. Gilbert. H. H. Behny.
David Flora. L. R. Miller.
R. D. Flora. W. Curtis.
S. A. Ungar. Alvah Dubois.
Dan Cooper. Jacob Stauffer.
E. E. Stouffer. W. E. Walker.
Department of Botany, Purdue University Agricultural Expert'
ment Station, Lafayette, Ind,
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Evolutionary Philosophy and the German War.
A. Richards, Wabash College.
In the writings of the German intellectual classes during the early
part of the war much was said about the biological justification for the
conflict, and the German mind built up a biological argument which
was faultless in logic, if the premises be granted. It is an argument
which is readily comprehended in view of the historical development in
Germany of the Darwinian doctrine of the survival of the fittest. This
conception early took firm hold of the biological public of that country
to the practical exclusion of those other explanations of the evolution
process that have held scientific attention in other countries. The lead-
ing advocates of the principle of selection have been mostly eminent
German scholars, many of whom have been even more ardent selec-
tionists than Darwin himself. Owing to the stress they place upon
selection as a factor of evolution, they comprise the school of Neo-
Darwinians, and it is they who have carried Darwinism to the extreme
in applying it to the problems of mankind. Obviously Darwin never
anticipated such an application.
By selection the biologist means that of a race of individuals certain
ones, especially desirable on the basis of some criterion established in
the case, are chosen to be the parents of the next generation; and of
the next progeny, those which show this same desirable character are
chosen. In this way the domesticated races of animals and plants have
been established, as is well known to the practical breeder. Natural
selection, which Darwin assumed to be the chief factor in the evolution
of species, behaves in the same manner that artificial selection in the
hands of the breeder does; that is, the conditions of nature establish
the criterion to which species must conform, and those members of the
species which are best adapted to the conditions in which they are placed
will be the ones that survive the inevitable struggle and give rise to
the next generation. Whenever variations arise, however small in char-
acter they may be, if they give the individual possessing them any
added advantage over its fellows, they will be perpetuated because of
their usefulness. By the gradual accumulation of these small continu-
ous variations the race is more and more adapted to its surroundings,
and progress in evolution is made.
In spite of their zeal in the study of the selection factor, German
scholars have not taken a leading part in the recent phases of investi-
gation into evolutionary phenomena. It is true that since Darwin's
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72 Proceedings of Indiana Academy of Science.
original announcement, the most important single contribution to the
understanding of these processes has been made by the leader of the
Neo-Darwinians, Weismann. To him is due the conception of the con-
tinuity of the germ plasm, and the corrollary from this that body char-
acters acquired in a single generation cannot be inherited. In other
words, the germinal substance is carried from parent to offspring with-
out interruption, and the variations which appear in the offspring are
not inherited from the parent unless they are of such a nature that the
germinal substance can carry them on. Thus an extra finger would be
inherited, in all probability, but a bent one, due to an accident, would
not be. . The importance of Weismannism lies in this, that it is the
foundation for the studies in genetics and eugenics which have occupied
the center of the biologrical stage in this country and elsewhere for the
last twenty years. To these subjects the active German investigators
of the present time have contributed little. This fact should not min-
imize the contribution of Weismann, but, nevertheless, it does serve to
explain to a certain degn'ee the lack of German appreciation of the other
factors of evolution, such as mutation, which are now known to be of
the greatest importance in producing new species or races. German
scholars are not now taking an active part in the modem studies of
genetics; rather they explain most evolutionary phenomena on the basis
of natural selection, and the German national philosophy is likewise
based upon the acceptance of natural selection applied without modifi-
cation to human life and society.
To the mind of most German biologist-philosophers, struggle is the
rule among all the different groups of organisms, human groups in-
cluded. Through all the ages that mankind has been developing, he
owes his progress to the same factors that influence the evolution of
other groups of animals and especially to the factor of natural selection.
Selection is accomplished as the result of a bitter struggle for existence
as ruthless in its outcome in the case of man as in that of beetles or
snails or the beasts of the field. It follows that war is necessary that
the best of the world's peoples may overcome their weaker neighbors
and demonstrate their own superiority. The following paragraph from
Kellogg explanatory of the German views helps to set before us the
implicit Teutonic reliance in selection and in the irresistible consequences
of the struggle for existence.
"This struggle not only must go on, for that is the natural law,
but it should go on, so that this natural law may work out in its cruel,
inevitable way the salvation of the species. By its salvation is meant
its desirable natural evolution. That human group which is in the most
advanced evolutionary stage as regards internal organization and form
of social relationship is best, and should, for the sake of the species,
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Evolutionary Philosophy and the German War. 73
be preserved at the expense of the less advanced, the less effective. It
should win in the struggle for existence, and this struggle should occur
precisely that the various types may be tested and the best not only
preserved but put in position to impose its kind of social organization —
its Kultur — on the others, or alternately, to destroy and replace them."
The so-called biological argument for the war, as it has shaped itself
in the German mind, may, I believe, be formulated in three propositions.
From these logically follows a conclusion, if the premises be granted,
that abundantly justifies the German nation in carrying on the war for
its own glory, and in taking measures of any nature whatever — no
matter how horrible — which would make them dominant over the rest
of the world. These propositions are the following:
1. In the evolution of any group of organisms natural selection is
the chief, if not the exclusive factor in bringing about progress. Nat-
ural selection is effective because there must always be a struggle, either
between individuals of the same group for space, food, etc., or between
different groups for favorable living conditions, or between the indi-
viduals in question and the forces of nature, as climate, flood, etc. In
the struggle for existence the individuals best fitted for the conditions
of their environment will be selected to carry on the race and their char-
acters preserved.
2. The principle of natural selection is applicable to the human race,
to the nations of the world, just as it is to groups of lower animals,
and there is to be expected a struggle for existence between the various
nations. War is the usual form of struggle, and it offers an opportunity
for the best among the nations to come to the front at the expense of
the other less fortunate ones. There is something in the innate char-
acter of nations which finally makes them irreconcilable, and in the long
run the principle of mutual aid, which is applicable to ameliorate the
struggle within groups, cannot act to diminish the realness or the sever-
ity of the inevitable struggle.
3. The German nation is the mightiest and greatest nation upon
the earth, and its social and political development has outstripped that
of any other people. Since this is true, anything which operates to
deprive Germany of her rightful place of dominance among the powers
of the earth is wrong and cannot be allowed to stand. War is a worthy
occupation for the German people, for it creates an opening by which
their dominant traits are given the opportunity for full expression and
development. The policy of terrorism is justified, for it aids the selected
German nation to maintain itself over its weaker neighbors, and along
with the natural results of war, it serves to remove the inferior and
unfit peoples from the contest and thus make more room for the better
fitted survivors.
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74 Proceedings of Indiarui Academy of Science.
That the points in the argument for war are not overdrawn as here
formulated might easily be shown by quotations from many Grerman
writers. From eminent as well as from humble sources might be drawn
proof that this point of view is part of the mental fabric of that nation.
Many articles are available to show that the above propositions rep-
resent the average opinion of the dominant classes, while from Prussian
sources come utterances that make the version here given seem woefully
understated. Actual quotations here, however, appear unnecessary in
view of the many statements in newspapers, magazines and authoritive
publications of the years since the war began which depict plainly the
German attitude.
The purpose of this discussion is to show that when critically exam-
ined this argument is not in every respect biologically sound. Indeed
the points in the argument are only half truths, and as such can not
be used as a basis from which to draw general conclusions. Not only
is the biology of the present time set against war as an instrument of
racial progress, but recent investigations go to show that, in some of
its aspects at least, war tends to retard the development of the nations
which pursue it. Biology has said nothing for which it merits the taint
left upon it by this false argument. To grant the fallacious premises
is possible only upon misinterpretation of the facts and teachings of
nature.
Of the points advanced in the supposed biological argument for war,
the first is the all importance of the factor of natural selection in evo-
lution. Evidence for and against this view is familiar to all biologists
and needs only be mentioned here. In Darwin's theory of evolution,
natural selection was indeed the chief factor by which progressive de-
velopment was thought to be accomplished; but he admitted that there
might also be other factors of importance. Natural selection depends
upon the usefulness of the character under consideration; that is, in
the struggle for existence it is the character which is most useful, which
is best fitted to the environment wherein the struggle is conducted, that
is preserved. Darwin supposed that, as the small variations accumu-
lated, they gradually fitted the individual possessing them more and
more to its surroundings, and thus were passed to the next generations.
Even the most minute, the continuous variations were to be interpreted
thus. Discontinuous variations, by which offspring markedly different
in some particular character are produced, were recognized occasionally
to occur in nature, but they were thought to be rare and therefore
insignificant. Darwin also recognized that his factor fails to account
for the perpetuation of minute variations until they are sufficiently
developed to be of importance to the organism. Natural selection with-
out doubt plays its part in the case of a useful character. The white
coat of the polar bear renders that animal inconspicuous on the snow
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Evolutionary Philosophy and the German War. 75
fields of its habitat; but it is hardly to be supposed that the first patch
of white hair that appeared upon the ancestral type of bear was per-
petuated because it offered any great degree of security to its owner.
Natural selection here loses its force, while discontinuous variations
come into consideration. It is now known that the discontinuous type
of variations, or mutations as they are called, is less rare than Darwin
believed. To mutations is now attributed the larger share in the origin
of races and species. The role played by mutations is illustrated by
the recent experiments in the inheritance of the fruit fly, Drosophila.
In laboratory cultures of these fruit flies there occur strains without
eyes, other strains with vestigeal wings that can have no possible use-
fulness, as well as numerous other strains with characters widely dif-
ferent from those of the parent stock. If they had arisen in nature
they would have been recognized without question as distinct sub-species
at least, and probably as distinct species. Natural selection, as this and
other cases that might be cited show, is not by any means all-powerful
in producing new races and species.
In late years the selection problem itself has been attacked from
many angles, and a great deal of experimental work has been done
on it. The problem resolves itself into these questions: Are organisms
indefinitely variable, and by constant selection can we hope to develop
a character at will, or can we carry on our selection only to a certain
point, beyond which it is not effective? As yet no definite answer has
been made, and controversy has divided students of inheritance into two
schools. Both agree that positive results come from selection, but one
school holds that a limit is soon reached, after which selection is no
longer effective. According to these geneticists, selection results in a
sorting of the different strains of which any organism is composed into
the ori^nal pure lines. Thus the bristles numbers on the thorax of a
fly may be selected for perhaps thirty generations with an increase in
the mean, but at lengrth continued selection causes no further rise in
the mean of the bristles number. If further selection is to be effective
a new mutation must occur. Without some such change in the germ
plasm selection cannot be responsible for continued progressive develop-
ment.
According to the other school of biologists, germinal modifications
are necessary before selection can bring about any real change in the
organism, but these germinal changes are of such common occurrence
that it is possible practically to continue development by selection in the
direction desired. Between these two widely different viewpoints no
decision can be reached, for sufficient experimental evidence is not at
present available. Certainly there is not enough exact scientific data
to justify relying solely upon natural selection, or making a fetish out
of the conception of the struggle for existence.
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76 Proceedings of Indiana Academy of Science.
'One more important criticism of the narrow Darwinian interpreta-
tion should be pointed out. Evolutionists in the last quarter of a cen-
tury have come to see that the struggle so much stressed in the years
immediately following Darwin's life is by no means an unmitigated one,
but that, on the other hand, those communities of animals that are most
highly developed are the ones in which there is a division of labor and
in which co-operation takes the place of bitter competition. Co-operation
results in community prosperity and growth. This is the principle of
mutual aid, and even a cursory examination of the facts of nature will
show that it is not an unimportant one. It depends upon several obser-
vations which may be easily verified. There is not a vast number of
species of animals that lead isolated lives, but there are numberless
species that live in societies which seem to have their raison d^etre in
better means for defense, for securing food, or for rearing offspring.
A fairly keen competition and warfare may often be noted between
animals which are members of different classes or species, or even be-
tween different tribes of the same species, but among individuals of the
same community or tribe peace is the rule. And if an entire population
is forced to struggle against the unfavorable conditions of drought, flood,
famine, disease, wind or weather, the survivors, weakened by such a
contest, can at best produce offspring with insufficient vigor to bring
about the progressive development of the species. It is common knowl-
edge that when a pestilence of any kind has swept an animal commu-
nity, the remnant of the population is years in restoring its former
numbers. Finally the degree of development of any group of animals
is measured by the degree in which social life, co-operation for mutual
good, and division of labor obtain, with the corresponding avoidance of
severe competition. The social species prosper, while many of the un-
social ones tend toward decay. The principle of mutual aid presents
another aspect of the story of development in the animal world which
must not be overlooked, and shows that struggle is not in every case
the chief characteristic of progress. This principle doubtless does not
deserve the rank of the chief factor in evolution given it by Kropotkin,
one of its proponents; but neither does the struggle for existence deserve
the prominence which the German Neo-Darwinians have given it. The
isolated species of animals struggling against his kin, his neighbors and
his physical environment cannot longer be looked to for the entire cause
of progressive evolution; rather we must look to both the social and
unsocial, and remember that probably no single factor is broad enough
to account for all the complexities of animal development.
These objections to and arguments against the Darwinian factor of
natural selection, and especially the narrow Neo-Darwinian interpreta-
tion of it, constitute abundant reasons why it cannot be accorded the
chief, the all-important place in the progressive development of animals.
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Evolutionary Philosophy and the German War. 77
They do not in any way constitute a denial that progressive develop-
ment takes place, for that is a matter of common observation, but they
do deny that natural selection is the all-powerful causal factor in bring-
ing about that development.
The second point of the German war-biologists is that natural selec-
tion is applicable to the human race and the nations of the world just
as it is to the lower animals. It must be admitted without question that
there is a tendency for mankind to follow the same natural laws that
the lower forms of life do, but this tendency is very often modified.
Man does not owe his development to any one factor exclusively, whether
it be natural selection or any other. Man differs from the lower animals
in the degree to which the particular factor in question is applicable in
his evolution. Most animals are forced to adapt their mode of life to
the conditions in which they live, but man can by his superior intelli-
gence and ability adapt the environment to his own needs. He has
ameliorated the severity of the struggle with clim&te and other physical
forces not by growing heavy fur or seeking caves, but by taking the
skins of other animals or the product of the fields to make himself
clothing, and by building shelters which render him almost completely
master of the elements. The individual whose eyes are too weak to
endure a severe struggle with unfavorable nature or more vigorous
competitors is not at a disadvantage, for he, or rather those with whom
he co-operates, have devised lenses by which the eyes are strengrthened
and he is enabled to occupy his rightful place among his fellows. The
human individual is rendered superior to his environment; his form of
adaptability to the conditions of nature consists in an ability to adapt
them to himself. Furthermore, what is true of the individual is only
true in a larger measure of whole nations.
Co-operation is the keynote in the life of mankind. Individuals
organize themselves into communities, even among the most primitive
of peoples, and the communities band themselves together for the mu-
tual benefit of all their members. In each community there is a division
of labor by which all of society is helped to a more successful life. The
city nations of the Europe of the Middle Ages have given way to the
state nations of the present time, and now peaceful and harmonious
dwelling together prevails over large areas, to the increasing prosperity
of the inhabitants, where formerly conflict and warfare was the rule
between the subjects of separate cities or of neighboring feudal lords.
As allegiance to cities gave way to allegiance to states, co-operation was
extended. In no other nation was the principle of such organization
more developed than in Germany. The Germany of Kaiser Wilhelm II
owed its strength and efficiency to its organization and co-operation.
German thinkers of the present time are fond of saying that no nation
that does not have an extremely centralized form of government devel-
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78 Proceedings of Indiana Academy of Science.
oped on the basis of a strict and complete organization can really become
great and continue so. This is, of course, nothing more than the prin-
ciple of mutual aid carried to a nation-wide extent. And if the life of
a nation is made more effective by co-operation, does not the same rule
apply to neighboring world powers? The logic that proves co-operation
to be the best means to develop the people of a nation should be carried
further and demand the co-operation of the nations themselves. Ger-
many has not felt the full force of the logic of its own situation. There
co-operation has worked effectively by removing competition and struggle
from the inhabitants of an empire where formerly conflict was the rule
and peace the exception. And this co-operation within the empire is
completely at variance with the philosophy that regards conflict and
struggle between nations, the downfall of one people and the exaltation
of another, as the working out of natural law. The argument that
natural selection and struggle for existence must be applied to peoples
is most effectively disproven by the development and life of the German
people itself. In every nation the highest development of its society is
based upon the complete application of the principle of co-operation.
And the highest development of the society of the world will await the
co-operation of the nations which dominate and control the world's
destiny.
The final point in the arg^ument is the pre-eminence of the German
people. Very few will be found to admit that this people represent the
highest development of mankind and are the best fitted to rule, for such
an admission would imply a very narrow understanding of the meaning
of best fitted. At the beginning of the war Germany was certainly the
best organized nation for military purposes; but when all is said, mili-
tary strength will never give any people the first rank as the best
developed of mankind. Intellectually Germany has stood well to the
front, but it is noteworthy that this position is not due to the politicians
and soldiers of Prussia but to the general interest in culture and learn-
ing that prevails in the south and west of Germany. Even Prussian
Von Billow remarked that "German intellect had already reached its
zenith without the help of Prussia." Spiritually the life and perform-
ances of Germany will not stand close scrutiny. The misdeeds and
moral corruption of the jGerman military authorities are probably the
most outstanding feature of the war. Certain it is that the life and
deeds of the German nation do not stand in the eyes of the world as
the finest and most fitted type of manhood. No attempt in the defense
of this people can ever give them the place that they claim.
For all these reasons, therefore, biology cannot rightfully be charged
with having furnished a foundation upon which to construct a phil-
osophy of war.
November, 1918,
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IN MEMORIAM.
George D. Timmons.
L. F. Bennett.
George Deming Timmons was bom August 10, 1867, in Warren
County, Indiana. He received his early education in the common schools
of his county and in the Green Hill Seminary. He taught in the public
schools from 1884 to 1895. He entered Valparaiso University in 1895
and graduated with honors from the Pharmacy class of 1897. Soon
after graduation he was appointed Assistant Professor of Chemigtry at
Valparaiso. In 1909 he was promoted to the position of Head of the
Department of Chemistry, and in 1912 he was made Dean of the School
of Pharmacy. During this time he did graduate work in Chemistry in
Chicago University.
Under Mr. Timmons' leadership the School of Pharmacy became one
of the most important and most completely organized and best equipped
departments of the University. His acquaintance with members of the
profession, his activity to place the School of which he was Dean among
the most efficient in the country, a constant and conscientious endeavor
tD be loyal to the best interest of the students, the University, the ethics
of his chosen work, and the spirit of his subject, made of him a distinct
personality.
A fellow teacher wrote of him: "A scholar without pedantry, a
chemist whose world was not limited to chemical theories and formulae,
a teacher of a difficult subject who made it so attractive that even dull
students- got some insight into its laws and its poetry, a worker who
never knew when to quit, a man with a heart big enough to feel the
thrill of life intensely, its pathos, its heroism, its incongruities — such
he seems as I try to set it down. Possibly, however, it was his amazing
vitality and capacity for work that used to impress me most. So strong
was this impression that he was the last man with whom I should have
connected the idea of death. Of his remarkable gifts as a teacher I
am not well qualified to speak, but I knew enough to be sure that he
was a teacher born and made. He entered his classroom with a quick
step of confidence and animation. He loved to teach — and to learn;
and so it was that one would have sought far before finding a more
alert, conscientious or inspiring teacher."
Mr. Timmons and I were colleagues for twenty years, and during
all of this time we never had a single disagreement. I will always
remember him for the many times he laid aside his own work in order
that he might explain to me a chemical equation or reaction. He was
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80 Proceedings of Indiana Academy of Science.
never too busy to help me. I can recall now how he would reach for
his numerous volumes of chemistry and would say, "Well see what"
this one or that one "says on the subject," and then he would tell me
what he thought was the best explanation. And what he did for me
he did for many others. His whole life was one of helpfulness. His
greatest pleasure seemed to be to help his students. He had had a hard
struggle to reach his present position and was very sympathetic toward
one who was trying to learn. He was too tenderhearted for his own
good. When he should have been resting he was off on a trip with his
students or giving them extra help or writing a helpful letter to some-
one who needed encouragement.
He was never idle a minute. Between terms he would carefully
inspect the laboratories and, if anything needed fixing, he would do it
himself rather than not have it ready for the new term. His mechanical
skill was second only to his ability as a teacher.
Mr. Timmons was not only a chemist; he was a student of many
cf the poets and prose writers. He was a lover of Riley. His colleagues
will never forget the address he gave upon Riley and his poems. It
would have done credit to a profound student of literature.
He was a member of the Indiana Academy but a few years and he
never took an active part. He was an active member of the American
Pharmaceutical Association and of the American Chemical Society. He
was serving his third term as a member of the Valparaiso City Council
at the time of his death.
Mr. Timmons published, in 1914, "Experiments in General Chem-
istry, I and II," and, in 1917, "Qualitative Chemical Analysis." At the
time of his death he was engaged in gathering data for a further pub-
lication.
Last May Mr. Timmons was given a vacation for the summer and
was advised to take a much-needed rest. Instead, he took a position
made vacant by the draft in the offices of the Eli Lilly Company of
Indianapolis. He died July 18th after a week's illness of typhoid fever.
His funeral was held in the Auditorium of Valparaiso University and
was largely attended by both students and townspeople.
A local paper paid the following tribute: "The death of Prof. G. D.
Timmons has left a great vacancy in the life of the city and the Uni-
versity. To his duties as alderman he brought an unflinching loyalty
to the cause of clean politics and efficient government. Whatever made
for progress and advancement always received his whole-hearted sup-
port and devotion. No man ever deserved more justly to be called
public spirited in the best sense. In his work at the University, where
he was head of the Pharmacy Department, he was indefatigable. The
unstinted admiration of all those who were in any way associated with
him is a glowing tribute to his sincerity and earnestness."
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In Memoriam. 81
William James Jones, Jr.
S. D. Conner, Purdue University.
William James Jones, Jr., was one of the most prominent officials in
the United States in charge of fertilizer and feeding stuff inspection
and control. His opinions were always given great weight in the meet-
ings of the Association of Official Agricultural Chemists, of which he
was a member. As an official of the Federal Food and Drug Depart-
ment has stated, "We regarded him as a model of the efficient food
control chemist." ,
Professor Jones was bom at Watseka, Illinois, December 9, 1870.
He studied in the public schools of Illinois until prepared for college.
He took the science, course at Purdue University, graduating with high
honors in 1891. Immediately after graduation he became assistant to
Dr. W. E. Stone, then head of the Chemistry Department. In 1892 he
received the degree of Master of Science and in 1893 that of Analytical
Chemist. In 1892 he was appointed Assistant State Chemist under
Prof. H- A. Huston. Continuing in that department, he was made Chief
Deputy in 1903 and State Chemist in 1907, holding that office until his
death on August 31, 1917.
Professor Jones* high sense of honor and integrity, together with his
thorough training and tireless energy, well fitted him as a leader against
fraud in commercial fertilizer and feeding stuffs. He was instrumental
in framing the Indiana Feedings Stuff Control Law of 1907, which has
proved so satisfactory and successful that it has been used as a model
by other States and the Federal Department in framing similar laws.
This law was so administered by Professor Jones that it has proven of
vast benefit to both consumer and the honest manufacturer. It may
be safely said that both the feed and fertilizer sold in Indiana are now
almost universally up to the guarantees.
His administration of the laws under his charge was without fear
or favor. He forced the condimental stock food manufacturers to regis-
ter and sell their products under the feeding stuff law. This ruling
was disputed by the International Stock Food Company, who fought the
case through all the courts until the United States Supreme Court
decided in agreement with Professor Jones* interpretation of the law.
Professor Jones had a natural taste for investigation, and it is un-
fortunate that his regular duties prevented him from giving more time
to research. While his publications of a research nature were few, he
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82 Proceedings of Indiana Academy of Science.
was of great assistance to his colleagues. His work on the Composition
of Maize at different stages of its growth, published in collaboration
with H. A. Huston in Bulletin 175, Purdue Experiment Station, is
recognized as standard.
He designed the Indiana fertilizer sampler, which has been adopted
as official by over twenty States. It is recognized as the most practical
instrument made for the accurate sampling of commercial fertilizer and
similar products. His feed sampler, which is a modification, is also
widely used. He designed a stirring machine for the rapid precipitation
of phosphorous and similar reactions. Professor Jones carried on ex-
tensive experiments in collaboration with Prof. H. A. Huston on the
action of fertilizers on sugar beets and also on the effect of potash and
other fertilizers on peat soil. This data is unpublished and it is to be
hoped that it may be made available some time.
He was the author and contributor of over twenty fertilizer reports
and ten feeding stuffs bulletins. Besides a report of inspection, his
bulletins contained much valuable information upon the subject under
consideration. Some of his compilations of feeding stuff definitions have
been used as texts in college work. He helped form the Association of
American Feed Control Officials and served as president and on the
executive board of this association. He was a member of the American
Chemical Society and the American Peat Society. He was a Fellow of
the American Association for the Advancement of Science, and had long
been a member of the Indiana Academy of Science. He was a charter
member of the Purdue chapter of Sigma Xi.
Dr. W. E. Stone fittingly described his life when he said: "On every
side he displayed the highest qualities, as a man, a citizen, a public
officer, a scientist, and an alumnus of the University. Such men are
rare. We shall long remember his exemplary life and mourn him as
a staunch friend and a valued associate."
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Feeble-Mindedness — The Problem — Conditions in
Indiana.
Edna R. Jatho, Philadelphia, Pa.
Employed on Survey of Indiana under Indiana Committee on
Mental Defectives.
In the three-fold problem of Mental Defect we have Insanity, Epi-
lepsy and Feeble-mindedness. Insanity and epilepsy, while not properly
understood, are popularly recognized and are looked upon as explaining
and excusing social irregularities and crime. But feeble-mindedness,
which includes by far the largest proportion of mental defectives, is
unrecognized, misunderstood and condemned.
The feeble-minded are adult children; their struggle to lead adult
lives in competition with their normal fellows is a pitiful succession of
social and economic failures. For a few minutes I want to discuss the
problem of feeble-mindedness from its psychological basis and then pro-
ceed to the rehearsal of stories of real folks — stories that show how
these adult children fall short in their effort to take a proper place in
community life.
Feeble-mindedness, or amentia, is an absence of the quality that
makes for normality. It is the place at which mankind loses his high
birthright of reasoning power, and becomes something less than the
man who has developed, through his years of childish growth and the
struggles of adolescence, that perfect mind that makes him the highest
of all creatures, a reasoning being. Amentia is a unit character, and
represents a level of mentality lower than normal in all its manifesta-
tions. It does away with the old "faculty" psychology. A feeble-minded
person could not be an idiot in powers of attention and have a good
memory; nor will he reason well and perhaps fail to have imagination;
nor will he have strong volition and lack judgment. His mental pro-
cesses will be, on the whole, those of a normal child of the age at which
his (the feeble) mind reached its level. In so far as any normal child
will vary in special mental aptitudes, just so far will a feeble-minded
person vary in ability for specific kinds of mental activity. But he will
in no point rise above his mental level — he will do no more in other
lines than a normal child of the same mental age, gifted with a one-
sided talent. For example, a man of thirty, having a mentality of eight
years, may be a very good reader. He has a peculiar aptness for the
recognition of symbols and for stringing them together; but he will
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84 Proceedings of Indiana Academy of Science.
understand no more than a normal child of eight who, it happens, is
better at reading than at anything else.
Believing with me that the mental level determines the ability of
the feeble-minded individual, I may mention in passing the three great
levels at which we classify subnormal mentality. There is first and
lowest, the Idiot, who attains a mental ability equal to that of babies
one and two years old. Some idiots can feed themselves and move about
as smart babies do — others cannot. Many idiots of mature age are as
helpless and as dirty as tiny babies. The Imbecile rises a little higher
in the scale — he attains to a mind like that of normal children from
three up to eight years of age. Low-grade imbeciles play a little, show
interest in their surroundings and can make known their physical needs.
As we come higher in the scale of imbecility we find these aments able
to do simple routine tasks and run easy errands. Above the imbeciles
are the Morons — those whose mental power resembles that of children
from eight up to twelve years of age. These Morons can do simple
tasks with only a little supervision — they make good household helpers
(not managers) — they can run machinery and often work without super-
vision— but they cannot plan. The difference between the occupational
ability in low, middle and high-grade Morons is almost as startling as
the vivid contract between normal and defective.
Mental level or "mental age" is a result of a gradual slowing up
and final and complete stoppage of mental development. The limitations
manifest themselves between infancy and adolescence, leaving the sub-
normal individuals at a mental standstill somewhere between infancy
and twelve years of age, while their bodies go on with the passing of
the years, and the evolution of physical phenomena makes them men
and women in the flesh while still they are children in the mind.
For nearly a year I have helped to search the highways and towns
of certain counties of Indiana to find these defectives. They have not
been hard to find, because they are to be found everywhere. Every
State has them; no community escapes; no kind or amount of industry
can free you from them; no legal rigor can expel them (except to some
other community). Your State needs a farm colony — it needs more
than one — for the feeble-minded. I can tell you of one place in a beauti-
ful town where you would have a colony ready-made by building a fence
around the slums. There is a section of about twelve blocks where in
every one of the fifty houses there is defect of one kind or another—
pauperism, syphilitic infirmities, and immorality walking hand in hand
with feeble-mi ndedness. Some of the homes are clean, some are too
filthy to talk about. There are about eight family names represented
in this community and they all belong to each other somehow. As one
old Moron woman said, "Yes, mom, we air all kin here. I jest found
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Feeble-Mindedness — Indiana. 85
out after I took my second man that he were some kind of a cousin to
my kids." The people who live in the beautiful homes of this fine town
know they have these folks in their back yards, but they say, "What
can we do?" And I repeat it, "What can they do?" I know another
very beautiful and prosperous town in Indiana with a black spot like
that in it — not so big, but one in which the problem of prostitution
assumes alarming proportions.
The feeble-minded population of towns and accessible couijtry dis-
tricts shifts with the tides of business. In the woods about the lakes
and in the isolation of river bottoms we find the defectives persisting,
in spite of barrenness, starvation and inconvenience. Their wants are
few and easily satisfied. In the lake community, in the northern part
of the State, are found several groups of defectives who have lived in
the same spot for two or three generations. One such family contained
sixteen children, three of whom are normal, have married and have
normal families. Two others are low-grade Morons, and the remaining
eleven are idiots, resembling some of their paternal kinfolks, among
whom idiocy and imbecility were not uncommon. Seven of these eleven
idiots could not walk and none of them could talk. Only three of them
are now living. The home that shelters them and their mother was left
to them by their father. It is a tiny four-room cabin in the hills, in-
accessible except by footpath. One room of this house has fallen away
from the rest, and the other three rooms are small and dark, with wide
cracks between the logs, through which the rain and snow drifts in on
their beds.
You must hear about a family living in the river-bottoms in the
southern part of the State. Because of the great number of adult feeble-
minded we were finding in this community we often went two together,
because we felt more sure of our judgment in a given case, when we
could talk it over afterwards. The man who drove our car would try
any kind of a road; but half a mile down the field towards this house
he gave it up and walked with us through the fields until a turn in the
path took him out of sight of the car, which he wanted to watch. Leav-
ing him there to await our return, we went through the woods, across
a freshly ploughed field, through a field of tall corn, and at last we
reached the house of our search. We could never have found it had
not the voices of the boys in the barn guided us to it. It was in the
lowest and wettest part of the field, set like an ark on a scarcely dry
mount. The vapor was so heavy that it kept us coughing. Here in
dirt and disorder lived a family of five, all Morons. Twin boys are of
low grade, the parents only middle grade, and an eighteen-year-old girl
a little brighter than the others. Their isolation was as complete as if
they were on another planet. The mother said her husband was not
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86 Proceedings of Indiana Academy of Science.
strong and no one would rent him a good farm. This farm is under
water two months in the flood season, and in the winter they cannot
get out because of snow. Yet they never try to better themselves — they
accept their condition with calm indifference.
The broad highway of town and open country has its fascination for
the feeble-minded just as it has for the rest of us. I cannot walk on
the street at any time and fail to see defectives. But when, as in
Indiana,, it has been my ''job'' to hunt for them, I need only to select
my section of the town and then go into house after house and talk
with them. I like to talk with a Moron mother or father — ^they will
tell so guilelessly just what I want to know: "Katy's baby ain't got no
father. No, no, Katy never was real bright — she didn't learn nothing
in school. John?* He's fourteen and in the fourth grade — ^he's smarter
than the others. John can write his. name real nice. The old man, you
say? Nope. He can't read. My first man could, though, but not the
second one. This man can't keep no steady job; he's working on the
coal bank now. Henry? Oh, Henry's in school in Indianapolis." I ask,
"Is he in Plainfield?" "Yes, that's the place. Seems like hell never
get out. My least boy, he's ain't stout and he has red, sore eyes; the
teacher can't learn him nothing 'cause he can't see. My other big girl,
she's got red, sore eyes, too " and so on.
Behind it and through it all I can read the old, old story of prosti-
tution, illegitimacy, delinquency and general no-accountness of the feeble
minds behind it. You may think I made up this story, but it is the story
I heard from a gaudily dressed low-grade Moron mother, who did not
know that I knew that she herself was a prostitute.
'In the towns and cities the presence of the feeble-minded complicates
our social service; it increases the number of accidents and adds to the
list of the unemployed. The school system is corroded with the lower
3 per cent of its population mentally unfit to profit by its teaching.
The administration of poor relief by the overseers of the poor lends
almost all of its time and money to the feeble-minded of the township.
I just had one township trustee tell me, with something like disgust,
that two of his many paupers had married the only two paupers
(widows) in a nearby township — thereby clearing one record and adding
two families of feeble-minded children to his list. Later in the same
day the trustee who had lost his two pauper women and their families
told me the same story — but he thought it was funny! Poor farms are
filled with feeble-minded folk who never did get along, and many of
them entered the farm between twenty and forty years of age and have
spent many years there. I talked with one woman in a county farm
who had married four times, her last two husbands being inmates of
the same poor farm. She had one epileptic daughter. That girl is now
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Feeble-Mindedness — Indiana. 87
an inmate of the farm at twenty years of age, and last summer she
gave birth to an illegitimate baby, which fortunately died at birth.
You may turn your head as you will, you still face mental defect,
and the bulk of it is feeble-mindedness. We have established, as the
result of the survey of ten counties in Indiana, that 2.2 per cent of the
population is defective. Of this, 1.7 per cent is feeble-minded. Much
of our crime, nearly all of our pauperism, a large proportion of school
failures, practically all public prostitution, and a share of the gamut
of ills that society is heir to, springs from among the feeble-minded.
It is none of their fault. They stumble along the pathway of life,
poorly prepared for the battle they fight. They are only grown-up
children, and as such should not be blamed, imprisoned or cast aside,
but sheltered, trained and supervised.
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88 Proceedings of Indiana Academy of Science.
A Method of Teaching Diffusion and Osmosis in Connec-
tion WITH Biological Work.
Paul Weatherwax, Indiana University.
Osmosis and diffusion are processes met with in many lines of bio-
logical science, and the problem involved in an attempt to make the
phenomena clear, especially to an elementary class, is often a difficult
one. It is not proposed to add here anything new from the physical or
chemical standpoint to the array of facts already clustered around these
subjects; it is intended, rather, to give clear, concise definitions of the
terms and to present a method of teaching the subjects which has been
found successful in connection with elementary botany. The need of
such presentation has been felt after the perusal of twenty-five or thirty
text-books on general botany and plant physiology, most of which are
noncommittal or inconsistent with facts when discussing these phe-
nomena.
When the name o87nosis was coined, the process was little understood
and many irrelevant considerations were connected with it. Since then
the process has been found to be of much more general occurrence than
was at first supposed, and our definitions and explanations must be
generalized to meet our better understanding of it. A brief history of
the explanations of diffusion and osmosis that have been before biologists
of the last few years will help to clear up the situation.
Pfeffer looked for the secret of osmosis in the behavior of solutions
of cane sugar, potassium nitrate, etc., when separated from the pure
srlvent, usually water, by membranes of various kinds. He did much
to bring the process to the attention of biolog^ists, but he necessarily saw
only a limited portion of the field to be covered.
Van't Hof attempted to generalize the problem and asserted that in
dilute solutions the dissolved substance behaved approximately as it
would in the gaseous form, the temperature and volume being the same
as that of the solution, and osmotic pressure being substituted for gas
pressure. But this hypothesis has been found to attempt to explain too
much even for dilute solutions and is of no avail at all in connection
with more concentrated solutions, which are also capable of demonstrat-
ing osmotic pressure. It also has the defect of not making sufficient
allowance for membranes that are not perfectly semipermeable.
The kinetic theory offers an explanation based upon the assumption
that certain molecules bombarding a membrane are able, because of
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A Method of Teaching Diffusion and Osmosis. 89
some characteristic, presumably size, to make their way through even
against a gi:eater pressure than they themselves are exerting by their
motion, while certain others fail to penetrate the membrane, even when
aided by a difference of pressure. The most obvious objection to any
consideration on this basis is found in the fact that certain liquids having
large moIe,cules — as some of the alcohols — are able to pass through cer-
tain membranes more readily than water.
Kahlenberg reports numerous experiments, both qualitative and quan-
titative, to show the fallacy of many of these theories. He makes no
attempt to deal with the subject on a biological basis, but his results
bring us near a working explanation for biological purposes. He at-
tributes osmotic pressure to the relative affinities of two fluids for each
other and for the separating membrane.
The report of the recent symposium of the Faraday Society on the
subject of osmotic pressure was consulted in the hope that it would be
of material aid; but it was found to contain little that is tangible or
serviceable from our standpoint. Like Pfeffer's classic works, it was
found to contain much about the mathematics of osmotic pressure and
little about the process of osmosis.
The text-book definitions and discussions of osmosis and diffusion
have been based upon one or a mixture of the theories here outlined. The
prevailing influence of Pfeffer's work is evident in most of them, and,
conseqiuently, we see in them much about water and aqueous solutions
of various densities. Osmotic pressure is too often emphasized at the
expense of osmosis, and students of biology, who should be trying to
understand the nature of the process and its relation to the plant, are
still bored by having to read books and listen to lectures which empha-
size the stupendous pressures exerted in cells; many a student finishes
his course with a firmly fixed idea that relative density is the thing that
makes the gases of the air and the water of the soil enter the plant
body, and that density alone prevents all the sap of a plant from leaking
out through the root hairs.
By means of a condensation and organization of what is known of
the processes involved, there has been worked out a set of definitions
and a method of presenting the subject which is believed to be superior
to that g^ven in most text-books of botany and plant physiology.
The first step in the teaching process is the well-known experiment
of placing a crystal of some colored soluble salt, such as copper sulphate
or sodium bichromate, in the bottom of a tall glass jar of water and
watching the color ascend for a few days. The process is named dijBfu-
sion, and the student is encouraged to work out his own definition. Dif-
fusion is seen to consist of the dispersal of the particles of one substance
among the particles of another substance, without aid from external
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90 Proceedings of Indiana Academy of Science.
sources. It is also pointed out that an energy transformation has taken
place in the migration of the particles of the salt upward through the
water; the source of this energy is in the chemical affinity between the
salt and the water.
The next step is to demonstrate the existence of this energy in its
static form. The ordinary osmosis experiment, in which a parchment
diffusion shell filled with a thick sugar syrup is immersed in a jar of
water, is set up. When the difference in level has been established, the
process that has taken place is named osmosis, and a definition of osmosis
is in order. It is seen that the syrup and water have tended to diffuse
into each other through the membrane, but the water has been more
successful than the syrup in getting through ; in other words, the mem-
brane is more permeable to the water than to the syrup. Osmosis may
be defined, then, as the diffusion of two fluids through a membrane that
tends to be semipermeable.
It is necessary to speak of two fluids, rather than two liquids, as
many texts do, because the process is characteristic of gases also under
proper conditions, and this phase of the process is a very important one
in a biolog^ical connection. It is not deemed wise to complicate Uie defi-
nition or the explanation with reference to the few cases in which
osmosis has been shown to take place between a solid and a liquid.
It seldom, if ever, happens in practical work that the membrane is
perfectly semipermeable. If we were defining the ideal process, it might
be well to speak of an ideally semipermeable membrane; but, after all,
our aim is to make the situation clear to a student of biology, and he
seldom has to deal with questions of complete semipermeability. To
define osmosis as merely diffusion through a membrane, as some texts
do, is insufficient, for a membrane equally permeable to both fluids would
not demonstrate osmosis.
It will be noted that the student is not confused by the introduction
of relative density into the definition here proposed. The density idea
is a remnant of the day when the full application of the process was
not understood — when combinations of solution and pure solvent, sepa-
rated by a suitable membrane, constituted practically the only system
that had been thoroughly investigated. Now osmosis is known to take
place between numerous combinations of pure substances, and numerous
examples are afforded where the old rule of density works the wrong
way.
The reference to density is especially deceptive in certain cases where
one of the diffusing substances is a gas. An interesting illustration of
this is afforded by an experiment often made to show the "lifting power
of evaporation." A thistle tube filled with water has a piece of wet
bladder tied over the larger end in contact with the water, and Uie tube
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A Method of Teaching Diffusion and Osmosis, 91
is supported in a vertical position with the smaller end dipping into
mercury. As evaporation removes water from the wet membrane, water
from the tube takes its place, and compensation is made for the de-
creased pressure by a rise of mercury into the lower end of the tube.
But this is really a demonstration of osmosis. Evaporation in this case
is merely the diffusion of water and air, and the process takes place
through a membrane which allows water to pass more readily than air.
It will be noted that the major flow is from water to air rather than
from a less dense medium to a more dense.
It is true that when a solution and the pure solvent are considered,
density may sometimes act, both qualitatively and quantitatively, as an
indicator within certain limits; but we are by no means sure that it
will work in all cases. It is probably worth mentioning that most of the
experimental work that has been done with solutions and pure solvents
have dealt with solutions whose density is greater than that of the pure
solvent; but some combinations are possible in which the opposite is the
case, and some interesting results might come from experiments with
some of these. In the cases where the comparative density rule does
work in determining the direction of the major flow and the ultimate
pressure produced, color would probably serve as well for an indicator
if a colored solute were selected and a sufficiently sensitive method of
measuring intensity of color were devised; yet no one would think of
connecting color with the fundamentals of the process. Density has
about the same relation to the process as has color; chemical affinity is
the driving force and the only consistent indicator of the qualitative and
quantitative features of the process.
It will be seen that much depends upon the nature of the membrane
through which the diffusion takes place, and to the physical chemist or
the research student of physiology this is a very important thing. But
to the student of the elementary aspects of biology, whose welfare is now
being considered, the mechanism of the membrane is less important if
he knows that for some reason it tends to be semipermeable. Whether
the permeability of living membranes can be explained on a purely
physico-chemical basis, or whether we must still have recourse to a
vitalistic explanation until physics and chemistry have made sufficient
progress to include these phenomena, is still an interesting problem of
research.
It must be emphasized that, from the biological point of view, the
effort expended in explaining diffusion and osmosis is lost if we fail to
make clear their definite application to problems of plant and animal
life, and many of our text-books fail to do this satisfactorily. Many
of the texts examined make the assertion or leave the impression that
the cell wall is the osmotic membrane concerned, and many leave with
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92 Proceedings of Indiana Academy of Science.
the student the impression that osmosis takes place only in root hair?
and is concerned only with supplying the plant with water and mineral
food. The student should be led to connect osmosis with his knowledge
of cell structure and to see the general nature and importance of the
process. All the living matter (protoplasm) in the plant or animal body
is disposed in definite units (cells), whose unity is determined by the
plasma membrane. The whole normal contact of the cell with its physio-
logical environment — food, water, soil, air, digestive fluids, other cells,
etc. — is defined and regulated, in so far as it is regulated at all, by
this membrane. Thus, it is seen that all the life processes — respiration,
photosynthesis, imbibition by living tissues, transpiration, secretion, ex-
cretion, etc. — which involve the exchange of fluids between the cell and
its environment, depend upon the selective influence of semipermeable
membranes.
I take this opportunity to acknowledge valuable assistance given me
in the study of this problem by Professor O. W. Brown of the Depart-
ment of Chemistry, Indiana University.
References.
It is not deemed necessary to g^ive here a detailed bibliography)
Standard texts will illustrate the defects pointed out; the historical side
of the question is given in most good texts on physical chemistry. Kah-
lenberg's work is described in the Journal of Physical Chemistry, Vol-
ume 10.
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Number of Colonies for a Satisfactory Soil Plate.
H. A. NoYES and G. L. Grounds, Purdue University.
The uniformity between the number of colonies developing on petri
plates carrying equal sized aliquots has been used as the basis for ascer-
taining the number of colonies satisfactory for one plate. Prucha^ said
in 1916: "Further study is needed to give sufficient basis for drawing
definite conclusions, but the results so far point to the conclusion that
the average of three plates from the same dilution approaches, reason-
ably closely, to the average of a hundred plates made from the same
dilution, when that average is between one and two hundred colonies
per plate."
The following points have served as the basis for determining the
number of colonies satisfactory for a soil plate: Soil may be a medium
for the growth of all kinds of micro-organisms; the rate at which dif-
ferent bacteria multiply varies considerably, and the antagonisms be-
tween organisms are affected by media, etc.
The plan for determining the number of colonies for a satisfactory
soil plate was: First, to make many dilutions and platings of a pre-
pared soil and study the numbers of colonies developing in three, seven
and ten days incubation. Second, to compare the number of colonies
developing from the different dilutions for evidence that plates from the
higher bacterial dilution carried one-tenth the number of colonies of the
lower dilution when the lower dilution did not give above the maximum
number of bacteria that could be developed into colonies on the plates.
Third, to give confirmation of the conclusions reached by routine labora-
tory data.
Unpublished results (obtained in this laboratory) show rather con-
clusively that practically all micro-organisms can be grown on a simple
media. Differences in growth, in addition to being due to the virulence
of the organisms and their natural characteristics, result from the media
becoming unfavorable for growth, due to the presence of acid or basic
reacting substances and specific end products of bacterial metabolisms.
The importance of the proper conditions of aeration cannot be over-
emphasized. It has been noted that duplicate plates from pure cultures
often agree well when even more than two hundred colonies are present
per plate. Each organism in a pure culture multiplies under similar
conditions and unfavorable media and end products stop rate and extent
* Pnicha, M. J. Journal of Bacteriologry, Vol. 1, No. 1, p. 92.
(93)
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Many colonies but all slow growing.
(Good platQ.)
Fig. 2.
Many colonies of many character?.
^ Doubtful plate.)
Fig. 3. Poor distribution on plate.
(Tnaatisfactory plate.)
Fig. 4. Few colonies rapid growing and pooriy
distributed.
. Unsatisfactory plate.)
Fig 5. Few rapidly growing and well dintributed
coloniosi.
((Ioo<l plate.)
Fig. 6. Rapidly growing colooiect.
'^ • fulpli
Plate I.
(Doubtful plate.)
Digitiz
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Colonies for a Satisfactory Soil Plate. 95
of growth rather than stop the growth of any individual organism.
With mixed cultures the media may be suitable for the growth of all
the organisms present, but the differences in rate of growth and specific
end products cause uneven plates. (See Plate I.)
The literature does not furnish figures on duplicate and triplicate
platings where the bacterial dilutions were made from large aliquots
(10 cc. or more). In milk it has been noted that platings giving as low
as forty colonies are satisfactory.* The soil is so much more ununiform
than milk that the technic worked out at this station,' and depending
on large aliquots for diluting and plating, was followed.
Experimental Work.
A black sandy soil was air dried and sieved to unify both the soil
and its flora. Triplicate platings were made from 1-40, 1-400, 1-4,000,
1—40,000 and 1-400,000 bacterial dilutions. Counts were made after
three, seven and ten days' incubation at 20*" Centigrade. Especial care
was taken in handling the plates to prevent contaminations. The check
plates were in most cases entirely free from bacterial growth and their
average has been deducted from the figures given. The results are
g^iven in Table I.
2 Conn, H. W. Public Health Reports. U. S. Public Health Service, Vol. 30, No. 33.
AuKuat, 1915.
' Noyea, H. A., and Voisrt, Edwin, in ProceedinKS of Indiana Academy of Science.
1916, pp. 272-301.
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96
Proceedings of Indiana Academy of Science.
TABLE I.
D2crea8z» in Numbera of Bacterial Colonies on Plates with Increasing Length of Time of Incubation.
Colony numbors between. .
..2.900 and 3.000
Average Counts
3 days
7 days.
10 dajTs .
2.905
2.045
1,680
Colony numbers between . .
. .2.000 and 2.100
2.030
1,790
1.610
Colony numbers between. .
..1,700 and 1.800
1.750
1,570
1.003
Colony numbers between. .
.1,600 and 1.700
1.600
1.050
860
Colonv numbers between . .
..1.500 and 1.600
1,590
1,400
960
Colony numbers between. .
.1.400 and l.flOO
1.456
1.256
1.021
Colony numbers between . .
..1.300 and 1.400
1.380
1,150
840
Colony numbers between. .
.1,200 and 1.300
1.240
960
820
l!
Colony numbent between. .
.1.100 and 1.200
1.135
918
830
Colony numbers between. .
.1,000 and 1.100
1.070
1.010
940
Colony numbers between. .
. . 900 and 1.000
910
840
825
Colony numbers between. .
.. 800 and 900
852
778
677
f, 6
Colony numbers between. .
.. 600 and 700
659
582
488
Colony numbers between. .
.. 500 and 600
541
480
440
Colony numbers between . .
.. 400 and 500
450
409
387
^21
.. 300 and 400
340
327
308
A. 11
Colony numbers between. .
.. 250 and 300
279
288
275
«,i
Colony numbers between. .
.. 200 and 250
222
220
213
o 2
Colony numbers between. .
.. 175 and 200
195
200
200
S 3
Colony numbers between. .
.. 150 and 175
163
168
172
& 3
Colony numbers between. .
.. 125 and 150
129
136
136
•o I
Col<my numbers between . .
.. 100 and 125
115
125
128
Colony numbers between. .
. . 90 and 100
95
108
109
3 8
'^ 5
Colony numbers between. .
. . 80 and 90
83
91
92
Colony numbers between . .
. . 70 and 80
72
80
85
4
Colony numbers between . .
. . 60 and 70
65
71
79
3
Colony numbers between. .
. . 50 and 60
54
57
57
7
Colony numbers between. .
. . 40 and 50
43
53
55
7
Colony numbers bet-ween . .
. . 30 and 40
35
44
46
9
Colony numbers between. .
. . 20 and 30
22
30
33
12
Colony numbers between. .
. . 10 and 20
14
19
24
6
Colony numbers between. .
0 and 10
7
12
15
The table shows the following:
1. Increases in counts resulted from additional incubations when
less than 200 colonies were present after three days' incu-
bation.
2. Whether the counts increased or decreased, the counts after
seven d^ys* incubation fall between the three- and ten-day
counts.
3. Two hundred or more colonies gave unreliable results.
4. The optimum number of colonies is probably much nearer 100
than 200 per plate.
The ratios between the number of colonies developing after ten days'
incubation of the 1-40,000 and 1-400,000 bacterial dilutions of soils
taken at different times from differently cropped areas are given in
Table II. In carrying out the dilutings and platings the lower dilutions
were made and plated before the higher dilutions were prepared, since
it is believed that multiplications of the organisms have little effect on
the higher dilutions under these conditions.
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Colonies for a Satisfactory Soil Plate.
97
TABLE IT.
Colony Counts on PUtUs of Different Bacterial Dilutions Cover Crop Investigations.
Plot Supportxnq
Nothing
Nov. 14, 1914
Feb. 6, 1915
Mar. 2, 1915
Mar. 27, 1915
April 15, 1915
MUlett
November 14. 1914.
February 6, 1915 . . .
March 2. 1915
March 27, 1915
April 15, 1915
Soy Beans
November 14, 1914 .
February 6, 1915...
March 2, 1915
March 27, 1915
Aprill5, 1915
Nothing
November 14, 1914.
February 6, 1915 ....
March 2, 1915
March 27, 1915
April 15, 1915
Hairy Vetch
November 14, 1914 .
February 6, 1915. . . .
March 2, 1915
March 27, 1915
April 15, 1915
Winter Rye (Sown early)
November 14. 1914.
February 6, 1915. . . .
March 2. 1915
March 27. 1915
April 15, 1915
Nothing
November 14, 1914.
February 6, 1915...
March 2. 1915
March 27, 1915
April 15, 1915
Winter Rye (Sown late)
November 14. 1914.
February 6. 1915
March 2. 1915
March 27. 1915
April 15, 1915
Crimson Clorer
November 14, 1914.
February 6. 1915...
March 2, 1915
March 27, 1915
April 15, 1915
7—16568
Average of Triplicate Platea.
Dilution 1-40.000
Dilution 1-400,000
69.f colonies
8.3* colonies
73.0 "
11.6
107.2 "
10.7* ••
, 62.0 "
7.7* "
94.0 "
6.0
99.3 "
11.3' ••
92.0 "
18.6
172.7 "
22.7
88.3 "
11.4
193.3 "
27.0
75.3 ••
10.3
125.3 "
26.3
1(J5.7 "
17.0* ••
112.0 "
12.0* "
80.0 "
10.7
62.3 "
8.3
833 "
10.6
82.0 "
19.3
113.3 "
11.0* ••
145.0 "
12.7
109.0 "
8.7 "
163.0 •'
20.6
225.3 "
36.7
175.0 "
16.0» ••
185.7 "
29.3
122.0 •'
8.7
226.0 "
31.6
245.5 •'
13.7
114 3 "
16.0
200.0 "
27.6
65.3 ••
9.7
129.7 ••
22.0
173.7 •'
13.3
72.3 •'
6.7* ••
110.3 "
15.0
70.0 "
7.0* ••
68.7 "
14.0
145.0 "
16.3
127.0 "
15.7
167.0 "
27.3
44.7 "
3.3* "
91.0 "
15.6
254.3 "
23.3
46.0 "
6.7
122.2 "
16.7
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98
Proceedings of Indiana Academy of Science.
TABLE II— Continued.
Colony CounU on Plates of Different Bacterial Dilutions Cover Crop Invealigaliona.
Fun SuppoRTiNa
Average of Triplicate Plates.
Dilution 1-40,000 DUutJon 1-400,000
Nothing
November 14. 1014
February 6, 1916
March 2, 1915
March 27. 1916
April 16, 1916
Buckwheat
Novembers, 1914
February 6, 1915
March 2. 1916
March 27, 1915
April 16, 1916
Natural Growth of Weeda
November 14. 1914
February 6. 1915
March 2, 1915
March 27, 1916
April 16, 1915
Average of all 60 oompariaons
Average of 15 oomporiMnis*. .
62.0
93.0
181.0
43.0
96.0
6.3»
17.3
13.3
3.0»
9.7
60.0
121.3
163.0
86.0
119.7
10.3
21.3
15.0*
6.4
14.0
54.7
100.3
152.5
82.3
108.0
S.7*
23.3
33.6
11.0
13.7
117.16
94.4
14.8
9.4
These results show:
The ratio between the number of colonies on plates from the
1-40,000 and 1-400,000 bacterial dilutions is dependent on
the number of organisms present rather than on the crop-
ping system or the time of the year the soil samples were
taken.
The averages show:
(a) That the average of all comparisons for the 1-40,000
bacterial dilutions was too great for satisfactory
plates.
(6) That the results from the two dilutions tend to check
when the number of colonies on the plates from the
1-40,000 bacterial dilutions is under 100.
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Colonies for a Satisfactory Soil Plate.
99
Table III has been compiled to show the ratios between the counts of
the two dilutions when the number of colonies developing on the 1-40,000
bacterial dilution is under 100. These results are the cases where the
counts from twenty-four soil samples averaged under 100 on the 1-40,000
bacterial dilution.
TABLE III.
Colonies on t-40,000 and 1-400,000 Bacterial Dilutions.
(Count* on 1-40,000 Bacterial Dilutions between 47 and 100.)
l-40,000**
1-400,000
94.5
12.0
91.7
12.3
88.0
13.5
88.0
11.0
86.3
9.0*
80.3
7.8*
74.0
8.0*
65.3
8.0*
65.0
5.3'
56.0
7.0*
51.0
4.0*
48.0
5.0*
47.0
5.3*
Average all 71.9
8.3
Average* 63.6
6.6
**Coimt8 are averages of triplicate plates.
*The0e numbers multiplied by 10 are within 15 of the numbers obtained in the lower bacterial
dilution.
Table III brings out that, while 100 colonies per plate are quite
satisfactory, the 10 to 1 ratio is more nearly approximated when much
less than 100 colonies were present per plate.
To further substantiate the evidence that results are reliable when
relatively small numbers of colonies are present per plate, the ten-day
counts from the 1-40,000 and 1-400,000 bacterial dilutions of a sandy
soil, low in organic matter, are given in Table IV.
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Colonies for a Satisfactory Soil Plate.
101
TABLE IV.
Colonies on 1-40,000 and t-J^OOfiOO Bacterial DUutiona.
(Coloniea on 1-40,000 Dilutiona number under 90.)
DILXmONS
1-40,000
MOO.OOO
29.0
3.3*
••
26.7
2.3*
26.0
3.0»
25.3
3.0*
24.7
2.0*
••
23.0
3.0*
22.3
2.1*
20.7
3.3*
20.7
2.0*
ft
20.3
3.0*
20.0
3.0*
10.0
3.0»
17.7
2.0*
••
17.3
1.7*
•«
16.0
3.0*
16.0
2.3*
••
13.0
2.0*
••
11.7
2.0*
11.3
3.3*
11.0
l.O*
••
10.0
2 0*
Averaiceofall 19.1
2.5
Average of* 19.5
2.5
Averageof**21.0
2.2
All figures are averages of triplicate plates.
*CouDt8 for 1-400,000 dilution are within 1.5 colonies of 0.1 of number on 1-40,000 dilution.
* **Counts for 1-400.000 dilution are within 0.7 colonies of 0.1 number on 1 40,000 dilution.
Summary.
1. These and other tests (of which these are representative) have
shown that thirty is near the optimum number of colonies for a petri
plate 100 mm. in diameter. Plate II.
2. The averages of a sufficient number of plates carrying between
10 and 100 colonies are satisfactory for computing bacterial numbers.
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102 Proceedings of Indiana Academy of Science.
The Length op Time to Incubate Petri Plates.
H. A. NOYES, Edwin Voigt and J. D. Luckett, Purdue University.
Investigations of the steps entering into the plate method for the
enumeration of the number of bacteria present in soil are few. So little
agreement was observed in the procedures followed in different soil bac-
teriology laboratories that investigations were undertaken in this station
to develop a reasonably accurate technic for the bacteriological exam>
ination of soils.^ The present paper gives data in support of the ten-day
period of incubation at 20* C. for soil plates. The work was done jointly
with that on methods of sampling soil for bacteriological analysis' and
the number of colonies satisfactory for a petri plate.* Among the soil
factors considered in connection with the length of time to incubate
plates were the kind of soil, the nature of its flora, temperature when
sampled, the uniformity of sampling, the moisture content, and the con-
dition of aeration.
It was early decided that probahly the chief rea>son why confidence
is lacking in the significance of plate counts is because the organisitis
have not usually been given the proper chance to develop into colonies.
Table I has been prepared to show how differently organisms develop
into colonies under different periods of incubation. The technic followed
was that previously described,' and the figures are based on the average
of three plates in each case.
^ Noyes. H. A., and Voisrt, Edwin, in Proceedinsrs of Indiana Academy of Science.
1916, pp. 272-301.
» Noyes, H. A., in Journ. Amer. Soc. of Agrron.. No. 5, 1916. pp. 239-249.
* Noyes, H. A., and Grounds, G. L., in Proceedinsrs of Indiana Academy of Science.
1918.
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Length of Time to Incubate Petri Plates.
103
TABLE I.
Cover Cropped Soila
Percent Counts at S, S, and 7-Daya Incubation are of 10-Day9 Counts.*
B acterial) DrLunoN
Cropped to
1-40.000
1-400.000
3
5
7 1 10 Days
3 1 5
7
10 Dayh
Nothing
November 14, 1914
February 6. 1915
March 2, 1915
30.1%
15.5
56.4
25.3
13.4
84.1
54.4
66.2
s^7'
93 4
68.9
85.2
100.0%
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
437^
42.9
12.5
29.8
52.2%
62.6
88.4
46.3
70.2
••%
62.6
86.4
58.8
93.0
100.0%
100.0
100 0
March 27. 1915
100 0
April 15, 1915
100 0
Average
27.8
67.0
83.9 1 100 0
32.1
63.0
75.2
100.0
MiiUt
November 14, 1914
February 6, 1915
March 2, 1915
33.2
21.9
48.6
32.8
26.7
58.4
84.6
94.6
79.2
82.8
••
100.0
93.1
90.6
92 2
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
••
24.1
33.8
14.2
7.4
55.9
60.3
77.5
54.3
67.9
••
56.4
87.5
80.0
82.7
IOC 0
100.0
100.0
March 27, 1915
100.0
April 15, 1915
100 0
Average
32.8
80.0
94.0
100.0
19.9 I 63.2
76.7
100.0
Soy Beans
November 14, 1914
February 6, 1915
March 2 1915
18.6
33.0
40.4
30.0
12.5
42.9
65.4
88.2
70.9
85.7
••
80.8
994
88.2
98 2
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
*•
18.5
36.5
22.6
11.1
54.8
54.2
74.6
61.3
75.0
••
66.7
88.8
58.1
91.5
100.0
100.0
100 0
March 27, 1915
100.0
April 15, 1915
100 0
Average
26.9
70.8
01 7
100.0
22.2 1 64.0
76.3
100.0
Nothing
November 14, 1914
February 6, 1915
March 2. 1915 ....
20.3
53.2
44 1
36.2
18 8
54.5
97.6
84.3
77.3
73 3
••
100.0
83.1
91.4
78.4
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
••
36.3
14 3
20.1
15.8
60.0
85.3
71.4
50.0
73.7
88.2
81.4
67.6
100.0
100.0
100.0
100 0
March 27, 1915
100 0
April 15, 1915
100 0
Average | 34 5
77.4 1 88 2 1 100.0
21.4 1 68.1
84.3
100.0
Hairy Vetch
November 14. 1914 19.6
February 6, 1915 30.7
March2. 1915 43.8
March 27, 1915 28.1
April 15, 1915 1 15 3
40.1
63.8
8:1.2
71.4
84.9
••
84.4
97.2
100.0
94.1
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
••
20.3
20.2
28.5
29.5
42.3
54.7
73.7
69.4
68.2
••
85.9
88.5
89.1
88.6
100.0
100.0
100.0
lOO.O
100.0
Average
27.5
69.7
93.9
100.0
24.6 1 61.7
88.2
100.0
Winter Rye (Sown Early)
November 14, 1914
February 6, 1915
March 2, 1915
26.5
46.1
46.5
30 3
24.5
.55.2
4S.9
63.2
76.4
84.8
75.1
79 4
100.0
100 0
inn n
• •
16.5
43 4
22.4
10.8
35.5
49.5
84.9
44.9
63.8
••
53.6
84.9
65.3
86.8
100.0
100.0
100 0
March 27, 1915
86.9 I 100 0
88.0 1 100.0
100.0
April 15, 1915
100.0
Average
34.8
65.1 1 82.4 100.0
23.3 1 66.7
72.7
100.0
Nothing
November 14. 1914
February 6, 1915
March 2, 1915
25.1
22.9
61 8
57.3
68.3
83 7
66 7
42.3
••
74.7
101.6
77 5
52.7
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
• •
38.2
32.7
23.7
13.3
34.5
77.9
69.2
64.3
73.3
••
94.1
90 4
61.9
97.7
100.0
100.0
100 0
March 27. 1915
April 15. 1915
23.6
8.3
100.0
100.0
Average ...
28 3
61.7
76.6^
100.0
27.0
63.9
^86.0
100.0
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104 Proceedings of India7ia Academy of Science.
TABLE I— Continued.
. Cover Cropfbd Soils
Percent CounU at 5. 5, and 7-Day Incubation are oftO-Daya Counts*
Bacterial Dilution
Cropped to
1-40,000
1-400.000
3 1 5
7 1 10 Day»
3 , 5
7
10 Dayc
Winter Rye fSowi. Late)
November 14, 1914
February 6, 1915
Blarch 2, 1915
20.9
26.2
52.9
27.6
14.0
40.9
85.0
85.6
68.0
66.2
♦•
86.4
98.9
82.4
85.2
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
••
20.3
31.1
16.6
20.7
38.0
68.5
70.5
43.8
54.8
••
85.2
83.6
58.3
86.6
100.0
100 0
100 0
March 27. 1915
100.0
April 15. 1915
100 0
Average
28.3
69.1
88.2
100.0
22.2
55.1
78.4
100.0
Crimton Clover
November 14. 1914
February 6. 1915
March 2. 1915
20.5
36.6
55.8
28.1
10.3
41.3
91.2
86.9
59.4
68.4
99.6
93.6
90.6
85.8
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
26.5
36.6
33.3
10.0
44.9
44.9
80.5
66.6
78.0
••
65.3
85.4
66.6
92.0
100 0
ino.o
100 0
March 27. 1915
100 0
April 15, 1915
100 0
Average
'29.9
69.4
92.4
100.0
26.6
63.0
77.3 . 1000
Nothing
November 14. 1914
February 6, 1915
March 2, 1915
24.7
18.6
50.0
31.7
16.0
47.3
86.7
76.5
62.8
76.8
••
93.5
83.0
95.4
92.3
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
••
9.2
34.6
36.9
17.2
42.0
62.9
^76.9
44.4
55.2
••
79.6
73.5
66.7
89.6
100 0
lOO.O
100 0
March 27, 1915
100.0
April 15. 1915
100 0
Average
28.2
70.0
91.1
100.0
24.5
56.3
77.4
Buckwheat
November 14, 1914
February 6. 1915
March 2, 1915
12.0
19.2
40.5
26.7
21.2
50.0
94.7
80.7
53.5
77.2
105.2
87.1
77 1
100.0
100.0
100.0
inn n
25.7
40.5
20.0
11.9
64.5
65.1
80.7
55.0
866
••
69.7
91.2
55.0
83.3
1000
1000
100 0
March 27. 1915
100.0
April 15, 1915
84.1 1 100.0
100.0
Average. . . .
23.9
71.2
88.4 1 100.0
24.5
66.6
74.8
1000
Natural Growth of Weedt
November 14. 1914
February 6. 1915
March 2, 1915
22.5
31.2
55.1
27.1
22.5
53 1
85.0
73.7
71.3
81.7
••
100.0
85.8
88.3
96.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
••
31.9
35.4
20.5
17.1
64.7
75.0
70 8
55.9
85.3
••
84.7
72.6
73 5
97.6
100.0
lOO.O
lOO.O
March 27. 1915
100 0
April 15. 1915
100.0
Averagee
November 14. 1914
February 6. 1915
March 2. 1915
22.8
29.6
48.7
28.8
16.9
49.7
78.8
80 8
66.8
74.2
••
90.7
91.7
86.4
86.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
••
25.8
34.9
22.5
16.2
49.1
63.4
80.3
54.7
69.3
••
74.3
84.5
66.5
90.8
1000
100.0
100.0
March 27, 1915
100.0
Aprill5, 1915
100.0
AverageM of All
31.7
74.0
92.5
100.0
26.2
70.3
82.1
100.0
**Cottnt8 not made.
Temperature of Incubation 20" C
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Length of Time to Incubate Petri Plates.
105
The variations between the per cent of the colonies that developed
is from 7.4 to 43.4 per cent for the three days' incubation, 34.5 to 88.4
per cent for the five days' incubation, and from 53.6 to 100.0 per cent
for the seven days' incubation. The figures are taken from the 1-400,000
bacterial dilutions, where the number of colonies was small enough to
allow for all organisms to develop into colonies. The plates for the
1-40,000 bacterial dilutions in many cases had too many organisms for
satisfactory counts, and this is shown in the general averages for this
dilution as compared to those for the 1-400,000 bacterial dilution. The
cropping system, the aeration of the soil and soil temperature very
evidently influence the rate at which the organisms of soil develop into
discernable colonies on petri plates.
One contention for the use of the bacteriologist's soil sampler' was
that it sampled the soil accurately to the depth desired and kept the
sample under field conditions of aeration until analyzed. Table II gives
data showing how the methods of sampling can be compared by the
relative distribution of the rapid and slow growing organisms present
in the different samples.
TABLE II.
Percent .?, 6, and 7-Dav Counts of 10-Day Countt *•.
{GraveUy »oil sodded and containing about 7% moisture. )
Time of Incubation
3
5
7
10 Days*
Bacteriolosist's Soil Sampler
15.3%
20.8%
53.8%
100. 0%
2
11.8
394
49.0
1000
3
11.1
26.1
46.3
1000
Average
12.7
28.8
49.7
P. E. Brown's Method
1
U.5
46.0
72.8
100.0
2
29.2
43.8
65.7
100.0
3
,4.,
26.4
45.0
100.0
Average .
18.3
38.4
61.2
Slice Method
1
20.5
48.2
64.0
100.0
2
4.8
42.8
63.2
100.0
Average
12.7
45.5
63.6
Average of all '
14.8
37.7
57.4
*Coaiit8 after 10 days incubation at 20°C taken as 100% those at other times are stated as partft of
thb. Bacterial Dilution 1-400,000.
••Counts were about 3,0 million per gram of dry soil.
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106 Proceedings of Indiana Academy of Science.
This test showed:
1. That the organisms present in this packed sodded land were
principally slow growers.
2. That the uniformity of the development of colonies varied with
the method by which the samples were drawn.
We have found by numerous tests that the number of organisms
found in sodded soil at or below a depth of four inches is much less
than nearer the surface; and, further, it has been observed that those
organisms occurring at the lower depths do not usuaUy multiply as
rapidly on aerobic plates as those occurring nearer the surface. The
samples procured with the bacteriologist's soil sampler evidently had
near their proper proportions of slowly multiplying organisms.
In testing out the quantities of soil necessary for bacteriological
examinations some tests were made with air-dry samples to show that
even when samples were unified by air-drying a large quantity was
necessary for accurate results. Table III gives the development of
colonies after different periods of incubation on air-dry soil sieved to
pass 1 millimeter, while Table IV gives results secured on the same
sample of air-dry soil when further unified by using only that portion
passing a sixty-mesh sieve.
TABLE III.
Percent 6 and T-Day Counts are of 10-Day Countt,
{Air Dry Loam Soil, tiered C pau 1 mm.)
TiMB OF Incubation
5
7
10 Da>-8*
Sample No.
Sise of Sample
50 grams
50 grams
50 grams
72.7%
79.4
73.0
92.1%
91.2
88.6
100.0*^4
100.0
100.0
10 grams
10 grams
10 grams
87.9
95.4
58.8
95.0
96.8
85.8
100 0
100 0
100 0
5 grams
5 grams
5 grams
71.2
67.8
75.8
91.8
85.2
97.1
100 0
100.0
100.0
10
ill
86.4
72.1
74.9
95.2
80.5
80.3
100.0
100.0
12
100.0
13
0.5 gram
0.5 gram
0.5 gram
64.7
79.3
62.5
85.0
85.2
79.4
100.0
100.0
15
100.0
Average , . . i . .
74.8
88.6
100.0
, I
*Count8 after 10 daya incubation at 20** C taken as 100.0%.
Other oounta states as parts of these.
Bacterial DiluUon 1-400,000.
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Length of Time to Incubate Petri Plates.
107
TABLE rV.
Percent 6 and 7-Daif Countt are of tO-Day Counts.
(Air Dry Loom sieved to paaa 90 meak.)
Time or Incubation
5
7
lODays*
Sample No.
Size of Sample
1
50 grams
50 grams
50 grams
79.9%
67.0
89.8
96.8%
100.0
100.0
100.0%
100.0
2
3
100.0
4
10 grams
10 grams
10 grams
63.7
72.6
74.7
72.1
91.0
100.0
100.0
5
100.0
6
100.0
7
5 grams
5 grams
5 grams
85.2
90.8
63.4
93.2
95.7
73.2
100.0
8
100.0
9
100.0
13
1.0 gram
1.0 gram
1.0 gram
93.7
63.6
62.8
100.0
75.3
85.8
100 0
14
100.0
15
100.0
16
0.5 gram
0.5 gram
0.5 gram
64.3
66.5
74.9
73.7
100.0
77.5
100.0
17
100.0
18
100.0
Average
74.2
88.9
100.0
*Coant8 after 10 days incubation at 20*C taken as 100%.
Other counts stated as parts of these Bacterial dilution 1-400,000.
The results g^iven in the previous tables show:
1. That the greater proportion of the organisms present in this
air-dry soil develop into colonies after five days' incubation.
2. The larger the aliquot of soil used the more uniformity be-
tween the development of colonies on the plates.
3. In five cases out of the fifteen all the colonies were counted
after seven days' incubation when the soil was sieved to pass
a sixty-mesh sieve.
It has been observed, in soil bacteriology investigations in an apple
orchard where different systems of soil management are practiced, that
the organisms multiply into colonies at different rates, dependent on the
system of management practiced. The results of this work are given
in Table V.
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108 Proceedings of Indiana Academy of Science.
TABLE V.
Average Percent 6 and 7-Day Counts are of lO-Day Counta,
{Silt Loam Subjected to Different Syetema of Soil Management.)
Time or Incubation
5
7
10 Day?*
I
41. »%
100.0%
100.0=7
Clean Cultivation
2
27.2
97.3
100.0
3
23.5
100.0
100.0
1
42.3
82.3
lOO.O
Sod
2
41.5
78.8
1000
3
33.3
79.0
lOO 0
1
65.1
85.3
100.0
Straw Mulch
2
55.2
87.4
100.0
3
65.2
81.7
100. 0
1
67.3
88.2
100.0
Light Grai» Mulch
2
58.3
96.9
lOO.O
3
37.0
82.2
lOO.O
Average All
46.5
88.3
lOO.O
A verase Clean Cultivation
30.9
99.1
lOOO
39.0
80.0
lOO.O
Averase Straw Mulch
61.8
84.8
lOOO
Averaire Liitht Qraas Mulch
54.2
89.1
lOO.O
Table V shows:
1. The rate of development of colonies varies with the system of
soil management.
2. Those conditions which unify differences in soil aeration are
present where the rates of development of colonies check
closest.
3. Short periods of incubation would not show the relative num-
bers of bacteria actually present in the soils.
Many sets of plates have been counted after twelve and fifteen days'
incubation, but very rarely have counts increased at all after ten days'
incubation. With suitable media the counts obtained after seven days'
incubation have unifojrmly shown the comparisons between samples, and
this does not mean that the increases from seven to ten days are numer-
ically or proportionately the same.
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Length of Time to Incubate Petri Plates. 109
Summary.
Counts made after ten days' incubation at 20** C. of petri plates,
made from bacterial dilutions of soil, give reliable results as to the
bacterial content of the soil, providing the number of colonies present
per plate is small enough for all organisms to develop into colonies.
The rapidity with which bacteria develop into colonies has been
shown to vary with the soil, and to be influenced by soil temperature,
moisture and aeration.
Much of the lack of confidence in results obtained by the plate method
is due to having too many colonies present per plate* and not allowing
sufficient time of incubation of the petri plates.
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110 Proceedings of Indiana Academy of Science.
Bacteria in Frozen Soil.
H. A. NOYES, Purdue University.
Two soil bacteriologists have published data as showing that the
number of bacteria in soil increases when the soil is frozen. These
reported increases in numbers are so contradictory to general belief con-
cerning bacterial activities at low (about freezing) temperatures that
not only the experimental data but abstracts of the technic followed are
given below.
Figure 1 gives the data presented in Cornell University Agricultural
Experiment Station Bulletin No. 338. The following is an abstract of
the technic followed:
"Samples of soil were usually taken with an auger or by the com-
bined use of an auger and pick when the ground was frozen. During
the winter of 1909-1910 a pick alone was used. When an auger was
employed the proceeds from two or three borings were combined, except
in winter, when only one hole was made; but when the pick alone was
used it was impossible to take any such pains in order to obtain a rep-
resentative sample. * * * The depth of sampling was six to eight
inches, although in winter 1909-1910 it varied more than during the
remainder of the period. * * * The soil was carefully mixed, in
summer by sieving through a sieve as fine as the moisture content would
allow, in winter by stirring after thawing. Of this soil 0.5 gram was
added to sufficient sterile water to make a volume of 100 cc. * * *
The samples taken from any one of these four spots must have all been
from within a circle of six-inch radius. The media used varied; the
one most extensively used was soil extract gelatin containing 0.1 per cent
dextrose. Plates were incubated seven days at 19** to 20* C. for gelatin
and usually two weeks for agar."
The following statement is taken from the author's summary of the
work*: "Quantitative determinations * * * have shown * * *
an increase in numbers of bacteria in frozen soil."
FifiTure 2 gives the data presented in Research Bulletin No. 4 of the
Iowa Experiment Station. The following is an abstract of the technic
followed :
"The samples were drawn from the plot already described within
an area of about five feet square. * * * They were taken to a
»Conn. H. J., in Centrab't fur Bakt II Abteil. 28 (1910), p. 422.
Digiti
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Bacteria in Frozen Soil 111
depth of 20 cm. by means of a 2.5-inch auger, except during the time
that the soil was frozen, when it became necessary to substitute a mat-
tock or grub hoe for the auger. The samples were collected on a sterile
mixing cloth and then placed in sterile glass jars and taken to the
laboratory and innoculations performed as quickly as possible. * * *
In this work it was deemed inadvisable to permit such a multiplication
of organisms to occur in the sample as would undoubtedly take place if
they were allowed to stand long enough to thaw out completely. Con-
sequently the frozen samples employed here were thoroughly commin-
uted by means of a sterile spatula, carefully mixed, and then subsam-
pled for innoculations. The maximum time required to prepare the
sample in this way was ten minutes. * * * loo gram quantities of
the soil prepared * * * were shaken for five minutes with 200 cc.
portions of sterile distilled water. Lipman and Brown 'synthetic agar'
was used and counts made after three days' incubation at 22'' C. Re-
sults are averages of two dilutions which agreed closely in every case."
The author sununarizes the results given in Figure 2 as follows:
1. "By means of the 'modified synthetic' agar plate method, bacteria
are shown to be present in large numbers in a typical Wisconsin drift
soil when it is completely frozen and the temperature is below zero
degrees Centigrade; furthermore, increases and decreases in numbers
of organisms occur during this period and larger numbers are found
after the soil has been frozen for a considerable period than before it
begins to freeze."
2. "During the fall season, the number of bacteria present in the
soil diminishes gradually with the lowering of the temperature."
The methods of sampling and the technic employed in getting the
results rejwrted in the above mentioned publications were so different
from those adopted in this laboratory, after much testing, that the
results of data on bacterial counts obtained on different dates from
samples of a silt loam variously cover cropped are given in Fig^ure 3.
The technic of sampling, diluting and plating is that previously de-
scribed.'
It is to be noted that the numbers of bacteria found in the soil when
the temperature was 32** or lower were greater than those found at
other times during the winter. The soil thermometers were at a depth
of nine inches and the samples were drawn to this depth. It had been
found impracticable to take samples when the ground was solidly frozen,
and samples were taken (on the dates) starred just as the soil had
thawed enough so that the samplers* could be used. The question thus
* Noyes, H. A., Voigrt, Edwin, in Proceedingrs Indiana Academy of Science. 1916.
pp. 272-301.
* Noyes, H. A., in Joum. Amer. Soc. Agron. Vol. 7. No. 6 (1916).
Digiti
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112 Proceedings of Indiana Academy of Science.
IS.. ,
'I -
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-^ .^^>^.-^j^*-
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Bacteria in Frozen Soil.
113
gIffITd"i^Js;::ih-Hi:rd:^tl[r=^Hi=t:=ir^IT^■!■;:r^-^r
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8—16568
Digiti
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114 Proceedings of Indiana Academy of Science,
naturally arose as to whether the counts obtained in this and the pre-
vious work were not due to increased bacterial activities as the ground
thawed.
To give more definite information, special experiments have been
carried out. A special bacteriologist's soil sampler' reinforced with steel
was secured and driven down into solidly frozen soil. The sampler con-
taining the frozen soil was brought into the warm laboratory and in a
half hour it was possible to push the core of frozen soil out of the
sampler. This core was placed on a laboratory table. A wire was
pushed into the core from time to time and it was found that thawing
took place very slowly. It was forty-six hours from the time that the
sample was laid out on the table before it had thawed enough for the
wire to be thrust through it.
To see if the bacterial numbers in soil were not increased on the
thawing out of the soil due to different layers of the soil being brought
successively under more favorable conditions for bacterial development,
the following test was made:
A sample of frozen loam soil was obtained, brought to the laboratory,
pushed out of the sampler, then taken to a room having a temperature
below 0° C, where it was halved lengthwise by chopping with an axe.
One-half was chopped and mixed and fifty grams weighed out and
analyzed immediately for its bacterial content. The other half was
brought to the laboratory and allowed to stand twenty-four hours. It
thawed out in this time. The sample was mixed and its bacterial con-
tent determined. The results of this test were that the sample allowed
to thaw out before it was analyzed, gave over three times the bacterial
count that the one analyzed immediately did.
The following experiment is the latest one we have conducted on
this subject, and it is left to the reader to judge from this in connection
with the other work reported as to whether bacteria multiply in frozen
soil. About twenty kilos of soil (silt loam) were procured by taking
soil from between the depths of four and seven inches of a plot where
millet had been plowed under each of the two preceding springs. This
soil was mixed and sieved through a screen having eight meshes to the
inch. The portion passing the screen was mixed thoroughly and then
quartered. One quarter (about five kilos) was brought to the labora-
tory. Sterile 12-ounce bottles plugged with cotton had been previously
prepared and 150 grams of the mixed and prepared sample were weighed
out into each of twenty-six bottles. The soil in the bottles was then
compacted by dropping them on the bench thirty times. The bottles
were then divided into three groups and these groups were incubated in
the following places:
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Bacteria in Frozen Soil.
115
A..A . i .. 1 3 i__
5
£.
. ij7 **iiU,
.4:.:i
■ J'n.li!^
itfUMG F>*
■ii
■■1-:::
■iilii
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116 Proceedings of Indiana Academy of Science.
A. An ice box, temperature around 45** F.
B. In a cold storag^e room in a creamery, temperature 36** F. to
42** F.
C. Cold room in creamery, temperature between 27* F. and 30" F.
The counts obtained from these tests are given in Table I.
TABLE I.
Ckanget in BadtrM Content of Soil Stored in Different Refrigerating Room%.
Lengths of Time of TncubBtion
Temp. 45* F
Temp. 39' F
Temp. 29- F
Odaya
12. 4*
12.4
12.4
21
11.7
9.5
5.5
78
0.7
4.8
4.5
*Figures are millions per cram of soil as used.
Summary.
It is known to be difficult to get accurate figures of the numbers of
bacteria present in frozen soil. It is not known that the layer of soil
just below the constantly increasing layer of frozen soil is not very
favorable for the multiplication of certain classes of bacteria.
The data reported in this paper, obtained in this laboratory and from
the work of others does not prove that the number of bacteria present
in soil is increased when the soil is frozen.
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Some Abnormalities in Plant Structure.
M. S. Markle, Earlham College.
In looking over large numbers of microscopic slides made during the
past few years, I have noted many instances of abnormalities in struc-
ture, some of which have not been reported, to my knowledge. Assuming
that some of them may be of interest to members of the Academy, I
submit drawings of a number of them.
In cutting some fern prothallia of an undetermined species collected
in the Washington Park greenhouse at Chicago, I noticed large numbers
of imbedded archegonia and a few instances of deeply imbedded anther-
idia. As will be seen from the drawings, these structures occurred
several cells below the surface of the prothallium. An imbedded arche-
gonium was generally associated with an ordinary one, though not
always. The imbedded archegonium begins as a single cell, distinguish-
able by its larger nucleus and denser cytoplasm. The axial row develops
like that of an archegonium of the usual type, except that there are
usually two neck canal cells, if such they can be called here, instead of
the usual single binucleate one. This is perhaps due to the differences
in the pressure of the surrounding cells. A variation in the imbedded
archegonia was found in one instance, in which there were two arche-
gonia, with the position of the cells in the axial rows reversed, as shown
in the figure.
Stages in the development of the imbedded antheridia were not
found.
In sectioning some ovaries of Lilium of unknown origin, I found
several sacs in which the four free nuclei following the second mitosis
all gathered at one end of the sac, instead of two at each end, as usual.
One instance of a mature embryo-sac that had evidently resulted from
the further development of such a condition as that mentioned above
showed six nuclei at one end of the sac completely surrounded by walls,
while two nuclei remained free.
The "three-story" reproductive branch of Vaucheria shown in the
figure was found in some material which was collected near Baton Rouge,
Ala. The other, in which a secondary sexual branch was formed in the
place of an oogonium, was collected near Earlham College, Richmond,
Indiana.
The megaspore tetrad of Selaginella shown in the figure shows the
outer wall of the spore continuous around the group of spores instead
of surrounding the individual spores.
(117)
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118 Proceedings of Indiana Academy of Science.
Fi« 1
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Some Abnormalities in Plant Structure.
119
Fig. 2.
O
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120 Proceedings of Indiana Academy of Science.
Fig. 3.
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Some Abnormalities in Plant Structure.
121
F g. 4.
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122 Proceedings of Indiana Academy of Science.
Fi«.5.
Fif. 6.
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Some Abnormalities in Plant Structure. 123
<
Fig 7.
FiA.8.
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124 Proceedings of Indiana Academy of Science.
Fig. 9.
Explanation of Figures.
Fig. 1. Initial 6f imbedded archegonium.
Fig. 2. Completely formed imbedded archegonium.
Fig. 3. Two imbedded archegonia with axial rows reversed.
Fig. 4. Imbedded antheridium.
Figs. 5 and 6. Abnormal embryo*sacs of Lilium.
Figs. 7 and 8. Abnormal sexual branches of Vaucheria geminata.
Fig. 9. Abnormal megaspore tetrad of Selaginella.
* i
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Plants of Boone County, Kentucky.
James Carlton Nelson, Salem, Ore.
The following is a list of plants collected in that part of Boone
County, Kentucky lying along the Ohio River opposite the Indiana
counties of Ohio and Switzerland, extending along the river from the
town of Grant to the mouth of Gunpowder Creek — some ten miles — and
back from the river an average distance of seven miles. The region
belongs geologically to the "Cincinnati Uplift," and is very hilly, except
in the wide East Bend river-bottom. There is no exposed rock, such as
forms the picturesque limestone cliffs farther down the Ohio, except a
soft blue shale in deep stream-channels, and some large masses of con-
glomerate marking the terminal moraine of the Ice Age, which extends
inland from the Ohio at "Split Rock," opposite the mouth of Laughery
Creek, to a point about three miles west of the town of Union. The
flora of this morainic district presents a marked contrast to that of the
rest of the county. The region was originally covered with a dense
forest of deciduous trees, which have been largely cleared away, leaving
a very rich soil, which is rapidly washed away on the steep slopes, so
that the prevailing soil is a tough yellow clay mixed with fragments of
extremely hard blue fossiliferous limestone. The chief crop is tobacco,
which has rapidly exhausted the soil and rendered it in many places
sterile and unproductive. These collections were made during the years
1881-1893. I had no assistance in the work except such as was afforded
by Gray's Manual, and the determinations represent in nearly every case
simply my own unsupported opinion. The nomenclature is that of Gray's
Manual, Seventh Edition. In making the determinations I usei the
Fifth and later the Sixth Edition of this Manual. I am indebted to
Mr. Chas. C. Deam of Bluffton, Indiana, for his kindness in looking over
the entire list and offering suggestions based on his own wide knowledge
of the plants of Indiana. These suggestions I have in every case incor-
porated in the list. The region lies well within the limits of Gray's
Manual, and there was little intrusion of extra-limital species. The
Northern collector will note, however, the predominance of Southern
types. Noteworthy is the total absence of Ericaceae proper and Orchid-
acese, and the scanty representation of Umbelliferae. No attempt was
made to determine ferns, grasses and sedges.
(125)
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126 Proceedings of Indiana Academy of Science.
POLYPODIACEAE:
Adiantutn pedatum L. In rich woods, common.
(Two or three other members of this family occur, but I was
unable to determine them.)
Ophioglossaceae :
Botrychium virginianum (L.) Sw. Occasional in woods.
Equisbtaceae:
Equisetum arvense L. Abundant in low ground.
Equisetum hyerruUe L., var. robttstum (A. Br.) A. A. Eaton. Low
ground, not common.
PiNACEAE:
Junipems virginiana L. Occasional on open hillsides.
Typhaceae:
Typha latifolia L. Not common, owing to absence of any large area
of marshy ground in the district.
Alismaceae:
Sagittaria latifolia Willd. Moist river-shores, infrequent.
Gramineae:
No attempt was made to determine these. The only species
that I can positively affirm as growing in the district were:
Andropogon virginiciis L. Common in sterile soil.
Panicum capillare L. Abundant in cultivated fields.
Echinochloa Crus-galli (L.) Beauv. Common in barn-yards and
waste places.
Digitaria sanguinalis (L.) Scop. Common in door-yards.
Setaria viridis (L.) Beauv. Abundant in fields.
Phleum pratense L. A common escape.
AgroHtis alba L. Not cultivated, but common.
Eleusine indica Gaertn. Common in door-yards.
Eragrostis hypnoides (Lam.) BSP. Abundant on river-shores.
Dae ty lis glomerata L. An occasional escape.
Poa pratensis L. Common in cultivation, and freely escaping.
Elymus virginictcs L. Dry, open ground, common.
Hyatrix patula Moench. Common in woods.
Cyperaceae:
Here again nothing was done. The genera Eleocha/ris, Cyp-
eruSf Scirpus and Carex were all represented, but not fully, owing
to the infrequency of marsh-land. The most characteristic Carex
was a form with broad evergreen leaves, growing in woods. It
evidently belonged to the section Careyanae^ and I suspect was
C. platyphyila Carey.
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Plants of Boone County, Kentucky. 127
Araceae:
Arisaema triphyllum (L.) Schott. Common in woods.
Arisaema Dracontium (L.) Schott. With the last, but less common.
Ac(yni8 Calamus L. An occasional escape in dry ground.
COMMELINACEAE:
Tradescantia virginica L. Common in meadows.
Juncaceae:
Juncus bufonius L. Common along streams.
Juncus tenuis Willd. Abundant in dry soil.
Juncus effujius L. Less common than the other two.
Luzula campestris L. var. multiflora (Ehrh.) Celak. Occasional in
woods.
Liliaceae:
Uvularia grandiflara Sm. Rich woods, not infrequent.
Allium canadense L. Occasional in dry, stony ground.
HemerocaJlis fulva L. A common escape.
Lilium canudense L. Very rare.
Erythronium americanum Ker. Rich woods, not common.
Erythronium alhidum Nutt. With the last, but much more common.
Rarely flowers.
Camxissia esculenta (Ker) Robinson. Not common.
Omithogalum umbellatum L. An occasional escape.
Asparagus officinalis L. Escaped to roadsides and meadows.
Smila^na racemosa (L.) Desf. Common in woods.
Polygoruitum biflorum (Walt.) Ell. Common in woods.
Polygonatum commutatum (R. & S.) Dietr. Common in woods and
grass-land.
Trillium sessile L. Very common in rich woods.
Trillium erectum L. With the last, but less common.
Smilax herbacea L. Occasional in woods.
Smilax rotundifolia L. Common in thickets.
Smilax glauca Walt. In thickets, scarce.
Smilax hispida Muhl. Rich woods, rare.
Dioscoreaceae :
Dioscorea villosa L. Common in thickets.
Iridaceae:
Sisyrinchium angtustifolium Mill. Common in meadows.
Salicaceae:
Salix nigra Marsh. Abundant on river-shores.
SaXix alba L. var. vitellina (L.) Koch. A frequent escape.
Salix longifolia Muhl. Along streams, rather rare.
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128 Proceedings of Indiana Academy of Science.
ScUix discolor Muhl. River-banks, common.
Salix purpurea L. An occasional escape along the river, where it is
cultivated for basket-work, etc.
Popuhis grandidentata Michx. Occasional along streams.
Populus deltoides Marsh. Abundant along the river.
Juglandacbae:
Juglans cinerea L. Rich woods, less common than the next.
Juglans nigra L. Very common throughout.
Ca/rya alba (L.) K. Koch. Rich hillsides, common.
Gary a ovata (Mill.) K. Koch. With the last, but less common.
Gary a glabra (Mill.) Spach. Open woods.
Gary a cordiformis (Wang.) K. Koch. Low woods.
Betulaceae:
Ostrya virginiana (Mill.) K. Koch. In woods, not infrequent.
Garpiniis caroliniana Walt. Common in rich woods.
Alnus rugosa (Du Roi) Spreng. A single specimen on the river-
shore.
Fagaceae:
Fagus grandi folia Ehrh. Very common in rich woods.
Quercus alba L. The commonest species and our largest tree. Some
specimens reached a diameter of eight feet.
Quercus niacrocarj)a Michx. In rocky woods.
Quercus Muhlenbergii Engelm. With the last.
Quercus rubra L. Common on dry hillsides.
Quercus paXustris Moench. Low ground, not common.
Quercus velutina Lam. Rich soil, not common.
Quercus imbrica/ria Michx. At a few stations in the interior.
Urticaceae:
Ulmus fulva Michx. Rich woods, less common than the next.
Ulmus americana L. Very common.
Geltis occidentalis L. Woods, especially along the river, common.
Gannabis sativa L. Occasional in waste places. Not cultivated.
Humulus Lupulus L. An occasional escape.
Morus rubra L. Rich woods, common.
Urtica gra^cilis Ait. Common in fence-rows, etc.
Laportea canadensis (L.) Gaud. Rich woods, common.
Pilea pumila (L.) Gray. Rich woods, common.
Boehmeria cylindrica (L.) Sw. Low ground along streams.
Parietaria pennsylvanica Muhl. Shaded banks, common.
Loranthaceae:
Phoradendron flavescens (Pursh) Nutt. Common, especially on Ul-
mus and Gleditsia,
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Plants of Boone County, Kentucky. 129
Aristolochiaceae :
Asarum canadense L. Common in rich woods.
Aristolochia Serpentaria L. In wooded districts, rare.
Polygon ACEAE;
Rumex Britannica L. In wet places, rather scarce.
(This probably should be R, cUtissimus Wood. Mr. Deam tells
me that Britannica occurs in Ind. only in the northern counties,
while altissimus is common along the Ohio R.)
Rumex crispus L. Abundant in fields and meadows.
Rumex obtusifolius L. Very common about dwellings.
Rumex Acetosella L. Common in poor soil.
Polygonum aviculare L. Abundant in door-yards, etc.
Polygonum erectum L. With the last.
Polygonum amphibium L. Occasional in wet places.
(This species has been found in Ind. by Mr. Deam but twice,
while P. Muhlenbergii (Meisn.) Wats., which in Gray's 5th Ed.
was not separated from amphibium, is abundant in the counties
along the Ohio, so my report is doubtless an error, and should be
changed to Muhlenbergii,)
Polygonum Hydropiper L. Wet ground, common.
Polygonum acre HBK. Abundant in waste places.
Polygonum, orientale L. An occasional escape about dwellingfs.
Polygonum xnrginianum L. Rich thickets, common.
Polygonum sagittatum L. Occasional in low ground.
Polygonum Convolvulus L. Very common in cultivated fields.
Polygonum scandens L. Common in thickets.
CHENOPODI ACEAE :
Chenopodium ambrosioides L. Common on river-shores and in waste
places.
Chenopodium Botrys L. Sandy soil near the river, never inland.
Chenopodium hybridum L. Infrequent in waste places.
Chenopodium album L. Abundant about dwellings and in fields.
Amaranthaceae :
Amjaranthus retroflexvji L. Very common in cultivated ground.
Amaranthu^ hybridum L. With the last, but less common.
Amaranthu^ paniculatus L. Occasional near dwellings.
Amaranthus spinoau^ L. Waste ground near the river, infrequent.
Acnida tuberculata Moq. River-shores, common.
Acnida tuberculata Moq. var. subnuda Wats. With the last.
Acnida tuberculata Moq. var. pi^ostrata (Uline & Bray) Robinson.
With the last.
Phytolaccaceae :
Phytolacca decandra L. Rich soil in low grounds, common.
9—16568
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130 Proceedings of Indiana Academy of Science,
ILLECEBRACEAE :
Anychia polygonoides Raf. Open places, rather scarce.
Anychia canadensis (L.) BSP. Dry woods, common.
AlZOACEAE:
Mollugo vertidllata L. Sandy river-shores and tobacco-fields, com-
mon.
Caryophyllaceae :
Stellaria pubera Michx. Rocky woods, common.
Stellaria media (L.) Cyrill. Abundant about dwellings.
Cerastium vulgatum L. Conmion in fields and meadows.
Agrostemma Githago L. Common in grain-fields.
Silene antirrhina L. Occasional in cultivated ground.
Silene virginica L. Open woods, rather rare.
Silene stellata (L.) Ait. f. Shaded banks, not infrequent.
Saponaria officinalis L. An occasional escape.
PORTULACACEAE:
Claytonia virginica L. Common in woods.
Cla/ytonia caroliniana Michx. With the last, but much less common.
Portulaca oleracea L. Abundant in cultivated and waste ground.
Ranunculaceae :
Ranunculus sceleratus L. Wet places, scarce.
Ranunculus abortivus L. Shady places, very common.
Ranunculus recurvatus Poir. In woods, common.
Ranunculus septentrionalis Poir. Moist ground, common.
Thalictrum dioicum L. Rocky woods, common.
Thalictrum polygamum Muhl. River-banks in rich soil.
Anemonella thalictroides (L.) Spach. In woods in early spring,
common.
Hepatica a^itiloba DC. Only on moraines, where it is common.
Anemone virginiana L. In meadows and fence-rows.
Anemone canadensis L. Low ground, especially in river-bottoms.
Clematis virginiana L. River-banks, not infrequent.
Isopyrum bitematum (Raf.) T. & G. Common in thickets.
Aquilegia canadensis L. Rocky woods, infrequent.
Delphinium tricome Michx. Meadows and thickets, common.
Cimicifuga racemosa (L.) Nutt. Common in rich woods.
Actaea alba (L.) Mill. Not infrequent in rich woods.
Hydrastis canadensis L. In rich woods, rare.
Magnoliaceae:
Liriodendron Tulipifera L. In river-bottoms, becoming scarce.
Anonaceae:
Asimina triloba (L.) Dunal. Thickets and hillsides, common.
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Piants of Boone County, Kentucky. 131
MENISPERM ACEAE :
Menispermum canadense L. Thickets along streams, common.
Berberidaceae :
Podophyllum peltatum L. Common in rich woods.
Jeffersonia diphylla (L.) Pers. Woods, common.
Caulophyllum thalictroides (L.) Michx. Woods, infrequent.
Lauraceae:
Sassafras variifolium (Salisb.) Kuntze. In woods, becoming scarce.
Benzoin aestivale (L.) Nees. Damp woods, not rare.
Papaveraceae:
Sanguinaria canadensis L. Open woods, common.
Stylophorum diphyllum (Michx.) Nutt. In rich woods, common
locally.
FUMARIACEAE:
Dicentra Cucullaria (L.) Bernh. Common in woods.
Dicentra canadensis (Goldie) Walp. With the last.
CorydcUis flavula (Raf.) DC. Rich soil, not uncommon.
Cruciferae:
Lepidium virginicum L. Waste places and fields, common.
Capsella Bursa-pastoris (L.) Medic. Abundant in waste and culti-
vated ground.
Brassica alba (L.) Boiss. About dwellings, infrequent.
Bra^sica nigra (L.) Koch. With the last, but much more common.
Sisymbrium officinale (L.) Scop. var. leiocarpum DC. Common in
fields.
Hesperis matronalis L. A rare escape.
Radicula palustris (L.) Moench. Common on river-shores.
Radicula Armorada (L.) Robinson. An occasional escape.
Barbarea vulgaris R. Br. Roadsides, infrequent.
lodanthus pinnatifidus (Michx.) Steud. Rich soil near the river.
Dentaria diphylla Michx. Woods, not common.
Dentaria laciniata Muhl. Very common in woods.
Cardamine bulbosa (Schreb.) BSP. Occasional in wet places.
Cardamine Douglassii (Torr.) Britton. Rich woods in early spring.
Cardamine pennsylvanica Muhl. Damp ground, rather scarce.
Arabis laevigata (Muhl.) Poir. Rocky woods, infrequent.
Capparidaceae:
Polanisia graveolens Raf. Gravelly river-shores, common.
Crassulaceae:
Penthorum sedoides L. Muddy shores, common.
Sedum, tematum Michx. Rocky woods, common.
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132 Proceedings of Indiana Academy of Science.
Saxifragaceae:
Saxifraga virginiensis Michx. Steep wooded hillsides, local.
Heuchera americana L. Woods on moraine, local.
Mitella diphylla L. Rich woods, common.
Hydrangea arborescens L. Rocky hillsides, infrequent.
Ribes floridum L'Her. Thickets, not common.
Platan aceae:
Platanus occidentalia L. Common on river-banks.
Rosaceae:
Anlncus Sylvester Kost. Rocky woods on moraine.
Gillenia stipulacea (Muhl.) Trel. In dry soil by roadside near Ve-
rona, 20 miles from the river. The only station.
Pyrus Malus L. A frequent escape to thickets and roadsides.
Crataegus Crus-galli L. Infrequent in thickets.
Crataegus punctata Jacq. Open hillsides, not common.
Crataegus tomentosa L. Very common.
(I did not have the benefit of Eggleston's thorough revision
of this genus. It is doubtful if tomentosa as now restricted
occurs in Ind., and my plant, according to Mr. Deam, was prob-
ably C. mollis (T. & G.) Scheele.)
Fragaria virginiana Duchesne. Common on grassy slopes.
Potentilla monspeliensis L. Common in cultivated ground.
Potentilla canadetisis L. Grassy places, infrequent.
Geum canadense Jacq. Borders of woods, common.
Geum virginianum L. With the last.
Geum vemum (Raf.) T. & G. Common in meadows, etc.
Rubus occidentalis L. Thickets and fence-rows.
Rubus allegheniensis Porter. Very common on open hillsides.
Rubus villosiis Ait. Grassy open places, not common.
Agrimonia gryposepala Wallr. Rich soil in thickets, common.
Rosa setigera Michx. Borders of thickets, not common.
Rosa rubiginosa L. Pastures and roadsides, common.
Rosa humilis Marsh. In dry soil, scarce.
Prunu^ serotina Ehrh. In rich woods, rather common.
Prunus americana Marsh. In thickets, frequent.
Leguminosae :
Gymnocladus dioica (L.) Koch. Rich woods, infrequent.
Gleditsia triacanthos L. Very common, especially in low ground.
Cassia marilandica L. Rich soil, common.
Cassia Chamaecrista L. - Sandy river-shores, not common.
Cercis canadensis L. Rich woods, common.
Baptisia australis (L.) R. Br. Gravelly river-shores, rare.
Trifolium pratense L. Common in meadows, and often cultivated.
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Plants of Boone County, Kentucky. 133
Tri folium stoloniferum Muhl. Occasional in open ground.
Trifolium repens L. Abundant in meadows.
Melilotiis alba Desr. Common on roadsides near the river, but not
found farther inland.
Robinia Pseudo-Aea^na L. Open hillsides, very common.
Astragalus canadensis L. Dry soil, not common.
Desmodium nudifiorum (L.) DC.
Desmodium pauciflorum (Nutt.) DC.
Desmodium canescens (L.) DC.
Desmodium broA^teosum (Michx.) DC.
Desmodium Dillenii Darl.
Desmodium paniculatum (L.) DC.
(This genus seems to be the dominant one of the family here,
much like Astragalus in the Rocky Mountain region and Lupinus
on the Pacific Slope. All the species are in thickets and at the
borders of woods, and are exceedingly troublesome on account of
their burs.)
Lespedeza capitata Michx. On moraines, rare.
Apios tuberosa Moench. Rich woods, common.
Stropkostyles helvola (L.) Britton. Abundant in river-thickets.
Amphicarpa monoica (L.) Ell. Rich woods, common.
OXALIDACEAE:
Oxalis violorcea L. Rocky woods, not infrequent.
Oucalis comiculata L. Dry ground, very common.
Geraniaceae:
Geranium maculatum L. Open woods and meadows, common.
RUTACEAE:
Zanthoxylum americanum Mill. Rocky woods, infrequent.
SiMABUBACEAE:
Ailanthv^ glandulosa Desf. An occasional escape.
Polygalaceae:
Poly gala Senega L. Open, rocky soil; not common.
Euphorbiaceae:
Acalypha virginica L. Fields and waste places, common.
Phyllanthus caroliniensis Walt. In meadows, rare.
Euphorbia Preslii Guss. Dry soil, common.
Euphorbia ma^culata L. Open places, common.
Euphorbia humistrata Engelm. Not uncommon in rich soil.
Euphorbia coroUata L. Rich soil, scarce.
Euphorbia dentata Michx. In rich soil, not common.
Euphorbia commutata Engelm. Dry woodlands, not common.
Euphorbia Cyparissias L. An occasional escape.
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134 Proceedings of Indiana Academy of Science.
Anacardiaceae:
Rhus typhina L. Dry soil, common.
Rh\i8 glabra L. With the last.
Rhus copallina L. Dry hillsides, not common.
Rhus Toxicodendron L. Thickets and fence-rows, very common.
Celastraceae:
Evonymus atropurpureus Jacq. Thickets, common.
Evonymus obovatus Nutt. Low ground, not common.
Celastrus seandens L. Common in thickets.
Staphyleaceae:
Staphylea trifolia L. Damp thickets, common.
ACERACEAE:
Acer saccharum Marsh. The commonest forest- tree of the district.
Acer rubrum L. Low woods, common.
Acer Negundo L. Low ground, common.
Sapindaceae:
Aescuhis glabra Willd. Rich woods, common.
Aesculv^ octandra Marsh. With the last, but less common.
Balsaminaceae:
Impatiens pallida Nutt. Along streams in rich soil, common.
Impatiens biflora Walt. With the last.
Vitaceae:
Psedera quinquefolia (L.) Greene. Common in thickets.
Vitis aestivalis Michx. Thickets, common.
Vitis cordifolia Michx. River-banks, not infrequent.
Tiliaceae:
Tilia americana L. Rich woods, common.
Malvaceae:
Abutilon Theophrasti Medic. Common in cultivated ground.
Sida hermaphrodita (L.) Rusby. A single station on river-bank.
Sida spinosa L. Common in cultivated ground.
Malva rotundifolia L. Common about dwellings.
Napasa dioica L. A single station on the bank of Gunpowder Creek.
Hibiscus militaris Cav. Wet river-shores, not common.
Hypericaceae:
Hypericum perforatum L. In fields, common.
Hypericum punctatum Lam. With the last, but less common.
Hypericum prolificum L. On moraines, rare.
Hypericum mutilum L. Damp river-shores, common.
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Plants of Boone County, Kentucky. 135
ViOLACEAE:
HyhanthiLs concolor (Forster) Spreng. Rich woods, common.
Viola papilionacea Pursh. Meadows and thickets, very common.
Viola palmata L. Dry woods, infrequent
Viola pub'escens Ait. Rich woods, common.
Viola canadensis L. Rich woods, rather scarce.
Viola striata Ait. Meadows and borders of woods, common.
Passifloraceae:
Passi flora lutea L. Thickets, not common.
Lythraceae:
Rotala ramosior (L.) Koehne. Wet river-shores, common.
Ammannia coccinea Rottb. With the last.
Ly thrum alatum Pursh. A single station on the river-shore.
Cuphea petiolata (L.) Koehne. Dry fields, common.
Onagraceae:
Ludvigia alternifolia L. Damp river-shores.
Ludvigia polycarpa Short & Peter. With the last, but less common.
Ludvigia palustris (L.) Ell. Wet places, very common.
Epilobium coloratum Muhl. Wet places, infrequent.
Oenothera biennis L. Open places, common.
Circaea alpina L. Rich woods, common.
(Since this species is rare in Ind., and C. lutetiana L. very
common, I agree with Mr. Deam that my plant probably is to
be referred to the latter species.)
Arauaceae:
Aralia racemosa L. Rich woods, infrequent.
Panax quinquefolium L. Rich woods, becoming rare.
Umbeluferae:
Sanicula marilandica L. Open grround, common.
Sanicula canadensis L. Borders of woods, not so common as the last.
Erigenia bulbosa (Michx.) Nutt. Rich woods, common; the first
spring flower.
Chaerophyllum procumhens (L.) Crantz. Moist woods, common.
Osmorhiza Claytoni (Michx.) Clarke. Rich woods, common.
Cicuta nuumlata L. River-banks, common.
Cryptotaenia canadensis (L.) DC. Shady places, common.
Taenidia integerrima (L.) Drude. Dry woods, infrequent.
Pastinac'a sativa L. A common escape to roadsides, etc.
Daucus Carota L. An occasional escape.
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136 Proceedings of Indiana Academy of Science.
Cornaceae:
Comus florida L. Common in woods.
Comus Amomum MiU. River-banks, infrequent.
Nyssa sylvatica Marsh. Rich woods, infrequent.
Ericaceae:
Monotropa unifiora L. Deep woods, rare.
Primulaceae:
Samolus floribundua HBK. Occasional in wet places.
Lysimachia quadrifolia L. Moist soil, common.
Lysimachia terrestris (L.) BSP. Low ground, scarce.
Lysimachia Nummularia L. Escaped to roadsides and thickets.
Steironema ciliatum (L.) Raf. Low gn^ound, common.
Steironema lanceolatutn (Walt.) Gray. With the last, but less
common.
Anagallie arvensis L. Sandy fields, rare.
Ebenaceae:
Diospyros virginiana L. Old fields, infrequent.
Oleaceae:
Fra^inus americana L. Rich woods, common.
Gentianaceae :
Gentiana quinquefolia L. Along streams, not common.
Frasera carolinensis Walt. Dry hillsides, rare.
Apocynaceae:
Vinca minor L. A common escape abQut dwellings.
Apocynum androsaemi folium L. Dry thickets, not infrequent
Apocynum cannabinum L. Borders of woods, common.
ASCLEPIADACEAE :
Asclepias tuherosa L. Dry soil, not common.
Asclepias incamata L. Wet places, common.
Aaclepias syriaca L. Alluvial soil, very common.
Asclepias quadrifolia Jacq. Dry woods, infrequent.
Asclepias verticillata L. Open ground, common.
A cerates viridiflora Ell. Dry soil, not common.
Gonolobus laevis Michx. River-banks and cultivated ground, very
common.
Vincetoxicum hirsutum (Michx.) Britt. A single station in rocky
oak woods.
CONVOLVULACEAE :
Ipomaea coccinea L. Waste places, rare.
Ipomnea hederacea Jacq. Common in cultivated fields.
Ipomaea purpurea (L.) Roth. An occasional escape.
Ipomaea pandurata (L.) Mey. Occasional on dry river-banks.
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I
Plants of Boone County, Kentucky. 137
Convolvulus sepium L. Along streams, common.
Cu^seuta arvensis Beyrich. Dry soil on various Compositae, common.
Cuseuta Gronovii Willd. River-shores on Salix, common.
POLEMONIACEAE:
Phlox divaricata L. Damp woods, common.
Polemonium rep tans L. Rich woods, common.
H YDROPHYLLACEAE :
Hydrophyllum nuierophyllum Nutt. Rich woods, common.
Hydrophyllum appendieulatum Michx. Damp woods, common.
Ellisia Nyctelea L. Damp thickets, infrequent.
PhcLcelia bipinnatifida Michx. Shaded banks, common.
Boraginaceae:
Heliotropium indicum L. A single station on sandy river-shore.
Cynoglossum officinale L. A common weed in pastures, etc.
Cynoglossum virginianum L. Open woods, not common.
Lappula virginiana (L.) Greene. Thickets and roadsides, very
common.
Mertensia virginica (L.) Link. Rich soil in woods, rather scarce.
Lithospermum arvense L. Sandy roadsides, not common.
Onosmodium virginianum (L.) DC. Dry hillsides, occasional.
Onosmodium hispidissimum Mack. River-banks, rare.
Verbenaceae:
Verbena urticasfolia L. Thickets and roadsides, common.
Verbena hastata L. Low ground, common.
(V. bracteosa Michx. was common on the river-shore at Rising
Sun, Ind., but was never found on the Ky. side.)
Lippia lanceolata Michx. Damp river-shores, common.
Labiatae:
Teu>crium canadense L. Common in rich soil.
Isanthus brachiatas (L.) BSP. Dry soil on moraines, rare.
Scutellaria lateriflora L. Low ground, common.
Scutellaria versicolor Nutt. Rich woods, not infrequent.
Scutellaria canescens Nutt. In woods, rather scarce.
Scutellaria nervosa Pursh. Rich woods, not common.
Marrubium vulgare L. Dry soil, infrequent.
Agasta^e nepetoides (L.) Ktze. Borders of woods, common.
Nepeta Cataria L. Conmion about dwellings.
Nepeta hederojcea (L.) Trevisan. Shady places, common.
Prunella vulgaris L. Fields and meadows, very common.
Synandra hispidula (Michx.) Britt. Rich woods, infrequent.
Ltconurus Cardia^a L. Waste places, common.
Stachys tenuifolia Willd. Wet ground, common.
Sta^hys cordata Riddell. Dry thickets, rather common.
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138 Proceedings of Indiana Academy of Science.
Monarda fistulosa L. Dry ground, common.
Blephilia ciliata (L.) Raf. Borders of woods, not infrequent
Blephilia hirsuta (Pursh) Benth. Moist thickets, rare.
Hedeoma pulegioides (L.) Pers. Dry soil, very common.
Melissa officinalis L. An occasional escape.
Lycoptis virginicus L. Moist soil, not infrequent.
Lyeoptis americantis Muhl. With the last.
Mentha spicata L. An occasional escape in dry ground.
Mentha piperita L. An occasional escape along streams.
Cotlinsonia canadensis L. Rich soil in woods, not infrequent.
Solan acbae:
Solanum nigrum L. Rich soil, common.
Solanum carolinense L. Sandy soil, common.
Physalis pubescens L. Open ground, common.
Physalis heterophylla Nees. Alluvial soil, common.
Nicandra PhyscUodes (L.) Pers. A single specimen on the river-
shore.
Lycium halimiflorum Mill. An occasional escape in fence-rows, etc
Datura Stramonium L. Waste places, less common than the next
Datura Tatula L. Waste places, very common.
SCROPHULARIACEAE :
Verbascum Thapsus L. Dry fields and roadsides, very common.
Verbascum Blattaria L. Open places, common. (Only the white-
flowered form.)
Linaria vulgaris Hill. Fields and roadsides, very common.
Scrophularia murilandica L. Fence-rows and borders of woods,
common.
Pentstemon hirsutus (L.) Willd. Dry, rocky hillsides; not common.
Pentstemon laevigatus Ait. Rich soil, infrequent.
Chelone glabra L. Low ground, not common.
Mimulus ringens L. Wet places, common.
Mimulus alatu^ Ait. With the last, but less common.
Conobea multifida (Michx.) Benth. On muddy river-shores, infre-
quent.
Ilysanthes dubia (L.) Bamhart. On river-shores, common.
Gratiola virginiana L. Muddy places, common.
Veronica Anagallis-aquatica L. Wet places, rather scarce.
Veronica serpyllifolia L. Damp grassy places, common.
Veronica peregrina L. Cultivated ground, common.
Veronica arvensis L. With the last, and equally common.
Gerardia flava L. Occasional in oak woods.
Gerardia tenuifolia Vahl. In a single station on the river-shore.
Pedicularis canadensis L. Moist banks on moraine.
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Plants of Boone County, Kentucky. 139
Orobanchaceae :
Epifagus virginiana (L.) Bart. Common in beech- woods.
Conopholis americana (L. f.) Wallr. In oak woods, scarce.
BiGNONIACEAE:
Tecoma radicans (L.) Juss. Common on river-banks.
Catalpa bignonioides Walt. Occasional in thickets near the river.
ACANTHACEAE:
Dianthera americana L. Gravelly river-shores, scarce.
Ruellia dlioaa Pursh. In dry soil, not common.
Ruellia strepens L. In rich soil, rather common.
Phrymaceae:
Phryma leptostachya L. Deep woods, not infrequent.
Plantaginaceae :
Plantago major L. Door-yards and waste places, abundant.
Plantago lanceolata L. In meadows, common.
Plantago Purshii R. & S. Sandy soil, not common.
Plantago aristata Michx. Dry soil, scarce.
Plantago virginica L. Sandy soil, not common.
Rubiaceae:
Galium Aparine L. Very common in thickets and fence-rows.
Galium circaezans Michx. In rich woods, not infrequent.
Galium asprellum Michx. Rich soil in thickets, not common.
Galium triflorum Michx. Rich woods, common.
Sperma^oce glabra Michx. A single station on gravelly river-shore.
Mitchella repens L. Dry woods, not common.
Cephalanthus occidentalis L. Common in wet places.
Hov^tonia purpurea L. Borders of woods, not common.
Caprifoliaceae :
Lonicera sempervirens L. In thickets, not common.
Symphoricarpos orbiculatu^ Moench. Open hillsides, locally abun-
dant.
Viburnum prunifolium L. Open woods, not common.
Sambucus canadensis L. In rich soil, common.
Valerianaceae:
Valeriana pauciflora Michx. Rich woods, scarce.
Valerianella radiata (L.) Dufr. In low ground, rare.
DiPSACACEAE:
Dipsacu^ sylvestris Huds. On barren hillsides, locally abundant.
CUCURBITACEAE:
Sicyos angulatus L. River-banks, common.
Echinocystis lobata (Michx.) T. & G. With the last, but less fre-
quent.
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140 Proceedings of Indiana Academy of Science.
Campanulacbae:
SpeciUaria perfoliata (L.) A. DC. In dry fields, common.
Campanula americana L. Borders of thickets in rich soil, common.
LOBELIACnBAE:
Lobelia cardinalis L. Thickets on river-shores, scarce.
Lobelia siphiliticfa L. Low ground, rather common.
Lobelia inflata L. Dry fields, common.
COMPOSITAE:
Vemonia altissima Nutt. Rich soil in pastures, common.
Elephantopus ca/rolinianus Willd. Low ground along streams, scarce.
Eupaiorium purpureum L. Low ground, common.
Eupatorium aerotinum Michx. Rich soil, rather common.
Eupaiorium perfoliatum L. Low ground, common.
Eupatorium urticaefolium Reichard. Rich woods, common.
Eupatorium coelestinum L. In rich soil, not infrequent.
Solidago caesia L. In woods, rare.
Solidago ulmifolia Muhl. Rocky oak woods, scarce.
Solidago lati folia L. In woods, rather common.
Solidago canadensis L. Roadsides and pastures, very common.
(Revision of this species since the list was first made makes
it probable that this should be referred to S. altissima L., accord-
ing to Mr. Deam.)
Solidago rupestris Raf. Rocky river-banks, rare.
Solidago serotina Ait. Borders of woods, rather scarce.
Solidago graminifolia (L.) Salisb. Open hillsides, infrequent
Aster divaricatus L. Woods, scarce.
Aster novae-anglia^ L. Stream-banks, scarce, but common in culti-
vation.
Aster patens Ait. Thickets, not frequent.
Aster Shortii Lindl. Wooded banks, not common.
Aster undulatv^ L. Thickets, rather frequent.
Aster cordifolius L. Woods, common.
Aster multiflorus Ait. Dry, open hillsides; common.
Aster vimineus Lam. Open ground, infrequent.
Aster prenanthoides Muhl. Along streams in woods, not common.
Aster umbellatus Mill. In thickets, scarce.
Erigeron pulchellu^ Michx. Moist banks, scarce.
Erigeron philadelphicus L. Rich soil, rather common.
Erigeron annuus (L.) Pers. An abundant weed in pastures.
Erigeron ramosus (Walt.) BSP. Common in fields and meadows.
Erigeron canadensis L. A very common weed.
Pluchea petiolata Cass. Occasional on river-shores.
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Plants of Boone County, Kentucky. 141
Antennaria plan tagini folia (L.) Richards. Dry soil, common.
(Revision of the original species would probably throw my
plant into A. fallow Greene, which, according to Mr. Deam, is very
common in Ind., while he has but one authentic record of A,
plantaginifolia as now understood.)
Gnaphalium polycephalum Michx. Dry soil, common.
Gnaphalium uliginosum L. Not infrequent on river-shores.
Inula Helenium L. An occasional escape to pastures, etc.
Polymnia canadensis L. Moist woods, common.
Polymnia canadensis L. var. radiata Gray. With the last, but much
less common.
Polymnia uvedalia L. Fence-rows and roadsides, not common.
Silphium trifoliatum L. Dry banks, infrequent.
Silphium perfoliatum L. In rich soil along streams, conmion.
Ambrosia trifida L. Abundant in rich soil.
Ambrosia artemisiifolia L. A very common weed.
Xanthium spinosuw, L. Occasional in waste places near the river.
Xanthium canadense Mill. Sandy shores and fields, very common.
Heliopsis helianthoides (L.) Sweet. Wooded banks, not frequent.
Heliopsis scabra Dunal. Open ground, more common than the last.
Eclipta alba (L.) Hassk. Muddy river-shores, common.
Rudbeckia hirta L. Occasional in grass-land.
Rudbeckia laciniata L. Thickets near river, rather infrequent.
Lepachys pinnata (Vent.) T. & G. In dry soil, not uncommon.
HelianthvLs annuus L. An occasional escape.
Helianthus microcephalus T. & G. In rocky oak woods, scarce.
Heliantkus tracheliifoliiis Mill. In thickets, rare.
Helianthus tuberosus L. An occasional escape.
Actinomeris altei-nifolia (L.) DC. Rich soil, common.
Bidens frondosa L. Low ground, common.
Bidens connata Muhl. Along streams, rather common.
Bidens cernua L. Wet places, common.
Bidens laevis (L.) BSP. River-shores.
(I have never felt that this was correct, because of being so
far out of range. Mr. Deam thinks my plant was B, aristosa
(Michx.) Britt., which occurs on river-banks in many parts of
Ind.)
Bidens bipinnata L. Rich, damp soil; common.
Bidens trichosperma (Michx.) Britt. Frequent on river-banks after
the great flood of 1884, but never found above high-water mark.
Galinsoga parviflora Cav. River-shores, scarce.
Helenium autumnale L. Low ground, common.
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142 Proceedings of Indiana Academy of Science.
Achillea Millefolium L. A frequent escape.
Antheims Cotula L. Abundant in barnyards, etc.
Chrysanthemum Leucanthemum L. var. pinnatifidum Lecoq & La-
motte. Common in waste places.
Tana>cetum vulgare L. var. crispum DC. An occasional escape.
Artemisia biennis WiHd. Not uncommon in waste places.
Artemisia annua L. River-banks and waste places, where it was
common before 1881, though not mentioned in the Fifth Edition
of Gray's Manual.
Erechtites hieraci folia (L.) Raf. Common in clearings.
Cacalia svuveolens L. Rich woods, rare.
Cacalia atripliei folia L. Woods, rather common.
Senecio aureus L. In meadows and thickets, locally common.
Arctium minus Bernh. An abundant and troublesome weed.
Cirsium lanceolatum (L.) Hill. Very common in pastures.
Cirsium discolor (Muhl.) Spreng. Rich soil, not common.
Cicharium Intybus L. Roadsides, not common.
Krigia amplexicaulis Nutt. Wooded banks, not infrequent.
Taraxacum officinale Weber. Yards and pastures, abundant.
Sonchus oleraceus L. Cultivated ground near dwellings, common.
Sonchus asper (L.) Hill. Roadsides and waste ground, common.
Lactuca integrifolia Bigel. In thickets, not uncommon.
Lactuca villosa Jacq. Rich soil, frequent.
Lactuca spicata (Lam.) Hitchc. With the last, and equally common.
Hieracium scabrum Michx. Common in dry woods.
Hieracium Gronovii L. Sandy soil near river, not common.
•The following species were collected in the vicinity of Hanover,
Jefferson County, Indiana, during the years 1887-1890, but were never
found in Boone County, owing perhaps to the complete change in geo-
logical horizon, although the two districts are less than sixty miles apart :
Pellaea atropurpurea (L.) Link.
Camptosorus rhizophyllus (L.) Link.
Oakesia sessilifolia (L.) Wats.
Muscari botryoides (L.) Mill.
Trillium recurvatum Beck.
Hypoxis hirsuta (L.) Coville.
Orchis spectabilis L.
Habenaria peramoena Gray.
Corallorhiza odontorhiza Nutt.
Aplectrum hyemale (Muhl.) Torr.
Saururus cemuus L.
Madura pomifera (Raf.) Schneider.
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Plants of Boone County, Kentucky. 143
Anemone quinque folia L.
Clematis Vioma L.
Magnolia acuminata L.
Sullivantia Stdlivantii (T. AG.) Britt.
Hamamelis virginiana L.
Liquidambar Styraciflua L.
Spiraea tomentosa L.
Pyrus arbutifolia (L.) L. f.
Amelanchier canadensis (L.) Medic.
Waldsteinia fragarioides (Michx.) Tratt.
Rhus canadensis Marsh.
Viola blanda Willd.
Aralia spinosa L.
Thaspium aureum Nutt.
Thaspium barbinode (Michx.) Nutl.
JJomus altemifolia L. f.
Obolaria virginica L.
Convolvulus spithamaeus L.
Lamium amplexicaule L.
Salvia lyrata L.
Orobanche uniflora L.
Hou^tonia caeruleq, L.
Triosteum perfoliatum L.
Trios teum angusti folium L.
Viburnum a^erifolium L.
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144 Proceedings of Indiana Academy of Science.
Plants New to Indiana. VIII.
Chas. C. Deam.
Specimens of the species reported are deposited in my herbarium
under the numbers given. The Gramineae were determined at the U. S.
Department of Agriculture; the Carices by K. K. Mackenzie; the'Carya
and Crataegus by C. S. Sargent; the Viola and Rubus by Brainerd;
the remainder were checked at Gray herbarium.
Pdspalum supinum Bosc.
Greene County, August 10, 1918. No. 26,090. Near the base of
a wooded beech slope about one and one-half miles west of Stanford.
Monroe County, August 9, 1918. No. 26,068. Growing on a slope
with Hedeoma pulegioides and Vemonia altissima in a pasture field
about three miles northeast of Blooming^n. Orange County, August
14, 1918. No. 26,231. In a clover field between Paoli and Mitchell.
Perry County, September 24, 1918. No. 26,735. Along a little used
wagon road over the crest of a wooded sandstone ridge about eight
miles southeast of Cannelton^
Andropogon Elliottii Chapmaru
Clark County, October 30, 1918. No. 26,865. On the Forest
Reserve in forest tract No. 16, near the border of the tract which
borders the wooded slope of the "Knobs."
Panicum yadkinense Ashe,
Perry County, June 4, 1918. No. 25,101. In Section 22 of Union
Township at the base of a black oak slope, associated with Hydro-
phyllum macrophyllum, Tradescantia virginiana, etc.
Zizania aquatica L,
Lagrange County, August 30, 1914. No. 15,045. In Pigeon River
about two miles east of Ontario. The base of the plant in water.
Steuben County, August 19, 1916. No. 20,913. In shallow water on
the north side of Lime Lake. This is the Zizania aquatica of Lin-
naeus, not of Authors.
Muhlenbergia glahriflorus Scribn.
Posey County, September 21, 1918. No. 26,645. Low, flat woods
on the south side of Half Moon Pond, which is about ten miles south-
west of Mount Vernon.
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Plants New to Indiana. 145
SpoToholtis canovirens Nctsh,
Elkhart County, September 13, 1918. No. 26,362. On a sandy
knoll along the roadside two and a half miles east of Bristol. Asso-
ciated with Andropogon scoparius, etc.
Agro8tis Elliottiana Schultes.
Floyd County, May 31, 1917. No. 23|298. In an alfalfa field
along the Ohio River about six miles west of New Albany. Lawrence
County, May 16, 1918. No. 24,808. About a quarter mile east of
Tunnelton in an open woods pasture on an exposed point of the high
bluff of White River. Associated with Sagina decumbens, Rumex
Acetosella, Poa pratensis, etc.
Poa autumnalis Muhl,
Clark County, May 11, 1913. No. 12,706. On the Forest Reserve
in a wooded ravine just north of forest tract No. 28. Jackson County,
May 15, 1918. No. 24,762. Growing in the shade in a flat woods
about five miles southwest of Seymour. Associated with Fagus,
Liquidamber, Nyssa sylvatica, Quercus Michauxii (Gray's Manual,
7th ed.), etc. Jennings County, May 14, 1918. No. 24,748. In a
flat woods about seven miles south of Vernon. In low ground with
Fagus, Liquidamber, Impatiens biflora. Podophyllum, etc.
Bromus commutatus Schrad,
Warrick County, June 11, 1918. No. 25,308. Common on the
sandy bank of the Ohio River about one and a half miles east of
Newburg.
Scleria oligantha Michx.
Perry County, June 3, 1918. No. 25,069. Frequent over a small
area on the dry, wooded slope of a spur of the sandstone ridge about
eight miles southeast of Cannelton. Associated with Quercus velu-
tina, Fagus, Fraxinus biltmoreana, Acer saccharum, etc.
Carex hormathodes var, Richii Femald.
Harrison County, June 4, 1917. No. 23,417. In a swampy woods
one and a quarter miles east of Palmyra. Associated with Carex
Buxbaumii, Carex lanuginosa, etc.
Carex Shriveri Britt.
Whitley County, June 19, 1917. No. 23,704. Moist, sandy shore
of the north side of New Lake, about ten miles northwest of Columbia
City.
Carya alba subcaridcea Sarg.
Posey County, September 20, 1911. No. 10,182. A large tree on
the east bank of the Cypress Swamp, about thirteen miles southwest
of Mount Vernon.
10—16668
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146 Proceedings of Indiana Academy of Science.
Carya Buckleyi arkansana Sarg.
Knox County, Augfust 28, 1916. No. 18,232. In the Knox sand
on the ridge just east of what was formerly a cypress swamp, at
Vollmer, or about two miles north of Decker.
Carya ovalis var, obcordata, fonna vestita Sarg,
Knox County, Octgber 5, 1917. No. 24,144. A very large tree in
a low woods bordering Dan's Pond, which is 14.3 miles southwest of
Decker.
Rynchospora comiculata (Lam.) Gray, var, interior Femald,
Harrison County, October 13, 1916. No. 22,407. In a swampy
woods one and a quarter miles east of Palmyra. Associated with
Carex louisianica, etc.
Polygonum exsertum SmxUl.
Greene County, October 2, 1917. No. 24,082. In low ground at
the edge of a field where it borders Horseshoe Pond, about three
miles southeast of Lyons. Associated with Chamaesyce Preslii, Eupa-
torium serotinum, Cyperus sp., etc.
Calycocarpum Lyoni (Pursh) NutL
Posey County, October 13, 1917. No. 24,323. Wooded border of
a slough about twelve miles southwest of Mount Vernon. Also noted
as common on the wooded bank of the east side of the cypress swamp
about thirteen miles southwest of Mount Vernon. Spenc^ County,
June 8, 1918. No. 25,210. In anthesis at this time. A common vine
in a slough about six miles southwest of Rockport, climbing trees
and shrubs to a height of eight to twelve feet. Noted also in Perry
County about eight miles southeast of Cannelton, but no specimen
was preserved.
Barbarea vema (Mill.) Aschers.
Jefferson County, May 1, 1918. No. 24,582. Frequent along the
roadside and rocky adjoining bluff of the Ohio River about two miles
west of Madison.
Crataegus arduennae Sargent.
Allen County, May 31, 1915. No. 15,834. A large tree on the
south bank of the St. Mary's River just south of Fort Wayne.
Crataegus conjuncta Sargent.
Wells County, May 12, 1915. No. 15,625. On the border of a
pond in a white oak woods on the south side of the lake in Jackson
Township.
Crataegus Dodgei Ashe.
Lagrange County, May 17, 1915. No. 15,662. Roadside, about
one mile northwest of Howe. Wells County, May 12, 1915. No.
15,624. A tree ten feet high and one and a quarter inches in diam-
Digiti
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Plants New to Indiana. 147
eter breast-high on the border of a pond in a white oak woods on
the south side of the lake in Jackson Township.
Ruhus Bailey anus x Enslenii.
Vanderburg County, May 10, 1917. No. 22,894. In clay soil on
the slope of a roadside cut about one mile west of Darmstadt.
Lathyrus latifolius L,
Lawrence County, August 13, 1918. No. 26,215. In the vicinity
of the site of the former dwelling house and in the deep adjoining
woods on the Donaldson farm, about three miles southeast of Mitchell.
There has been no dwelling here for at least fifteen years, and the
plant has spread into the orginal forest, where several large colonies
were noted. It is to be noted that Vinca minor has invaded the
original forest here and forms a complete mat over several acres
and is fast spreading in the dense forest.
Viola hirsutula x missouriensis.
Clark County, May 30, 1917. No. 23,261. On the slopes of a wooded
ridge two miles northwest of Bennettsville. Associated with Quercus
Prinus (Gray's Man., 7th ed.), Quercus velutina, Quercus alba,
Pinus virginiana, Houstonia caerulea, etc. Prefers to grow in hard
clay in exposed places.
Viola missouriensis Greene,
Clark County, May 30, 1917. No. 23,261. On a wooded slope two
miles northwest of Bennettsville, associated with the preceding.
Daviess County, May 3, 1917. No. 22,667. In a low, flat woods one
mile west of Plainville. Also along the roadside six miles southeast
of Elnora. Gibson County, May 6, 1917. No. 22,809. In a low, flat
woods three miles northwest of Patoka. Greene County, May 2,
1917. No. 22,654. In alluvial soil along a creek four miles north-
west of Bloomfield. Knox County, May 6, 1917. No. 22,741. In a
low woods on the border of Claypole Pond about eleven miles south-
west of Decker. Associated on the border of Claypole Pond with
Quercus palustris, Ulmus americana, Liquidamber, Phlox divaricata,
etc. Owen County, May 1, 1917. No. 22,622. Alluvial bank of Eel
River on the road between Coal City and Worthington. Vigo County,
May 12, 1917. No. 22,934. Alluvial soil along the bank of Wabash
River, three miles west of Prairieton.
Viola missouriensis x sororia,
Knox County, May 3, 1917. No. 22,681. In a sandy black and
white oak woods two miles east of Bicknell. Also taken in a sandy
black and white oak woods four miles southeast of Vincennes. Sul-
livan County, May 11, 1917. No. 22,913. In a wooded creek bottom
two miles west of Sullivan. Tippecanoe County, May 16, 1917. No.
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148 Proceedings of Indiana Academy of Science.
23,061. Frequent on the white oak slope of the Wabash River terrace
just north of the Soldiers* Home. Vanderburg County, May 10, 1917.
No. 22,895. In a black and white oak woods one mile west of Dann-
stadt.
Viola missouriensis x triloba.
Daviess County, May 3, 1917. No. 22,679. Low woods one mile
west of Plainville. Abundant here and associated with Ulmus ameri-
cana, Betula nigrra, Quercus bicolor. Phlox divaricata, Claytonia vir-
grinica, Cardaraine bulbosa, etc. Greene County, May 2, 1917. No.
22,640. Associated with oak at the top of a beech slope about ten
miles southeast of Bloomfield. Also in a sandy woods one mile north
of Newberry. Associated with Fagus, Sassafras, Quercus alba,
Quercus velutina. Podophyllum, Polygonatum biflorum, etc. Knox
County, May 6, 1917. No. 22,733. In a low woods bordering Claypole
Pond, about eleven miles southwest of Decker. Lawrence County,
June 8, 1917. No. 23,556. In an old fallow field about three miles
southeast of Mitchell. Associated with Rubus Enslenii, Panicom
commutatum. Sassafras, etc.
Viola viarum Pollard,
Knox County, May 6, 1917. No. 22,719. In moist, sandy soil
along the railroad, about four miles south of Vincennes. Closely
associated with Viola affinis and Viola sororia.
Decodon verticillatua laevigatus T, & G,
Jackson County, August 16, 1913. No. 14,025. In a bog about
a half mile south of Chestnut Ridge. Lagrange County, August 29,
1914. No. 14,979. On the west shore of Twin Lakes. Lake County.
August 23, 1915. On the east shore of Cedar Lake. Owen County,
September 22, 1917. No. 23,874. On the shore of Stogdill Pond,
about four miles southeast of Spencer.
Oenothera triloba Nutt,
Jefferson County, May 1, 1918. No. 24,580. Common on a
washed, sterile, sparsely wooded slope of the bluff of the Ohio Rhrcr
just east of Madison. Associated with Opuntia Rafinesque, Plantago
virgfinica, etc. A specimen of this species was sent me from Wash-
ington County in June, 1917, from near Salem, by W. H. Rudder.
Oenothera triloba parvifiora Wats, was reported in Coulter's Cata-
logue for Blatchley from Monroe County, but Blatchley's original
manuscript of the flora of Monroe County does not give this species,
but doei give Oenothera biennis parvifiora. In Coulter's Catalogue
the species was reported under a revised nomenclature, and it i*
believed an error was made in transferring it. Therefore it is here
proposed to drop from our flora Oenothera triloba var. parviflora,
which is as yet known only from the area west of the Mississippi.
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Plants New to Indiana. 149
Oxydendrum arboreum (L) DC.
VevTY County, June 3, 1918. No. 25,071. A few trees on the
lower slope of a beech-sugrar maple spur of the sandstone wooded
ridge about eight miles southeast of Cannelton. The largest tree
was about six inches in diameter breast-high and about forty feet
high. This species was closely associated with Fagus, Cornus florida,
Nyssa sylvatica, etc.
Styrax americana Lam.
Posey County, June 15, 1918. No. 25,420. Frequent in a swampy
place in a fiat woods about ten miles southwest of Mount Vernon.
A shrub four to six feet high. Associated with Cephalanthus occi-
dentalb and the next.
Trachelospermum difforvie (Walt.) A. Gray.
Posey County, June 15, 1918. No. 25,442. A vine climbing a
button-bush to a height of six feet, in a swampy place in a low, fiat
woods about ten miles southwest of Mount Vernon. Closely asso-
ciated with the last. This plant was detected by the fragrance of
its flowers, which could easily be smelled for a rod distant.
Myoaotis micrantha Pallas.
Parke County, May 24, 1918. No. 25,037. A common weed about
the Administration Building in Turkey Run State Park.
H^deoma hispida Pursh.
Putnam County, June 24, 1915. No. 1,094. Collected by Earl J.
Grimes in a barren pasture field four miles east of Russellville.
Uncommon.
lAnaria minor (L.) Desf.
Vigo County, July 5, 1918. No. 25,791. Frequent in ballast along
the Vandalia Railroad at the Haeckland switch, about four miles
southeast of Atherton.
Veronica Toumifortii Gmelin.
Wells County, July 16, 1917. No. 23,761. Common in the lawn
of Geo. T. Kocher on South Main street, Bluffton. Also common in
a lawn on East Cherry street, Bluffton. This weed was kept under
observation in 1918, and it appears that the lawn mower does not
stop its progress, and it should be regarded as an aggressive weed.
TJtricula/ria cleistogam^i (Gray) Britt.
This record was founded on a sheet in the Schneck herbarium
which is now in my herbarium. I had the specimen examined by
Dr. J. H. Barnhart, a specialist on this genus, and he says it is
Utricularia gibba; that it is small and depauperate because it devel-
oped late in the season. It is here proposed to drop this species from
our flora.
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150 Proceedings of Indiana Academy of Science.
Lonicera japonica Thunb.
Clark County, September 7, 1915. No. 18,770. Roadside half a
mile south of Charleston. In this county, near Sellersburg, this
species was noted where it had invaded a clearing and had formed
a complete mat over an acre. It climbed all of the shrubs of the
area and was bending them down. This vine is already recognized
in several counties as a great pest. Floyd County, June 8, 1913.
No. 13,216. Common along the roadside about three miles west of
New Albany. Jefferson County, May 28, 1911. Frequent on the
rocky bluffs of the Ohio River between Madison and North Madison.
Perry County, May 19, 1918. No. 24,910. Sandy roadside two and
a half miles north of Tobinsport. A veritable pest here. Posey
County, July 5, 1915. No. 16,852. Roadside one mile northeast of
Poseyville.
Aster macrophyllus var, ianthinus (Burgess) FemalcL
Clark County, September 12, 1917. No. 23,794. On a white oak
ridge on the Forest Reserve.
Eupatorium incamatum Walt.
Perry County, September 24, 1918. No. 26,732. Along a woods
road over the crest of the wooded sandstone ridgre about eight miles
southeast of Cannelton. Noted also near a spring at the base of the
bluffs of the Ohio River about six miles east of Cannelton.
Taraxicum erythrospermum Anderz,
I thought this species had been reported many years ago, but I
find no mention of it. It no doubt is found in lawns and fields in
all parts of the State. I have specimens from the following counties:
Grant County, May 23, 1916. No. 19,804. Roadside nine miles east
of Marion. Huntington County, May 24, 1916. No. 19,774. Common
in an open woods pasture two miles south of Mount Etna. Jasper
County, May 8, 1916. No. 19,419. Abundant along the Pennsylvania
Railroad about two miles east of Goodland. Newton County, May 8,
1916. No. 19,397. Frequent in a blue-grass pasture about one and
a half miles east of Brook. Noble County, May 12, 1916. No. 19,624.
Moist, sandy shore of the east side of Diamond Lake. Porter County,
May 10, 1916. No. 19,496. In sandy soil along roadside two and a
half miles south of Valparaiso. Randolph County, May 16, 1916.
No. 19,630. Abundant in beech woods pasture five miles north of
Winchester. St. Joseph County, May 10, 1916. No. 19,548. Along
roadside eight miles west of South Bend. Wells County, May 23,
1916. No. 19,814. In an open woods about three miles south of
Mount Zion. Noted also in many places in the county and very
common in lawns. In many places it is more common than the other
species of dandelion, especially in sandy soil.
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Analyses of One Hundred Soils in Allen County,
Indiana.
R. H. Carr and V. R. Phariis, Purdue University.
The soils of Indiana present about as varied types and are as diflFer-
ent in fertility as any that can be found. They include such famous
areas as the sand dunes about Valparaiso, the peppermint fields of
Mishawaka, and the limestone country about Bedford. There is quite a
difference in soils not only between neighboring: counties but even be-
tween adjacent farms, differences which the casual observer seldom
notices, because to him all soils look alike and are "just dirt."
Calung the "Soil Doctor."
Soils are usually studied only after a series of failures of wheat,
clover, etc., and the question naturally arises, "Why can I not grow
crops like father used to?" It is at this stage of the soil's depletion
that the "soil doctor" is called often to prescribe for the sick soil. The
ability of the doctor to diagnose the case through analysis has been
overestimated somewhat in the popular mind. Nevertheless it usually
g^ves the best answer as to why the wheat or clover failed to do well.
Of all the soils investigated in this county by the writers, it was found
that, where the physical conditions permitted, the crop yield was closely
related to the amount of organic matter and plant food present, as shown
in the graphs which follow.
Value of Soil Analysis. "*
One reason for the questioning by many scientific men the value of
analysis as a means of measuring fertility, is the varying results in
pot and field work and the inability to correlate or interpret the results
with the known composition of the soil. The conflicting results are
often due to artificial surrounding conditions or to the use of seed of
variable vitality, etc. Hence it was the puri)ose of this investigation to
visit the growing plant, especially com, in its natural home and there
seek the reason of its good growth or the cause of its failure.
Plan op Investigation.
All the soils studied were secured in Allen County. They are of
glacial origrin, 70% belonging to the Miami series and 18.5% to the
(151)
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152 Proceedings of Indiana Academy of Science,
fir- •/ i*
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Analyses of One Hundred Sails.
153
ClT<i# series. The samples, 100 in all, were taken from all parts of the
county and from the various soil types. Many conditions were noted
when the samples were taken (September, 1917), as the condition of
the crops, prevalent weeds, trees, etc. Information as to the use of
lime fertilizer, crop yield, was obtained from the man in charge of the
farm. The following data was obtained by analysis: First, amount
of volatile orgranic matter; second, per cent of phosphorus; third, per
cent of nitrogen; fourth, presence of carbonates and acidity of the soil
to litmus paper. The data from these soils is recorded in the tables
which follow:
Discussion of Tables.
It will be noticed from the tables that there are many soils of this
county quite high in organic matter, only 11% being below 4%, while
45 Vr range from 4 to T'^/ ; SI 7c range from 7 to IbVc, and 6% are above
that amount. It might be expected that this high organic content would
carry a considerable amount of nitrogen, and this was found to be the
case. Every per cent of increase in org^anic matter carried with it an
increase of 519 pounds of nitrogen and 72 pounds of phosphorus per
acre. This is much less phosphorus than is to be expected in these
soils, and in most cases they would respond profitably to an application
of that fertilizer. It is shown in Charts 1 and 2 that nitrogen has more
to do with high com yield than phosphorus. There is a serious lack of
calcium carbonates in over half of the soils tested; 559^ are acid to
litmus. This condition makes a good clover stand nearly impossible
and is the main cause of "clover sickness" frequently reported.
TABLE I.
Organic Matter 0 to 4%- Nitrogen and PkoaphoruB Content.
Sample
Per Cent.
Organic
Matter
Lbs. per
Per Cent.
Lbs. per
Per Cent.
Lbe. per
No.
Acre
Nitrogen
Acre
Phosphorus
Acre
25
2.19
43.800
.0714
1.428
.0827
1.654
3«
4.00
80,000
.1834
3.668
.0781
1.562
as"
1.66
33.200
.2226
4.452
.0660
1.320
14"
1 75
35.000
.2002
4.004
.0946
1,892
16*
3.40
68.000
.1106
2.212
.0410
1,820
17*
4.00
80,000
.2122
4,244
.0990
1,978
235
3.81
76,200
.0840
1,680
.0754
1,508
27°
3.66
73,200
.1414
2,828
.0722
1,444
285
4.01
80,200
.0980
1.960
.0930
1.860
45*
3.72
74,400
.2525
5.a50
.0740
1.480
475"
3.47
69,400
68.433
.2240
4.480
3,667
.0800
1.600
1.696 a ve.
This ^roup oonstitutes 11% of total.
•—Acid condition.
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154 Proceedings of Indiana Academy of Science.
TABLE II.
Organic Matter 4 to 6%. Nitrogen and Pkoapkorut Content of Tkit Group.
Sample
Per Cent.
Organic
Matter
Lbe.per
Per Cent.
Lbe. per
Per Cent.
Lbs. per
No
Acre
Nitrogen
Acre
Phosphorus
Acre
V '
AM
91.200
.1792
3.584
.0822
1,644
78
5.04
100. OOO
.1064
2.128
.0647
1.291
ir
4.70
94.000
.4270
8,540
.0585
1.170
13
4.80
96,000
.2534
5,064
.1131
2.262
198'
4 29
85.800
.3038
6.076
.0552
1.104
26«
4.97
99.400
.0602
1.204
.0808
1.616
32'
4.91
98.200
.1570
3,140
.0848
1.696
33
4 53
90.600
.1428
2,856
.0808
1.616
35'
4.91
98,200
.2030
4.060
.0849
1.688
36'
4.11
82.200
.1470
2.940
.0808
1.616
378
4.91
98.200
.1498
2.996
.0808
1,616
418"
4.43
88,600
.1939
3.878
.0740
1.480
Sfts"
4.78
95.600
.1386
2.772
.0657
1.314
658
4.75
95.000
.0798
1.596
.0983
1.966
148*
4.03
80,600
.0900
1.800
.0552
1,104
92,914
•
4.312
1,671 ai*.
a — Subsoil. This group con.stitutoe 15% of total.
*— Acid condition.
TABLE III.
Organic Matter 5 to 6%. Nitrogen and Pkoapkorua Content of Group.
Sample
Per Cent.
Organic
Matter
Lbs. per
Per Ctfnt.
Lbs. per
Per Cent.
Lbs. per
No.
Acre
Nitrogen
Acre
Phosphorus
Acre
9'
5.49
109.800
.1624
3,248
.0754
1,508
15
5.17
103.400
.2688
5,376
.0768
1.536
18"
5.72
114.400
.1909
3,818
.0916
1.832
20'
5.20
104,000
.1764
3.528
.0935
1.870
31"
5 21
104.200
.1796
3.592
.0889
1.778
34*
5.57
111,400
.1746
3.482
.0795
1.590
358"
5.60
112.000
.2058
4.116
.0687
1.374
388
5.22
104,400
.1232
2.464
.0970
1.940
62"
5.04
100,800
.2366
4.732
.0949
1.898
648
5.14
102,800
.1274
2.548
.1360
2.720
67"
5 41
108,200
.1092
2,184
.1104
2.304
67s
5.21
104.200
.0952
1,904
.1063
2.126
44"
5.91
118.200
.1890
3.780
.0957
1.914
53
5.46
109,200
.3052
6.104
.1582
3.164
25"
5.23
104,600
108.018
.1820
2,640
3.658
.0808
1.616
1,764 »▼«.
8 — Subsoil. This group constitutes 15% of total.
" — Acid condition
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Analyses of One Hundred Soils.
155
TABLE rv.
Organic Matter 6 to 7%. Nitrogen and Phoapkorut Content of Group.
Sample
Per Cent.
Oricanic
Matter
Lbs. per
Percent.
Lbs. per
Per Cent.
Lbs. per
No.
Acre
Nitroeen
Acre
Phosphorus
Acre
2»
6.08
121.600
.2226
4,452
.1147
2.294
to
6.33
126.600
.1008
2,016
.0741
1.482
23*
6.25
125.000
.2184
4.368
.1066
2.132
26*
6.99
139,800
.0644
1.288
.1082
2.164
60b*
6.49
129.800
.2100
4.200
.0902
1.804
«2b-
6.06
121,200
.1848
3,696
.0687
1,374
64
6.00
120.000
.1604
3.388
.1360
2.720
70'
6.93*
138,600
.1484
2.968
.1010
2,020
41
6.63
132.600
.3164
6.328
.0701
1,402
43*
6.62
132.400
.2254
4.508
.2760
5,520
438*
6.89
137,800
.0840
1,680
.0625
1,250
51 •
6.95"
139,000
.1890
3.780
.0943
1,886
52*
6.77«
135,400
.1512
3.024
.1010
2,020
55
6.10
122.000
.2380
4.760
.1002
2,004
81*
6.39
127.800
130.309
.2212
4,424
3.935
.0833
1.266
2,312
8 — SubBoil. This group constitutes 15% of total.
• — Acid condition.
TABLE V.
Organic Matter 7 to 9%. Nitrogen and Pkoapkorua Content of Group.
Sample
Per Cent.
Organic
Matter
Lbs. per
Per Cent.
Lbs. per
Per Cent.
Lbe.per
No.
Acre
Nitrogen
Acre
Phoephorus
Acre
7"
7.19
143.800
.3136.
6.270
.0016
1.832
19
7.37
147.400
.2828
5,656
21
7.46
149.200
.2590
5.180
.1065
2.130
28-
7 45
149,000
.2576
5.152
.0983
1.966
65-
7.63'
152.600
.1974
3.948
.1320
2,640
49'
7.78-
155,600
.2766
5.532
.0746
1.492
50
7.07-
141,400
.2100
4,200
.0956
1,912
8
8.79
175.800
.3094
6.188
.0867
1,734
4s
8.67
173.400
.2026
4.052
.1119
2.238
47
8.57'
171,400
.3220
6.440
.1015
2.030
52b
8.84'
176,800
.0826
1.652
.0741
1,482
54s
8.97°
179.400
.1604
3.208
.0680
1.360
56
8.46'
169,200
.2716
5.432
.0956
1.912
708
8.63
172,600
.0840
1.680
.0875
1,750
728
8.18*
163.600
.0826
1,652
.0875
1.760
22*
8.29
165.800
.2926
5.852
.1441
2,882
24*
8.28
165,600
.2226
4.452
.1199
2.398
29
8.67
171,400
158.323
.2828
5,656
5,366
.0983
1,966
2,074 ave.
8— Subsoil. This group constitutes 18% of total.
" — Acid omdition.
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156 Proceedings of Indiana Academy of Science.
TABLE VI.
Organic Matter 9 to 11%. Nitrogen and Pkotpkorut CotUetU.
s— Sub!>oil. Thifl group constitutes 10% of the totul.
"—Acid condition.
TABLE Vn.
Organic Matter Jl to 15%. Nitrogen and Phosphorus Content.
-Subsoil. This group constitutes 9% of total
-1,000.000 lbs. per acre 6^3 ms.
—Acid condition
TABLE VIH.
Organic Matter from 15 to 79%. Nitrogen and Phosphorus Content 0/ Group.
s — Sub'<oiI. This group constitutes 6% of total.
♦— 1,0(X).000 lbs. per acre 6N ma.
* — Acid condition.
Sample
Percent.
Organic
Matter
Lbs. per
Per Cent.
Lbs. per
Per Cent.
Lbtper
No.
Acre
Nitrogen
Acre
Phosphorus
Acre
5"
9.62
192.400
.3127
6.254
1322
2.644
6
9 10
182.000
.3746
7.492
.0970
1.940
39
9.60
192.000
.2940
5.880
.1227
2.454
54
9.29
195,800
.2912
5,824
.1536
3.072
38
9.F0
198.000
.3312
6.624
.1146
2,292
4
10 32
206.400
.5012
10.024
.1350
2.718
67'
10.00
200,000
.3808
7.616
.1110
2,220
60
10.34
206,800
.3038
6,076
.1150
2.300
72
10.44
208.800
.1876
3,752
.1027
2,QU
50s
10.10
202.000
196,911
.1218
2.435
6,615
.0647
1,294
2.410 svt
Sample
Percent.
Organic
Matter
Lbs. per
Per Cent.
Lbs. per
1 Per Cent.
Lha per
No.
Acre
Nitrogen
Acre
' Phosphorus
1
Acre
40
11.07
221,400
.3780
7,560
1
.1165
2,3»
48
11.07
221.400
.1386
2.772
i .1038
2.076
66
11.15
223.000
.2562
5,124
1 .1027
2.064
58
12.07
241,400
.2786
5,572
' .0916
1.832
63«
12.21
244.200
.2968
5,936
' .1388
2.776
lOs
12.62
252,400
.3248
6.496
1 .0983
1.966
59
12.86
257,200
.3858
7.716
' . 1616
3.233
46
13.65
273.000
.4998
9,996
1 .2810
5.620
30
14.26
285.200
.4284
8.568
6.655
.1145
1
1
2.290
245,850*
2, 779 ave.
Sample
No
Per Cent.
Organic
Matter
Lbs. per
Acre
Per Cent.
Nitrogen
Lbs. per
Acre
Per Cent.
Phosphorus
Lb«. per
Acre
698
10
69
71
12
718"
17.80
21.45
24.82
66 86
70.36
78.25
356.000
429.000
496.400
668.600
703.600
782.500
.0596
.4656
.6496
.5936
.9184
.4172
1.192
9.312
12,992
5.926
9.184
4.172
9.356
.1037
.1065
.1621
.1017
.1555
.0855
2.074
2.130
3.242
1.017
1.5&5
855
674. 400*
l.OM
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Analyses of One Hundred Soils.
157
Plofc I
R&lahon of hifrocfen ib Crop
Yield
-
A
*»
r ^.
-J^^ ^
r ■ -0^
u vV4 r
j'^V_ (t/
.-, 4
^ -
.1
t
j
0 »*iS ^ * ^ X S T 8 5 to 11 M
Digiti
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158 Proceedings of Indiana Academy of Science.
Plate E
Relation of Rho9f>horu» to Crop
Yield
&
2
'
w
•
i
^
-v
' A
\l -
"^
---J
..^
I
«•> /
yv
"^
■*
/
H
p
n
J
7
]2
«««o
Pct/ncfj /^**' Acre
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Analyses of One Hundred Soils,
159
Plate m
Ret of ton of Organic Ma#er +o Yield
yJGPoo 9oo- M50' eoo' rsc.o
'P9uf9d9 tfyir/y/c Mmifer Pitr \%r^
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160 Proceedings of Indiana Academy of Science.
The Relation of Nitrogen, Phosphorus and Organic
Matter to Corn Yield in Elkhart County, Indiana.
R. H. Carr and Leroy Hoffman, Purdue University.
The fertility of the soil is so closely related to the progrress of a
community that any considerable increase in the productiveness of the
soil from any cause is reflected in greater community prosperity. It is
therefore important to study the soil and its needs.
Invoice of the Soil.
Just as an invoice of the stock of goods in a store aids the merchant
in estimating his resources, so an invoice of the plant food in the soil
enables the farmer to get a rating of his possible crop yield and enables
him to plan intelligently for future soil improvement. A supply of plant
food does not necessarily insure a good crop yield, as there are present
sometimes counteracting conditions. Examples of such are found in
Samples 1, 10 and 51. But these are usually evident, and the data to
be presented shows that crops are generally produced where there is
present sufficient plant food.
Release of the Soil's Food Supply.
The soil is composed of small fragments of rock particles mixed with
more or less organic matter in various stages of decay. Only a small
part of the plant food in the rock particles is available at any time.
It is thought that the food elements contained in these rock particles
alone, are not liberated fast enough from year to year to produce a
paying crop. This is not so, however, with that stored in organic mat-
ter, especially the fresh organic matter, which not only releases its plant
food rather rapidly, through bacterial action, but also aids materially
in freeing that tied up in the rock particles of the soil. In view of this
important part played by soil organic matter, it was thought best to
classify all soils collected according to the amount of organic matter
they contained.
Plan of Invoicing.
The samples of soil (total 57) from eleven soil types were collected
late in September, 1917, in order to estimate more accurately the pos-
Digiti
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The Relation of Nitrogen.
161
sible com yield of that year. Much data was obtained relative to fer-
tilizer treatment, kinds of weeds prevalent, the use of limestone, and
especially the approximate crop yield as estimated by the man in charge
of the farm. The following determinations were made on soil samples:
First, total organic matter; second, total nitrogen; third, total phos-
phorus ; fourth, presence of carbonates and acidity to litmus paper. The
tables which follow will give a partial composition in per cent and
pounds per acre (6.66 ins. 2,000,000 lbs.), together with the yield of
com per acre where the samples were secured:
TABLE I.
Content of Nitrogen, Pkoapkcrua and Acre Yield. Otot% Organic Matter.
Sample
Bushels of
Per Cent.
Organic
Matter
Lbs. per
Per Cent.
Lbs. per
Per Cent.
Lbe.per
No.
Corn
Acre
Nit.
Acre
Phoe.
Acre
32
18
1.75
35.000
.095
1.910
.062
1,242
33
0
1.32
26.400
.070
1.400
.079
1.580
34
0
.99
19.800
.039
785
.073
1.460
35
10
1.47
29.400
.030
612
.116
2.322
14
27.660
1.177
1.661 ave.
TABLE IL
Content of Nitrogen, Pkoapkonu and Acre Yield, t to J^%\Organic Matter.
Sample
No.
Bushels of
Com
Per Cent.
Orsnnic
Matter
Lbs. per
Acre
Per Cent.
Nit.
Lbs. per
Acre
Per Cent.
Phoe.
Lbs. per
Acre
2x
13x
14
16x
15x
18
26z
27x8
35v
39x
.56
5V8
30
40
35
40
35
40
15
2.53
3.12
3.36
3.25
3.62
3.48
3.30
2.58
2.51
3.67
2.23
3.79
50,600
62.400
67.200
65,000
72.400
69.600
66.0(X)
51,600
50,200
73.400
44.600
75.800
62,400
.105
.113
.110
.101
.140
.105
.091
.073
.066
.105
.087
.157
2.100
.210
4.212
2,267
.098
1.960
2.204
.135
2,700
2.030
.078
1,666
2.800
.089
1,782
2.100
.108
2.160
1.820
.012
2.056
1.466
.124
2.480
1.330
.135
2,700
2.100
.129
2,592
1.750
.480
2,970
3,150
.132
2.656
2.093
2.486 ave.
X — Soil acid.
V — ^Virgin soil,
s — Subwil.
11—16568
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162 Proceedings of Indiana Academy of Science.
^^
Reproduction of Soil Biap made by U. 8. Bureau of Soils of Klkhart- County, showing arcan of difTerent type and
places where samples were taken.
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The Relation of Nitrogen.
163
TABLE III.
Content of Nitrogen, Phoaphorus and Acre Yield. 4 to 6% Organic Matter.
Sample
BushelB of
Per Cent.
Organic
Matter
Lbs. per
Per Cent.
Lbs. per
Per Cent.
Lbs. per
No.
Corn
Acre
Nit.
Acre
Phos.
Acre
3
40
4.63
02.600
.140
2.800
.135
2,700
9b
4.03
80,600
.077
1,540
2,160
.095
1.906
12
20
4 73
94.600
.108
.113
2.268
25z
35
4.53
90.600
.152
3,050
.116
2,322
40x
40
4.46
89.200
.140
2,800
.243
4,860
45z
30
4.08
81.600
.098
1.860
.078
1,586
46z
50
4.89
97.800
.124
2.485
113
2,278
47x
30
4 70
94,000
.150
3.000
.086
1,728
53
4 53
90.600
82,000
098
1,900
.107
2,140
54
40
4.10
.097
1,942
.103
2,060
35.5
89,360
2.359
2.385 aye.
X— Acid roil,
s — Subeoil.
TABLE rV.
Content of Nitrogen, Phoaphorus and Acre Yield. 6 to 8% Organic Matter.
Sample
No
Bushels of
Com
Per Cent.
Organic
Matter
Lbs. per
Acre
Per Cent.
Nit.
Lbs. per
Acre
Per Cent.
PhoB.
Lbs. per
Acre
4
6z
17v
35
35
5.20
6.45
5.08
5.94
5.71
5.75
5.85
5.75
5.01
5.90
104,000
100.000
101,600
118.800
114,200
116,000
117.000
115.000
100,200
118,000
111.280
.161
.100
.186
.141
.098
.122
.175
.129
.119
.144
3.220
2.000
3,720
2.834
1,960
2,450
3,450
2,580
2,380
2,880
2.748
.221
.099
.108
.121
.129
.162
.189
.421
.087
.119
4.428
2.000
2,160
24
36z
41x
49
50
52
40
0
50
60
30 .
2.430
2,592
3,240
3,780
4,212
1.755
55
45
42.14
2.380
2,898 a ve.
X— Acid
V — ^Virgi
soil,
nsoil.
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164 Proceedings of Indiana Academy of Science.
TABLE V.
Content of Nitrogen^ Pkotphorua and Acre Yield. 6 to 8% Organic Matter.
Sample
BushelB of
Per Cent.
Organic
Matter
Lb«. per
Percent.
Lbs. per
Per Cent.
Lbeper
No.
Cora
Acre
Nit.
Acre
Ph06.
AciT
6
50
7.20
144.000
.210
4.200
.145
2.916
7
75
7.05
141.000
.252
5.040
.272
5.454
8
35
7.10
142.000
.171
3.420
.094
1.890
IQx
15
6.60
132,000
.157
3,140
.105
2.106
22x
40
6.87
137.400
.157
3,150
.183
3.672
2ta
15
6.13
122.600
.098
1.969
.094
1,880
30v
7.02
140.400
.119
2.380
.113
2,278
37x
45
6.10
122,000
.132
2,650
.188
3.760
38|
30
6.12
122.400
.165
3,305
.097
1,944
421
55
7.39
147.800
.192
3.840
154
2.916
Iz
0
7.46
149,200
.260
5.200
.270
5.400
31x
35
7.qp
141,200
.140
2.800
.143
2.862
48
40
7.11
142.200
.210
4.200
.124
2.483
40.45
137,200
3.484
3.043 ave.
X— Acid soil.
V — Virgin soil.
TABLE VI.
Content of Nitrogen, Pkoepkonig and Acre Yield. 8 to 10% Organic Matter.
Sample
No.
BiuhelB of
Cora
Per Cent.
Organic
Matter
Lbs. per
Acre
Percent.
Nit.
Lbs. per
Acre
Per Cent.
Phoe.
Lbs. per
Acre
llx
21
23
65
80
55
66.6
8.52
8.37
8.35
170,400
167.400
167,000
168.233
.218
.252
.226
5,260
5.040
4.524
4.941
.116
.216
.197
2.322
4.320
3.942
3.52S ave.
X— Add
»oU.
TABLE VII.
Content of Nitrogen, Phoaphorua and Acre Yield. 10 to 16% Organic Matter.
Sample
No
BushelB of
Cora
Percent. t h« n<.r
Organic ^Acrf
Matter ^^^«
Per Cent.
Nit.
Lbe. per
Acre
Percent.
PhOB.
Lbeper
Acre
43
44
51x
60
65
0
10.04
13.00
12.54
200,800
260.000
250,800
237.200
.297
.267
.434
5.950
5,346
8.680
6.659
.180
.240
.259
3.780
4.800
5.184
4.588 ave.
X — ^Acid soil.
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The Relation of Nitrogen,
165
TABLE VIII.
Content of Nitrogen, Pkospkorut and Acre Yield. 15 to 85% Organic Matter,
Sample
No.
Bushela of 1 ^w?!?^ Ll>«. por*
0-on« ; ^ter Acre
Per Cent.
Nit.
Lbs. per
Acre
Per Cent. Lbs. per
Phos Acre
19x
20x
Onions 78.16
Onions 81 18
781,800*
811.800
2.800
3.010
28,000
30.100
29.050
.398
.426
3,980
4.260
,
796,700
4.120 Bve.
•— Wt. muck soil, 1,000.000 lbs. per acre 6 ^s ma.
X — Arid soil.
Discussion of Results.
About 50% of the soils of Elkhart County are of the Miami loam
and Miami sandy loam types, and about 279^ are of the Plainfield sandy
loam type. These soils are rather low in organic matter and 51% are
acid. The crop yield as given by the man in charge of the farm and
corroborated as to the possible yield when the samples were secured
bears a close relation to the organic matter present, and this in turn is
closely associated with the amounts of nitrogen and phosphorus present.
There were only three samples — 1, 10 and 51 — which were exceptions
to the general- rule that high plant food content equals good com yield.
Sample 1 is a greenish ferrous iron soil turning brown when exposed
to air on plowing. Sample 10 is a sandy soil, low in potassium. There
may be other causes also for the com on this soil turning yellow when
it is about two or three feet high. The reason for the poor yield of
Sample 51 has not been investigated. Summarizing the data in Tables
1-6, relating to plant food content and corn yield, it is noted that the
difference in yield between the 0-2% and the 8-10% organic matter
averages 25.6 bushels. Using this figure as a standard for organic
matter increase, it is shown that on average field conditions for every
increase of 2,672 pounds of organic matter, 71.6 pounds of nitrogen and
35.7 pounds of phosphorus per acre (2,000,000 pounds) there is an
increase of one bushel of corn.
Digiti
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166 Proceedings of Indiana Academy of Science,
Flame Reactions op Thallium.
Jacob Papish, Purdue University.
The terms spectra of the first and of the second order were given by
Pliiker and HittorT to what are known now as band and as line spectra.
Mitscherlich' proved that the channeling of the band spectrum is due to
the existence of a compound of a metal in the flame, while the line spec-
trum is produced by the elementary metal. When halogen compounds
of barium are introduced in the Bunsen flame they produce their own
fugitive spectra, but on dissociation in the flame they all exhibit the
band spectrum of barium oxide and also the x-line (=5535.69) of the
metal. Mitscherlich's work points to the fact that the final spectrum
produced by a halogen salt of barium is the result of a chemical change
that had been undergone by the salt in question.
The well-known luminescence of a flame charged with compounds of
sodium is undoubtedly due to the existence of metallic sodium in the
flame. MendeleelT arrived at this conclusion from the following experi-
ments: If hydrochloric acid gas be introduced into a flame colored by
sodium it is observed that the sodium spectrum disappears, owing to the
fact that metallic sodium cannot remain in the flame in the presence of
an excess of hydrochloric acid. The same thing takes place on the
addition of ammonium chloride, which in the heat of the flame gives
hydrochloric acid. If a porcelain tube containing sodium chloride (or
sodium hydroxide or carbonate) , and closed at both ends by glass plates,
be so powerfully heated that the sodium compound volatilizes, then the
sodium spectrum is not observable ; but if the salt be replaced by sodium,
then both the bright line and the absorption spectra are obtained, ac-
cording to whether the light emitted by the incandescent vapor be
observed, or that which passes through the tube. Thus the above spec-
trum is not given by sodium chloride or other sodium compound, but is
proper to the metal sodium itself. If every salt of sodium, lithium and
potassium gives one and the same spectrum, this must be ascribed to
the presence in the flame of the free metals liberated by the decompo-
sition of their salts.
Reference has been made from time to time to the fact that free
> Phil. Trans. 1885. 166.
3 Posts:. Ann. 116, 419 (1862) ; 121, 459 (1868).
'"Principles of Chemistry", 1, 663 (1891).
Digiti
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Flame Reactions of Thallium, 167
carbon is found in the ordinary luminous flames' and that the lumi-
nescence is due to this carbon. Heumann' pointed out that when a feebly
luminous hydrocarbon flame be charged with chlorine or with bromijie,
the luminosity of the flame is greatly increased. The chemical activity
of chlorine and of bromine brings about the separation of carbon, which,
on incandescence, increases the luminosity of the flame.
While investigating the structure of luminous flames, Smithells'
proved that free carbon is found in the luminous portion of a hydro-
carbon flame. His conclusion, which is in agreement with the view of
Kersten,^ is that the separation of carbon in a flame is due simply to the
decomposition of the hydrocarbon by heat. He also asserts that the
glow of carbon in the luminous region is due to the heat of its own
combustion, and is increased probably by the concomitant combustion of
hydrogen. Smithells* also succeeded in precipitating copper from a
flame charged with cupric chloride.
Hodgkinson* obtained a deposit of sulphur from a moderate-sized
sulphur flame.
Bancroft and Weiser,' who experimented with a number of metallic
salts, proved that these salts dissociate at the temperature of the Bunsen
flame, of the hydrogen-air flame and of the oxyhydrogen flame, the
metals being set free.
Papish"* investigated the behavior of compounds of selenium and of
tellurium in the Bunsen flame and in the hydrogen-air flame. Elemen-
tary selenium and tellurium can be easily obtained by depressing the
flames with a cold object.
In all cases mentioned above the luminescense can be traced back to
the existence of an elementary substance in the flame. In some cases
a particular luminescence is due to the existence or formation of a
certain compound in a given zone of the flame. The work described in
this paper was undertaken with the purpose of throwing more light on
the nature of flame reactions in general and of the reactions of thallium
in particular.
Thallous Chloride in the Bunsen Flame, — "Chemically pure" thallous
chloride was distilled and redistilled in a hard glass tube. The flnal
^Hilgard: Liebie'e Ann. 92. 129 (1854): Liebig's Jahresb. 1854. 287; Landlot:
VoK9. Ann. 99, 389 (1856).
»Chem. Centrb. 1. 1876. 801.
»Jour. Chcm. Soc. 51. 223 (1892).
-•J. prak. Chem. 84, 290 (1861).
5 Phil. Mag. (5) 39. 127 (1895).
«Chem. News 61. 96 (1890).
'Jour. Phys. Chcm. 18. 259 (1914).
*« Ibid. 22, 430 (1918) ; Ibid. p. 640.
Digiti
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168 Proceedings of Indiana Academy of Science.
product, which consisted of fine crystals, fused to a clear liquid on heat-
ing and sublimed without leaving any residue. On examination by
means of the spectroscope it was found to give the thallium line and
very faint sodium lines. This salt was introduced in a hard glass tube,
one end of which was drawn to a capillary and inserted in a small hole
bored in the stem of a Bunsen burner. The other end of the tube was
connected with the air blast. A very slow current of air was turned
on, the burner was lighted, and the thallous chloride in the hard glass
tube was heated to volatilization. The vapors of this salt on entering
the flame imparted to it the characteristic thallium green color. On
depressing the flame with a cold object, such as an evaporating dish,
a metallic mirror of a brownish appearance was obtained. That this
mirror was due to the deposition of thallium was proved by moistening
it with a drop of hydrochloric acid and impinging a Bunsen flame on it;
the characteristic green color flashed up.
Thallous Chloride in the Hydrogen-Air Flame, — Resublimed thallous
chloride was placed in a hard glass tube provided with a platinum tip.
Hydrogen, generated from zinc and sulphuric
acid and washed through a solution of silver
nitrate, was passed through the tube and
igniited above the platinum tip. The thallous
chloride was now heated with a flattened
Bunsen flame. The flame of the burning hydro-
gen, on becoming charged with the vapors of the
thallium salt, was seen to consist of a long, slen-
der inner cone, deep green in color, surrounded
by a film which was almost colorless. The middle
cone, which constituted the main part of the
flame, was green for about two- thirds of its
length, its lower third being blue. The outer
cone, which formed the tip of the flame, was of
an intense green color. The terms inner, middle
and outer cones are used for the purpose of sim-
plifying the description of the flame. Reference
to the accompanying diagram will show that in
practice the flame consists of five different zones,
each zone having its own characteristic lumi-
nescence. On depressing the inner zone (a) with
a cold object a lustrous dark metallic mirror of
a brownish tinge was obtained. But no deposit
of thallium was obtained when the part of the
flame above the inner zone was depressed.
Diattiani of the |[y<lroi?en-
Air Flarne cha'-Ke 1 with
Thallous Chloride,
a, deep Kreen; h, almost rol-
filrr
orless film:
o, deep green,
blue; d. green;
Digiti
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Flame Reactions of Thallium, 169
Conclusions.
Thallous chloride, when introduced in the Bunsen flame, dissociates,
yielding the metal. This metal can be condensed on a cold object in
the form of a brownish mirror. The characteristic luminescence of the
flame is to be traced to the existence of the free metal in it.
When the hydrogen-air flame is charged with the vapor of thallous
chloride, five different zones, each disting^uishable by a different lumi-
nescence, can be observed. A lustrous metallic mirror of a brownish
tinge can be obtained on a cold object by depressing the inner cone of
the flame. The luminescence here again is to be traced to the element
thallium. No deposit of thallium is obtained when the cold object is
introduced in the outer zone; the luminescence in this region is undoubt-
edly due to the formation of an oxide or oxides of thallium.
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170 Proceedings of Indiana Academy of Science.
Sulphur Dioxide as a Source of Volcanic Sulphur.
Jacob Papish, Purdue University.
The reaction expressed by the equation H>S + S0« = HaO + 2S was
investigated by Cluzel^ as far back as 1812. This reaction was accepted
by geologists and chemists^ as being back of the origin of volcanic sul-
phur: hydrogen sulphide and sulphur dioxide gases, escaping from vents
and fumarolesy come in contact and bring about the formation of sul-
phur. Brun' opposes this theory of the orig^in of sulfatara sulphur, and
he, in turn, is opposed by others. The reader is referred to the literature
on geochemistry for details.*
In case of sulphur deposition, where hydrogen sulphide is detected
as a volcanic exhalation, it is supposed that the sulphur is formed as a
result of the partial oxidation of the hydrogen sulphide.'
While investigating the flame reactions of the sulphur group of
elements, I noticed that when a mixture of sulphur dioxide and illu-
minating gas is heated in a glass tube, an opalescence is produced
due to the precipitation of sulphur. Illuminating gas is a mixture
of different reducing gases, and, on the whole, the reaction resembles
the one described by Berthelot,* which is expressed by the equation
SQa + 2C0 = 2C0a + S. Since volcanic exhalations contain carbon
monoxide, as well as methane and hydrogen, then why not suppose that
volcanic sulphur is formed from sulphur dioxide through a reaction of
reduction, say, with carbon monoxide? The sulphur thus formed will
have to cool and condense before it comes in contact with oxygen, other-
wise it will burn back to sulphur dioxide. Some means of sudden cool-
ing is especially favorable for its formation instantly upon reduction
from sulphur dioxide. Such a means is to be found in the case of the
sulphur recovered from Lake Ponto, which is a crater lake in the south-
western part of Kunashiri Island, Japan.' The water of this lake is
strongly acid* and has a temperature of 40° C. Around the margins
1 Ann. Chim. Phys. 84, 162 (1812) : Jour. Phys. Chem. 15, 1 (1911).
^ Ries' "Economic Geolo{fy", 4th ed., p. 293 ; Roscoe and Schorlemmer*s "Treatise
on Chemistry" 1, 365 (1905) ; Erdmann's "Lehrb. anorg. Chemie", 2nd ed., p. 236 (1900).
"Chem. Zeit. 15, 127 (1909).
' Clarke's "Data on Geochemistry", 3rd ed., pp. 270 and 576.
i^Habermann: Zeit. f. anorg. Chem. 38, 101 (1904).
•Compt. rend. 96. 298 (1888).
7 Y. Oinouye: Jour, of Geology 24, 806 (1916).
'Professor Oinouye, in a private communication dated April 29. 1918, informs me
that the water smells of sulphur dioxide.
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Sulphur Dioxide. 171
through innumerable small fissures sulphur is deposited, and the country
rock is strongly impregnated with it. The amount of gas emitted is
ordinarily not very great, but is increased enormously when the at-
mospheric pressure is low. During periods of crater activity, paroxys-
mal eruptions of gas and water are noticed near the center of the lake
at intervals of from one to three hours, and whenever the bubbling
begins, workmen row to the spot. By means of. a pulley attached to a
framework resting upon two boats, the men lower an iron bucket in the
center of the bubbling area to the bottom of the lake. When the bucket
is withdrawn it is practically filled with sulphur grains. In this man-
ner, while the crater is active, a hundred buckets of sulphur are easily
brought up in a day. This sulphur is for the most part dark grey in
color and consists of oolitic grains.
The process of sulphur deposition just desAibed is not to be taken
as typical, and Oinouye himself remarks^ that the production of sulphur
in crater lakes is very unusual even in sulfatara sulphur fields. But
^his particular process illustrates strikingly the possibility of sulphur
coming from sulphur dioxide. The fact that the water of Lake Ponto
is charged with sulphur dioxide bears unmistakable evidence of the
existence of this gas as a volcanic exhalation. Its reduction to elemen-
tary sulphur can be assumed to take place through its interaction with
carbon monoxide, which is very commonly found in volcanic exhalations
together with other reducing gases. The freshly formed sulphur cools
suddenly on coming in contact with the water in the lake and condenses
in the form of oolitic grains.
The theory set forth in this paper is not meant to displace other
accepted theories on the origin of sulphur, but rather to supplement
them. No one theory can explain the orig^in of the different deposits of
sulphur; each deposit has to be dealt with separately, and it is hoped
that some cases of sulphur deposition can be explained on the basis of
this theory.
The study of the origin of sulphur was undertaken at the suggestion
of Dr. W. N. Logan of Indiana University, to whom my sincerest thanks
are due.
Since this note has been written an article by J. B. Ferguson
appeared on "The Equilibrium Between Carbon Monoxide, Carbon Di-
oxide, Sulphur Dioxide and Free Sulphur."* Mr. Ferguson states that
he undertook his work with the purpose to shed some light on the role
of sulphur gases in volcanic activity.
* Loc. cit.
2 Jour. Amer. Chem. Soc. 40, 1626 (1918).
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172 Proceedings of Indiana Academy of Science.
The Occurrence of Coal in Monroe County.
W. N. Logan, Indiana University.
(A Preliminary Report.)
The occurrence of coal in small outcrops has been known for three
quarters of a century among a few inhabitants of the southwest part
of the county. No reference to the occurrence of coal is mentioned in
any of the geologrical reports, except that T. F. Jackson, in discussing
the Pennsylvanian of th« Bloomington quadrangle, says: "Carbonaceous
layers varying in thickness from a thin streak to a few inches in thick-
ness are found here and there in the sandstone shale part of the fo^
mation. None of these layers appear to have a very wide horizontal
distribution." * In this report Jackson does not definitely locate any of
these occurrences within Monroe County, though he may have intended
to include such area. About twenty-five years ago Mr. Frank Coleman,
living in Indian Creek Township, opened a coal prospect in the south-
east quarter of Section 4. He first opened a drift and took out several
tons of coal, which he sold to local blacksmiths. When the roof of the
drift caved in during a rainy season, he went back about thirty feet
from the mouth of the entry and put down a shaft, entered the coal
vein and took out twenty-six bushels of coal from a hole about four feet
square. Before he could get the shaft lined the upper part of it caved
in and he abandoned the mining project. Coal was also found in the
bottom of a well in the southeast quarter of Section 3 on the David
Koontz farm.
In the late fall of 1917 Hall and Timberlake of Bloomington leased
the Coleman farm and began prospecting for coal. They first opened
up near the old drift and exposed a layer of coal about fourteen inches
thick, a clay parting of the thickness of one foot, and a lower layer of
coal sixteen inches thick.
As the entry was driven back under the hill the clay diminished in
thickness and the coal Increased in thickness to that extent. They also
opened up the old shaft and found a thickness of twenty-six inches of
good hard coal. They then drilled a well with a core drill midway
between the occurrence on the Coleman place and the one on the Koontz
place, and the well record which they kept shows six feet of coal at
this point. On the David Koontz place they then sank a shaft to a
'Sep Thirty-ninth Annual Report, GoiloRical J^urvey o^ Indiana, 1914, P- 227.
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Occurrence of Coal in Monroe County. 173
depth of seventeen feet and struck a vein of coal having a thickness of
about two feet. In an entry running in the direction of the well above
mentioned the coal shows evidence of thickening. The coal at this point
underlies seventeen feet of grayish colored sandstone. Underlying the
coal is a layer of fire clay.
The deep well above mentioned was drilled at an elevation of about
970 feet above sea level. The strata pierced are as follows:
Feet.
Soil (top) 6
Ironstone 7
White shale 5
Ironstone 6%
Blue sandstone 34
Coal 6
Blue shale containing pyrite 22%
Blue sandstone 17
Ironstone and ore 27%
Limestone 3
Total 133
Composition of Monroe County Coal.
A sample of the coal taken from the reopened shaft on the Coleman
farm was analyzed by Mr. H. M. Burlage of the Chemical Department
of Indiana University. The sample was obtained by taking a bushel of
the mine-run coal, crushing and quartering down to about one pound of
crushed coal, which was turned over to the analyst. The results ob-
tained from the analysis are recorded below:
Analysis of Monroe County Coal.
Per cent.
Volatile matter 42.74
Fixed carbon 52.96
Ash 4.3
Sulphur 2.76
B. T. U 14,599.70
Comparing this analysis with the analyses of 115 samples of Indiana
coals, this sample showed the highest amount of fixed carbon ; only three
samples run higher in volatile matter; only six are lower in ash; and
it is the highest in recorded B. T. U.
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176 Proceedings of Indiana Academy of Science.
The analysis of another sample taken from the same locality was
made by Thomas J. Dee & Co., Chicago, 111. The results recorded are
as follows:
Per cent.
Hydro carbon 44 . 90
Fixed carbon 43.20
Ash 3.00
Moisture 8.90
Sulphur 1.56
Coal is now being mined by Hall and Timberlake from the shaft on
the David Koontz place. The coal is being used locally for domestic
purposes and for blacksmithing.
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Note on Occurrence of Indianaite in Monroe County,
Indiana.
W. N. Logan, Indiana University.
During field work in 1917 the writer's attention was attracted to an
outcrop of reddish colored clay containing fragments of a white clay
near the public road in Section 3 of Indian Creek Township. A later
examination of the white clay showed it to be Indianaite, a variety of
halloysite.
In the spring of 1918, Mr. Dick Hall located a number of outcrops
of the same kind of clay in the township. One of these outcrops is on
the public road near the John Koontz place in Section 10. The section
exposed consists at the bottom of a shale containing sandy layers near
the upper part, overlying this i§ a layer of mahogany-colored clay of a
thickness of thirty inches, containing fragments of Indianaite, and above
is a five-foot layer of sandstone. The Indianaite occurs under and in
most cases immediately in contact with the sandstone. Where the sand-
stone is compact and unfissured the Indianaite is more abundant. The
thickness of the mahogany clay is variable, pinching and swelling. In
some places it may have a thickness of four feet and pinch down to
less than half that amount in less than ten feet.
At one point in Section 28 of Van Buren Township, in a sandstone
layer, there is a thin layer made up of the fragments of Indianaite.
This occurrence shows that the Indianaite had been formed, eroded and
redeposited. Below the sandstone there occurs a layer of mahogany
clay which contains small fragments of Indianaite. The mahogany clay
rests on a thin bed of sandstone, which in turn rests on a bed of greenish
colored shales. In the shale there are irregular, lens-like masses of
limestone. Where exposed at the surface these limestone masses are
surrounded with mahogany clay in which fragments of the white Indi-
anaite were found.
Distribution, — In Van Buren Township, Indianaite has been found in
Sections 27, 28, 83 and 34. The outcrops occur on the slopes of a ridge
which rises about 900 feet above sea level and forms a part of the
divide between Clear Creek on the east and Indian Creek on the south-
west. On the road which connects West pike with the Rockport pike,
passing through the center of Section 28 and intersecting the above-
mentioned ridge, there are a number of outcrops of Indianaite. On the
northern slope of the ridge, at the point where the road crosses it, there
12—16668 (177)
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FiK. 1.
Outcrop of mahogany clay with white kaolin at top. Sandstone above and shale below.
Coal bloetiom junt below note book and below mahogany.
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180 Proceedings of Indiana Academy of Science.
is an outcrop of mahogany clay which contains a considerable quantity
of Indianaite. Underlying the clay and separating it from a bed of
shale is a thin layer of sandstone. A bed of sandstone having a thick-
ness of twenty-five feet overlies the clay. The clay has a thickness of
four feet at the outcrop, but pinches down to about half that in a dis-
tance of six feet. The Indianaite occurs in hard, irreg^ular fragments
and also as white plastic streaks in the red-colored clay. On the same
slope, below this outcrop, there are some greenish gray shales containing
irregular masses df -litnestone surrounded by mahogany clay. This clay
also contains some fragments of the white Indianaite.
On the same ridge, farther east on the north side, there is an outcrop
of Indianaite six feet thick on the side of a sinkhole. On the south side
of this ridge, in the southeast quarter of Section 28, Indianaite occurs
under the sandstone, capping the top of the ridge, at about the same
elevatioi\ as that on the north side. West of the road above mentioned,
in Section 33, there is an outcrop of mahogany clay containing consider-
able Indianaite. The clay occurs between layers of sandstone of very
fine grain. The overlying sandstone has a thickness of about thirty
feet. The mahogany layer is irregular in thickness, pinching and swell-
ing. Similar outcrops have been found in Section 27, on the southwest
side of the ridge, and in Section 34, on the east side.
Indian Creek Township, — Indications of the presence of Indianaite
have been found at several places along the ridge which forms the
divide between Indian Creek and Clear Creek in this township. In
Section 3 outcrops occur in the west half of the section. In Section 10
outcrops of mahogany clay occur at several points, also in Sections 9
and 17. In the northwest corner of Section 10, near the public road,
there is an outcrop of a layer of mahogany clay having a thickness of
about thirty inches in places, but thinning down to about half that in
other places. White Indianaite occurs in the clay in small, irregfular
fragments, which are most abundant under the compact and unfrac-
tured portions of the roof of sandstone. The underlying rock is shale,
which passes into very sandy shale and lenses of sandstone just below
the mahogany clay. The geological section exposed at this point is
as follows:
Feet.
No. 8. (Top.) Shale 5
No. 7. Sandstone in thin beds 5
No. 6. Shale, sandy 6
No. 5. Sandstone 5
No. 4. Shale 20
No. 3. Sandstone, thick layers 10
No. 2. Mahogany clay and Indianaite 2^
No. 1. (Bottom.) Shale, sandy toward top 12
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!
Fig» 3. Tunnel of Hall and Timbcrlake kaolin mine in Sectiai 27, VanBuren Tounship. White
maMses in front are fraKinenU of kaolin taken from mine. CjOOQIc
182 Proceedings of Indiana Academy of Science.
This mahogany clay lies near the unconformity in the Mississippian
system of rocks. The shales above and below the mahogany belongs to
the Mississippian.
State of Development, — Small pits have been dug at several places
on the outcrop of the mahogany clay, but no serious attempt at develop-
ment has been made. In order to determine whether the Indianaite
occurs in sufficient quantities to warrant commercial development will
require the drilling of wells along the sandstone ridge at some distance
from the outcrop. Near the outcrop the clay is nearly always stained
with oxides of iron.
The number and thickness of the outcrops offer promise of workable
beds of the white clay. A tunnel has been driven at one point to a
distance of 130 feet. Six feet of fairly white kaolin was found in this
tunnel, and the indications are that a marketable quantity exists.
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Notes on the Palaeontology of Certain Chester
Formations in Southern Indiana.
Allen D. Hole, Earlham College.
In the course of an examination of the Chester formations of southern
Indiana in the summer of 1918, especial care was taken at a few points
to secure a representative collection of the fossils present. The study
of the collections made at that time has not yet been completed, but
enough has been done to make clear certain interesting relations between
the formations exposed in Indiana and those which have been examined
in southern and southwestern Illinois, and for this reason it has seemed
worth while to record the results apparent in the work thus far.
The localities from which the largest number of species were col-
lected are all in Orange County, and the horizons yielding the greatest
abundance of well-preserved specimens were of limestone, three in
number.
Renault Limestone.
The lowest of the three limestones referred to yielded the following
forms :
Talarocrinus, somewhat abundant, one or two species.
Pentremites, somewhat abundant, including some very small forms.
Cup coral (Zaphrentis?).
Bryozoans (Archimedes rarely present).
Cliothyridina sublamellosa (Hall).
Composita sulcata, Weller.
Composita trinuclea (Hall).
Diaphragmus elegans (Norwood and Pratten).
Eumetria vera (Hall).
Girtyella (cf.) indianensis (Girty).
Orthothetes kaskaskiensis (McChesney).
Productus ovatus, Hall.
Productus parvus. Meek and Worthen.
Spirifer, sp. (near breckenridgensis, Weller).
The above fauna, considered in connection with the relation of this
limestone to the other formations exposed, seems to afford sufficient evi-
dence to justify the correlation of this horizon with the Renault of
Illinois as defined by Weller.
(183)
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184 Proceedings of Indiana Academy of Science.
Paint Creek Limestone.
The middle one of the three limestones examined, found in some
places eighty to ninety feet higher stratigraphically than the lowest
one, yielding the forms named below, and is consequently correlated
with the Paint Creek formation of Weller in Illinois. The uncertainty
recorded as to species in some cases is to be understood as indicating
more or less difference from described forms; some of these may be
new species, while others may deserve to be classed merely as variations
marking less than specific divergence. The fauna as made out so far
follows :
Gastropods sp?.
Cup corals (Zaphrentis?).
Crinoid stems, locally abundant, some of large size.
Pentremites numerous, larger than in the lowest limestone.
Archimedes, not numerous, but somewhat more abundant than in the
lowest limestone.
0
Pygidia of trilobites. Phillipsia?.
Chonetes chesterensis, Weller.
Cliothyridina sublamellosa (Hall).
Composita sulcata, Weller.
Diaphragmus elegans (Norwood and Pratten).
Eumetria verneuiliana (Hall).
Girtyella (cf.) indianensis (Girty).
Martinia (cf.) sulcata, Weller.
Orthothetes kaskaskiensis (McChesney).
Productus (cf.) ovatus. Hall.
Pustula sp?.
Spirifer sp?.
Okaw Limestone.
The upper of the three limestones here referred to is found in some
places within the areas examined seventy to eighty feet higher strati-
graphically than the middle limestone, and on the basis of the fauna
collected and the relations observed is correlated with the lower Okaw
as defined by Weller from studies in Illinois. The fauna collected shows
the following forms:
Gastropods sp?, a few.
Cup corals sp?, many partly silicified in places.
Bryozoans including abundant Archimedes.
Crinoids numerous; mostly in fragmental state including wing plates
of Pterotocrinus sp?.
Pentremites abundant; some large forms.
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Palaeontology of Certain Chester Formations. 185
tes; pygidia of Phillipsia?.
ophoria explanata (McChesney).
rridina sublamellosa (Hall).
Bita sulcata, Weller.
eita trinuclea (Hall),
rtus sp?.
A sp?.
ir sp?.
iition to the fauna listed and correlated above, a brief examin-
I made of the massive limestone beds lying below the formation
Bd as Renault limestone. In the best exposure found good
I of fossils were not abundant, and the exact location of the
tester bed was therefore not ascertained. Stems of Platycrinus
fte, Wachsmuth and Springer, were, however, found at forty-five
feet below the limestone named here Renault, thus indicating
mce of the Ste. Genevieve as defined by Weller, and fixing the
Hit of the Chester and therefore the upper limit of the Ste.
^ at a level not more than forty-five or fifty feet below the
tons Renault limestone layer.
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186 Proceedings of Indiana Academy of Science.
Soil Survey of Cass County, Indiana.
CoLONZO C. Beals, Indiana University.
Description of the Area, — Cass County lies in the north central part
of Indiana. It is bounded on the north by Pulaski and Fulton, on the
east by Miami, on the south by Howard and Carroll, and on the west
by Carroll and White counties. The greatest length north and south is
twenty-four miles, while the maximum width is twenty-two miles. On
the west boundary line it follows an irregular course. Commencing- with
the northwest corner of the county, it runs twelve miles south, three
miles east, three miles south and eleven miles east to the southeast
comer of the county. Cass County has a total area of 420 square miles
and is divided into fourteen civil townships: Boone, Harrison, Beth-
lehem, Adams, Miami, Clay, Eel, Noble and Jefferson on the north side
of the Wabash River, and Clinton, Washington, Tipton, Jackson and
Deer Creek on the south side.
The county is roughly divided into a north and south portion by the
Wabash River, which flows in a general east and west direction through
the county. In the immediate vicinity of the Wabash and Eel rivers
the country is undulating and broken. After leaving the rivers, to the
south the surface is level. All the southern portion, in its natural state,
was heavily timbered with hardwood, bottom and table land; the central
portion is mostly bottom with high bluffs; the northern part is largely
prairie.
The drainage of the county depends upon the large valley of the
Wabash and Eel rivers, which extends in an east and west direction
through the center of the county; the highland in Tipton and Washing-
ton townships south of the Wabash River; the highland in Jackson and
Deer Creek townships, and the highland of Harrison and Boone town-
ships. Deer Creek flows west near the central part of Jackson and
Deer Creek townships, emptying in the Wabash River near Delphi.
Rock Creek rises in the southwest part of Tipton Township, and flowing
west through the southern part of Washington Township, empties into
the Wabash River north of Rockfield in Carroll County. Pipe Creek
rises in the southeast portion of Miami County near Xenia, and flowing
<* The soil survey was done under the direction of Edward Barrett, State Geolofdft.
in a similar way to the surveys of the past eight years. Mr. James Mathes assisted in
making the survey which was done in the field season of 1917. Thanks are extended
to those persons who assisted in makins: the survey a success.
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Soil Survey of Cass County, Indiana. 187
in a south of northwest direction, enters Cass County about two miles
below where the Wabash River enters, keeping the general direction
until it is south of Lewisburg, when it turns sharply to the north, empty-
ing into the Wabash River just below that town. Pipe Creek derives
its name from the fact that for the greater part of its course in Cass
County, the channel is carved in the limestone which comes to the sur-
face at that place. Twelve Mile Creek drains the southern portion of
Adams Township and a part of Bethlehem Township, emptying into
Eel River. Indian Creek flows northwest, and Little Indian Creek drains
west, both emptying into the Tippecanoe River. Crooked Creek rises in
the southwest portion of Bethlehem Township and, after making many
turns in flowing to the west, bends to the south and enters the Wabash
River near Georgetown.
Lake Cicott is nine miles west of Logansport, a little to the south-
west of the center of Jefferson Township. It is one mile long east and
west and has an average width of one-fourth of a mile north and south,
and its greatest depth is sixty-four feet. Bluffs twenty-five feet high
surround it on all sides except the east, where during high water it
drains by means of an old outlet through a former lake bed into Crooked
Creek.
Abandoned Valleys, — A few well-marked abandoned valleys occur
near the present Wabash Valley. The first one is around Waverly —
in fact the town is in the valley. The channel enters the county in
Sections 22 and 27, just east of Waverly, where it forms a valley almost
a mile wide, narrowing to one-half of a mile near the Miami-Cass
County line. Nearly a mile west of Waverly the valley turns to the
south, entering the present Wabash Valley a short distance west of
Lewisburg. The boundaries of the channel are rather uniform, except
for a few gullies that enter on either side. Dr. M. N. Elrod and Mr.
A. C. Benedict, in discussing the geology of Cass County in the nine-
teenth annual report of the Indiana Department of Geology and Natural
Resources for 1894, say:
''This stream occupies a preglacial channel that starts west from the
mouth of the Mississinewa, above Peru, and runs in a western direction
until it reaches a point about one mile west of Waverly, where it turns
south and intersects the Wabash one-half mile west of Lewisburg. At
the time of our visit a diminutive streamlet was trickling over the rocks
where once a volume of water poured."
We have shown that stream as an intermittent stream on the accom-
panying map.
Another interesting valley occurs west of Logansport in Clinton
Township, where it roughly parallels the present channel of the Wabash
River. This channel leaves the county one-fourth mile north of Clinton
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188 Proceedings of Indiana Academy of Science.
Township, where it is about one-fourth of a mile wide. In places it has
' a width of about one-half of a mile. Near the east end as it approacht»
the river a large area of muck occurs. This channel seems to enter the
Wabash Valley in the western edge of Section 36. Another deep valley
enters the Wabash Channel in the eastern half of Section 31, heading
toward the southeast. It starts just north of the present State insane
institution at Long Cliff. Near the western end this valley has almost
perpendicular walls and a width of over one-fourth mile. The southern
escarpment of the two channels in Clinton Township, taken as a whole,
show a very irregular outline with numerous gullies and V-shaped val-
leys, indicating very extensive erosion, while on the opposite side no
indication of stream erosion exists. At present it is occupied by a feu-
small streams, but no large ones.
Early History, — Until 1824 Cass County was included in Tippecanoe
County. The organization of the county was completed April 13, 1829,
under acts of the State legislature, passed December 18, 1828, and
January 19, 1829. At that time it contained all that portion of the
State now included in the counties of Miami, Wabash, Fulton, Marshall,
Kosciusko and St. Jpseph and parts of Laporte, Starke and Pulaski.
The county seat was located at Logansport, August 10, 1829.
The first owners of the soil of Cass County were the Pottawottomie
and Miami Indians. The former owned the land north of the Wabash,
and the latter that upon the south. The first cessions of lands was
made by the Miamis in the treaty of 1818, in which they gave up the
land west of the mouth of Eel River. The Pottawottomies surrendered
the land north of the Wabash in 1876 at the Mississinewa treaty and at
subsequent times and by various other treaties.
Logansport was named in honor of Captain Logan, a Shawnee chief,
who lost his life in November, 1812, because of his fidelity to the whites,
and not for Logan the Mingo, as many suppose. The original plot of
the town contained 111 lots, with streets 66 feet wide, except Broadway,
which is 82^ feet wide.
Roads. — December 31, 1918, Cass County had 452% miles of free
gravel roads and 340 miles of unimproved roads. Rural free delivery
extends to all parts of the county, which stimulates the extension of
good roads.
Population, — The following table is based pn the. returns of the
Federal Census, including estimated population for 1920:
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Soil Survey of Cass County, Indiana. 189
1910. 1900. 1890. Efltimated.
Cass County 36,368 34,535 31,152 38,200
Adams Township 984 974 962
Bethlehem Township 999 1,047 1,113
Boone Township, including Royal Center 1,802 1,807 1,680
Royal Center, town 909 657 527 1,010
Clay Township 745 765 838
Clinton Township 970 1,568 1,415
Deer Creek Township 1,376 1,557 1,672
Eel Township, including Logansport 20,239 17,237 14,052
Logansport city 19,050 16,204 13,328 21,900
Harrison Township 1,231 1,258 1,189
Jackson Township, including Galveston. 1,748 1,725 1,655
Galveston, town, incorporated in 1904 . . 658 675
Jefferson Township 1,029 1,096 1,127
Miami Township 854 926 938
Noble Township 1,221 1,141 916
Tipton Township, including Walton 1,975 2,038 2,015
Walton, town 579 498 469 625
Washington Township 1,195 1,406 1,580
Logansport,, estimated in 1917 20,754
Hoover, estimated in 1910 100
Lucerne, estimated in 1910 500
Young America, estimated in 1910 600
Lincoln, estimated in 1910 250
Waverly, estimated in 1910 90
Onward, estimated in 1910 250
Lake Cicott, estimated in 1910 50
Adamsboro, estimated in 1910 150
Kennith, estimated in 1910 250
Clymers, estimated in 1910 125
The above table shows that the movement of population has been to
build up the cities and larger towns at the expense of the rural dis-
tricts. This is due to the fact that the younger generation, who replen-
ish the working class, flock to the factories in town. The present (or
just past) war conditions will cause the "from the farm to the city"
exodus to continue.
Agriculture, — Cass County had 2,656 farms in 1900, while by 1910
the number had decreased to 2,443. In 1916 the number of farms con-
taining over five acres amounted to 2,261, containing 256,229 acres.
The number of farms, classified according to size, were as follows
in 1910:
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190 Proceedings of Indiana Academy of Science,
Under 3 acres 4
3 to 9 acres 87
10 to 19 acres 113
20 to 49 acres 300
50 to 99 acres 765
100 to 174 acres 786
175 to 259 acres 212
260 to 499 acres 79
500 to 999 acres 6
1,000 acres and over 1
In 1910, the average farm contained 102.3 acres; 93.8 per cent of the
total land area was in farms, and 82.7 per cent of this was improved;
35,392 acres were classed as wood land. In 1916 the waste land
amounted to 4,067 acres.
Sixty-four and three-tenths per cent of all farms were operated by
owners in 1910, which was a decrease of 1.4 per cent in ten years;
twenty-three farms were operated by managers, a decrease of four in
ten years. Eight hundred eighty-four of the farms operated by the
owners were free from mortgage debt, while 669 had mortgages.
A crop that is on the increase is that of the soy bean — 797 acres
were devoted to it alone and 271 acres in combination with other crops.
It can be used in the silo, thrashed for seed, or hogged down in the
fall. Cow peas showed an acreage of seventy acres where grown alone
and thirty-three acres where they were mixed with another crop or
crops.
The crops cut for ensilage during 1917 amounted to 4,591 acres,
which, we will suppose, were put in the 456 silos found in the county
that fall. The greater percent of those crops consisted of com, with
some using part soy beans or cow peas.
The county had 934 acres devoted to white potatoes in 1917.
Most of the small fruit and truck crops occur in small farm gardens,
but one acre was devoted to onions, two acres to tomatoes, five acres to
cabbages, nine acres to watermelons, and fifteen acres to muskmelons
(cantaloupes). Strawberries, blackberries and raspberries occupied sixty-
four acres, while we find 43,849 bearing apple trees, 18,203 peach trees,
and 11,455 pear trees.
Cass County is a grain-producing county, with a great deal of stock
to consume the grain on the farm. Fifty-eight thousand six hundred
three acres of corn were harvested in 1917, which did not give a normal
yield that year because of the early frost.
During 1917 Cass County harvested 28,293 acres of wheat, but planted
a larger acreage that year, amounting to 37,826 acres. The farmers
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Soil Survey of Cass County, Indiana. 191
planted 31,754 acres in oats, or a little more than the amount devoted
to wheat.
A great deal of the rye planted was devoted to pasturage or plowed
under in the spring as a green manure. Some may be used as a winter
cover crop where land tends to erode. The crop for 1917 amounted to
5,493 acres, while almost double that area was sown in the fall, or
9,032 acres.
Some barley is grown in this region, eighty-four acres in 1917, and
considerable land is devoted to buckwheat, for the seed principally, and
secondarily to be used as a source for honey; and, last but not least,
buckwheat is used as a restorer of fertility and friability of the soil;
fifty-four acres were devoted to this crop alone.
The hay produced in Cass County is an important factor in the
agricultural economy, the largest item of which was 10,298 acres of
land growing timothy hay during 1917. Some of it is sold and leaves
the county; the greater part of it is fed nearby and returned to the
farms in the form of manure. Twenty acres of land were devoted to
millet and Hungarian grasses.
A crop that has a great beneficial effect on the soil and should have
a greater acreage is clover, of which 8,787 acres were used for hay,
while 3,317 acres were cut and thrashed for seed. The combined acreage
could easily be one-fourth of the combined acreage of the oats and wheat
grown, and the farming interests would profit by the change.
In 1917 there were ten pure-bred horses and colts, fifteen milk cows,
and 200 hogs in Cass County (reported to the township assessor). At
that time there were 10,604 horses, 1,686 mules, 8,066 milk cows, 56,630
hogs and 5,923 sheep. There were 4,417 sheep sheared, yielding an
average fleece of 7.2 pounds.
In 1917 Cass County had only 173 colonies of bees, which yielded
2,550 pounds of honey. It would be safe to say that more than that
amount of honey was "wasted on the desert air" in the county because
no bees were present to save it.
The farmers of Cass County bought 862 tons of fertilizers in 1917
and used a great deal of it on their wheat land.
The farmer^ had forty-two tractors on their farms the same year
to aid in increasing the amount of their farm crops. They also had
1,491 cream separators in use on their farms.
Climatology. — In a general way Cass County has the same kind of
climate that north central Indiana ^experiences. The following data is
based on a record of twenty-eight years in the city of Logansport about
two squares north of Eel River at an elevation of 620 feet. (The coun-
try is slightly rolling.) The average date of the last killing frost in
the spring is April 27th, and the last killing frost in the fall is October
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192 Proceedings of Indiana Academy of Science.
13th. The latest killing frost in the spring occurred May 16th, and the
earliest killing frost in the fall was September 21st. The average grow-
ing season is 169 days, ranging from 144 days in 1895 and 1904 to 210
in 1902.
The prevailing direction of the wind is from the west throughout
the year.
The only available data on average hourly wind movement (miles),
mean relative humidity (percentage), and sunshine (percentage) is
from Fort Wayne from a five-year record. (See table below.)
The precipitation of Cass County is adequate for all cix)p require-
ments of that region, and it is uniformly distributed over the growing
season. The greatest amount of the year faUs during the summer
months. Dry and wet spells are not unknown, but they do not nor-
mally destroy the crops. The dry spells usually occur during the middle
or late summer, while the wet season normally comes in the winter or
spring, as the spring high water.
M
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s
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Months.
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1 1
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>>
s
X
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X
X
January
6.1
2.32
9.6
25.4
34.6
18.2
69
26
9.6
82
82 ,
30
February
6.7
4.7
0.4
trace
0
2.64
2.91
3.31
4.31
3.73
li
10.6
11.5
9.3
26 4
37.6
51.1
62.3
71.5
35.1
47.8
61.4
74.1
83.7
17.1
28.6
40.3
50.2
58.7
69
87
91
101
103
24
3
15
28
37
U 3
10.8
11.1
9.3
8.1
81
80
78
78
76
77 1
74
70 1
62 ,
44
March
52
April
56
May
59
June
70
July
0
3.25
8.3
75.5
87.7
62.4
106
43
7.2
78
64 1
67
August
0
3.11
6.9
72.5
85.4
60.2
103
41
7.5
85
68
61
September
0
3.22
7.2
66.3
78.9
53.6
102
30
7.7
85
73
62
October
trace
2.56
7.2
53 9
65.7
41.5
91
18
8.4
87
72 ■
51
November
1.0
3.15
8,4
40.5
49.6
30.9
80
3
11.8
81
73 1
42
December
42
2.54
8.2
29.6
37.4
22.7
70
15
10.5
83
80 1
30
Season
23.1
37 5
10.4
51.0
61.8
40.4
106
25
9.6
82
72
1
52
Soils.
Definition, — Soils consist of the broken and decomposed portions of
rocks mixed with more or less organic matter in various stages of de-
composition. To the agriculturist it is that portion of the earth's sur-
face into which the roots of plants may penetrate and obtain nourish-
ment.
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Soil Survey of Cdss County, Indiana. 193
Physical Properties, — In former years it was thought that the chem-
ical analysis of a soil was of the most importance; but since the subject
has been better understood, the physical side has gained in emphasis.
A factor of prime importance to the agriculturist is the absorbing ca-
pacity of a soil and its ability to retain and furnish moisture to the
growing plant as needed. In fact the ability of a soil to furnish an
adequate amount of water to the grrowing crop is of far more importance
than its chemical ingrredients. Pure sand holds water poorly, so that
sand is ordinarily a dry soil. At the other extreme, clay holds moisture
very tenaciously, so that a pure clay soil is soggry and apt to be very
wet. A mixture of the two, forming a loam, is not subject to either
objections and is an ideal soil.
Liberation of Plant Food, — Ground limestone and decaying organic
matter are the principal materials which the farmer can utilize most
profitably to bring about the liberation of plant food. The ground lime-
stone corrects the acidity of the soil and thus encourages not only the
nitrogen-gathering bacteria which live in the nodules found on the
growing roots of the growing plants of clovers, cow peas, alfalfa and
other leguminous plants, but also the nitrifying bacteria in the soil,
which have the power to make into plant food the insoluble and un-
available organic products. At the same time the products of this
decomposition also make available the insoluble minerals found in the
soil, such as the potassium and magnesium, as well as the insoluble lime-
stones and phosphates, which can be applied by the agriculturist in a
very low-priced form.
One of the chief sources of loss of organic matter in the com belt
is the burning of the corn stalks. If the farmers would only realize
the loss they incur they certainly would discontinue the practice. Prob-
ably no form of organic matter acts to form good tilth better than the
plowing under of com stalks. It is true they decay slowly, but that
only prolongs the desired conditions of the soil. The nitrogen in a ton
of stalks is one and a half times that of a ton of manure, while a ton
of dry stalks when ultimately incorporated with the soil is equal to four
times that amount of average farm manure, but when they are burned
the humus-making element and nitrogen are both gone and lost to
the soil.
Upland Soils, — The upland soils of Cass County are mapped in three
series, namely: Clyde, Miami and Dunkirk types, and, in addition, the
miscellaneous type known as Muck. These types are all due to a dif-
ference in soil content and color and to surface conditions resulting from
erosion. The Miami and Clyde series occur side by side, perhaps coming
from a similar glacial till, but those areas having a better natural
drainage and smaller amount of organic remains for humus become the
13—16568
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194 Proceedings of Indiana Academy of Science.
light-colored clay land or the Miami series, while the depressed areas
with poor drainage, or no drainage, in swamp or marsh conditions,
become the black or brown areas known as the Clyde series; or, where
there was a great abundance of partly decomposed organic matter, they
become Muck. The Dunkirk comprises the sand ridges and the loamy
sand of a light yellowish brown color.
Alluvial Soils, — The alluvial soils of Cass County are the sediments
deposited in the stream valleys by flood waters. A loam in the humid
region always has a very luxuriant growth of vegetation where it has
an adequate supply of water.
One of the effects of the presence of humus is to produce granules,
forming a mellow, easily worked soil. Where a soil is cultivated without
adding to the supply of humus, the soil becomes more compact and runs
together, producing decreasing crops and reducing the moisture-
retaining capacity. Cultivation loosens the soil, promoting aeration,
and increases the amount of available plant food.
Chemical Properties, — A chemical analysis of a soil will show the
amounts of the different plant foods, such as nitrogen, phosphorus,
potassium, calcium, etc.; but the difficulty is that it does not even give
a hint as to the form in which the elements occur in the soil. The
analysis shows correctly the total organic carbon, but as a rule this
represents about one-half the organic matter, so that 20,000 pounds of
organic carbon in the upper six inches of an acre represent but twenty
tons of organic matter. But this twenty tons is largely in the form of
old organic residues that have accumulated during the centuries because
they were so resistant to decay; so two tons of clover plowed under as
a green manure would have greater power to liberate plant food for a
growing crop than all the twenty tons of old residue of organic remains.
The sediments came from the uplands adjacent to the valleys of the
different streams, and a certain kind of upland gave rise to a different
type of alluvial soil. The overflow land is placed in the Genesee series.^
The Fox series consists of terrace soils, deposited perhaps by the glacial
waters, which were a great deal more abundant than the waters of the
present time. The meadow land has not been mapped, but much of the
land along the smaller streams, classed as Genesee, belongs to this type.
Miami Silt Loam.
Characteristics, — The Miami silt loam consists of a dark gray or a
light brown friable silt loam having an average depth of ten inches.
It is usually deeper in depressed or level areas and somewhat shallower
on the crest of ridges and on steep slopes. When moist the surface
becomes almost uniformly grayish or yellowish brown, but when dry it
becomes a li^ht ashy gray.
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Soil Survey of Cass County, Indiana. 195
The immediate subsoil consists of a yellow or yellowish brown silty
clay loam having a depth of from twenty to thirty inches. This is
immediately underlain by a yellowish clay or yellowish gritty or sandy
loam with usually more or less amount of coarse sand, ^ gravel and
boulders. As a rule the material consists chiefly of fragments of lime-
stone, a mixture of crystallines of various kinds.
The silt loam has a more brownish color near the streams, where
the ground is more or less broken, and on the well-drained ridges. This
is due to greater oxidation because of better drainage. The white clay
knolls will take on a darker color when better drained and aerated.
The different soil areas mapped as the Miami silt loam will vary
from the above description in one or more particulars, but will agree in
the main. The Miami silt loam has a level to undulating or rolling
surface and occurs throughout the country, with the Clyde series occur-
ing in the depressions.
Origin. — The Miami silt loam, in common with other members of
the Miami series, is due to the glaciation of the region in which it
occurs. The retreating ice left the till with a very uneven surface,
composed of numerous ridges and valleys or depressions. During the
process of erosion and weathering since that time, the ridges have tended
to become lower, thus filling the depressions with the organic remains
and the finer sediments from the higher lands. The better natural
drainage and lack of a large amount of humus would produce a light-
colored soil with a high clay and silt content. This condition is well
shown along the larger watercourses, where the surplus water rapidly
drains away, producing a wide strip of the Miami series on either side
without any or with very few areas of the Clyde series even in the
largest depressions.
Drainage. — The fine texture and uniform structure causes ground
water to move slowly and makes natural drainage inadequate in the
Miami silt loam. This condition can be remedied by the use of tile
drainage, but care should be taken by not using too small tile as lateral
lines. The drains not only remove the surplus water in wet weather,
thus lowering the ground water table, but also help to aerate the soil
in dry weather. In most cultivated soils the pore space is from 25%
to 50% of the volume, and this is the maximum water capacity or satu-
ration capacity. The amount of this space occupied by water for the
maximum development of most plants is from 40% to 50% of the pore
space, which leaves one-half or more to be occupied by air. The pres-
ence of a large amount of oxygen in the soil is essential to the best
growth of the plant crops as well as the liberation of the necessary
plant food.
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196 Proceedings of Indiana Academy of Science.
Tilth. — It is well to have in mind that, aside from fertility, drainage
and tillage, one of the main factors of a good soil is good physical con-
dition, or tilth. The Miami silt loam is in good tilth, but since it has
a small percent of sand is very fine grained and easily injured by the
tramping of live stock in the spring and fall on the stalk or stubble
grround and by plowing or working the ground when too wet. Clods
will result from these practices, and it usually requires considerable
time and work to put the soil in good tilth again. An occasional appli-
cation of ground limestone, followed with a crop of clover or some
soiling crop, will produce good tilth. In fact good physical conditions
depend to a large extent upon the amount of humus present in the soil.
Crops. — Corn, wheat, oats, clover and timothy do well on the Miami
silt loam. It is not as good corn land as the Clyde, but it produces
good crops where the soil is well cared for. To do the best a field
should not be in corn two years in succession. Wheat and oats do well ;
in fact the Miami silt loam is better for wheat and oats than any
member of the Clyde series, as it is apt to grow too rank and fall down
when grown on the latter soils. Clover and timothy do well, but it is
better not to grow the timothy alone, as it has a strong tendency to
deplete the fertility of the soil. Some potatoes are grown on the Miami
silt loam, but it does not give a high yield. Some orchards are grown
on this type and seem to give good results.
Improvement. — As has been stated before, the Miami silt loam should
be kept in good tilth by proper drainage, cultivation and the growing
of crops for soiling purposes. All the manure produced on a farm
should be carefully taken care of and spread over the land where it is
most needed. It is well to follow a rotation where the com is planted
on clover sod. The number of crops and kinds used in rotation will
depend on the size of the farm and the type of farming practiced, but
should include one (two would be better) year of clover. Where the
ground seems to be "clover sick" only an application of ground lime-
stone is needed to insure a change. Commercial fertilizers may be
resorted to under some conditions, but we believe that they should not
be constantly used with all crops.
Ml\mi Loam.
Properties. — The Miami loam is a transition between the silt loam
and the sandy loam, and the boundary between them is usually arbi-
trary. It has a higher percent of sand and has perhaps a little darker
color than the silt loam.
The subsoil of the Miami loam has a higher percent of sand and
fine gravel than the silt loam and is variable in color and texture. On
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Soil Sjirvey of Cass Co^inty, Indiana. 197
the one hand it grades into the silt to loam type, while on the other it
may he sandy, grading into the sandy loam.
The difference in the character of the till as left by the glacier and
the removal of the silt by the weathering and eroding agents are prob-
ably responsible for the present structure of the Miami loam. The
topography is similar to that of the Miami silt loam.
Drainage. — The drainage of the Miami loam is usually good on
account of the open, porous structure of the soil and the large amount
of sand and gravel in the subsoil. In some cases, however, the subsoil
is hard and compact, producing a poor natural drainage. In such cases
artificial drainage would be beneficial and greatly increase the pro-
ducing capacity of the soil.
Crops Grown. — The crops grown on this type are similar to those of
the Miami silt loam and they yield as good crops. Owing to the pres-
ence of sand it can be more readily kept in a state of good tilth, but it
quickly responds to good farming methods. The same* farming methods
will apply equally well in the Miami loam as in the silt loam types.
Location. — The Miami loam is about as extensive as the silt loam
and is largely south of the Wabash and Eel rivers. It is valued about
the same as the silt loam types.
Miami Sandy Loam.
Characteristics. — The upper six inches consist of a grayish to dark
brown fine sandy loam or fine loamy sand. The subsoil is a yellowish
brown heavy loam grrading at about eighteen inches into a sticky fine
sandy loam or clay loam. In some places it changes to a yellowish sand
mixed with some clay.
Location. — It occurs in Cass County north of the Wabash River,
becoming less sandy towards the river. A great deal of gravel occurs
around Adamsboro and Georgetown. The sandy phase is associated
with the sand ridges where the sand has been blown over the nearby
land. The ridges are usually more sandy or gravelly, while the valleys
contain a greater percent of clay. The topography ranges from level
to undulating or rolling. Part has a morainic surface with more or
less boulders.
Drainage. — The drainage of the Miami sandy loam is more abundant
and is apt to be somewhat droughty in more sandy areas. The depres-
sions usually develop swamps which have little or no drainage. A num-
ber of open ditches have been made, heading in the Muck and Clyde
areas. Numerous wet quicksand areas occur on the hillside, where the
water-bearing sands and gravel are exposed. These places are difficult
to drain because of the continuous water supply.
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198 Proceedings of Indiana Academy of Science.
Crops Grown, — This type produces good yields of com, oats, wheat,
clover and potatoes. Apples, pears, peaches, grapes and small fruits
should do well on this type of soil. A few orchards have been planted
and seem to do well.
Where sand ridges occur in the sandy loam, care should be taken
to keep the sand from blowing in the spring of the year. The sand not
only uncovers the young crops on the ridges but it covers up the plajits
in drifting. Blowing sand does great damage by lacerating the leaves.
The more sandy ridges should have cover crops during the spring of
the year, such as rye.
The fine sandy loam is easily cultivated and requires less labor to
secure a good seedbed than the other upland soils. The yields are
slightly below those of the heavier types.
Care should be taken not to cultivate sandy land when too wet The
water soon sinks down and the surface soon dries off, but below the first
inch the soil is to© wet. If stirred too wet, the soil loses too much water
by evaporation.
The application of barnyard and green manures is very important.
Clover and other leguminous crops should be grrown for green manure.
It is well to remember that sandy land loses fertility easier than clay
soil from leaching.
Clyde Silty Clay Loam.
Characteristics, — The surface of the Clyde silty clay loam is a silty
loam to a depth of from ten to sixteen inches. It then grades into a
sandier brown clay loam having an average depth of sixteen inches.
The subsoil consists of a drab or a dark blue, mottled with a yellowish
to a rusty brown plastic clay loam. When wet its surface is dark brown
or black, but when dry its surface becomes a grayish brown to brown.
When dry the soil crumbles, forming cubical blocks. The surface forms
deep cracks.
The Clyde silty clay loam grades on one side into the Peat and Muck
series, while on the other side it merges into the surrounding Miami
soils.
The topography is naturally level, with perhaps an occasional slight
elevation on the surface.
Origin, — The Clyde silty clay loam, in common with the Clyde series,
is due to depressions in the surface after the retreat of the glacier.
The depressions had a very poor natural drainage and became marshes
and swamps in the case of the glaciated regions. The areas are con-
nected in most cases by long, narrow, usually parallel lines, where the
water slowly drained from the higher swamps to the lower ones and
finally reached the smaller tributaries of the streams. The swamps
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Soil Survey of Cass County, Indiana. 199
slowly filled with organic remains from the surrounding higher land in
addition to the rank vegetation that flourished in the swamps them-
selves. The organic matter settled to the bottom, where it decayed and
became mixed with the fine clay sediments that were washed into the
depressions. The poor drainage produced the heavy phase, while the
better and more free drainage gave rise to the silt loam with a bright
yellow to reddish subsoil at a depth of two feet.
Drainage. — The Clyde series of soil types requires artificial drainage
to lower the water level below the surface of the soil. In fact, when
the country was hrst settled, the black land was all under water, but
after thorough drainage it was considered the best soil type.
The Clyde silt clay loam contains a very high percent of humus,
which, united with the clay, forms a porous, friable soil which absorbs
moisture readily and is easily cultivated.
Crops Grown. — The Clyde soil is the leading corn land of the country.
It yields fifty to seventy-five and sometimes eighty to ninety bushels per
acre. Timothy is a good crop to grow on the more chaffy phases, where
other crops have a tendency to dry up. Oats yields well and wheat does
good, but both crops tend to produce too rank a growth of straw and
consequently to lodge. Wet, open winters are bad for wheat. The
open, loose texture admits water freely, and freezing heaves the soil,
pulling the wheat out of the ground. A relatively dry winter season,
with a few inches of snow for protection, is followed by good results.
The Clyde silty clay loam, or silty loam as it is sometimes called,
occurs typically south of the Wabash River. The Muck is always asso-
ciated with or surrounded by this soil type.
Clyde Loam.
Properties. — The Clyde loam is a grayish brown to a brownish black
soil with an average depth of about ten inches. The subsoil is a grayish
brown in color, increasing in clay content as it descends, and at about
eighteen inches to two feet grading into a mottled bright yellow material.
It is sometimes streaked with a reddish color and with the steel gray.
This type occurs in shallower depressions, and the color of the surface
soil is sometimes almost midway between the surrounding Miami soil
and the darker Clyde silty clay loam.
Crops Grown. — The Clyde loam is well adapted to the growing of
corn, clover, wheat, oats and timothy. It is first and last a corn soil;
in fact, in some parts of the county that crop seems to be the only
one grown.
A crop rotation should be practiced, including a crop of clover or
some leguminous crop, every four or five years to enrich the soil. The
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200 Proceedings of Indiana Academy of Science.
farmers are planting the soy bean in the corn rows and also as separate
crops. This will help to improve the soil.
Location, — The Clyde loam is developed throughout the county, but
principally south of the Wabash.
Clyde Sandy Loam.
Properties. — The Clyde sandy loam consists of a variable black to a
brownish black loam about sixteen inches deep. The. subsoil is a light
drab or sticky fine sandy or loam mottled with brown or drab and
grading at about thirty inches into a gravelly yellowish clay.
Below this and along the border of the lake plain the subsoil and
the substratum is often of heavier glacier till. In places the top soil
is Muck but has the typical Clyde subsoil. In other cases the subsoil
grades into a fine water-bearing sand.
Location, — This type occurs in the lake plain region and to the east
north of the Wabash, where it occupies the low depressed areas between
the more sandy ridges. It is intermingled with higher, island-like areas,
usually of Miami sandy loam.
The surface is level or very slightly undulating. The Clyde sandy
loam is due to an accumulation of an abundant growth of marsh grass
mixed in with the sand and clay and washed in from the higher bor-
dering ridges.
Formerly it was covered with water and marsh grass, but at present
a system of dredge ditches and lateral drain tile form fairly adequate
drainage. Care must be taken in the spring of the year, as numerous
marshy or boggy places occur, due to the excess of water and probably
the presence of quicksand near the surface. This is a great hindrance
to farming operations. Perhaps one of the greatest factors is a lack
of sufficient drainage, but this will be remedied in time.
The Clyde sandy loam is the most extensive and most important soil
type of the lake region, in fact of northwestern Cass County. Between
80% and 90% of this is in cultivation.
Crops Grown, — Com and oats are the principal grain crops grown,
yielding as much as eighty bushels per acre. Some wheat is also grown-
Before the Clyde sandy loam was drained most of it was used for
marsh hay and pasture.
Perhaps potash is the best fertilizer to use, as experiments have
shown an increase of from ten to twenty bushels per acre of com from
its use.
This type is used for trading purposes more than any other type.
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Soil Survey of Cass County, Indiana. 201
Fox Loam.
Properties, — The Fox loam has a surface of a gray to a brownish
color with a friable loamy texture to an average depth of ten inches.
The surface becomes lighter in color as the amount of sand increases.
The subsoil becomes sandy, while in some cases, as near Hoover, it
changes to gravel. The surface is level to slightly undulating.
The natural drainage of this type of soil is usually good, although
during dry seasons it has a tendency to drought.
Crops Grotvn, — The crops grown and yield per acre are similar to
those of the Miami series.
Fox Sandy Loam.
Properties. — The surface soil of the Fox sandy loam is a gray to
brownish sandy loam. TTie subsoil is lighter in color and in the upper
part has the same composition as the top soil, but becoming heavier
with depth. At a depth of twenty-four inches it is a fine sandy clay,
becoming lighter in color, often changing to a layer of sand in the
three-foot section. Coarse gravel also may occur. This type occurs as
a river terrace along the stream valleys. The surface is level or pitted
and sometimes rolling, due to erosion.
The Fox sandy loam with the clay subsoil around Hoover holds the
moisture during the dry, growing season, as the clay prevents evapo-
ration. It yields from forty to fifty bushels of com, fifteen to thirty
bushels of wheat and about fifty bushels of oats per acre.
Genesee Loam.
Properties. — This soil consists of a light brown loam to a sandy or
silty loam. The subsoil is very similar in texture to the soil, but is
usually lighter brown in color. Below eighteen to twenty inches the
substratum is frequently made up of horizontal beds of sand and clay.
The Genesee loam is an alluvial soil and its variation in structure
is due to the same causes as in the case of the sandy loam. It has a
level to somewhat broken topography and occurs along the sources of
streams.
Agricultural Conditions. — The Genesee loam is used for the growing
of grain crops, particularly com. It is productive, easily cultivated,
and readily kept in good condition. A great deal of the land is used for
pasture purposes.
The drainage is usually good, but it does not stand dry weather as
well as soils with a very high clay content.
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202 Proceedings of Indiana Academy of Science.
Genesee Fine Sandy Loam.
Characteristics, — The Genesee fine sandy loam consists of a variable
light brown to dark brown medium heavy fine sandy loam rang^ing from
ten to twenty inches deep.
The subsoil has about the same texture, but usually of a lighter
color. There are in places local variations from the typical Genesee,
due to the variations of the flow of the depositing water. Sand and
silt areas are due to erosion and depositing by the overflow waters.
It is subject to frequent or annual overflow.
The Genesee forms the flood plains of all the streams. Some of the
areas mapped as Genesee are the same as those usually called meadow
land. The two were not separated. The boundary between the Clyde
series and the Genesee series is not distinct. Since the Genesee fine
sandy loam is an alluvial soil, it varies in short distances, owing to the
changes in the current of the streams at various flood stages. Near
the streams and across the sharper bends, where the currents were
sharp, the coarser particles were deposited, and in many cases the soil
has a large proportion of coarse sand. Near the larger bends, or where
the water found settling basins, where the water was less turbulent,
the finer material was deposited, giving rise to the heavier and more
silty type, usually of a darker color. Mixture of the fine clay or silty
material with the right proportion of sand is the basis of the Genesee
fine sandy loam.
Agricultural Conditions, — The bottoms are flooded annually, or
oftener, and in places are cut by smaller streams and branches tributary
to the main stream. The drainage is usually good and- the land dries
rapidly after a rain. It is a soil that is friable, easy to till, and, where
protected from overflow, is admirably adapted to com, oats, clover or
timothy. A great deal of the rougher land is in pasture.
The fertility of the Genesee fine sandy loam is renewed each time
it is flooded by high water, making the growing of leguminous crops of
less importance. Thorough cultivation is necessary to keep down the
large number of weeds springing up from the seed brought in by high
water.
The flood of 1913 took off all the top layer of soil of a field along
the Wabash River. It was planted in com that year and yielded ten
bushels to the acre. Oats made ten bushels per acre the next year, but
a good stand of clover was obtained. Two years later the field yielded
eighty bushels of corn per acre. This goes to show the vital importance
of clover on river-bottom land.
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Soil Survey of Cdss County, Indiana. 203
Dunkirk Loamy Fine Sand.
Characteristics. — The surface of this type is a yellowish gray to
brown fine sandy loam. At six to ten inches it gradually changes to a
fine yellowish sand, with perhaps a small amount of clay. The subsoil
is variable, ranging from almost pure sand to a very sandy loam.
The topogrraphy of the Dunkirk fine loamy sand ranges from almost
level to a rolling surface comprised of a series of sand ridges, the
valleys holding the Clyde fine sandy loam. The Dunkirk loamy fine
sand usually borders the muck patches, forming sand ridges.
Drainage. — The drainage is good, except in the narrow, depressed
valleys, which are poorly drained.
Crops Groum. — Corn and oats do well on this type where the organic
content is well supplied. Wheat does well when it has a favorable
-winter. Cow peas seem to be the best crop to supply plant food, as it
can be grown more easily than clover. Most of the crop, however,
should be plowed under. The agricultural practices given for the Miami
series apply here.
Dunkirk Fine Sand.
Characteristics. — The Dunkirk fine sand occurs as a fine yellowish
sand in ridges on the border of the lake plane region. These ridges are
resting on a clay bottom. In some instances the clay seems to form the
core of the ridge, the sand forming a sort of veneer. The loose drift
sand was formed in unequal ridges by the wind blowing it in one direc-
tion, forming a gentle slope on the windward side and a sharp, abrupt
slope on the leeward side.
The sand blows on the surrounding land, smothering the vegetation
and beating the tender leaves to strings in the early spring. Care must
be taken to keep a cover crop on all ridges and sandy areas that have*
a tendency to be moved by the wind. Rye is a good crop for this
purpose.
Crops Groum. — Com and oats do moderately well on this type. Wheat
does very well, while navy beans are grown to some extent. A sand
ridge is always damp just under the surface during the dryest weather.
The crop yield is usually limited by the amount of available plant food.
This is difficult to retain because of the bleaching power of the soil
water. Clover is a good crop for green manure, or perhaps a better
crop is cow peas.
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204 Proceedings of Indiana Academy of Science.
Muck.
Characteristics, — Muck is a dark brown to black mixture composed
of the organic remains of swamp vegetation in various stages of oxida-
tion, mixed with varying quantities of sand, clay and silt. It ranges
from two or three feet to many feet in depth. On the outer margins
the muck merges into the Clyde series.
Most of the muck occurs north of the Wabash and in many areas is
bordered by sand ridges. The surface is level, and before it is drained
it is covered with water, forming a marsh. Many of the areas were
known as prairie by the early settlers. They were covered with a
growth of sedges, marsh grass, etc. At the present time it is usually
drained by dredge ditches. When it is properly drained and sown in
grass it forms fine meadow or pasture land, in fact that seems to be
the most satisfactory farm crop to use.
Crops Groivn. — It produces good crops of corn where the frost does
not get it in the late spring or early fall, but this land is affected most
of all. Most muck is deficient in potash, which can be supplied by
manure and potash salts. Grains grow too rank and lodge badly. Muck
is well adapted to the growth of onions, celery, cabbage, lettuce, beets,
turnips, cauliflower and Irish potatoes. It is especially used for gar-
dening when close to town.
Meadow.
Meadow represents the variable soil conditions encountered in the
narrow, trough-like valleys of the streams. It consists of alluvial mate-
rial, varying from almost pure sand to silt or clay, and is usually sub-
ject to overflow with very high water. Part of it is in cultivation, but
most of it is in pasture, trees, underbrush and weeds. This type is not
shown separately on the map, but is included with the Genesee series.
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The Velocity op Sound Waves in Tubes.
Arthur L. Foley, Indiana University.
(Author's Publication No. 45.)
In 1862-63 Regnault, in Paris, made an elaborate series of experi-
ments on the velocity of sound in newly laid water pipes. As sources
of sound he used a pistol, explosions, and musical instruments. Both
ends of the pipe were closed and the sound was produced at one end.
Thus the wave passed back and forth through the pipe many times, its
time of arrival at the ends being recorded on a chronograph drum by
a stylus operated electrically when the sound wave impinged on a thin
membrane and closed an electric circuit. Figure 1 shows graphically
the results of Regnault's experiments.
5000 10.000 15.000
0/ stances traversed m the Pipes
Fig. 1.
(205>
20.000
Metres
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206 Proceedings of Indiana Academy of Science.
It will be noted that Regnault obtains a velocity of 334.2 m./sec. near
the source in a pipe 110 cm. in diameter, and that the velocity at 2,000 m.
from the source has decreased to 330.5 m./sec. A pipe 10.8 cm. in diam-
eter gave a smaller initial velocity and a much more rapid variation of
that velocity with distance from the source. (The curve indicates, too,
a much greater total variation in the case of a small pipe.) Regnault
concluded that: (1) The velocity of sound in pipes varies inversely w^ith
the diameter; (2) the velocity decreases as the distance from the source
increases; (3) the limiting velocity is the same for all sources.
Rink objected to Regnault's deductions and explained the greater
initial velocity as due to the fact that, during the first few^ coursings,
the sound wave would be traveling in air moving bodily as the result
of the explosion which produced the wave.
TABLE I.
Rink's Analytia of RegnauWt E:periment».
No. of
Experi-
ment.
Charge
of Gun
Powder
in Pistol
in Gm«.
Speed in cm. per Sec. of Each Passage of Sound Along Pipe
110 cm. Diameter.
Meaa
Speed for
Given
Charge of
Ponder
3rd
Passage
4th
Passage
6th
Passage
6th
Passage
7th
Passage
8th
Passage
1
2
3
4
6
6
0.5
1.0
1.5
2
1
1
330.02
330.36
330.29
330.60
330.04
330.36
330.29
330.59
330.57
330.51
330.26
330.37
330 15
330.57
330.54
330.84
330.26
330.50
330.21
330.61
330.47
330.44
330.23
330.67
330.11
330.44
330.47
330.44
330.15
330.55
330.13
330.42
330.53
330.30
230.22
330.50
330.152
330 498
330 433
330 513
330.193
330.492
MeanSpee
PaB8ai;e
d for each
330.278
330.428
330.477
330.452
330.360
330.330
The above table gives the results of Rink*s analysis of Regnault's
experiments and appears to confirm Rink's contention that the true
velocity of sound in a given pipe is constant, the result for a pipe 110 cm.
in diameter being 330.5 m./sec. For a pipe 7 cm. in diameter LeRoux,
using Regnault's methods, obtained a velocity of 330.66 m./sec.
Regnault, in 1865, by the reciprocal firing of guns, the explosion
breaking an electrical circuit at the source, the wave — by moving a
membrane — breaking another circuit at a distant point, both circuits
making stylus records on the same chronograph, obtained velocities of
331.37 m./sec. and 330.7 m./sec. at distances respectively of 1,280 m.
and 2,445 m. from the source. In all of Regnault's experiments efforts
were made to determine and to correct for the time lag of the recording
apparatus. The error due to this cause can not be entirely eliminated
for two reasons. In the first place the lag depends on the intensity of
the wave and is therefore a function of the distance from the source.
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Velocity of Sound Waves in Tubes.
261
In the second place the sound produced by a pistol or cannon is, near
the source, a pulse whose wave curve is short and steep. As the dis-
tance from the source increases the wave type changes. This change
of wave form would of itself cause a variation in the time lag of the
device. However, the unavoidable sources of error in Regnault's work
are not sufficient to cast doubt on his conclusions that the velocity of
sound decreases as the intensity decreases. Indeed, other experimenters
using- other methods have arrived at a similar conclusion, a conclusion
in accord with theory.
Referring to Rink's table of Regnault's results from which Rink
concludes that the velocity of sound in a pipe 110 cm. in diameter is
practically constant, one may conclude that the apparent constancy is
due to the fact that, in such a tube, the intensity of the sound wave
varies very slowly with the distance from the source. In very small
tubes and in tubes with rough walls or with walls of material capable
of absorbing some of the energy of the wavies, the intensity would vary
more rapidly with increasing distance from the source, and one would
expect a greater variation in the velocity. Experiments confirm this
conclusion.
TABLE 11.
Observer
Method
Frequency
Diameter and
Material of Tube
Velocity
m /sec.
Wertheim, 1844
Organ Pipe
1.0 cm. Brass . .
2.0 cm. BraHs
2.0 cm. Glass
4.0 cm. Brass
329 12
330.11
330.23
332 10
Fiegnault. Mem. de I'Acacl
Paris. 37. I. 3. 1868. C. R.
B 66. s 209, 1868.
See Fig. 2 and explana-
tion.
Rink, Pork. .Ann. B 149
See Fig. 2 and explana-
tion.
Explosion. .
110 cm. Iron
330.5
a 533. 1873.
Kundt. P(m. Ann. B 135
8 333U. 527. 1868.
Double Kundt 's tube .
9
3.5 cm. Glass
6.5 cm. Glass
13.0 cm. Glass
305.42
323.00
329.47
Seebeck. Pogg. Ann. B 139
s 104, 1870.
Kundt 's tube
320
320
320
512
512
512
.34 cm. Glass
.9 cm. Gla.ss
1.75 cm. Glass .. .
.34 cm. Glass
.9 cm. Glass
1.75 cm. Glass
317 26
328.02
329.24
322.98
328.44
330.92
IjB Roux. Ann. Chem. Phys
Sim i liar to Rcgnault's
method
ExploHion. .
7.0 cm
330.66
(4) 12. 345, 1867
BJaikley. Phil Mag. V 16
p. 447, 1883.
Special form of organ
pipe.
105
1.17cm. Brass....
1.95 cm. Brass ...
3.25cm. Brass....
5.41 cm. Brass
8.82 cm. Brass....
324.56
326.90
328.78
1329.72
330.13
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208 Proceedings of Indiana Academy of Science.
TABLE II— Continued.
Observer
Method
Frequency
Diameter and
Material of Tube
Velocity
m./sec.
J. Muller. Ann. d. Phys
Kundt's tube
903
903
902
2.482
.372cm. Glass....
.678 cm. Glass ...
1.552 cm. Glass...
.372 cm. Glass...
.678cm. Glass.. .
1.552 cm. Glass
317.2
B 11. 8 331. 1903.
322 9
327.3
323.0
325.4
330.2
Schulue. Ann. d. Phys
Quincke's double tube
384
384
612
512
384
384
512
512
512
.101 cm. Glass...
.151 cm. Glass. ...
.101cm. Glass...
.151cm. Glass ...
.099cm. Brass ...
.148 cm. Brass...
.099cm. Brass....
.148 cm. Brass...
. 150 cm. Rubber..
258
B l.t. 8 1060. 1904.
282
265
290
189
230
208
253
195
In Table II, I have tabulated some of the results obtained by a few
of the many observers who have determined experimentally the velocity
of sound in tubes. The results shown are not uniform, but in general
they tend to show that —
(1) The velocity of sound in tubes is less than in free air.
(2) The smaller the tube the smaller the velocity.
(3) The higher the frequency the less the retardation.
(4) The velocity depends more or less upon the material of the
walls of the tube.
(5) The greater the intensity of the sound the greater is its
velocity.
The last-named conclusion is not drawn from Table II, but from the
origrinal papers there referred to. It must be said, however, that the
observers referred to are not a unit in supporting the five conclusions
above named. Other observers are equally at variance. For instance,
Violle and Vautier* after a study of the velocity of sound in a masonry
conduit 3 m. in diameter, the sounds being produced by various musical
instruments and rang^ing in frequency from 32 to 640, arrived at the
conclusion that in such a pipe the velocity is constant to within one part
in a thousand. Rink's analysis of Regnault's results, given in Table I,
v^rould seem to show a velocity independent of sound intensity.
As a whole, however, the conclusions given are supported by experi-
1 Violle and Vautier. Ann. Chem. Phys. (8) 5. 208, 1905.
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Velocity of Sound Waves in Tubes.
209
ment, and are in accord with the theoretical conclusions of Helmholtz,'
Kirchoff,' Rayleigh,' and others who have attacked the subject. The
equations of both Helmholtz and Kirchoff may be reduced to the form
v(l-
2rjx n
where i'' is the speed of sound of frequency n in a pipe of radius r, and
V is the velocity in free air. According to Helmholtz c is the viscosity
of the gas, according to Kirchoff it is a term depending on the heat
conduction between gas and pipe walls, according to Miiller^ the equa-
tion has no general validity, according to Schulze' the "constant" c was
found to range between 0.0075 and 0.025, depending on the diameter and
nature of the tube.
FiK. 2.
Sturm* found that Kirchoff *s formula was not valid for different
tubes and frequencies. On the other hand Wertheim's' results supported
the equation, while Schneebele' and Seebeck* obtained results that sup-
1 Helmholtz, Wessensch. Abhandl. B 1. b 383, 1882.
= Kirchoflf. Pog. Ann. B 134, a 77. 1868.
' Rayleigh's Theory of Sound, Vol. — , p. — . Also Lamb's Dynamical Theory of
Sound, p. 190.
* See Table II.
5 See Table II.
«J. Sturm. Ann. d. Phys. B M. s 822, 1904.
' Citation in Table II.
"PoKK. Ann. B 136, 8 296, 1869.
»See Table II.
14—16568
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^10 Proceedings of Indiana Academy of Science.
ported the equation only as far as concerns variation of speed with
diameter of pipe, and were in disagreement as to the effect of pitch.
There is therefore no consensus of opinion on any of the points con-
cerning the velocity of sound waves in tubes. It will be noted, however,
that in no case has an observer claimed a greater speed in pipes than in
the open. The writer has obtained such results.
Figure 2 shows the general arrangement of the apparatus used in
this experiment. The reader is referred to earlier papers* for a more
detailed description and explanation. It will suffice here to say that
two spark gaps S and I are in series and connected — through two vari-
able gaps G, G — to the terminals of a powerful electrostatic machine.
When the gaps G and G are shortened a discharge passes through the
commutator C to the circuit including the sound gap S and the illumin-
ating gap I, the latter spark being retarded slightly by a variable ca-
pacity K. By varying the capacity K and the length of the gap I, the
light from the spark at I can be adjusted to cast a shadow on a photo-
graphic plate P of the sound wave produced by the spark at S.
Plate I shows such a wave. The sound spark was produced just
behind the center of the circular screen (a hard rubber disk) D, the
screen being used merely to prevent fogging the dry plate by the light
of the sound spark. T is an end-on shadow of a portion of a piece of
brass tubing 3 cm. in diameter and 5 cm. long. The projecting arms
are four pieces of brass tubing, respectively 0.25 cm., 0.48 cm., 0.8 cm.,
and 1.15 cm. in internal diameter, each of them 2.4 cm. long. They were
soldered radially in holes whose diameters corresponded respectively to
the outside diameters of the tubes. Almost half of the side wall of the
supporting tube was then cut away, to permit the sound wave to travel
out on one side in free air, while on the other side the wave was arrested
except for the portions passing through the four radial tubes. The
sound gap was placed as accurately as possible at the center of the
supporting tube and the point of intersection of the axes of the radial
tubes.
In order to show at a glance just what has happened with the posi-
tion of the sound gap as center I have drawn a broken line circle. To
avoid confusion I have drawn the circle C just outside the main wave W.
It will be noted that the waves through the tubes lie well without the
circle, showing that the waves in the tube traveled more rapidly than
the wave in free air, and that apparently the velocities in the several
tubes were the same, although the tube diameters were in the approxi-
mate ratios of 1, 2, 3 and 5.
On the negative from which Plate I is a reduced print the waves
* Physical Review, Vol. 36, p. 373, 1912. Also Proceedinsrs Indiana Academy of
Science, p. 305, 1915.
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Velocity of Sound Waves in Tubes.
211
through the tubes measured .48 cm. in advance of the free air wave
and the tube length shadows were 4.56 cm. long. Assuming that the
entire gain in space traversed occurred while the waves were inside
the tubes (an assumption which I think is not entirely true) we would
have a relative increase of velocity within the tubes of .48 -^ 4.56, or
10.5 percent.
Plate I.
It happens that none of the observations of Table II was made with
a tube of the same size as the smallest one used by the author. For
a tube about 40 percent larger Seebeck and Miiller obtained values
approximately 5 percent less than the free air velocity — depending on
the pitch of the sound. Thus it would appear that the total difference
between their and the writer's results is in the neighborhood of 15
percent.
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212 Proceedings of Indiana Academy of Science,
Plate II was obtained by replacing the four short tubes with two
longer tubes, of internal diameter .25 cm. and 1.15 cm. respectively,
each 10 cm. long, and adjusted radially as in Plate I. Note that in
this case the wave through the small tube is actually slightly in advance
of the wave through the large tube, the distances on the original plate
Plate II.
being .89 cm. and .84 cm. respectively. The wave near the gap is the
reflected wave from the side of the box which enclosed the gaps and
dry plate. The percent increase in velocity in this case is obtained as
before by dividing .89 by 16.5, the length of the tube shadow on the
negative. This gives 5.4 percent, about half the value obtained with the
shorter tubes, which were about one-fourth as long as the two shown on
Plate II. The gain in distance traversed was 0.48 cm. for the small
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Velocity of Sound Waves in Tubes. 213
tube when 2.4 cm. long, and 0.89 cm. when 10 cm. long. It would appear
from this that more than half the gain was made in the first fourth of
the tube's length, and that if the tube were long enough the velocity
might drop to the values obtained by other experimenters, or even below
— for their results are averages over considerable leng:ths of tubes.
The writer gives the calculations above — far Plates I and II — merely
as an illustration of what occurred in these two cases, and not because
he attaches any significance whatever to the numbers given. As a
matter of fact, the numbers have no significance. In every case I have
tried, the waves through the tubes have been in advance of those in
free air, but the gain has been quite variable. I am now endeavoring
to determine the cause of the increased velocity, and the reasons for
its variation. I have secured a number of photographs of the waves
through a 10 cm. and a 15 cm. tube placed side by side, with their ends
at different distances from the sound spark. This investigation is not
complete, but it has gone far enough for me to say that the velocity of
a pulse through a tube is greatest when the end of the tube is nearest
the sound spark, indicating that it is a question of sound intensity.
The sound for a time travels faster in the tube than it does outside
because the intensity of the wave in the tube decreases less rapidly than
in free space.
This experiment appears to settle conclusively the question as to the
dependence of sound velocity upon intensity independent of any varia-
tions caused by motion of air in a body, as contended by Rink in the
case of Regnault's experiments. I shall discuss in a later paper the
question of what happens to the air when a spark passes.
Physics Laboratory, Indiana University, January, 1919.
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Dr. Luther D. Waterman.
(211)
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Luther Dana Waterman.
Arthur L. Foley.
Dr. Luther Dana Waterman was born in Wheeling, West Virginia,
November 21, 1830; died at Indianapolis, Indiana, June 30, 1918, age
eighty-seven years, seven months and nine days. Dr. Waterman was
the son of Joseph Aplin and Susan (Dana) Waterman, the father being
a native of Cornish, New Hampshire, the mother of Belfry, Ohio. The
mother died in 1837, leaving five young children, of whom Luther, the
subject of this sketch, but seven years old, was next to the oldest. On
the death of the mother Luther went to live with his grandmother at
Oxford, Ohio. Although his father later remarried, Luther continued
to make his home with his grandmother until he had completed the work
of the public schools of Oxford and entered upon a college course at
Miami University.
The -father, Joseph Aplin Waterman, was a farmer in his earlier
years. Later he became a physician and still later a Methodist minister.
It appears that he was successful in each of these callings, particularly
as a minister. It is said that he was not only a zealous expounder of
the Gospel but that he was an earnest and capable biblical student. He
died at Oxford, Ohio, at the age of fifty-five years.
Luther's maternal great-grandfather was Captain William Dana,
who was in charge of one of the companies from New England that,
under General Putnam, settled at Fort Marietta, now the city of Ma-
rietta, Ohio.
Dr. Waterman's early education was obtained in the public schools
at Oxford, Ohio, where he was known as a very capable and ambitious
lad. After completing the work of the public schools, he attended Miami
University four years, and the Medical College of Ohio, at Cincinnati,
two years. During his college work he was frequently obliged to drop
out and teach a term to get money to continue his college work. At one
time while a student in Cincinnati he got so near the end of his resources
that his only alternative appeared to be to drop his medical work and
seek employment. As a last resort he decided to try for a prize of fifty
dollars offered by one of the Cincinnati papers for the best poem for
the coming New Year's edition. By New Year's day young Waterman's
funds were so low that he did not have money enough to buy a paper
to see whether or not he had won the prize, and it was by accident that
(216^
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216 Proceedings of Indiana Academy of Science.
he learned of his success. He spent a part of the prize money to buy
a pocket set of surgical instruments. He used these instruments during
his forty years of surgical practice and it was with pride that he ex-
hibited them to his friends, particularly after he and the instruments
had "retired."
Dr. Waterman graduated from the Medical College of Ohio in 1853.
For two years after graduation he practiced medicine in Cincinnati,
and, like the usual young doctor, was not burdened with patients. Con-
cluding that he could do better in a smaller town, he moved to Kokomo,
Indiana, in 1855, and established a partnership with Dr. Cory don Rich-
mond. The move proved to be a very wise one. The population of the
town and surrounding country grew rapidly and with it the practice
and reputation of the firm of Richmond & Waterman. For several years
these doctors led a very strenuous life — with an office full of patients
and constant calls for country trips through swamps and over corduroy
roads. Although Dr. Waterman remained in Kokomo but six years,
leaving there in 1861 to become a surgeon in the Union Army, never-
theless it was at Kokomo that he got the practical experience that made
his work with the army so successful, and it was there that he secured
the nucleus of his later fortune.
Being a man of strong idealism and patriotism, Dr. Waterman did
not hesitate a moment, when the integrity of the Union was threatened,
to sacrifice a large and lucrative practice to offer his services to the
Government. In August, 1861, he was commissioned Surgeon of the
Thirty-ninth Regiment, Indiana Volunteer Infantry. Although his total
service in the Army extended over a period of three years and two
months, nevertheless he was not with the Thirty-ninth Regiment much
of the time, being frequently detailed to other companies and to hos-
pitals. During his three years of service he was Surgeon of the Eighth
Indiana Cavalry, Medical Director of the Second Division of the Second
Army Corps, Army of the Cumberland, then Medical Director of the
First Division of the same Corps, and during the absence of superior
officers was Medical Director for a month of the Corps under General
Phil Sheridan. He was Surgeon at the hospitals at Huntsville, Ala-
bama, and at Bridgeport and Chattanooga, Tennessee. He was twice
captured by Confederate forces, once at Harpeth Shoals, Tennessee, and
again at Newman, Georgia. He was held for three weeks in the prison
stockade at Macon, Georgia, and then transferred to the workhouse
prison at Charleston, South Carolina. He was later released (exchanged)
near Fort Sumpter.
At the conclusion of the war Dr. Waterman located at Indianapolis
and once again began to build up a practice. He soon came to be rec-
ognized as a successful surgeon and one of the best general practitioners
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Luther Dana Waterman. 217
in the State. He was for several years one of the surgeons of the City
Hospital and was one of the charter organizers of the old Indiana Med-
ical College, in which he was Professor of Anatomy from 1869 to 1873,
and Professor of Principles and Practice of Medicine from 1875 to 1877.
With the consolidation of the several medical schools of the State into
the Indiana University School of Medicine, Dr. Waterman became Emer-
itus Professor of Medicine. He was for many years an active member
of the Indiana State Medical Society, and was Secretary and President
of that organization. It was in May, 1878, as President of the Society,
that he gave an address entitled "Economy' and Necessity of a State
Board of Health." The address was published by the Society and five
thousand copies were distributed throughout the State. In that address
his arguments were so conclusively presented that they caused a state-
wide movement which resulted eventually in the establishment of a
State Board of Health in Indiana. Up to that time but thirteen States
in the Union had provided for state medical boards, and all these had
been established within the previous decade.
Dr. Waterman retired from active practice in 1893, at the age of
sixty-three years, after forty years of practice of medicine and surgery.
Nowadays when a physician retires not many know about it or care.
In this day of specialists, when a different one is employed for each
and every ailment, physician and patient rarely know one another inti-
mately; indeed, they may not even be acquaintances. Once each family
had but one doctor, regardless of the nature of the case. Whatever
such a physician lacked that the specialist possesses was balanced by
the former's broad and comprehensive knowledge and experience, his
understanding of the patient's history, habits and peculiarities, and a
sympathy and personal interest that many times amounted to genuine
affection. Dr. Waterman was such a physician, a family physician of
the highest type, and there was sincere regret in thousands of homes
when he announced his retirement from active practice.
Dr. Waterman was not only a progressive and successful physician
and surgeon; he was a man of wide intellectual interests, a constant
reader, all his life a student of science, language and literature, himself
a writer of ability.
The writer remembers well the first time he met Dr. Waterman,
then eighty years of age. He was attending a dinner of the Indiana
Academy of Science and sat beside the writer — in order to discuss the
electron theory. The last time the writer ever saw the Doctor alive
was when the Doctor accompanied him on a two-hundred-mile auto trip
to attend a meeting of the Indiana Academy at Turkey Run and The
Shades — only a month before the Doctor's death. He was still inter-
ested in the electron theory. He was interested, too, in the research
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218 Proceedings of Indiana Academy of Science,
work of the Waterman Institute and discussed minutely the work in
progress. But what impressed the writer even more than the aged
Doctor's knowledge of and continued interest in science was his knowl-
edge of language, literature and history. He rarely faltered on Latin
or Greek derivatives and he read Spanish readily. In fact, he was at
that time reading a history of Mexico in Spanish. He had made an
extended trip into Mexico in 1886 and had acquired some knowledge of
the Spanish language. Thirty years later, at an age of more than four
score, we find him reading Spanish and studying Mexican history. Here
we find the secret of Dr. Waterman's success. He had the desire to
know, and he had the perseverance and energy required to acquire the
knowledge. In addition he had the instincts of the scientist, the faculty
of observing details and appreciating their importance. This is strik-
ingly illustrated in a paper presented to the writer a few years ago.
It is a ^our-page description of an aurora witnessed by the Doctor when
a young man, written as the display was taking place. For vividness
of description and terse, straight-forward English it is superior to most
of the studied memoirs published in our magazines of science. Dr.
Waterman's ability was recognized by his felma mater, Miami Univer-
sity, by conferring upon him in 1892 the honorary degree M. A.
Dr. Waterman was originally a Whig, but became a Republican when
that party came into ascendancy and remained a staunch Republican all
his life. When Fremont was running for President the Doctor stumped
Howard County in his behalf. Throughout his life he remained more
or less active in his party's councils.
At the time of his visits to Europe, 1878 and 1881, also to Mexico,
1886, Dr. Waterman wrote a number of articles for the Indianapolis
papers descriptive of his travels. He published a paper on "The Regi-
mental Surgeon" in the Indiana Medical Journal, February, 1906, and
a book of verse, entitled "Phantoms of Life," in 1883. In this little
volume he "presented his philosophy of existence in stately phrasing.
The ideals there shown are high, and those who knew him may well
believe that he tried to fulfill them." Dr. Waterman, the son of a
minister, was not himself an enrolled member of any church. Yet he
was in thought and deed a deeply religious man. At his funeral both
Jew and (Jentile attested to the nobility of his character and the grief
his death brought to them.
At a meeting of the Trustees of Indiana University, May 12, 1915,
Dr. Waterman placed in their hands deeds to property amounting in
value to one hundred thousand dollars for the purpose of founding an
Institute for Scientific Research. This is the largest gift for scientific
research ever made in Indiana. Dr. Waterman believed the highest
form of charity is to discover useful truth, and for this purpose he
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Luther Dana Waterman. 21d
gave the savings of a frugal and industrious life. The Luther Dana
Waterman Institute for Research began its work in September, 1917.
It is a satisfaction to know that Dr. Waterman lived to see the work
inaugurated and to express interest in its progress. It is to be regretted
that he did not live to see at least one publication from the Institute
which with wisdom and generosity he had established.
At the Indiana University commencement exercises, June 23, 1915,
President Bryan chose Dr. Waterman's life as a theme for his address
to the senior class. No more fitting conclusion to this biography could
be written. I therefore quote from President Bryan's address:
"I wish to say a few words to the oldest member of our faculty —
Dr. Luther Dana Waterman, professor of medicine emeritus.
"Surgeon in the Federal Army, prisoner of war at Macon and
Charleston, in civil life physician and professor of medicine, you have
in eighty-four years won position and honors and fortune such that
many would for them sacrifice everything else in the world. But I
wish these my children to see that you have made your way up to a
great practical success without sacrificing everything else in the world.
You have not sacrificed your interest in the worlds that lie outside of
your vocation of physician. Most men of every calling are caught
within the trap of their own business. Not you. You have escaped
that trap. You have traveled far among men and books and ideas.
You are not of those who bear a title from the college of liberal arts
and are yet aliens from its spirit. In the world of the liberal arts you
are a citizen. You are friend with Plato and Virgil and Darwin and
their kind. You know that these are not dead names in the academic
catalogue, but living forces and makers of society. In that world you
have spoken your own word in verses which are resolutely truthful,
discriminating and brave. The joy of living as you have done in the
wide, free and glorious world of the liberal arts is such that many for
it have sacrificed everything else, including that practical success which
you have not sacrificed.
"But besides your successes inside and beyond your calling you have
had another fortune. Long ago there came to you an idea. You had
lived from the days of the tallow candle and a thousand things which
went with that to the days of the electric light and a thousand things
w^hich go with that. Within your lifetime you had seen an incredible
access of power, enlightenment and freedom, from the discovery of truth
of which all preceding generations had been ignorant. You had then
the insight, the conviction that the Great Charity is the discovery of
truth, which is thenceforth light and power and freedom for all men.
This conviction became your deepest purpose. Thirty- two years ago
you wrote:
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220 Proceedings of Indiana Academy of Science,
He who would make his life a precious thinff
Must nurse a kindly purpose in his soul.
• "These lines were your confession. There was a great secret purpose
which you were cherishing. You worked for that. You saved for that.
For that you had the secret joy of living sparely, austerely as a soldier.
"Sir, you have no son. But the scholars who work upon the foun-
dation which you have established here shall be your sons. Far down
the years when all of us are in the dust your virile sons shall be here
keeping alive your name and your hope. And so shall be fulfilled your
saying that
They live longest in the future who
Have truest kept the purposes of life."
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New Methods of Measuring the Speed of Sound Pulses
Near the Source.
By Arthur L. Foley, Waterman Research Professor and Head of
Department of Physics, Indiana University.
In the Proceedings of the Indiana Academy of Science for 1915 the
writer showed that the relative speeds of sound pulses at some distance
from the source and of different intensity are apparently the same. The
experiments described threw no light on the question of the actual speed
of a pulse at different distances from the source. This paper deals with
a method, rather with two methods, of finding the actual and instanta-
neous speed of the pulse at any point less than a meter or so from the
source. The method could be used for greater distances by increasing
the intensity of the spark producing the sound pulse, so as to give the
wave sufficient intensity to cast a "shadow" on a plate or film.
.^^
FIG.;.
Figure 1 shows the arrangement of the apparatus used in this experi-
ment. M is a plane steel mirror made by grinding and polishing the
flat surface foi-med by cutting an axial longitudinal section 20 cm.
(221)
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222 Proceedings of Indiana Academy of Science.
long from a piece of steel shafting about 5 cm. in diameter. The
shaft was arranged for rotation at a high speed inside a light-tight
box Y connecting with another light-tight box X, with a rectang^ular
opening O, 2x15 cm. between them. Bi and Ba are boxes to hold
the full and empty spools for photographic film. Guides F on each
edge of the film caused it to lie, when unwound, on the surface of
a cylinder with the rotating mirror M on the axis. Just in front of the
mirror is a horizontal rod R, of small diameter. A spark from the
terminals E of an electric machine jumps the gaps Gi, Cra, S and L, the
spark at S occurring before the one at L. When the sound spark occurs
the light passes through O, falls upon the mirror M, and is reflected on
the film, the rod R producing a shadow Ri on the film. Suppose that
the sound pulse arrives at W, by the time the retarded light spark
occurs. A part of the shadow of Wi is intercepted by the wall of the
box. A part passes through O, falls upon the mirror at Ws, Ws, and is
reflected on the film at W„ W», together with a second shadow of the
rod R, now at Ra, due to the fact that the mirror has rotated through
a measurable angle during the interval between the sound spark and the
light spark. The distance between the shadows Ri and Rj together with
the mirror speed and the distance from the mirror to the film, enable
one to calculate the time interval between the sparks.
From the measured distance W, — W«, together with the distance from
the light spark to the sound spark, and from the sound spark to the
mirror, and thence to the film, one gets the true radius of the sound
wave. The quotient of the radius by the time gives the average speed.
If one plots radius by time for a considerable number of observations
the tangent at any point on the curve gives the instantaneous speed at
that point.
The films used were eight inches wide and four feet long, and in-
cluded about sixty degrees of the arc about the mirror. As the image
rotates twice as fast as the mirror it is evident that if the sparks were
produced at random, there would be but one chance in twelve of the
mirror being in the proper position to give a picture. To avoid this
difficulty and to enable one to get several pictures on the same film a
metal rod was fastened in such a position on the end of the mirror shaft
that it shortened the gap Ga to such an amount as to cause a spark to
pass at the proper time. The position of the gap G2 was varied by fixing
the electrode J at different points along the arc A. J was arranged so
it could be slid back and forth through a sleeve. When a spark was
desired J was pushed forward and the gap Ga thus shortened until a
spark occurred. The gap was then lengthened before the electric ma-
chine had time to generate a sufficient potential for a second spark. In
practice, however, this device was found to be somewhat erratic, prob-
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New Methods of Measuring. 223
ably due to the powerful air currents set up by the whirling electrode.
Nevertheless it was possible to get three or four pictures on each film
and to get sufficiently well defined sound pulse and rod shadows to permit
of reliable speed calculations for waves of radius greater than 2 or 3 cm.
The polish of the metal mirror was not sufficiently good to give well-
defined wave pictures close to the source, where the wave is more or less
confused with other spark effects. It was decided, therefore, to eliminate
the mirror entirely and get the picture directly on a moving film. The
mirror shaft was removed and in its stead was placed a shaft carrying
an eight-inch fiat-face steel pulley two feet in diameter. The film was
fastened to the face of the pulley and rotated within 1 cm. of the open-
ing O, across the center of which the rod R was fastened in a horizontal
position and exactly in line with the sound and light sparks. The dis-
tance on the film between the sound spark and the light spark shadows
of R together with the pulley speed gave the time interval between the
sparks. From the radius of the wave shadow together with the dis-
tances from the light and sound sparks to the film the true radius of
the sound pulse was calculated. As before, the quotient of radius by
time gave the sound speed.
The definition of both sound wave and rod shadows was much better
in this case than when the rotating steel mirror was used. However,
the experiment did not yield better results for waves of small radius,
because it was impossible to rotate the film fast enough to make the
distance between the rod shadows sufficiently large to be measured with
accuracy, when the time interval was small. The film was thrown off
and torn to fragments whenever the speed exceeded some twenty-five
revolutions per second, regardless of the precautions taken to hold the
film on the pulley. Even when both the edges and the ends of the film
were cemented to the pulley, the film was thrown off at a speed of some
twenty turns per second. The highest rotational speed was obtained
when the film was held on the pulley by placing over it a strip of strong
cotton net of about 5 cm. mesh, with edges laced securely on the inside
of the pulley rim. The string shadows were readily differentiated from
the rod and wave shadows, and were not so objectionable as the writer
feared they might be.
On account of the limited speed at which the film could be rotated,
the increase in the accuracy of the time interval measurements resulting
from the better definition of the rod shadows was offset by the fact that
the distance between the shadows was much less than by the rotating
mirror method. Both the rotating mirror method and the moving film
method gave results that show that if there is any difference between
the speed of a sound pulse of the intensity us'ed and the speed of an
ordinary sound wave, the difference is less than two per cent.
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224 Proceedings of Indiana Academy of Science.
The writer is now at work on a third method which promises more
accurate results than either of the ones described in this paper.
It may be noted that a photographic method of measuring sound
speed eliminates sources of error found in all methods where the sense
of hearing or any mechanical device is used to register the time of
arrival of a sound wave, and where the distances traversed by the wave
are large. There is no question as to personal error, time lag, wind
velocities, differences in temperature, humidity, density, change of wave
form, etc. The method gives the instantaneous speed at points up to the
source of sound itself. These points will be discussed and data submitted
in a later paper.
The writer wishes to thank Professor Cogshall of the Department of
Astronomy, of Indiana University, for his kindness in grinding and
polishing the steel mirror used in this experiment.
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The Crustaceans of Lake Maxinkuckee.
By Barton Warren Evermann,
Director of the Museum of the California Academy of Sciences,
and
Howard Walton Clark,
Scientific Assistant, U. S. Bureau of Fisheries Biological Station,
Fairport, Iowa.
During the physical and biological survey of Lake Maxinkuckee,
Indiana, carried on more or less intermittently from July, 1899, to
October, 1913, for the United States Bureau of Fisheries, considerable
attention was given to the Crustaceans inhabiting the lake and its con-
necting waters. The full detailed report on those investigations will,
it is hoped, be published elsewhere. In the present paper it is our pur-
pose to present only the more important considerations and conclusions,
largely omitting the vast body of details and observed facts upon which
the present contribution is based.
A very comprehensive study of the Plankton was made by Professor
Chancey Judah, now of the University of Wisconsin. It is hoped the
results of Professor Juday's studies may be published soon. A similar
thorough study of the Parasitic Copepods was made by Dr. Charles B.
Wilson, a brief summary of whose report is made part of this paper.
Except during the summer of 1899 and 1900, the field work on Lake
Maxinkuckee was nearly all done by one or two investigators only.
This made it impossible to pay equal attention to all the groups of
animals and plants; indeed, many groups could receive scarcely more
than passing notice, while others had to be wholly neglected. Among
those groups which received but slight attention are the worms, poly-
zoans, protozoans, smaller crustaceans, insects, and the like. Although
considerable collections were made in some of these groups, insurmount-
able difficulty was experienced in finding specialists to work them up.
Our reports on several of those groups are therefore necessarily brief
and general in character.
Occasional notes and memoranda were made regarding various spe-
cies which we did not have opportunity to observe regularly or method-
ically. Such of these as seem to possess some value or interest are given
in the following pages.
^ Published by permission of the U. S. Commissioner of Fish and Fisheries.
16—16668 (225)
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226 Proceedings of Indiana Academy of Science.
Collecting Stations.
Lake Maxinkuckee is in Marshall County, Indiana, 34 miles south of
South Bend, 94 miles southeast of Chicago, and 32 miles north of Lo-
gansport. Its elevation above sea-level is 735 feet. It is about 2.6 miles
long from north to south, about 1.6 miles wide, and its surface area is
1,854 acres. Its greatest depth is about 90 feet.
Observations were made and collections obtained in all sorts of places
and situations in and about the lake. Certain localities mentioned spe-
cifically in this series of papers may be more definitely described as
follows :
Arlington, — A flag station on the west side of the lake, at the base
of Long Point.
Aubeenaubee Creek, — A small stream entering the lake near the
middle of the east side.
Birch Swamp, — About two miles west of the lake.
Bruce Lake, — A small lake a few miles southwest of Lake Max-
inkuckee.
Culver Inlet, — A small stream entering the lake at the northeast
comer.
Drained Lake, — An old lake bed a mile northwest of the lake.
Farrar*s Creek, — A small creek entering the lake at the south-
west end.
Green*8 Marsh, — A few acres of wet ground between Long Point and
the railroad on the west side of the lake.
Long Point, — A small peninsula projecting into the lake on the
west side.
Lo8t Lake, — A small, shallow, muck-bottomed lake lying west a few
rods from Lake Maxinkuckee.
N orris Boathouse, — On the southeast shore of the lake.
N orris Inlet, — The principal inlet of the lake, entering the lake at
the southeast corner.
Outlet Bay, — A small bay on the north side of Long Point.
Outlet, — The small stream through which the water flows from Lake
Maxinkuckee into Lost Lake.
Spangler Creek. — A small brook entering the lake from the east.
Walley's, — A farm on the outlet creek just below Lost Lake.
Weedpatch. — An east-and-west bar about 1,200 feet long and 500
feet wide, in Lake Maxinkuckee, in lO-foot water southeast of Arlington.
Winfield*8, — On west side north of Outlet Bay.
For convenience of treatment, the Crustaceans of Lake Maxinkuckee
may be divided into five groups, as follows: (1) the Plankton species;
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The Crustaceans of Lake Maxinkuckee. 227
(2) the Parasitic Copepods; (3) the Amphipods or Beach Fleas; (4) the
Isopods or Sowbugs; and (5) the Crawfishes.
The Plankton Species.
The list of species contained in the Plankton collections of 1899 and
1900, and a discussion of their abundance, distribution and habits, will
be found in Professor Juday's report. A few additional species were
later obtained in the small ponds about the lake.
Of the individual species not much can be said; our studies were too
general for that purpose. It may be stated, however, that plankton
species of crustaceans constitute a large part, probably nearly all, of
the first food of the young of many fishes, and much of the food of
some species of fishes throughout their entire lives. The little Stickle-
back (Eucalia inconstans) ^ for example, may be mentioned as one of
such species. Examples of this species kept in an aquarium fed eagerly
on any and all plankton crustaceans which we placed in the aquarium
with them. We observed also that these small crustaceans are captured
and eaten -freely by those curious carnivorous plants, the bladderworts.
Of the whole group it can be said that they are present throughout
the year in greater or less abundance. The abundance varies greatly,
however, from time to time, as shown by Juday. On September 6,
1906, peculiar ripples were observed on the surface of the otherwise
smooth lake. Upon cautiously approaching the spot it was found that
the disturbance was caused by large schools of young black bass, circling
about and feeding voraciously. Upon drawing a towing-net through the
place great quantities of several species of plankton crustaceans were
obtained.
On many occasions the lake surface in large areas was seen to be
covered with a thin scum which, on examination, was found to consist
chiefly of the cast-off skins of minute crustaceans. \
On November 5, 1906, Entomostraca were present in such remark-
able abundance at and near the surface of the lake that the water had
the appearance and consistency of thick soup, the little animals actually
crowding each other in the water. The next day great windrows of these
crustaceans were found washed up on the shore at Long Point. Two
days later they were again observed forming dense clouds at and near
the surface of the lake off the Norris boathouse. A 4-drachm vial was
simply dipped into the water and about 100 of the creatures were
secured.
A quantity of plankton collected July 7, 1909, and examined quali-
tatively by Professor A. A. Doolittle of the department of biology,
Washington, D. C, high schools, gave the following results :
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228 Proceedings of Indiana Academy of Science.
species. Per cent.
Diaptomus oregonensis Lilljeborg 0.38
Cyclops leuckarti; (edax Forbes) 4 . 11
Diaphanosoma leuchtenbergianum Fischer 0.40
Daphnia retrocurva Forbes, var 1 .06
Daphnia hycUina Leydig 84 .02
Total 99.97
The Copepods (free-swimming species) frequently bear attached
Protozoa, sometimes in such numbers as to make them appear bristly.
They seem to be more abundant in winter when the lake is covered with
ice. Whenever holes are cut through the ice these crustaceans often
come crowding to the light and air.
The Cladocera are^ generally speaking, the larger and more showy
element of the crustacean plankton. Their stomach contents, which at
times forms conspicuous masses, was found to be composed largely of
phyto-plankton elements, especially Botryococcus brauni, which, because
of its color, was easily recognizable. One of the smaller Cladocera,
Chydorus, was found to constitute an important part of the food of the
Unionidse or mussels of the lake, as it also does of the small fishes.
One of the most notable species of the Zoo-plankton was LepUuiora
hyalina. This is usually a deep-water species, but on September 2,
1906, it was taiken in quantities in a surface tow-net in Outlet Bay.
Though one of the largest of the plankton crustaceans, this species was
so transparent as to be quite invisible except by its movements among
the associated individuals of Lyngbya,
Two other species of Entomostraca not usually classed as plankton
were noted, namely, the fairy shrimps. One, BrancMppus serratus, was
found dead in large numbers floating on the surface in deep water July
11, 1899. Later ir^ the same day considerable numbers were seined in
shallow water off Norris Inlet. Again, on August 21 and 31, a few
were seen floating.
Another species, BrancMppus vemalis, was found abundantly in
small temporary ponds west and south of the lake in the spring of
1901. A school of these curious crustaceans of delicate structure and
pearly appearance, apparently usually swimming on their backs, their
numerous gill-feet moving rapidly in the water, makes a very pretty
sight.
The Parasitic Copepods are reported on by Dr. Wilson. It may
be here remarked that, as compared with other bodies of water,
these forms are comparatively rare in Lake Maxinkuckee. In certain
rivers which we have examined, particularly the Kankakee, Maumee,
and sloughs along the Mississippi, certain large species of Lemasocera
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The Crustaceans of Lake Maxinkuckee. 229
are so abundant during the summer and fall that they infest most of
the rock bass, crappies, and bluegills. They seemed to be worst on the
rock bass, nearly every one of which was bleeding in one or more places
where these parasites had fastened in their skin. At this season these
fishes are said to be "wormy" and are rejected by anglers and others
who chance to catch them.
The Isopods or Sowbugs are represented at the lake by two aquatic
species, one in the lake proper, the other (Porcellio scaber) in the wood-
land ponds and in damp places. The lake species is abundant all the
year round among the Chara, especially in Outlet Bay. It is one of the
most important fish foods, particularly of rock bass and bluegills. It
sometimes forms the greater part of the food of those species. Little
or nothing was learned of the habits of the pond species. There are,
of course, several land species of these curious ^crustaceans.
The Amphipods are represented by several species in the lake and
the neighboring ponds. • A large species (probably Gamrtvarus pulex)
was found near the shore, and a smaller form (probably Hyalella knick-
erbockeri) farther out in the lake among the aquatic plants. The Horse-
tail (Ceratophyllum demersum) was one of its favorite haunts. Some
of our herbarium specimens of this plant were found full of these beach
fleas. Many specimens were obtained from the plants raked up from
various depths. The Amphipods could be obtained by washing the plants
in a tub or bucket of water. A few were taken at night in the towing-
net. Some were found in stomachs of fishes seined August 3, 1906,
south of Arlington station.
The freshwater shrimp (Palsemonetes exilipes) was not common in
or about the lake. Only a few were obtained, one on August 2, 1899,
one on September 6, 1899, and one on October 23, 1900, all in the Outlet.
Two were secured in Lost Lake, one on August 1, the other September 1,
1900. Another was taken November 27, 1900, upon a mass of aquatic
plants dredged some distance from shore in the lake. This species there-
fore appears to be rather rare at this lake. In Little River near Aboite,
Allen County, Indiana, immense numbers of this shrimp were found in
masses of Ceratophyllum, from which the transparent creatures jumped
with great alacrity when hauled up out of the water. They were found
in great abundance also in Chester River near Chester, Md,
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230 Proceedings of Indiana Academy of Science,
The Copepod Parasites.
By Charles B. Wilson, Professor of Biology, State Normal School,
Westfield, Mass.
Three species of Argulu^, two of Erg ostitis, and one of Achtheres
were found upon the fish of the lake. The species of Argulus have all
been described elsewhere (Proc. U. S. Nat Mus., XXV, pp. 709, 715,
718). The life history of one species. A, maculosus, was obtained in
full, and a brief account was published in 1907 (Proc. U. S". Nat. Mus.,
XXXII, p. 416). Of the two species of ErgasiltLS, one (E, centrarchi-
darum) has been described by Wright.* This species is common every-
where on all fishes of the perch family. The other species was new to
science; it was named E. versicolor, and a full description with figures
was published in 1911 (Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., XXXIX, p. 341: pi. 45).
The single species of Achtheres, A, percarum, has also been described
by Wright, Nordmann, Kroyer and others, but several details were here
supplied that had hitherto been lacking.
The complete life-history was also worked out for both genera; that
of Achtheres had been partially described before by Claus and Kellicott,
while not a single detail had ever been published for Ergasilus,
1. Argulus catostomi Dana & Herrick.
Found in the gill-cavity of the white sucker, Catostomus commersonu
The discovery of this species in Indiana, together with those recorded
from Lake Champlain and the rivers of Massachusetts, Connecticut and
New York, shows the distribution of this parasite to be identical with
that of the host it infests. The specimens here obtained and those from
Lake Champlain include males, the first of that sex to be recorded for
this species.
2. Argulus americanus Wilson.
Found on the outside surface of the Dogfish or Bowfin (Amia calva).
This species does not appear to be very common at Lake Maxinkuckee,
but possibly an examination of a larger number of fish would show a
different result. This is the first instance of the species having been
obtained from fish in their native haunts.
3. Argulus mdculosus Wilson.
Found on the outside surface of the Common Bullhead {Ameiurus
nebulosus), the Yellow Catfish (Ameiurus natcUis), and the Rock Bass
or Redeye (Ambloplites rupestris). Only two females were found on
the Redeye; both were full of ripe eggs; evidently they were hunting
« Proc. Canadian Institute (N. S.). U P. 248.
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The Copepod Parasites. 231
for a suitable place to deposit them, and were only using the Redeye
as a temporary host.
The Yellow Cat is the true host of this Argulus, and nearly half the
fish of that species that were examined yielded specimens of this parasite.
4. ErgcLsilxis centrarchidarum Wright.
Found on the gill-filaments of the Calico Bass (PoTtioxis sparoides),
the Redeye (Ambloplites rupestris), the Warmouth {Chsenohryttus
gtdosus), the Bluegill (Lepomis pallidiLs), the Small-mouthed Black
Bass (Micropterus dolomdeu), the Large-mouthed Black Bass (M.
salmaides), the Yellow Perch (Perca flavescens), and the Walleyed Pike
(Stizostedion vitreum), and would have been found almost certainly
upon the different sunfishes had there been an opportunity to examine
them.
As its name rightly implies, it is a family rather than a specific
parasite, and is very widely distributed, as are the hosts upon which
it lives.
5. Ergasilus versicolor Wilson.
Found only on the two species of Catfish (Ameiurus nehuXosus and
A, natalis), the latter of which was the more badly infested. This
species was not found upon any other fish in the lake, although many
hundreds of them were searched for it, nor was Ergisiltis centrarchi-
darum so common on the other fish, ever found on these catfish.
E, versicolor has since been obtained from the Channel Cat (Ictalurus
punctatus), and the Eel Cat (Ictalurus anguilla), in the Mississippi
River.
The species is thus distinctively a Catfish parasite in sharp contrast
to E. centrarchidarum, which is a Perch parasite.
The life history of ErgaMlu^ worked out upon these two Maxinkuckee
species was published in Vol. 39, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., pp. 313-326,
and still stands as the only contribution to the ontogeny of the entire
family.
6. Achtheres ambloplitis Kellicott.
Found on the gill arches of the Redeye (Ambloplites rupestris) , the
Bluegill (Lepomis pallidus), the Small-mouthed Black Bass (Microp^
terus dolomieu), the Large-mouthed Black Bass (M, salmoides), and
the Walleyed Pike (Stizostedion vitreum). It was particularly common
on the Redeye and the Small-mouthed Bass, two-thirds of the specimens
examined being infested with this parasite. Like the first species of
Ergasilus mentioned above, it is a family rather than a specific parasite,
as its name implies. But it is even more widely distributed; for it is
as common on the European as on the American Perch, and is probably
as widely distributed as the Perch family itself.
The life history of this species appeared in Vol. 39, Proc. U. S. Nat.
Mus., pp. 194-224: pis. 29-36.
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232 Proceedings of Indiana Academy of Science.
The Crawfishes.
By William Perry Hay, Head of the Department of Biology and
Chemistry, Washington, D. C, High Schools.
Crawfishes are quite common in Lake Maxinkuckee and in Lost Lake;
on the land about the lakes they are less frequent. The truly aquatic
species are found chiefiy in the shallower depths, hiding under rocks,
sticks, and among Chara and other aquatic vegetation. But even at
their best, not as many will be taken in the seine as will be secured in
similar collecting in sluggish streams. The g^reatest number taken in
one haul of the seine in Lake Maxinkuckee was twenty-two.
In the collections turned over to me for identification and study,
four species are represented, namely: Cambarus blandingi acutus, C.
diogenes, C. propinquus, and C immunis spinirostris ; or, using English
names instead of Latin combinations, we may designate these four spe-
cies as the Pond Crawfish, the Solitary Crawfish, the Gray Rock Craw-
fish, and the Rock Crawfish. Of these, the first three have long been
known to occur in northern Indiana, but C. immunis spinirostris has
not heretofore been known north of Terre Haute. One or two other
species probably occur in the Maxinkuckee region. C. argillicola Faxon
has been reported from several localities north, east and south of Lake
Maxinkuckee, and C. nisticus Hagen has been taken near Mount Etna,
Huntington County, Indiana.
Beyond doubt, the crawfish fauna of this lake, or of any other, wiD
repay careful study. The habits and economic importance of these
animals are only poorly known; but it must be that, as a source of food
supply for other animals, or as scavengers, they fill a field of usefulness.
As the species of crawfishes are rather difiicult to distinguish, and
as the present account is for the general public rather than for the
zoologist, it will be impracticable to give more concerning the structural
characters of these than is absolutely indispensable for their recogni-
tion. Before beginning this, however, it must 'be stated that the male
crawfish may be distinguished from the female by the presence of two
pairs of rigid appendages which are attached to the first two joints of
the abdomen or tail, and which, projecting nearly straight forward, lie
in a sort of groove between the bases of the walking legs. In the female
the abdomen is broader than in the male, and the appendages of the
first two joints are slender and flexible like those which follow. The
rostrum is the beak-like projection of the shell (or carapace) above
the eyes.
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The Crawfishes. 233
1. Camharas hlandingi acutus (Girard). Pond Crawfish.
This species may be at once distinguished by the fact that in the
males the third and fourth pairs of walking legs bear a hook on the
third joint from the base. The rostrum is long and approximately
triangular, with a pair of small teeth quite close to the tip. The large
pincers and the legs which bear them are long, slender, and roughly
granular.
This crawfish is represented in the collection by two males and seven
females from Aubeenaubee Creek, one male and one female from Culver
Inlet, eight males and two females from Spangler Creek, and by two
males and one young female from Bruce Lake.
This is the pond crawfish of the region, its home being in woodland
ponds. Individuals were seen from time to time, but they usually
escaped under the leaves. Several dead ones were found in ponds.
Generally speaking, it is not a very abundant species anywhere. It is
occasionally met with in the sloughs of the Mississippi.
2. Cambarus diogenes Girard. The Solitary Crawfish.
This crawfish is an inhabitant of the lake at certain times only. It
visits the water early in the spring for the purpose of producing its
young, but during the remainder of the year each individual lives alone
in a burrow over which it constructs a chimney of mud pellets. This
habit is so peculiar, being shared by only ona other Indiana species,
that it alone should be almost enough to distinguish the solitary craw-
fish; but as some of our readers may wish to know what the animal is
like, the following description is given: The body is high and com-
pressed; the rostrum is short, thick-edged, and without teeth near the
tip; the two longitudinal, curved lines on the back run together through-
out the whole part of their length, so that only small triangular spaces
are left between them in front and behind. The color is usually quite
brilliant for a crawfish, the claws, rostrum, and the elevations on the
shell being more or less marked with crimson and yellow.
Represented in our collections by one large female and seven young
from Aubeenaubee Creek. Other examples were noted in 1901 as follows :
March 31, a good-sized female caught in a pool at the birch swamp;
April 1, one dead, in ditch east of railroad, in Green's marsh; April 2,
remains of several seen in the Outlet; April 3, remains of one found in
Green's marsh; April 4, two caught, copulating east of the railroad, in
Green's marsh, and one caught in the marsh north of Lost Lake ; April 9,
three living ones seen, two caught, and remains of great numbers at
the drained lake; April 11, one big one caught at mouth of Farrar's
Creek, and one at mouth of Aubeenaubee Creek; April 15, several seen
in creek at south end of the lake, two caught; April 17, a female with
eggs caught on west side of lake; April 19, a large one dead at water's
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234 Proceedings of Indiana Academy of Science.
edge just east of the depot; May 3, chimneys abundant east of Lost
Lake outlet; May 17, one caught at edge of Lake Maxinkuckee at Long
Point, with small young attached to it. This is a large, "meaty" species
with heavy pincers, and, except where its natural habitat gives it a
muddy flavor, makes an excellent food.
3. Cambarus propinquus Girard. The Gray Rock Crawfish.
This species may be recognized at once by the fact that the upper
surface of the rostrum has a low median longitudinal ridge. This is too
low to be visible, but may be detected by passing the tip of one's finger
across from side to side, when the elevated portion may easily be felt.
The species is usually an inhabitant of running water and will probably
be found to occur most abundantly about the inlets and outlets of the
lake. It is represented in our collections by fifteen males and twenty-
nine females from Aubeenaubee Creek, nine males and five females from
Lake Maxinkuckee, seven males and ten females from Culver Inlet, one
male and one female from outlet of lake, and four males and seven
females from East Inlet.
This is the common crawfish of the lake. It is found in considerable
abundance everywhere among rocks and in the Chara. The lake form
is brownish gray in color. It is too small to be of much use as human
food. This species is also found in Yellow River, near Plymouth, and
appears to be the most common species of the region. They do not
burrow, but hide under rocks or bits of boards or sticks, under which
they may make small excavations. Of many notes taken the following
may be given here:
April 27, 1901, several seen in the bottom, one bluish in color; two
copulating. June 3, a large shed carapace in Outlet Bay. June 7,
several caught; they hide under boards; one very small one with its
mother. June 12, many caught, more seen; almost every blunt-nosed
minnow's nest is watched by one or two. June 13, a good many at
minnows' nests. June 16, some caught at minnows' nests. June 22,
still at minnows' nests. In 1904, October 19, a common content of fish
stomachs; fishermen report that they are the best bait now; one
angler caught six black bass with crawfish and one with a minnow.
October 3, many at the head of the Outlet, about eight seen in a small
space; one was eating at a dead grass pike; it stayed there a good
while. October 31, one still eating in the morning at the pike; very
little of the pike eaten. November 2, still eating at the pike. Novem-
ber 14, one near shore east of Long Point eating a minnow. Novem-
ber 22, two caught while copulating. November 25, two caught copu-
lating east of Long Point. January 1, 1905, three seen together, two
smallish, copulating, and a big one nearby.
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The Crawfishes. 235
From numerous observations of the crawfishes of the lake the fol-
lowing conclusion may be drawn:
There appears to be no special time for mating, and no special breed-
ing period was observed; nor again, any special time for moulting. It
is probable that in the fairly uniform temperature of the lake the lives
of the crawfishes are not so markedly divided into seasons as they are
in the river crawfishes. Generally, in rivers heavily populated with
crawfishes, one can find immense numbers of moulted shells at certain
periods — usually about the beginning of July — but in Lake Maxinkuckee
only occasional and scattered cast-off skins can be found.
The nature of the food was not easily discovered by examination of
stomach contents, as the material was too finely comminuted. A few
were seen eating dead fishes as mentioned above. They are usually
found in the vicinity of minnow nests, and probably devour fish eggs
to some extent. Various fishes, especially walleye and bass, eat them
at times, and they are one of the principal foods. of the soft-shelled
turtle. The lake species are rarely used for bait, perhaps because of
the difficulty of obtaining soft-shells or "peelers" in the lake; river
crawfishes are sometimes used.
The crawfishes of the lake often have protozoa attached to the* gills,
but this probably does not seriously inconvenience them.
4. Cambarus immunis spinirostris Faxon. The Rock Crawfish.
In general form and appearance this species is somewhat like the
last, but it lacks the longitudinal ridge on the rostrum. The teeth of
the rostrum are apt to be very small and, in the males, the tips of the
first abdominal appendages are slender, blade-like, and recurved.
Represented in the collections by nine males and eight females from
Aubeenaubee Creek, one male from Culver Inlet, and twelve young
females from Norris Inlet.
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236 Proceedings of Indiana Academy of Science.
Notes on Certain Protozoa and Other Invertebrates of
Lake Maxinkuckee.
By Barton Warren Evermann,
Director, Museum, California Academy of Sciences,
and
Howard Walton Clark,
Scientific Assistant, U. S. Bureau of Fisheries Biological Station,
Fairport, Iowa.
The field work upon which these notes are based was carried on
under the auspices of the United States Bureau of Fisheries, at irregu-
lar intervals between July, 1899, and October, 1913, in connection with
a physical and biological survey of Lake Maxinkuckee, Indiana.
The Protozoans and Ccelenterates.
No special attention was paid to the Protozoa of the lake; only those
forms were noted which thrust themselves upon the attention.
The protozoan life of the lake is not conspicuous except for a few
forms which are found in such abundance as to attract attention.
The list of species identified is a short one, not because these organ-
isms are rare at the lake, but because no one of the party engaged in
the study of the lake was especially interested in or familiar with them.
An attempt was made to collect and preserve all forms that attracted
the attention, but these were naturally only a small proportion of the
species present. Whenever time from our other multifarious and more
pressing duties permitted, attempts were made to collect these organ-
isms, and at one time, stimulated by the handsome figures of some of
the more ornate forms figured by Leidy and Kent, an especial attempt
was made to obtain some of the more striking forms, but the search
was rather fruitless. It so happened that the plankton, which should
have contained a number of these organisms, was submitted to two
different experts, one interested in Algse, the other in Crustacea, with
the result that such Protozoa as there were went by default.
Forms of doubtful affinity, by some placed among Algse and by others
as animals, such as Peridiniufn, Ceratium and Volvox, are included,
Volvox especially exhibiting characters which strongly suggest a position
in the animal series.
Following are our notes upon the few species identified:
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Certain Protozoa and Other Invertebrates. 237
1. Arcella vulgaris Ehrenberg
Upon examining the stomachs of a number of tadpoles caught at the
edge of Aubeenaubee Bay in August (1906), a goodly number of Arcella
vulgaris were obtained. The tadpoles when caught were busy sucking
the surface of weeds and sticks, as is their habit, and from these they
probably obtained the Protozoa. It is probable that Protozoa form an
important part of the food of young tadpoles. On other occasions we
have seen them taking in large numbers of Paramoecium.
Arcella vulgaris was abundant September 3 (1906), with other mate-
rial (PararruBcium) forming a scum over water in a tumbler where
some duckweeds were kept. It was also present in hand-gathered mate-
rial obtained at the dam in the Outlet, October 30, of the same year.
2. C entropy xis aculeata Stein
Taken occasionally in the summer and autumn of 1906 in gatherings
in shallow water near shore.
3. Euglypha alveolata Dujardin
Obtained in collections near shore, summer and autumn of 1906.
4. Dinobryon sp.
Found occasionally near shore in Lost Lake, but not abundant. In
the small lakes about St. Paul, Minn., where it is very abundant, it
furnishes an important item in the food of the fresh-water mussels.
5. Euglena virndis Ehrenberg
Some found in a scum in pools in Green's marsh. The great amount
of vegetation makes the water almost as rich as an infusion. Obtained
August 22 (1906). Euglena formed a bright green scum over the small
pools.
6. Volvox aureus Ehrenberg
Not found by us at all in the lake, but exceedingly abundant in
Farrar's Pond and a pond east of the lake, in the spring of 1901, large
swarms being seen there, a single dip of a common dipper always con-
taining several examples. A large number of examples obtained from
a small pond near the lake April 24 (1901). Its favorite habitat is in
shallow pools, easily warmed throughout and containing in the bottom
an abundance of dead leaves or similar fertilizing matter. This species
was exceedingly abundant in the shallow, well-fertilized carp ponds at
Washington, D. C, in the spring of 1906.
7. Peridinium tabulatum (Ehrenberg)
Taken rather less frequently in the vertical hauls than its relative,
Ceratium macroceras, and apparently not very .common. One might
naturally expect it to be more common near shore. It was not noted
often in surface hauls. It is a species of world-wide distribution, and
probably is abundant where conditions are favorable.
There is very little difference between the genera Ceratium and
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238 Proceedings of Indiana Academy of Science.
Peridinium, the horns or projections, which are the distinguishing char-
acteristics, occurring in all degrees of development.
8. Ceratium macroceras Schrenk
Common in the vertical plankton hauls, occurring in the great ma-
jority of hauls, but not common in the surface towings. A similar form,
C. tripos, was collected in towing near shore at Eagle Lake. The long
horns or projections of this species are developed perhaps as much to
give buoyatice to the form as for protection. The Peridinales, repre-
sented by this and the two preceding species, are claimed by both botan-
ists and zoologists.
9. Stentor cmndeus Ehrenberg
While raking up weeds through a hole in the ice at the Weedpatdi,
January 15 (1901), it was noted that the water dripping from the plants
turned the snow a vivid green. The snow thus colored was taken home
and examined, and the green color was found to be due to multitudes of
green stentors. These were kept in a vessel for some time. On Janu-
ary 6 they began to gather on sticks, on snail shells, on the sides of the
vessel, and on the under surface of the water, assuming a globular form.
The species was probably casruleus.
On February 7, on looking through the ice on Outlet Bay, it seemed
full of a reddish fine material like stirred-up mud. Examination re-
vealed the presence of small diatoms and many green stentors.
10. Stentor sp.
Among our notes mention is made of another Stentor, larger than
the green one, brownish and with a large, flat peristomal disc, circular,
with a side cleft, like a water-lily leaf.
On October 14 (1907) it was noted that brown stentors were attached
to the under side of lily pads in Hawk's marsh.
11. Vorticella chlorostigma Ehrenberg?
On June 26 (1901) white, fluffy little globules, which shrank to
minute size when touched, and which proved upon examination to be
composed of colonies of Vorticella, were found very abundant on the
submersed tips of Ceratophyllum leaves at the Inlet. Late in the autumn
of 1904 (October 31, November 2 and 16), the same objects were noted,
but in considerably longer and larger patches, on various weeds, such
as Myriophyllum, etc., in the vicinity of Winfield's. Ag^ain, in the
autumn of 1906, they were exceedingly abundant in various weeds,
especially dying leaves of Vallisneria, in Outlet Bay. So far as we
have observed, these organisms seem to increase greatly during the
autumn. Both white and green colonies were found, alike in everything
except color, and it is probable that they were the same species under
different conditions. The green forms showed distinctly against the
dead Vallisneria leaves, which had faded to a papery white. It may be
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Certain Protozoa and Other InveHebrates. 239
it was common during the summer, but concealed by its green sub-
stratum. June 22 (1906) it was plentiful on the weeds in Lost Lake.
In a note of June 26, concerning this species, occurs the remark,
"This is a larger sort; there are also other smaller isolated ones pres-
ent." On July 25, and previously, it was common in both lakes in
weedy, stag^nant places, forming a white halo along stems, not in balls.
In addition to these there are minute free Vorticella-like organisms
attached to the parasitic copepods on the gills of fishes, and on August
28 (1908) a number of minute clear Vorticellas were found on the body
of a Cyclops. A species of Vorticella was abundant July 31 (1906) on
Anabxna in plankton scum. Small Vorticellas are found in myriads on
objects in Hawk's marsh. They can be found there more abundantly
than anywhere else about the lake.
12. Epistylis sp.
A species of Epistylis, probably plicatilis Ehrenberg, was observed
forming a dense growth on the shells of a small Planorbis, March 25
(1901) near Chadwick's pier.
The copepods of the same region at that time presented a very fuzzy
appearance, and upon examination were found to be thickly overgrown
with the same or a similar protozoan.
13. Opercularia irritabilis Hempel
Abundant during the summer and autumn of 1906 upon the lower
surface of the shell (pldstron) and also on the skin of various turtles,
especially the painted and snapping turtles, making a close, short, brown
fuzzy growth. The turtles were botanic gardens above and zoological
gardens below. The organisms seemed to do them no injury, and were
gotten rid of when the turtles shed their scutes. It sometimes forms a
halo about the heads of small turtles, in which case it was at first mis-
taken for Saprolegnia. It is usually the head of the Musk Turtle that
is affected. In this case it appears to do no harm, as the turtles are
quite lively.
Something very like this, probably the same thing, was observed
abundantly (August 6, 1907), on the shoulders of a dragonfly larva.
14. Vaginicola leptosoma Stokes
A species of Vaginicola, perhaps leptosoma, was rather common
along the shore of the lake by Overmyer's hill, attached to algse, Octo-
ber 28 (1906). There were at least six examples on one small bunch
of algse. The sheath was brownish and transparent. When jarred, the
animal retracted into the sheath, usually doubling up somewhat into a
sigmoid curve.
15. Tokophrya quadripartita (Claparede & Lachmann) Butschli
Common, intermixed with Opercularia irritabilis, on the ventral
scutes of a Musk Turtle, September 12 (1906). It was also found to
some extent on the back.
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240 Proceedings of Indiana Academy of Science.
16. Ophrydium sp.
By far the most abundant and conspicuous protozoan in the lake was
a species of Ophrydium which formed large blue-green gelatinous colo-
nies about the size of a hazelnut, or larger. These semitransparent
blue-green balls remain in about the same condition the year round.
They are found abundantly wherever the carpet Chara grows, and are
usually attached to it or to pebbles ; or, quite frequently, to mussel shells
either alive or dead. Clear colonies, remarkable for their unusual trans-
parency, were found on submerged pieces of tile, August and September
(1907). At certain times, as August 1 (1906), and August 1 and
October 12 (1907), great quantities are washed ashore. The colonies
are sometimes hollow, as were many of those washed ashore August 1
(1907).
17. Hydra fuaca L.
Not frequently encountered in the lake. On October 31 (1906),
however, multitudes were found under leaves at the water's edge on
the east side, and on November 13 more were found in a similar posi-
tion. November 18 one was found attached to floating Wolffiella in
Norris Inlet.
The Worms.
Our notes on this group are few and very unsatisfactory. We give
here only such of them as seem to possess some value.
The attention we were able to give to these forms was so little that
we are unable to say much regarding their relative or actual abundance,
their distribution, or their relation to the biology of the lake.
Flat-worms or Planarians, small, soft, flat objects, gray above, white
below, and oval in outline, were common on rocks and among weeds in
the lake. In certain material (Vorticella, etc.), obtained near Norris
Inlet, they were quite common. They were often abundant on Cerato-
phyllum also. They were so soft that they often pulled apart when at-
tempts were made to remove them from the rocks.
Small pinkish parasites (probably a species of Distomum), resem-
bling minute leeches, were found quite common in the stomachs of fishes,
particularly the Straw Bass (Micropterus salmoides) and the Skipjack
(Labidesthes sicculiis). Usually during the winter the stomachs of
these fishes contained little or no food, but in most cases from one to
several of these parasites were found in each.
Round-worms, resembling Asca'ris, are frequent intestinal parasites
of the snakes of this region, and one small form was found in the intes-
tine of a mussel.
Tapeworms were almost invariably present in the several shrews
(Blarina brevicauda) examined. They were also common in the yellow
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Certain Protozoa and Other Invertebrates. 241
perch and walleyed pike, and practically every dogfish (Amia calva)
examined was heavily loaded with them. Many duck stomachs exam-
ined, especially those of the ruddy duck, contained from a few to many
tapeworms.
Angleworms or Fishworms are not abundant in this region. The
country about the lake is chiefly sandy, a soil not favorable to angle-
worms. At the edges of ditches, marshes and woodland ponds, where
the soil is a black loam with some admixture of clay and decaying vege-
tation, a rather small species of Lumhricus is fairly abundant. Fisher-
men who know these places are usually able to secure all they need for
bait. The farmers and farmers' boys and the boys of the village are
the ones who make most use of fishworms in their angling.
On December 7 (1904), worms which resembled angleworms were
observed in considerable numbers coiled up under a submerged water-
soaked board at Long Point, where they evidently were passing the
winter in that condition. These worms, however, possessed no annular
ring. In alcohol they display a fine opalescent iridescence in reflected
light. One seemed to be dividing by a constriction near the middle.
Some very small worms, resembling fishworms in general appearance
when alive, were seen at the mouth of a ditch April 19 (1901).
Cotylaspis insignis Leidy is a common parasite of the mussels of
Lake Maxinkuckee and Lost Lake. To the naked eye this parasite looks
like a minute yellowish leech. Its position in the mussel is close up in
the axils of the gills. It was found in Lampsilis luteola and also in
Anodonta grandis footiana, from one to several being found in nearly
every example of these species examined August 23 (1906). It was
also found in mussels taken on September 28 following, in Little River
near Fort Wayne.
The so-called Horsehair Snake or worm (Gordius sp.) is very abun-
dant in and about Lake Maxinkuckee. According to anglers, many of
the grasshoppers used by them for bait are infested with this parasite.
On Augrust 2 (1906) large numbers were seen writhing about in mud
among snails along the Outlet where it had been suddenly lowered by
a dam at the railroad bridge. We suspect that they may be parasitic
in this snail also. They were frequently found in fishes, either free in
the lower intestine or encysted and coiled up in some of the internal
organs. The bluegill appears to be especially liable to infection by
Gordius. It may be that the fish become infected through the grass-
hoppers they devour. On August 6 (1906) these worms were noted in
considerable numbers in shallow water on the east side of the lake.
A long, slender, brownish worm, probably a species of TubifeXy was
found in considerable numbers projecting up into the shallow water from
the soft mud bottom of Lost Lake. These were first observed June 8
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242 Proceedings of Indiana Academy of Science.
(1901), when the bottom near the shore was seen to be covered with
small whitish mounds about the size of buckshot, which gave a peculiar
mottled or dappled appearance. When some of this mud was dipped up
and examined the small mounds were seen to be small sand tubes in
which the worms were and from which they waved about in graceful
undulations. They were observed again at the same place on June 15.
On June 18 many were seen in the creek under the railroad bridge, and
on June 25 some were noted at the south end of Lake Maxinkuckee.
And finally, on November 4 (1904), numerous burrows were seen in
shallow water near shore in Lost Lake.
Thorn-head worms (Acanthocephali) were found to be common in-
testinal parasites of various fishes and turtles. Among fishes the redeye
appeared to be most affected. The carnivorous turtles, such as the soft-
shelled and the snapper, were especially subject to them, while the herb-
ivorous species, particularly the painted turtle, were comparatively free.
Record may here be made of a Bryozoan, Plumatella polymarpha^
possibly related to the Gephyrean worms. Plumatella potymorpha is a
compound animal, many individuals budding off from one another, as
in plants. The moss-like colonies of this species were very conmnon in
the lake among the Chara and other plants. They were noted in the
Chara near the depot pier, off Long Point, near Winfield's, and at the
south end near the Farrar cottage. Indeed, it appears to be distributed
generally through the lake wherever there are patches of vegetation.
Among the Charas it forms a brown, upright, bushy growth. In the
Weedpatch it was common on the leaves of Potamogeton amplifolius.
On October 23 (1900) it was found to be abundant on Ceratophyllum
in rather deep water. A week later (October 29) a good deal was gotten
on Myriophyllum. Early in the spring (March 1, 1901), it was seen
growing on Potamogeton robbinsiiy and a little later it was found in
abundance in front of Arlington station. It was often found on Chara
and other aquatic plants dredged at various times. It was also found
growing on tile piles September 1 (1906).
During the autumn of 1900 the stadioblasts were frequent in plankton
scum along shore, often being present in great abundance. They some-
what resemble floating sand grains, but are lighter in weight, being
minute circular brown discs, uniform in shape and size. Under mag-
nification they show series of facets like the compound eye of insects.
On October 18 (1900), one of the buoys which had been for some
time anchored out in the lake was found to be covered with a flat,
creeping growth of this species.
As Plumatella polymorpha occurs in this lake it is highly worthy of
its specific name, as it shows great variation in form and general
appearance.
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Certain Protozoa and Other Invertebrates. 243
The leaves upon which it grrows are often eaten by fishes, probably
for the sake of the Plumatella. The yellow perch and bluegill are the
species in whose stomachs we found it most abundantly. The stomach
of a bluegill caught at the Weedpatch October 26 (1904) was full of
stadioblasts. During the autumn of 1904 it was noted as exceedingly
abundant.
So far as we know, Plumatella polymorpha is the only Bryozoan
in this lake.
The Sponges.
Sponges are not especially abundant in the lake. In some of the not
far distant lakes, as Winona Lake, they frequently form a thick coating
around the submerged portions of bulrushes growing out in the water,
but at Lake Maxinkuckee this was not observed. They are not common
on the rocks. On September 9 (1906) some were found forming a coat-
ing on submerged rocks on the east side, and some of these were col-
lected a few days later. On November 5 (1906) some flat ones found
on rocks on the east side were apparently being eaten by insect larvae.
On September 22 (1907) Prof. U. O. Cox of the Indiana State Normal
found some flat sponges covering a rock where the lake enters the Outlet
at the wagon bridge, and there were more on a rock farther down be-
tween the wagon and railroad bridges. This completes the record for
the flat sponges.
A long, green, string-like form found hanging among the weeds at
the lake, especially at the Weedpatch, was much more common. This
was observed quite frequently and often obtained when collecting aquatic
plants. Occasionally these long strings were washed up near shore.
On October 27 (1900) these sponges were observed forming stadioblasts
on the weeds in Lost Lake.
Occasionally the sponges form small, blue-green, spherical masses,
like bullets, around the stems of Chara. On January 22 (1901) some
of these spherical sponges were observed on carpet chara about five feet
out from the Arlington Hotel.
Sponges are quite common in creeks and ponds near the lake. The
long form is common in Twin Lakes. There are long, finger-like forms
in Yellow River, and they were abundant in the Outlet about the bridge
below Walley's.
The sponges were submitted for identification to Mr. Edward Potts,
of Media, Pa., who in a letter dated May 24 (1905) writes so interest-
ingly regarding the material that we here quote his letter in full:
Yours with package of material was received by first mail
yesterday A. M. ; and having nothing important on hand, I ex-
amined the vials at once, with the following results:
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244 Proceedings of Indiana Academy of Science.
First, I must express my pleasure in finding that you had
sent only Sponges; that is, remembering that frequently even
workers in other lines of science are utterly unfamiliar with
these forms, and hence send one gelatinous and otherwise in-
congruous articles. I was glad to learn that you know a sponge
when you see it. The only possible exception is in your No. 5,
which, as you supposed, is not a sponge but only a puzzle, which
may perhaps be explained by considering the fibres to be a form
of alga, or more probably, the stems or stipes (as the "Micro-
graphic Dictionary" calls them) of some, possibly all, those
Diatoms now found at the outer surface of the sub-spheres. I
have frequently found Diatoms so growing.
No. 1 is Carterius tubisperma Mills, and is, I am sorry to
say, the only sponge in satisfactory condition for safe deter-
mination. Nos. 2 and 4 are, I fully believe, of the same species
as No. 1, and they have plenty of gemmules or statoblasts; but
these are so far from maturity that, if the same species, the
chitinous coat is extremely thin and it apparently has not yet
developed the foraminal tubules, the granular crust, and protec-
tive birotulate spicules which should be the determining points.
I do not understand why this should be so with the date given
(November 15 and later) ; but I suppose it possible that cold
spring water or its unusual depth may have retarded develop-
ment to a date later than that with which I have been familiar.
This is further suggested by No. 3, in which I have failed to
find any gemmules, and which reminds me of the appearance
and condition of forms that I have sometimes called perennial
or evergreen sponges, which apparently continue their growth all
through the winter, at least in deep water.'
No. 3 is clearly a different sponge from the others, as shown
by its shorter and more robust spicules (skeletal), which, as you
will see, are covered with very minute spines. I should have
been much pleased to find the stadioblasts of this sponge. The
skeleton spicules suggest Meyenia leidyi Carter, although in that
species they are rarely microscopical. You may meet with it
again under more favorable circumstances.'
Although I fear they are too soft for safe transportation,
I propose to pack with the vials returned, two trial slides. No. 1,
showing Carterius tubispermaf in which you may see the for-
aminal tubules before mentioned and ■ the armature of radial
birotulate spicules, beside the skeleton and dermals; and No. 2,
showing separated spicules of the same.
^ See my Monograph, pp. 246 and 246.
' See fig. 1, plate X, of ^y Monograph.
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Aphids and Ants on Fruit Trees.
S. D. Conner, Purdue University Agricultural Experiment Station.
As an amateur horticulturist I have had quite a lot of trouble with
aphids on fruit trees, particularly those trees around the residence.
Year after year I have seen the young, growing shoots of the apples,
cherries and peaches literally covered with various kinds of aphids until
the young leaves curled up and stopped growth. Without doubt the
growth of the young trees has been very much set back and the vitality
of the trees sapped. I have used nicotine sprays with more or less
success, but it takes eternal vigilance and many expensive sprayings to
keep them down.
In observing the habits of the aphids I have noticed the well-known
fact that ants were very much in evidence wherever the aphids were
present. I, of course, had been told that the ants did no damage to
the trees, but nevertheless I hated to see them profiting from such a
pest as the aphids, so in the early spring of 1917 I purchased a can of
tree tanglefoot and applied a two-inch band of this sticky material about
one-fourth inch thick around each tree, for the purpose of keeping the
ants and any other crawling insect off the trees. Well, I stopped the
ants and, much to my surprise, I had no aphids on the trees. The aphids
have wings, but they did not seem to use them to good advantage, for
wherever there were no ants there were no aphids. Some weeks later
I noticed on an apple tree some aphids and, looking closer, I saw some
ants. I examined the sticky band on the tree trunk and found that
some tall grass had bridged it over, allowing the ants to get up the
tree, where, I presume, they carried the aphids. I removed the grass,
sprayed the tree with nicotine and had no more aphids on that tree.
It appeared to me that my young trees made a much more vigorous
and sustained growth than the.^ ever did before.
Among other trees I banded was a sour cherry standing near a
fence. The tanglefoot was applied high to this tree. A water sprout
that came out below the tanglefoot was soon completely covered with
black aphids, while not an aphid was to be seen above the band until
some weeks later, when the limbs near the fence, becoming heavy with
fruit and new growth, sagged and touched the fence. Then ants and
aphids appeared on that side and gradually spread all over the whole
tree. I watched my trees all sumn.rr, and so long as I kept the ants
off the trees I saw only a few scattering aphids. I saw one good colony
(245)
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246 Proceedings of Indiana Academy of Science.
of aphids, on a peach tree, that must have obtained a foothold by flying.
This colony was destroyed by means of nicotine spray, and I had no
further trouble with that tree.
At intervals during the summer the sticky band had to be freshened.
I used a band about two inches wide and from one-eighth to one-fourth
inch thick. None of my trees seem to have been injured in the least
at the end of a year and one-half. The experience of 1917 was repeated
with practically the same results in 1918.
It may be wondered why, if the aphids can fly, they did not get on
the trees above the sticky bands. In reading Farmers' Bulletin No. 362,
U. S. Department of Agriculture, on "The Common Mealy Bug and Its
Control in California," I ran across a good explanation. Ants were
found to carry and protect the mealy bugs in the same way they do the
aphids. Woglum and Nuels in this bulletin say: "Remarkable results
have been secured by keeping the Argentine ant off of trees infested
with mealy bugs by banding with a sticky mixture. In 1915 and 1916,
trees that when first freed from ants were infested severely with the
mealy bug became commercially clean without exception within a period
of six weeks to three months." It seems that the ant not only carried
but protected the mealy bug from its natural enemies, the brown lace-
wings and a ladybird beetle.
It seems logical to suppose that the same relation would exist between
the aphids, the ants and the enemies of the aphids, such as the ladybugs.
Although the mealy bug does not fly, as does the aphid, the fact remains
that the aphid, like the mealy bug, seems to depend upon the ant for
protection and cannot long survive the attacks of its enemies when this
protection is withdrawn.
One entomologist told me, "You keep the aphids off your trees and
the ants will not bother you." But I say, "Keep the ants off and you
will not be bothered with aphids." It is much easier to work from the
ant end of the game than it is from the aphid end.
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Memorial of Albert Homer Purdue.
By George H. Ashley, The United States Geological Survey.
(Reprinted from the Bulletin of the Geological Society of America,
Vol. 29, pp. 55-64, pi. 7. Published March 31, 1918.)
Published by request in Proceedings of the Indiana Academy of Science.
Albert Homer Purdue, late State Geologist of Tennessee, was bom
March 29, 1861, in Warrick County, Indiana, near Yankeetown — a small
village in the loess-covered hills bordering the Ohio River — an hour's
ride by trolley east from Evansville. While the people of the town came,
as a rule, from Yankeeland, one of Mr. Purdue's g^randfathers had been
an early settler in western middle Tennessee. His early education was
obtained at Yankeetown and later at the Indiana State Normal School
at Terre Haute, from which he graduated in 1886. In 1886-1887 Mr.
Purdue taught at Sullivan, Indiana. In 1887-1888 he was superintend-
ent of public schools at West Plains, Missouri. In 1887, at Indianapolis,
Indiana, he married Miss Bertha Lee Burdick, who died of consumption
a year later. From 1889 to 1891 he was assistant superintendent of the
United States Indian School at Albuquerque, New Mexico. Part of his
duties were the selection of children from the reservation for the schpol
and the rounding up of boys who had run away — a line of work that led
to many interesting experiences. From 1891 to 1894 he was at Stanford
University, from which he obtained the degree of A. B. in 1893. While
there he made geologic studies on the San Francisco Peninsula, and
during 1892-1893 was an assistant geologist for the Arkansas Geolog^ical
Survey with the writer, studying the southern part of the Ouachita
uplift. This association with Purdue in the field during the summer
and fall of 1892 was one of the pleasantest epochs in the writer's life.
We were living on the country, in a reg^ion little settled at that time,
and Purdue's vivid description of his week's experience, when we got
together at the end of each week, gave an air of romance and adventure
to the whole undertaking. This work and that in the Coast Range
Mountains of California, both under the eye of Branner and with his
counsel, Purdue counted as among the most valuable training experi-
ences he could have had, as he could not help getting somewhat of
Branner's broad point of view and critical study of details. In 1894,
after a year of graduate work at Stanford, he became a candidate for
the elective position of State Geologist of Indiana; but his long absence
(247)
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248 Proceedings of Indiana Academy of Science,
A. H. Purdue.
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Albert Homer Purdue, 249
from the State had put him out of touch with the political personnel of
the Republican party and he failed to get the nomination. Perhaps he
would have succeeded if he had listened to the demands of those who
wished the promise of places which they were not prepared to fill. The
winter following he was principal of the high school at Rensselaer,
Indiana. Then came a year of graduate work as a Fellow at the Uni-
versity of Chicago.
His professional career began in 1896, when he was elected Professor
of Greology at the University of Arkansas, his position after 1902 being
that of Professor of Geology and Mining. Here his executive ability
and judgment were early recognized, and as time went on more and
more of the administrative committee work of the university fell on his
shoulders. He was chairman of the Committee on Student Affairs and
of the Classification Committee, which had in charge the arrangement
of courses, etc. In 1898 he married Miss Ida Pace, of Harrison, Arkan-
sas, at that time Associate Professor of English at the university — a
woman of unusual mental and social attainments, who comes of a family
distingfuished in the life of Arkansas. In 1895, again in 1901, and from
then on Mr. Purdue was a field assistant on the United States Geological
Survey, devoting his summers to field-work. With the Survey he had
the reputation of being one of the very few teaching geologists whom
that organization could count on to carry out a progrram not only in
the field but in the oflice preparation of his reports. At the time of the
St. Louis Exposition he was made Superintendent of Mines and Metal-
lurgy for the State. In 1907 Mr. Purdue was made State Geologist
ex officio of the Arkansas Survey. Though having at his disposal only
very meager funds, Purdue was able to prepare or have prepared a
number of highly creditable reports, including one on the sla*tes of the
State, by himself; one by Prof. W. N. Gladson on the water powers of
the State, and one by Prof. A. A. Steel on mining methods in the coal
fields of the State.
As a teacher, Purdue brought to his work the results of his normal-
school preparation, and the training received under Branner and J. P.
Smith at Stanford, and Salisbury, Chamberlain and others at Chicago,
together with his own rathef varied experience along that line. He was
not a believer in the lecture method of instruction, but rather in the
students working out their results under the stimulus of actual contact
with the problems in the field and laboratory, and in this knowledge
being reinforced by repeated review and by application to new and
practical problems. He had little regard for the student who would not
work and he would bar such students as much as possible from his
classes. The great energy he put into his teaching ip both the class-
room and field wonderfully impressed his students and assistants, so
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250 Proceedings of Indiana Academy of Science.
that he constantly inspired them to obtain g^reater results and attain
higher ideals. When he left the University of Arkansas the students
presented him a silver loving cup as a token of the respect they held
for him as a teacher. His students speak of his class-work being as
good as any course in logic, as he led them to analyze their data and
taught them how to draw proper conclusions therefrom; so that, aside
from those who decided to take up geology as a profession, his old
students, scattered all over the United States, look back to the work in
his classes as one of the most profitable experiences of their university
life. Among his students who were led into adopting geology as a life
work may be named Miser and Mesler, of the United States Geological
Survey; Carl Smith, Munn, McCreary, Hutchinson, and others, who,
after more or less time spent with the national organization, have gone
into consulting or professional work in the oil industry.
Purdue had great faith in the constructive ability of the boy brought
up on the farm, in which class most of his students fell, and in a talk
a few years ago he explained the reason for that ability as due to the
constant association in labor of father and son on the farm, the son
getting the advantage of the father's example and counsel as they
worked together in the fields or gardens, and thus acquiring ideals of
industry, efficiency and initiative commonly lacking in the city- or town-
bred boy.
In 1912 Mr. Purdue was elected State Geologist of Tennessee, which
position he filled with honor to himself and the State until his death,
on December 12, 1917. Of his success as State Geologist of Tennessee
the best testimony is the steady stream of high-grade publications that
flowed fro/n his office. Equally convincing from another direction is the
fact that during the session of the last State legislature his work and
its value to the State received unstinted praise, and the enlarged appro-
priation for the work of the Survey went through practically without
question or opposition.
Purdue had for thirty years suffered at times from intestinal trouble
that had proved more and more of a handicap as time went on. Last
spring, after a winter of unusual demand, he suffered a sudden attack
of this old trouble, which for a time undermined his health and threat-
ened to require an immediate operation. A number of trips to the field
and for rest led to his regaining somewhat his old vigor, though not
entirely.
The last week of November he made an automobile trip into east
Tennessee for the purpose of studying the manganese deposits of that
reg^ion. He became so ill that he stored his car and returned to Nash-
ville by railroad. He was taken immediately to a local hospital and,
after a few days, underwent an operation, with the hope of having his
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Albert Homer Purdue. 251
health restored. The morning of the operation he dictated for publica-
tion in the Resources of Tennessee a paper giving the results of his
recent investigation of manganese. Then he walked into the operating
room as calmly as if he were going into his 'office for a day's work.
At first everything indicated a speedy recovery, but complications arose
and he died a week later from uremic poison.
Mr. Purdue was quiet and unassuming — a man who disliked display,
who sought always to keep his own personality and achievements in the
background, yet a man who made friends that stuck, because he could
prove himself a true friend under all circumstances; a man whose judg-
ment was sought by many ; a man whose influence was always for sanity,
for uplift, for scientific accuracy, even in the simple things of life. I
still remember that when we were working together in the mountains
of Arkansas, it was my method to fall into the ways of the people with
whom we were living, especially in adopting the vernacular of the
region — a habit to which Purdue always objected and for which he often
chided me. He would insist that, as educated men, we had no right
not to give the mountain people a glimpse of correct English. This
same regard for the Queen's English is seen in the painstaking care
with which he edited all of the manuscripts published by him as State
Geologrist.
As a field geologist, Purdue was tireless, painstaking and thorough,
and the same energy and careful attention characterized all of the prep-
aration of his reports. This desire for high quality and accuracy doubt-
less reduced somewhat the number and length of papers prepared by
him, but his work made up in quality what it lacked in volume.
While he was at the University of Arkansas he spent the summer
months in the field in that State — most of the time in camp with a party
of from one to three of his students — and wrote his reports at odd
moments during the school year. Although his field-work was varied,
it consisted mainly of detailed areal mapping for the United States
Geological Survey in a number of quadrangles in the northwestern and
west-central parts of the State. Whenever funds were appropriated by
the Arkansas legislature for the State Survey he made it count as much
as possible by co-operating with the United States Geological Survey.
Most of his geologic work in Tennessee was administrative, but he found
time to make numerous short field trips into different parts of the State.
Much of the work carried on under his administration as State Geologist
in that State was done in co-operation with the United States Geolog^ical
Survey and the United States Soil Survey.
Among his more important papers are the Winslow and Eureka
Springs-Harrison folios and the De Queen-Caddo Gap and Hot Springs
folios, awaiting publication; the slate deposits of Arkansas, besides a
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252 Proceedings of Indiana Academy of Science,
large number of shorter publications issued by the United States Cteo-
logical Survey, State Surveys of Arkansas and Tennessee, and many
others published in magazines or elsewhere. Considering the large
amount of administrative work in the University of Arkansas that fell
to his lot, this is a rather remarkable showing of scientific results for a
teaching professor occupying practically the whole bench of geology.
Mr. Purdue was a member of the American Institute of Mining
Engineers, the Indiana Academy of Sciences, the National Geographic
Society, and the Seismological Society of America. He was a Fellow
of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, the Geo-
logical Society of America, and the Geological Society of London. He
often attended the meetings of State Geologists, of the Conservation
Congress, and of the Southern Commercial Congress. While at the
University of Arkansas he was made a teacher member of the Kappa
Alpha fraternity. In 1907 he was elected to the Stanford chapter of
Sigma Xi. The commencement following his resignation as Professor
of Geology at the University of Arkansas that institution conferred on
him the degree of LL.D. There was no recognition that he prized more
highly than his election, in 1911, to the Council of the Geological Society
of America. He was President of the Tennessee Academy of Sciences
at the time of his death and was already considering possible subjects
for the next annual address.
As a citizen, Mr. Purdue was always public-spirited, entering in
large degree into the life and activities of the place of his home and
of the State at large. In Nashville, besides his interest in the Com-
mercial Club, he was active in other civic and social clubs, including
the Rotary, Freolac, Tennessee Historical Society, Nashville Engineer-
ing Society, Reynolds Lodge, Knights of Pythias, Phoenix Lodge, Free
and Accepted Masons, and was a generous subscriber to the work of
various organizations. His home, with two boys now of college age,
was always a place for real Southern hospitality, for Purdue had a
large sense of humor and a live personal interest in the welfare of all his
friends, and a wife whose intellectual attainments and personal charms
not only added to the welcome of the home but were a constant inspira-
tion to the man.*
There is appended a list of titles of papers and addresses, including
several prepared but not yet published.
Bibliography.
1895. Observations on the glacial drift of Jasper County, Indiana. Pro-
ceedings of the Indiana Academy of Sciences, 1894, pages 43-46.
The Charleston (Missouri) earthquake. Proceedings of the Indi-
ana Academy of Sciences, number 5, pages 51-53.
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Albert Homer Purdue. 253
'^UdG. Review of sketch of the geology of the San Francisco Peninsula,
by Andrew C. Lawson. Journal of Greology, volume 4, pages
640-644.
Some mounds of Vanderburg County, Indiana. Proceedings of
the Indiana Academy of Sciences, pages 68-70.
1897. A strange village. "The Ozark."
Review of the former extension of the Appalachians across Mis-
sissippi, Louisiana and Texas, by J. C. Branner. Journal of
Geology, volume 5, pages 759-760.
1898. The geography of Arkansas (text). American Book Company,
Cincinnati.
The function of Greek-letter fraternities. "The Ozark."
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Review of the department of geology and natural resources of
Indiana, Twenty-third Annual Report. Journal of Geology,
volume 7, pages 720-721.
1901. Valleys of solution in northern Arkansas. Journal of Geology,
volume 9, pages 47-50, 2 figfures.
Physiography of the Boston Mountains. Journal of Geolog^y, vol-
ume 9, pages 694-701, 2 figures.
Responsibilities of university students. "The Ozark."
Illustrated note on a miniature overthrust* fault and anticline.
Journal of Geology, volume 9, pages 341-342, 1 figrure.
Lead and zinc deposits of north Arkansas. Lead and Zinc News,
St. Louis, volume 1, number 2.
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southeastern Missouri, by C. F. Marbut. Journal of Geologry,
volume 10, number 8, pages 919-921.
Demands upon university curricula. Proceedings of the Ninth
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199.
1903. Geographic processes. New York Teachers* Monograph, volume 5,
number 2.
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(abstract). Science, new series, volume 17, page 222.
On the origin of geographic forms. Arkansas School Journal.
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1 figure.
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Arkansas. United States Geological Survey Water-supply
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Concerning the natural mounds. Science, new series, volume 21,
pages 823-824.
Water resources of the contact region between the Paleozoic and
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States Geological Survey Water-supply Paper 145, pages 88-
119.
Address representing the faculty at the inauguration of J. N.
Tillman as President of the University of Arkansas, Septem-
ber 20.
1906. Is the multiplication of mining schools justifiable? Mines and
Minerals, voliune 26, pages 411-412.
A discussion of the structural relations of the Wisconsin zinc and
lead deposits, by Professor Grant. Economic Geology, volume 1,
number 4, pages 391-392.
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States Geological Survey, Bulletin 315, pages 463-473.
On the origin of limestone sink-holes. Science, new series, vol-
ume 26, pages 120-122.
Cave-sandstone deposits of the southern Ozarks. Bulletin of the
Geological Society of America, volume 18, pages 251-256, 1
plate, 1 figrure. Abstract, Science, new series, volume 25, page
764.
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(number 154), 6 pages, 4 figures, 2 maps, and columnar-section
sheet.
1908. A new discovery of peridotite in Arkansas. Economic Geology,
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7 plates.
Structure and stratigraphy of the Ouachita Ordovician area, Ar-
kansas (abstract). Bulletin of the Geological Society of Amer-
ica, volume 19, pages 556-557.
1910. The collecting area of the waters of the hot springs. Hot Springs,
Arkansas. Proceedings of the Indiana Academy of Sciences,
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The slates of Arkansas. United States Creological Survey, Bulle-
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Albert Homer Purdue. 255
Mineral deposits of western and northern Arkansas. Fort Smith
Times-Record, pages 123-127.
The stored fuels of Arkansas (booklet). Published by Fort Smith
Conmiercial League, 1910; also Proceedings of Arkansas Bank-
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Possibilities of the clay industry in Arkansas (booklet). Pub-
lished by the Brick Makers' Association of Arkansas, Little
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Some essentials of public speaking (abstract). University Weekly,
Fayetteville, Arkansas.
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volume 19, number 3, pages 272-275, 2 figrures.
The operation of the mine-run law in Arkansas. The Trades-
man, volume 66, number 19, pages 27-28.
1912. Some neglected principles of physiography. Proceedings of the
Indiana Academy of Sciences, 1911, pages 83-87, 1 figrure.
Reported discovery of radium in northern Arkansas. Science,
new series, volume 35, number 904, page 658.
Compendium of the mineral resources of Arkansas. [Little Rock]
Board of Trade Bulletin, 30 pages.
On the impounding of waters to prevent floods. Tennessee Geo-
logical Survey, The Resources of Tennessee, volume 2, num-
ber 6, pages 226-230.
The waste from Hillside wash. Tennessee Geological Survey,
The Resources of Tennessee, volume 2, number 6, pages 250-
254.
Administrative report of the State Geological Survey, 1912. Ten-
nessee State Geological Survey, Bulletin 15, 17 pages.
The iron industry of Lawrence and Wayne counties. Tennessee
Geological Survey, The Resources of Tennessee, volume 2, num-
ber 10, pages 370-388, 7 figures.
Failure of the Nashville reservoir. Eng^ineering Record, volume
66, number 20, page 539.
The zinc deposits of northeastern Tennessee. Tennessee Geologi-
cal Survey, Bulletin 14, 69 pages, 1 plate (map), 30 figures.
The zinc deposits of northern Tennessee. Mining Science, volume
66, pages 249-251, 2 figures.
1913. The importance of saving our soils. Tennessee Geological Sur-
vey, The Resources of Tennessee, volume 3, number 1, pages
50-53.
Water supply for cities and towns. Tennessee Creological Survey,
The Resources of Tennessee, volume 3, number 2, pages 80-83,
1 figure.
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256 Proceedings of Indiana Academy of Science.
Geology and Engineering. Tennessee Geological Survey, The Re-
sources of Tennessee, volume 3, number 2, pages 105-109, 3
figures.
Failure of the reservoir at Johnson City, Tennessee. Engineering
Record, volume 67,. number 22, page 600.
The gullied lands of west Tennessee. Tennessee Geological Sur-
vey, The Resources of Tennessee, volume 3, number 3, pages
119-136, 8 figures.
The minerals of Tennessee, their nature, uses, occurrence, and
literature (literature by Elizabeth Cockrill), Tennessee Geo-
logical Survey, The Resources of Tennessee, volume 3, number
4, pages 183-230.
Field and office methods in the preparation of geolog^ic reports;
note taking. Economic Geology, volume 8, number 7, page 712.
The education of and for the farm. Tennessee Agriculture, Pro-
ceedings of the Middle Tennessee Farmers' Institute, Twelfth
Annual Convention, pages 425-428.
1914. The State Geologist and conservation. Tennessee Geological Sur-
vey, The Resources of Tennessee, volume 4, number 1, pages
24-28.
A double waste from hillside wash. Tennessee Geological Survey,
The Resources of Tennessee, volume 4, number 1, pages 3-37.
The education of mine foremen (an address).
Bauxite in Tennessee. Tennessee Geological Survey, The Re-
sources of Tennessee, volume 4, number 2, pages 87-92, 2
figrures.
Road materials of Tennessee. Tennessee Geolog^ical Survey, The
Resources of Tennessee, volume 4, number 3, pages 132-135.
Some neglected principles of physiography (abstract). Transac-
tions of the Tennessee Academy of Sciences, volume 1, pages
92-94.
Zinc mining in Tennessee. Engineering and Mining Journal,
volume 98, number 10, pages 419-421, 4 figures, map.
Administrative report of the State Geolog^ist, 1914. Tennessee
Geological Survey, Bulletin 18, 17 pages.
1915. Why not call things by their right names? Engineering and
Mining Journal, volume 100, number 19, pages 765-766.
The call of the world (an address).
1916. Oil and gas conditions in the Central Basin of Tennessee. Ten-
nessee Geological Survey, The Resources of Tennessee, volume 6,
number 1, pages 1-16, 1 plate, 1 figure.
Oil and gas conditions in the Reelfoot Lake district of Tennessee.
Tennessee Geolog^ical Survey, The Resources of Tennessee, vol-
ume 6, number 1, pages 17-36, 3 figures.
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Albert Homer Purdue. 257
A plea for better English. Stanford Alumnus, volume 17, num-
ber 5, pages 182-184.
Notes on manganese in east Tennessee. Tennessee Geolog^ical
Survey, The Resources of Tennessee, volume 6, number 2, pages
111-123.
Materials of Tennessee that invite the chemist. Manufacturers'
Record, volume 70, number 11, page 110.
The nature of private reports. Engineering and Mining Journal,
volume 102, number 13, page 546.
United States Geological Survey Geological Atlas, Eureka Springs-
Harrison folio (number 202), 22 pages, 6 plates, 13 figures.
(By A. H. Purdue and H. D. Miser.)
1917. The State Geologist and conservation. Science, new series, vol-
ume 45, number 1159, pages 249-252.
Administrative report of the State Geolog^ist. Tennessee Geo-
logical Survey, The Resources of Tennessee, volume 7, number 1,
pages 5-25.
By-product coke and oven opportunities in Tennessee. Tennessee
Geologrical Survey, The Resources of Tennessee, volume 7, num-
ber 1, pages 26-39, 2 figrures.
The Glenmary oil field. Tennessee Geological Survey, The Re-
sources of Tennessee, volume 7, number 2, pages 105-108.
General oil and gas conditions of the Highland Rim area in Ten-
nessee. Tennessee Geological Survey, The Resources of Ten-
nessee, volume 7, number 4, pages 220-228.
Things the farmer should know. Cumberland Valley National
Bank letter, Nashville, Tennessee.
Bauxite in the United States, 1916. Mineral Industry during
1916, pages 42-47.
Unpublished Reports.
Manganese deposits of Bradley County. Tennessee Geological Survey,
The Resources of Tennessee, volume 8, number 1, January, 1918, pages
46-47. (In press.)
Gravel deposits of the Caddo Gap and De Queen quadrangles. United
States Geological Survey, Bulletin 690-B. (By A. H. Purdue and
H. D. Miser; in press.)
Asphalt deposits and oil and gas conditions in southwestern Arkansas.
United States Geolog^ical Survey Bulletin. (By A. H. Purdue and
H. D. Miser; in preparation.)
United States Geological Survey Geological Atlas, Hot Springs folio.
(By A. H. Purdue and H. D. Miser; in preparation.)
United States Geological Survey Geological Atlas, De Queen-Caddo Gap
folio. (By A. H. Purdue and H. D. Miser; in preparation.)
17—16668
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258 Proceedings of Indiana Academy of Science.
Professor M. J. Golden, Noted Educator, Called by
Death.
R. B. Trueblood, Purdue University.
In the death of Michael Joseph Golden, for years a member of the
Purdue University faculty, which occurred December 18, 1918, at his
home, 320 State Street, West Lafayette, Ind., this community and the
professions of engrineering and education lose a noted educator and
highly esteemed citizen. Professor Golden retired as an active member
of the faculty in 1916, after rendering extraordinary service since 1884.
He was beloved by students, faculty and alumni, and, although he was
a strict disciplinarian, he was ever eminently square in his dealings with
the student body, to whom he was familiarly known as "Mike." That
in the university community Professor Golden was not fully appreciated
by the freshmen was a result of intent on the part of upperclass men
to inspire awe and even fear in the hearts of the first-year men. This
was possible in some measure because of Professor Golden*s manner
of speech to his freshmen classes, which was well designed to inspire
respect for things good and true, and to discourage the habits of in-
attention, indolence and dishonesty. Even these students, however, soon
learned that their interests were his interests, for he was in sympathy
with all student activities and took prominent part in many of them.
He believed in practicing what he preached. He was always ready
and willing to help those who helped themselves and needed help, and
on the other hand he believed it was the right and privilege of every
student to be allowed to get his own education.
He took advantage of every opportunity presented by critical situa-
tions in the activities of students to urge them to dealings of justice,
honesty and courtesy among themselves and with their opponents. He
was one of the staunchest advocates of athletics Purdue had, and his
brilliant personality and keen sense of humor made him a figfure much
sought after in all gatherings of students and alumni. He was for
years a member of the board of insignia of the athletic association.
Probably no other individual in the university community wielded so
widespread and so effective an influence for the better things in the
university life of the student as did he.
None knew better than his colleag^ues his professional ability, his
kindliness and his generosity. His was a character of strength. No
adjectives are required in such a description. He was honest, frank
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* Professor M. J, Golden. 259
and fearless. He was loyal to his family, to his friends, to his Alma
Mater, and last of all to himself. His feeling of loyalty to Purdue
weighed heavily against flattering offers which would take him away.
So he remained, striving with all his energy to make his department
in the university do its work so well that there was no other anywhere
doing it better. His constant aim was to co-ordinate the work of prac-
tical mechanics with the needs of the employers of engineering gradu-
ates. In this problem the interests in contact are many and varied,
so that progrress was necessarily slow; but every line of work in the
department reflects his effort, which was tireless.
Professor Golden was a Canadian by birth, having been born in
Stratford, Can., November 17, 1862. He received his early education
at Lawrence, Mass., and was for some time a special student at the
Massachusetts Institute of Technology. For one year he was instructor
in mechanical drawing at the high school at Hyde Park, Mass. He
came to Purdue in 1884 as instructor in shop work. In 1894 he received
his degree from Purdue University as a mechanical engineer. From
1889 until June, 1916, he served as professor in practical mechanics at
Purdue, and has been Director of the practical mechanics laboratory
since 1907. In shop management and shop experiments he was intensely
interested. On one trip east for a short period of time he began making
experiments with ball bearingfs, and he is said to have been one of the
first experimenters in that line. Upon his return these experiments
were continued here, and valuable conclusions resulted from the data
received from them. Keen appreciation of manufacturing conditions, fine
perception and good judgnnent prompted Professor Golden in the de-
velopment of his department, which increased in size and effectiveness
under his guidance, becoming a model of its kind. His course of shop
lectures was perhaps the*best and most comprehensive in existence and
proved of almost inestimable value to the young engineer; so much so
that it is indeed seldom but that a returning alumnus speaks of his
indebtedness for this work.
His last notable work was in connection with the instruction in
mechanical drawing. This work was developed to such a state that
the results were highly satisfactory to both students and instructors,
and by it the efficiency of this part of his department was very consid-
erably increased. His educational work was more far-reaching than
was generally known. He was the author of texts used in correspond-
ence-school instruction.
He spent a great deal of time in research, in collaboration with his
sister, Mrs. Bitting, investigating microscopically the structure of wood.
For this work he designed and built much special apparatus. His talents
in photography lent themselves well to this work, the results of which
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260 Proceedings of Indiana Academy of Science.
are highly appreciated by investigators as well as commercially. Pro-
fessor Golden's appreciation of the beautiful in nature and in art was
greater than usually is the lot of the layman. Among those who have
received most generously of his most willing aid, and who mourn him
most sincerely, are the Sisters of St. Francis of St. Elizabeth Hospital,
where he lectured and taught, planned and advised, taking of his own
time unselfishly for this work.
In June, 1916, Professor Golden was granted a leave of absence
because of ill health, and he retired from the faculty in 1917. Professor
Golden was a member of the Theta Xi fraternity, Indiana Academy of
Science, American Society of Mechanical Engineers, the American Soci-
ety of Naval Engineers, and the Manual Training Teachers' Association
of America. He was a devout member of St. Mary's Church and was
for many years chancellor for the Knights of Columbus, relinquishing
this post because of ill health.
Since his retirement in 1916, he had devoted his time to traveling,
in the hopes of benefiting his failing health. Professor Golden is sur-
vived by three sisters: Miss Josephine Golden, 320 State Street, West
Lafayette; Miss Helen Golden, professor in mechanical drawing at
Purdue, and Mrs. Katherine Bitting of Washington, D. C.
Professor Golden was the author of "A Laboratory Course in Wood
Turning" and "Pattern Making Notes," both used in the imiversity as
texts; "Shop Lecture Notes," which were so used for years; "Pattern
Making," which he wrote for the International Correspondence School,
and "Molding," which he prepared for the same school. Besides these
he has written brochures and pamphlets descriptive of "Purdue Uni-
versity Shops," "Tests of Ball Bearings," and other engineering papers.
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Some Trees op Indiana.
By F. M. Andrews.
Some trees that are exceptional for size, or for some other facts,
have been mentioned from time to time. A few of these, together with
some facts, will be briefly referred to here.
One of our largest and most beautiful trees, Liriodendron Tulipifera
L., has attained, as is well known, great dimensions both in height and
in diameter. Britton* in his Illustrated Flora gives this tree often a
height of 190 feet and a diameter of 12 feet. A tree of Liriodendron
Tulipifera L. having a diameter of 11 feet was cut down, a good many
years ago, about one mile north of Bloomington, Indiana. It divided
into two large branches some considerable distance above the ground
and probably attained a height of 175 feet. Sargent' states that this
species of tree may sometimes attain a height of 200 feet.
In describing Liriodendron Tulipifera, Wood' says: "Near Bloom-
ington, Indiana, wq measured a tree of this species which had been
recently felled. Its circumference four feet from the ground was 23
feet; 80 feet from the grround its dimension was five feet; the whole
height was 125 feet. The trunk was perfect, straight and cylindric."
When in the lumber business a good many years ago, I cut into
lumber many fine specimens of this species. I recall one specimen which
was seven feet in diameter three and one-half feet from the ground.
The trunk was straight and was free of all branches for a height of
90 feet, where it was three feet in diameter. Where this tree was cut
oflP three and one-half feet from the ground, a cavity some inches in
size was found about 10 inches from the circumference, which had been
chopped out many years before. Evidently the party who had chopped
out the block of wood concluded that it would not split easily enough
for the making of fence rails, which was a necessary occupation in
that day. The wound thus made had grown completely over in the
usual manner and left no trace of its existence on the surface of the
-trunk. The Fifteenth Annual Report of the Indiana Board of Forestry
shows on page 107 a partial view of a yellow poplar seven feet in
diameter. No sawmills exist in this part of the country that would saw
» N. L. Britton and A. Brown, An Illustrated Flora of the U. S. and Canada. 1913.
Second Edition. Vol. II. p. 63.
3 C. S. Sargent, Manual of the Trees of North America. 1905. p. 326.
^Alphonso Wood. Class Book of Botany, 1868. p. 215.
(261)
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262 Proceedings of Indiana Academy of Science.
into lumber without waste such log^s as those of Liriodendron Tulipifera
having a diameter of 12 feet as given by Britton,* or even a diameter
of 10 feet as given for this tree by Sargent.' Therefore, in order to
handle these large logs, they were often split or quartered by bursting
with gninpowder, so that they could be handled in the mill on the saw-
carriage. The large double saw rigs having both a large upper and
lower circular saw would lack a good deal of being able to handle such
sticks of timber without previous reduction. The waste even then and
in logs of moderate size is great when it is remembered that the ordi-
nary gauge of sawmill circular saws cut away one-fourth of an inch
of timber for each "line" or board that is sawed. Therefore, in logs
12 feet in diameter and 12 feet long a large amount of good timber,
if the log is sound, will be cut away in the form of sawdust and wasted.
In proportion smaller log:s, of course, lose in sawing. Band sawmills
are more economical, since the kerf of most such saws is usually one-
eighth of an inch. Trees of the yellow poplar seven feet in diameter
are now, however, rarely found in Indiana, and no specimen 11 feet in
diameter now exists. The scores of sawmills in Indiana have been one
large agency in the removal of the timber. Most of these mills are
equipped with circular saws and can cut from a few hundreds or thou-
sands of feet of lumber, daily up to many thousands of feet. Since,
however, the strain on a circular saw is considerable, and this increases
greatly with the increase in velocity of the "feed," a large circular
sawmill cannot be safely operated when cutting more than 80,000 feet
of lumber per day. Much timber is now being cut into lumber that
thirty or forty years ago would have been rejected, or only used for
fuel, if even that. A band sawmill, besides being more economical as
to narrowness of kerf, will cut more lumber per day, and for the same
capacity requires less power to operate than the circular sawmill. The
large "stationary sawmill" in various parts of the country use "band"
or "gangsaws" and often cut hundreds of thousands of feet. For ex-
ample, the plant of the Great Southern Lumber Company, Bogalusa,
Louisiana, has the largest sawmill in the world. It has cut 1,018,000
feet of lumber in a single day.' With such factors as the sawmill, con-
sumption for railroad ties, etc., and the "proverbial forest fires," the
forests are rapidly disappearing.
Near Worthington, Indiana, stands what is probably the largest tree
in this State. It is Plantanus occidentalis, is 42 feet 3 inches in cir-
cumference and 100 feet high. Wood* also says of this species that,
*N. L. Britton and A. Brown, I.e.
»C. S. SarKent. I.e.
'American Forestry, 1018, June, Vol. 24. p. 338.
* Wood. Alphonso. i.e., p. 640.
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Some Trees of Indiana. 263
"Along the Western rivers trees are found whose trunks measure from
40 to 50 feet in circumference." Britton' gives it a diameter of 14 feet,
and Gray* gives it a diameter of 2 to 4.2 m. and calls it "our largest
tree." A partial view of this tree is given in the Fifteenth Annual
Report of the Indiana State Board of Forestry for 1915, page 109.
In my yard is a hickory, Gary ovata, which was formerly very tall.
It is about three feet in diameter and at present only about 100 feet
high. Formerly it was 170 feet high, but 70 feet of the top has been
cut off.
There are still a number of areas of native forests containing good-
sized trees in Indiana. Among these may be mentioned Turkey Run.^
The farm of Mr. W. L. Jennings near Lexington, Scott Gounty, Indiana.'
This farm is reported to have 100 acres of fine forest.* The farm now
belonging to Indiana University near Mitchell, Indiana, has about 80
acres of fine, large oak and poplar and some other kinds of trees. But
these and other areas still exist only because the pony sawmill, the pro-
verbial forest fire ai^d other timber-devouring agencies have been thus
far kept out.
» Britton. I.e.. Vol. 2, p. 242.
^ Gray, New Manual of Botany. 7th Edition, p. 464.
* Fifteenth Annual Report of the State Board of Forestry, 1915.
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264 Proceedings of Indiana Academy of Science.
ASGDMYCETES NEW TO THE FLORA OP INDIANA.^
Bruce Fink and Sylvia C. Fuson, Miami University, Oxford, Ohio.
This work is presented as a contribution to a knowledge of the
ascomycetes of Indiana. The collecting was begnin by the authors in
Union County, July 21, 1917, and most of the collections were made
during August and September of the same summer in the following
counties: Franklin, Hendricks, Montgomery, Parke, Tippecanoe, and
Union. Thus far, about six hundred and twenty-five specimens have
been brought together, representing thirty-eight counties. Of this num-
ber, fifty-five were obtained from the herbarium of Purdue University
and about the same number from the herbarium of Wabash College.
It is the intention to record in this first paper a list of the ascomy-
cetes found which have not been published previously for the State.
Of these there are about one hundred and forty, including two new
species. A second paper, which is to follow, will consist of an arrange-
ment of all the ascomycetes now known to Indiana.
The classification used in this paper follows that initiated by Bruce
Fink in "The Ascomycetes of Ohio,"* published in Bulletin 5 of the
Ohio Biological Survey, June, 1915.
Full sets of the species are preserved in the herbaria of Bruce Fink
and Sylvia C. Fuson, and a partial set was sent to the herbarium of
Purdue University.
Unless otherwise stated, all collections were made by the authors.
Other collectors mentioned are H. W. Anderson, J. C. Arthur, F. E.
Bryant, G. W. Clark, Miss Katherine Longhead, C. P. Orton, J. R-
Schram, Miss Simonds, and M. B. Thomas.
The authors are under obligations to the following persons for help
in collecting, or for the furnishing of facilities for collecting: H. W,
Anderson, J. C. Arthur, J. W. Clokey, A. N. Fuson, Mrs. A. N. Fuson,
H. S. Jackson, C. A. Ludwig, D. P. Miller, John Miller, L. 0. Overholtz,
George A. Ross, J. M. Van Hook, and Miss Bemice Wren. We are also
indebted to Dr. E. J. Durand and to Dr. C. L. Shear for determining
some difficult species.
The list of species not previously reported from Indiana follows.
* Contributions from the Botanical Laboratories of Miami University — ^XV.
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Ascomycetes New to the Flora of Indiana. 265
PEZIZALES.
Pezizaceae.
Geopyxis nebvXosa (Cooke) Sacc.
On rotten logs in woods. Parke, Montgomery.
Humaria fusispora Berk.
On moist ground in grassy wood. Jasper (Arthur 1903).
Lachnea setosa (Nees) Phill.
On old stumps in wood. Montgomery.
Peziza bronca Peck.
On soil in open wood. Tippecanoe.
ASCOBOLACEAE.
AscoboltLs atroficscus Phill. and Plow.
On burnt soil in open wood. Montgomery.
Ascophanus cameus (Pers.) Boud.
On sheep dung under bell jar. Tippecanoe (Arthur 1896).
Ascophanus testaceus (Moug.) Phill.
On old sacking. Tippecanoe (Arthur 1903).
Saccobolus neglectus Boud.
On cow dung in open pasture. Montgfomery.
Helotiaceae.
Chlorosplenium chlora (L. and S.) Mass.
On rotten logs in woods. Montgomery, Parke, Tippecanoe.
Helotium fratemum Peck.
On petioles in low wood. Parke.
Helotium lutescens Fries.
On old log in Sayre's wood. Union.
Lachnum leucophaeum (Pers.) Karst.
On dead pokeberry stems on low, open, flood plain. Montgomery.
Lanzia helotioides Rehm.
On old log in low wood. Montgomery.
PhicUea scutula (Pers.) Gill.
On dead balsam and other decaying stems on flood plain of Sugar
Creek. Montgomery.
Sclerotinia tuberosa (Hedw.) Fuck.
On soil in wood. Tippecanoe (Reed).
MOLLISIACEAE.
Belonidium minutissium Fries.
On dead tree trunks in Sayre's wood. Union.
Beloniella dehnii (Rabenh.) Rehm.
On rough cinquefoil. Tippecanoe (Orton 1911).
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266 Proceedings of Indmna Academy of Science.
Mollisia cinerea (Batsch) Karst.
On decaying logs in wood at Turkey Run. Parke.
Orbilia leucostigma Fries.
On dry sticks in woods. Montgomery, Parke, Tippecanoe, Union.
Orbilia vinosa (Alb. and Schw.) Karst.
On osage orange in open woods. Montgomery, Union.
Tapesia dnerella Rehm.
On rotten logs in woods. Parke, Tippecanoe, Union.
Cenangiaceae.
Dermatea carpinea (Pers.) Rehm.
On dead tree trunk in Sayre's wood. Union.
Sarcosoma rufa (L. and S.) Rehm.
On soil in Sayre's wood. Union.
Patellariaceae. .
Karschia fusispora (Cooke and Peck) Sacc.
On logs in wood. Montgomery.
Patellaria atrata (Hedw.) Fries.
On log:s in wet, open woods. Montgomery, Tippecanoe.
LECANORALES.
Lecideaceae.
Bacidia inundUUa (Fries) Koerb.
On moist bricks, limestone, and other rocks, usually in woods. Mon-
roe, Montgomery, Putnam, Tippecanoe, Union.
Bacidia rubella (Hoffm.) Mass.
On bark of willow in open wood. Tippecanoe.
Bacidia schweinitzii (Tuck.) Fink.
On bark of beech in Sayre's wood. Union.
Buellia myriocarpa (Lam. and DC.) Mudd.
On board fences and telephone poles along roadsides. Franklin,
Montgomery, Union.
Lecidea coarctata (J. E. Smith) Nyl.
On bricks, limestone, and other moist rocks in Crawford's wood.
Montgomery.
Lecidea enteroleuca Ach.
On flat, exposed rocks in open pasture. Union.
Lecidea myrioca/rpoides Nyl.
On rotten stump on Indiana University Campus wood. Monroe.
Lecidea uliginosa (Schrad.) Ach.
On rotten stumps in woods. Hendricks, Montgomery, Union.
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Ascomycetes Neiv to the Flora of Indiana, 267
Cladoniaceae.
Cladonia baeUlaris (Del.) Nyl.
On stumps in open pasture. Hendricks.
Cladonia cariosa (Ach.) Spreng.
On soil in Crawford's wood. Montgomery.
Cladonia coniocraea (Floerke) Spreng.
On rail fences and old logs in woods. Hendricks, Montgomery, Tip-
pecanoe, Union.
Cladonia madlenta Hoffm.
On rail fences and old logs in woods. Montgomery, Tippecanoe,
Union.
COLLEMACEAE.
Leptogium tremelloides (L.) S. F. Gray.
On shaded, mossy rocks along creek. Montgomery.
Pyrenopsidaceae.
Pyrenopsis fuscoatra Fink sp. nov.
Thallus of brown-black, minute, flat or convex, usually scattered,
sometimes disappearing granules, these often forming a more or
less broken crust; apothecia minute, 0.1 to 0.3 mm. in diameter,
concolorous, scattered or clustered, hemispherical or flattened,
pyrenocarpic or finally more or less open, with a flesh pink to
concolorous disk; hypothecium pale or tinged brown; hymenium
pale below and brown above; asci clavate or ventricose; para-
physes slender, hyaline, distinct to coherent semi-distinct, brown
tipped; spores simple, hyaline, oblong-ellipsoid, 13 to 22 mic. long
and 7 to 10 mic. wide, 8 in each ascus.
On limestone in low, moist, open fields. Montgomery.
Peltigeraceae.
Peltigera horizontalis (L.) Hoffm.
On rocks at The Shades. Montgomery.
Peltigera praetextata (Sommerf.) Fink comb. nov.
On limestone rocks in wood. Tippecanoe.
ACAROSPORACEAE.
Acarospora cervina (Wahl.) Koerb.
On granite boulders in open pasture. Montgomery.
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268 Proceedings of Indiana Academy of Science.
Lecanoraceae.
Leeanora dispersa (Pers.) Floerke.
On chistose and granite boulders in open fields. Franklin, Mont-
gomery, Union.
Leeanora hqgeni Ach.
On fences, old stumps, and limestone rocks. Monroe, Montgomery,
Union.
Leeanora varia (Hoffm.) Ach.
On bark of hickory, old stumps, and picket fences. Hendricks, Mont-
gomery, Union.
Pertusariaceae.
Pertusaria pustulata (Ach.) Nyl.
On apple bark in Sayre's wood. Union.
Parmeliaceae.
Parmelia ciliata (Lam. and D. C.) Fink comb. nov.
On bark of sycamore in Sayre's wood. Union.
Parmelia eons^persa (Ehrh.) Ach.
On granite boulders in Crawford's wood. Montgomery.
Parmelia rudecta Ach.
On bark in woods. Franklin, Hendricks, Montgomery, Parke, Tipi>e-
canoe. Union.
Usneaceae.
Ramalina fraxinea (L.) Ach.
On fence posts in open country. Union.
Teloschistaceae.
Placodium aurellum (HoflPm.) Fink comb. nov.
On limestone and on sandstone conglomerate. Montgomery, Union.
Placodium microphyllinum Tuck.
On board and rail fences. Montgomery, Union.
Placodium pyraceum (Ach.) Fink.
On dead roots in open pasture. Montgomery.
Placodium sideritis (Tuck.) Fink comb. nov.
On limestone boulders in open woods. Franklin, Montgomery, Put-
nam.
Placodium ulmx>rum Fink comb. nov.
On bark in wood. Tippecanoe.
Placodium. variaJbile (Pers.) Nyl.
On exposed limestone boulder on open hillside. Franklin.
Teloschistes lychneus (Ach.) Tuck.
On maple bark in open field along road. Montgomery.
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Ascomycetes New to the Flora of Indiana. 269
Physciaceae.
Physcia aquila (Ach.) Nyl.
On bark in woods. Montgomery.
Physcia dstroidea (Fries) Nyl.
On walnut bark in woods. Franklin, Montgfomery.
Physcia endochrysea (Hampe) Nyl.
On bark and rocks in woods. Hendricks, Montgomery, Tippecanoe.
Physcia leucoleiptes (Tuck.) Fink comb. nov.
On bark in woods and along roadsides. Franklin, Monroe, Mont-
gomery.
Physcia obscura (Schaer.) Nyl.
On bark in woods and along open roadsides. Franklin, Montgomery,
Union.
Physcia piUverulenta (Schreb.) Nyl.
On stumps, tree trunks, and paling fences. Franklin, Montgomery,
Union.
Physcia tribacia (Ach.) Nyl.
On old posts and on bark, usually toward base of trees, in woods.
Hendricks, Montgomery, Parke, Union.
Pyxine sorediata (Ach.) Fries.
On old logs in wood along creek. Montgomery.
Rinodina lecanorina Mass.
On homblend granite in Crawford's wood. Montgomery.
HELVELLALES.
Geoglossaceae.
Leotia stipitata (Bosc.) Schrot.
On grassy place in open wood. Montgomery.
Helvellaceae.
Helvetia crispa (Scop.) Fries.
On ground in grassy wood. Montgomery.
Helvetia sulcata (SchaflP.) Afz.
On open hillside along road. Montgomery.
PHACIDIALES.
Stictidiaceae.
Stictis radiata (L.) Pers.
On dead stems of pokeberry on low, open, flood plain of Sug^r Creek.
Montgomery.
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270 Proceedings of Indiana Academy of Science.
HYSTERIALES.
Hysteriaceae.
Gloniopsis gerarcUana Sacc.
On old limbs in Crawford's wood. Montgomery.
Gloniopsis lineolata (Cooke) Sacc.
On rail fence along roadside. Hendricks.
Glontum linea/re (Fries) Sacc.
On sycamore bark in open pasture. Union.
Glonium nitidum Ell.
On exposed logs in open wood. Montgomery (Miller).
Glonium stellatum Muhl.
On old logs in wood. Montgomery (Anderson).
Hysterium insidens Schw.
On rail fence in woods. Hendricks, Montgomery.
Hysterographium cinertiscens Schw.
On fallen tree. Montgomery.
Hysterographium lesquereauxii (Duby) Ell. and Ev,
On old logs in wood. Union.
Hysterographium rousselii De Not.
On exposed paling in open wood along road. Montgfomery.
Hysterographium vaHabile Cooke and Peck.
On decorticate wood, rails, and fence posts, in woods, Montgomery,
Parke, Tippecanoe. ,
Graphidaceae.
Opegrapha varia Pers.
On bark in woods. Parke, Tippecanoe.
Arthoniaceae.
Arthonia dispersa (Lam. and DC.) Duf.
On maple bark in woods. Montgomery, Union.
Arthonia leddeella Nyl.
On bark, usually in woods. Hendricks, Montgomery, Parke, Tippe-
canoe, Union.
Arthonia radiata (Pers.) Ach.
On basswood bark in low wood. Tippecanoe.
HYPOCREALES.
Hypocreaceae.
Chromocrea gelatinosa (Tode) Seaver.
On old log in wood at Turkey Run. Parke.
Hypocrea lenta (Tode) Berk, and Br.
On exposed logs along border of wood. Montgomery.
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Ascomycetes New to the Flora of Indiana. 271
Hypocrea aulphurea (Schw.) Sacc.
On Exidia over decorticate wood in Sayre's wood. Union.
Nectria episphaeria (Tode) Fries.
On osage orange bark in open field along Sugar Creek. Montgomery.
Nectria sanguinea Fries.
On dead stems of common ragn^eed on low ground near Sugar Creek.
Montgomery.
DOTHIDIALES.
DOTHIDIACEAE.
Dothidea glumarum Berk, and Curt.
On couch-grass in wood. Montgomery (Thomas 1893).
Phyllachora potentillae Peck.
On cinquefoil in wood. Montgomery (Thomas 1893, 1913).
SPHAERIALES.
Chaetomiaceae.
Chaetomium bostrychodes Zopf.
On sheep dung in pasture. Tippecanoe (Arthur 1896).
SORDARIACEAE.
Sporormia minima Auersw.
On cow dung in open pasture. Montgomery.
Sphaeriaceae.
La^siosphaeria hirsuta (Fries) Ces. and De Not,
On decaying logs in wood at Turkey Run. Parke.
Lasiosphaeria kispida (Tode) Fuck.
On old wood along dry branch. Montgomery.
LaMosphaeria ovina (Pers.) Ces. and De Not.
On old logs in Sayre's wood. Union.
Leptosphaeria borealis Ell. and Ev.
On ash in wood along creek. Montgomery.
Leptosphaeria doliolum (Pers.) Ces. and De Not.
On old aster stems in low, open field, Montgomery.
Leptosphaeria dumentorum Niessl.
On stems of giant ragweed and mint in open field near Sugar Creek.
Montgomery.
Leptosphaeria subacuta (Cooke and Peck) Sacc.
On stems of giant rag^veed in low, open field. Montgomery.
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272 Proceedings of Indiana Academy of Science.
Leptosphaeria subconica (Cooke and Peck) Sacc.
On dead stems of actinomeris in low, open field near creek. Mont-
gomery.
Teichospora ohducens (Fries) Fuck.
On ash bark in open wood. Union.
Trichosphaeria pilosa (Pers.) Fuck.
On old sticks in wood. Montgomery.
Ceratostomaceae.
Ceratostomella barbarostra (Duf.) Sacc.
On maple bark on Indiana University Campus. Monroe.
Amphisphaeriaceae.
Amphisphaera incmstans Ell. and Ev.
On old wood in open pasture. Montgomery.
Pleosporaceae.
Ophioboltis acuminatus (Sow.) Duby.
On dead grape stems in low, open field. Montgomery.
Opkiobolus anguillides (Cooke) Sacc.
On dead stems of giant ragweed in low field. Montgomery.
Opkiobolus solidaginis (Fries) Sacc.
On dead stems of giant ragweed in low ground near Sugar Creek.
Montgomery.
Valsaceae.
Diaporthe albocamis Ell. and Ev.
On dead twigs in wood. Montgomery. (Anderson.)
Diaporthe orihoceras (Fries) Nits.
On dead stems of actinomeris in open ground. Montgomery.
Eutypa ludibrunda Sacc.
Old wood along roadside. Montgomery.
Eutypella cerviculata (Fries) Ell. and Ev.
On log in wood. Tippecanoe.
Diatrypaceae.
Diatrype asterostoma Bock, and Curt.
On beech twigs in open pasture. Union.
Melogrammataceae.
Botryosphaeria sumachi (Schw.) Cooke.
On sumach bark in open, flood plain. Montgomery.
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Ascomycetes New to the Flora of Indiana, 273
Xylariaceae.
Hypoxylon insidens Schw.
On exposed board in wood. Montgomery.
Hypoxylon stigmateum Cooke.
On hickory log in woods. Montgomery, Union.
Xylaria digitata (L.) Grev.
On old log in wood. Montgomery.
PYRENULALES.
Verrucariaceae.
Verrucaria epigea (Pers.) Ach.
On exposed soil in Sayre's wood. Union.
Verrucaria mura^is Ach.
On exposed bricks, sandstone, and limestone boulders. Franklin,
Monroe, Montgomery, Putnam.
Verrucarna nigrescens Pers.
On exposed limestone boulders in open field. Montgomery, Putnam,
Tippecanoe.
Verrucaria rupestris Schrad.
On exposed sandstone in open wood along road. Montgomery.
Verrucaria sordida Fink sp. no v.
Thallus partly hypolithic, the epilithic portion thin, sordid, rough-
ened, clinky-areolate, the poorly defined areoles minute, 0.2 to
0.5 mm. across; apothecia numerous, concolorous or darker,
minutfe, 0.15 to 0.25 mm. across, semi-immersed, dimidiate, the
superficial portion subconical and surmounted by a minute and
obscure ostiole; hypothecium and hymenium pale; paraphyses
gelatinizing and disappearing early; asci clavate, becoming dis-
tended and variously shaped; spores simple, hyaline, oblong-
ellipsoid, 16 to 22 mic. long and 9 to 12 mic. wide, 8 in each ascus.
On limestone boulders along dry run. Montgfomery.
Verrucaria viridula Ach.
On rock on north side of barn. Montgomery.
Pyrenulaceae.
Pyrenula cinerella (Flot.) Fink.
On cultivated cherry bark in Sayre's wood. Union.
Pyrenula leucoplaca (Wallr.) Karst.
On beech bark in wood at Turkey Run. Parke.
Pyrenula nitida (Weig.) Ach.
On bark in wood at Turkey Run. Parke.
18—16568
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274 Proceedings of Indiana Academy of Science,
Dermatocarpaceae.
Endocarpon pusillium Hedw.
On limestone and granite boulders in woods, Franklin, Montgomery,
Union.
Thelocarpon prasinellum Nyl.
On board along Sayre's wood. Union.
Trypetheliaceae.
Trypethelium virens Tuck.
On beech bark in wood. Tippecanoe.
PERISPORIALES.
Erysibaceae.
Microsphaera euonymi (DC.) Sacc.
On cultivated spindle tree. Tippecanoe (Orton).
Sphaerotheca humuli fuliginea (Schlecht.) Salm.
On tamarix and heal-all on low ground. Montgfomery.
ASPERGILLALES.
ASPERGILLACEAE.
Penicillium crustaceum L.
On canned fruit. Tippecanoe (Simonds 1906).
EXOASCALES.
EXOASCACEAE.
Exoascus mirabilis Atkins.
On wild plums. Jefferson (Clark 1898), Orange (1909).
Taphrina caenUescens (Mont.) Tul.
On scarlet oak in wood. Montgomery (Thomas 1893).
Taphrina potentUlae (Farl.) John.
On cinquefoil (Potentilla canadensis), Vigo (Arthur).
Bibliography.
Haines, Mary P. List of ferns, mosses, hepaticae, and lichens collected
in Wayne County. Ind. Geol. Surv. 1879: 235-239. 1879.
Ludwig, C. A. Fungous enemies of the sweet potato in Indiana. Proc.
Ind. Acad. Sci. 1912: 103, 104. 1912.
O'Neal, Claude E. Some species of NummtUaria common in Indiana.
Proc. Ind. Acad. Sci. 1914: 235-241. 1914.
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Ascomycetes New to the Flora of Indiana. 275
Osner, Geo. A. List of plant diseases. Proc. Ind. Acad. Sci. 1916:
• 327-332. 1916.
Osner, Geo. A. List of plant diseases. Proc. Ind. Acad. Sci. 1917: 145-
147. 1917.
Owens, Charles E. A monograph of the common Indiana species of
Hypoxylon. Proc. Ind. Acad. Sci. 1911: 291-308. 1911.
Pipal, F. J. List of plant diseases. Proc. Ind. Acad. Sci. 1915: 379-
397. 1915.
Ramsey, Glen B. The genus Rosellinia in Indiana. Proc. Ind. Acad. Sci.
1914: 251-259. 1914.
Rose, J. N. The mildews of Indiana. Bot. Gaz. 11: 60-63. 1886.
Underwood, L. M. List of cryptogams at present known to inhabit the
State of Indiana. Proc. Ind. Acad. Sci. 1893: 30-67. 1893.
Underwood, L. M. Report of the botanical division of the Indiana state
geological survey for 1894. Proc. Ind. Acad. Sci. 1894: 144-156.
1894.
Van Hook, J. M. Indiana fungi. Proc. Ind. Acad. Sci. 1910: 205-212.
1910.
Van Hook, J. M. Indiana fungi II. Proc. Ind. Acad. Sci. 1911: 347-
354. 1911.
Van Hook, J. M. Indiana fungi III. Proc. Ind. Acad. Sci. 1912: 99-
101. 1912.
Van Hook, J. M. Indiana fungi III. Proc. Ind. Acad. Sci. 1915: 141-
146. 1915.
Wilson, Guy. Flora of Hamilton and Marion counties, Indiana. Proc.
Ind. Acad. Sci. 1894: 156-176. 1894.
Note: The following papers are said to have been read before the
Indiana Academy of Science, but we have been unable to obtain either
of them:
Brannon, M. A. Some Indiana mildews. Read in 1887. Never pub-
lished.
Evans, W. H. Lichens of Indiana, 1887. Said to have been published.
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276 Proceedings of Indiana Academy of Science.
The Dormant Period of Timothy Seed Ater Harvesting.
M. L. Fisher, Purdue University.
The suggestion for this study came in August, 1916, through a
request from the Illinois Seed Company, Chicago, Illinois, asking for
data as to the length of time after harvesting until timothy seed reached
its maximum germinating power. No such data were at hand and a
very careful search of all the available literature revealed but one men-
tion of any previous work on the subject. In Fuhling's Landwirth-
schaftliche Zeitung for March 15, 1894, there was reported such a study
of several different kinds of seeds, and from that study a conclusion had
been drawn that timothy seed reaches its maximum germinating percent
in four weeks after harvest.
At the time of receiving the above inquiry it was too late to make
an investigation for the season of 1916. In the season of 1917 an inves-
tigation was begun. Heads of timothy were harvested from a lot back
of the Agricultural Building at Purdue University. It was decided to,
make the study in two parts.
1. A study of the germinating qualities of individual heads was
made to see if there was such a thing as individuality in heads.
2. A number of heads were shelled together for a mass selection and
this was used in duplicate. The shelled seed was allowed to stand in an
open pan in the laboratory. The timothy heads were not ripe enough
to shatter from the spikes, but were easily shelled. The culms below
the spikes were still green. The heads were harvested August 11th,
and the first tests set at once. The second test was set August 20th,
and the third test September 5th. For the individual head testing, five
heads were selected. A small amount of seed was shelled from the base
of the spikes and one hundred seeds (more or less accurately) counted
out for testing. For the mass tests duplicate lots of one hundred seeds
(more or less accurately counted) were taken. The seeds were tested
on blotters in moist chambers formed by turning one plate over another.
The following tables show the results of these tests:
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278 Proceedings of Indiana Academy of Science.
TABLE II— SuMMART OF Tail* I.
Series I
From harvest.
days— none.
Series II
From harvest,
days— 10
Series III
From harvest.
day8-25
Hard seed from
Series I
From harvest.
day»— 31, plus
first test
Hard seed from
Series II
From harvest.
days-50.phis
first test
%
%
% 1 %
%
%
%
%
Head 1...
27.7
58.7
96.0
90.7
Head 2. . .
26.2
46.5 1
99.0
48.5
Heads...
28.0
41.0 i
98.0
84.4
Head 4...
3».7
88.3
100.0
91.2
Head 5. . .
18.4
53.1
98.
85.4
Massl....
6.6
1 «•*
88
78.8
Maa8 2. ...
3.2
1 80.0'
88
1
Ave
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57.5 1 72.2
1
98.2
88
78.8
80.3
In Table 1 are given the detailed results obtained from the individual
heads and from the duplicates in the mass tests. In Series I it is to be
observed that in every case there was a large percentage of hard seed.
After the first five days, or first count, very few seed germinated. The
majority of the seed that germinated did so during the first five days.
After twenty-four days had passed and no germination had taken place
for several days this series was broken up. However, upon a second
thought it was decided to see what effect letting these seed dry out and
then retesting would have. The hard seed from one of the mass tests
was used for this purpose, and the table shows that 60.5% of the hard
seed germinated. However, after a period of seventeen days no more
seed would germinate in this lot. In Series II it was decided to try out
the hard seed from all of the tests by first letting them dry out on the
pads. The data in the table show the results of these tests. In Series III
there was so small a percentage of hard seed that it was not deemed
necessary to retest. In Table 2 is shown the summarized results of the
tests. From the data presented above we may make the following
observations :
1. Immediately after harvesting only a very small percentage of
germination may be expected from timothy seed. In the case of the
individual heads tested, an average of 28 percent was obtained, while in
the mass selections only an average of 4.4 percent was obtained. In
ten days after harvesting the individual heads had practically doubled
their germinating power, averaging 57.5 percent. The mass selections
had very greatly improved, averaging 72.2 percent. In twenty-five days
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Dormant Period of Timothy Seed. 279
after harvesting the individual heads had practically reached their
maximum percent, averaging 98.29^, while the mass selections had
reached a satisfactory germinating percentage — 88% (U. S. Gov. stand-
ard being 85-90 percent). (Yr. Bk. U.S. D. A. 1896, p. 623.)
2. Alternate drying and wetting increases the germinating percent-
age. However, where seed was kept wet throughout the period no
further germination took place in the hard seeds.
3. The testing of the five individual heads showed that there is some
variation in the germinating quality of the single heads, as illustrated
by head No. 4 in the test.
4. The individual heads reached a higher percentage of germination
than the mass selections. Possibly this was due to the fact that in
individual heads the seed remained attached to the spikes until shelled
off for testing, while in the case of mass selections the seed was shelled
off of the spikes as soon as harvested. The first condition is the one
which would prevail under farm practice.
5. Seed alternately wetted and dried will eventually reach a high
percentage of germination.
6. It seems reasonable to conclude from the data obtained that be-
tween three and four weeks from the time of harvesting is necessary
for timothy seed to reach its maximum germinating power.
7. If timothy seed which has been harvested and threshed before it
has reached its maximum germinating power is kept from heating and
sown at once it would eventually give a fair stand of plants.
BiBLIOCRAPHY.
Fiihling's Landwirthschaftliche Zeitung, March 15, 1894.
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280 Proceedings of Indiana Academy of Science.
The Birds of the Sand Dunes of Northwestern Indiana.
C. W. G. EiFRiG, Oak Park, Illinois.
The region covered by this list is not the entire area of sand dunes
in Lake and Porter counties, but is the "Dunes" in the narrower sense,
i. e., the strip of dune country immediately adjoining the south end of
Lake Michigan to a width of from one to two miles, extending from
Gary to Michigan City, a distance of about twenty-five miles. This is
an immensely interesting region to nature lovers and students of various
branches of natural history or science. It is interesting to the physiog-
rapher, g:eologist and geographer, as here may be seen the destructive
as well as the constructive forces of nature actually at work. It is a
perfect Eldorado to the zoologist, especially those devoted to the study
of ornithology and entomology, as well as the botanist. And in few
other regions can studies in ecology be carried on as well as here. All
of this needs no further elucidation in this connection. Most phases of
it have been written upon, as, e. g., by Prof. W. S. Blatchley and Mr.
A. W. Butler in the twenty-second annual report of the Indiana Depart-
ment of Geology and Natural Resources for 1897; by Dr. H. C. Cowles,
in his "Plant Societies of Chicago and Vicinity"; by R. D. Salisbury,
in "The Geography of Chicago and Its Environs"; by V. E. Shelf ord,
in his "Animal Communities"; and others. There is also a well- written
account of the Dunes by Mr. A. F. Knotts of Gary in the Indiana geo-
logical report for 1916. Lately, artistically gotten-up books on the
Dunes are beginning to appear, as "The Sand Dunes of Indiana," by
E. S. Bailey; "The Dune Country," by E. H. Reed, and others.
Since the publication of Mr. Butler's "Birds of Indiana" in the 1897
report, which is one of the best if not the best state list of birds known
to the writer, little has been published on the avifauna of the Dunes.
Some short notes have been published on certain rare species here by
Mr. H. L. Stoddard, of the Harris Public School Extension of Field
Museum, who has spent much time in the Dunes in connection with his
work. The notes are to be found in the "Auk," Vols. 33 and 34.
The writer's idea in compiling this list is not so much to quote old
records, but to give the present status of the avifauna of this section.
He has spent many days in the Dunes, in every month of the year, and
has also accumulated material from the observations of members of the
Chicago Ornithological Society, many of whom also go to the Dunes as
often as they can. As an example of what may be seen here, at a time
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'^ The Birds of the Sand Dunes. 281
when very little of interest can usually be seen in most places in this
latitude, I quote the species I saw during my last three visits to the
Dunes, on November 30th, December 21st and 27th, 1918, namely.
Evening Grossbeaks, Pine Grossbeaks, Tufted Titmouse, Red-breasted
Mergansers, Hooded Mergansers, Herring Gulls, Red-headed Woodpeck-
ers, Chickadees, Blue Jays, Tree Sparrows, Juncos, Cardinals, White-
breasted Nuthatches, Redpolls, Downy Woodpeckers, and Crows. Any-
one familiar with bird conditions will see how difficult it would be to
duplicate this list in most places. The writer deplores his lack of time
to enter into the subject more fully, and* hopes to be able to do so at
some future time. In the meantime, everyone able to do so ought to
lend his aid to the proposal to make a part of this alluring regiocn a
national park. Let it remain a monument of nature and a high school
of and in nature forever!
Order Pygopodes: Diving Birds.
1. Colynibus aurittiSy Horned Grebe. A none too common migrant,
especially in spring, and one may now and then breed in Long Lake,
near Millers, or some others of the larger and not too accessible lakes
that are between the dunes or along the southern end of them. They
are seen on Lake Michigan in April, and several have been seen or
taken on Long Lake, April 3rd, 15th and 21st, 1916, and April 25th
and May 5th, 1917.
2. PodilymhtL8 podiceps. Pied-billed Grebe. A common migrant and
breeding species, nearly every pond or lake harboring one or several
pairs. Late records are: April 1, 1916; June 2 and 6, 1916, nests with
four to seven eggs found in Long Lake; July 18, 1911, family of old
with young.
No doubt, if a competent observer would stay here throughout at
least one whole year and patrol the beach daily, he would also see Hol-
boell's Grebe and the Eared Grebe, but the writer knows of no late
records.
3. Gavia immer, Loon. Formerly, no doubt, a common breeder here,
but is so no longer. This shy bird does not stay where the genus homo
becomes abundant, as is now the case in the Dunes, but it still tarries
here in migration. April 1, 1915, one swam about, a short distance from
shore, at Tremont.
What has been said in the case of the Grebes undoubtedly holds good
for the Loons, too. The Red-throated Loon would probably also be seen
by continuous observation. And this is still more true of the species of
the next order, the Longipennes. Nearly all the far northern Jaegers,
Gulls and Terns probably put in an appearance here, especially in long,
severe winters and after strong northerly gales, but it takes more than
ordinary fortitude to be out on the lake shore then.
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282 Proceedings of Indiana Academy of Science.
Order Longipennes: Long-wing«d Swimmers.
4. Stercorarius longicaudus, Long-tailed Jaeger. This is an instance
of what painstaking search may reveal. Mr. H. L. Stoddard shot a fine
male of this species at Dune Park, September 21, 1915. Mr. F. M.
Woodruff, of the Chicago Academy of Science, mentioned several other
occurrences of this boreal species to me.
5. Larus hyperboreas, Glaucous Gull. One was shot at Millers,
August 8, 1897, which is in Mr. Woodruff's collection.
6. Larus argentatus, Herring Gull. An abundant winter resident,
and a few, probably unmated individuals may be seen even in summer.
April 24, 1915, there were many over the lake at Tremont; August 30,
1916; about ten at Millers. At the latter place, where there is a fisher-
men's colony on the beach, it is one of the common sights to see one
perched on the top of every post in the lake and numerous others flying
about.
7. Larus delawarensis. Ring-billed Gull. Almost as abundant as the
preceding species, some days even predominating in numbers. A female
was taken as early as August 3, 1915. Often flies up close to the walker
along the beach, as if to inspect him.
8. Larus Philadelphia, Bonaparte's Gull. Although this is next to
the Herring and Ring-billed Gulls the commonest of the migrating gulls
on Chicago River and off the lake shore at the parks, we do not see it
nearly so often as the two other gulls at the south end of the lake.
Probably we have just missed the days of their abundance. May 10,
1917, I saw about ten flying about in the harbor of Michigan City.
9. Sterna ca^pia, Caspian Tern. This now turns out to be a rather
regular and not uncommon migrant here. In late August and early
September as high** as twenty have been seen at one time over the lake
at Mineral Springs. Stoddard took specimens August 30, 1914, and
September 4, 1915. I saw one at Millers August 30, 1916.
10. Sterna forsteri, Foster's Tern. An abundant migrant, at about
the same time as the preceding species. August 30, 1916, a flock of
about two hundred were fishing parallel to the water line near Millers,
two or three rods from shore, where they were continually diving from
about twenty feet above the water into the schools of minnows in the
shallow water below, making as much noise as possible, reminding one
of a lot of small boys on a rampage. Most still had the black crown
of their nuptial dress.
11. Sterna hirundo, Common Tern. May almost be called a summer
resident, as it is common after the first of August, and I have seen
twenty as late as May 20 (1915), at Mineral Springs. Some days this
species makes up the bulk of the tern flocks over the lake, on others
the preceding leads in numbers.
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The Birds of the Sand Dunes. 283
12. Sterna dougalli, Roseate Tern. A specimen of this rare acci-
dental visitor to inland waterbodies was secured by Mr. Stoddard on
the beach between Millers and Dune Park, August 14, 1916. This
seems to be the first clear record for this bird in Indiana, for the records
cited by Mr. A. W. Butler in his "Birds of Indiana" either are for
adjoining states only or do not state whether the specimen was taken
or not,
13. Hydrochelidon nigra surinamensis. Black Tern. This species is
extremely common in August and September at the southern end of
Lake Michigan, where we have taken specimens as late as August 30
(1916), still in the entirely black breeding plumage. If they do not
nest in the region under discussion, they certainly do in the immediate
vicinity, as on Wolf and Hyde Lake, almost on the state line, also in
larger sloughs a little south of the dune region.
Order Steganopodes: Totipalmate Swimmers.
14. Phalacrocorax auritus auritus, Double-crested Cormarant. Al-
though we have no recent records for the occurrence of this species,
there are numerous ones for the inmiediate neighborhood of the dune
region in a wider sense than as used above, such as* Liverpool, Lake
County, three miles south of Millers, where one was taken October 16,
1896; it is frequently seen in Chicago, at the lake in the south end of
the metropolis, and in the adjoining parts of Michigan. Mr. K. W.
Kahmann, the Chicago taxidermist, frequently has specimens sent to
him from Kouts, Porter County. Hence there can be no doubt as to
the occurrence in the dune region in the restricted sense indicated above.
15. Pelecanus erythrcrhynchos, White Pelican. Mr. F. M. Woodruff
reports two at Millers, seen in the fall of 1896, and I have seen a speci-
men at Mr. K. W. Kahmann's shop, taken at Kouts, Porter County.
There can be no doubt as to the casual occurrence of this species in the
dune area.
Order Ansers: Lamelli rostral Swimmers.
16. Mergus americanus, Merganser. This is a common migrant and
winter resident. They were common at Millers December 17, 1895, and
on January 14, 1897; four were seen there.
17. Mergus serrator. Red-breasted Merganser. Of the same status
as the preceding species. Saw two at Millers, November 30, 1918.
18. Lophodytes cucullatus, Hooded Merganser. Another common
migrant and winter resident all over the southern end of Lake Mich-
igan, with the added difference that it also breeds in the vicinity, along
the Kankakee River. It no doubt formerly bred along the Grand and
Little Calumet, and near the larger dune ponds, and may do so still.
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19. Anas platyrhynchos, Mallard. A common sojourner during mi-
gration, and probably would breed if there were not so many hunters
at Lfong Lake. I saw about ten fly over the dunes from this lake on
March 18, 1916.
20. Anas rubripes, Black Duck. Of similar status as the preceding,
only not so abundant. Stoddard took a male. May 5, 1917, at Millers,
Lake County, out of eight he saw there.
21. Chaulelasmus streperus, Gadwall. A rare migrant, or probably
accidental visitor. A specimen was taken October 18, 1896, at Liver-
pool, Lake County, practically in the dune region.
22. Ma/reca americana, Baldpate. A conmion migrant and not in-
frequently breeds in the neighborhood of the Dunes. May 12, 1917, I
saw a pair and approached it quite closely, at Long Lake, which acted
as though very much at home. They have been found breeding along
the Kankakee and in the adjoining parts of Illinois and Michigan.
23. Nettion carolinense, Green- winged Teal. A migrant of some-
what uncertain status. Mr. Stoddard saw a pair at Dune Park, April 1,
1917.
24. Querquedula discors, Blue-winged Teal. A common migrant and
rather common breeder over the whole region. May 30, 1916, I saw two
in Long Lake, which indicates their breeding there. May 31, 1912, I
saw three or four on Hyde Lake in Illinois, right over the Indiana line.
When once the Dunes are made a state or national park, or when at
least the present federal law regarding spring shooting is enforced
strictly, also against the "original squatters" in this region, who now
consider themselves above such laws, this species, as well as the Mallard,
the Hooded Merganser, the Wood Duck, the Baldpate and others will
no doubt breed here again as in former years.
25. Spatula clypeata, Shoveller. Of similar status as the preceding,
perhaps not quite as common. I saw two pair in Long Lake, April 24,
1916, and May 31, 1912, three in Hyde Lake, near the Indiana line.
26. Dafila acuta. Pintail. A common migrant. E. W. Nelson in his
"Birds of Northeastern Illinois" states that he, in 1876, found several
pair nesting in the sloughs near the Calumet River, which may have
been within this region.
27. Aix sponsa, Wood Duck. The quiet and often rather large
ponds on the south margin of and between the Dunes are ideal breeding
places for this beautiful duck, and it is no doubt only owing to the
relentless persecution of past years that it now is seldom or never seen
in summer. Let us hope for better times for them in the near future.
It is almost criminal in my eyes to shoot and pluck such beauty.
28. Marila americava, Redhead. »
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29. Ma/rila valisneria. Canvas-back. These two species were formerly
abundant on Wolf and George Lakes, at the edge of the dune country,
also at Liverpool, Lake County, where a large flock of the latter were
seen February 28, 1896, by Mr. J. G. Parker, but now they are far less
common.
30. Marila marila, Scaup Duck. March 18 and April 24, 1916, I
saw flocks of fifteen and seven on Long Lake which I took to be this
species. There is absolutely no reason why they should not be here,
as well as Marila affinis, since they breed from Minnesota northward
and winter from there south and southeastward, thus being almost com-
pelled to cross over.
31. Marila affinis, Lesser Scaup Duck. An abundant migrant over
the whole region of which the Dune region is the centre.
32. Marila collaris, Ring-necHed Duck. Also this species can hardly
avoid being found here during migration, although I have no positive
dates at my command. It is simply a matter of having enough time to
be there continually during migration to find this and other species of
similar habits and range.
33. Clangula clangula americana. Golden-eye. A common winter
resident throughout the southern end of Lake Michigan. This is a
hardy species and is in some places called Winter Duck. March 18,
1916, I saw about twenty-five on Long Lake.
34. Charitonetta albeola, Buffle-head. Not as common as the pre-
ceding one, since it spends the winter farther south as a rule. Mr.
Stoddard took a female out of a small flock on Long Lake, April 25, 1917.
35. Harelda hyemalis. Old-squaw. An abundant winter resident.
Mr. J. G. Parker, Jr., and Mr. F. W. Woodruff saw large flocks of them
at Millers in January and February, 1897.
The Eiders and Scoters would probably in time nearly all be seen
by one who would have the time and hardihood to patrol the beach daily
during the winter, as there are records for them from as near the south
end of the lake as Chicago.
36. Erismatura jamaicensis, Ruddy Duck. Early records show that
this species not only visited here but bred in this region. Mr. H. K.
Coale found two males and a female together at Tolleston, now a part
of Gary, May 9, 1877. It no doubt still returns to the ponds and slug-
gish streams so well loved by it, as the Grand and Little Calumet.
What has above been said concerning the Eiders and Scoters prob-
ably holds good for the various Geese, of which we have no definite
record for the narrow region under discussion. They would probably
nearly all be seen in time. Mr. Stoddard saw six Snow Geese off Gary
October 21, 1916, which I would put down as Chen hyperboreus hyper-
boreus, since that is the form whose breeding range is west of Hudson
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286 Proceedings of Indiana Academy of Science,
Bay, and would probably come south on the west side of Lake Michigan,
while those coming southwest in fall along the coast from Michig^an
should be the eastern form, Chen hyperboreus nivalis.
37. Chen caerulescens. Blue Goose. Mr. Stoddard saw a flock of
about forty off Gary, October 21, 1916, one of which, a fine male, he
collected. He concludes that this species is probably common for a few
days in fall along the southern end of the lake.
38. Branta canadensis canadensis, Canada Goose. This species not
so long ago bred in the Calumet marshes, adjacent to our area, and is
now a common migrant and winter resident. March 18, 1916, a flock
of about forty were holding a sort of convention, apparently, at the
edge of the ice, off Millers, where they were very noisy, as though
debating hard. April 1, a flock of twelve flew northward, later a flock
of thirty came in wedge formation, then formed a broad line front, and
then suddenly, as if by command, broke and plunged down on the lake.
39. Olor columbianus, Whistling Swan. Mr. Woodruff reports see-
ing several specimens that had been taken at Liverpool, Lake County,
and he himself shot one near Hyde Lake in Indiana. It no doubt still
flies over our region in its migration.
Order Herodiones: Storks, Herons, Ibises.
40. Botaums lentiginosus, Bittern. A common summer resident,
April 24, 1916, I heard two "pumping" at Mineral Springs.
41. Ixobrychus exilis. Least Bittern. A common summer resident in
the fringe of cat-tail around most ponds, especially at Long Lake, where
I scared up one September 25, 1915. Stoddard found a nest under con-
struction there June 2, 1916.
42. Ardea herodias, Great Blue Heron. A migrant of diminishing
numbers, and a few pairs may still breed along the Calumet, as they
formerly did in considerable numbers. I saw one August 13, 1915, at
Millers.
43. Butorides virescens virescens, Green Heron. A rather common
summer resident. They like to place their nests in button bush (Cepha-
lanthus occidentalis) and other growth forming dense masses, and this
is found along the edge of sloughs in abundance. April 24, 1916, we
saw one at Dune Park, also June 24.
44. Nycticorax nycticorax naevius, Black-crowned Night Heron.
While we have not seen or taken this species lately in the Dunes, it is
rather common in the whole neighborhood, e. g., Hyde Lake, Kouts, etc,
so it cannot fail to at least visit the region occasionally.
45. Grus mexicana, Sandhill Crane. Mr. Stoddard saw three near
Dune Park, April 7, 1917. He is familiar with the species from a resi-
dence of years in Florida. They have lately been reported from a num-
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The Birds of the Sand Dunes. 287
ber of neighboring locations also, such as Crete, Illinois, near the Indi-
ana line.
46. Rallus elegans. King Rail. A common summer resident in the
large and small cat-tail areas of the region. Dates range from April 13
to October 21.
47. Rallus virginiantis, Virginia Rail. Also a summer resident, per-
haps not quite as common as the preceding species. May 30, 1916, I
saw three at Mineral Springs.
48. Porzana Carolina, Sora. Abundant migrant, but probably less
conunon breeder than the two preceding species. April 24 and May 20,
1916, I saw one and two respectively at Mineral Springs.
There can be no doubt that the Yellow and Black Rails are also
found here, but owing to their small size, secretive habits, the difficulty
of flushing them, and aversion on the part of the dune hiker to thor-
oughly explore the areas of cat-tail, they have so far escaped detection,
but have been seen at Hyde and Wolf Lakes, immediately adjoining.
49. Gallinula galeata, Florida Gallinule. Nests rather commonly on
Long Lake. April 22, 1917, the first ones of the year were seen there,
and June 6, 1916, a nest of seven partly incubated eggs was found.
50. Fidica americana. Coot. An abundant migrant and sparing
nester. They would no doubt nest commonly if left undisturbed. A
few nest on Long Lake. January 6, 1917, we found a dead one that
appeared to have died recently.
Order Limicolae: Shore Birds.
If one could for a whole year, or at least throughout the spring and
fall migration, patrol the beach of the dune country systematically,
many more species of Limicolae would undoubtedly be seen than are
here recorded, for it is the logical place for them to be met with.
Whether they come in fall along the east or west shore of LaVe Mich-
igan, they must come here, the south end of the lake.
51. Philohela minor, Woodcock. A summer resident which is not
very common. The many campers and dune prowlers probably make
this region increasingly distasteful to it. July 18, 1911, I flushed two
from a willow thicket at the border of a small pool at Millers, and I
have seen them at Mineral Springs.
52. GaUinago delicata, Wilson's Snipe. A common migrant.
53. Macrorhamphus griseus griseiLS, Dowitcher. A rare migrant.
Mr. F. W. Woodruff saw one or more of them at Liverpool, Septem-
ber 2, 1892.
The Stilt Sandpiper, MicropaJ,ama himantopus, has also been taken
near our region, and no doubt is also one of the rare sojourners among
the shore birds.
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288 Proceedings of Indiana Academy of Science.
54. Tringa canuttis, Knot. A migrant, probably not as rare as usu-
ally thought. Mr. Stoddard took two specimens, both in spring plumage,
June 2, 1917, and September 2, 1916, at Millers, and I took one at the
same place from among a flock of Sanderlings, September 25, 1916.
56. Pisohia maculata, Pectoral Sandpiper. An abundant migrant
56. Pisohia bairdi, Baird's Sandpiper. A rare migrant. A few may
be seen during August and September on the beach near Millers, which,
by the way, seems to be the best place for Sandpipers, especially the
rare ones. Mr. Stoddard secured two fine specimens at Dune Park,
August 23, 1916, and two at Millers, September 2, 1916.
57. Pisohia minutilla. Least Sandpiper. A common migrant The
small troops of scurrying sandpipers on the beach are largely made up
of this species. August 13, 1916, I saw about ten at Millers.
58. Pelidna alpina sakhalina, Red-backed Sandpiper. A common
spring migrant over the whole neighborhood, so it must at times be
found here also. Mr. G. F. Clingman took a specimen here, on the
beach, June 1, 1879.
59. Ereunetes pusillus, Semipalmated Sandpiper. A common mi-
grant along the beach, where it may be seen in the company of the
Least Sandpiper, Sanderling and others. August 14th, 23rd and 30th,
1916, they were plentiful on the beach at Millers.
60. Calidris leiLCophaea, Sanderling. An abundant migrant. The
earliest record for the fall migration is July 18 (1911), when I took
two from a flock of fifteen at Millers. From then on they are common
up to about October 1. One taken by Stoddard, August 23, 1916, at
Millers, was still in breeding plumage, but after that date all were in
the fall dress. June 2, 1917, Stoddard saw several in full nuptial
plumage near Dune Park.
61. Limosa haenmstica^ Hudsonian Godwit. Probably a rare mi-
grant. Mr. Charles Brandle took one on Wolf Lake, Indiana, Septem-
ber 16, 1898, which is close to our region.
62. Totanus Melanoleucus, Greater Yellow-legs. Migrant. Mr. J.
G. Parker has seen them as early as March 30 (1895) at Liverpool.
63. Totanus flavipes, Yellow-legs. Of similar status as the last.
64. Helodromas solitarius solitarius, Solitary Sandpiper. A not un-
common migrant. May 20, 1916, I saw one at Mineral Springs.
65. Catoptrophonis semipalmatus inomatus, Western Willet. Mr.
F. W. Woodruff refers the Willets seen along the beach near Millers to
the western form. He has taken many there. It is seen occasionally
from August 1 to the 15th of September, also late in April or early in
May. (Woodruff.)
The chances are that both the eastern and western forms occur here.
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The Birds of the Sand Dunes. 289
66. Bartramia longicauda, Upland Plover. Apparently a rare breeder
in our restricted region, but common along the southern edge of it.
Mr. A. W. Butler gives several breeding records for Lake County and
the Calumet marshes in Indiana.
67. Tryngites subruficollis, Buff-breasted Sandpiper. Apparently a
rare migrant. Mr. Stoddard took a fine specimen at Millers on August
30, 1916. Up to the publishing of Mr. Butler's "Birds of Indiana," there
was only one record of its having been taken in the state. This, then,
would be the second.
68. Actitis macularius, Spotted Sandpiper. A common summer resi-
dent. April 24, 1916, I saw two at Mineral Springs, and, on May 20, six.
The Curlews seem to be a thing of the past.
69. Squatarola squatarola. Black-billed Plover. Rather rare along
the beach. Stoddard saw three on August 30, 1916, at Dune Park;
September 2, 1916, he collected four fine specimens between Millers and
Gary, ranging from full breeding dress, through the eclipse plumage of
a few black feathers only on belly, to entire fall dress. The last one
noted by him was October 15, 1916, near Gary.
70. Charadrius dominicus dominicus, Golden Plover. Probably now
rarer here than the preceding species. Both are migrants, of course.
I saw two, April 24, 1915, at Tremont.
71. OxyechtLs vociferus, Killdeer. A common migrant and breeder.
72. Aegialitis sewipalmata, Semipalmated Plover. A migrant, asso-
ciating with Semipalmated and Least Sandpipers on the beach.
73. Aegialitis meloda, Piping Plover. Formerly a common, now a
rather rare breeder. Despite the overrunning of its peculiar breeding
grounds on the part of campers, bathers, dune prowlers, ecology classes
and others, this dapper, attractive little beach sprite has survived here
as breeder to probably a half dozen pairs between Millers and Mineral
Springs. Its peculiar habitat is the depression between the first two
low, incipient dunes, a few rods back from the lake. Sets of eggs are
found nearly every year. Stoddard has taken specimens August 23,
1916, in full summer dress; August 23, 1916, in the eclipse plumage,
and September 2, 1916, in full winter dress.
74. Arenaria interpres interpres, Turnstone. A migrant. Mr. Stod-
dard took one June 2, 1917, at Millers in full breeding plumage. They
are here again by August 5 (1916), when he took another specimen yet
in full spring dress. One taken August 23, 1916, was partly changed,
and the last of September 2, 1916, was entirely in winter plumage.
Order Gallinae: Gallinaceous Birds.
75. Colinus virginianus virginianus. Bob-white. This attractive spe-
cies is not as common here as one would wish. Their musical call is
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290 Proceedings of Indiana Academy of Science.
heard but rarely. March 11, 1916, we saw a covey of about twelve at
Mineral Springs; August 24 we heard one; August 13, 1915, I saw two
on the dune immediately behind the electric railway station at Millers.
76. Bonasa umbellus umJbelhvs, Ruffed Grouse. This fine species still
holds its own in the dense covers of scrubby oak, juniper, sumac, etc.,
between the middle dunes and in the woods on the southern fringe of
them. No more than three or four at the highest are seen in a day's
walk. March 11, 1916, I flushed three at Mineral Springs; on the 18th,
one at Millers; July 16, 1915, also one at the last-named place; one
January 6, 1917, and one February 17, 1917.
77. Tympanuchus americamis americanus, Prairie Chicken. Very
rare here. Mr. Stoddard saw two near Mineral Springs in the fall of
1913. They had probably sought refuge there from the persecution of
hunters a little farther south.
Order Columbae: Pigeons and Doves.
77. Zenaidura nuLcroura carolinensis. Mourning Dove. A rather com-
mon summer resident, but present in spring and fall as well. April 1,
1916, two were seen at Millers; on the 24th, four at Mineral Springs;
May 20th, six at Millers, one nest on ground, with two eggs.
The last records of the memorable Passenger Pigeon, which is a
thing of the past for this region, are probably those given by Mr. Wood-
ruff in his "Birds of the Chicago Area," where he quotes from the
"Auk," Vol. 12, page 389, as follows: "April 8, 1894, Mr. Edward J.
Geckler saw a flock of about fifteen Wild Pigeons flying while in a
woods near Liverpool, Indiana.
"Mr. Kaempfer, a taxidermist of this city, had a fine male Passenger
Pigreon mounted on one of his shelves which was brought in on March
14, 1894. The gentleman who brought it said he shot it near Liverpool,
Indiana, and saw quite a number of them at that time."
Order Raptores: Birds of Prey.
79. Cathartes aura septentrionalis, Turkey Vulture. A rare acci-
dental visitor, though one would expect it to be more common. Stoddard
saw three at Tremont, July 4, 1917. For hawks this is a great region,
as is to be expected, considering the great number of small rodents and
large and small swamp birds found here.
80. Circus hudsonius, Marsh Hawk. This is the commonest hawk,
where it finds the many large and small swales to its liking for feeding
and nesting. They come early and stay late. March 11, 1916, five or six
were seen at Mineral Springs; on the 18th, two; April 1, 1916, four, or
rather two pair, were observed mating at Millers. May 20, 1916, we
saw seven at Mineral Springs and found a nest in a large swale with
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The Birds of the Sand Dunes. 291
five half -incubated eggs. May 30th another nest with four eggs was
found there. Stoddard located six nests within a radius of one mile of
Mineral Springs.
81. Accipiter velox, Sharp-shinned Hawk. A much rarer breeder.
March 11, 1916, we saw one at Mineral Springs; April 1st, two; August
13, 1915, I saw one at Millers; May 12, 1917, one in immature plumage
at Mineral Springs.
82. Accipiter cooperi, Cooper's Hawk. This species is a little com-
moner than the preceding. It has picked on the stand of large timber
in the Mineral Springs-Tremont sector as being to its liking. April 1,
1916, we saw four at the former place; May 2, one; May 25, 1914, Stod-
dard found a nest with four partly incubated eggs 45 feet up in a tam-
arack. July 13, 1915, he took four young, nearly ready to fly, from a
nest at the latter place. The next year he located a nest in the same
place, also with four eggs, on May 21st. We saw two there February
17, 1917.
83. Astur atricapillus atricapilliis, Goshawk. Probably a rare winter
visitant I saw one February 17, 1917, at Mineral Springs, carrying a
cottontail in his talons.
84. Buteo borealis borealis. Red-tailed Hawk. A rather uncommon
siunmer resident, commoner in migration. April 24, 1916, we saw two
at Mineral Springs; May 12, 1917, one.
85. Buteo lineatus lineatus, Red-shouldered Hawk. This is after the
Marsh Hawk the commonest hawk. One or more can be seen at every
visit to the Dunes. Dates are: April 24, 1915, one seen at Tremont;
May 29, 1916, one at Mineral Spiings; March 11, 1916, four at Mineral
Springs; April 1, one at Millers; August 20, 1916, one at Mineral
Springs; September 25, 1915, one at Millers. Mr. Stoddard found a
nest at Mineral Springs.
86. Buteo platypterus, Broad-winged Hawk. Seems to be rare here,
probably common enough on some days during migration. Mr. Butler
quotes Mr. C. E. Aiken, who says that it breeds in Lake County. I saw
two at Whiting, Lake County, April 18, 1914.
87. Archihuteo lagopus sancti-johannis, Rough-legged Hawk. Mr.
Butler quotes Mr. J. G. Parker as saying that this is the commonest of
the large hawks in Lake County in winter. I saw one November 30,
1918, near Millers.
88. Haliaetus leucocephalus leucocephaXuSy Bald Eagle. Up to within
twenty years or less ago this great bird was almost a common sight in
the Dunes, nesting regularly. When the number of foolish gunners in-
creased, it had to go; but it still comes back from time to time as if to
survey its former realms again. Mr. Stoddard saw a bird in the imma-
ture plumage at close range at Millers, October 15, 1916, and Mr. W. D.
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292 Proceedings of Indiana Academy of Science.
Richardson, who spends more time in the Dunes than anybody I know
of, saw three at Mineral Springs, June 17, 1917.
89. Falco columbarius columbarius, Pigeon Hawk. Probably not as
rare as supposed. We saw one at Mineral Springs, March 11, 1916.
90. Falco sparverius sparverius. Sparrow Hawk. Rather rare here.
I saw one at Millers, September 29, 1915.
The Osprey can hardly fail to at least pass over our region at times,
but I have no recent dates. Mr. Stoddard and I saw one near Kouts,
Porter County, just a few miles south of the Dunes, May 6, 1916.
91. Asio tvilsonianus, Long-eared Owl. Apparently a rare migrant
and breeder, but is perhaps only more secretive than rare. Stoddard
has seen several at Mineral Springs, and found a nest of them with
three partly feathered young, May 25, 1914.
92. Asio flammexiSy Short-eared Owl. Should be common here, as the
swales that attract the Marsh Hawk are equally attractive to it, but it
is not. It must nest, as adults were frequently seen during May and
June, 1914, at Mineral Springs.
93. Cryptoglaux acadica acadica. Saw- whet Owl. Probably a rare
permanent resident, as witness these dates: Mr. Stoddard took one
February 15, 1914, at Millers, and one April 4, 1915, at Mineral Springs.
94. Otus asio asio, Screech Owl. Like the Sparrow Hawk, this is
not as common as one would expect. It is, of course, a permanent
resident. We saw one near Millers on March 18th and on August 30th,
1916.
95. Bubo virginianus virginianus, Great Horned Owl. Contrary to
expectations, this species is commoner here than the Screech Owl or
Short-eared Owl seem to be. In a walk between the dunes from Millers
to Mineral Springs, three or four may be scared up, and there is a pair
staying in the dark tamarack and pine swamp at the latter place, and
another one nearby. We saw three, e.g., March 11th and 18th, 1916;
August 30, we saw one near Millers being pestered by crows. Stoddard
has found three nests in one season alone, to which were added three
or four more near to Dune Park or Mineral Springs the following sea-
sons. Here are nesting data: March 15, 1914, a nest was found with
three slightly incubated eggs in a scrub pine, forty feet up; March 17th,
two eggs were found in the cavity at the top of a large dead pine stub.
The third, containing three downy young, in a similar location, was
found April 4th. February 25, 1917, a nest with two eggs was found
near Dune Park, thirty feet up in a pine, in an old crow's nest. March
4th there were three eggs, which are now in my collection. February 24,
1918, one was found in the same neighborhood, probably built by the
same pair, containing two eggs, in a Banksian Pine, of which fine photo-
graphs were secured by Mr. W. D. Richardson, who succeeded in taking
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The Birds of the Sand Dunes. 293
pictures of the female on the nest, as well as of the young later on.
The nest was discovered by Dr. Alfred Lewy. On one of the nests the
remains of a Ruffed Grouse were found, on another those of a Bittern.
Order Coccyges: Cuckoos and Kingfishers.
96. Coccyzus americanus americaniLS, Yellow-billed Cuckoo. A sum-
mer resident which is not exactly common. I have seen one at Millers
on each of the following dates: May 20, July 18, and August 30, 1916.
97. Coccyzus erythraphthalmuSf Black-billed Cuckoo. Much rarer as
mig^rant and breeder than the preceding species.
98. Ceryle alcyon, Belted Kingfisher. A moderately common breeder
in the region. April 1, 1916, we saw three on the way from Gary to
Millers along the Grand Calumet. Here and along the creek at Tremont
they are seen all summer and fall.
Order Pici: Woodpeckers.
99. Dry abates villosus villosus. Hairy Woodpecker. Rare here, as
indeed it seems to be over most of its range. I saw one April 24th and
May 20th, 1916, at Mineral Springs, the latter date showing that it
breeds.
100. Dryobates pubescens medianxis, Downy Woodpecker. A com-
mon migrant, not as numerous as breeder. March 11 and 18, 1916,
several were seen attacking old cattail stalks at Mineral Springs.
101. Picoides arcticiis, Arctis Three-toed Woodpecker. A rare win-
ter visitant. Mr. Stoddard secured a male of this species March 11,
1917. Mr. Butler does not give this species at all, so this seems to be
the first record for Indiana.
102. Sphyrapicus varius. Yellow-bellied Sapsucker. A very common
migrant. Some dates are: March 30, April 1 and 24, 1916, Tremont.
103. Melanerpes erythrocephalus, Red-headed Woodpecker. A not
very common summer resident; when there is a good acorn crop, a few
sometimes winter in the Dunes. April 24, 1915, several were seen at
Tremont; May 20, 1916, I saw six at Mineral Springs; November 30,
1918, about fifteen near Millers.
104. Colaptes auratus luteus, Northern Flicker. A common migrant
and breeder. Now and then an odd one stays over winter. Thus we
saw one at Mineral Springs, February 14, 1917.
Order Macrochires: Goatsuckers, Swifts, etc.
105. Antrostamus vociferus voci ferns, Whip-poor-will. Must be called
a rare migrant here and should breed, although I have no dates for it,
unless one seen May 20, 1915, at Mineral Springs, indicates breeding.
The Whip-poor-will seems to me to be decidedly decreasing in numbers.
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106. Chordeils virginianus virginianus, Nighthawk. There must be
days or evenings when this species passes over in numbers, but we have
never been here then, nor have we dates that indicate nesting, but a
few pair probably do. May 20, 1916, I found a dead one along the
railway track between Gary and Millers, which seemed to have flown
against a wire, an unusual thing for such an accomplished flier.
107. Chaetura pelagica, Chimney Swift. Cannot be called common
here in the usual meaning of that word as applied to Chimney Swifts.
A pair or two are seen around the farm buildings of the region and a
few more in the village of Millers. They arrive during the last week
in April and are gone by the end of August, with a few stragglers
flying over in September.
These last two species seem to me to be extending their fall migra-
tion farther into autumn every year.
108. Archilochus colubris, Ruby- throated Hummingbird. This is the
only member of the order that can be called common, even if only
locally so. What comes near to being a nesting colony of them was
discovered by Mr. Stoddard and Mr. Richardson along the creek at
Tremont, where they found nine nests within a rather small radius.
We also found an old nest in Mineral Springs, 25 feet up in a black
birch, 10 feet out on a limb.
Order Passeres: Perching Birds.
109. Tyrannus tyr annus. Kingbird. A moderately common breeder,
but abundant on certain days in migration. Thus on August 13, 1915,
on a walk from Gary to Millers, it seemed to be the most prominent
bird. On the other hand. May 20, 1916, we saw only two at Mineral
Springs.
110. Myiarchus crinitiis, Crested Flycatcher. For this species the
Dunes and adjacent swampy woods are a metropolis. Stoddard found
several pairs nesting where the B. & 0. Railroad passes through such
woods near Millers, June 21, 1914. May 20, 1916, we saw about twelve
at Mineral Springs, and August 3, 1915, about four at Millers; May 30,
1916, five at Mineral Springs.
111. Sayomis phoebe, Phoebe. A few pair only breed in the Dunes.
March 30, 1916, Stoddard must have struck a migrating flight of them,
for he saw twelve near Millers; April 1, along the Calumet from Gary
to Millers, we saw only two, one singing or twittering ecstatically in
flight, which I never saw a Phoebe do before.
112. Nuttallomis borealis, Olive-sided Flycatcher. Rather common
in migration from the middle of August to the first week in September,
between and on the dunes just back from the lake. August 23, 1916,
Stoddard took four at Mineral Springs, and saw a number of them
August 30 near Millers.
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113. Myiochanes virens, Wood Pewee. The melancholy note of this
small flycatcher is not nearly as often heard as one would suppose from
the wooded condition of the Dunes. On the other hand it cannot be
called rare.
114. Empidonax flaviventris, Yellow-bellied Flycatcher. A probably
not uncommon mig^rant. We saw one or two at Mineral Springs, May
20 and 30, 1916.
115. Empidonax virescens, Acadian Flycatcher. Uncommon over most
of the Dunes, but nests rather commonly in the damp woods along the
creek at Tremont. Stoddard found nests on the following dates: July
30, 1915, one with two partly feathered young; June 28, 1916, one with
one young and one addled egf^, and one on the same day with two
freshly laid eggs, at Mineral Springs.
116. Empidonax trailli traillif Traill's Flycatcher. A few nest in
bushes in the open swamps.
117. Empidonax minimus, Least Flycatcher. A common enough mi-
grant, but scarce breeder. May 20, 1916, there were about six in a
migratory wave.
The Shore Lark or Horned Lark (Otocoris alpestris alpestris) prob-
ably occurs here in company with the Snow Buntings and Longspurs,
which frequent the beach at times in fall and winter, but I have no
records.
118. Otocoris alpestris praticolay Prairie Horned Lark. A rare
breeder in our circumscribed area, common enough just a little south
of the Dunes.
119. Cyanocitta cristata cristata. Blue Jay. A common permanent
resident; especially common in the tamarack swamp at Mineral Springs,
which is protected from the cold north wind by several dunes.
120. Corrms brachyrhynchos brachyrhynchos. Crow. A rather com-
mon breeder and quite a few stay over winter. The flocks of migrating
crows show what seems to be a crossing of migration routes here. Flocks
coming from southwest in spring cross over to the eastern shore of Lake
Michigan, while others coming from southeast seem to make for the
western shore of the lake, heading toward Wisconsin, thus crossing their
paths. In fall it is, of course, reversed. We believe to have noticed the
same thing with other migrants, too, e. g.. Bluebirds.
121. Dolichonyx oryzivoms. Bobolink. A common summer resident,
breeding in the swales and moist meadows adjoining the dunes on the
south.
122. Molothrus ater ater, Cowbird. This is a decided nuisance in
our region. April 24, 1915, I saw several hundred on a walk of two
miles from Tremont to Mineral Springs, and most were apparently look-
ing for nests. To this I ascribe the fact that there are relatively so
few small birds found here in summer, such as warblers, finches, etc.
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Cowbird eggs or young are found in many if not most of the nests of
small species found here. They should be tlynned out.
123. Agelaius phoeniceus phoeniceus, Red- winged Blackbird. A com-
mon summer resident. They arrive the first and second week in March
and some stay late into November.
124. Stumella magna magna, Meadowlark. A common summer resi-
dent in the same places as the Bobolink. We saw one at Mineral Springs
March 11, 1916. Mr. H. K. Coale asserts that the form breeding in
Indiana and Illinois is Sturnella mugna argutula, Southern Meadowlark,
which is probably correct.
125. Icterus galbula, Baltimore Oriole. A moderately common sum-
mer resident.
' 126. EupJiagus carolinus, Rusty Blackbird. A migrant of somewhat
uncertain behavior in regard to time and appearance.
127. Quiscalus quiscalus aeneus, Bronzed Crackle. An abundant mi-
grant, but not very common as breeder. Arrives at the same time as
the Redwing and is found late into fall.
128. Hesperiphona vesper tina vespertina, Evening Grosbeak. This
rare, erratic northern visitant now turns out to be a very common win-
ter resident in the Dunes. They were first discovered by Mr. Stoddard,
February 6, 1916, along the Calumet between Gary and Millers, making
their quarters in a densely grown ravine on the north side of the river.
At first a flock of about forty-five was seen, then we saw small flocks
at Mineral Springs on March 11 and 18; March 30, flocks of seventy-five
and fifty were seen. Then more and more disappeared, until May 4 the
last one was seen. They reappeared in the same places, but not so
many, in November of the same year, 1916, and were seen now and then
also in Chicago till the last week in May, when Mr. H. K. Coale saw
one in Highland Park. We saw small flocks of six to eight March 24,
1917, at Mineral Springs, and Stoddard took one there May 15.
The reason for this preference for the Dunes became apparent when
I examined the stomach contents of several taken; this consisted mostly
of the berries of Rhus trilobata, Rhu^ aromatica, and even Toxicoden-
dron vemix. The first two are extremely abundant near Millers, the
last at Mineral Springs. November 30, 1918, I saw about eighteen at
Millers, and again December 21st and 28th.
129. Pinicola enucleator leucura, Pine Grosbeak. A rare, irregular
winter visitant. I took one out of two seen November 30, 1918.
130. Carpodacus purpureus purpureus, Purple Finch. Another most
erratic visitant, only with this difference that it may also be seen in
summer. We have not found it often in the Dunes. April 1, 1916, we
saw two near Gary, and January 6, 1917, there was a solitary one in
the big timber at Mineral Springs.
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131. Loxia curvirostra minor. Crossbill.
132. Loxia lencoptera, White- winged Crossbill. These two erratic
northern visitants were reported as ni-merous for Lake County during
the sununer of 1869 and during the following winter, as quoted by Mr.
Butler. They still turn up every winter, mostly the former, at Beach,
near Waukegan, north of Chicago, and it is unthinkable that they would
not also visit the extensive stands of conifers at the south end of the
lake.
133. Acanthis homemanni exilipes, Hoary Redpoll. On December
23, 1916, Mr. Stoddard noticed among the numerous redpolls, then in
the tamarack swamp at Mineral Springs, a small flock of larger and
whiter ones than linaria. He secured one, which proved to be this form;
the rest took flight and never showed themselves again.
134. Acanthis linaria linaria, Redpoll. March 11, 1916, there were
hundreds in the swamp at Mineral Springs. By November 25th of the
same year they were back again and were seen December 23, January 6,
1917, on which days about five hundred were here. By March 24th they
had dwindled down to about fifteen, at least that is all we saw. They
fed on the seeds of black birch and alder. They were abundant in many
places around Chicago that winter.
There is every likelihood that the other forms of Acanthis linaria
turn up here at times, as they have done at Chicago, but there is no
one here to register it.
135. Astragalinus tristis tristis. Goldfinch. A common summer resi-
dent, and some flocks stay over winter. April 24, 1915, they were com-
n^on at Tremont; May 30th, about fifty at Mineral Springs; also July
18th; August 13th, families of old and young could be seen; August 30,
1916, on the other hand, I saw only one at Millers.
136. Passer domesticus, English Sparrow. This pest is here, too.
137. Spinus pinus, Pine Siskin. An irregularly abundant migrant.
October 12, 1919, a flock of about 500 were at Mineral Springs.
138. Plectrophenax nivalis. Snow Bunting. An irregular migrant
and winter visitant. Sometimes arrives about the middle of October, in
other years later. Stoddard took three October 28, 1916, near Tremont;
October 24, 1915, January 6 and February 17, 1917, a little fleck was
on the beach near Mineral Springs. They are always on the beach, not
among the Dunes.
139. Calcarius lapponicus lapponicus, Lapland Longspur. Not com-
mon. March 18, 1916, we saw a flock of about twenty at Dune Park,
where the dunes have been removed and a large, level, weed-grown area
is now found instead.
140. Pooecetes gramineus gramineus. Vesper Sparrow. A few breed
here; they are found from March 30th (1916) to October 28th (1916).
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298 Proceedings of Indiana Academy of Science.
141. Passerculus sandtvichensis savcmna, Savannah Sparrow. Also is
not common here. April 24, 1916, there were quite a number on the
large swale at Mineral Springs.
142. Pdsserherbulus henslowi hensloun, Henslow's Sparrow. What
might almost be called a breeding colony is found in the same large
swale mentioned under the preceding species. They were first noticed
April 24, 1915, and 1916. In May their harsh "tsrcuy" call is very notice-
able.
143. Passerherbulus lecontei, Leconte's Sparrow. A rare migrant
Stoddard collected one at Mineral Springs, October 19, 1916.
144. Passerherbulus nelsoni nelsoni, Nelson's Sparrow. Mr. Butler
quotes H. K. Coale and others, who say they have found this elusive
species repeatedly in Lake County, next to the Dunes.
145. Zonotrichia leucophrys leucophrys, White-crowned Sparrow. A
not too common migrant.
146. Zonotrichia albicollis, White-throated Sparrow. An abundant
migrant.
147. Spizella monticola inonticola. Tree Sparrow. An abundant mi-
grant and winter resident.
148. • Spizella passerina passerina. Chipping Sparrow. A rather un-
common summer resident. This sparrow is strangely rare in northeast-
em Illinois and northwestern Indiana, although common or abundant in
most places of its range. Stoddard found one of the few nests of a
season at Tremont on July 15, 1917, containing one young and one Cow-
bird. During migration they are common enough on some days; thus,
April 14, 1915, there were many at Tremont; May 29, 1916, I saw about
fifteen at Mineral Springs, but on the 30th only three.
149. Spizella pusilla pusilla, Field Sparrow. A more common breeder
than the foregoing species. They arrive about the beginning of April.
On the first of that month, 1916, we saw one near Millers.
150. Junco hyemalis hyemalisy Slate-colored Junco. An abundant
migrant and winter resident. September 25, 1915, we saw about twenty
near Millers, and April 24, 1916, there were still many at Tremont
151. Melospiza melodia melodia^ Song Sparrow. A very common
summer resident, because the many bush-fringed pools and small water
courses are just to its liking. They come early in March, and Mr. Stod-
dard saw one as late as December 23 (1916).
152. Melospiza lincolni lincolni, Lincoln's Sparrow. A rare migrant;
perhaps only rarely seen because so secretive. Stoddard took one May
20, 1916, at Mineral Springs.
153. Melospiza georgiana, Swamp Sparrow. An abundant migrant
and less common summer resident. April 1, 1916, we saw one; May 20
about ten at Mineral Springs.
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154. Passerella iliaca iliacaf Fox Sparrow. A common migrant; not
seen, however, in such numbers as Z. albicollis. April 1, 1916, we saw
six on the way from Gary to Millers.
155. Pipilo erythrophthulmus eryth/rophthalmus, Towhee. This is one
of the commonest summer residents in this region, from April 1 (1916)
to late in October.
156. Cardinalis cardinalis cardinalis. Cardinal. A permanent resi-
dent, but seen only in a few chosen places. At Mineral Springs and
Tremont, and especially along the roads leading from there to the beach,
from one up to a dozen may be seen any day, summer or winter. Novem-
ber 30, 1918, I saw about fifteen near Millers.
157. Zamelodia ludoviciana, Rose-breasted Grosbeak. A rare sum-
mer resident.
158. Passerina cyanea, Indigo Bunting. A sunwner resident which
is somewhat more numerous than the preceding, but dannot be called
common.
159. Piranga erythromelas, Scarlet Tanager. A rather rare summer
resident, something like the Rosebreast in numbers. A little more nu-
merous in mig^ration.
160. Progne subis subis. Purple Martin. A summer resident which
cannot be called plentiful. May 30, 1916, I saw only about six on the
way from Millers to Mineral Springs, a distance of about twelve miles.
161. Hirundo erythrogastra, Bam Swallow. A little more numerous
than the preceding. Both form small colonies about the farm buildings
on the southern edge of the Dunes. Thus on the walk above referred
to from Millers to Mineral Springs, 1 saw about fifteen of this species.
162. Iridoprocne bicolar, Tree Swallow. During migration many can
be seen gracefully skimming over Long Lake, but only a few stay to
nest. On June 19, 1915, I saw a pair at a nesting hole in a dead cotton-
wood on top of a dune at Millers, and Mr. Stoddard found a nest with
four fresh eggs in a hole in a telegi-aph pole near Long Lake, June
8, 1914.
The Cliff Swallow will, no doubt, occasionally be found here, too.
163. Riparia riparia, Bank Swallow. This is the only swallow that
can be called common, and this only locally. There are several fair-sized
colonies in precipitous places en the first dune from the beach, on the
side facing the lake, near Millers. July 9, 1915, about three hundred,
mostly young, were perching on the sand of the beach there or flying
about aimlessly.
164. Stelgidopteryx serripennis, Rough- winged Swallow. A rare
breeder. June 10, 1915, a pair was at the nesting hole in the same
Cottonwood in which the tree swallows were.
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165. Bomby cilia cedrorum, Cedar Waxwing. A locally common sum-
mer resident, and some will probably be found in winter, too.
The Bohemian Waxwing (Bomby cilia gzrrula) has been reported
once or twice from Whiting, Lake County.
166. Lanius Borealis, Northern Shrike. Mr. Stoddard shot one of
this species at Mineral Springs, December 23, 1916.
167. Lanius ludovicianiLs migrans^ Migrant Shrike. A rather rare
summer resident. There is a pair yearly building its nest at Mineral
Springs, near the electric railway station; but that is the only pair I
know of.
168-171. The Vireos are represented by the Red-eyed (Viroesylva
olivacea) and the Warbling Vireos {Vireosylva gilva gilva) as summer
residents, the former moderately common, the latter rare; and the Phil-
adelphia (Vireosylva philadelphica) and the Blue-headed Vireos (Lani-
vireo solitarius splitarius) as uncommon migrants. The Yellow-throated
(Laniviree flavifrons) should be here, but we have not yet seen it.
In respect to Wood Warblers the Dunes are a disappointment, both
as regards nesting and migrating ones. There must be something in
the biological or physiographic conditions that is repellant to most spe-
cies. In the woodland tract just south of the Dunes proper, they are
abundant enough during migration, but in the Dunes only certain species
as the Myrtle, Magrnolia and Palm Warblers are, or they may be nor-
mally numerous at certain points where a large tract of woodland par-
takes of the character of the non-dune forest, as at Tremont.
The following species breed here: The Black and White Creeping
(Mniotilta varia), the Yellow Warbler (Dendrocia aestiva aestiva), the
Ovenbird (Seiurus aurocapilbcs) , the Maryland Yellow-throat (Geoth-
lypis trichas trichas)^ the Redstart (Setophaga ruiicilla) , the Chat
(Icteria virens virens). Of these the Yellow-throat is the commonest,
the shrubbery along the many pools proving congenial to it; next comes
the Yellow Warbler, which is common in a few bushy pools near Millers
and Dune Park, then the Ovenbird, but only at Tremont. The Black
and White Creeper is not common, the Redstart still rarer, and the Chat
has been found only one summer and in one place. The Pine Warbler
(Dendroica vigorsi) and the Prairie Warbler (Dendroica discolor) prob-
ably breed here, since they each have been found once in breeding time
or nearly so, as the latter, July 16, 1916, at Tremont by Dr. A. Lewy.
The following may breed here occasionally, as they have been found
in all the adjoining area around the Dune region: The Worm-eating
Warbler (Helmitheros vermivortis) ^ the Prothonotary Warbler (Proton-
otaria citrea), which nests abundantly at Kouts, Porter County; the
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The Birds of the Sand Dunes. 301
Blue-winged Warbler (Vermivora pinus), the Golden-winged Warbler
{Vermivora chrysoptera) , the Cerulean Warbler (D. cerulea), the Louis-
iana Water-Thrush (Seiurus motacilla), the Kentucky Warbler (Opo-
romis formosus) , and possibly the Sycamore Warbler (/>. dominica albi-
lora). The Louisiana Water-Thrush has been seen by Mr. Stoddard at
Mineral Springs, May 5th, 1917, and it breeds abundantly just south
of our region. The Cerulean I have found at South Bend and at Addi-
son, Illinois, east and west of the Dunes, and is reported just to the
south, too. The same holds good for the rest.
The following are the migrant warblers: The Nashville Warbler
(F. r. rubricapilla) , taken May 20th, 1916, at Mineral Springs; the
Orange-crowned Warbler (V. c. celata), taken by me May 27, 1919,
near Millers; the Tennessee Warbler {V. peregrina), which we took
at Mineral Springs, May 20th and August 30th, 1916; the Cape May
Warbler (D. tigrina), taken August 30th, 1916; the Black-throated Blue
Warbler (D, caerulescens) ^ seen April 24th, 1915; the Myrtle Warbler
(Z>. coronata), the Magnolia Warbler (D. magnolia) ^ the Chestnut-sided
Warbler (/>. pensylvanica) , the Bay-breasted Warbler (Z>. castanea),
the Black-poll Warbler (D. striata), the Blackburnian Warbler (D.
ftisca), the Black-throated Green Warbler (Z>. virens), the Palm Warbler
(/>. palmanim), the Northern and Grinnell's Water-Thrushes (S. w.
noveboraccnsis and 5. noveboracensis notabilis) , the Connecticut Warbler
(Oporomis agilis), taken May 21st, 1916, at Mineral Springs; the
Mourning Warbler (O. Philadelphia), seen in numbers by me May 27,
1919, along Long Lake; Wilson's Warbler (Wilsonia pusilla pusilla), and
the Canada Warbler (W» canadensis), taken'by Mr. Stoddard even so late
as July 1st, 1917, at Tremont. Of these only the Myrtle, Magnolia, and
Palm Warblers seem to be common during migration, while of species
as the Black-throated Blue and Green, the Chestnut-sided, the Black-
burnian, and others, usually so common in migration elsewhere, only one
or two individuals are seen in a hunt of several hours in the most favor-
able places, such as was May 20th, 1916, at Mineral Springs. As Kirt-
land's Warbler (D, kirtlandi) has been reported from a number of points
in surrounding country, it must almost of necessity also pass through
here occasionally.
(Nos. 172-210.)
211. Anthus Tubescens, Pipet. This has been reported from Liver-
pool, October 18, 1895, as quoted by Mr. Butler.
212. Dumetella carolinensis. Catbird. A common migrant and breeder.
May 20, 1916, I saw about twenty at Mineral Springs.
213. Toxosioma rufum, Brown Thrasher. A less common breeder
than the foregoing species.
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302 Proceedings of Indiana Academy of Science.
214. Thryothorus L ludovicianus, Carolina Wren. Since the Car-
dinal is here in some numbers, and the Yellow-breasted Chat has been
seen a whole summer, this species should not be too uncommon, especially
at Tremont, where conditions are ideal for it, but it is almost absent.
Mr. Stoddard has taken one at Mineral Springs, November 25, 1916.
I expect it to move into here, however, sooner or later.
215. Troglodytes aedon parkmani, Western House Wren. This is,
over certain parts of our area, a rather common summer resident,
notably on the first dune from the lake, between Millers and Dune Park,
where it likes to make its nest in old, vine-covered stumps on the top
of the dune.
216. N annus hiemalis hiemalis, Winter Wren. A not uncommon mi-
grant. They are commonest from April 1st to 24th (1916).
217. Cistcthorus stellaris. Short-billed Marsh Wren. I have never
seen a place where this species was so numerous, at least locally, as in
this region. At Mineral Springs, in the large swale, there is a regular
colony of them. May 29th, 1916, I counted about fifty here. Their song
is a sharp "psit tsit tsit," ending in a trill that sounds like the knocking
tofi^ether of pebbles. Henslow's Sparrow is its neighbor here, as also
the Marsh Hawk.
218. Telmatodyies palustris iliacus, Prairie Marsh Wren. This west-
ern form of the Long-billed Marsh Wren is extremely common in all
larger cat-tail sloughs in the Dunes. They arrive about the middle of
April. May 30th, 1916, I saw about 75 along Long Lake alone.. Of the
numerous nests seen, some contained two to three eggs. By July 18th
their fully grown young still' further increase their numbers. At Cary,
Illinois, I found some in the marsh as late as October 17th.
219. Certhia faniiliaris americana. Brown Creeper. A common mi-
grant. April 24th, 1916, I saw about 30 at Mineral Springs. I would
not be surprised to find a pair breeding some summer at Tremont or
nearby, as they have been found at Kcuts, 25 miles south.
220. Sitta carolinensis carolinensis, White-breasted Nuthatch. A not
common migrant and scarcer breeder. Even on great migration days
not more than three or four are seen. This species seems to me to be
decreasing in number over a large part of its rang^.
221. Sitta canadensis, Red-breasted Nuthatch. An even rarer mi-
grant than the last species.
222. Baeolophns bicolor. Tufted Titmouse. A rare resident. Has so
far been found at Tremont only, June 28th and December 23rd, 1916
(Stoddard).
223. Penthestes a. atricapillus, Chickadee. An abundant winter resi-
dent and moderately common breeder, mostly again at Mineral Springs
and Tremont. March 11, 1916, a large flock was attacking cat-tail stalks
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The Birds of the Sand Dunes. 303
of the previous season along the edge of the tamarack swamp at Mineral
Springs.
224. Regulus satrapa satrapa, Golden-crowned Kinglet.
225. Regultis c. calendula, Ruby-crowned Kinglet. Both are abundant
mig^'stnts. In the cold spring of 1916, I saw about thirty of the latter
as late as May, 20th at Mineral Springs.
226. Polioptila caerulea, Blue-gray Gnatcatcher. A rare migrant and
breeder. April 18th (1914) is the earliest date I have for them.
227. Hylocichla ustelina, Wood Thrush. A rare summer resident,
although it should be plentiful in such a fine place as Tremont.
228. Hylocichla fuscescens fuscescens, Veery. A not very common
migrrant. What percentage of them is the western form, salicicola, is
hard to say without taking a great many, which one does not like to do.
But the chances are that both occur.
229. Hylocichla a, aliciae, Grey-cheeked Thrush. On a few days
during migration a more abundant species than the preceding, e. g..
May 20th, 1916, when about ten were seen at Mineral Springs.
230. Hylocichla ustulata swainsoni, Olive-backed Thrush. Of about
the same status as the foregoing.
231. Hylocichla guttata pallasi, Hermit Thrush. A somewhat more
abundant migrant than the two preceding species. The earliest date we
have is April 1st (1916).
232. Planesticus m. rnigratorius, Robin. In the Dunes proper a not
very abundant summer resident. Some days in summer one sees only
about two all day; more common about the farms along the southern
edge of the Dunes.
233. Sialia sialis sialis, Bluebird. Also not so common here as in
farming regions, but more so than the preceding. The earliest date I
have is March 11 (1916), but they probably appear before this in mild
seasons.
Bibliography.
F. M. Woodruff, "Birds of the Chicago Area," 1907.
A. W. Butler, "The Birds of Indiana," 1897.
Some manuscript notes by Mr. H. L. Stoddard.
My own notes.
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304 Proceedings of Indiana Academy of Science.
A Synopsis of the Races of the Guiana Flycatcher,
MYIARCHUS FEROX (GMELIN).
Harry C. Oberholser, The U. S. National Museum.
The present status of the forms of Myiarchus ferox (Gmelin) seems
not to be wholly satisfactory. The following notes are offered as an
attempt to aid in their elucidation, and also to call attention to the
need of more definite information regarding the various subspecies,
particularly their geographic distribution.
For the use of material the writer is indebted to the authorities of
the United States National Museum, the American Museum of Natural
History, and the Carnegie Museum at Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.
The geographic distribution of Myiarchus ferox as a species extends
from Costa Rica and the Island of Tobago south through the continent
of South America to northern Argentina. At present four subspecies
are current: Myiarchus ferox ferox, Myiarchus ferox venezuelensis,
Myiarchus ferox panamensis, and Myiarchus ferox actiosus. An addi-
tional race, Myia/rchu^ ferox insulicola, has been recently described by
Messrs. Hellmayr and von Seilem; and two others, Myiarchus ferox
cantans and Myiarchus ferox pJiaeocephalu^, have been recognized. In
addition to these we find it necessary to add another, Myiarchus ferox
ferocior Cabanis, making now a total of eight subspecies. The bird
known as Myiarchus cephalotes Taczanowski, which some authors sup-
pose to be a subspecies of Myiarchus ferox, is without much doubt a
distinct species.
Myiarchus ferox ferox (Gmelin).
[Muscicapa] ferox Gmelin, Syst. Nat., vol. I, part 2, 1789, p. 934
(Cayenne; based primarily on Tyrannus cayanensis Brisson, Omith.,
vol. II, 1760, p. 398).
Subspecific characters, — Size moderate; upper parts dark and oliva-
ceous; gray of throat and yellow of posterior lower parts also of a
rather deep shade.
Measurements, — Male: wing, 85.5-88 mm.; tail, 86-89; exposed cul-
men, 19.
Female: wing, 82.5-86 mm.; tail, 83-88; exposed culmen, 18-19.
Type locality, — Cayenne.
Geographic distribution. — French Guiana, British Guiana, Trinidad,
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Races of the Guiana Flycatcher. 305
eastern Venezuela, and northern Brazil south to the Amazon valley and
west at least to the Madeira River.
Remarks. — This, the typical form of the species, was originally
described by Gmelin as Muscicapa ferox,^ based chiefly on the Tyrannus
cayanensis of Brisson.' This is without doubt the species now known
as Myiarchus ferox, so that the proper application of the name ferox
to this species is clear and the currently accepted desigrnation correct.
This, with the exception of Myiarchus ferox insulicola, is the darkest
race of the species. The exact limits of its geographic distribution
remain, however, yet to be determined.
Myiarchus ferox insulicola Hellmayr and von Seilern.
Myiarchus ferox insulicola Hellmayr and Von Seilern, Verb. Omith.
Gesell. Bayem, vol. XII, Heft 3, July 25, 1915, p. 202 (Man-o*-War Bay,
Tobago Island).
Subspecific characters. — Similar to Myiarchus ferox ferox, but wing
and tail much longer; bill stouter; upper parts darker and more grayish
(less greenish) ; throat and jugulum darker; and rusty margins of the
rectrices more conspicuous.
Measurements, — Male: wing, 94 mm.; tail, 94; exposed culmen, 21.
Type locality, — Man-o'-War Bay, Island of Tobago, West Indies.
Geographic distribution. — Island of Tobago.
Remarks. — This recently described subspecies is very distinct from
Myiarchus ferox ferox, and is the darkest race of the species. It seems
to be confined to the Island of Tobago.
Myiarchus ferox venezuelensis Lawrence.
Myiarchus venezuelensis Lawrence, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila.,
vol. XVII, February, 1865, p. 38 (Venezuela).
Subspecific characters. — Similar to Myiarchus ferox ferox, but upper
parts lighter and more grayish or brownish.
Measurements. — Male: wing, 84-87 mm.; tail, 86-89; exposed cul-
men, 17.
Female: wing, 80-84 mm.; tail, 81-86; exposed culmen, 16.5-17.5.
Type locality, — Venezuela.
Geographic distributioti. — Middle and western Venezuela, west to
central Colombia.
Remarks. — This bird, originally described as a distinct species, is
without doubt a subspecies of Myiarchus ferox, and its representative
in western Venezuela and eastern Colombia.
* Syst. Nat., vol. I, part 2, 1789, p. 934.
= Ornith., vol. II, 1760, p. 398.
20—16568
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306 Proceedings of Indiana Academy of Science,
Myiarchus perox panamensis Lawrence.
Myiarchus Panamensis Lawrence, Ann. Lye. Nat. Hist. N. Y., vol.
VII, 1862 (May, 1860), p. 284 (Isthmus of Panama).
Subspecific characters, — Similar to Myiarchtis ferox venezuelensis, but
largfer; upper parts lighter and more grayish (less brownish), particu-
larly on head and neck; yellow of lower parts paler.
Measurements,^ — Male: wing, 87-96.5 mm.; tail, 80.5-93.5; exposed
culmen, 17.5-21.
Female: wing, 88.5-100.5 mm.; tail, 84-96; exposed culmen, 19-22.
Type locality, — Canal Zone, Panama.
Geographic distribution, — Panama and western Colombia.
Remarks. — This flycatcher is clearly but a subspecies of Myiarchus
ferox ferox, being connected with that form through Myiarchus ferox
venezuelensis.
Myiarchus ferox actiosus Ridgway.
Myiarchus ferox actiosus Ridgway, Proc. Biol. Soc. Wash., vol. XIX,
September 6, 1906, p. 116 (Pigres, mouth of the Gulf of Nicoya, Costa
Rica).
Subspecific characters, — Similar to Myiarchus ferox panamensis, but
with upper parts anteriorly more grayish, posteriorly darker and paler,
and yellow of lower surface paler.
' Measurements,^ — Male: wing, 92-97 mm.; tail, 85.5-91; exposed cul-
men, 18.5-21.5.
Female: wing, 89.5-95.5 mm.; tail, 85.5-91; exposed culmen, 18.5-
21.5.
Type locality, — Pigres, mouth of the Gulf of Nicoya, Costa Rica.
Geographic distribution, — Pacific coast of Costa Rica.
Remarks. — This seems to be a well-differentiated race, distinguished
from Myiarchus ferox panamensis as above noted, but it seems to be
confined to Costa Rica.
Myiarchus ferox phaeocephalus Sclater.
Myiarchus phsBocephahis Sclater, Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond., 1860, p. 281
(Babahoyo, western Ecuador).
Subspecific characters, — Similar to Myiarchus ferox actiosus, but gray
of head and neck not so much tinged with olive brown; yellow of lower
parts darker.
Type locality, — Babahoyo, western Ecuador.
Geographic distribution, — Ecuador and Peru.
J Ridifway. Bull. U. S. Nat. Mua., No. 50, pt. IV, 1907, p. 641.
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Races of the Guiana Flycatcher. 307
Remarks. — This rather well difTerentiated subspecies is apparently
the representative of the Myiarchus ferox group in Ecuador and Peru,
but its limits of distribution are at present undefined. It is of interest
to note, however, that in color it much more closely resembles the Costa
Rican Myiarchus ferox actiosus than it does the intervening Myiarchus
ferox panamensis.
Myiarchus ferox ferocior Cabanis.
Myiarchus ferocior Cabanis, Journ. f. Omith., vol. XXXI, No. 162,
April, 1883, p. 214 (Tucuman, Argentina).
Subspecific characters. — Similar in size to Myiarchus ferox ferox, but
upper parts lighter and more brownish (less greenish) olive; gray of
throat lighter.
Measurements. — Male: wing, 90 mm.; tail, 89; exposed culmen, 19.
Female: wing, 85 mm.; tail, 86; exposed culmen, 16.5.
Type locality. — Tucuman, northern Arg^entina.
Geographic distHbution. — Northern Argentina and Paraguay, with
probably also Bolivia and southwestern Brazil.
Remarks. — This seems to be a recognizable race, differing from both
Myiarchtis ferox ferox of Guiana and Myiarchus ferox swainsoni of
southeastern Brazil. No specimens have been examined from south-
western Brazil or from Bolivia, but in all probability this is the form
of the species that occupies those areas. Further investigation, how-
ever, must settle this point.
Myiarchus ferox swainsoni Cabanis and Heine.
Mlyiarchus]. Swainsoni Cabanis and Heine, Mus. Hein., part 2,
September 30, 1859, p. 72 (Brazil).
Myiarchus cantans Pelzeln, Omith. Bras., 1869, pp. 117, 182. (Rio
Janeiro, Sapitiba, Ypanema, and Curytiba, Brazil) (type locality, Cury-
tiba. State of Sao Paolo, Brazil).
Subspecific characters. — Similar to Myiarchus ferox ferocior, but bill
shorter, upper parts paler, somewhat more grayish, and more uniform,
the pileum and auricular s not noticeably darker than the surrounding
parts, as is the case in Myiarchus ferox ferocior.
Description.— Adult male. No. 177677, U. S. N. M.; San Carlos do
Pinhal, September, 1895. Upper parts dark citrine drab, the darker
centers of the crown feathers dull olive brown, and the upper tail-coverts
slightly rufescent; tail warm fuscous, the outer webs of the outer pair
of tail-feathers and the very narrow tips of all, pale brown; all but
the exterior pair of rectrices basally edged with rufescent brown; wings
fuscous, the tertials edged on the outer webs with buffy white, the pri-
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308 Proceedings of Indiana Academy of Science.
maries and all the superior wing-coverts, excepting the primary coverts,
margined with pale dull brown, these edgings darker and more rufescent
on the lesser coverts; sides of head and neck like the upper parts, but
somewhat more grayish; lores paler and somewhat buffy grayish; throat
and jugulum pale smoke gray; lining of the wing barium yellow, some-
what clouded by brownish gray; remainder of lower parts pale primrose
yellow.
Measurements, — Male : wing, 94.5 mm. ; tail, 88 ; exposed culmen, 16.5.
Female: wing, 83.5 mm.; tail, 83.5; exposed culmen, 17.
Type locality, — Southeastern Brazil.
Geographic distribution. — Southeastern Brazil, north at least to Ba-
hia, probably also to Pemambuco.
Remarks. — This race has already been revived by Mr. Hellmayr,*
under the name Myiarchus ferox cantans, and it apparently can be dis-
tinguished from both Myiarchus ferox ferox and Myiarchus ferox fero-
cior. From Myiarchus ferox ferox it differs in its smaller, paler bill,
its much paler, more grayish or brownish (less greenish), and more
uniform upper parts, and in its paler ventral surface. How far to the
northwestward in Brazil it ranges remains yet to be determined.
Whenever recognized, this race has been known as Myiarchus ferox
cantans Pelzeln, but it should apparently be called Myiarchus ferox
swainsoni, Cabanis and Heine, in describing their Myiarchus swainsoni,^
gave as its locality only Brazil, and they included in their literature
citations also localities that belong under Myiarchus ferox ferodor; but
the diagnosis is clearly applicable to the bird from southeastern Brazil,
called later Myiarchus cantans by von Pelzeln.' Since Myiarchus swain-
soni Cabanis and Heine has several years* priority over Myiarchus can-
tans Pelzeln, it is the name that should be used for the present sub-
species.
'Novit. Zool., vol. XVII. No. 3, December 15. 1910, p. 302.
- Mus. Hein.. part 2, September 30, 1859, p. 72.
•Ornith. Bras., 1869, pp. 117, 182.
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Erosional Freaks op the Saluda Limestone.
Elmer G. Sulzer, Madison.
In the Madison region, the Saluda Limestone presents many peculiar
freaks of erosion. The best exposures of these peculiarities are on the
Hitz Hill, immediately noi-thwest of Madison.
There is exposed in part of the quarry (extreme east part) about
ten feet of typical limestone. Its top is distinctly formed and above
it are several feet of white, chalky clay, doubtless formed by the
decomposition of this same formation. The section as above described
extends for about thirty feet. Beyond there is a ^arp, clean-cut
projection of the rock. Where this projection is supposed to join the
Figure showinsr the irregrularity of erosion of the saluda limestone.
main body, however, a crack from one to three inches wide intervenes.
This gives rise at first to the supposition that there may be a fault, but
this possibility is speedily ruled out when, by minutely tracing the rock
courses, similar occurrences of them on a smaller scale are found.
Probably the most wonderful thing about this section and many
similar ones in this locality is the presence of this chalky stratum at
different levels. This stratum is at times both overlaid and underlaid
by limestones and does not blend into them but is separated from
them by distinct lines of contact. In the section discussed above chalky
strata also occur in the projection but at a very different level. At the
same level in the main quarry is the solid limestone.
(309j
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310 Proceedings of Indiana Academy of Science.
Remnant Monument Near. Madison.
Elmer G. Sulzer, Madison.
In 1898 Dr. Chas. R. Dryer* described Jug Rock, a peculiar example
of erosion in Martin County, Indiana. The existence of monuments of
a similar character near Madison is well known to only the few scien-
Fig. 1. Complete pinnacle.
Fij?. 2. Wide monument with cave formation.
* Proc. Ind. Acad. Sci., 1898, p. 268.
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Remnant Monument Near Madison.
311
lists who have had occasion to do work there. These curiosities have
been formed from the Laurel Limestone of the Niagara series. The
most eastern exposures of this formation on the Ohio River occur only
about two miles east of Madison. By the time the formation reaches
Madison practically its entire thickness is exposed. The monuments are
first found, going west, in Wilburs Woods, one-half mile north of Mad-
ison. The accompanying illustrations serve to give some idea of their
FiR. 3. Isolated monument.
character. They are a very noticeable feature along the river some
distance below Hanover Landing, but their full development is found in
the above mentioned locality. I have noticed these monuments in Jef-
ferson County at times standing individually as Jug Rock, at times
maintaining a partial connection with the mother rock, and again being
only a pinnacle. They can be seen in all stages of development in this
locality.
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312 Proceedings of Indixina Academy of Science.
A Kinetic Model of the Electron Atom.
R. R. Ramsey, Indiana University.
Modem theories of the structure of an atom assumes one or more
electrons in motion in or about a central body or positive nucleus.
Probably the experiment which has been the most helpful in giving an
idea as to the structure of an atom is the Mayer experiment of the
floating needles. (Experiments with Floating and Suspended Magnets,
Illustrating the Action of Atomic Forces, the Molecular Structure of
Matter, AUotropy, Isomerism, and the Kinetic Theory of Gases. Alfred
M. Mayer, Scientific American Supplement, Vol. 5, p. 2045, June 22,
1872.) This, together with the work of J. J. Thomson, has become
almost classic. (Phil. Mag., Vol. 7, p. 237, 1504.) The experiment
gives an idea of the possible structure of atoms and may account for
the periodic variations of the properties of the atoms. Thus one by
assuming that an atom of large atomic weight has more electrons than
one of small atomic weight, may account for the periodic table. The
• . • • •
•■••••■>
« • • d
» • »
Fig. 1.
L
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A Kinetic Model of the Electron Atom. 313
periodic variations of the properties of the atoms may be illustrated by
the periodic variation of the number of needles in any of the rings, the
inside ring, say. This has been done by Lyon. (Phys. Rev., Vol. 3,
p. 232, 1914.) Figure 1 is a reproduction of the groupings of the needles
taken from Mayer's orig^inal article. The following table taken from
Thomson's work g^ives the theoretical groupings of the magnets from
one to one hundred. The lower row of figures gives the number of
magnets in the inside ring, and the upper row of figures gives the num-
ber in the outside ring. The intervening rows give the number in the
intervening rings.
Table.
Number of Corpuscles in Order.
12 3 4 5
5 6 7 8 8 8 9 10 10 10 11
11112333455
11 11 11 12 12 12 13 13 13 13 13 14 14 15 15
5 6 7 7 8 8 8 8 9 10 10 10 10 10 11
11111233 3 3445 55
15 15 15 16 16 16 16 16 16 16 17 17 17 17 17 17 17
11 11 11 11 12 12 12 13 13 13 13 13 13 14 14 15 15
5 6 7 7 7 8 8 8 8 9 9 10 10 10 10 10 11
11111122333344555
17 18 18 18 18 18 19 19 19 19 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 21 21
15 15 15 15 16 16 16 16 16 16 16 16 16 17 17 17 17 17 17 17 17
11 11 11 11 11 12 12 12 12 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 14 14 15 15 15
5 5 6 7 7 7 7 8 8 8 8 8 9 9 10 10 10 10 10 10 11
111111112223333445555
21 21 21 21 21 21 21 21 22 22 22 22 22 22 22 22 23 23 23 23 23 23 23 24
17 18 18 18 18 18 19 19 19 19 19 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 21 21 21
15 15 15 15 16 16 16 16 16 16 16 16 16 16 17 17 17 17 17 17 17 17 17 17
11 11 11 11 11 12 12 12 12 12 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 14 14 15 15 15 15
5 5 6 7 7 7 7 8 8 8 8 8 8 9 9 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 11 11
111111111222333334455555
24 24 24 24 24 24 24
21 21 21 21 21 21 21
17 18 18 18 18 18 19
15 15 15 15 16 16 16
11 11 11 11 11 12 12
5 5 6 7 7 7 7
1111111
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314 Proceedings of Indiana Academy of Science.
The object of the present paper is to describe an extension of the
Mayer experiment in which the magnets or needles are rotated. In
order to understand how the experiment illustrates the structure of an
atom it will be well to point out some of the properties of atoms. All
atoms have mass and all the atoms of the same element have the same
mass. We find that the elements have different atomic weights. Hydro-
gen has the atomic weight, one; and uranium, the heaviest, has the atomic
weight, 238. Thus the mass of the uranium atom is 238 times that of
the hydrogen atom.
The atoms of certain elements have the ability to unite with certain
other elements to form compounds. Certain elements form the bases
and certain others the acid radicals of the compounds. Or certain are
said to be electropositive and others are said to be electronegative.
If we examine the elements, starting with the lightest, hydrogen, and
taking them one by one in order of their atomic weight or mass, we find
that this property of combining varies periodically. In this manner we
can form the periodic table.
All elements have a definite spectrum. That is, they give off light
of a certain wave length. Light is a vibratory motion of the ether.
The wave length or frequency depends upon the source. Thus the atoms
or something in the atoms must vibrate with certain frequencies. The
same as in music, when one hears the note middle C one knows that
there is a string, reed, or something vibrating so as to make 261 vibra-
tions per second. In the same manner when one sees the D line of
sodium one knows that there must be something in the sodium atom
which makes 5. X 10" vibrations per second.
The X-rays are known to be due to a wave disturbance whose wave
length is one thousandth that of sodium light. Thus when a swiftly
moving electron or cathode ray strikes an atom of platinum there must
be a disturbance set up in the atom whose frequency of vibration is one
thousand times that which produces the disturbance which we call light
Besides the radiations or wave disturbances of the ether which arc
set up by the atom, there are the corpuscular radiations which are given
off by the atom, such as in the photo-electric effect, ionization by hot
objects and flames, and the cathode rays, in all of which electrons are
shot off from the atom.
A theory of atomic structure must account for all of these phenom-
ena. Several theories and modifications have been suggested, all of
which involve electrons rotating about or in a central body or reg^ion of
force which has been called the positive nucleus.
The Mayer experiment with the extension which I propose can be
used as an analogy or as an illustration of what happens in an atom.
The various phenomena of wave motion and. corpuscular radiations can
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A Kinetic Model of the Electron Atom.
315
be explained by assuming them to be due to certain motions and dis-
turbances which are seen in the experiment. The experiment lends itself
to any or all of the theories as the fundamental assumptions may be
changed to fit the particular theory in question.
The classical method of performing the experiment is by floating
magnetized needles by means of corks in water. I have found that
small bicycle balls floated on mercury are much more convenient. (Pro-
fessor Merritt used this method at Cornell University in 1900.) The
mercury surface lends itself admirably for projection with reflected light.
In projection it is well to focus not on the balls but on a plane a short
distance above the balls or on the focal point of the concave mirror made
by the depression caused by the balls. The position of the ball is then
shown on the screen as a point of light. Fig. 5a is a photograph of
three balls; the time of exposure is one-fifth of a second. Fig. 5b is a
photograph of some thirty balls; the time of exposure is one-hundredth
of a second. In this the balls are shown as points so fine that one can
scarcely see them in the photograph.
Fig. 2.
Fig. 2 shows diagrammatically the arrangement of the apparatus for
projection. A, C, and L are the arc, the condensing lenses, and the
objective lense of a vertical projection lantern. M is a mirror with
which the light is thrown down on the mercury in the tray, T. L' is a
lense with which an image of the balls floating on T is focused on the
screen, I. M' is a mirror. N & S is an electro magnet which serves as
the positive nucleus.
In the classical Mayer experiment the balls are fixed. There is no
motion. There is nothing to suggest how the atom may radiate. The
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316 Proceedings of Indiana Academy of Science.
atom is dead. The motion of the atom must be imag^ined. It is usual
to imagine the needles to rotate about the center with a constant angfular
velocity. This is contrary to the laws of planetary motion as illustrated
in the Solar system.
While working with this experiment the thought came to me to rotate
the mercury and thus rotate the balls. A wooden tray was made with
an electrode at the center and four electrodes, one at each comer which
are connected in multiple. By sending a current in at the center elec-
trode and out at the corners one has an approximately radial current
flowing at right angles to the magnetic field of the magnet which plays
the part of the positive nucleus in the experiment. This causes the
mercury to rotate and carry the balls with it. The apparatus consists
of a wooden tray as shown in Fig. 3. The dimensions are 15 x 15 cm.
A .
tJ
miL
ah=
1
1
C M^
0 -c
="B
"1
N
S
-
p-"
Fig. 4.
Fig. 3.
and 2 cm. in depth. The electrodes C and M are made of platinum.
It has been found later that the electrodes C can be made of iron without
appreciably distorting the magnetic field. A and B are binding posts
which are connected to the electrodes by wires, shown by dotted lines,
which are in grooves on the under side of the box. The apparatus can
be centered up by placing one ball on the mercury surface after the
current has been turned on through both the magnet and the tray and
then shifting the tray until the ball remains practically still at the center
of the rotating mercury.
When two balls are placed on the rotating surface they do not rotate
about the center on the same circle as one would expect from the Mayer
experiment. No. 1 first rotates about No. 2, and then No. 2 rotates about
No. 1, their paths resembling rotating elipses. Figs. 5d, 5e, and 5f are
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A Kinetic Model of the Electron Atom, 317
photographs showing various phases of the motion. The time of ex-
posure is about one-half a second.
With three balls the motion is more complicated, the three balls tak-
ing turns in the center. Figs. 5g, 5h, and 5i give photographs of the
motion of three balls. The motion reminds one of a complicated game
of leap frog.
With a number of balls the motion becomes very complicated. The
mercury at the edges of the tray is stationary while the central portion
is rotating. The angular velocity increases as we go from the edge to
the center; the balls floating on the surface tend to take up the same
angular velocity as the mercury on which they float. Thus there is a
tendency for the balls to take up a motion which may approximate to
planetary motion. Thus we may assume that they obey Kepler*s law.
This is shown in Fig. 5j. This photograph also shows two balls ex-
changing rings.
In the Mayer experiment, balls stationary, when there are a number
of rings any one ball is held in its place by the central force and the
mutual repulsion of the neighboring balls. The balls of one ring flt into
the crotches of the neighboring rings. When the balls are rotating and
the angular velocity of the outer ring is less than that of the inner ring
there is a slipping of one ring with respect to the one next to it. This
slipping produces a perturbation or a vibratory motion which is super-
imposed on the regular circular motion. This perturbation may be said
to be the source of some sort of radiation, light perhaps.
When a ball is allowed to come in from the outside there is a great
disturbance of the whole system. This is shown in Fig. 5c, where a
ball has been caught coming from the bottom of the photograph into the
system. In this case the balls were not rotating. If the balls represent
electrons this disturbance may be said to be the source of X-rays as
when a cathode ray hits an atom of platinim, say. With a large number
of balls the motion is very much more complicated than one would expect.
At times a ball will start out from the outer ring and apparently seem
to try to escape from the system. Due to the friction of the mercury
and the nature of the field the ball always returns. If a ball were to
escape it would cause a rearrangement of the others or a disturbance
similar to that caused by an added ball. This tendency of the balls to
fly off is especially great if the current through the mercury is increased,
or if the system is absorbing energy. This may be an illustration of
what takes place in the photo-electric effect or in the case of ionization
produced by hot bodies.
In the case when a ball flies out when rotating at normal or constant
velocity we have an explanation of gamma rays caused by beta rays.
Or we may let the balls represent alpha rays, helium atoms, or that
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318 Proceedings of Indiana Academy of Science.
H
a
c
'
^^^■■■■B^^H
■
6 \
e
'
1
■
L
Si
I
iH
■,
Fig. 5.
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A Kinetic Model of the Electron Atom. 319
which in the atom makes alpha rays or helium atoms after they have
escaped, and we have an illustration of a radioactive substance. To
illustrate the disintegration of an atom of radium through its several
disintegration products I made a tray in which I imbedded a ring of iron
so as to make a magnetic field which is strong at the center and dimin-
ishes as we go along a radius passing through a minimum and then
through a maximum over the ring of iron. Fig. 4 is a cross-section of
the tray and central magrnet. N, S, is the central magnet. R, R, is a
cross-section of the iron ring. A and B are binding posts by which the
current is led in and out. The variations of the field is represented by
lines of force.
To use this the current is turned on the magnet and a number of
balls are placed in the center of the tray, forming the characteristic
figfure due to the particular number as in the Mayer experiment. The
current is then turned through the tray, causing the balls to rotate.
When a ball at irregular intervals starts out on a tangent it will be
caught and held by the intense field over the iron ring at R. Thus if
the ball represents an alpha particle, the escape of beta rays and the
gamma radiation may be explained as being due to the disturbance in
the atom due to the rearrangement of the electrons in the atom. As
many as eight or ten balls may escape from the system, each rearrange-
ment of the system representing one of the products in the radioactive
series. Fig. 5k is a photograph of this. The four white spots, one at
the top and one at the bottom and one on either side, are balls which
have been thrown out and caught and held stationary over the staples
which hold the iron ring in place. At the top of the photograph is shown
the path of a ball which is being tkrown out and caught by the ring.
Getting the conditions right is a matter of trial. Some three or four
trays were made before one was satisfactory. The dimensions of this
tray are as follows: Length, 10 cm.; breadth, 10 cm.; depth, 2 cm. The
iron ring is made of a 2% -millimeter rod bent into a ring of 6 cm.
diameter.
No doubt many analogies will occur to the operator which have not
been mentioned in this paper. The worst difficulty with the experiment
is with the mercury. The mercury must be clean. Any film of dirt or
dross on the surface of the mercury prevents the free motion of the balls.
The magnet and tray may be connected in series, but it is more
convenient to have two circuits which may be manipulated independently.
Department of Physics^ Indiana University.
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320 Proceedings of Indiana Academy of Science.
Some Contributions of Physical Science to Military
Efficiency.
C. M. Smith, Purdue University.
The technical and popular press has of late been offering much valu-
able material which shows the contributions of the physicist and the
research laboratory to war problems. Moreover before these Proceed-
ings are printed and circulated it is certain that much more information
along the same line will be released. It is not the purpose of this paper
to grive a complete catalog of the achievements of physical science in the
war, nor to set forth in detail the devices which have been developed and
applied. It is, however, my purpose to sketch briefly some of the general
lines along which the physicist gave aid to the military forces, and to
point out some of the valuable results which have followed from the
large activities and generous appropriations which were called out by
the pressure of war conditions.
It will undoubtedly appear that instances are rare where war-inspired
research has resulted in the discovery of any distinctly new principle or
law. The lay public, keenly alert for some wonderful invention or dis-
covery, which should overwhelm the opponent as by a great cataclysm,
frequently voiced the question why our active scientists were not bring-
ing forward this all-important achievement. But the hoped-for result
did not come about. Rather the achievements of physical science in the
war consisted in the application of already well-known principles, but
with a refinement and a precision heretofore not realized. The careful
consideration from the standpoint of theory of the lines and balance of
a shell, of the form of its ends, and of the proper width and thickness
of its copper band resulted in the addition of miles to its range and
increased the accuracy of gunfire manyfold. Such precision studies,
often highly theoretical in nature, growing in numbers to scores or hun-
dreds, all contributed to an increased efficiency of the military forces,
and their full value cannot at this time be realized.
Studies similar to the above resulted in our becoming free from
European markets in the matter of high-g^rade optical glass. Precision
methods of glassworking, amounting almost to quantity production, were
developed, and lenses and prisms large and small, and plane parallel
plates were turned out in large numbers with an exactness heretofore
hardly thought possible. In photography, in the great development of
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Contributions of Physical Science. 321
photographic map making, ray filters were devised for eliminating the
effects of haze. By means of these, landscape details were clearly delin-
eated, while without them the plates revealed little more than a bank of
clouds.
In the development of suitable instruments for giving the aviator
information as to his position, altitude and speed, and for enabling the
accurate dropping of bombs upon assigned target areas, the combined
skill of many specialists brought results of surprising value. With a
dynamo-generator attached to the frame of the airplane, driven by the
air stream and with a control so perfect that in spite of the inevitable
large variations in speed practically a constant voltage could be main-
tained for the radio equipment, the aviator was enabled to signal or talk
with ground stations, with other aircraft or with his companions in the
same machine.
In the science of acoustics many old and well-known principles have
been revived, extended and applied in a variety of ways. Of especial
value were those applications to sound-ranging, for locating positions,
and even determining caliber of enemy guns. Moreover the observer is
enabled to distinguish between sounds due to discharge, flight and burst-
ing of the shell. Highly developed listening devices gave invaluable
information in locating enemy aircraft, in detecting mining operations,
and in submarine detection. The widely used methods of ground teleg-
raphy, invaluable in communication, recall the early experiments long
antedating modem radio.
Meteorology has taken its place as essentially a new department of
physical science, and a careful study of the earth's atmosphere has led
to results of the highest importance in determining wind conditions
before and after gas attacks, in correcting data for artillery fire, in
revealing favorable conditions for the aviator, in foreseeing conditions
which will aid or hinder transport service and in predicting fog and rain.
In the field of electricity the vacuum tube or electron relay has dem-
onstrated its indispensability for countless uses; telephonic and other
communication devices have been perfected to an astonishing degree;
the dangers of electrostatic charges on balloon fabrics have been studied
and methods of control devised; and the quality of small portable bat-
teries has been much improved and their life increased. In radio com-
munication, already highly developed before the war period, startling
results have been realized. Closed coil reception has proved successful
in the absence of large antenna installations, and has made possible
satisfactory work in uni-directional sending and receiving, in triangula-
tion and in receiving on submerged submarines even at transatlantic
distances. Without the vacuum tube much of this important work would
have been impossible.
21—16568
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322 Proceedings of Indiaiui Academy of Science.
Finally, however, the student of the scientific achievement of the war
period, whether in applications of known laws and perfection and refine-
ment of existing devices, or in pure research, cannot but be impressed
by the large body of knowledge and experience which has come as a
by-product of the study of war problems. During the war both govern-
ment and private laboratories left no promising clue untraced, and no
suggestion was ignored if it seemed to contain any germ of expectation.
Although a large part of this activity did not result in devices or pro-
cesses directly useful or applicable to war problems, nevertheless out of
it all is sure to come a wealth of results of value to our scientific and
industrial life. Now that the immediate need for high pressure research
is at an end, there should be no decline in the research spirit. Now,
more than before, the effort should be made to maintain and advance
the effectiveness of all existing organizations and agencies which en-
courage and promote diligent research in physics.
One outgrowth of the intense activity in physical research has been
a growing interest in physical science and its applications. Our stu-
dents have been keener and more alert and the instructor has before him
a wealth of illustrations with which to enrich his classroom and labora-
tory work. Also in the popular press, setting aside the purely sensa-
tional, there has been given to the reading public much stimulating
material, and the people at large have been brought to a wider appre-
ciation of scientific laws and facts.
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INDEX
A
PAGE
Act to Provide for Publication 8
Some Abnormalities in Plant Structure. M. S. Markle 117
Analyses of One Hundred Soils, Allen County, Indiana. R. H. Carr
and V. R. Phares 151
Aphids and Ants on Fruit Trees. S. D. Connor 245
Ashley, George H. Memorial of Albert Homer Purdue 247
Andrews, F. M. Some Trees of Indiana 261
Ascomycetes New to the Flora of Indiana. Bruce Fink and Sylvia
C. Fuson 264
B
By-Laws 7
Bennett, L. F. Geology and the War 56
Bennett, L. F. In Memoriam. George D. Timmons 79
The Barberry and Its Relation to the Stem Rust of Wheat. F. J.
Pipal 63
Bacteria in Frozen Soil. H. A. Noyes 110
Beals, Colonzo C. Soil Survey of Cass County, Indiana 186
The Birds of the Sand Dunes of Northwestern Indiana. C. W. G.
Eif rig 280
C
Constitution 5
Committees, 1919 11
Contribution of Botany to Military Eufficiency. R. M. Holman 49
Conner, S. D. William James Jones 81
Conner, S. D. Aphids and Ants on Fruit Trees 245
Colonies for a Satisfactory Soil Plate, Number of. H. A. Noyes
and G. L. Grounds 93
Carr, R. H. Analyses of One Hundred Soils, Allen County, Indiana. 151
Carr, R. H. The Relation of Nitrogen, Phosphorus and Organic Mat-
ter to Corn Yield in Elkhart County, Indiana 160
Coal in Monroe County, the Occurrence of. W. L. Logan 172
(323)
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324 Proceedings of Indiana Academy of Science.
PA(X
The Crustaceans of Lake Maxinkuckee. Barton W. Evermann and
Howard W. Clark 225
Clark, Howard W. The Crustaceans of Lake Maxinkuckee 225
Clark, Howard W. Certain Protozoa and Other Invertebrates of
Lake Maxinkuckee 236
The Copepod Parasites. Chas. B. Wilson 230
The Crawfish, Wm. Perry Hay 232
D
Deam, Chas. C. Plants New to Indiana. VIII 144
The Dormant Period of Timothy Seed after Harvesting. M. L.
Fisher 276
E
Evolutionary Philosophy and the German War. A. Richards 71
Evermann, Barton W. Certain Protozoa and Other Invertebrates
of Lake Maxinkuckee, Notes on 236
Evermann, Barton W. The Crustaceans of Lake Maxinkuckee 225
Eifrig, C. W. G. The Birds of the Sand Dunes of Northwestern
Indiana 280
Erosional Freaks of the Saluda Limestone. Elmer G. Sulzer 309
F
Feeble-Mindedness— The Problem. Edna R. Jatho 83
Foley, Arthur L. The Velocity of Sound Waves in Tubes 205
Foley, Arthur L. Luther Dana Waterman 215
Foley, Arthur L. New Methods of Measuring the Speed of Sound
Pulses Near the Source 221
Fink, Bruce. Ascomycetes New to the Flora of Indiana 264
Fuson, Sylvia C. Ascomysetes New to the Flora of Indiana 264
Fisher, M. L. The Dormant Period of Timothy Seed after Har-
vesting 276
Flame Reactions of Thallium. Jacob Papish 166
G
Geology and the War. L. F. Bennett 56
Grounds, G. L. Colonies for a Satisfactory Soil Plate 93
Golden, Prof. M. J. B. B. Trueblood 258
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Index. 325
H
PAGE
Holman, R. M. Contributions of Botany to Military Efficiency 49
Hoffman, Leroy. The Relation of Nitrogen, Phosphorus and Organic
Matter to Com Yield in Elkhart County, Indiana 160
Hole, Allen D. Paleontology of Certain Chester Formations in
Southern Indiana, Notes on the 183
Hay, Wm. Perry. The Crawfish 232
I
Indianaite in Monroe County, Notes on the Occurrence of. W. L.
Logan 177
J
Jatho, Edna R. Feeble-Mindedness, the Problem 83
Jones, William James. S. D. Conner 81
i:
A Kinetic Model of the Electron Atom. R. R. Ramsay 312
L
Luckett, J. I). Time to Incubate Petri Plates 102
Logan, Wm. L. Coal in Monroe County 172
Logan, Wm. L. Indianaite in Monroe County, Notes on Occur-
rence of 177
M
Members 14
Active 21
Fellows 14
Nonresident 18
Minutes of Spring Meeting 32
Minutes of Fall Meeting 42
McBeth, Wm. A. Physiography and War 60
Method of Teaching Diffusion and Osmosis. Paul Weatherwax. ... 88
Markle, M. S. Some Abnormalities in Plant Structure ^ 117
New Methods of Measuring the Speed of Sound Pulses Near the
Source. Arthur L. Foley 221
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326 Proceedings of Indiana Academy of Science,
N
PAGE
Noyes, H. A. Colonies for a Satisfactory Soil Plate ^^
Noyes, H. A. Length of Time to Incubate Petri Plates 1?2
Noyes, H. A. Bacteria in Frozen Soil 11^
Nelson, James C. Plants of Boone County, Kentucky 125
O
Officers, 1919 10
Officers, List of 12
Oberholzer, Harry C. A Synopsis of the Races of the Guiana Fly-
catcher 304
P
President's Address, How Should the Student Body Be Recruited?
E. B. Williamson 45
Public Offenses 9
Program of Thirty-fourth Annual Meeting 37
Physiography and War. Wm. A. McBeth 60
Pipal, F. J. The Barberry and Its Relation to the Stem Rust of
Wheat 63
Plants of Boone County, Kentucky. James C. Nelson 125
Plants New to Indiana. VIII. Chas. C. Deam 144
Phares, V. R. Analyses of One Hundred Soils, Allen County, In-
diana 151
Papish, Jacob. Flame Reactions of Thallium 166
Papish, Jacob. Sulphur Dioxide a Source of Volcanic Sulphur 170
Palentology of Certain Chester Formations in Southern Indiana,
Notes on the. Allen D. Hole 183
Certain Protozoa and Other Invertebrates of Lake Maxinkuckee.
Barton W. Evermann and Howard W. Clark 236
Purdue, Alfred Homer, Memorial of. George H. Ashley 247
Physical Science to Military Efficiency, Some Contributions of.
C. M. Smith 320
R
Richards, A. Evolutionary Philosophy and the German War 71
The Relation of Nitrogen, Phosphorus and Organic Matter to Corn
Yield. R. H. Carr and Leroy Hoffman 160
Remnant Monument Near Madison. Elmer G. Sulzer 310
Ramsay, R. R. A Kinetic Model of the Electron Atom 312
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hidex. 327
S
PAGE
Sulphur Dioxide a Source of Volcanic Sulphur. Jacob Papish 170
Soil Survey of Cass County, Indiana. Colonzo C. Beals 186
A Synopsis of the Races of the Guiana Flycatcher. Harry C. Ober-
holzer 304
Sulzer, Elmer G. Erosional Freaks of the Saluda Limestone 309
Sulzer, Elmer G. Remnant Monument Near Madison 310
Smith, C. M. Some Contributions of Physical Science to Military
Efficiency 320
T
Timmons George D., In Memoriam. L. F. Bennett 79
Time to Incubate Petri Plates, The Length of. H. A. Noyes, Edwin
Voight and J. D. Luckett 102
Trueblood, R. B. Prof. M. J. Golden 258
Some Trees of Indiana. F. M. Andrews 261
V
Voight, Edwin. Length of Time to Incubate Petri Plates 102
The Velocity of Sound Waves in Tubes. Arthur L. Foley 205
W
Williamson, E. B. President's Address 45
Weatherwax, Paul. Method of Teaching Diffusion and Osmosis .... 88
Waterman, Luther Dana. Arthur L. Foley 215
Wilson, Chas. B. The Copepod Parasites 230
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